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D., LATE FBOFESSOB OF r ^NQUAGES 15 THB ALBANY ACADEMY, AND AT7TH03 OF THS SEBIES OF GBAUMABB, GBSEK, LAT .N, AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAMS PLAV, XTC. EIGHTEENTH EDITION. MONTREAL : ROBERT MILLER. 1865. x^' PE III! \ » . *> t tEEPA CE. Tnis work is prepared on a more extended plan than the ** Principles of English Grammar," and is intended to occupy a higher place in the ** Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan." Since that work was first publtehed, a greater interest has been taken in the subject of education generally than for a long period before. Difler- ence of opinion, on various subjects, has led to discucsion — discnssicn to investigation — and investigation to the discovery and establishment of truth. As a consequence of this, that which was sound and stable before has been confirmed— many points that were doubtful have been settled- new and improved methods of investigating subjects, and of imparting instrnction, have been adopted — and the whole subject of "education, in both Iheory and practice, has been advanced much beyond what it was at any former peridd. In this onward progress, the subject of English grammar has not been left behind. Teachers in both higher and lower seminaries have given it their attention-^authorities have been compared — original investigations hare been made— views have been interchanged, privately and through the press — all resulting in the advancement of this branch of study. The subject of Analysis, wholly omitted in the former work, if here introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with its importance. Many questions od disputed points have been examined with much care ; and something, it is hoped, has been done to oontribnte to their settlement ; and when this required more space than was proper to be taken up in the body of the work, the discussion has been thrown ihto the Appendix. A much'greater variety of exercises has been Intro- duced at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the inductive kind, has beet: annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the learner may be trained to think and reason on the subject, and prepared to profit more by the exercises that follow. By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the para* graphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient, and is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable. The Syntax is much fuller than in the former work ; and though the nlles Are not diffSerent, they are arranged in a di£Ferent order^ so that all that hfloDgs to one rabjeot i» collected under one head, instead of htktg » It PBE7A02. B<»tt6red in difTerent places; and the proper Hubordioation of parte is exhibited in a aeries of Bubordinate rules, wherever it was Decessary. In this way the whole is rendered more compact — the number of leading rules is reduced — and the unity of each subject is better preserved. In the rules and definitions througliout, accuracy, brevity, euphony, and adaptation to the practical operations of the schoolroom, have been particularly attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced ; at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an improve' ment, it ha3 been made. It was felt that a work on this subject, of a higher grade, and more suited to the wants of higher seminaries, and more advanced students, without detracting from its simplicity and prac< lieal character, was wanted, and the aim has been to supply this want; . whilo, at the same time, its relation to the series of whidi it is intended to form a part, has not otdy been preserved, but rendered more close anbook for academies and schools fitted to relieve both teachers and ^. their pupils from much unneccis^ry .laj^r and waste .oltime.i^IUKiie^uting ; ibis brAQcb ;of learning. f INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. GSAMHAB, Dofliiition and Division of ^ Paos P PAKT I.— OBTnOOBAPnT. Letters, Division and Power of ; 10 Syllable* « 12 Spelling, Rules for 13-16 Capitals, Use of. IC PABT XI.