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WITH AN APPENDIX containing The Statutory Provisions of 1896 relating to Continuation Classes, Duties of Teachers, Agreements, etc., and the Courses of Study for High and Public Schools. BY JOHN MILLAR, B.A., Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario. TORONTO: WIIvIvIAM BRIGGS, Wesley Buildings, Montreal: C. VV. COATES. Halifax: S. F. HUESTIS. 1896. Met Entered, according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the jear one thousand eight hundred and ninety-six, by William Briqos, at the Department of Agriculture. % I f ^• n' !' h I PREFACE. The following pages are the outcome of several years' experi- ence and observation as a teacher, and of a carjful study of many of the best books on systems of education and on the science of pedagogy. The aim has been to prepare a volume especially adapted to the wants of Canadian teachers in High and Public Schools, and to present, in an intelligible and scientific way, the broad outlines and essential characteristics of School Management and the principles and practice of teaching. Many well - known features of our educational system render it unnecessary for the purposes of the teachers of this Province to discuss, at any great length, several topics that find a legitimate place in standard works of the kind that are designed for use in England or in the United States. The fact that in Ontario every candidate for a position as teacher is required to take a course of professional training, will be a sufficient excuse for omitting many details and useful illus- trations that are readily and fully brought to notice in the County Model Schools, the Normal Schools, and the School of Pedagogy. It should also be recollected that our High and Public Schools are placed under the supervision of Inspectors whose scholarship and practical acquaintance with education enable teachers to receive officially from them timely sug- gestions that might otherwise call for consideration in a book on the government of schools. The statutory requirements IV PREFACE. t respecting uniform text-books, programmes of study, duties of trustees, etc., have, to a further extent, limited the scope of the work. It is believed, hoWever, that other matters of School Management, which concern both High and Public Schools, are discussed more fully, and it is hoped not less scientifically, than in the larger volumes that are now in use. In the preparation of the work, advantage has been taken of the valuable contributions from leading American and European writers to the subject of pedagogy. It would be impossible to give full credit to the many persons — many of them teachers or Inspectors in Ontario— from whom the author has, under various circumstances, gathered opinion? which have helped to form his convictions on many questions here discussed. He has not scrupled to make use of any available facts or arguments from the Educational Reports of other countries that in his judgment throw light upon the function of the school, and he has not hesitated to dissent from the views of some eminent writers upon a few topics concerning which his reading and observation have led him to form differ- ent conclusions. He may, however, claim to have been guided mainly in the formation of the views set forth, not by the study of theories, but by the practical knowledge he acquired as a teacher, either as assistant or as principal, in the rural school, in the graded city school, or in the High School, or Collegiate Institute. It is hoped the book may be found to embody the leading thoughts on school organization, instruction and government, so far as they are serviceable in the school-room. Attention is not given — partly for reasons already mentioned — to the many mechanical details of school work. The object has been to describe the fundamental principles that should direct the B PREFACE. ii teacher in the discharge of his duties, and to furnish a scien- tific basis upon which the intelligent educator may build his own methods and shape his own devices. The wants of young teachers, and especially the needs of ungraded schools, have been carefully kept in mind, but it is felt that the great principles that underlie teaching and discipline are the same for all classes of schools and for all subjects of instruction. Some chapters, though dealing with subjects, the considera- tion of which CO lid not be excluded from a treatise on School Management, necessarily introduce questions that have, in Canada, as well as in other countries, been matters of some controversy. It is not, therefore, to be presumed that the opinions expressed will meet with universal acceptance. An effort has been made, however, to discuss every subject fairly, and though the author cannot hope to agree with the theories and methods advanced by all persons, the belief is entertained that the conclusions he has reached will be concurred in by the great body of teachers, Inspectors and other practical educationists. No attempt has been made to describe or suggest methods of teaching specific branches of the curriculum. The many valuable books, in which this kind of professional work is taken up, should be carefully studied by those who aim to become specialists in certain departments. What most teach- ers need, however, is not a knowledge of "methodology," but a thorough acquaintance with those broad principles of psychology and the science of education that are applicable to every subject of the school course. There is danger that the value of "methods" and "lesson plans," which are not, however, condemned, may be unduly magnified in the minds of young teachers, and that " specialization " in the case of VI PREFACE. High School work may be unreasonably exalted unless wide scholarship and ability to teach a number of subjects are con- tinued to be regarded as necessary attainments of those who are to become educators in the highest sense of the term. It is becoming more generally acknowledged that from a moral, intellectual, and material point of view, national edu- cation is the great (question of the future, and that progress can be secured only by rnidng the status of the teacher. Higher attainments in all matters that concern the . CONTENTS. CIIAPTKR PiOB I. The Function of the School . . o II. Physical Cultijkk Ig III. Intkllkctual Dkvelopment 32 IV. The Place of Relkjion in School 43 V. MoKAL Training gg VI. Character Building 75 i VII. The Teacher's Qualifications 92 VIII. Discipline 1Q3 "7>L^' IX. School Incentives 113^^*^/^' X. Punishments ', 129 /'^ t'^' XI. School Organization J52 "^ •'^' Xll. School Programmes jgg " /'iH' XIII. Methods of Conductin(} Recitations 134 ""; li^ / it XIV. PRINCIP..ES OF Teaching 204 ^ "'"^ XV. The Art of Questioning 219T"^'^^^ i XVI. Written Examinations 237 Appendix 266 Index 287 " What is the Teacher's imrk? It is to develop (he mind, to mould the heart, and to form the character of the future citizens, rimgistrates, and riders of our laud ? It is to teach and implant that which is the only true yuanudne of liberty, order, and social stability — the essential element of a country's prosperity atid happiness." —Extract from official circular of August 14th, 1850, the first addressed to the teachers of the province by the Rev. Egerton Kyerson, LL.D., Chief Superin- tendent of Education. i to ms, ant nnl itid to in- f SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. CHAPTKR i. THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOT.. Correct Views Needed. — Tn order ♦o know how lo manage a school well, it is important to nave rigli* views regard; 1- what is to be acconij)lishf;d. Ev.- y person a'^tive in educational work should understand the nature and extent of I is responsibilities, and the means by which his duties are to be performed. One of the chief causes of failure in teaching is the lack of well-defined purjxjse on the part of those entrusted with the training of pupils. A knowledge of the end to be reached detenu ines the means to be employed, and directs aright the methods to be used. A wrong view of education leads to bad school management, and this produces bad teaching, bad discipline, bad training. Without a proper conception of the ends to be sought, the principles to be followed, and the methods to be adopted, in managing a school, there can be no ideal, no distinct aim, and no right appreciation of the value of the teacher's work. The function of the school, its responsibilities and its limitations, are matters that should be understood by the practical educationist. School Manag^ement. — School Management is that department of the Science of Education which treats of 10 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. the best means of directing school affairs so as to secure efficiency. It inclulss not only school economy, but also school discipline and school ethics. It has for its object the regulation of all school work, and embraces all that pertains to the* training given by the teacher. The organi- zation of the school, the government employed, the programmes of study taken up, the methods of instruction adopted, the examinations held, and the promotions made, are all included in what the term 'implies. The school buildings and furniture, the use of text-books, attention to records, as well as the duties of inspectors, teachers, trustees and pupils, are matters connected with the same department of education. The scope of School Managem' nt is therefore very extensive, and many volumes would be needed to convey a fair knowledge of its details. In a more restricted sense, it merely includes a knowledge of those principles of the Science of Education which will enable the teacher to direct intelligently the forces at his command. In other words, the principles and general methods by which pupils are taught and governed, are what it mainly embraces, and the teacher is success- ful in the Art of Teaching, who trains children to be symmetrically developed men and women, in a physical, intellectual and moral sense. Ce"tain modes of procedure, based on the Science of Education, have come to be recognized by educators as means for securing good results. An account of these methods, together with any practical rules drawn directly from scientific considerations, or suggested by experience, forms the subject matter of the Art of School Management. It should be felt, however, that no mere knowledge of practical rules can be of much service to the teacher who does not make himself acquainted with the principles upon which they are based. Education 'J THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. 