College and Research Libraries CHARLES MARTELL Improving the Effectiveness of Libraries through Improvements in the Q.uality of Working Life The purpose of this article is to examine techniques for the redesign of work in academic libraries. The history of work system design is traced. Several methods that adhere to quality of working life (QWL) principles are pre- sented. The state of knowledge about and the application of these methods in libraries are reviewed. By implementing these or similar advanced methods of organization and work system design , academic libraries should be able to respond more effectively to rapid changes in user demand and improve the QWL of their employees. How CAN WE IMPROVE the quality of work- ing life (QWL) in our libraries? What methods are available? Work system design is one of the most innovative methods that have emerged. Avoiding past tendencies to focus narrowly on tasks and jobs, it combines a set of value judgments, systems perspectives, and techniques for improving the QWL of organizational members and simultaneously expands the ability of the organization to cope effectively with the consequences of rapid change. Explicit in the concept and its application is a system of thought that stresses the humanizing and self-fulfilling potential of work. (See table 1 for the relationship be- tween work system design and earlier forms of job design.) This approach considers the organization-wide role of the employee and the social system of the employee's work place. QWL principles include: (1) security; (2) equity; (3) autonomy and learning; and (4) democracy. 1 Work system design incorpo- rates these principles and emphasizes the need for autonomous or self-regulating groups, meaningful work, and feedback mechanisms that act as monitoring devices Charles Martell is head, Acquisitions Depart- m ent , University of Illinois at Chicago- Circle . for determining the organization's success in serving its clients. Design or redesign of the work system is accompanied by changes in the organization design. By implementing basic changes in the oc- cupational roles of librarians and by rede- signing the organizational structure of the li- brary itself, libraries should be able to become more client-centered. This effort parallels Ralph Blasingame's recommenda- tion to rethink "our objectives as operators of social institutions and as people. "2 Before adopting work system design as a viable change strategy, librarians need to under- stand its basic assumptions, techniques, and potential. This article will attempt to address this need by highlighting the history of work system design, the state of work system design in libraries, and its potential application to libraries. HISTORICAL pATTERNS Traditional attitudes toward the design of work emanate from the economic demands and imperatives of-the industrial age. In the early 1800s, Charles Babbage began to de- sign jobs to match these demands. It seemed to Babbage that within a scheme of "social physics," the place of man could be charted with high precision. "Perhaps the most im- portant principle on which the economy of a I 435 Management Philosophy Unit of Analysis Design Methods Job Dimensions Goal(s) TABLE I RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WoRK SYSTEM DESIGN AND EARLIER FoRMs OF JoB DESIGN Early 1900s ...................... ig:3o; : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Scientific Management Task and Job Rationalization Work Simplification Time and Motion Study Task Analysis Efficient Tools and Work Routines Productivity Human Relations Job Context Job Sharing Flex-time Organizational Climate Health and Safety Work Hours Productivity Satisfaction (Extrinsic) 1960s . ............................... . Human Resource Development Job Content Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Variety of Tasks Scheduling of Tasks Inventory Control Increased Autonomy and Responsibility Productivity Satisfaction (Intrinsic) Role (Occupational) Content Work System Design - Sociotechnical Systems -Autonomous Work Groups _ -Self-regulation Organization Design Meaningful Work Self-regulation Feedback/Control Quality of Working Life Productivity Satisfaction (Intrinsic) manufacture depends, is the division of la- bour amongst the persons who perform the work. "3 He listed the advantages of this prin- ciple: (1) the infrequent change of tools; (2) the skill acquired by frequent repetition of the same task; and (3) shortened training time. Tools and machines were designed to further the division of labor. In the early 1900s, Frederick Taylor devel- oped a unified approach to the design of jobs and termed it scientific management. The key to this approach was the task, the funda- mental, molecular unit of work. The sum to- tal of a worker's tasks constituted the job. Taylor advocated the creation of routine, highly specialized, and narrow task activities as a means for achieving the greatest efficien- cies. Scientific management still remains the predominant mode for designing jobs. 4 Its principles have been extended beyond the production line and currently penetrate many facets of human, work-related en- deavor. It should be noted that Taylorism and a misplaced conception of efficiency is not restricted to assembly-lines or, for that matter, to the manufac- turing section of the economy . The service sector is not exempt. For example, in the medical care in- dustry, the phenomenal growth in employment over the past decade or so has occurred largely in lower-level occupations. This growth has been ac- companied by an attempt to increase the efficiency of the upper-level occupations through the delega- tion of tasks down the ladder of skills. This un- H RIZ NTAL FACTORS VERTI€AL FAGT RS Quality of Working Life I 437 doubtedly results in greater efficiency in the utili- zation of manpower, but it rigidifies tasks, reduces the range of skills utilized by most of the occupa- tions, increases routinization, and opens the door to job dissatisfactions for a new generation of highly educated workers. 