College and Research Libraries 50th Anniversary Feature- Management of Information Miriam A. Drake Academic libraries face challenge and an uncertain future. If libraries are to maintain their role in learning and research, they need to shift their focus from documents to content and from collection to individuals. This article discusses library concerns in 1939, services made possible by technology, and the necessity to implement information management strategies on our cam- puses. ibrarianship is one of the world's oldest and most suc- cessful professions. It has sur- vived war, plague, famine, eco- nomic depression, and varying social values and conditions. The profession has shown an extraordinary ability to adapt to changing social and economic conditions and to adopt changing technologies to serve a variety of people with diverse in- terests and needs. The future of librarian- ship depends increasingly on our ability to change and to formulate new visions and goals. The future will be driven by computers with greater power and ease of use, new information storage devices and access methods, increased competition, and changing consumer demands and capabil- ities. Faculty and students are no longer content to spend hours at the library look- ing for documents that may or may not contain needed data or information. They want remote access to content and infor- mation tailored to individual need. These changes will place greater challenges on li- brarians to adopt, adapt, and innovate. Li- brarians have a unique opportunity to contribute to the instructional, research, and service missions of their institutions through the management of information and teaching their clients and users to manage information. Librarians have knowledge and skills that few people in academe possess. We have been managing large collections of documents, answering questions, andre- sponding to people's document needs for hundreds of years. Now we must use our knowledge to provide content, decision support, and solutions to problems. We must shift our attention from physical documents to individuals, from document delivery to information management and transfer, and from question answering to problem solving. This paper will review the past, present, and future of information activities in aca- demic libraries. It will show how librarians can use current and emerging technolo- gies to change the direction of information activities and enhance the productivity and satisfaction of library clients and us- ers. The term information management is here used broadly to encompass all forms of information and the management of content, access, and delivery. It also in- cludes information awareness, literacy, and use. 1939-THE END OF AN ERA The birth of College & Research Libraries occurred at an extraordinary time in the history of our nation. We were recovering from the ,worst economic depression in our history and worrying about our in- volvement in wars in Europe and Asia. Many events occurred in 1939 that will Miriam A. Drake is Dean and Director of Libraries at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332- 0900. 521 522 College & Research Libraries have lasting impact on individuals, insti- tutions, and the world. In 1939, Robert Sherwood won the Pu- litzer Prize for Abe Lincoln in Illinois, John Steinbeck published The Grapes of Wrath, and the nation saw Gone With the Wind, The Wizard of Oz, and Goodbye Mr. Chips. The New York Yankees won the World Series, USC won the Rose Bowl, and the Boston Bruins won the Stanley Cup. Mar- ian Anderson was barred from perform- ing in Constitution Hall and Eleanor Roosevelt resigned from the DAR. A.T.&T. provided free long-distance call- ing from the New York World's Fair, at which people viewed regular television broadcasts. For many people the New York World's Fair was their introduction to modern technology. Germany invaded Poland. Japan invaded China. The Ameri- can Library Association protested the ap- pointment of Archibald MacLeish as Li- brarian of Congress. Librarians and educators were con- cerned about the integration of libraries and programs of instruction. Harvie Branscomb, Director of Libraries at Duke University, was concerned about the lack of library use by under~aduates and the faculty's need for books. 1 A. F. Kuhlman, the first editor of College & Research Li- braries, described crises in higher educa- tion, research, and libraries. He was con- cerned with issues of professionalism and the lack of involvement by libraries in the life of the university. 2 In CRL's first issue, Harold Leupp stated, "To try to care for the differing and often conflicting need of hordes of undergraduate students on the one hand, and of graduate students, fac- ulty and research men, on the other, in the same building or buildings, with the same collection of books, and very largely with the same staff, is to attempt the impos- sible.''3 In 1939, there were 1,708 colleges and universities in the United States with an enrollment of 1,494,203. Today, there are approximately 3,300 colleges and univer- sities with an enrollment in excess of 12 million. 