11 i is both a science and an art, and in the work of the school room the principles of the former, and the rules of the latter, are inseparably associated. The Science of Education. — The Science of Educa- tion, upon which School Management is based, is very complex in its nature. Its principles are drawn from many different branches of knowledge. It has, besides, its own peculiar sphere of investigation, and it includes a great variety of truths which concern the growth and develop- ment of mind and body. It helps us to analyze mental processes and the laws of human progress, to discover causes of social conditions and sources of national greatness, and to unfold to the practical educator the means by which his work may be successfully accomplished. It has a complex practical problem to solve. It aims to do certain valuable work for the individual and the community. It points out rules, methods and principles for the accomplish- ment of its object, and thus embraces the Art of Teaching. It strives to find out a rational basis for the use of such rules as experience has justified. It seeks to bring to light the philosophic truths of psychology, physiology and ethics, and thus to secure full recognition of what is needed to make better teachers. Its value cannot be ignored unless teaching is to be regarded as the work of the empiric, and methods of instructing and modes of governing are to be considered as a collection of ingenious devices. It follows that education to the teacher becomes an applied science, and the more thoroughly he masters the principles to be employed, the more successfully will he perform his work. A knowledge of School Management secured by f', mere study of methods, leads to mechanical teaching, weak discipline, and defective intellectual and moral results. m 12 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Education. — The definition of education depends upon the point of observation, and the particular object intended to be gained. The utilitarian, the moralist, the philoso- pher, and the statesman will, in each case, have his own ideas on the question. The subjects of the curriculum that afford culture or training, and those that have a more direct bearing on the practical side of life, have their respective advocates. Teaching that best prepares pupils to make a living satisfies many persons ; but a broader outlook holds that man cannot live by bread alone. The command, "Be ye perfect," expresses the goal to which each should aspire in the process of self-education, and the aim of the teacher should be to prepare his pupils for per- fect living, and this includes the promotion of continuous efforts for self-improvement. In its full sense, education calls for the harmonious developm^^nt of all the powers of body and of mind. Complete education will embrace the training, by appropriate exercises, of the physical and- mental faculties. This will necessitate the a« quisition of such knowledge as will benefit the individual and the community. The chili is not to be trained primarily to become a member of any particular sect, calling or profes- sion. However important these matters may be, they are only of secondary consideration to the teacher. The chief object he should have in view is that of training each pupil to become a man or a woman in the highest sense of the term. Any narrow conception of the scope of education limits the horizon of the educator, and restricts the application of those principles upon which every efiicient system of instruction is based. " The purpose of education is to give to the botly and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable. "— Plato. li K-^rnsBMcarrrrra; THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. 13 ^) ** I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and of war." — Milton. " Education is the preparation for complete living." — Spencer. "Education is the preparation of the individual for reciprocal union with society ; the preparation of the individual so that he can help his fellou -men, and in return receive and appropriate their help."— IF. T. Harris. Kinds of Hducation. — To reach full development the child passes through a complex process. This process is harmonious, beautiful and consistent, hut it is varied in its nature. The varieties of education are parts of what must be combined in due proportion if the result is to be complete. If any essential department of education is neglected, the effect will be harmful or disastrous. The fully educated person has stored his mind with knowledge in such a way that his intellectual faculties give him skill and power. His moral nature is so developed that he has a delicate appreciation of duty, and a will that readily responds to the dictates of an enlightened conscience. His body has been trained to perform its functions in obedience to the intelligent demands of his moral impulses. He has, besides, recognized his relationship to his Maker and to his fellow-beings. In addition to these essential features of a general education, he has, so far as his ability and opportunities will permit, received such special training as will fit him for the position in wliich he is placed as a member of society. It is evident education has many sides, but it is convenient to speak of it under the heads here enumerated, viz.: (1) Religious Education ; (2) Moral Edu- cation; (3) Intellectual Education; (4) Piiysical Education ; and (5) Special Education. The first of these is chief in importance ; but, as, will be shown hereafter, it does not come within the range of ordinary school work. Special 14 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Education, except in a slight way, has also no place in the programmes of elementary or secondary schools. Means of Education. — All the influences in life that go to form character are the means that give a person his education. In early infancy the child is educated by the experience gained through the natural activity of the instincts. The simple knowledge acquired in childhood develops mental activity, and the exercise of the intellectual and physical faculties forms habits. Under the guidance of parents, influences of a potent kind are brought to bear on the plastic nature of the child. If these influences are exercised^ with definite purpose, and in a methodical and otherwise judicious manner, a great and good start has been made before the school days have begun. Impulses that are the product of the home, of association with young companions, and of the environment generally, soon mould the nature of the child. Self-education commences before school life is entered upon, and continues to be the main process in every educational force. In the school the intell 'ctual faculties are exercised under the intelligent guidance of the teacher, and the moral convictions are formed or strengthened. In his intercourse with society in his own reading and reflection, and in his relations with the Church and other organizations, the opinions and habits of the pupil are powerfully directed. His training does not end when he leaves school. The education which is carried on in mature years, when the full possession of his mental powers has been gained, further determines his character as a man and the position he will occupy. The more commanding his position in life, and the greater the demands made oh his mental faculties, the more con- tinuous will be the forces that make for higher intellectual development. THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. 15 < Scope of School Education. — School life has to do with various aspects of the nature of the child. To promote his moral well-being comes first in value. His intellectual faculties are cultivated in order that he may readily acquire such knowledge as will enlarge his powers and increase his skill. In view of the dependence of mental development upon bodily strength, the school must give due attention to physical culture (Chapter II.) Human happiness, as well as human usefulness, depends largely upon the cultivation of the moral nature. Intellectual exercises should be carried on at all times with the object of building up character. As will be shown hereafter (Chapter V.), good teaching implies good moral training ; but it is well known that the intellect may be sharpened while the moral nature is blunt. There can be no sound cultivation of the moral faculties that does not enlist in its service the intelligence of the pupil. A mere apprehension ofthe rules of conduct, without a rational conception of righteousness, will never raise a person high in the scale of moral dignity. When the intelligence is exercised regarding moral principles, and when these principles are actually tested by daiJy applying them, they become more pregnant with meaning, more commanding in obligation, and therefore more serviceable as guides through life. Harmonious development demands that other agencies than the school should perform their functions. The duties of parents or those of the Church cannot be thrown on the teacher. Religious, moral, intellectual and physical education should be carried on concurrently; but this does not imply that the scope of school education is the same in each case. It is not the province of the teacher to prescribe the food necessa»*y for the soul any more than it is to prescribe the kind of frod which parents should give ^ 16 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. ilfc 11 I I; I fi to their children for the nourishment of their })odies. A want of due recognition of the function of the school, and a tendency to ignore the other educational agencies, have given rise many times to gross misconceptions and unreasonable expectations. Limitations. — The school is limited in its functions ; and, as a consequence, the responsibility of the teacher, though great, has also its limitations. The school is a powerful agency in mentally and morally enlightening the people. It is desirable to magnify the calling of the teacher, but the practice of measuring his worth by the success of a few brilliant pupils should be deprecated. In this respect the teacher is exposed to great temptations. The public have not a ready means of measuring a teacher's worth by the highest standards. The best work is not always noticed. Honors won and certificates gained b^ the bright members of the class are too oftenthe only tests appreciated (Chapter XVI.) As a teacher sows, so will he reap. The desire to turn out clever pupils as graduates of his school is not to be ignored, but the teacher who puts forward success of this kind as the chief criterion of his ability, may find his value estimated by his own standard when failure comes to students of his school who have weak intellectual powers. It is not the function of the school to furnish brains to children. " Education can improve nature, but not com- pletely change it," was the opinion of Aristotle. No educational process can draw out what is not in the mind. The most skilful teacher has no philosopher's stone to turn into gold what is only lead. The average pupil is not a genius. It is not in the power of the school to create, but to strengthen and improve. The child at birth is not THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. 