College and Research Libraries 50th Anniversary Feature- Information Technology and Libraries: Toward the Year 2000 Susan K. Martin Some current trends will intensify and begin to make major changes in the way that libraries operate and the way that society uses information technologies in the next century. Among the trends are: more focus on user needs, with users accessing electronic information directly; an increasing tendency for information users to bypas~ the library; the obsolescence of first- and second-generation systems; a contention between optical products and online access; and a fo- cus in the United States on formulation of major information policies. Inherent in these are both challenges and opportunities for libraries. wise man once said, ''We should all be concerned about the future because we will have to spend the rest of our lives there." 1 Of course, in an exercise of pre- diction, it doesn't really matter too much whether you are accurate or wrong about the future; by the time we all get there, no one will remember what you said, so you receive neither the credit for your wisdom nor the mockery for your folly. The year 2000 is now clearly within reach, and individuals and institutions of all kinds are using it as a benchmark on which to hang special celebrations, and special sets of predictions. This gives the occasion for some old predictions, whose authors sincerely wish everyone would forget, to reemerge. A recent issue of Life (February 1989) previews the world in 2000 and beyond. Publishing that issue gave the editors the delight of recalling Thomas Watson's words in 1943, when the future chairman of IBM predicted a "world market for about five com- puters."2 Forty-five years later, this author sat comfortably at home in front of an IBM-AT clone with 20 megabytes of storage, a color monitor, and an internal modem, key- boarding her words. In fact, libraries were already experienced users of data process- ing equipment and computers within twenty years after Watson spoke. Even earlier, Ralph Parker had created a circula- tion system for the University of Missouri- Columbia. 3 Librarians in the 1960s used second-generation hardware and soft- ware to create catalogs and circulation sys- tems. Where today's average PC has 640 kilobytes of memory, the computers of the 1960s had 8, or perhaps 12. Prognosticators cause us to vacillate back and forth, between feeling that change is rapid and has the characteristics described by Toffler' s Future Shock, and believing that change is more evolution- ary than revolutionary. 4 Under both sce- narios, much attention must be paid to the way in which our society deals with change. We know that change is difficult for most people; as librarians, we also know that we often lead our users into changes involving information technol- ogy. But we cannot lead them faster than they are ready and willing to go; Susan K. Martin is Executive Director for the National Commission on Libraries and Information Sciences, Washington, D. C. 20036. The views expressed herein do not represent the official position of the commission. 397 398 College & Research Libraries if we try, we will lose them. What will information technology be like in the year 2000? Will some major hur- dles of today be overcome? If so, how ac- curate is the scene hypothesized by de- signer Philippe Starck: "We'll be able to transmit physical objects. The fax machine is the start. We won't have to move about any more. People will become like big brains connected to a global knowledge .. . . Since all communications will travel by satellite, those who own satellites will control the world. " 5 Farfetched? Maybe, in part, but we must increasingly consider those members of our society who work in their homes, either in their own busi- nesses or as telecommuters; there are 23 million people in this category, and many of them are connected to the outside world by fax and satellite. LIBRARY TECHNOLOGY: THE MOVE FROM THE BACK ROOM TO PUBLIC SERVICES What are some of the analogous changes that have taken place in libraries? How is information technology likely to proceed in the future? In talking about au- tomation in our society, John Diebold de- fined three stages: (1) you automate what you have been doing manually; (2) you find that what you do changes; and (3) so- ciety changes in response to these forces. 6 Is this farfetched? No. In fact, we areal- ready in the middle of the third stage. In the 1960s and 1970s, we automated what we had been doing manually. In the late 1970s and this decade, what we have auto- mated has been changing the way our li- braries work. Quite recently, we have be- come part of a changing world of information technology in which the users of the information are beginning to access and use information differently than they did in the past. We are a bit worried about this. We are concerned that libraries may be left be- hind; that they may become museums; that users will find their information needs satisfied through the information marketplace and will not want or need to come to the library any more. In a sense, these worries are amusing. In the past, we worried that we would not reach this stage; many advocates of information July 1989 technologies and of libraries urged a more rapid adoption of technologies and warned that libraries were imitating in machine-readable form what they had been doing by typewriter or by hand. 7 In fact, the use of technology in libraries has usually been somewhat ahead of most of the rest of the world. It is with a sudden shock that we are now able to look around us and see that the general populace is be- coming acquainted with many of the ar- cane and mysterious methods to which only we and a few others have been privy. FOCUS ON USER NEEDS Whether we want to or not, we are being brought into the twenty-first century. Some