Untitled-5 Information Counseling 337 337 oday, many corporations out- source their noncore functions to subcontractors in order to leverage resources and reduce costs.1,2 Outsourcing enables such corpo- rations to streamline all their functions so as to focus on their primary business, and may be undertaken as part of cor- porate downsizing, privatization, or reengineering exercises.3 Although the impact of outsourcing on service quality is yet to be fully appreciated, this trend is expected to persist well into the twenty-first century.4 Libraries are not strangers to outsourc- ing, having benefited from outsourcing ma- terials acquisitions and processing since early in this century.5 Within this decade, however, some corporations have outsourced their entire library operations. For example, Baker & McKenzie, a Chicago-based law firm, fired its entire library staff in 1995, opting to outsource all its library and research needs.6 Examples of similar outsourcing decisions abound among other categories of corporate libraries in both the public sector, such as the U.S. Department of Education, and the pri- vate sector, such as Hamilton Oil, U.K.7,8 It is apparent, therefore, that outsourcing is redefining corporate librarianship. Al- though outsourcing has helped boost the market for independent information services, many librarians resist such a career move for fear of loss in pay, job security, and prestige.9 Moreover, some corporations prefer nonlibrarian outsourcers who share in the specialized knowledge, goals, and strategies of their business. According to an agent of a corporation using nonlibrarian outsourcers, �What was so critical to us was that they would be aware of and were participating in the management of the whole informa- tion lifecycle� of the corporation.10 How can corporate librarians reposition their services to be competitive in the face of such a chal- lenge? Information Counseling and the Outsourcing Challenge to Corporate Librarianship John Agada The outsourcing of information services challenges corporate libraries to shift their focus toward those services that are not readily “outsourcable.” An analysis of library services indicates that the diag- nostic level of service is potentially the least outsourcable. To effect this level of service, it is suggested that corporate librarians serve as infor- mation counselors on multifunctional project teams. A framework for an expanded model of the information counselor role integrating informa- tion diagnostic and repackaging services is presented. John Agada is an Assistant Professor in the School of Library and Information Science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee; e-mail: agada@csd.uwm.edu. 338 College & Research Libraries July 1997 This article discusses the predicament posed to librarians by the trend to outsource corporate information services. An analysis of corporate library services indicates that only those services that entail a case-by-case diagnosis of client needs can avert being outsourced.11 An expanded concept of the information counselor model is proposed as a strategy for effecting such diagnos- tic-level services. This article also presents a framework for exploring potential ser- vices based on this service model. The educational/training, political, and ad- ministrative implications of such services have been discussed in another publica- tion.12 Service “Outsourcability” and Client/Service Provider Interactions Outsourcable services may be differenti- ated from nonoutsourcable services by their degrees of service customization�the design or repackaging (defined below) of new or existing information services to match the unique needs of clients. Such service customization assumes a case-by- case diagnosis and evaluation of client needs and information use, thereby im- plying extensive client/service provider or librarian interaction. The levels of client/service provider in- teraction consist of (1) mail contact only; (2) on-site technology contact; (3) phone con- tact; (4) face-to-face contact with tight speci- fications; (5) face-to-face contact with loose specifications; and (6) face-to-face contact with total customization.13 This matrix sug- gests a continuum ranging from mediated and impersonal (routine) contacts be- tween clients and service providers (e.g., mail, technology, and phone contacts) to varying degrees of face-to-face and per- sonalized interactions. The potential for efficient and effec- tive service provision also varies along this continuum. Although efficient ser- vice orientations focus on performing services with the least expenditure in re- sources, effective service orientations emphasize the attainment by clients of their goals and objectives. Brief and fo- cused contacts with external subcontrac- tors or outsourcers (mediated or face to face) might be efficient (i.e., fast and cost saving). However, it is unlikely that ex- ternal service providers would under- stand and participate as fully in the �whole information lifecycle� of the cor- poration as in-house service providers. Thus, it is apparent that corporations that opt for outsourcing primarily to reduce costs might be trading service effective- ness for efficiency. As Levitt observed: �The fact that price differences are, prima facie, measurable becomes the usual, and usually false, basis for asserting their powerful primacy.