17 without inherited tendencies. Failure to recognize this fact has led to many disappointments in education. The function of the school is not to supersede, but to supplement, the education of the family. It is bound, so far as opportunity allows, to maintain equally with the parent, the pupil's bodily strength. It must foster the growth of morality, which it is the duty of parents to implant, and must make up, so far as possible, for any defects in parental discipline. It must strengthen with due prudence religious sanctions (Chapter IV.), as the only sound basis of morality, and never use any means that would arouse denominational hostility. It is not the function of the school to train pupils for special callings in life. What occupations pupils should follow may often need guidance, but in no case should the Public School be made an institution for fitting pupils for any particular trade or profession. Doubtless the success of students in school will often determine the course subsequently taken up ; but mental development neces - sarily gives greater choice in deciding upon a future career, and in any country with an efficient school system, aspira- tions and ambitions are not only to be expected, but to be commended. . rp]ferkncf:s. Bosciikranz. — The Philosophy of Education, Part I. Laurie. — Institutes of Education, Lectures I. and IL Payne. — Lectures on the Theory of Education, Spencer. — Education, Chapters II., III. and IV. Landon. — School Management, Part I. Bain. — Education as a Science, Chapter I. Harrin. — Report as Commissioner of F^ducation for 1890-91, Chapter XXIX. 2 CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL CULTURE. I Importance of Physical Training.— Any system of education would b(; seriously defective that did not j^ive prominence to the laws of health. The value of bodily strength was felt by the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans ; and the nations of modern Europe and of America are becoming more fully alive to its demands. The researches of science, and especially the study of hygienic laws, are saving intelligent nations from blind empiricism. Protection against disease is an important matter, since a condition of health is the foundation upon which all physical culture must rest. It is clear that matters of every-day occurrence call for more attention to all that affects bodily vigor. Not one person in ten takes proper care of his health. Broken-down constitutions indicate lamentable negligence. Statistics show an amount of sickness that might have been lessened. Premature deaths are numerous. Experimental psychology has furnished us with data that mav be turned to great advantage. Sweden has pointed out the large number of boys and girls — especially the latter — that are troubled with headaches and weak spines. Germany has called attention to the defective eyesight of many of its people. French physicians have urged a halt regarding the pres- sure of school studies. Educational reformers in England, Canada and the United States are strongly advocating 1 1 PHYSICAL CULTURE. 19 ating more attention to physical training. The words of the ininiortal Juvenal —"J/^^h." sana in corpore sano" — embody a principle which should be widely recognized. The Duty of the School. — Physical culture must have its place in the school. Physiology and hygiene sliould form part of the curriculum. Sanitary conditions cannot be ignored by trustees. The health of the child, his rapid growth during school age, and the effect of this rapid development upon his ability to study, demand the careful attention of all school authorities. In a new and sparsely settled country, where the inhabitants are mostly connected with agriculture;, some of the dangers to health which Ix.'set large cities are absent. The problems relating to school life become more compli- cated when (juestions affecting a supply of pure water, the disposal of sewage, the heating and ventilation of large buildings, and the organization of graded schools, are pi'essing for solution. The haste to advance from one class to another, the demands upon the young organism in the critical period of its growth, the aspirations that stimulate mental activities, and the numerous exposures to danger, render it imperative that the work of the school should be carried on in such a way as will not foster intellectual development at the expense of bodily vigor. Instruction in Hygiene. — The ignorance of the most elementary principles of hygiene so often shown, proves that the subject should have its place in the public school programme. It may be made interesting to pupils if divested, as it can be, of many of the terras pertaining to anatomy, physiology and chemistry. Children should have some scientific knowledge of the food they enjoy, the air they breathe, the rest they require, the bodies they use, the care required of the eyes, and the voice to be trained. ^ 20 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. i :; It is irrational to require students to understand mathe- matics, history, botany, drawing, philology, etc., and at the same time to give them no means of gaining a knowledge of the muscles, the nervous system, respiration, digestion, the evils of narcotics, the circulation of the blood, and the laws that govern the development of the body. Heaithfulness of School Site.— The site of a school should not be chosen where children may be exposed to accident, or where there is danger of con- tracting disease. The day is gone by when, for the sake of getting a site for nothing, a school is located near a swamp, or near stagnant water, where malarial or mias- matic vapors abound. If built in a town or city, it should not be placed where the occupants breathe the gases and effluvia arisiiXg from improperly drained streets, neighboring factorie^ or stables, or leaky and defective sewers. Apart from sanitary requirements, the sur- roundings should be attractive, the grounds fenced, well laid out and ornamented, and necessary provisions made to secure ready ingress and egress. For purposes of health, one of the most important accessories of the school-house is the play-ground. Whether it is used as a place for continuing the discipline of the school-room, or simply as a spot where the children may be free to pursue their games, its size, location and exposure should be carefully considered. Pupils are more easily con- trolled when their environments are agreeable. Good facilities: for play and recreation are essential to good discipline. Interest should be taken in Arbor Day observances and in every other means of improving the school grounds. The cultivation of the sesthetic taste in these, and in other directions, will secure greater regu- larity of attendance, and promote good order and that PHYSICAL CULTURE. 21 sur- well made of the love for school life which, in itself, is helpful to physical ifrowth. The Building. — This is not the place to mention in detail the re(|uireuients of school architecture. The rei^ulations compel trustees to comply with important sanitary conditions. Tn the erection of a school-house, utility, comfort and beauty may be combined. Health is the first ct)nsideration. It is \uivC. to preserve ovdvr in a room where no regard has been pai(^ to these requirements. The school-house should be the pride of the community. Commodious schools furnish more working space and a better supply of pure air. Small, low, over-crowded school-rooms show wretched economy. A few paltry dollars will often be grudged for what may be needed for the comfort, health, and even for the safety of the lives, of children. School Furniture. — The furniture of a school should be selected with due regard foi' the comfort of the pupils, (lood order, as well as health, forbids the use of seats that are tof) high or too low. Dangling feet or cramped limbs are soon attended with restlessness and disturbance. In a rural school, seats of different heights are usually provided. E\ en in a graded school, unless there are practical ditti- culties in the way, a similar arrangement has its advan- tage, when pupils of different sizes are put in the same class. The object is sometimes met bj'^ tlu^ use of foot- rests, or by means of "adjustable" seats and desks — i.e., seats and desks that may be adjusted to the size of the occupant. It is to be regretted that sufficient attention has not always been given to the question of suitable school furniture. Not to speak of nervous disorders, round shoulders, sunken chests, curvature of the spine, and other physical defects, which are often due to improper positions i 22 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. .1 of pupils in Hcli(»f)l, iiiucli inattention and all that is desired. Pupils should not l)e retjuired to face tlie windows. Facing the light often pi'oduc(!S j)ain in the eyes, headaclu', general nervous iiritation, and possible injury to the sight. The best light for a school-room is from tlu; left of the pupils. Buildings are not always planned with this ol)ject in view, and, therefore, greater care (hnolves upon the teacher. Too often low windows, glazing (which diminishes the liglit), and badly tinted walls are to be found, as well as ail arrangement of furniture which l)rings puf)ils in their own light. The cultivation of liouse plants is to be encouraged, but the absurd habit of darkening rooms by placing too many plants in the windows should be avoided. 