of us are kicking and screaming, some are welcoming the future and all it holds, and probably most of us are cau- tiously optimistic, with some caveats in very specific areas. The back-room technologies, as applied to libraries, need no further discussion. We know how to do it. We can catalog lo- cally or through networks, we can order and pay for materials online, we can check in serials and circulate books. To be sure, there are functions that have not yet been automated or that require improvement, but we know that this is just a matter of time, not of capability. Much more interesting and far more to the point is information technology as ap- plied to the user. After all, what are li- braries for? Librarians? Of course not. Li- brary collections and services are provided for the users, and the market that publishers and database services ad- dress is an intricate combination of users as filtered by library decision makers in their purchase of automated systems and databases. We began to look at information tech- nologies and their relationship to users when we started to evaluate online cata- logs and their "friendliness." Before that time, we had catalog and circulation prod- ucts; we did not, however, consider their impact on the user. The online search ser- vices were geared to the user, but the de- velopment of these systems was out of our hands; we merely made the decision whether to offer the service, and if so, whether to subsidize it. Information Technology and Libraries 399 ''Library research, notoriously in- adequate in any case, has so far of- fered no assistance in the question of how best to provide information ser- vices to users in an age when infor- mation is being made available in an increasing number of formats, for differing costs and with different results." Library research, notoriously inade- quate in any case, has so far offered no as- sistance in the question of how best to pro- vide information services to users in an age when information is being made avail- able in an increasing number of formats, for differing costs and with differing results. Let me paint a verbal picture for you: Professor B., a member of the history de- partment faculty, sits at his PC, located in his departmental office and linked to the campuswide local area network (LAN), to consult the library catalog by scanning the holdings for definitive works in his area of interest. He finds that three items are on the shelf and sends a computer message to the library requesting that they be charged out and delivered to his office. Finding that a fourth item is already charged out to another user, he places a hold on it. He is disturbed to find that two desired books are not in the collection, so he files an or- der request with the acquisitions depart- ment. Another book is not in the local cat- alog, but he is able to switch his request to a national database, where he locates the item at Princeton. He then places an inter- library loan request. He also finds an arti- cle in a journal held by the University of Michigan and requests telefacsimile trans- mission of the article. Without setting foot in the library building, Professor B. has thus perused the holdings of dozens of li- braries, has made arrangements to secure desired material, and has received a copy of a pertinent article-all in a matter of minutes. Indeed, he continues by using the library's online system as a gateway to external full-text databases of interest to him. Most of that scenario comes from a doc- ument written in the early 1980s. That is why there is no mention of CD-ROM data- bases or networks and little mention of gateways and links to other systems. But otherwise, it is neither out of the realm of possibility nor obsolescent: it is just about where the technology, the providers, and the users are right now. Because monetary resources rather than technology are the restraining factor, most of the next decade will be spent in putting these pieces into full working order in the largest and most affluent libraries and in beginning to pro- vide such services in less wealthy environ- ments. Just that, however, is a major step forward, and one that finally begins to ad- dress what many have been calling for during the past two decades-libraries that are oriented to the future rather than to the past. In fact, it would be more precise to say that the goal is libraries that are oriented to both the past and the future. The collec- tions developed by libraries over the years are reflections of our culture; they cannot be swiftly put aside, and by no means is all information available electronically through some new information technol- ogy. Instead of putting aside one ap- proach to information and replacing it with another, libraries must add to their responsibilities by providing access to data in computer-readable form. This ap- proach places stress on the budget as well as on staff who must adjust by assuming new information roles. In addition to funding, implementors of information technologies must deal in- creasingly with a chaotic environment in which there are few standards and no clear guideposts toward the ''true'' future answer to present-day problems. PRODUCTS AND SERVICES THAT BYPASS THE LIBRARY Inevitably, there will be products, ser- vices, and access to information that by- pass the library. The minor panic we feel when we think about the future of infor- mation technology is really the fear men- tioned earlier, namely, that users will find information on their own, without relying on us; that publishers will aim directly at end users, bypassing us; and that we will 400 College & Research Libraries become museums rather than active infor- mation centers. Part of this fear is justified and should spur us to action; part of it is unreasona- ble. After all, it has always been possible for users to seek and