4 Leupp's concern with numbers is trivial by today' s standards but can be ap- preciated for its content. Many articles that appeared in 1939 could have been September 1989 written today, as they detailed concerns with preservation, bibliographic instruc- tion, circulation statistics, union lists, and cooperative collection development. 5 Librarians and others forecast the future of libraries in 1939. Frederick Keppel pre- dicted that by 1958 library buildings would be air conditioned and humidity c~ntrolled, assistants would not be sorting cards, the form of the record would make no difference, and the selection of non- written records would be just as hard a job as the selection of books. He also forecast that we would use business machines to deal with the library catalog and that we would worry about the protection of prop- erty rights in information not prin.ted. 6 Reading the literature of 1939 brings to mind the story of a group of people at- tending their twenty-fifth college reunion. They visited their economics professor and noticed the final exam on the profes- sor's desk. One member of the group said, ''Professor, this is the same test you gave us twenty-five years ago." The professor said, "Yes it is. You see, the questions re- main the same but the answers change every year.'' In librarians hip many ques- tions have remained the same for fifty years or more. Many new questions have arisen. Librarians have found answers to some pressing questions while others re- main unresolved. Despite Keppel's pre- diction of air conditioning and humidity controls, many libraries still have rain for- est conditions in the summer and desert conditions in the winter. While Keppel and others could foresee a nonprint world in 1939, they could not predict integrated circuits, computers, high-density magnetic and optical storage devices, optical fiber cable, or the acceler- ated growth of information. Keppel accu- rately forecast problems of intellectual property rights. These problems have been exacerbated by the tremendous growth in machine-readable data files and software and the growth and diversity of the publishing industry. In 1939 academic libraries were con- cerned with books, and special libraries were concerned with information. Schol- arly pursuits involved access to and use of books, documents, and other printed rec- ords. During World War II greater use was made of microfilm because of the vast number of documents to be stored. World War II also changed the way people han- dled information. Data originated in many forms. These data had to be gathered, classified, analyzed, synthesized, and transformed into information to be used in decision making by high-level military and civilian personnel. In 1939 Carl Milam, secretary of the ALA, said, ''The modern library is not sure of its fields, functions or specific ob- jectives .. . . the library of the future will be a much more useful servant of individuals and of society than any library has yet be- come."7 Milam's words could have been written in 1989. He added that the library of the future would continously change and urged librarians to experiment. ACADEMIC LIBRARIES TODAY Today' s academic library is a high fixed cost operation emphasizing input rather than the value of output. Echelman points out, "The more books, journals, manu- scripts, and other materials a library ac- quires, the more difficult it becomes to or- ganize them coherently for use. But coherent organization is essential if the vast, multiformatted inventory of the modern library (both its owned and its ac- cessed inventory) is to be made available to its clients."8 Input costs-materials and labor-have escalated in the last five years. Materials costs, driven by inflation and a weak dollar, have placed great pres- sure on scarce financial resources. Librarians have been provided long overdue salary increases, which will prob- ably continue to rise as educational re- quirements increase. At the same time, li- braries have had to pay for computers, a variety of external services, and more training for staff. While costs have risen, increases in user productivity have been small. "While we have become mesmerized with our ability to add and store data elements . . . we have literally ignored the information itself-that is the content, the value, and the use of the vast quantities of data, docu- ments, and literature that are not available in machine-readable form .... Too often Management of Information 523 we do not know what information we have and how it is used: too often we set- tle for quantity without regard to qual- ity ." 9 User productivity and satisfaction result from delivery of appropriate con- tent, not access. "Librarians continue to be more con- cerned with delivery of documents and have not focused on delivery of content or the data and information contained in the documents.'' While librarians today are experiment- ing with a variety of technological tools and techniques, many have not moved be- yond quantity to quality and value. The emphasis is on materials; access to collec- tions, both resident and nonresident; and access to a variety of indexing and ab- stracting services. Some libraries offer these services on in-house computers or shared computer systems such as CARL. Carnegie Mellon University and Georgia Tech offer online services to faculty and students in their homes and offices through campus networks. Other libraries are using CD-ROM to provide access