5 The dynamic environment characteristic of · postindustrial society demands of the worker not a passive role but an active one exhibiting the qualities of initiative and self-regulation. 6 Traditional models of job design discourage these qualities. Not until the post-World War II era were job design techniques developed that specifi- cally targeted the psychological needs of the employee. One of the earliest techniques to appear was job enlargement. Enlargement occurs when the variety of a job's tasks is in- creased. Many thought that this would lead to increased job satisfaction and to a positive response toward higher-level psychological needs (i.e., self-esteem and self-actu- alization). This assessment did not prove ac- curate, and, in fact, the approach frequently resulted in the design of equally meaningless work. 7 The absence of four vital factors was subsequently documented: autonomy, con- trol, decision making, and feedback. These are the vertical factors in a job, whereas the number and variety of tasks are the horizon- tal factors. This relationship is shown in fig- ure 1. Job enrichment, as a job design technique, -"' , Number of tasks Variety of tasks Autonomy Control Decision-making Feedback Fig. 1 Vertical and Horizontal Factors 438 I College & Research Libraries· September 1981 was developed to include important vertical factors. An enriched job can lead to experi- enced meaningfulness, responsibility, and feedback by increasing the amount of auton- omy and responsibility needed to perform a job. Five core dimensions are involved: skill variety, task variety, task significance, per- sonal responsibility, and open feedback channels. 8 (Figure 2 depicts how the core di- mensions interrelate with five implementing steps.) Before a job enrichment strategy is under- taken it is necessary to diagnose the em- ployee's job and his attitude toward it. The following questions should be answered: 9 1. Are motivation and satisfaction central to the employee's problem? 2. Is the job low in motivating potential? 3. What specific aspects of the job are causing the difficulty? 4. How ready is the employee for change? The diagnosis can be carried out through a series of tests on employee satisfaction, moti- vation, growth-need strength, and work per- formance. If the diagnosis indicates the need for enriched jobs, five implementing steps may be taken: (1) the formation of natural work units; (2) the combining of tasks; (3) the establishment of client relationships; (4) in- creases in the amount of autonomy and re- sponsibility necessary to perform the job; and (5) the introduction of open feedback chan- nels.10 In a study of 1,000 employees in more than a dozen organizations, Hackman found that employees in enriched jobs had greater moti- vation and satisfaction than employees in jobs that were low in these areas. 11 The American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany (AT&T) has used job enrichment exten- sively. Using the basic job enrichment pack- age, AT&T began to bring related tasks together, a process called nesting. Mini- groups were formed to create a work flow that fostered natural and mutual dependence among employees. One nesting strategy de- signed for typists led to an improvement in orders issued on time from 27 percent to 90 percent. These results were obtained despite a 21 percent increase in work load. Job turn- over was virtually eliminated. 12 To some, job enrichment is a single remedy technique, similar to job rotation and man- agement by objectives. 13 L. E. Davis, for ex- ample, believes that too much attention is centered on the job itself, thereby ignoring work roles, employee control over functions performed, and the organizational or work system within which the job is embedded. 14 A thorough design must therefore involve orga- nization design as well as job design. Accord- ingly, Davis dropped his use of the term "job design" and replaced it with "work system design," thus allowing him to dovetail his theories and consulting experience with both the developing systems perspective of organi- zations and role theory. CONTEMPORARY pATTERNS Several features distinguish work system design from job design. Work system design: 1. Emphasizes the occupational role of the individual. 2. Recognizes the importance of the work group in promoting individual feelings of ac- ceptance and self-esteem. 3. Uses significant job characteristics (e.g., a~my and responsibility) to pro- vide the individual employee-with a sense of competency. 