�14 On the other hand, services that in- volve face-to-face contact with clients may enable case-by-case diagnosis of needs, prescription, and evaluation of service use and impact. Moreover, in- house professionals who understand the environment, roles, and personal char- acteristics of clients could design and provide services that impact positively on client goals and strategies. However, face-to-face interactions with clients may be inefficient from the viewpoint of time and labor costs. For instance, face-to-face contacts might entail iterative and recur- sive interaction processes. Such services cannot be reduced to contractual specifi- cations. Consequently, they are not ame- nable to automation or outsourcing. Be- cause they potentially guarantee attain- ment of clients� goals, however, in the long run they might be more cost-effec- tive than outsourced services. Given the complexity and pace of change in the corporate environment, it is apparent that only customized services can avert being outsourced. The experi- Outsourcable services may be differentiated from nonoutsourcable services by their degrees of service customization. Information Counseling 339 ence of information systems services pro- vides an illustration. Transactional ser- vices such as the processing of payroll and accounting records, which entail none or at best routine interactions with clients, have been easily automated and outsourced. On the other hand, however, decision support systems, which entail extensive client/service provider interac- tions in a bid to customize planning, project evaluation, and policy analysis data to suit clients� needs, cannot be so readily automated and outsourced.15 A Model for Analyzing Corporate Library Services In 1994 Greer, Agada, and Grover pro- posed a model for analyzing library ser- vices. This model identifies three catego- ries of service type based on levels of client/service provider interactions: transactional (e.g., cataloging), reactive (e.g., direct-reference service), and diag- nostic (e.g., information counseling). 16 This model is similar to Levitt�s total product/service concept, which catego- rizes services development into generic, expected, augmented, and potential phases.17 Contemporary corporate li- brary services seem to emphasize fea- tures of the generic and expected services. Commercial cataloging and online data- bases, including the Internet, which re- quire little or no client/service provider interactions, represent generic and ex- pected library services that have been au- tomated and outsourced. To avert being outsourced, the focus of corporate librar- ies needs to shift to the more differenti- ated augmented and potential service cat- egories. Augmented Services Augmented services add value to generic and expected services through differen- tiation. Differentiation is not exhausted merely by giving the customer what he ex- pects. What he expects may be aug- mented by offering him more than what he thinks he needs or has become accustomed to expect.18 Corporate librarians may therefore vol- untarily augment the �expected� features of their services by an ever-increasing bundle of �service satisfactions.�19 Such service satisfactions involve evaluating services by the degree or rate at which clients attain their goals, rather than by their access to relevant information re- sources. The linkage of corporate library ser- vice use with client goals may be best attained through the diagnostic level of service. Diagnostic services entail a sys- tematic, case-by-case analysis of the client�s needs to determine �problem di- mensions and information traits.�20 This is followed by a prescription, or recom- mendation, of such information as deemed appropriate for resolving the client�s needs. Information is retrieved and customized, or repackaged, to suit the client�s unique needs. The librarian subsequently monitors and evaluates the implementation or use of the prescribed information. Based on the outcome of the evaluation, a second round of diagnosis may initiate another cycle of services, until the information need is satisfacto- rily resolved. In the corporate environ- ment, this entails the successful and timely completion of the client�s task or project. Such services may be best effected through information counseling. Accord- ing to Carol C. Kuhlthau, information counseling provides a new kind of me- diation in which the counselor �guides and supports the user, and offers encour- Service satisfactions involve evaluating services by the degree or rate at which clients attain their goals, rather than by their access to relevant information resources. 340 College & Research Libraries July 1997 agement, strategies, sources, sequence and redefinition through exploration and formulation in preparation for collection and resolution.�21 However, guidelines for translating these processes into prac- tice are inadequate and framed by generic and expected service orientations. For example, service format and evaluation often are defined in terms of provision of access to a sequence of relevant docu- ments for client perusal and use.22 Such a stance is document fixated and assumes that existing documents antici- pate the unique �problem dimensions and information traits� of every client. As Corey observed: �The form of a prod- uct is a variable, not a given in develop- ing market strategy. Products are planned and developed to serve markets.