— ETTMOLOOT. Words, General Divisions of 17 Parsing of 18 Parts of Speech 18 Nouns, Definition and Division of 1» Observations on, and Kinds of 19 Accidents of 20 Person of— Obsg-vatlon on 21 Gender of 22 Observations on ^ 23 Exercises on 24 Nnmbcr, Definition of 26 Plural, Rules for 26 Irregular 26 Observations on 29 Exercises on 26, 20 Case of. General Rules for 31,82 Nominative, Use of. 82 Construction of 168,164, 166,170 Possessive, Use of— how formed 82 Observations on 82 Construction of 181 Objective, Use of 82 Governed by Active Transitive Verbs 171 Prepositions 174 Without a governing Word 17* Declension of.. 82 Parsing of, ond Oral Exercises on 84 Exercises on 85 Article. Parsing of, and Exercises on 86,37 Construction of 164 Adjectives, Definition and Division of, 38 Numeral, Cla&^es of 39 Comparison of 39 Rules for ....?.. 40 Irregular 41 Not compared ..».»:..».« » 42 Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on 42,43 Exercises on 44 Construction of. 149 CONTJBNTS. !'!.> Pbohours, Definition and Dlvinion of Paob 45 Personal, •implp, Declension of 4A, 46 Obsorvatlona on 46 Compound 48 Parsing of, and Oral Exorcises on 49 Excrrisen on 40 Construction of 108 R4>]Rtivo, Declension and Use of 60-C2 Compound *.. 32 ParsiuK of, and Exorcises on 63, S4 Construction of 101 Interrogative and Responsive of 54 Parsing of, and Exercises on 65 Adjective, Deflnltion and Division of 55, 50 Possessive of 60 Distributive of 07 Demonstrative of 57 Indefinite of - 67 ParsiuR of, and Exercises on f. OS, 59 Construction of. 142 Vbbbs, Definition of 60 Transitive and Intransitive 00 Oral and other Exercises on , 61 Division of C3 Auxiliary, Use of-" Shall." " Will," Ac 62, 03, 64, 63 Exercises on 66 Anomalous Use of 60 Inflection of. Accidents of 67 Voice, Active 67 Passive 67 Moods, Division of 69 Indicative 69 Potential 70 Subjunctive 70 i Construction of 185 Imperative 71 Inftnitivd 71 CoDstnicMon of 186-188 Tenses, Division of 72 Of the Indicative Mood....« 72, 74 Of the Potential Mood 76 Of the Subjunctive Mood 75-76 Of the Imperative Mood 77 Of the Infinitive Mood 77 Constniction of 180 Connection of. 198 Participles, Division of 78 in i«^ in a passive sense „ 78 as a Verbal Noun 79 Construction of , 190, 191 m CONTENTS. % VsBDS, Number and Person of PAOl 79 Conjugation of gO Of the Irregular Verb "to b« - 8S Of the Aegular Verb " to love," active Voice 86 Oral Exorcises and Exercises on 88,89 Negative Form 91 Interrogative Form 9S Progressive Form « 93 Exercises on 98 Passive Voice 94 Observations on, Exercises on 98 Parsing of :r... 88 Irregular 97 Defective IQS Impersonal 103 Exorcises 103, IM Construction of 168»167 ADVf/BBS, Definition of 104 Classification of 108 Formation and Derivation of 108 Comparison of 107 Parsing of, and Exercises on 107,108 Construction of 198-197 FAEP08ITION8, Definition and List of 109, 110 Observations on 110 Parsing of, and Exercises on Ill Construction of 174-177 Interjections, Definition and List of .^ 118 Parsing US Construction of SOS. 204 OovJVJXCTiovs, Definition and Division of 113 Observations on : 113 Parsing of, and Exercises on 113,114 Construction of 199 Parsing, Dififerent Kinds of 115 Etymologictj Method of 118 Model of 118-119 Exercises in 120-12B FAST III. ^liMTAX. Stbttax, definitions 188 Sbntbnceb, dififerent Kinds of IM I. Analysis of 127 A Simple Sentence, its Parts 1S7 Subject of *18» • Modifications of 180 Of modifying words 181 Predicate of 18S Modifications of 18S Compound, Definition of. 184 Clauses of, difiTerent Kinds 199 8' CONTENTS. BllTRifClH, CInuHOft, Connnrtion of Paob 1M Abridged I'roimnitionn 137 AnalvHtM, I)in>«>tionM for 138 Model* of 139 KicrciHofl in 142 IT. Construction of, Ocnoml Prinoiploa 141 8THTAX. Partti of 144 Rules of Ui-148 BVI.U. I 8ubBtantiv8aeB«lve governed by Substantives , 181 XIV Subjunctive Mood 186 XV Infinitive Mood 186 Special Rules 187, 188 XVI I'artldpleB 190 Special Rules 190, 191 XVII Connection of Tenses 193 XVIIl Adverbs— Special Rules 195,196,197 XIX Conjunctions 199 Special Rules 200, 201 XX Interjectioni 203 QenerAlRule 203 Empseir- when attmlMibie 205 when notadmimible 200 Parsing, syntactical. Definition of, Model of. 208 Exercises, promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax 210-214 Iitit>roper Expressions, List of 214, 216 PtmOTTTATIOir 215 Comma, Rules for 216 Semicolon, do 217 Colon, do 218 Period 219 Interrogation.... 219 -r ,r.r Other Marks used in Writing 219,220 FlOtBfiS, dlfflsrent Kinds of .^ 221 Of Ftymology and Syntax ...Ji 221 Of Biietorio 222 Poetic License 223-226 _, . PAST rv.— PB080DT. FitDBODT, Division of. ^ 226 Elocution,.., 226 VersiflcAtion 227 Peet 227 Poetic Pauses ; 234 COXPOSITIOK 236 The Use of Grammar in Composition 286 Thci Law of Language 236 Rules for 288 Hints for correct and elegant Writhig ...;. 