College and Research Libraries Charting a Career Path in the Information Professions Leslie M. Kong and R. A. H. Goodfellow Academic librarians play an important role in promoting information management and infor- mation literacy. This paper develops a career path model for academic librarians, delineating primary roles, psychological issues, required competencies, and strategies to attain those com- petencies at each stage. Human resource planning implications for information organizations are also discussed. n · nformation is now viewed as a strategic resource, both by cor-porations and individuals. Par-ticipants in the global economy seek the most current and relevant infor- mation to make the most timely and effec- tive decisions. Increased access has paral- leled increased demand for information. However, consumers must now learn to cope with two major obstacles- information overload and information complexity. The key problem is organiz- ing and sifting through information for what is usable and relevant. Uncontrolled and unorganized information is no longer a resource. 1 Knowledge organizations such as academic libraries can lead in pro- moting information management. Nina Matheson notes that five major de- velopments will heavily affect library op- erations: (1) the trend toward deinstitu- tionalized information;. (2) increased individualized access to information through communication networks; (3) the trend toward information work and greater dependence upon computers in the workplace; (4) the development of optical-disk technology allowing in- creased digital storage and retrieval of text as well as images in inexpensive, compact formats; and (5) the expectation that all professionals will need to be computer lit- erate.2 Other authors see the increased com- mercial activity of electronic publishers as an impediment to information manage- ment and that these information products may no longer meet the needs of scholars. 3 They conclude that scholars, publishers, and librarians must cooperate to ensure that the information exchange process continues with a minimum of barriers. Others view electronic publishing as po- tentially significant to scholarly research where regular paper publishing is some- times unprofitable. 4 The library will con- tinue to link its user community with the information resources. However, global economic dynamics and the information industry marketplace add the new dimen- sions of information management and in- formation literacy instruction to the li- brary's role. This article examines the changing role of academic libraries and major career de- velopment issues and provides a specific career stages model for academic librari- ans. The model is then adapted to create a career plan for the information profes- sions. Primary roles, psychological issues, Leslie M. Kong is Associate Social Science and Business Administration Librarian and R. A. H. Goodfellow is Professor of Human Resources Management in the School of Business and Public Administration, California State University, Sacramento, California 95819. 207 208 College & Research Libraries and required -competencies and strategies to acquire them are detailed for each ca- reer stage. Critical issues are identified, and an approach is developed for system- atic career planning. EVOLVING ROLES The academic library profession is faced with deemphasizing the concept of li- braries as warehouses of books and ex- panding the role of librarians as informa- tion application experts. 5 Frederick Lancaster outlines the following future re- sponsibilities of librarians: 1. Information consultants, directing individuals to the most appropriate sources 2. Training individuals to use electronic information sources 3. Searching sources unfamiliar to us- ers 4. Analyzing, evaluating, and inter- preting information for users 5. Assisting in the design of user inter- est profiles for current awareness pur- poses 6. Organizing personal electronic infor- mation files 7. Keeping researchers current on new information sources and services. 6 Lancaster's list omits the important role of information manager, a critical function in the information society. Another critical role is instructing individuals in informa- tion literacy, defined as the ability to access and evaluate effectively information for a given need. Its characteristics have been specified by Martin Tessmer as follows: 1. An integrated set of skills (research strategy, evaluation) and knowledge of in- formation tools and resources 2. Attitudes of persistence, attention to detail, and caution in accepting printed word and single sources 3. Time and labor intensive 4. Need-driven (problem-solving activ- ity) 5. Distinct but relevant to literacy and computer literacy. 