24 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 'M >,! t- , i i Cleanliness. — "Cleanliness is next to godliness," is a maxim the truth of which science will not dispute. Nothing is more certain to sanitarians than that disease revels in dirt, dampness and darkness. Soap and civiliza- tion are inseparable. A free use of water promotes mental growth as well as phj ical vigor. The school-room must be kept scrupulously cle a, and children must be trained to avoid bringing in dirt, spitting on the floor, or forming other objectionable habits of this nature. A judicious teacher can, without giving offence, accustom children to pay proper attention to personal cleanliness. Much good may be accomplished by giving plain talks to little chil- dren on the necessity of forming regular habits, and on the consequent importance of attending promptly to all the calls of nature. In these matters parents are often remiss, and a false delicacy limits teachers in their duties. It is time trustees were compelled to give more attention iathy of^en shown to drill and gym- nastics by intellectual students. Severe gynmastics are not desirable in any case. To become a scholar andean athlete is diflicult. Physical Exercise. — Ph3'sical growth, like intellec- tual or moral development, cannot be secured without exercise. Lessons in hygiene will not give bodily strength. Exercise of the body is a direct relief from exercise that is purely intellectual. If the limbs are exercised, a better growth of the various structures of the brain is the result. Bodily exertion promotes also moral restraint, and secures better discipline in school. Too often it has been supposed that physical culture is valuable only because it sustains and improves the bodily strength by expanding the lungs, quickening the circulation, and developing the muscles. It does all this and more. It contributes to brain grov th, and to the synunetrical development of the mental faculties. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 27 igth. ;ains Higs, In the matter of moral trainin*; it promotes courage, fortitude, determination, and obedience. It tends to restrain the appetites and ])assions, as \v(;ll as to check tendencies to selfishness. Each class of physical exercises has its own character- istic effect. Athletics will develop perseverance, courage, and power to adapt one's self to emergencies. Greece, Home and England present illustration. Uymnastics will develop endurance and faith in one's powers, as witnessed in Germany. Calisthenics, as practised in Sweden and France, will promote grace of mo\ement. No (»ue of them should dispense with the spontaneous exer- cises of the school-yard. Exercises which call into action the gi'eatest number of nniscles are the best. In addition to the ordinary occu- pations of life, there is a variety of connnon forms of exercise. Walking, using the bicycle, riding on horseback, rowing, swimming, skating and j>laying lawn-tennis or football have their respective advantages. They take per- sons into the open air and sunshine, and thus sup{)ly the hmgs with air, enrich the blood, and exercise the muscles. There is danger of ov^er-straining in physical as well as in mental exorcises. Tliis is especially true during the nascent peiiod of each organ. Some exercises of a physical kind, as well as some of an intellectual nature, should not come early in life. "The body docs not grow alike in all directions and at all times. In the first stages of development the lower organs receive tlie most nourishment, and at a later stage tlie hrain and arms. Each organ and each faculty lias a nascent period. When we shall have determined the order of the nascent periods, we shall have a scientific basis for education never before known. The nascent period of the arms comes before that of the wrists and hands. So the child should work with full-arm movements before being 28 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. i I li I expected to make use of the fingers If an organ is exercised much before the period of greatest growth, it is dwarfed and stunted from over- work. If not exercised till after that period, tlie energy develojied goes to waste. If the work comes before that period, tiie organs suffer from over-work ; if after, from under- work."— lic ffer- are onic GEITies. — For the older pupils hardy and vigorous games should be encouraged. Cricket, football, lacrosse and base- })all have long held prominence, in he case of High School students, football has at present most popularity. Even younger boys may engage in this game if they are not allowed to come into collision with those much bigger and stronger than themselves. It is well for the teacher to be freciuently on the play-ground to suggest games, and thus (juietly to select wliat is invigorating and refining. It is no harm to allow girls to " romp " and take abund- ance of outdoor recreation. False views of decorum often debar them from play. Every school-yard should have a portion fenced off for the girls, where they may play ball, lawn tennis, or- other games. More physical vigor, and less music and paintir.j^, would not harm many young women. Gymnastics. — High School and College students need a system of bodily exercises to develop muscular strength, and to promote general physical culture and health. In the employment of the severe gymnastics, regard should be had to the age and physical constitution of the students. Much injury may be done by requiring all the members of a school or class to perform the same exercises. It is doubtful whether, up to the age of entering a High School, pupils need much more than al)undant oj)portunities for the outdoor sports and recreations in whicii their natural activity will prompt them to engage. False views of the purposes of gymnastics are often held. It should be understood that the object is not to turn out athletes, but to promote physical culture. The practice of sending all the members of a class into the gymnasium to engage indiscriminately, and without direction, in any exercises they may choose, is tO be condemned. The building should ff 30 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. . 1 I :|i :rff be properly heated, and fitted up with simple a})pliances of the most approved character, and the regular masters should <^ive j)roper directions regarding the exercises, unless a special instructor is provided. Calisthenics. — This system of physical exercises for girls is based on the same principle as gymnastics for boys. Apparatus may or may not be used. The movements are neither violent nor complicated. Unlike the common active sports of girls, their advantage consists in their systematic regulation, so as to give regular action to the muscles. A great variety of beneficial, graceful and interesting exercises may be performed with such simple instruments as wands, dumb-bells, light-weights, etc. The movements train to promptness, develop grace of body, promote harmony of action among a number of pupils, and break up sluggishness. A judicious use of calisthenic exercises will prevent many nervous ailments to which girls are liable. Care is necessary in their use. When not taken in the open air, the room during winter should be properly heated, and should b(? well lighted, ventilated, and kept free from dust. The dress worn should be light and easy, and the exercises should not be prolonged. Much intellectual exertion must not be expected if the physical system has become jaded and fatigued. The exercises, for neither boys nor girls, should be taken immediately before or after meals. Early in the morning, or near evening, is the })est time for both gymnastics and calisthenics. Military Drill. — Military or Swedish drill may be an efficient substitute for certain gymnastic exercises. It is found to be not only an effective means of giving physical •"•lUnre, but an excellent method of forming habits of uiition, order, subordination, and prompt obedience. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 31 Many a boy with ungainly walk, stooped shoulders, or sluggish movements, may be cured by a few months' practice in drill. The body becomes better set up, the chest is expanded, the shoulders are thrown well back, and the head is kept erect. The step also becomes elastic, jind the limbs are moved with ease and precision. Drill is a method of physical culture that is inexpensive to trustees, and capable of being taken up by any intelli- gent teacher and adapted to the conditicms of all class(vs of pupils. Too often the real purposes of drill arc lost sight of. The main object is to develop the body, and not to foster any ardor for military glory or display. Manual Training. — ^This is a late addition to the curriculum of city schools in some countries The most grotescjue notions are prevalent with many persons as to the object of Manual Training Schools. A boy is not taught a trade but he is taught many principles that underlie all trados, and he ac(juires facility in the use of all the common tools. A Manual Training School affords the students of a large city opportunities which those in the rural districts enjoy. It co-ordinates literature with art, and both with science and mathematics; so that the youth hsarns that no form of honest labor is without its inherent dignity, and that beauty and utility are not necessarily separated from the every-day life of the mechanic. Incidentally, Manual Training Schools furnish physical culture, which, though limited in its scope, is highly valuable to the class of boys that attend these institutions. Schools for girls are also established. REFERENCES. McLaren. — Physical Education. Morrison. — The Vcntihition and Warming of School J'uildings. /farm.— Report for 1891-92, Chapter XIIL Marble. — Sanitary Conditions of Schoulhouses, CHAPTER III. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. \w ' The Chief Work of the School.