find their own infor- mation, and publishers and purveyors of information have always had direct con- tact with their readers or users. Why are we afraid? Because in the age of informa- tion technology, we believe that someone might discover that libraries are unneces- sary. ABILITY TO OFFER TRADITIONAL AND INNOVATIVE SERVICES Often, the impression is that librarians are not willing to take up the challenge to become twenty-first-century information providers and servers. This impression stems in part from the fact that while many libraries have automated the back- room functions, relatively few seem to have begun to plan for a solid transition to an institution that could provide both the traditional and the innovative information service. The recent experience of Apple with its program called "Apple Library of Tomor- row,'' in which they awarded Macintosh systems to organizations that qualified with the best proposals, demonstrates that the popular impression is far from ac- curate. Apple expected to receive 250 or 300 proposals; they received 1300 in com- petition for the twelve systems to be awarded. They were stunned by the num- bers, which reflected a large number of good, solid proposals and ideas. If this response is an indication of peo- ple's thinking and planning, then the fault in the system does not lie with lack of imagination or creativity among the librar- ians. FISCAL UNCERTAINTY Rather, it is a fiscal matter. The question is not one of replacing one type of service system with anothe.L', but instead of add- ing on to an already burdensome budget. Thus, libraries are finding it increasingly difficult to find resources to make the next leap, from the library-oriented informa- July 1989 tion technologies to the user-oriented in- formation technologies. Typically, a library that is a user of a bib- liographic utility such as OCLC or RLIN, and has invested in its own local circula- tion system/ online catalog, will have asked its parent institution to devote un- usually high levels of funding toward these efforts. Some situations are made worse by a decision maker's belief that au- tomation would ultimately save money, a hope that can only be borne out in relative terms, not in absolute dollars spent. With a history of this kind of expenditure, li- brarians may be less than successful in persuading the powers that be to invest in the next major step toward full implemen- tation of information technology. The image of the library in the eyes of user and £under alike tends to be consis- tent: libraries are good, many people need them, ''our library'' should minimize its costs by taking advantage of as many resource-sharing programs as possible, and "my material" should be on the shelf whenever I need it. A persistent problem can be described by the statement that the library is everyone's second priority. Ev- eryone's first priority is his or her primary field of work. But if one assumes that accu- rate and up-to-date information is an in- creasingly important requirement for many professions and activities within twentieth century society, it stands to rea- son that the library or information service may well be everyone's most important support function-after the primary fund- ing needed to get the task done. In moving the library toward the twenty-first century, the librarian can and should be able to take advantage of the novelty and sparkle of the information technologies. Decision makers at the cor- porate level want their entire institution to be in the forefront, and if the new services proposed by the library are also desired by the users of the library, a significant bar- rier can drop. Where automation of cata- loging and circulation procedures can make a nonlibrarian' s eyes glaze over with boredom, the concepts surrounding the ability to use innovative technologies to access any kind of information located anywhere in the country or the world are Information Technology and Libraries 401 appealing to the visionary instincts of many institutional leaders. CHANGING SYSTEMS There are several technological issues that will loom large during the next dec- ade or two for libraries. One that has al- ready begun to be a problem for larger or- ganizations is the obsolescence of the library's "first" system. That is, circula- tion systems created in-house in the 1960s, or turnkey systems purchased in the early 1970s, while both satisfactory performers, are no longer practical or eco- nomical for continued use. Industry's rule of thumb used to be that a computer system would last about seven years, or at least be amortized in that pe- riod of time. In fact, industry often changes systems much more frequently, taking a faster depreciation of the hard- ware and software. Also, in the last few years there have been such rapid changes that it is unclear if the old rule of thumb can be applied to the real world any longer. Particularly with the entrance of microcomputers and their generations of both hardware and software, bets seem to be off concerning the prediction of a sys- tem's lifetime. IJOnly during the past two or three years has much attention been paid to the need to change automated sys- tems and how to go about doing it." It was only in the 1970s that libraries in large numbers were able to participate in the computer revolution. Only during the past two or three years has much attention been paid to the need to change auto- mated systems and how to go about doing it. In libraries that developed their own systems, the changes and upgrades are fully within their control. Most librarians, however, bought turnkey systems from vendors, and many of these vendors have cleverly managed to persuade the libraries to upgrade over the years to more sophis- ticated hardware and software-at a price, but not a steep one-time cost. As not-for-profit institutions, Vbraries are woefully