7 Clearly, academic librarians can lead in planning information networks to ensure equal access for scholars and the academic community. Librarians will see a move from traditional hard-copy collections to ~ay 1988 electronic access to information not held by their institutions. Managing the new information resources will be a serious challenge for these professionals. Infor- mation literacy will be crucial to con- sumers for understanding the complexity and variety of electronic formats. Aca- demic librarians are the logical instructors of information literacy issues. With these new roles, the academic li- brarian's career outlook will broaden to present new opportunities. It will be an exciting period of transition, and aca- demic librarians, in particular, must be aware of the key issues crucial to their ca- reer development and formulate strate- gies to negotiate successful career paths. CAREER DEVELOPMENT Career development can be categorized into four broad areas: (1) professional is- sues, (2) organizational issues, (3) techno- logical concerns, and (4) required compe- tencies. Professional Issues Much speculation and concern about the future of academic librarianship has been reflected in the professional litera- ture. The survival of librarianship as a pro- fession has been raised, but many profes- sionals take the position of positive opportunism. Patricia Battin, for example, former vice-president and university li- brarian at Columbia University, has advo- cated that academic librarians forge alli- ances with campus computer centers. 8 Professional achievement concerns many academic librarians. Faculty status has been the subject of intense debate on college and university campuses. Almost 79 percent of academic librarians now have some sort of faculty status. 9 This achievement has resulted in more equita- ble salaries, comparable rights and privi- leges, and increased pressures to conduct research and participate in professional societies in accordance with the faculty model. However, faculty status has also increased opportunities for involvement in library and university governance. 10 Public appreciation for the craft of librar- ianship is another concern. Roger Greer posits that the public is also responsible for endangering the profession. He cites two reasons: (1) the conditions of society have altered the public value of librarians, and (2) librarians have not changed their role in society to keep pace with social and technological changes. 11 Library users cannot distinguish the difference between librarians and other staff members and, thus, cannot appreciate the expertise of li- brarians. As a result, the benefits of pro- fessional status are not granted by the public. Organizational Issues The organizational structure of aca- demic libraries adheres closely to the tra- ditional bureaucratic pyramidal model with few advanced positions available to reward deserving professionals. Those not interested in management positions but wishing to advance within the organi- zation have limited career opportunities. Characteristic of most academic libraries is the bifurcated structure of a public ser- vices department and a technical services department. Individuals, upon entering the organization, typically fall into one of these two functional areas and are "tracked" as specialists in either depart- ment. For the most part, little movement occurs between the two. As one advances in tenure, it becomes increasingly difficult to make a career change. "Career paths for individual posi- tions are characteristically unde- fined, and 'professional develop- ment' is a concept often discussed but rarely implemented in a system- atic fashion.'' Typically, academic libraries lack guide- lines for employee career development. Career paths for individual positions are characteristically undefined, and ''profes- sional development'' is a concept often discussed but rarely implemented in a sys- tematic fashion. Studies on libraries indicate that males dominate top management positions in what is ~onsidered by many to be a pri- Charting a Career Path 209 marily "female" profession. 12 Others have studied the characteristic differences between male and female library adminis- trators that may promote this dual career structure. 13 Technological Concerns The most obvious impact of new tech- nologies upon academic libraries is the loss of jobs. Entire jobs will not disappear when automation is introduced; rather, the nature of jobs will change. The more routine work will be handled by com- puters, freeing librarians to take on more professional responsibilities. 14 For some, new technology translates to a loss of control over their lives, their jobs, and their libraries. The future is bleak for the librarian who wants nothing to do with computers. But the period of adjust- ing to automation among librarians and staff is increasingly shorter, as they realize the potential efficiencies achieved by new technologies. In many instances academic librarians have not kept pace with sociotechnical changes. New staffing patterns are intro- duced along with new library technolo- gies. Many tasks once handled by librari- ans are turned over to paraprofessionals. The role of the academic librarian is being reinterpreted to provide more effective service to library users. 15 Davis indicates that the scope of an employee's role may increase as the number of duties de- crease.16 Thus, the roles of academic librar- ians may become more complex and de- manding as jobs become simpler. Required Competencies for Librarians Academic librarians must undergo re- training to attain new skills, knowledge, and abilities appropriate to evolving roles. The issue of professional competencies for librarians has been much discussed.in the literature. The California Library Selection Project in 1975 was one of the first cooper- ative efforts to formally study the subject of minimum qualifications and competen- cies for librarians. 17 Another major study centered around Minnesota public librari- ans and grouped identified competencies in five categories: (1) identifying individ- ual and community information needs; (2) 210 College & Research Libraries selecting, packaging, and providing infor- mation; (3) evaluating services; (4) manag- ing services; and (5) having general skills and attitudes necessary for effective pub- lic service. 