— The main busi- ness of the school is the intellectual development of the pupils. This statement does not mean that a liigher object than growth in intelligence is not the end of education. In the formation of human character, it may be assumed that the proper order of mental faculties is (1) Will ; (2) Sensibility ; (3) Intellect. It is true, neverthe- less, that the reflex action of sound intellectual culture is the principal means by which the propensities and tastes of an individual are ennobled, and his moral sense strengthened. Self-exertion is, in most respects, the only instrumentality that secures culture. None of the faculties can be developed except by exercise, and no exercise is to be commended that is not directed by intelligence. Hence the need of guiding children until they have ac(juired sulHcient knowledge to direct their exercise themselves. The school furnishes the best means of enabling children to accjuire that knowledge by which their mental and bodily powers may be intelligently directed and improved. The Acquisition of Knowledge. — Intellectual development is mainly secured by the proper acquisition of knowledge. This implies that the teacher should possess the necessary knowledge, and have the ability to impart it aright. If reading, writing and arithmetic are considered in their possible applications, it is evident their acquisition INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 33 may be regarded as the basis of school education. They furnish that elementary knowledge which is to serve as food for present mental and mt)ral growth, and as a found- ation and starting point for future acquisitions. If viewed as instruments of learning, it is clear the child needs real knowledge to fit him to discharge intelligently the duties of life. He must acr a lesson must be removed. Satisfactory attention demands that there be no antagonism l)et\veen teacher and pu})il. Vvav is oppo.sed to intei'cst. Instruction, to 1m; educative, must keep in view the chief aim of teaching. Knowledge must be regarded oidy as an instrument. In giving instruction, the teacher nmst deliberately ask if the information imparted fits into the harmonious development of th(> child's [)ow«;rs. The whole future of the child must be considered (Chapt(;r VI.), Observation.— Before entering school, children have ac([uired many id(;as from their environments. Their powers of observation have already received considei-able developnuuit. Their senses have been cultivated. They have formed impressions. Their powers of perception lead to the reproduction of simple ideas, to sim[)le general- ization and to simple abstraction. Conceptionj or the faculty by which the j)roducts ()f perception are groupwl, supplies them with a variety of materials for thought. It is evident, therefore, that young children should be furnished with plenty of objects on which to exercise the senses. Ideas and words should go together. Instead of the T ■■p I 3G S(niOOL M AX A( JEMENT. : I! 'f maxiin, '* Tliinj,'s Ijofoni words," the in-inoiplc to bo fol- lowed is, " Tliin<;M and words." Sound tcat'liiiif^ calls for tho dir(!ct |)i-o<^r('ss fi-oni ideas to wonis, and also the converse; process which conies from ^oing back to thin^^s from words. It is clear that the instruction j,'iven to pupils during the first years of school lif(; should be mainly from their surroundings. Elenusntary sci(!nc(! should have; a })lace in the course, for the purpose of d(;v(;loping and training the senses and cremating tlu; habit of observation. The eye learns tt) see by seeing, tin; ear l.'arns to hear by hearing, and in like manner the other senses are trained. The maxim of Comenius is true, '* L(;t things that have to be don(; be learned by doing them." Children must be directed so that they may learn to observe with order, regularity, accui-acy and rapidity. It is not so much what is ac(|uired that is valuable, as the habit of o})servation accjuired. The child, properly trained, gains knowledge with little expenditure of time or labor, and with constant pleasure. The powers of observation are extended to facts of geography, history, drawing and a variety of subjects besides natural phenomena. Observation goes on with the development of memory, imagination and reason. Attention.* — The power of continuous attention is the most valuable result of intellectujii training. Ability to fix t he mind upon that which is brought before it shows a high degree of mental develoi-m.^nt. The aim of the teacher should be to instil such habits of self-control as will train his pupils to direct at will their own intellectual *C(>nsult on the subject of Affeiitlon, "Applied Psychology," McLellan, page 50, and " Outlines of Psychology," Sully, chapter iv. /o . . , . . ' M'iv '\ I tX. t L I iMTKLT.KOTrAI. DKVKLOI'MENT. n7 the iUU uctivitit's. I*»)W(M- to iiitxpect a 3'oun<; pupil to he al)le to fix his mind loni^ on one subject. It is a <^rav(^ wron;^ to scold a child foi* not doinj,' that which is heyond !iis streni(th. Lik«! other pow(»rH both of body and mind, att(Mition j.jrows in stieni^tli and \ ivacity by i)eiii<^ fie(|uently exercised. Pupils are not all interestetl alik(!. Skill is net'ded t<) hit upon (h^vices that will keep a number of i;hildren steadily active in one direction for n lon' youtli are those wliicli nations have produced in the childhood of their culture. These works l)ring children face to face with the picture of the world whicli the human mind has sketched for itself in one of the necessary stages of its development. Th is the real reason wiiy our children never weary of reading HoK.er and the stories of the Old Testament."' — Ixo.-^iiikrair:. Memory. — The power of reproduction is an important ac(|uisition. Ability to retain and recall the ideas jwe^ have form ed is a valuable fi^iture of intellectual develop- ment. Without memory the fruits of conception and INTELLECTUAL DEVELoi'MEXT. S9 imagination would go to waste. Tlic memory i.s eflicient according to the accuracy with wliich it retains ideas, and the promptness with which it produces tliem when re(juired. A good memoiy will exhibit fidelity, tenacity and readiness. Ability to retain and reproduce impressi in propoi'tion to the strength and vivacity with which it is first made. It follows that for the pui'posc of fixing an inn)i"ession, a real object is bett(M- than any pictui-(» of it, and that a picture of it is bettei- than a mere verbal description. Direct sensations, concentrated attention and frequent repetition, develo}) the power of repi'oduction. It should be under- stood that forgetful ness is not necessarily a sign of care- lessness ; but i-ather an indication tliat the impression formed is weak and that repetition is retjuired. " A cousiilerahle element in the ml of tciicliing i.s skill in ])ntting (piostions to eliildfen so iis to exercise their [)o\vei' of reealling ami leprotliu'ing what tiiey have learnt. It is only hy freijuent going hack that the meaning or content of verhal knowledge is preserved fresh. In ordei' to test the kiiowli'dge of things, the teacher must eall on the \n\\r\\ to give out wliaL he has learnt in his own words. Hy sueh skilfid (|uestioning he will find out how far the leai'ner lia.s seizeil aiul retained the dislinetive features of the siihjeet matter attended to, so as to keep iiia mental images clear ami distinct." — Snlhj. I I ., 40 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. A pupil must acquire much on faith, but it is irrational to insist upon committing to memory words, rules and formuhe without connecting with them some intelligent apprehension of their meaning. Memorizing which calls forth no exercise of the pupil's conceptive power, no exercise of the imagination, or no cultivation of the reasoning faculties, is not to be defended. Memorizing, or "learning by heart," in order to produce a show of knowledge, should be condemned. Children must, how- ever, commit to memory many things they do not rightly understand. With the young, memory is strong and logical perception weak. " It sounds Very fascinating to talk about luiderstanding every- thing, learning everything thoroughly, and all those broad ])hrases, which plump down on a difHculty, and hide it. Put in practice, they are about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he does not go into the water until he ('an swim." — Thrluij, Lang^uage Training. — Training in language and in ideas should go on concurrently, The lialnt of giving what are called " language lessons " is liable to much abuse. There is no necessity of any aitificial plan to help the child to give expressions for his perceptions. The ordinary conversations will suftice. An attempt to force the development of speech may lead to vain and thoughtless garrulity, or to the production of eri'oneous impressions. The school is concerned in the correction of the bad habits of speaking that may l)e formed in early childhood, and in that development of language which comes from knowledg(^ and the necessary associatioji of words and ideas. There is considerabh^ diversity of opinion regarding the best methods of teaching grannnar, composition, read- ing and other sul)ji'cts that give exercise to the language l! INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 41 in jige faculties. It is clear that from the inseparable connec- tion between words and conceptions, every subject of the curriculum should be used to some extent for purposes of laniruajre training. It therefore follows that the teachers of mathematics, science, etc., are responsible, along with the teacher of English, for perfecting the pupil in his ver- nacular langu.age. Ability to use the English language well shows a high stage of mental development. The power to express valu- aljle thoughts in choice composition comes from the best kind of intellectual training. Perhaps there is no better test of sound scholarship and of a well-cultivated mind than the reproduction in writing of what a person lias studied, considered or investigated. The Reasoning Faculties— The prevalence of error and the force of prejudices show the need of training in that which will enable one to form correct opinions. Children should be taught at an early age to check selfish motives, to search f<»r true principles of action, and to exercise due caution in restraining their emotions. The child soon learns to observe with exactness, to com- pare readily, t(j tracer analogies, to d«'tect differences, and to come to simple decisions. Gradually the cultivation of the judgment may be extended to matters that are complex and abstract, and moral questions may receive consideration. An attempt at sustained argument is out of place in elementary cln ,ses. To some (extent, however, th(>r(> may be a begij-.iing in formal demonstration iM^fore Euclid is taken up. The gi'eat ditficuity wliich some children (Experience in mathematics is due partly to haste, and partly to an entire neglect of any preliminary training of the reasoning faculties. Al)ility to rtiason well is not I! J li ' f ( , i 42 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. possessed by many. It implies good thinking, and good thinking is not to be expected without wide culture. While it is a mistake to expect a high development of the reas(ming faculties from every student, it is also a mistake to suppose that any child can be made intellectually o" morally strong if denied the aid that comes from those subjects that are known to be valuable for this purpose. Childi-en need to be warned against hasty induction, against taking a mere accidental circumstance for a condi- tion or cause. They should also be directed to draw conclusions from principles, and cautioned against making wrong deductions. rkkkrkx(;ks. MtLillau. — Aj)|)lirs II. -X. /Idlilirln.