undercapitalized for coping with major change in the tools that they use. Computers are obviously no excep- tion; in fact, their existence and develop- mental path demonstrate the inadequacy of library budgets and boards to deal with the concept of continuing change. Change management is essential. The library ad- ministrator must not only make appropri- ate technical decisions, but also ensure that the library keeps on working as smoothly as possible, that staff are com- fortable with the change, and that users and members of the community have some understanding of what is taking place. SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES Specific areas of technological develop- ment will be of particular interest during the coming decade and into the twenty- first century. To repeat an earlier general- ization: the pace of change in information technologies is far faster than institutions and individuals can easily cope with; the changes are chaotic, with relatively little being truly standardized; the marketplace is offering more, newer, different prod- ucts every day, and buyers are purchasing whatever appeals to them, often without carefully thinking through the implica- tions of becoming involved with one kind of technology or another. To become involved with a specific tech- nology is to make a major commitment. Think about the PCs you have bought and then the decisions you made about word processors or database management sys- tems. You may be happy with your deci- sion, but the instant that decision was made you were locked into a situation that made it difficult or impossible for you to share information or move files easily. Os- tensibly there are programs that convert from one language, one set of control codes, to another; it is true, nonetheless, that these techniques rarely work as smoothly as advertised. The analogous problems with mainfra- mes and other kinds of technologies are only more difficult and expensive to deal with. Much of the next decade will be spent in implementing new and interest- 402 College & Research Libraries ing applications and taking advantage of higher density storage and more telecom- munications. But simultaneously a great deal of time will be spent trying to sort out the problems that arise from a combina- tion of rapidly changing technology and marketplace-based systems. CD-ROM Obviously, CD-ROM is a current favor- ite in terms of developing technologies. Increasingly, information will be made available on some optical medium. How- ever, the process of assimilating this tech- nology into the range of document deliv- ery services is much slower than most ever thought. Remember that we began talking about the potential of optical disk in the mid to late 1970s. Only now, in the late 1980s, are optical disk products available either on 12-inch optical disk or CD-ROM. Most of the products currently on the mar- ketplace are information-locating tools- indexes to periodical and other literature. Why hasn't the technology moved more rapidly? There are several primary rea- sons: 1. Cost. Despite the fact that optical disk subscriptions may be more economical than online searching for many users, these subscriptions are still beyond the reach of most medium-sized libraries. Also, librarians cannot disregard the im- pact upon users, who may now be asked to pay in order to access a supplemental online database or to search an optical disk file and print out abstracts. 2. Lack of standards. Until recently hard- ware manufacturers used differing stan- dards. Now the High Sierra standard seems to be making it easier for software publishers to deal with the equipment. 3. Logistics. Possibly the most daunting issue for the future is logistics. Now li- braries are purchasing standalone dedi- cated computers, one for each CD-ROM subscription. It does not take long for the finances to become unwieldy, the refer- ence room to become overcrowded, and the patrons to become confused about the lack of interchangeability of workstations. The multiuser, multi-CD-ROM jukebox may present a partial solution. In the course of the next decade, however, on- July 1989 line access and the associated telecommu- nications costs will once more put online electronic access in the forefront of infor- mation delivery. 4. Content of disk. Even a five-inch CD- ROM contains more than 500 megabytes. This is a lot of information, and publishers are having some difficulty determining logical groupings of information to assem- ble on a disk. 5. Graphics and color. Only now are graphics and color beginning to be avail- able. 6. User readiness. Users are not yet ready to move from the printed page exclusively to electronic data. 7. Validity. Articles solely in electronic form are not yet perceived as valid contri- butions in the publish-or-perish cycle; they may not have the same stringent scholarly review and they are not yet trusted by the scholars. 8. Copyright. The Copyright Act of 1976 did not address emerging information technologies. The library and publishing communities are attempting with only some degree of success to effect a compro- mise between the interests of the two groups. The copyright issue will become even more intense as full-text documents are increasingly available in electronic form. 9. Physical restrictions. The need to place single-purpose terminals in public areas or to identify exactly what one wants in a jukebox system makes CD-ROM, while appealing in many ways, difficult to work with. Also, tests indicate that the lifetime of data on a CD-ROM disk may be at most ten years. Online Recent studies have been conducted, primarily in the United Kingdom, to as- sess the effectiveness of retrieving infor- mation online as opposed to searching other source tools. Surprisingly, research- ers are finding that of the various mecha- nisms available, hardcopy is the most suc- cessful tool, with online searching coming in a distant third or fourth. 