�23 Con- sequently, potential corporate library ser- vices ought to include either the creation of new or the repackaging of existing ser- vices, information, and documents, as well as consultancy in any processes that facilitate client learning and ultimate at- tainment of goals. Potential Service Developments in information technology have educated corporate clients as to what is reasonable to expect of their li- brary services. What used to be aug- mented features of corporate library ser- vices (e.g., creation of customized databases) now has become the norm, causing clients to seek differentiation elsewhere. When a prospect no longer needs the help that converted him into a customer, he becomes free to shop around for things which he values more than that help. Often, this is price.24 The challenge to cut costs through outsourcing information services re- quires that corporate librarians further differentiate their services under the changed conditions. An expanded infor- mation counseling model is suggested as a basis for developing a market franchise for a range of potential corporate infor- mation services. Potential Information Counselor Services As information experts, corporate librar- ians ought to service the �management of the whole information lifecycle� of the corporation�from creation, organiza- tion, and access to diffusion, application, and evaluation. Thus, corporate library services should be aimed at creating en- vironments that facilitate client learning (i.e., the acquisition of requisite knowl- edge, skills, and attitudes to attain set goals). Such services ought to go beyond sequencing relevant documents for use to include managing and evaluating the use and impact of information. For ex- ample, counselors could consult on the effect on information use of personality and cognitive styles, group and indi- vidual roles, and the organizational en- vironment. Such services would enhance the quality of problem-solving, task as- signment, and project execution, as well as the management of group dynamics and innovation adaptation, for example. To render such services, counselors need in-depth knowledge of clients and their tasks and work environments. The emergence of cross-functional project teams offers a forum in which corporate librarians may learn about and develop models of clients and their work cultures. As a team member, the counselor would serve as the interface between the corpo- rate world of his or her clients and the world of information. Given the dyna- mism of both worlds today, this under- taking requires continuous learning on Solution maps can be used to develop a macro-level view of clients� goals, objectives, and responsibilities, and to propose appropriate activities. Information Counseling 341 the part of corporate librarians. Writing about computerized interface agents in information retrieval, Negroponte ob- served that: the key element to agent-based systems is learning. It is not a matter of a ques- tionnaire or a fixed profile. Agents must learn and develop over time, like human friends or assistants. It is not only acquisition of a model of you; it is using it in context.25 Using models of clients in context is the basis for diagnostic and customization services, which is discussed below. Diagnostic and Customization Services Models of corporate clients are shaped by their environments, roles, and per- sonal characteristics (e.g., cognitive styles).26 These three levels of analysis� environment, role, and cognitive style� influence the design of information ser- vices to varying degrees. Environment and role analyses, for instance, are req- uisites for designing new information services. Role analysis is the primary fo- cus when the counselor seeks to custom- ize information services to meet needs ascribed to positions (e.g., personnel ad- ministrators), whereas creating new or repackaging existing information to match the needs of an individual (per- sonnel administrator) requires knowl- edge of his or her cognitive style. Sev- eral models exist for diagnosing needs through analyses of clients� roles and cognitive styles. The use of solution maps and the Learning Style Inventory to di- agnose roles and cognitive styles are de- scribed below. Role Diagnosis Solution maps can be used to develop a macro-level view of clients� goals, objec- tives, and responsibilities, and to propose appropriate activities. They also enable charting corresponding information ser- vice requirements.27 The solution map shown in table 1 identifies critical aspects of the project or task at hand, such as project objectives; task processes (e.g., in- tellectual and practical); requisite knowl- edge, skills, and attitudes; information needs (subject, context, perspective, etc.); and information processes (e.g., analy- TABLE 1 The Solution Map Planning Design Implementation Managing/Evaluating Task objectives Task processes Requisite knowldege, skills, and attitudes Requisite information processes 342 College & Research Libraries July 1997 sis, synthesis, application, evaluation). These aspects are closely monitored to ensure their synchronization. The phases within which clients play their roles are listed on the top horizontal row of the model. For example, a project may en- tail planning, designing, implementing, and managing phases.28 Through extensive interviews, using appropriate strategies, the information counselor collects data to fill in the cells of the model. Such data might include: (1) the client�s current challenges; (2) how