18 In 1986, Powell and Creth sur- veyed a random sample of ARL librarians on the importance of fifty-six knowledge bases. Their findings indicated that tradi- tional library knowledge is still highly val- ued and that management and automa- tion skills are also important among the librarians sampled. 19 The New Directions in Library and In- formation Science project, undertaken by King Research in 1985, had a twofold pur- pose: (1) determine the present and future competencies needed by information pro- fessionals, and (2) examine the educa- tional requirements necessary to achieve those competencies. Although the project was widely attacked by the library profes- sion, the authors made these significant conclusions: 1. Many of the competencies required in libraries are transferable to the newly emerging nonlibrary information profes- sional positions. 2. In-depth subject knowledge is in- creasingly important, particularly in tech- nical disciplines, as information profes- sionals interact directly with users and perform more analytical tasks. 3. Educators, trainers, professional so- cieties, employers, and the information professionals themselves all play essential roles in acquiring the necessary compe- tencies.20 These key issues are critical to the career development of information profession- als. On a very specific level, however, aca- demic librarians need to utilize some sort of career model to assist them in advanc- ing within their particular institutions and in their profession. A number of career models are cited in the literature that differ in their basic assumptions. Most notably, Delbert Miller and William Form, and Ed- gar Schein, have developed models based on work and career stages. 21 A detailed discussion of these models is beyond the scope of this article; however, one specific model has been developed that may be useful as a framework for library and in- formation professionals in career guid- May1988 ance. The career stage model and its impli- cations for academic librarians will be discussed next. CAREER STAGES AND ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS The career stage model concept was de- veloped by Gene Dalton, Paul Thompson, and Raymond Price. 22 They researched the reasons for differences in high and low performers among professional employ- ees. In this study of engineers, they were able to identify four distinct career stages that professional employees may move through. Each stage is characterized by different tasks that must be performed well, by types of organizational relation- ships, and by necessary psychological ad- justments. The authors concluded that high performers were those who moved successfully through the four stages, while individuals remaining in the early stages were more likely to be low per- formers. ''Academic librarians will find this a useful career stage model for plan- ning and managing their own organi- zational careers." Academic librarians will find this a use- ful career stage model for planning and managing their own organizational ca- reers. The following discussion focuses on how such a model effectively works for both the library professional and the aca- demic library. Skills and competencies re- quired at each stage are described and strategies to obtain these competencies are suggested. Finally, the value of the model to human resource planning in the academic library will be discussed. Stage I: Apprentice Entry level positions may have a variety of responsibilities; two library-related ex- amples are cataloging of library materials and reference service, basic tasks of tech- nical and public service departments, re- spectively. Collection development is an- other basic responsibility that may be considered either a technical or public ser- vice function. Depending on the library, supervisory responsibility for paraprofes- sionals, clericals, or students may or may not be included. The size of the library may determine this. The tasks of entry level reference librari- ans have been the subject of many articles on professional burnout. 23 Miller dis- cusses overworked reference staffs and the seemingly never-ending responsibili- ties taken on by reference librarians. 24 Two of the most labor-intensive functions are library instruction activities and computer-assisted reference services. Li- brarians often handle the clerical compo- nents of these functions due to staff short- ages. The beginning librarian is highly depen- dent upon supervisors for training and ad- vice, making mentoring relationships sig- nificant. The mentor acts as a role model, providing support and counsel to one who is unskilled and unknowledgeable in a new organizational culture. The quality and relative power of the mentor in the ac- ademic library can have a serious impact upon the success of the librarian. Mentors can also be poor role models, so the entry level librarian must select an appropriate mentor. Kathy Kram, in her study Mentoring at Work, indicates that mentor relationships may not be readily available to all those who want them. 25 Thus, peer relationships must be devel- oped in the organization. Research has been conducted concerning peer relation- ships at different career stages. 