238 Themes for Composition 243 AvrainDix , GRAMMAR. 1. Grammar in both a sciENCii: and an art. 2. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the principles of lan- guage in general : as an art, it teaches the right method of applying these principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to established usage. 3. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- ing the English language with propriety. 4. Language is either ppokcn or written. 5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and srtlculalo sounds. (25 and 26.) ' 6. The elements of written language, are characters or letters which ' represent these sounds. 7. Letters are formed into ajUables nnd words; words into sentences ; and by these, properly uttered or written, men communicate their thoughts to each other. 8, Grammar is divided in|| four parts ; namely, Or- thography ^ Etymology^ SyntcBo^ and Prosody, 9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ;* Ety- rhologyj of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; and Prosody^ of elocution and versification. • Orthoffmpby is properly a part of Grammar, as It belonfrs to " the art of spcak- Ing and writing a lanRuaKe with propriety." Yet as the whole subject is treated more fmly in the spe]lin{c*Dook and dictionary, a brief synopsiH of its principles only is hi^re given, ratl^er as a matter of form, than with a view to its being particularly gudied at this stage. The teacher may thureforc, if he thinks proper, pass over hXt I. for the present, and begin with FabxII. H^^ 10 ENTOLISH GRAMMAR. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. 10. Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode of combining them into syllables and words. 11. A letter is a mark, or chniacler. used to represent an elementary sound of the human voioe. 12. There ore TiveiU y-nx Xettcrs in the English Alphabet. 13. Letters are either Vowels or Coiisoonnts. 14. A Vowel is a letter which represents a siinple inarticulate sound (25) ; and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The vowels are a, e, i, Of u, and le and y not before a vowel souuded in the same syllable, as in law, bay, 15. A Consonant is a letter which rep resenta an articulate sound (26) ; uad, in a word or syllablet is never sounded alone, but always in conneo< tioQ with a vowel. The consonants are 6, c, d, f, g, h, jf, A;, /, m, n, p, q, r, «, t, V, X, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the same sylla- bio, as in war, youth. 16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. ' 17. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded, as ou, in out; oi,iai)il; ow, in cow. 18 An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one in which only one cf the vowels is sounded, as ou in cottrt^ oa in bocU. 19. A IVtphthong is the union of three vowels in one sooud, as eau in beauty. THE POWERS OF LETTBaS. 20. In analyzing words into their elementary sounds,' it is neoessary to distinguish between the name of aj^^er and its power. * 21. The name of » letter is thti^y which, it i^ usually oallod ( as A* Xiy^, se, de. en, top. E. me. L. lie. S. s\m. E. met, egg. M. 9nan, T. top, ba^. iaif^. I. »re. N. n.0. Th. I. in. N(T. rop^tar. Sh. »/w>w. 0. old. R.» Ch. chide. 0. move. ooze. Th. this. Wh. when. 0. odd. V. van. ** U. tnne, itse. w. we. U. up. Y. yes. U. fttU. Z. siinc. *i Oil. thou. Z. aeure. * & before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound ; as, rat, rough : after a vowe), |» soft and liquid sound ; as, arm, far. lie ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 32. Oertaio letters ir tlio English Alphabet bnve ihe snmc power as others in the preceding table, nnd may tberefoio bo called Equivalents. Equivalents of vowels and diphtliongs aro numerous. 33. Of tlie Subvocals and Aspirates, eight pairs are Correlatives. In sounding tlio first of any of theso pairs, the orgnus of voice* and speech are in the same position as In sounding its fellow, but the first, or subvocal, has vocnlity ; the second, or aspirate, has not. 34. Table of Equivalents and Correlatives. EQUIVALENTS. CORRELATIVES. SubvocaU. As-pitaU's. w — u cow. raow. V. vow. F. fame. Y — i tyrant, si/stem. G. gone. K. keep. C hard =k cat. B. but. P. pen. Q — k liguor. Z. ZUIC. S. sin. Csoft — s cent. D. do. T. top. Th. thick. Gsoft —J J71H. ka tin?. Th. thia. X Z. azure. 