8 For various reasons, there will be increasing use of electronic publishing of a wide variety of materials-although not the novel or even Information Technology and Libraries 403 necessarily the article that one wants to read straight through. CD-ROM' s current economic advantage will be found to be of limited applicability, and a combination of lower storage costs and better telecommu- nications structure will refocus our atten- tion on gateways, remote databases, and electronic publishing by the end of this decade. COPYRIGHT ISSUES That, of course, brings us to the issue of copyright, a question that is not even close to resolution. The current copyright law can be applied to electronic data, but it re- quires a juggling act to do it. Publishers- especially traditional print publishers- have determined that whatever is in the computer can be counted. Some pub- lishers are talking about charging for browsing, a scenario that librarians could not easily tolerate. One reasonable ap- proach is to assume that an electronic doc- ument belongs to the publisher. That pub- lisher can charge minimal royalty fees for access to the data on a screen; when the data are downloaded or otherwise taken as a separate physical copy, the user can then be charged, just as though the copy were purchased from a store. This issue will take a long time to sort it- self out. We will be dealing with questions of copyright and fairness, and fair use, well into the twenty-first century. "The problems of standards as they relate to computers apply with a vengeance in the area of telecommu- nications." TELECOMMUNICATIONS Standards The problems of standards as they relate to computers apply with a vengeance in the area of telecommunications. For exam- ple, with the Linked Systems Project the library community has been able to come to some agreement about what needs to be done and how it should be accomplished, and in fact has made major strides in achieving these goals. The problem arises when we wish to communicate, or network, with other pieces of the world. For example, the uni- versity library system really needs to be a part of the university's local area network and needs to be able to provide access for users to remote databases in their fields. However, most academic installations use a different telecommunications standard: TCP/IP. Now it is necessary to link an OSI system (as defined by the Linked Systems Project) with a TCP/IP system. Although academic computing centers will indicate that TCP/IP will be supplanted by OSI, there is no evidence of movement in that direction. The only reason for organiza- tions successfully running on TCP /IP to change is if there is some external force, usually in the form of regulations or money or both, to cause such a change. Gore Bill In the last session of Congress, Senator Gore introduced a bill in which he pro- posed to establish an information high- way system for the country, just as his fa- ther had introduced legislation for the interstate highway system. If Gore reintroduces his bill in the lOlst Congress and it passes, it stands a good chance of being one of the forces that would create standardization in telecom- munications. Gore envisions a nation- wide system that would allow researchers and educators to communicate using su- percomputers as large nodes and all other kinds of computers as lesser nodes on the network. As can be imagined, EDUCOM is very interested in this bill, wants to sup- port it, and has met with LC's Network Advisory Committee to state its position and attempt to draw support from the li- brary field. . Except for the fact that the proposed costs are immense, the Gore bill could be a fascinating solution to the telecommuni- cations standards question. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIBRARIES AND COMPUTER CENTERS One of the possible focuses of change in the next decade revolves around the rela- 404 College & Research Libraries tionship between the library and the com- puting center. On the one hand, organiza- tions change slowly, especially universi- ties. On the other hand, there seems to be a moderate amount of movement toward the establishment of "information czar" positions, not only within universities but elsewhere. The business of information resource management is drawing much attention within the government. Infor- mation resource management pulls to- gether telecommunications, administra- tive records, computing, and almost everything one can think of in the way of information except libraries and archives. Some additional movement will occur in this area, but the inherent conservatism of large institutions will prevent wholesale change toward the merging of libraries and computing centers. In addition, li- brarians are beginning to learn that such a combination is not necessarily advanta- geous; in many instances they are making good cases to their administrations for re- maining separate. LOCAL SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS Clearly within our control is the library's use of local systems, and it is unlikely that there will be major surprises in the coming years. There are successful local inte- grated systems; there are local systems that have failed or are failing. We will con- tinue to be provided with a wide variety of choices of hardware, software, and all sizes and types of systems for all sizes and types of libraries. Local public access cata- logs may become the primary focus of CD- ROM production for libraries. The bottom line is that the primary functions that li- brarians wanted in a local integrated sys- tem have been provided in several differ- ent kinds of products. This means that the goal stated by Bill Axford at Florida Atlan- tic University 25 years ago has been reached! 