4. Reconciles the technical needs of the or- ganization with the social needs of the indi- vidual (i.e., sociotechnical design). Each of these distinguishing features will be discussed briefly. 1. Occupational role can be defined as "a set of rules and expectations from the em- ployee as well as the organization, which di- rect all of his occupational or 'at work' behav- ior. "15 This is a contemporary concept, not a historical concept. Job design, for example, focuses on the aggregate of tasks that consti- tute the job and ignores the employee's other occupational behaviors. Interaction with the organization's external environment or with other internal units is minimized, and the au- tonomy and responsibility of the employee is purposefully restricted. The dynamic and turbulent environment characteristic of many postindustrial organizations has led some managers to recognize the need for em- ployees to have sufficient discretionary au- thority to adapt work-place activity to changing circumstances and to be predis- posed toward corrective action. A manager can facilitate this new behavioral pattern by guiding the employee's action toward overall organizational goals. Similarly, Seashore be- lieves that designers' /managers' attention should be directed toward effectiveness in work roles rather than in the direction of job satisfaction. 16 2. Classical organization theorists and in- dustrial psychologists overlook the fact that most work is done in groups. 17 Whyte sug- gests that work group relations have not been overlooked, but that specific efforts were un- dertaken to thwart the development of such relations. 18 The practice of fractionating work has contributed to the isolation of the individual by minimizing the degree and complexity of work-related interdependen- cies. Rarely disputed today is the importance of peer relations to most organizational mem- bers or the valued friendship opportunities derived from everyday work situations. Lorsch and Trooboff explain "that manage- ment can make full use of the potential ca- Quality of Working Life I 439 pacities of its human resources only when each person in the organization is a member of one or more effectively functioning work groups." 19 3. Work system design principles are based .on the assumption that most individ- uals desire a more fulfilling work life. An organization built on the assumptions and values of self-actualizing man is more likely to cre- ate a climate conducive to the emergence of psy- chologically meaningful groups because of the or- ganization's concern with the meaningfulness of work. However, such organizations- for example, research divisions of industrial concerns or univer- sity departments- often fail to see the importance of groups as a means for individual self- actualization. 20 Not everyone desires self-actualizing work. In their work on occupational experi- ence and psychological functioning, Kohn and Schooler nevertheless conclude that "the UlPLEMENTING CONCEPTS -- ~ CORE JOB DIHENSIONS CRITICAL -~ PSYCHOLOGICAL ~ PERSONAL AND WORK OUTCOMES Combining Tasks Forming Natural Work Units Establishing Client Relationships Verti c al Loadin g Opening Feedback Chann e ls STATES J Experienced Skill Variety ) \ ·~ Task Identity Meaningfulness of the Work Significance Autonomy Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes of the Work Knowledge of the Feedback ----~Actual Results of /" the Work Activitie' Er:1ployee Growth Need Strength High Internal Work f--lotivation High Quality Work Performance High Satisfaction with the Work Low Absenteeism and Turnover Source: J o Richard Hackman et al , "A New Strategy for Job Enrichment ," California Management Review 17:62 (Summer 1975)0 Fig. 2 The Full Model: How Use of the Implementing Concepts Can Lead to Positive Outcomes 0 440 I College & Research Libraries • September 1981 central fact of occupational life today is not ownership of the means of production; nor is it status, income or interpersonal relation- ships. Instead, it is the opportunity to use ini- tiative, thought and independent judgment in one's own occupational activities. "21 Other research studies support this conclusion. ·22•23 The harshness of Kornhauser's conclusions is worthy of note: Appraisals of the industrial system must balance intangible personal and social effects against the traditional imperatives of economic efficiency. Among the intangibles are the matters studied here: the brute facts of unchallenging routine jobs; passive, goalless orientations to life; frustrating failure to achieve the goals of "success" instilled by our culture. 24 4. Most of the early writings on sociotech- nical design were based on actual industrial experiences in which workers attempted to humanize their work. The 1950s case study of the social structure among a group of coal miners is an early landmark. 25 More and more case studies on the humanization of work have appeared in the intervening years. The case studies indicate that work system design has had sufficient success to warrant consideration as a technique for organiza- tional change. Although the specific circum- stances leading up to the initiation- of these changes vary, they share goals in common: to . improve satisfaction and productivity. Re- searchers have examined hundreds of work redesign studies and have compiled lists of successful innovations in their attempt to document their effectiveness. Thirty-five case studies of successful hu- manization of work projects are cited in Work in America, and the human and eco- nomic results are judged significant. 