26 Two common themes have been identified in the apprentice stage: (1) establishing pro- fessional identity, and (2) developing self- confidence and competence while learn- ing the organizational ropes. The differences between mentoring and peer relationships are significant. The conven- tional mentoring relationship is often characterized by large differences in age and in hierarchical levels, while in peer re- lationships usually one of these factors is the same. Finally, the mentor relationship involves a helping dynamic that is a one- way exchange, while peers interact in two-way exchanges. Charting a Career Path 211 Stage II: Colleague This phase of the academic librarian's career is characterized by a greater degree of independence and the establishment of the individual as a competent specialist. Developing a specialization and demon- strating extreme competence in that area are essential to the career of the librarian. Self-esteem is increased, as well as the vis- ibility of the librarian in the organization. There are two approaches to acquiring specialization. One can choose a content area or develop specialized skills that can be applied to a variety of problems. Exam- ples of the former would include subject specialists, reference librarians, and cata- logers. An example of the latter is systems librarians. The choice of an appropriate specialization must be made in light of professional trends and local budgetary constraints. This key decision forms the base for a productive and successful ca- reer.27 The subordinate role is continued at this stage; however, the librarian comes to rely less on the supervisor or mentor for direc- tion. The nature of these relationships will undergo changes that are difficult for both the supervisor and the librarian. Specific changes in attitudes and behaviors on the part of both parties will be necessary for a successful transition. The various phases of the mentoring relationship have been · described in some detail by Kram. 28 While peer relationships take on greater importance at this stage, some organiza- tional factors inhibit them. These include the nature of the reward structure, promo- tional policies, and the encouragement of competitive rivalries. As one advances in the library organization, fewer managerial positions become available. Thus, individ- uals are more conscious of competing with peers for these few positions, and the or- ganizational and political environment may promote or discourage the formation of peer relationships. 29 A major transition in Stage II is the move from dependence to independence. To ac- complish this, librarians must develop their own professional standards. These standards may be influenced by peers, colleagues outside of the organization, and professional library associations. This 212 College & Research Libraries transition could prove to be difficulf if li- brarians receive heavy indoctrination upon entering the organization. Significant progress in Stage II is critical • to the career development of individuals in organizations. 30 In academic libraries, many librarians stay in this stage, acting as specialists for the remainder of their ca- reers. These individuals continue to make substantial contributions to academic li- braries; however, opportunities for ad- vancement are limited. Nevertheless, some academic libraries have reported the successful use of a ''two-track'' personnel system that allows librarians to advance in salary and in rank through either a profes- sional administrative or nonadministra- tive track. 31 Stage Ill: Mentor Librarians who have moved into Stage III have increased responsibility for influ- encing, directing, and developing others, especially entry level librarians. Charac- teristically, these individuals will have broadened their interests and capabilities beyond their basic jobs. They also interact with individuals outside the subunit or or- ganization so as to benefit others inside the academic library. Dalton, Thompson, and Price delineate the three roles that professionals in this stage may fulfill. 32 First, there is the role of the informal mentor. Librarians involved in a variety of librarywide projects and needing additional technical assistance to perform specific tasks and/ or to further develop initial ideas or proposals become informal mentors to those who provide the additional assistance. Second, the idea consultant acts as a resource for small groups within the academic library. This individual has broad involvement and in- fluence over the work of others. Third, the manager is typically not more than one or two levels away from the work itself. This individual would likely have formal re- sponsibility as head of a department or . unit. Of course, a supervisor could act as a mentor to an entry level librarian. Individ- uals at Stage III may recognize that these roles are by no means exclusive; indeed, they may assume all or any of these roles at a given time. May 1988 The major transition from Stage II to Stage III involves the individual's outlook concerning work relationships and orga- nizational objectives. The librarian has shifted personal perspective from being strictly inner-directed to being more outer- or other-directed. Responsibility is now assumed for the work of others. Ava- riety of interpersonal skills is now re- quired to set objectives, coordinate tasks, and supervise staff. Multiple reporting structures also become more prevalent; the librarian must now satisfy a number of "bosses." Confusion of roles and objec- tives also may occur, particularly in those academic libraries employing matrix orga- nizational structures. The Stage III librar- ian experiences a shift in the