the client wants things to be; (3) what will be affected by the desired changes; (4) what the client needs to know and do to effect the desired changes and activities; and (5) the individual and group capa- bilities necessary to meet the client�s needs.29 The challenges and sequences of ac- tivities identified would be systemati- cally interfaced with an information ser- vices inventory (from generic to poten- tial services) as part of the client�s solu- tion plan. A project involving adaptation of an innovation, for example, might require that the client play roles in the following sequence: (1) becoming aware of, and informed about, the innovation; (2) ac- quiring more knowledge about it; and (3) evaluating it and developing favorable or unfavorable attitudes about it. The process might terminate if the client does not perceive the innovation to be worth- while. If, on the other hand, the client feels the innovation has potential ben- efits, additional roles would include (4) adopting the innovation on a trial or par- tial basis, and (5) fully adopting or re- jecting it.30 For each phase, the counselor would document the corresponding task objectives and processes, etc., in appro- priate cells on the model. Thus, the solu- tion map enables the counselor to appre- ciate the interim nature of each phase of the client�s roles and attendant needs, thereby facilitating proactive services provision. The map that evolves from such analy- sis would provide a detailed and accu- rate picture of the entire information life cycle of each project or task. Based on this picture, the counselor could recommend a series of treatments including work- shops, observations, brainstorming ses- sions, readings (viewing and auditing), etc., to support the clients� needs at each phase of their tasks. An example of the sequence of documentary sources alone may consist of promotional brochures to create awareness; and state-of-the-art and impact analysis reviews to support the phases of acquisition of additional knowledge of, and attitude toward, the innovation, also undertaking initial evaluation. Technical and training hand- books would be ideal for trial or partial adaptation, whereas service maintenance and assessment manuals would support full adaptation of the innovation. Individual differences among clients require that the counselor repackage in- formation to suit each client. For ex- ample, the roles played by different cli- ents in the innovation-adaptation process (e.g., change agents, gatekeepers, or fol- lowers) create different information needs. Knowledge of clients� pace of in- novation adaptation also dictates differ- ent paces of sequencing appropriate sup- port services. Clients exhibiting traits of early adopters, for instance, would move relatively quickly through the process and thereby require more proactive in- formation support than late adopters and laggards. The exact format of these sources is determined by clients� cogni- tive or information-processing styles. Analysis of Cognitive Styles Cognitive styles reflect individuals� ten- dencies to adopt particular strategies in the perception and processing of infor- mation. Individuals who differ in their cognitive styles approach similar infor- mation-processing situations in different ways.31 Cognitive styles also are said to correlate with learning and problem- Information Counseling 343 solving styles.32 Knowledge of clients� cognitive styles could therefore be used by counselors to vary the format of rec- ommended information, just as physi- cians vary prescriptions based on knowl- edge of a patient�s allergies or family history. The Learning Style Inventory by David Kolb is one of many instruments that as- sess cognitive style.33 Although all learn- ing and information-processing implicate the four styles, individuals are said to emphasize one or two preferences as a result of innate or socialized traits. Indi- viduals who take in information through a combination of concrete experience and active experimentation are called accom- modators. Divergers are those who combine concrete experience with reflective obser- vation, whereas assimilators are said to combine reflective observation with ab- stract conceptualization. Convergers work best when they combine abstract con- ceptualization with active experimenta- tion. Knowledge of these preferences en- ables the counselor to locate or design information in the formats preferred by clients. For example, accommodators are said to be intuitive and goal oriented and to prefer hands-on and vicarious experi- ences such as field trips, demonstrations, modeling, interviews, simulations, case studies, etc. Divergers like to seek alter- native ideas and new patterns, discrep- ancies, and problems. Thus, they prefer reading journals and reflective papers, and engaging in group discussions and brainstorming sessions. Assimilators are deductive thinkers who can formulate theories from vast and disparate ideas. Thus, they are comfortable with textual and print materials, programmed in- struction, lectures, and film. Convergers are quick to make decisions and connec- tions, and prefer to work individually, trying out problem-solving strategies and creative projects. These styles also represent stages in the cycle of problem-solving: problem and goal analysis (concrete experience); ex- plorations (reflective observation); evalu- ation of possible solutions and conse- quences (abstract