26 Almost 80 percent of Jhese projects have been initi- ated since 1964. The authors note, however, that with one exception none of the projects involved a whole plant or an entire corpora- tion. In conclusion, they recommend the im-: plementation of additional, more thorough redesign innovations. Srivastva et al. cite in excess of 600 studies that qualify as empirical (quantitative) field studies in the area of satisfaction and produc- tivity.27 Fifty-seven qualify as work innova- tions actually implemented in organizations that were generally successful in producing effective change. Stressed in these field studies is innovative change, not the creation of valid knowledge. Glaser analyzes twenty-five cases of suc- cessful innovation. 28 He is most intrigued by the low rate of diffusion, even among the clearly successful work restructuring proj- ects. In a Guide to Worker Productivity Ex- periments in the United States 1971-75, Kat- zell et al. differentiate among fourteen categories of productivity programs. 29 Their list includes job design, group design, and so- ciotechnical system categories. Twelve so- ciotechnical experiments qualify for the au- thors' review, and improvements are reported in eleven cases. Work system design incorporates norma- tive assumptions about how organizational technologies shouid be used in conjunction with the human component. These assump- tions are reinforced by the changing nature of technology. One school of thought believes that recent technological developments pro- mote the need for greater autonomy, self- regulation, decision-making authority, and creativity among organizational members. Many research studies support this view. An- other series of studies supports the view that recent technological developments will per- mit management to exert increased control. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that the newer technologies will affect organizational tasks, structures, and people in far-reaching ways. Strict adherence to one attitude or one style of management will eventually be dys- functional. In dynamic organizations, high levels of central control will severely handi- cap timely, corrective responses to external change. Similarly, rigid structures, inflexible work systems, and limited role perceptions will restrict adaptability and constrain crea- tive responses to those changes. New high- production technologies and the high rate of organizational decay among institutions have led to frequent suggestions for new forms of work design. The main principles of work system design and sociotechnical design are addressed to the need for new forms. 1. The design process and its objectives must be compatible. 30 To design a system ca- pable of self-modification, those individuals who are to be intimately involved in the self- modification should also be involved in the design proc;ess. 2. The design should be based on minimal critical specification. This applies to tasks, tasks to jobs·, jobs to roles, and methods. "While it may be necessary to be quite precise about what has to be done, it is rarely neces- sary to be precise about how it is to be done. In most organizations there is far too much specificity about how and indeed about what."31 3. If variance (i.e., any unprogrammed event) cannot be eliminated, then it should be controlled near its point of origin. 4. Traditional forms of organization should be rejected if there is a need for orga- nizational members to be capable of respond- ing to a range of unprogrammed events. Or- ganic, or adaptive, forms of organization structure are preferred to the mechanistic forms, which are based on highly specialized, fractionated tasks. 5. The role of the manager is closely con- nected with the negotiation of boundary- spanning activities for the internal group. The boundary-spanning maintenance role ensures that adequate resources are obtained for the internal group, and that proper coor- dination is taking place with other units. In highly successful situations it is to be expected that the internal group itself can manage its own boundary relations, with the manager becoming a "resource" for the work group. 6. Information should be available when and where it is needed. Traditionally, man- agement has hoarded information and dis- tributed it only when necessary to maintain its source of power. This practice needs to be severely limited. 7. "Systems of social support should be de- signed so as to reinforce the behaviors which the organization structure is designed to elicit. "32 Systems of payment, selection, training, confl~ct resolution, work measure- ment, performance assessment, timekeeping, leave allocation, promotion, and separation should be reviewed and redesigned to ensure that management's actions are consistent with its expressed philosophy. 