relationship with those above in the organizational hi- erarchy. Responsibilities are now clearly both upward and downward in the li- brary, so that the librarian must learn to cope with divided loyalties. The supervisory role may not be suitable for some individuals. One who excels in technical competence might be lacking in either the interest and/or the necessary in- terpersonal and social skills to manage others effectively. Another potential prob- lem is librarians who have been promoted on the basis of their technical competence unable to pull away from that technical work. Some may feel the need to maintain both the technical competence and their supervisorial responsibilities. Finally, mentor relationships have the potential to sour and create resentments. Pamela Chesebrough and Gordon Davis outline some prerequisites for the successful negotiation of Stage III: (1) management experience through proj- ects, (2) experience in different functional area applications, (3) diverse technical ex- perience, and (4) a variety of interpersonal skills. 33 Librarians may remain at this level for the rest of their careers. The organiza- tional rewards are many, taking the form of peer recognition, organization status, social involvement, and the satisfaction of helping others further their careers. Stage IV: Sponsor The key characteristic of Stage IV librari- ans is their influence in determining the future direction of the organization. Typi- cally, one may think of the chief adminis- trator as the sole person with this influ- ence. Such titles as "dean of libraries" or "university librarian" come to mind. However, this major influence is in fact more widely distributed among key indi- viduals in the library. More often than not, sponsors may be found in the library's top management team. Middle managers at Stage III may also make the transition to Stage IV. These individuals distinguish themselves as major forces in planning and shaping the future of the library. The Stage IV librarian interacts with key elements of the environment, such as the university administration, faculty, stu- dent organizations, the state legislature, library networks, regional cooperatives, professional library associations, pub- lishers, and commercial services. The con- cept upon which this interaction is based is known as stakeholder management. 34 New ideas and services are developed, or new users groups are served. The sponsor also directs the resources of the library to- ward specific goals. All these activities are strategically important to the long-range success of the library. Stage IV librarians play at least one of three roles. First, the manager formulates policy and initiates and gives approval to broad programs. This individual is neither involved in guiding Stage I librarians nor supervising those in Stage II, since the individual is too far removed from the details of daily work. Second, the intrapreneur brings re- sources (funding, staffing, and innova- tion) together to further new ideas to in- fluence the direction of the organization. 35 Third, the idea innovator contributes to significant breakthroughs noteworthy in the information professions. Reputations are established outside the library through scholarly publication or professional achievements, such as in national library association activities. The sponsor also has major influence in the future direction of the academic library by selecting and developing key individ- uals to become Stage IV librarians. Guid- ance, feedback, and opportunities are pro- vided rather than direct instruction. The sponsor also maintains important rela- Charting a Career Path 213 tionships outside the organization through contact with the various stake- holder groups of the library. These con- tacts are critical to discovering significant trends in the environment and bringing them back to the organization. They also give the academic library the necessary ex- posure to attract funds and outside re- sources. ''Library administrators must be comfortable with the fact that they will no longer be close to daily opera- tions." The major psychological adjustment in moving to Stage IV is the removal of the librarian from day-to-day operations. Li- brary administrators must be comfortable with the fact that they will no longer be close to daily operations. Rather, their in- fluence is exercised through less overt means such as personnel selection, re- source allocation, or changes in organiza- tional design. Another important adjust- ment is shifting perspective from short-range to long-range, strategic- planning time frames. Finally, Stage IV li- brarians must become accustomed to exer- cising power in appropriate situations. A CAREER STAGE MODEL FOR ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS A career stage model applicable to aca- demic library professionals consists of four stages, each with the following ele- ments: (1) primary roles, (2) major psy- chological issues, (3) required competen- cies, and (4) strategies to obtain competencies. The model is presented in figure 1. Note that the level of tasks broad- ens as one moves up through the career stages. The number of individuals af- fected by one's decisions increases at each succeeding career stage. Correspond- ingly, the competencies required at each succeeding stage are less technical, but more administrative and broader in scope. Stage III and IV librarians will increasingly look outside of their institutions to accom- plish organizational objectives. Network- 