- VAv\nv]\[avy I'sycholooy of Ivhu'iition. (iordy. — Lessons in Psychology. Laurie. — Institutes of Kducation, Leeture XI. Cot)ipai/r(^. — Leetui'es on Pedagogy. Prci/ir. The Development of the Intellect. Kni/. Memory. J'li i/t r. — -The Senses and the Will. Priiicr. — Mental Development in the Ciiild. /V,v,-.— The First 'l'hre(> Years of (."hildhood. lialilniii., J. .]/. — Mental l)eveloi)ment. Piif)ia)ii. Pedagogies, Chapters IV. V III. /'(ill. — Outlines of Kdncative Instruction. Di in I/. Psychology. (iiiyau. — Kdueation and Heredity. ffdllir/:. Psvehologv and I'svehic Culture. s tl I CHAPTER IV. THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. The Problem that is Presented.— The <,nejit im- portance of moral training as a department of education, and the gc^nerally accepted opinion that morality must rest on a religious basis (See duties of teachers in Appendix), have given rise to mucli discussion regarding the place of religion in the Public School. The consideration of the (juestion cannot be overlooked in a work on School Management. Among those who discuss the duties of the teacher i(>garding religion, thei'(^ is much difference of opinion. Then; is a sense in which religion cannot be taught in the Public School without presenting veiy serious pi'actical dirticulties. If children re(|uire such religious teaching as will induct; them to believe that the acceptance of the special doctrines of their Church is a Christian duty, oi- that the interpi-etation of the P>ible as given by their denomination is the oidy sound one, it is clear that religious instruction cannot in a mixed community become j>ai-t of the school programme. There is another sense in which religion may be giv«ui a place that will meet with general api)roval. If religion is mainly sonu'thing that should be observed in all the actioiis of life, it is hard to see how it can be excluded from the school, the farm, the shop, the olHce, ajid the legi.^lative halls. The practical problem, so often discussed, is wlu ther religion may be taught in such a way as to meet with the r* ■ji ■ ■ . I I T m P <;! 44 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. approval of different denominations. The pedaarogical problem — the solution of which has a prior claim for con- sideration — is whether the teacher must give religious instruction in order to make moral training effective. Unfortunately many persons have too often ignoi-ed the the solution which educationists give to the pedagogical problem, and by assuming that the one who ti-ains in grannnar and in morals must also train in dogma, liave given rise to animosities which have promoted neither charity nor any other Cln-istian virtuj;. " iC science of education and the judgment of the ablest teachers slior.h- fford the best means of ascertaining the proper »)1; r sligion in school. If it once can be established thai instruction in religion and training in morality mus' he coml)ined by the teacher, there can be no justification, upari fron expediency, for undenom- inational schools. No nation can ignore the ethical training of the young. iNForality must l)e taught in school even should national education be abandoned and sectarian schools restored. On the (piestion of the place of religi(tn in school, three views are advocated by different classes : 1. Secular Schools. — One class of persons oppose the use of any kind of religious exercises. They base their objections generally on the question of expediency. They hold that denominational differences render it impossible to give religion a j)lace in the school without stepping on the dangerous ground of sectarianism. For the purpose of avoiding strife, and with the object of providing an etlucational system acceptable to all classes, they favor schools that are purely secular. They assume, that if all exercises of a religious character are dropped, no sectarian dilhculties will arise, and that a position of neutrality is the THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 45 ((Illy safe one to be taken by a State witli a mixed popu- lation. It should be mentioned that the term " secular " is used with considerable indefiniteness. Witli some it means merely the absence of religious instruction, and with others a neutral attitude on the value of religion. A system of s(>cular schools that leaves the value of religion an open question, cannot settle the dithculty. It will not )neet the wishes of those who believe that religious instruction should form part of the daily work of the school. It will not satisfy those who hold that religious motives are essential to moral training. liesides, if diffi- culties present themselves to the teacher, they will not be removed by any compromise of this kind. To abolish religious exercises does not prevent, and cannot prevent, the ref(nence to religion that comes up in giving effective instruction in literature, in history, and in science. To exclude religion from the school is impossible. A few persons of this class are not friends of religion in any form, and object to the use of any incentives in moral tiaining that are based on principles to which they di) not subscribe. A position neither for nor against religion is what they maintain should be taken by the teacher. It is evident, however, that a neutral attitude is practically impossible. No neutral ground on the (juestion of religion will be received with favor by any Christian body. Tli(> so- called neutral position would be a surrender. E\'ery class of citizens should, doubtless, receive reasonable considera- tion, but concessions should not take the form of capitula- tion. Freedom of the State from Church control is now generally accepted as an axiom of go\ eminent. The acceptance of this principle does iiot, however, call for the abolition of all laws founded on Christianity, or the removal of any references to the Deity from school l)ooks 1 ^PT 46 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. in order to satisfy, if possible, some one who says in his heart there is no God. It sliould be recollected that agnostic writers of eminence have never denied the value of religion in ethical training. Herbert Spencer recognizes the importance of Christianity as a moral force, and the late Professor Huxley advocated the use of the Bible in school. As a people we are a Christian nation, and while the conscientious convictions of all classes should be respected, it will be unsafe to pander to that element which has done harm to civilized nations, and which is certainly not made up of those who are most active in the community in preserving law and order, and in uistaining those institutions that have for their object the improve- ment of the race. The man of intelligence and uprightness, even though his religious opinions are far from what would be: considered orthodox, never objects to the forma- tion of character on Christian principles. That very small minority which is made up of those who scoff at religion and have no respect for Christian ministers should not dictate to the majority. •2. Denominational Schools. — A second class of persons assume (juite an opposite attitude, and maintain that religious instruction should form an integral part of school work. They believe that morality cannot be taught effectively unless lessons in religion are given in the school. They hold that the Church should have due recognition in the course of study prescribed, and contend, with more or less definiteness, that instruction in the IJible, in the catechism, or in the dogmas of the Church, nmst have a place in the progrannne. It must be admitted that persons maintaining these views can appeal to the general acceptance of such opinions for centui'ies. It nmst also be conceded that THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 47 of tain part be m in due iend, the hese such that J? every Cliristian nation of Europe has attained its present educational status under a system larij;ely of this kind. The Pubhc School is the gift of Christianity to the race. Its primary function was to impart religious instruction. With the estal)lishment of absolute religious freedom and the multiplication of sects, it lost the distinctive characteristics it had received from the Cimrch. By the diffusion of intelligence among the masses there has resulted an increased development of tlie intellectual element. It has ac6)rdingly been urged that any lessening of the influence of the Churcli on the original purposes of the school will endanger morality. It has been further contended that any sound instruction in moral duties must be based on definite denominational princij)les, and that authorized religious views are essential as a guide to conduct. Opinions of tliis kind })revail among some of the most intelligent members of the conununity. Separate or parochial schools, and denominational colleges, have be(m preferred by many people. Unanimity I'egarding the comparative merits of national and f pedagogy, and not in that of theology or politics. What the schools need to promote better moral training is not more religious exercises, but better teaching. It is not an addition to the school programme that is wanted, but greater skill in taking up the branches already found in the curriculum. Better (|ualified teachers will secure better discipline, and good discipline means good moral training (Chapter V). The well qualified teacher will use with intelligent discrimination, motives to right action in such a way as to form good habits in his pui)ils, and to promote in them, as a consecjuence, that line of conduct which is the result of habitual efforts to do right. What the teacher is called upon to do is not to give lessons in the common doctrines of religion, but to use religious sanctions as school incentives at such times, and only at such times, as sound discipline will wjtrrant. A good teacher will rarely bring to his aid the highest class of incentives (Chapter IX). Neither the parent nor the teacher will find it prudent to use, without extreme care, motives of a religious character in order to induce children to do right. > THE PLACE OF RELIGION 1^ SCHOOL. 