8h. show. J. judge. Ch. chide. 35. These elemontaiy sounds of the human voice, sometimes simple, but more commonly combined, are forinod into syllables and words. irin^j syllables as it has distinct vocal SYLLABLES. 36, A Syllable is a certain vocal or articulate sound, uttered by one impulse of the voice, and represented by one or more letters, as, /«r^/arm-er, ea-gle^ a-e^ri-al, 37. Every word contains sounds, as grani'JW'ri-an, 138. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable* 39. A'-llord of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 40. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable, 41. A woYd of more than three syllables is called a Polysytiable. *The Organ* of mice are those parts (called by physiologists the larvnx and its , appendaf^es) which are employed in the production of simple vocal soa&ds. The Organs of speech are those parts employed to artioulate or modi^ whispering or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. \» DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 42. The division of words into syllables is called Syl- labication. ' OENEBAT. BULK. 43. PInco tog(>ther in distinct syllables, those lotters tvbich make up the separate parts or divisions of a word, ns lionrd in its ooriect prouun* ciation. 44. The only definite rules of much value on this subject are ibe fol- lowing : — 45. Rule 1. Two or more consonants forming but one elementary soQ||f], are nerer separated ; suoli as, ch, tch, th, Mh, ngf ph, wh, gh silent, or sound- ing/, Ik sounding k, &c. ; as, church-ts, watch-es, wor-thy, fiah-etf $ing~ingf philoso-phy, tigh'ing, cough'ing, walk-ing. 46. Ride 2. The terminations, cean, cian, ceoiu^ cious^ cial^ tion, tiou>, tial, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided ; as, <- 14 ENGLISH OLAMMAR. GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. RULE I. 53. MonoByllnbles ending with /, /, or t, preceded by a aingle vowel, double the final consonant ; m, tttaff^ mill, pats, 54. Exceptions, — Of, if, ns, is, has, was, hie, gas, yes, this, us, thus, pus. BULB II. 55. Woids ending with nny consonant except/, /, or <, do not double the final letter; ns, sit, not, up, put, that, in. 56. Exceptions. — Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr. nui.B in. 57. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into t before tn additional letter or syllable; as, spy, spiea; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, fanciful. 58. Exception 1. — But y is not changed before tn^; as, deny, denying. 59.-2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowc retain the y unchang* ed ; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. Exception 8. — 'Rut lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said; and day makes daily. RULE IV. 60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single ooneonant preceded by a single vowel, double that vonaonant before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; mdmit, admittance, admitted. Exception. — But x and h are never doubled. 61. But when a diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled; as, boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, woolen ; fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 62. Exceptions. — In about fii|^words ending in / with a vowel before it, ahd not accented on the lasl|||^llabl«, many writers, ooDtitiry to anal- ogy and without necessity, double the / improperly before an additional i^ayllable. These are such words as travelf traveller, travellings travelled.* 63 toorsfl many j5o mi o also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in bias, ,nd kidnap ; as, biassing, toorshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and ters following him, in these words conform to the general rule. * The words referred to are the foUowiug : Apparel, bevel, bowel, oaocel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudRel. dishevel, drivel, duel, emboveL enamaL em> panel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatohel, imperil, Jewel, aenneU label, level, libfl, marshal, marvel, model, pane'., parcel, pencil, peril, pntoL pommel, quar* lel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shriveli snivel, tassel, trammel^ tiavel, tunnel, tturaveL *^ OUTHOORAPHY 9PKLTJNG. 