8. The organization design should provide a high quality of work. 9. The design process is constantly itera- tive. If the intent is to design an adaptive organization, then feedback mechanisms should be maintained so that the organiza- tion can continually monitor and change its tasks, structure, roles, and technology in re- Quality of Working Life I 441 sponse to external demand. Both Cherns and Davis are disturbed that so few research groups are involved in new types of work system design: In all of the United States and Western Europe, there were probably not more than fifteen or twenty social scientists in 1973 with the requisite competence and experience to engage profoundly and responsibly in this process- a glaring need that will have to be remedied before extensive efforts to enhance the quality of working life can be under- taken through designing organizations and jobs. 33 STATE OF WoRK SYSTEM DESIGN IN LIBRARIES If the actual state of work system design in libraries is realistically described and re- flected in the literature, then one can assert that traditional practices are generally fol- lowed. Only in the last four years have the concepts related to work system design ap- peared in library literature. 34•35 It is not sug- gested that libraries have been remiss in their duties to their employees. Time-honored principles have been used. Nevertheless, some of these principles are dysfunctional in today's world. Knowledge of the psychology and motivation of workers has advanced be- yond the nineteenth-century attitudes upon which our traditional job design principles are based. Organizations have seldom engaged in the practice of designing jobs beyond the job en- largement stage. Libraries are no exception. Libraries are at an equally elementary stage in their use of modern organization design techniques. In the literature of librarianship, one notes widespread recognition that basic changes are necessary in the ways that li- braries function. There is also recognition that computer technologies will lead to sub- stantial reorganization in the technical- processing area. 36 Although this recognition is repeatedly acknowledged, the need for so- lutjons remains. The basic changes called for will not be accomplished easily. In fact, the perceptual and technical skills required to de- velop and implement contemporary work system design may not yet exist within librar- ianship. The tendency to look at tasks and jobs rather than organizational roles is a major factor that constrains efforts to develop more effective organization structures for libraries. 442 I College & Research Libraries· September 1981 The task analysis studies of Bicking and Booth37 and Canelas38 are typical of tradi- tional job design concerns (i.e., task and job rationalization). Bicking and Booth suggest that to achieve the optimum in organiza- tional rationality, the highest knowledge and skills should be concentrated in the fewest possible jobs. This represents the archetypal, scientific management approach to job de- sign. Flex-time, work simplification, job rota- tion, and job sharing are four work-related techniques that are regularly mentioned in library literature. Flex-time does not address the achieving, self-actualizing needs of the employee. Work simplification parallels sci- entific management and can be categorized as a traditional form of job design even though employees often participate in the de- sign. Job rotation may be helpful in provid- ing new employees with an understanding of the various jobs performed in the library. It can also be used to add variety to the seasoned employee's circumstances, to provide valu- able experiences, to develop managerial tal- ent, and to relieve boredom. In some in- stances, the job into which one is rotating may include greater decision-making content and less routine tasks. This is frequently an incidental feature, however. Job sharing is a means by which two unit members share one full-time position. This technique helps em- ployees who, for one reason or another, pre- fer part-time work. By accommodating non- work activities, job sharing can provide extrinsic, albeit temporary, satisfaction to the employee. Several articles have appeared in the jour- nal of Library Automation and Library Re- sources & Technical Services addressing li- brary automation and related technical issues. Only a few discuss how technical de- velopments will affect existing social systems within libraries. Virtually no mention is made of plans to offset or redesign the work of the individual library employee in keeping with contemporary concepts about the psy- chological needs of that employee. That this situation exists is not remarkable: The present view of the relationship of technology to organization and job structure , carefully nur- tured for the past 150 years, is that of technological determinism- and it is dangerously simplistic . It holds that technology evolves according to its own inherent logic and needs, regardless of social envi- ronment ·and culture. Further, it holds that to use technology effectively and thus gain its benefits for society requires that its development and applica- tion be uninhibited by any considerations other than those that its developers- engineers or technologists- deem relevant. 