214 College & Research Libraries May 1988 Stages Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Elements (Apprentice) (Colleague) (Mentor) (Sponsor) Primary Role learning Independent Training Shaping the Assisting contributor Directing direction of Following Influencing the library directions organization Major Psycho- Dependence Independence Assuming res- Exercising logical Issues pons ibil ity power for others Required Critical Specialized Coaching, long-range competencies evaluation, subject know- consulting, planning, (skills, problem- ledge, refer- managerial budgeting, know ledges, solving, ence skills, abilities, intrapre- abilities) instruction, technical interper- neurial reference, expertise sonal and skills, fund- information social skills, raising, retrieval, ability to lobbying, cataloging train marketing, ability to network Strategies Graduate Mentor Increase Establish to obtain library edu- relationship, professional scholarly coMpetencies cation, work expand peer association publishing under super- network, involvement, record, visor, on- professional seminars, reputation the-job train- association workshops, as speaker, ing, develop activities, diverse tech- innovator, mentor and advanced nical experi- run for peer relation- graduate ence, manage- office of ships degrees ment experi- professional ence through associations, projects work. under sponsor FIGURE 1 A Career Stage Model for Academic Librarians ing plays an important role at these career stages. Finally, the model illustrates the critical point that not just one, but many leaders exist in an academic library organi- zation. If a professional views an organi- zation from this perspective, rather than the traditional pyramidal model, many more career advancement opportunities are apparent. ness and understanding of academic li- brary organizations. Managers can better determine reasons for stagnation at cer- tain positions by applying this model. The numbers of individuals in each stage can be tracked by showing the progress be- tween stages. Career development issues can then be brought directly to top man- agement for evaluation and action. Impli- cations linking career development with human resource planning are evident. Growth in new programs, opportunities for creating new positions, and turnover analyses can be considered hand-in-hand with career development. CONCLUSION The model proposed here provides aca- demic librarians with a set of specified ca- reer expectations and a process for manag- ing activities for transition to future career stages. It also promotes a greater aware- Rapidly changing developments in the information society environment will ne- cessitate improved long-range and strate- gic planning. A major issue in academic li- brary management is how to strategically approach the challenges of new informa- tion technologies, new professional roles, new organizational structures, and chang- ing societal needs for information. Orga- nizational obsolescence is a real danger if nothing is done to change and/or improve the mix of library staff members' skills. This article has discussed in some depth the need for a career planning approach for information professionals. The library or information organization can also bene- fit by identifying its needs and matching them with employee needs through a hu- man resources management system. Long-term professional development is crucial to both the organization and the in- formation professional. A formal process Charting a Career Path 215 should be established to enable individual employees to review their career interests and objectives with management. Desired competencies can be identified for specific positions that may soon be vacant. Career paths can be discussed with the employee to promote career planning techniques. Management, in turn, would be better able to establish effective organizational plans and training and development pro- grams based on its knowledge of employ- ers' career objectives. One such program has been described by Roslyn Courtney. 36 The career stage model is adaptable and relevant to those in the information and knowledge professions. It provides a ca- reer planning approach based upon the various stages an individual may pass through and allows the individual and or- ganization to plan together for a more ef- fective future. REFERENCES 1. John Naisbitt, Megatrends : Ten New Directions Transforming Our Lives (New York: Warner Books, 1984). 2. Nina W. Matheson, "The Academic Library Nexus," College & Research Libraries 45:207-13 (May 1984). 3. Millicent D. Abell and Jacqueline M. Coolman, "Professionalism and Productivity: Keys to the Future of Academic Library and Information Services,'' in New Directions for Higher Education: Pri- orities for Academic Libraries, no.39 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982). 4. Alan E. Guskin, Carla J. Stoffle, and Barbara E. Baruth, "Library Future Shock: The Microcom- puter Revolution and the New Role of the Library," College & Research Libraries 45:177-83 (May 1984). 5. Jack Borbely, "A Perspective on the Challenges Facing Special Libraries," Online 10:108-11 (July 1986). 6. 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Ansoff, Corporate Strategy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965). 35. Gifford Pinchot, Intrapreneuring (New York: Harper Row, 1985). 36. Roslyn S. Courtney, "A Human Resources Program that Helps Management and Employees Pre- pare for the Future," Personnel63:32-35 (May 1986).