16 RUt.R r. 64. Woida cnditif; with // drop one / before the termitintions /^xsand ly, to prevent trebling; af, skill, nkitlcss ; full, fully ; and Boiue writers, before n««j»and/M/; i\B,fulnet8, $ldl/ul. 65. But wurdrt ending in any other double letter, pieeerre the letter double bcfoie Ipss, ly, nesa, and ful ; na, harmlessly, stiffly, gruffhess, al su^ect of tne oomposi* % STYMPLooY— Words. n PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 79. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivations. WORDS. 80. A Word is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea. 81. A few words consist of vocnl or vowel M'uods onlj) wilhont nrticU* laticn ; as, /, afi, ahe, oh^ owe, eye, &c, 82. — 1. Words, in respect of their Formation^ ate either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound, 83. A Ptimitive word is one that is not derived from any otber word in the language ; as, boy, just, father, 84. A Derivative word is one that is derived from come other word ; BB, boyitk^ juitice, fatherly, 85. A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other word ; as, man, house, city. 86. A Compound word is one thnt is made up of two or more simple words ; as, manhood, horseman. 87. — 2. Words, in respect of Form, are either Jfeclin- able or Indeclinable^ ' -B 88. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes 6{ form or termination^ to exprese the different relations of gender, number, cose, -degree, voice, mood, tense, person ; usually termed in Qrammar, Acoidkmts ; as, man, men; love, loves^ loved, &c. f^ 89. In the changes which they undergo, Nouns and Pronoolls are said to be declined. Verbs, to be inflected or conjugated (473.) 90. An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form ; tA, goodi soM) perhaps. 4 18 BNGLI8H GRAMMAR. 91. — 8. In respect of Signification and Use^ words are divided into different classes, called Parts of Speech, 92. Tfae prinoiple according to which word«i are classified is their use, or (he part they perform in the expression of thought. Words which are names of objects are classed as nouns; those which qualify nouns are adjectives ; those which attribute an action or state to some subject are verbs, &o. Hence, when the same word \=^ used fur different purposes — at ouc time as a name, at another to qualify a noun, and at another to express an action or state— \i should, in parsing, be assigned to that class of words, the office of which it performs for the time : thus, " Before honor [noun] is humility." " Honor [?erb] thy father and thy mother." 93. Parsing is the art of resolving a sentence into its elements or parts of speech (574, 675). 94. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical. 95. A word is parsed Etymologieally by stating the class of words to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical properties. 96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 97. These two, though related, are perfectly distinct, and e!.ould not be mixed up in the early part of the student's course, by anticipating at the outset what he can be supposed to know only at a more advanced stage. Such a course may seem to be more intellectual, but its tendency is only to perplex anu darken the subject. Let the student learn one thing at a tiin§^ each thitig thoroughly in its proper order, and continue to combine things learned, as far as it can be done without anticipating what is future. In this way the process will be simple and easy ; every step will be taken in the light, and when oompleted, the result will be satisfactory. Besides, the student must be able to parse etymologieally with great ease and promptness, before he can with any advantage begin the study of syntax. This promptness he will acquire in a veiy short time, and almost without efibt i. if the class is properly drilled on the exercises furnished at every step in the following pages. V ■■ PARTS OF SPEECH. 96r**THE" Parts of Speech in English are nine, viz. : Noun^ Article^ Adjective^ Pronoun^ Verb, Adverb, Pre- position, Interjection, and Conjunction, 99. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, are de- clinedj; the rest are indeclinable, (88-90). KTTMOLOGY— WOUirS. It NOUNS. 100. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, John, London, hook. Hence, The names of pertont, place$, or thint^i, are Nouns. 101. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indi- vidual only ; as John, London, America, the Ohio. 103. A Common Noun is a name applied to all things of the same sort ; as, man, chair, *ahle, hook. luOf, Remarks. — Proper nouns are used to distingaish individuals of the same clob. from one another. Oommon nouns distinguish iorh or clattUf and are equaUy applicable to all things of the same class. Thus, the oom> mon noun hoy is equally applicable to aU objects of that class ; but th« proper nouns John, James, Robert, <&c., are applicable only to particular individual$ of a class. OBSERVATIONS ON NOUNS. 105. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole class, it booomea comm<»), and generally has an article before it ; as, " The twelve Cators," " He is the Cicero of his age," ** A DanUl come to judgment." jt Camp' bell, i.e., one of the Campbells. 106. Common nouns become proper when personified (1046, I), and also -when used as proper names ; as. Hail, Liberty ! The Park. 107. Under oommon nouns are usually ranked, — 1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, Mrhiob signify many in the singular number ; as, army^ people. 2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety , vdckedness. 3. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions, Ac. ; as, readinfi^ toriting^ sleeping. 4. Diminutive nouns, or nouns derived from other nouns, and denoting a small one of the kind ; as, stream^ streamlet ; leaf, leqftet ; hiUf hiUockf (bo. 108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, letter, mark, or character, of which we can think, speak, or write, regarded merely as an object of thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do not give it a name. Thus, when we say, " Good " is an adjective, a is a vowel, 6 is a consonant, .^ is a capital, 4 is an even number, | is a frao- tion, ! is a mark of interrogation, ^ is ihe sign of addition, — of sub- traction, — of equality— 'Croorf, a, 6, J, 4, i, ?, +, — , •—, are all to be regarded aa nouns. i ■A !l i io KlfOLI0H OBAMMAR. 109. Rkmabk.— A noun ia alto oaUmI a tuhttantive. But this t«rin fur conrenienoe ih here uied in a moro comprebeDnivc Mane, to menu • noun^ A peraonal pronoun, or a phrau uied m a noun, and up*>ai!v called "a tub- $taniive phra$i.** Thai, in euoh a rnle as this, " An '*tive qualifies the substautive," (bo., the word substantiT« may mean e« a uoun, or pro* noun, or Bubstantive phrase. EXERCISES.* 1. Id the foUowiag list, distinguish proper nouns from common, And give a reason for the distinction :— Albany, city, tree, nation, Prance, Philip, dog, horse, house, warden, Dublin^ Edinburgh, London, river, HudiSon, Ohio, Thames, countrios, America, England, Ireland, 8pain, sun, moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, woman, boy, girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, valley. 2. In the following sentences, point out the nouns. Say why they are nouns ; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus, *' Table," a noun, because the name of a thing ; common, because applied to all things of the same sort The table and chairs in this room belong to John ; the book- case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. — Time and tide wait for no man.-^The largest city in Europe is London ; in America, New York. — The northern states produce wheat. Tats, barley, rye, com, and potatoes; while cotton, tobacco, rice and sugar, are the products of the south. 8. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and say some- thing respeoting each, so as to make a sentence ; thus :— Summer — summer is the warmest season of the year. 4. Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and why ; which are proper, or conunon, and why. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 110. The accidents of nouns are Person^ Gender^ Number^ and Case, NoTS.— These accidents belong also to personal and relative pronouns (2S9). * The exercises furnished here, and throughout this work, are intended merely as a specimen of the way iu wUoh the leading trut^ and fttcts in Gnunmar may be wrought into the minds of pnpils, bv means of exercises properly devised. It is not, however, expected or desired that the teacher should limit himself to these. Every active and ingenious tea» aaid. " the Poeta of thia country are diatinguiaheil for correotneaa of taate/' the term " Poeta" clearly iuoludea both male nnd/emaU writera of poetry. But. " the bvat Poetcva of the age," would be aaid when aponking oidy of femalea, 134. OoUeotire nouna, Avhuii the refurenou ia to the aggregate oa ono whole, or when they are in the plural number, are etmaiderod aa neuter ; aa, *'The amy deatroyed every thing in itt oourae i" but whun the refer^ onoe ia to tho objoota oompoaiug the oolleotion aa iodividualn, tiuty take tho gender of the individuala referred to. .EXlilROISES. 