to abstracting and indexing services. Librari- ans continue to be more concerned with delivery of documents and have not fo- cused on delivery of content or the data and information contained in the docu- ments. Most academic libraries are facility- bound operations. Users physically must go to the library for documents. Few li- braries deliver documents. Many libraries insist that borrowers personally sign for loans. Few libraries provide copies of the catalog or other information resources outside the library building. The literature continues to discuss criti- cal issues of preservation and conserva- tion as well as resource sharing and coop- erative collection development. These are not new issues. The new issues relate to the use of technology, relations with com- puter and media centers, and quality ser- vices designed to provide value to individ- uals. 524 College & Research Libraries Academic libraries operate in complex environments. There is a large and grow- ing gap between technological possibili- ties and our ability to translate possibilities into reality. The gap between client expec- tations and our ability to deliver also is widening. Students and faculty are famil- iar with a variety of computer-based ser- vices. Individually, they may subscribe to The Source, CompuServe, and other ser- vices. They look for information in machine-readable form because they know it is available. They want to download information and manipulate it on their PCs and work stations. Our cli- ents are aware that it is technologically possible for them to access full-text, graphics, and numeric databases as well as bibliographic databases. They are ask- ing more and more why libraries persist in providing information on paper when in- formation is available on computer-based systems. We have a tendency in libraries to think of information as concrete-a page in a book, a microfiche, or CD-ROM. Informa- tion, in reality, is abstract, changing, and dynamic. Information adds value to a vari- ety of processes but its benefits depend on the ability to use it effectively. Information use is an intellectual process. There is an inclination to confuse means and ends in information operations. Books, journals, databases, software, and networks are tools. They are the means by which people answer questions, solve problems, make decisions, learn, and achieve a desired outcome. The goals of libraries relate to usage of tools rather than achieving desired out- comes. The goals of libraries should be evolving toward reducing user costs and contributing to the success of our clients in achieving their goals. MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION Information management, in contrast to traditionallibrarianship, emphasizes indi- vidual service, content, and the value of output. Brinberg defines information management ' 1 as the process of acquiring, organizing and manipulating collections of data elements to meet specific user September 1989 needs .... It is essential, too, to keep in mind it is the content that is being man- aged and not the machine, the people, or the facility." 10 Marchand and Horton stress the importance of transforming data into information and information into knowledge. They also indicate the need for information management strategies to be linked to the functional strategies of the organization. 11 Poppel and Goldstein dis- cuss information resource management as 11 the ability to enhance decision making through the retrieval and manipulation of a varie!}' of internal and external informa- tion.1'12 Management of information begins with the assumption that each informa- tion seeker brings a unique mindset to problem solving. Each person has a unique information system and cognitive style that must interact with library sys- tems designed for general use. Library cat- alogs, whether in cards or online, are de- signed for the masses. Sophisticated database management systems can tailor the system for individual users and help them manage their own systems to suit their unique needs. In an academic institution information management strategies must build on the content of academic courses, the sub- stance of research programs, the compo- nents of service activities, and specific data needed for administrative decision support. These strategies cannot be imple- mented with external information alone. They rely on the integration of internal and external information. An information manager transfers content in terms of the precision and quality of information needed by the individual in his or her spe- cific programs and activities. Success or effectiveness also lies in the value of ser- vices and client satisfaction rather than the size of collection, number of items loaned, or materials used. Information is consid- ered in its broadest definition and in- cludes numeric data, graphics, and mo- tion pictures as well as still pictures and audio. Transfer of content, rather than storage medium or form, is the main con- cern. For example, if an administrator is studying SAT scores he/she is more likely to want data on current students from an internal system integrated with data from an external system. In this example, the information manager needs to go beyond locating the data to actually finding, ma- nipulating, synthesizing, and preparing the data for use. David Blair distinguishes between physical access and logical access to infor- mation. "Consider a library: discovering where the book with a call sign QA76.A1A84 is in the library is a problem of physical access: the discovery of which book in the library will be likely to satisfy a particular information need is a problem of logical access.'