conceptualization); and selection, execution, and evaluation of solutions (active experimentation).34 By implication, clients may be more skilled at some stages of the problem-solving process than at others. Based on identi- fied preferences of clients, for instance, the corporate librarian as information counselor could help members appreci- ate and adapt effective information use and problem-solving strategies to match their styles. Counselors also could advise on the composition of work teams and the assignment of tasks and strategies for their execution. Such services ensure that team members have complementary or mutually reinforcing cognitive and prob- lem-solving styles. Repackaging of Information When information does not exist in the intellectual and physical formats appro- priate to a client�s cognitive style, the counselor might need to create new sources or repackage existing ones to match the client�s needs. The combined knowledge of clients� roles and cognitive styles provides specifications for repackaging information. Information repackaging entails adding value to the intellectual and physical attributes of information packages to enhance under- standing and utility in the context of clients� needs.35 A related concept in the library and information science literature is information consolidation. According to Saracevic, infor- mation consolidation is: public knowledge specifically se- lected, analyzed, evaluated, and possibly restructured and repack- The combined knowledge of clients� roles and cognitive styles provides specifications for repack- aging information. 344 College & Research Libraries July 1997 aged for the purpose of serving some of the immediate decisions, problems and information needs of a defined clientele or social group.36 Repackaging the intellectual contents of information entails information analy- sis and synthesis. Information analysis in- volves identifying and evaluating com- ponent units and the structural relation- ships of source information or docu- ments. Information synthesis, on the other hand, is the editing, repurposing, merg- ing, and restructuring of different units of source information or documents into one or two units to convey new mean- ings, focus, purposes, or perspectives. Repackaging the physical contents of in- formation entails the choice and combi- nation of symbols, channel, and media formats to create a message. For example, the information on this page is conveyed by alphabetic symbols viewed through the visual channel and held by the paper medium. Different coding systems regu- late the combination order of the sym- bol, channel, and media elements of a message to effect changes in meaning, perspective, or emotional impact. By applying the knowledge of infor- mation psychology, especially media theories, packages may be designed to complement the cognitive problem-solv- ing styles of clients. The counselor could, for example, apply a variety of tech- niques to facilitate reading, comprehen- sion, and retention to suit clients� subject knowledge or reading skills. Sometimes repackaging may entail transforming the symbol, channel, and medium elements of information. For in- stance, a lengthy annual report in printed form could be repackaged into a brief audiotaped executive summary the cli- ent could listen to while driving to work. Such repackaging would necessitate transforming alphabetic symbols to word symbols; light (visual) waves to sound waves (channel); and paper to a celluloid- based medium. With the advent of the Inter- net, for example, counselors could create Intranet files in multimedia formats by inte- grating and repackaging external informa- tion with the corporate, project, and personal archives to reflect their clients� work cul- ture, language, and habits. The products of repackaging range from customized access tools (e.g., da- tabases, indexes, and abstracts) and synthesized representational sources (e.g., translations, state-of-the-art re- views and manuals) to interpretive and evaluative services (e.g., evaluative summaries and executive briefings). While the counselor diagnoses needs and prescribes information to meet them, other library staff could under- take the design of the prescribed infor- mation sources under his or her super- vision. Interpretive and evaluative ser- vices, in particular, ought to be closely supervised by the counselor because he or she, more than other library staff, has a close working knowledge of the client�s goals, roles, cognitive styles, values, per- spectives, etc. Such role divisions within the corporate library call for the adop- tion of a project-based team approach to service design and management. Interpretive and evaluative services such as executive briefings may be pre- sented orally in a one-on-one discussion format to match the client�s cognitive style. Executive briefings may highlight key issues in any phase of a project and could require that the counselor evalu- ate and rank decision options based on the client�s goals, priorities, resources, political and economic exigencies, etc. Such a level of repackaging implies that the counselor is an �insider � in the cor- poration and shares in its specialized knowledge, goals, and strategies. It also calls for a high level of client/counselor trust and confidence, akin to that be- tween collaborative peers. By implication, a counselor who ren- ders interpretive and evaluative repack- aging services to top