39 A concept that has gained great popularity in librarianship within the past decade is staff development. This reflects a wholesome de- parture from traditional attitudes toward employee relations. Staff development is of- ten closely tied to the progress of participa- tive management, although participative management may sometimes be misused as a manipulative tool. For example, staff partici- pation is often viewed as a means for disguis- ing where the actual sources of power and influence are located in the organization. Typically the participative role is consulta- tive, with the employee being used to lend support to predetermined solutions. This is not a difficult technique to practice, since managers are usually able to structure the problems addressed and tailor the means for studying these problems. Stewart notes that "the concept of staff development in the oper- ation of libraries has appeared in library lit- erature for many years. It has, however, been rather naive, and has rarely shown a compre- hensive awareness of research conducted in other disciplines. "40 Indeed, there is almost nothing in the literature that connects staff development or partiCipative management to the design or redesign of jobs. 41 Also miss- ing are on-the-job activities that directly pro- mote autonomy and self-regulation. A con- certed effort is required if, as library professionals, we· are to create an awareness of new design possibilities. · NEW DESIGNS FOR AcADEMIC LIBRARIES A viable work system or organization de- sign for an academic library must be based on local, situational needs. Accordingly, one must first identify specific problems (or op- portunities) that need to be addressed. High staff turnover and absenteeism, observable discontent and boredom, poor unit perfor- mance, and the introduction of new technol- ogies constitute situational factors that might be ameliorated by changes in the design of work. Problem identification should include: (1) the number of employees involved; (2) posi- tion classification of employees; (3) units or departments affected by the problem; and (4) probable causes. Problem solving is the next step. Changes in the system of work may be warranted. For example, a valuable em- ployee may be showing signs of boredom and disinterest. A job rotation assignment might help, or perhaps the employee requires greater responsibility and job challenge. A program of job enrichment might be benefi- cial. Awareness of these design possibilities should lead to the use of more effective problem-solving techniques. Since the implementation of a job enrich- ment program and other more advanced techniques is complicated and time- consuming, it may not be feasible to create a program tailored to a single employee. If an entire unit is involved in a job enrichment program, the organizational benefits of rede- signed work are easier to demonstrate. As the number of employees to be included in any work redesign effort increases, the likelihood that the entire work system within affected units will have to be analyzed increases as well. Similarly, attending these increases is the possibility that organizational redesign will also have to be considered. The introduction of new technologies fre- quently leads to significant changes in both the technical and social systems of work. Au- tomated cataloging serves to illustrate this point. Online cataloging can lead to a reduc- tion in the number of catalog department staff and to a change in the ratio of profes- sional to nonprofessional employees, thereby altering jobs both within and among catalog units. At the University of California, Berke- ley, the advent of automated cataloging and acquisition systems has modified the tradi- tional boundaries between departments. For example, the Acquisition Department han- dles online copy cataloging for some catego- ries of materials that are subsequently sent to the Catalog Department for marking. How- ever, job changes such as these have been dic- tated almost exclusively by relevant technical requirements; the work of the employee changed to accommodate the technology- not vice versa. In the Acquisition Depart- ment, automation has led to significant changes in the processing unit. Both the vari- ety and complexity of job-related tasks have increased. Individual staff members are in- volved in all aspects of the work flow; match- Quality of Working Life I 443 ing received books to purchase orders, and updating (online) the in-process file; prepar- ing and routing materials; routing approved 'invoices for processing by the Accounts Divi- sion; and searching the Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN) database to de- termine the availability of catalog informa- tion. Because employees participate in the to- tal work flow, understanding of the unit's activities and goals is widely shared. Al- though training consumes much time, the payoff in perceived satisfaction and perform- ance norms appears to be high. Productivity as measured by the number of items proc- essed per man-hour increased 20 percent in the past five years. In the Acquisition Department, no con- certed effort was made to develop "enriched" jobs : Instead, it was decided that no em- ployee would key at a computer terminal for more than one hour at a time or more than two hours total per day. This was done to optimize the accuracy of data input. Since there are two automated systems used in the department, much of the unit's work must be done onljne. The