!l3 We have tended to fo- cus on physical access rather than prob- lem solving. We have left the job of infor- mation finding to the user or client and have mistakenly assumed that if a user left the library building with a printout, book, or journal, we had done our jobs. Computing centers have concentrated on making computing cycles and software available as well as facilities for manipulat- ing and transferring data. Today, libraries and computing centers increasingly are combining their services to make informa- tion in all forms available, retrievable, and useful. 111n an environment where users are retrieving, manipulating, and using information on a computer, under- standing the context of the user's need is essential." Often librarians do not have or do not take the time to learn about the user's need and its content. The implicit assump- tion is that someone wants a book or jour- nal article for the sake of having it rather than using it. In an environment where users are retrieving, manipulating, and using information on a computer, under- standing the context of the user's need is essential. In an unpublished study by Pa- tricia Dewdney, she noted that "librarians reported that although they were reluc- tant to ask users such questions directly, Management of Information 525 they also always found a description of the user's situation and objectives to be ex- tremely helpful for understanding the kind of information or material needed. ''14 Knowing the nature of the user's context and how information will be used is cru- cial to managing information and provid- ing services of value. Providing informa- tion in the appropriate format is also essential. For example, if a user is doing a study on foreign trade, the need may be more effectively served if data are deliv- ered in machine-readable form rather than as a printed page requiring data entry. The management of information did not emerge as a concern until computers and software made it possible to store and re- trieve all forms of information in digital form-text, numeric data, graphics, im- ages, and sound. Information users can retrieve and manipulate all forms of infor- mation at a PC or work station. They can bypass the library completely in finding needed information. Universities have in- stalled or are installing networks to facili- tate the transfer of large amounts of data from internal and external computers to and from work stations or PCs. Computer centers have been and will continue to provide the means of data storage, re- trieval, and manipulation. Raymond Neff points out that Computers are supremely efficient at symbol manipulation. With suitable communications capability, they can store, retrieve, borrow and lend information at the command (that is, re- quest) of the user. In short, computers can do all that a library can do. Under user control, computers can do even more: They can be pro- grammed to rearrange and edit text, they can exhaustively search for particular phrases, they can compare two or more information items, and they can synthesize diverse information from many sources. Thus, the computer can make information dynamic, whereas the library can only m!lke it available. 15 Many campuses have built or are build- ing information infrastructures to handle the storage, retrieval, manipulation and transfer of data and information. This in- frastructure includes computers of all sizes, cable television, PCs, work stations, printers, plotters, software, data files, telecommunications, audiovisual produc- tion, and libraries. Ideally, these elements 526 College & Research Libraries will be integrated to provide a broad range of services and training. Historically, the units responsible for these activities have been separate and competing. Integration of some of the elements of- ten occurs because the units report to one person. In a few instances, some of these units report to the library director. More often, colleges and universities are ap- pointing chief information officers or vice- presidents of information technology who have broad responsibilities. Linda Fleit devised the following position description for the "computer czar": Responsibility for all high level decisions in- volving technology on the campus including, but not limited to, computers of all sizes, shapes and manufacturers, telephones for com- municating everything from local campus gos- sip to star wars research data, networks, (local, inter-university and intergalactic), videodisc technology involving computer assisted in- struction as well as yesterday's episode of "Search for Tomorrow," all office automation and if there's time left over, administration of both mail services and all of the campus li- braries.16 Librarians often are overlooked when policy decisions are being made about in- formation technology and services. In some instances, librarians passively resist involvement. In others, the