executives ought to be of comparable rank, such as vice presi- Information Counseling 345 dent in charge of information services or chief information officer of the organi- zation. Information counselors who at- tain such status in their organizations are likely to succeed in streamlining their li- brary services with the core functions of the corporation and in overcoming the challenge of outsourcing. Conclusion Corporate libraries whose functions emphasize transactional and reactive ser- vices face the threat of being outsourced. This demands that corporate librarianship be re- defined to emphasize those services that pose the least potential for outsourcing. The in- creased sophistication in information skills among corporate clients also calls for corpo- rate librarians to differentiate their skills as information experts. Such differentiation must go beyond the location and provision of access to a sequence of relevant documents for client use. The integration of information-coun- seling concepts with those of diagnostic and repackaging services offers a model for redefining corporate librarianship. Services based on this information coun- selor model would include the creation of new and repackaging of existing documents, as well as consulting on the effective use of information in a variety of formats as dictated by the environ- ment, roles, and cognitive styles of cli- ents. Such services would integrate the corporate library functions with the mis- sion, goals, and strategies of the corpo- ration and have a direct impact on its bottom line. Consequently, information counseling with its extended client/li- brarian interactions might, in effect, be more cost-effective than outsourcing al- ternatives. Such differentiation must go beyond the location and provision of access to a sequence of relevant documents for client use. Notes 1. Udal Apte, �Global Outsourcing of Information Systems and Processing Services,� Infor- mation Society 7 (fall 1990): 287�303. 2. Graham Pryor, �Information Management in the Oil and Gas Sector�the New Credibility of Outsourcing,� Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 27 (Sept. 1995): 131�36. 3. Susan Martin, �Outsourcing,� Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances 8 (fall 1995): 28�30. 4. Peter F. Drucker, Managing for the Future; the 1990s and Beyond (New York: Truman Talley Books, 1992), 22. 5. Martin, �Outsourcing,� 28. 6. �Make or Buy . . . Can Law Librarians Survive Firms� Moves toward Outsourcing?� Of Counsel (Aug. 1995): 2. 7. Martin, �Outsourcing,� 30. 8. Pryor, �Information Management,� 132. 9. �Make or Buy,� 2. 10. Pryor, �Information Management,� 135. 11. John Agada, �Outsourcing of Corporate Information Services: Implications for Corporate Library Services,� International Library and Information Review 28 (summer 1996): 157�76. 12. Ibid. 13. Karen Novey, �Videotape Guide and Video Disc Guide,� a supplement to Marketing; Creat- ing Value for Customers, by Gilbert A. Churchill and J. Paul Peter (Chicago: Irwin, 1995), 45. 14. Theodore Levitt, The Marketing Imagination, new expanded edition (New York: Free Pr., 1986), 73. 15. Agada, �Outsourcing of Corporate Information Services,� 162�63. 16. Roger Greer, John Agada, and Robert Grover, �Staffing: A Model for Libraries and Infor- mation Agencies,� Library Administration & Management 8 (fall 1994): 35�42. 17. Levitt, The Marketing Imagination, 74�84. 18. Ibid., 81�82. 346 College & Research Libraries July 1997 19. Ibid. 20. Susan E. MacMullin and Robert S. Taylor, �Problem Dimensions and Information Traits,� Information Society 3 (fall 1986): 91�111. 21. Carol C. Kulhthau, Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1994), 145. 22. Ibid., 144. 23. E. Raymond Corey, Industrial Marketing: Cases and Concepts (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, 1976), 40�41. 24. Levitt, The Marketing Imagination, 83. 25. Nicholas Negroponte, �Less Is More: Interface Agents As Digital Butlers,� Wired (June 1994): 142. 26. Martha L. Hale, �Administrators and Information: A Review of Methodologies Used for Diagnosing Information Use,� in Advances in Librarianship, vol. 14, ed. Wesley Simonton (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Pr., 1986), 75�79. 27. Jamin Karoutchi, �Marketing Strategies for Information Services,� in Marketing Strategies for Services: Globalization, Client Orientation, Deregulation, ed. M. M. Kostecki (Oxford, England: Pergamon Pr., 1994), 95�104. 28. Ibid., 102. 29. Ibid., 102. 30. Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: Free Pr., 1983). 31. Robert J. Riding and Graeme Douglas, �The Effect of Cognitive Style and Mode of Presen- tation on Learning Performance,� The British Journal of Educational Psychology 63 (June 1993): 297�307. 32. Ian I. Mitroff and Robert Mason, �Stakeholders of Executive Decision Making,� in The Executive Mind, ed. Surash Srivastra and Associates (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), 144�68. 33. David Kolb, Experiential Learning; Experience As the Source of Learning and Development (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984). 34. Ibid. 35. John Agada, �Analysis of Information Repackaging (IR) Processes Using Instructional Sys- tems Design (ISD) Model,� Journal of Instructional Science and Technology 1 (Oct. 1995): 1�7. 36. Tefko Saracevic, �Processes and Problems in Information Consolidation,� Information Pro- cessing and Management 22, no. 1 (1986): 47.