9 The task for the individual insti- tution is to determine its own needs, weigh the various products on the market, make its decision, and work within that structure. Within the next few years, however, the need to link local systems to other local systems, bibliographic utilities, and re- July 1989 mote databases will become critical. The most valuable task that librarians can per- form is to ensure that the local systems they specify and purchase have the capa- bility of using OSI protocols to communi- cate outside the institution. At the present time, this goal generates lip service but very little action. Action, however, is needed, and librarians control the dollars that will finally cause vendors to produce the desired product. TELEFACSIMILE The surprise of the year has been telefac- simile. It is almost a matter of "now you don't see it, now you do.'' A few years ago the author purchased telefax machines for the libraries at Johns Hopkins University, only to find that there were relatively few institutions to communicate with. Even at Hopkins, people were not thrilled with the process or the output. A major change has occurred in just twelve or eighteen months. Many of us have become dependent on telefax; now we are routinely putting people's telefax numbers alongside their telephone num- bers. The technology is inexpensive, the process is much faster than it used to be, and the functionality of the more sophisti- cated fax machines is appealing. The group IV machines promise even more improvements. This is a simple case of combining several convenient technolo- gies to create an extremely useful product. What will the decade bring? Certainly the ability to copy from books without first photocopying the pages. Probably faster and better quality output, and more man- agement information. IMAGE OF THE LIBRARY One objective for librarians in the com- ing decade is to retain the image of moth- erhood and apple pie, but to add a modern and functional twist to ensure that poten- tial users become actual users, traditional users are not frightened away, and fun- ders perceive the value of the library's functions to their institutions. Using innovative information technol- ogy wisely and carefully is one way to meet this objective. As information tech- nologies become more widely available, li- ... Information Technology and Libraries 405 braries must adopt them. In no case can they replace the traditional functions of the library; the new information technolo- gies are an add-on costing more in time, staff, and equipment, but the value will be considerable. Otherwise, library users will spend those same dollars elsewhere, getting the same products but from a dif- ferent source. Librarians cannot become so carried away by information technologies that they are far ahead of their users. That is another good way to lose users. Librarians must remember the influence that chang- ing generations will have on library ser- vices. Right now, the adults in our li- braries grew up with books . Ten years from now, the adults will have grown up with computer games and computers in school labs. The entire environment and receptivity, and expectations, will have changed. We may remain the same, but our users will not. INFORMATION POLICIES The government is responsible, directly or indirectly, for many of the changes we see in our lives and in our institutions. The Paperwork Reduction Act, the Copyright Act of 1976, the Freedom of Information Act, the MARC format, communications regulations, and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) are only a few of a vast and almost undecipherable set of information policies that make up our country's information policy. Within the next decade we will have either the reauthorization of LSCA or a new Library Improvement Act, the Gore bill, the reauthorization in some form of the Pa- perwork Reduction Act, reexamination of the Government Printing Office and its role, and unquestionably a rethinking of intellectual property issues. These represent mammoth policy is- sues. They are at once daunting, challeng- ing, and fun. Librarians should be in a good situation to look at them carefully and have a major impact in those areas that relate particularly to libraries, because it is expected that early in the 1990s there will be a second White House Conference on Library and Information Services (WH- CLIS). At the first WHCLIS, technology was discussed; at the second, we will be able to approach earlier issues with the wisdom gained through experience and to make a real difference for the future. All li- brarians should become participants in this process in which librarians and infor- mation professionals of the country put on a major conference for users, elected offi- cials, and taxpayers. Discussions held and decisions arrived at in that forum are likely to have a pervasive impact well into the twenty-first century. REFERENCES 1. Charles S. Kettering, On His Seventeenth Birthday [Aug. 29, 1946] 2. "Visions of Tomorrow," Life 12,no.2:77 (Feb. 1989). 3. Ralph Parker, "Not a Shared System; An Account of a Computer Operation Designed Specifically-and Solely-for Library Use atthe University of Missouri," Library Journal92:3%7-70 (Nov. 1, 1%7). 4. Alvin Toffler, Future Shock. (New York: Random, 1970). 5. Philippe Starck, "Starck Truth," Life 12,no.2:72 (Feb. 1989). 6. John Diebold, Making the Future Work: Unleaching Our Powers of Innovation for the Decade Ahead. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984). 7. Frederick G. Kilgour, "Evolving, Computerizing, Personalizing," American Libraries 3:1141-47 (Feb. 1972). 8. "British Library Report Oaims Online Searches Ineffective," On-Line Review 12:234-35 (Aug. 1988). 9. Proceedings of the LARC Computer-Based Cost Studies Institute (University of Texas, Austin, Sept. 16-17, 1971), ed. by William Axford (Tempe, Ariz. : LARC, 1972).