quantity of work and re- stricted one-hour time blocks for work at the terminal are constraints that facilitated the change in jobs from single to multiple task assignments. It is likely that many jobs in technical service areas are evolving in this manner. At the same time, assuming their familiarity with work redesign possibilities, it is probable that managers will be able to monitor this evolutionary process and avoid situations in which the social system is nega- tively affected by technology-driven change. With few exceptions, academic libraries are structured according to a functional de- sign (i.e., acquisitions, cataloging, circula- tion, and reference), Within this overall ar- rangement can be found departments and small units organized on different principles. Government document departments employ a division of work based on publication source. Map rooms are organized around the form of their material. Although the subject- divisional approach represented a significant alternative to the functional arrangement, it has declined in importance since the 1950s. One major limitation of the subject- divisional approach is the required relation- ship between the structure of the organiza- tion and the physical structure of the building. 42 . r Director of Libraries Planning Development Coordinators Collection Development Information Services Instruction CLIENT-CENTERED WORK GROUPS Fig. 3 Example of Organizational Chart for Client-Centered Library Group for Biblio- Control The design of work in libraries that are structured by function is based on the princi- ple of job specialization in which employees carry out a series of tasks associated with that function. Efforts to add significant variety to work roles are therefore restricted by the or- ganization design. By bringing some func- tions together, the subject-divisional ap- proach provided the potential for multiple function roles that were more satisfying and challenging than those in the single function design. Both Martell43 and consultants in the landmark study of the organization of Co- lumbia University Libraries44 have proposed new forms of organization design. Martell has developed a prototype design for the aca- demic library characterized by small client- centered work groups operating on its bound- ary (i.e., the points at which the library interacts with its user groups). Each member of the work group would perform multiple functions- advanced reference, collection development, instruction, original catalog- ing, and other forms of information service. The design has three essential components: 1. The library's structure is predicated on a division based on client-centered units. 2. The client-centered units are small (3-5 librarians), and each unit is allied with a dif- ferent client group. 3. Librarians within the client-centered units act in a multifunction capacity. Bibliographic control activities such as order work, copy cataloging, and serials are no longer m a m a ionship- to other opera- tions bu ave oeen shifted to a stafflunction. In order to foster a high degree of autonomy in the client-centered units, the traditional lines of authority and responsibility are changed. Coordinating councils and govern- ing councils are substituted, thereby altering the traditional role of management. Within this type of structure the human and material Quality of Working Life I 445 resources of the library might be more easily allied with client-centered goals (see figure 3). Because there are currently no models for this design, the process of design and imple- mentation remains experimental. Embedded within and integral to the orga- nization design proposed by Martell is a work system design. This distinguishes it from the Booz, All~ & Hamilton tudy of the Colum- bia University Libraries, that focuses on an innovative structure consisting of a services Group, a Resources Group, and a Support Group. These changes in structure 1ght lead to significant improvements in the work roles of library staff. Although the study does not attempt to design a client-centered orga- nization, it arrives at a design that places the resources of the Columbia University Li- braries in closer proximity to client groups than do other existing designs. Alternative organization structures have been proposed in the past. Both the matrix organization and the project team approach may be cited in this context. While these may have relevance to libraries, no detailed pro- posals for their use in libraries have been un- covered. The work systems for such organiza- tions might offer interesting opportunities for the development -of work roles with high QWL attributes, however. The matrix and project team structures have been used in high-technology research and development firms that require the maintenance of highly creative, motivating environments. New forms of organization and work sys- tem design have the potential to make an im- portant contribution to knowledge work in our rapidly growing information society. Awareness of this potential moves us one step forward. The next step, waiting to be taken, is adapting these forms to the specific needs of academic librarians and the institutions they direct. REFERENcES 1. Neal Q. Herrick and Michael Maccoby, "Hu- manizing Work: A Priority Goal of the 1970s," in Louis E. Davis and Albert B. Cherns, eds., The Quality of Working Life, V .1 (New York: Free Press, 1975). 