library is con- sidered a book depository and not an ac- tive partner in information services. Nonetheless, libraries and computer cen- ters are collaborating increasingly in infor- mation transfer. These collaborative ef- forts are resulting in more innovative and closer working relationships. More effec- tive systems will emerge when computing people and librarians set aside their indi- vidual goals of selling computer cycles and books and collaborate to work on cli- ent problems. CLIENT SERVICE While information is a unique product and students and faculty are unique cli- ents and users, libraries are not unique in the arena of service organizations. Is the goal of an academic library high circula- tion statistics? large collections? satisfied students and faculty? Is library service the .interaction of a user with a machine or sys- September 1989 tern or the interaction of a client with a li- brarian? These questions are difficult to answer. Our faculty often measure our quality by the size of the collection rele- vant to their individual needs. Students often are satisfied if reserve materials are readily available or if they find documents needed for a term paper with little time or effort. We have tended to treat students and faculty as book users rather than as clients who are coming to us for our professional knowledge and skills. Library users often have relatively low expectations of service because they have been conditioned to find things for themselves rather than be provided with professional services. Of- ten people succeed in spite of the library or the system, not because of them. For li- braries to make a difference and contrib- ute to success, goals need to be centered on providing services to individuals. Customer satisfaction is a relevant term that relates the value a library customer re- ceives from a transaction to expectations. Some readers may object to the use of the term customer in a library context, as it im- plies purchaser and smacks of business, commercialism, and profit. Librarians usually do not think of themselves as busi- ness people or their libraries as commer- cial establishments. Most people who come to the library do not pay directly for use of material or services received. The fee for service is paid indirectly from an appropriation by the institution. Because the use of materials and services are pro- vided free to people, they don't have to make an explicit judgment about value rel- ative to cost. They do make judgments about value relative to expectations and the results of a transaction. ''Customers are satisfied because you have made them better. . . . What satis- fies customers is the improvement they see in themselves, in their capabilities, their productivity, " 7 in their knowledge and ability to solve problems and make decisions. This satisfaction is the goal of information management. The necessity of providing quality services to library cus- tomers will increase as colleges and uni- versities compete more vigorously for stu- dents and faculty and computing centers expand their information service offer- ings. The business literature is dealing more with the issue of quality as the United States loses markets and its eco- nomic leadership in the world. The critical issues for U.S. industry and libraries are quality, service, and reliability. We can learn 11'\UCh from the experience of the airline industry. Since deregulation, service on domestic carriers has deterio- rated to the point that our expectations are lower than they were ten years ago. Ev- eryone has an airline horror story involv- ing delays, poor meals, uncomfortable seats, and rude or condescending treat- ment. What are the airlines doing to earn your business? Since libraries no longer have a monopoly on information provi- sion, what are we doing to earn the busi- ness of students, faculty, and others? In some colleges and universities, the an- swer is that not enough attention is being paid to the provision of services. Karl Albrecht has defined the seven sins of service as apathy, brush-off, coldness, condescension, robotism, rule book, and runaround. 18 Librarians have been guilty of some, if not all, of these sins. Some li- brary favorites are coldness, condescen- sion, and rule book. Reference desk librar- ians often project an attitude of coldness that says 11 don't bother me.'' They appear to be uninterested in the problems or needs of the person on the other side of the desk. They don't take the time to ask about the context of the information need or the form of output desired by the cus- tomer. They serve collections, not people. Librarians often treat people as bad and unwashed children instead of valued cus- tomers. They use library jargon and get angry when the customer does not under- stand the language. They sometimes un- derestimate the intelligence of their users or deny the validity of the individual's problem. Rule book may be the librarian's most prominent vice. We love rules and policies and seem to thrive on strict adherence. We use rules as an excuse for not providing service rather than as a means for facilitat- ing service. In information management, rules are flexible, not rigid. Each client is treated as Management of Information 527 an intelligent individual with valid needs. The client