65 hi IS line t " Yet there is danger in associating the influences of religion too closely with the routine work of the scliool ; it is at least as probable that the former will thereby be brought down to the level of the latter, as that the latter shall be raised to the level of the former. There are strong reasons why religious motives should not be used as ordinary means of discipline. On the one hand the influence of the religious sentiment as a practical principle of con- duct, to overrule the many more palpable motives which jjresent themselves to children, and particularly to children at school, is, even in the most favorable circumstances, seldom so great as to be relied on. . . . As for the habit which some indulge in, of aj)pealing in a routine way to such motives in connection with the incidental faults of childhood, nothing is more to be reprobated ; its folly is only eijualled by its criminality.'" — Currie. The Duty of the Church. — The parent is respon- sible for the training of his cliikhen ; but wh.itever education of a religious natur<; he is not competent to give then:, should be undertaken by the clergy or the authorized representatives of the Church. If the Sunday School and other agencies of the Church are not sutticient to provide religious instruction, the denominations con- cerned should either separately or unitedly supplement their ordinary functions. In most communities the machinery of each religious body performs its work without any call for aid from the school authorities. In some towns and cities the trustees have placed the schools at the disposal of the Churches for giving to the pupils on certain days instruction of a religious nature. There is no reason why school hours might not be set apart for this purpose. In a Roman Catholic community, for instance, it would be (juite consistent with the position hen^ taken for the authorities of that Church to give religious instruction at stated hours to children of its faith. In Protestant communities, each denomination ntight adopt a similar plan, or two or more denominations might unite 11 i.: 56 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. in the work of religious training, with excellent results. In some localities, both Protestants and Roman Cath- olics have shown such liberality as to unite in securing suitable addresses from the clergy of the different denominations represented. A method of this kind adds to the value of those religious sanctions which every good teacher employs, and surrounds the work of the school with an interest helpful to education as well as to religion. It sets at rest the cry for religious teaching in the school, and gives more definiteness to the respon- sibilities of the Church, the home and the school. It makes no departure of a reactionary kind from the principle of non-sectarian education, l)ut calls for the full utilization of the respective functions of teacher, parent and clergyman. It gives freedom to each Church, each locality and each parent, and adds no additional responsi- bility to the teacher, or relieves him in any way from the obligation of discharging those duties for which he has been trained. (See Sec. 7 of Statute in Appendix). Devotional Hxercises. — Devotional exercises have had a place in the daily programmes of most schools. Unless there are special reasons to the contrary, it is best to hold them at the beginning of the day's work, when the teacher is free from the worries of the school and when reverence and solemnity are most easily secured among the pupils. Generally the reading of a short passage from Scripture selections, recommended for the purpose, and the use of a short prayer, constitute all that is necessary. A song of praise or thanksgiving may be added with advantage in elementary classes. The object is not to impart religious instruction (as the Bible lessons should be read without comment), but to recognize the obligation to God of both teacher and pupils, and to W fi THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 57 awaken and deepen religious emotions, as well as to afford a suitable preparation for the sacred nature of school duties. Freedom should be given trustees to meet, within reasonable limits, the prevailing religious sentiment of the locality ; and the conscientious scruples of parents should be guarded Experience has shown that where a spirit of religious toleration and patriotism influences school author- ities, no difficulty will arise in connection \yith exercises of this kind. If they are conducted in a perfunctory manner, or are attended with any partisan feeling, no good will result. If the Bible or the form of prayer is not read in a reverent manner, it is clear incompetence marks the teacher as unfit for his calling. Fortunately the day of immoral or irreligious teaching is past, and few teachers are now found who fail to recognize the sacred nature of the usual devotional exercises. The age of wrangling over trifling denominational differences is, it is hoped, also over, and broader views of Christian duty have promoted more charitable feelings among neighbors holding different religious senti- ments. Teachers of ability and experience will readily testify to the value of devotional exercises, as a means of strengthening the moral convictions of the pupils, and of sustaining the discipline of the school. Persons who see no good in such exercises have probal)ly in mind the defective qualifications of many teachers a generation ago, and the contentions in some localities, where partisan animosity and sectarian bitterness predominated, rather than Christian zeal and Christian liberality. It would certainly bode ill for that Churcii unity for which many work and pray, if on the educational field of battle a united front cannot be presented against the counnon enemy — ignorance and crime. i Id ;i \\ it I Ri i\ i . Ill L. CHAPTER V. MORAL TRAINING. The Need of Moral Education. -The highest aim of education is the formation of character. Sound ethical training, no doubt, calls for the due cultivation of the intellectual and physical faculties, as well as the develop- ment of the emotional nature. Mere physical and intellectual power may, however, do ht'irm if achieved regardless of moral training. Morality is essential to the welfare of the State. History affords numerous illustra- tions of the disastrous results that follow when the intellect is sharpened, but the moral nature neglected. The rapid growth of knowledge among the community, and the increased power which intellectual attainments give, render the (jut^stion of national ethics more and more pressing on public attention. The extension of commerce, the growth of industries, the spread of democratic institu- tions, and the dependence of individuals and connnunities upon one another, make it imperative that principles of righteousness should form an essential part of every child's education. The numerous opportunities presented to per- sons of sharp intelligence for the sudden acquisition of wealth, the facilities for gaining political power, and the temptations to which j'oung men of mere shrewdness are exposed, show that if training in right action is ignored in a system of popular educati<»»i, ruin may come to the State in spite of our much-valuccl civilization. The money value ! MORAL TRAINING. 5d of mere sharpness is strikingly apparent, and the intense passion for gain is noticeable on every side. The rapid growth of cities has, no doubt, increased the efforts to do good, but it has also stimulated the worst forces of the times. The altered relations of the working-classes to other sections of ihe comnmnity, have created serious social disturbances. The rapidity with which intellectual power has supplanted physical force, has given the man <»f brains extraordinary influence amtjng his fellows, and has made the outlook, though on the whole encouraging, yet in many respects alarming. Every day brings its disclosures of untruthfulness, dishonesty and corruption. Intemperance and profanity are prevalent ; defaulters and gamblers exist; and scandals in public life are not unknown. It is idle in the face of crimes brought to the public gaze by means of the press, and in view of what the courts reveal, to deny the urgent need of training in morality. The changed conditions of our day demand that ethical instruction should be given by the school, as well as by the home and the Church. The time has gone by when the family could suthce for its own needs either commercially or educationally. The separation of Church and State has rendered it necessary for the latter to discharge some of the functions at one time assumed by the former. The responsibility of the parent is still the same, and the vitalizing ottice of the Church is no less essential than formerly; but more than ever the ordinary citizen is accustomed to look to the school as the great agency of modern times for effective assistance in the moral, as well as in the intellectual, development of his children. Unjust Charges. — Admitting the prevalence of evils which perplex, but which should not discourage society, i \ I ■5 if I It j^i, ! !Iaced under his care. He can hide nothing from the child's power of intuition. Whatever the teacher is becomes immortal through the souls