2. Ralph Blasingame, "Libraries in a Changing Society," Library journal 97:1670 (May 1, 1972). 3. Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machin- ery and Manufacturers (2d ed.; London: Charles Knight, 1832), p.166. 4. Louis E. Davis, Ralph R. Canter, and John Hoffman, "Current Job Design Criteria," in LouisE. Davis and James C. Taylor, eds., De- sign of Jobs (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1972). \ 5. Work in America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1973), p.19. Report of a special task 446 I College & Research Libraries· September 1981 force to the secretary of Health, Education and Welfare . 6. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial So- ciety: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York : Basic Books, 1973). 7. Frederick Herzberg, "One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?" Harvard Busi- ness Review 46:53-62 Gan ./Feb. 1968). 8. J. Richard Hackman and others, "A New Strategy for Job Enrichment," California Management Review 17:57-71 (Summer 1975). 9. Ibid ., p.61-62. 10 . Ibid., p.62. 11. Ibid. 12. Robert N. Ford, "Job Enrichment Lessons from AT&T," Harvard Business Review 51:97-106 Gan./Feb. 1973). 13. WorkinAmerica. p.111. 14 . Davis, "The Design of Jobs," in Design of Jobs , p.303. 15. Davis and Taylor, eds., Design of Jobs , p.12. 16. Stanley E. Seashore, "Defining and Measuring the Quality of Working Life," in The Quality of Working Life, V.1, p.108. . 17. Michael Argyle, The Social Psychology of Work (New York: Taplinger, 1972), p.104. 18. William Foote Whyte, Money and Motivation (New York: Harper, 1955), p.3. 19. Jay W. Lorsch and Stevan Trooboff, "Two Universal Models," in Jay W. Lorsch and Paul R. Lawrence, eds., Organization Planning: Cases and Concepts (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin, 1972), p.12. 20 . Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p .72. 21. Melvin H. Kohn and Carni Schooler, "Occu- pational Experience and Psychological Func- tioning: An Assessment of Reciprocal Effects ," American Sociological Review 38:116 (Feb. 1973) . 22. Arthur Kornhauser, Mental Health of the In- dustrial Worker: A Detroit Study (New York: Wiley , 1965) . 23. Jay W. Lorsch and John J. Morse, Organiza- tions and Their Members: A Contingency Ap- proach (New York: Harper, 1974). 24. Kornhauser, Mental Health , p.viii. 25. E. L. Trist and others, Organizational Choice (London: Tavistock Publications , 1963). 26. Work in America, p. 188-201. 27. Suresh Srivastva and others, Job Satisfaction and Productivity: An Evaluation of Policy Re- lated Research on Productivity, Industrial Or- ganization and Job Satisfaction (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Pr., 1977), p.65-151. 28. Edward M. Glaser, Productivity Gains through Worklife Improvements (New York: Harcourt, 1976), p.29-194. 29. Raymond A. Katzell'and others, A Guide to Worker Productivity Experiments in the United States 1971-75 (New York: New York Univ. Pr., 1977). Prepared for Work in Amer- ica Institute. 30. Albert Cherns, "The Principles of Sociotechni- cal Design," Human Relations 29:785 (Aug. 1976). 31. Ibid. , p.786. 32. Ibid., p. 790 . 33. Albert B. Cherns and Louis E. Davis, "Assess- ment of the State of the Art," in The Quality of Working Life, V.1, p.40. 34. Klaus Musmann, "Socio-Technical Theory and Job Design in Libraries," College & Re- search Libraries 39:20-28 Gan. 1978). 35. Thomas W. Shaugnessy, "Technology and Job Design in Libraries: A Sociotechnical Systems Approach," Journal of Academic Librarian- ship 3:269-72 (Nov. 1977) . 36. Charles Martell, "Erasing the Past: Organiza- tional Renewal and Technical Shift," in Rob- ert D. Stueart and Richard D. Johnson, eds., New Horizons for Academic Libraries (New York: K. G. Saur, 1979). 37. Myrl Ricking and Robert E. Booth, Personnel Utilization in Libraries: A Systems Approach (Chicago: American Library Assn., 1974). 38. Dale B. Canelas, Task Analysis of Library Jobs in the State of Illinois (Chicago: Committee on Manpower Training and Utilization, Illinois Library Assn., 1977). 39. Louis E. Davis and James C. Taylor, "Tech- nology Effects on Job, Work and Organiza- tional Structure: A Contingency Approach," in The Quality of Working Life, V.1, p.222. 40 . Henry R. Stewart, "Staff Participation in the Management of College Libraries and Its Re- lationship to Library Performance Character- istics" (Ph.D . dissertation, Indiana University, 1972), p.28. 41. Charles Martell and Richard M. Dougherty, "Role of Continuing Education and Human Resource Development: An Administrator's Viewpoint," Journal of Academic Librarian- ship 4:151-55 Guly 1978). 42. Edward R. Johnson, "Subject-Divisional Or- ganization in American University Libraries, 1939-1974," Library · Quarterly 47:33-42 Gan. 1977). 43. Charles Martell, "Experimental Design for Re- structuring and Redesigning the Functions of Academic Research Libraries" (D.L.S. disser- tation, University of California, Berkeley, 1979) . 44. Booz, Allen & Hamilton, Inc., Organization and Staffing of the Libraries of Columbia Uni- versity: A Case Study (Westport, Conn.: Red- grave Information Resources Corp., 1973).