is treated as a person who is spending time, energy, and resources to seek our professional advice and know- how. John Guasperi has stated, "In the final analysis, perceived quality is the only quality that matters, since what the cus- tomer perceives is what the customer re- ceives. " 19 Quality should be the starting point of library service or information management, not an afterthought. INFORMATION AWARENESS A quality approach recognizes and acts on the uniqueness of each person's infor- mation needs. It recognizes each person's capabilities, knowledge, and limitations without condescension. When dealing with students, we have a large agenda that goes beyond traditional courses in library usage. We need to ex- tend our programs to develop information awareness and instill the practices of in- formation finding and lifelong learning. Research studies have recommended that the nation's approach to learning be changed at all levels. We must prepare our students to live in an increasingly compet- itive, complex, and changing world. We must prepare them to function effectively in an information age and to be competent citizens and consumers. The success of the information age will be determined by the ability of students to find, obtain, ana- lyze, synthesize, and integrate informa- tion and knowledge into their personal and professional lives. Until recently libraries have been pas- sive in educating students about informa- tion. While bibliographic instruction has helped students find books and articles for term papers, it has not increased informa- tion awareness or significantly changed general information finding skills. We continue to doom our children to be vic- tims because we have not motivated them to seek information and learn. At the col- lege and university level, we often en- counter students whose curiosity was sti- fled by earlier school experiences. We teach and preach rather than tackle the is- sues of motivation and information liter- acy. 528 College & Research Libraries While students learn to write term pa- pers, they do not learn about information in their disciplines or that information ex- ists to help them make everyday decisions about health, travel, buying automobiles, and seeing worthwhile movies. The first step in promoting information awareness is to teach students the value of information to their course work and daily lives. Using online databases related to ac- ademic programs expands the student's knowledge in the discipline and aware- ness of information in general. At Georgia Tech, an information awareness program funded by the W. M. Keck Foundation in- cluded courses in information for electri- cal engineering, management, and chem- istry. In management, students accessed data online for use in finance, marketing, and other courses. They used source data- bases as well as bibliographic databases. After they completed the information course they knew how to find, retrieve, download, and manipulate data for their courses. Students in electrical engineering learned how to find standards, specifica- tions, and patents needed for senior de- sign courses. They also learned how tore- trieve abstracts of journal articles, technical reports, and conference pro- ceedings. All courses included modules on copy- right; how to use the Official Airline Guide online, and how to find movie, book, and product reviews. The courses have been successful be- cause they have involved content related to the students' needs. The courses also involved individual instruction and course-related projects. Students have re- quested that the information courses be given at least twice a year so that demand can be satisfied. Each entering freshman class will have more and more students who are experi- enced computer users. In many school systems computer use begins in kinder- garten. As public and school libraries in- stall online catalogs and provide machine- readable indexes, the number of students who have used card catalogs and paper in- dexes will decrease. It is not clear whether these students will be information literate. September 1989 ''To be information literate, a person must be able to locate, evaluate, and use effec- tively the needed information. . . . Ulti- mately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn.' ' 20 Despite the growing use of computers in schools, it is not clear whether entering freshman will be more information literate or prepared for self-motivated, self- directed learning. As the ALA Presiden- tial Committee on Literacy stated, "Text- books, workbooks, and lectures must yield to a learning process based on the in- formation resources available for learning and problem solving.' ' 21 Given the state of public elementary and secondary educa- tion today, it is doubtful that students will enter college with the skills needed to learn. Information literacy will not result from traditional courses on how to use the library. The learning process must build on students' computer skills and desire to know. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Information finding and use are chang- ing in all academic institutions. In many colleges and universities librarians are leading in the design and development of information systems. In others, the com- puting center or media center is the lead unit. Librarians have an opportunity to use technology and the knowledge and skills of computer people and others to provide information systems and services tailored for individuals. In moving toward information management, it is necessary to recognize that each academic institu- tion has a unique culture and each aca- demic library has a unique clientele. Each library must set its own missions and goals within the context of the parent in- stitution and the needs of its clientele. Robert Taylor points out, The kinds of people who make up the clientele or customers of an information system are an important element in describing the environ- ment . . . different classes of professionals need and use information in quite different ways and indeed have differing interpretations of infor- mation, its delivery, structure and utility. This is not just a matter of content, but rather, that the kinds of problems and kinds of concerns that one professional group has are quite differ- ent from those of other groups. 22 "We have much to learn about how different groups think, learn, and use information.'' An information system designed for civil engineers is not likely to be effective for historians or psychologists. Library infor- mation systems are used by all profes- sional groups with little or no tailoring to individual concerns, cognitive styles, or ways of using information. Successful de- sign of systems and interfaces for individ- uals or groups of individuals will not be easy or quick. We have much to learn about how different groups think, learn, and use information. We will have to change our thinking and habits so that we are sensitive to individual styles and ac- tively learn about them. A logical first step is to tailor current ser- vices to individuals. This step involves shifting emphasis from product (book, journal, etc.) to process and from access to the provision of information. It also in- volves working with individuals to guide them in the management of their own in- formation or databases. Service in the pro- cess or management mode is similar to the work of an attorney or physician and relies on the use of specialized knowledge, edu- cation, experience, interpersonal com- munication, and data to help a client solve a problem. An attorney observes client actions and behavior, queries the client about the problem and the circumstances of the problem, gathers data, synthesizes information, and recommends a course of action. Similarly, a librarian queries a cli- ent and learns about his or her problem, the context of the problem, and desired result. After synthesizing and analyzing these data, the librarian may deliver infor- mation, software, or instruction or recom- mend a course of action to the client. The professional/ client relationship does not involve handing a ready-made product over the counter; rather, it involves a pro- cess of learning, analyzing, and respond- ing to the individual. This process will yield greater value of service and some of the data needed to begin to customize in- Management of Information 529 formation systems and services. It will demonstrate how the same information is used by different people in different ways. The process is expensive and time- consuming but well worth the investment in terms of the value of service provided and the value of information derived. Another by-product of this interactive process is gaining greater understanding of how different forms of information rep- resentation (video, sound, graphics, nu- merics, etc.) satisfy different people and different needs. While the computing cen- ter can manage hardware, software, and data transmission, librarians are experts in managing content. In a new environment, we must broaden our concept of content to include all forms of information repre- sentation. James May has written: The task of the university information center of the future will go beyond linking user and in- formation in the library. It will also go beyond access to the campus computer center software and databases .... The integrated university information center will have to provide infor- mation to the user when and where that person needs it from whatever source is appropriate- the library, computer center, video sources or gateways to off campus resources. Increas- ingly, the user will expect information to be de- livered remotely and promptly at an intelligent integrated workstation. 23 While librarians in collaboration with computing centers and other units work to bring these new systems into being, print will not go away. Books and journals will continue and multiply. People are not likely to read fiction, history, or philoso- phy from a screen. Books, journals, and magazines are browsable and portable. Li- braries will continue to buy and house books. While we will continue to buy cur- rent issues of journals in paper, we are not likely to bind and store the paper. Back is- sues may be stored on optical media or other devices. We may access them locally or remotely. We will continue to subscribe annually to current journals but probably will pay for older material on a per article basis. Paying for each article may be less expensive in the long run than the cost of new buildings and binding. The problems cited by writers fifty years