of his pupils. Of all lessons, the best is the living lesson. Example is always better than precept. The Christian teacher will not hide his light. Tf placed in charge of a school, it matters little to what Church he adheres. No need for him to give lessons in the Bible, creed or catechism ; he is the real text-book. If he has formed his kinship with the Divine, and has recognized the source of the highest inspiration for his duties, he will be a living epistle, known and read of all. The life of the teacher outside of school must be in keeping with the moral principles he tries to inculcate. It is idle for him to expect his pupils to profit by his moral instruction, if truthfulness, honesty, temperance, prudence and diligence, are not characteristics by which he is km)wn to the community. Dr. Arnold, in writing of the qualifica- tions desirable in . teacher, said, " The (jualifications which I deem essential to the due performance of a master's duties here may, in brief, be expressed as the spirit of a Christian and a gentleman. . . . He should study things ' lovely and of good report ; ' that is, he should be public spirited, liberal, and enter heartily into the interests, honor, and PI 64 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. i Wl VI .1 I j^eneral respectability aiul distinction of the society which lie has joined." " Tlio. pursoimlity of the liciuhimster is everything. Tt is the ultimate source of power in the .scliool, the central organ which sends out its life-giving currents through tlie wiiole organism. And let nie here add that, if I am in favor of excluding direct ndigious teaching from our schools, I am not in favor of excluding religious influeiK-e. That, too, flows from the personality of the true master. For if he he reverent, a truly pious soul, hunihle in his estimate of self, not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account, Imt using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends, he will he sure to communicate of his spiiit to his pupils, and by that spirit will open their hearts, better than hy any doctrinal teaciiing he could give, to the reception of the highest spiritual truths." — Adifr. " As Milton would have the poet himself a poem, so the excellent teacher of morals will he morality incarnate ; showing forth its goapel as well as its law in the daily exhibition of sweetness and light, he will be ' not virtuous, but virtue ' itself ! How difficult, l)ut how necessary, is such a preparation of tiie lieart and will in a well-rounded instructor of ciiildreu or of men, one does not need to reiterate to the teacher who has found his true vocation." — Gi/maii. ! . " Not the most el()t|Uent exhortations to the erring and dis- obedient, tiiough they be in the tongues of men or of angels, can move mightily upon 3'our st;holars" lesolutions till the nameless, unconscious, but infallible pressure of a consecrated, earnest heart lifts its holy light into your eyes, hallows your temper, breatlies its pleay rote the rules and distinctions of a formal moralitv. On the contrarv, I can imagine few studies more dry, repulsivt and ineffectual in read ing their proposed aim than such a stuily of morals ! In the highest degree it is true of instruction in this art of life that it shouhl come on the progiamme. The force of a moral precept dep(Mids almost entin^ly upon its adaptation to the time and ciicumstances. When the minds of children are open for the rece{)tion of the special truth, the good seed may be sown. With young pupils occasions of this kind v/ill often occur, and short — very short — moral lessons may then be appropriate. 1:1^ MORAL TllAINlXCJ. 71 " Your Coinniitteo would mention, in this connection, instruction in morals and inanneis, whicii ought to he given in a l»rief series of lessons eaoli year with a view to huild up in tlie mind a theory of tile conventionalities of polite and pure-ndnded society. If these lessons are made too long or too numerous, they are apt to l)ec()me oH'ensive to the cinld's nund. It is, f)f course, understood by your committee that the sul)stantial moral training of tlio scliool is performed by tiie iliscipline ratiierthan by the instruction in ethical theory. The cluld is trained to Ijc regular and punctual, ami to restrain his desire to talk and whisper— in these things gaining self-control day by daj'. The essence of moral behavior is self- control. The school teaclies good behavior. The intercourse of a pupil with his fellows witiiout evil words or violent actions i^ insisted on and secured. The high moral (jualities of trutii-telliug and sinceritv are taugiit in everv class exercise tiiat lavs stress on accuracy of statement "' — lii i>urt of ('oimniltx nf Fi//< ni, l)i\ W. 7'. Harris, Oiairnmn. Ineidentiil instruction in morals calls f<»i' hii^h (jualifica- tions on the part of tlie tcaclior. Wide seholarshi}), pro- fessional traininij, and the skill that is gained hy experi- ence, are inij)ortant re<|tiisit(;s (Chapter VIl.). In no pai't of his aled in the })ages t)f history, the contests for righteousness waged through the centuiies, and the triumphs of tiutJi and justice, may, if propei'ly taught, impress children with an admiration for what is moial in all that contributes to human or nati(jnal greatness. The stud}' of mathematics is vi'jy valuable in devel<)ping habits of accuracy, and in showing the advantage of settled and permanent jjrinciples of conduct and procedure. Arithmetic gives vigor, freedom, aiul ch^ai'ness to the mind, helps to bring the faculties under contiol, and puts a pupil continualh' on the alei't. Its value in the cultiva tion of tlie logical faculty is well known to every experienceil t(;achei'. The study of matheniatics is pr(>- eminent in training tiu^ nnnd to the habit of forming clear and detinite conceptions, and of ch)thing these conceptions in exact and perspicuous language. Kuclid is particularly valuable in this I'espect. The study of mathematics develops the power of upholding what is ti-ue, and of exposing what is false. The disciplinary measur(!s necessary in teaching this depaitment promote habits I '1 i' I r ■■ 1 ii' > ;;, 1 1» 1 1 '■- m \ ' I -I 74 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. of accuracy, lionesty, independenco, perseverance, quick- ness of perception, and powers of deduction. Natural science claims a place in the school not exclusively, as some suppose, on account of its utilitarian objects. It has a high ethical value in the unfolding of principles which have for their basis order and the investi- gation of law. The student of elementary science is led to weigh evidence carefully, to connect facts, to determine the natural sequence of events, to make simple experiments and to draw conclusions. The study of science cultivates the spirit of thoroughness, the faculty of perseverance, habits of self-reliance, patience in the presence of dithculty, and absolute loyalty to truth. Under the guidance and inspiration of a competent teacher, the laws of design and adaptation, which the study of natuie reveals, will implant in the minds of children that reverence for the Creator which lies at the basis of religion. The student who looks into the my teries of physical phenomena, who observes the beauty and ^randeur of the world about him, who counts the pulse-beats and watches the ebb and How of respiration in the human frame, is led to realize the tender solicitude which is exercised by a Power not visible to mortal eyes. IN it. 'If" RKFKRENCKS. Porter. — Eleiiionts of Moral Science, Part II. ' lioiriic. — Introduction to the Study of Etliics. Atlhr. — Moral Instruction of ("hildrcn. ILrlxirt. — A Text-l)ook on I'svchology. ll'/uVr. School Management, pages 2!H-.'{09. (Vilman and Jackson. — (Conduct as a Fine Art. Sulhj. — The Teacheis* Hand-J»o(»k of Psychology, Cliaptev XX. (Also various papers puhlished in the juoccedings of the Ontario Educational Association and in those of the N. E. A. of the U. S. A.) .V V ^•4 CHAPTER VI. CHARACTER lUTILDING. The End of Education.— The fonnation of character is the end to he sought in all the efforts of the teacher. The educated person is one; who possesses mental and physical power, systematized knowknlge, intellectual skill, pure and elevated tastes, and rirk of the teacher, lit; is successful as a character huildei* if he so iniluences those placed under his care that, wIumi they enter upon the activities of life, they will follow with persistence what is reasonable, just, and virtuous. Periods of Development A child inlnnits from his parents a physical constitution and a wide range of aptitudes. liis natuj-e is extremely plastic, and therefore it is possible to lessen constitutional weaknesses, and to devtilop elevating powers and tendencies. It is the duty of the parent to supply whatever is needed to promote j)roper j)hysical and mental growth. In the formation of character, many tastes must be cultivated, the feelings must be controllcMJ, the habits must be; formed, and the will must b(! strengtheneid. As soon as the child is admitted to school, new activities aie aroused, new tastes are developed, and new habits are created. It will at once devolve upon the teacher to strengthen, check, create or destroy tendencies, tastes and habits. F6r this purjiose there is needed discretion in the use of that stimulus, incentive or punishment which the conditions require. The ultimate aim should be to subordinate the physical and intellectual luiture to the control of conscience and will. Systematized Knowledge.— In the process of charac- ter building, knowledge plays an important part. Ct)nduct that is not based on intelligence has little to commend it. The man of character is continually adding to his stock of knowledge. Where there is no intellectual growth there is no moral growth. The highest type of character demamls systematized knowledge, and the acquisition of km)wledge ■ i ■ir^--: CHAHACTEU BriLDIXCJ. 77 is ;iii (tbjoct to \tv sou^^ht in improvinf,' the moi'ul iiuture. Iiit'oi'iiwitioii ;{;iiiH>(l slioulil not depend u])<)ii the nieniory. It follows that "ciiiinniin^," (Cliapter III.) as fxipuhirly understood, has no place in intelN'etual devch)pinent, and therefore has no us«^ in the formation of eharacter. Kno\\l(Mlj,'e whicli is systematized is seientitie in its nature; and, as a consecjUtMU'e, can be traced to th(*