ago-preservation, the need for environ- 530 College & Research Libraries mentally controlled space, resource shar- ing, cooperative collection development, and protection of intellectual property rights-will continue for many years to come. During the next fifty years, we will learn how to provide information services that change the lives and contribute to the success of our students and faculties. We will innovate, take risks, and make mis- takes. Fifty years ago, Carl Milman urged li- brarians to experiment. Long-distance telephone and television were experi- ments that changed our lives. They did not succeed in the first test. We must not allow fear of failure to block our creativity or be an obstacle to experimentation and risk taking. We can avoid the symptoms of "tech- nostress" by learning about technology, its capabilities and its limitations. We have demonstrated that we can successfully manage change. At the same time, we can blend the old and the new, preserve the past and chart a course for the future, and maintain our traditional roles while imple- menting new ones. Our traditions give us a strong foundation on which to build and add services. Vartan Gregorian said, September 1989 The libraries carry our nation's heritage, the heritage of humanity, the record of its triumphs and failures, the record of man's intellectual, scientific, and artistic achievements. The li- braries represent humanity's collective mem- ory; they are not repositories alone. They are in- struments of civilization; they provide tools for learning, understanding and progress. They are sources of information, yes, but they are sources of knowledge, wisdom, and action. They are laboratories of human endeavor. They are windows to the future. They are sources of hope, self-renewal, self-determination, auton- omy, and-to use a new word-em- powerment.24 We have an obligation and responsibil- ity to preserve the records of humanity's achievements, failures, history, and cul- ture. We also have an opportunity to make a difference in people's lives. Technology has empowered librarians, but we must understand the difference between teach- ing and learning, means and ends. Our major task in academic libraries is to pro- vide empowerment for the individual and to create the means for the development of curiosity, intellectual inquiry, intuitive thinking, and lifelong learning. REFERENCES 1. Harvie Branscomb, Teaching With Books: A Study of College Libraries (Chicago: Association of Ameri- can Colleges and American Library Assn., 1940). 2. A. F .-Kuhlman, ''Introducing College and Research Libraries,'' College & Research Libraries 1:7 (De- cember 1939). 3. Harold L. Keupp, "Probable Trends in University Libraries," College & Research Libraries 1:57 (De- cember 1939). 4. National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics (Washington, D. C.: U.S. De- partment of Education, 1988). 5. Louis R. Wilson, "The Role of the Library in Higher Education," School and Society 74:585-92 (May 7, 1938). 6. Frederick P. Keppel, "Looking Forward, A Fantasy," in The Library of Tomorrow, ed. Edith Miller Danton (Chicago: American Library Assn., 1939), p.1-11. 7. Carl H. Milam, "Experimentation," in The Library of Tomorrow, ed. Edith Miller Danton (Chicago: American Library Assn., 1939), p.47 . . 8. Shirley T. Echelman, "Why Do Academic Libraries Get Such a Bad Rap?" Library ]ournal113:40 (October 1, 1988). 9. Herbert T. Brinberg, "Content, Not Quantity ... Tailor Specific Data to Specific Needs-New Thrusts of Information Management," Management Review 70:8-9 (December 1981). 10. Ibid., p.9. 11. Donald A. Marchand and Forest W. Horton, Jr., lnfotrends: Profiting From Your Information Re- sources (New York: Wiley), p.125, 134. 12. Harvey L. Poppel and Bernard Goldstein, Information Technology: The Trillion-Dollar Opportunity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), p.59-60. Management of Information 531 13. David C. Blair, ''The Management of Information: Basic Distinctions,'' Sloan Management Review, 26:15 (Fall1984). 14. Brenda Dervin and Patricia Dewdney, "Neutral Questioning: A New Approach to the Reference Interview," RQ, 25:508 (Summer 1986). 15. Raymond K. Neff, ''Computing in the University-The Implications of New Technologies,'' Per- spectives in Computing 7:15 (Fall1987). 16. Linda H. Fleit, "Choosing a Chief Information Officer: The Myth of the Computer Czar," Cause/Effect 26-30 (May 1986). 17. Mark Hannan and Peter Karp, Customer Satisfaction: How to Maximize, Measure and Market Your Company's Ultimate Product (New York: Amacon, 1989), p.xiii. 18. Karl Albrecht, At America's Seroice (Homewood, ID.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1988), p.14. 19. John Guaspari, The Customer Connection: Quality for the Rest of Us (New York: Amacom, 1988), p .53. 20. American Library Association, Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report (Chicago: American Library Assn., January 1989), p.1. 21. Ibid., p.14. 22. RobertS. Taylor, Value-Added Processes in Information Systems (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1986), p.38. 23. James May, "The Integrated Information Center," Cause/Effect Ouly 1986), p.15-17. 24. Vartan Gregorian, "In Praise of Libraries and Librarians," The Research Libraries Group News 15 Oanuary 1988).