1, What i» the feminine (/—-Father, priiioo, king, maater, ftoiior, emparor, bridegroom, Rtag, buck, hart, iiephow, friur, {)rieit, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, ord, husband, brother, sou, bull, he -goat, (be. P 2, What i§ the masculine o/— -Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, i^unt, belle, duchessi abbess, empress, Iieroino, wife, Miater, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparrow, sljftpherdcss, duugliter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, &o. ? 8. Tkll of tohat gentler ihi following noum are, and why, Man, horse, tree, field, father, bouse, mother, queen, count, lady, king, prince, oastle, tower, river, stone, hen, goose, seam- stress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, liuib, lion, tiger, mayor, countess ; — friend, neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, guide ; — sun (120), moon, earth, sliip ; — cat, (182), mouse, fly, bird, elephant, hare. 4. Take any of the above wortU, and aay aoraethlng respecting tht penon or thing which it denotoa, aoa* to mnko n sontunoe; thua, "My yW^iaathoine." ' ETYMOLOOV—MOUMS— NUMBER. tfH NUMBER. 135. Number Ih that property of a noun by which it expresses one, or more llian one. 136. Nouns luive two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. Tlie singular denotes one: os^ hooky tree ; tlio plural, more than one ; as, books^ trees. 137. The plural is conunonly formed by adding a to the singular; an ^ book y books, HPROIAI. nULRH. 138. Rule 1.— Nouns in «, shy ch soft, «, aj, or o, form the plural by adding cs ; as, MiaSy Misses; brushy brushes; inalchy matches ; topaz y topazes ; foXy foxes ; heroy heroes, 139. E.vetjtlioiiit.'—Hownt in eo, io, ami yo, haTa « only; ns, mtnio, eaintoi ; folio, folioa j einhryo, embryot. So bIio, canto, cantot. Junto, tyi'Oi gi'ottd, poitino, Holo, halo, quarto, formerly had « only in th« plural; but DOW more coinuionly $s under the Rule ; ai, Junto, juntoea, &o. Nouna in ch luuiidiag Ic, add a only ; m, monaroh, inonarohi. Sue*aleo 144. 140. Whenever a or tfa will not oonleioe with the tinal lyllable, it c^ddi n Ryllnble to tho word ; m, age, pi. agea ; box, boxea. But where t or «ff will conluMCo, it dotiM not add a aylluble; M, bouJc, booka ; cargo, cargoea. The • will innko an additional lyliable only after e final, preoeded by g or an i-aouuil ; nn, cage, cagea ; race, ratta } roac, roaca. J?« will ooaloioe, and ao not add a ayllablo, only aftor o ; afl, echo, echoea, 141. Rule 2. — Nouns in y after a consonant, ohange y into ies in the plural ; as, ladyy ladies. But Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in ,Vi follow the general rule (137); as, rf'iy, days ; the Pom^ peySy the TullySy &o. 142. ttuLE 3. — Nouns in/ or /c, change/ or fe into VM in the plural : as, loa/y loaves ; life^ lives* ^6 fiNGLISH GRAMMAR. 143. jBxc«p/to«f.— Dwarf, Bcarf, reef; brief, chief, grief ; kerchief, hand- kerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s ; as, wiujf, muffs; except itaff, plural staves; but its compounds are regular; ns, flag- staff, flagstaffs ; wharf has either wharfs or wharves. EXERCISES. 1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it; thus. Fox, plural, foxes. Rule — Kouds in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly ; Nouns in x form the plural by adding es, Eox, book, leaf, candle, bat, loaf, wisb, fish, sex, box, coacb, incb, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, cburcb, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, difiSculty, distress, wolf. Day, bay, relay, xshimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, stafl^, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 2. Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, Erints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, ill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, valleys, mountain, cameos? 3. Take six of the above words, and say something respecting each; first in the singular, and then in the plural. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 144. Some iiouns as^ are irregular in the formation of their plural; such Singular, Man Plural. men Singular. Tooth ^ Plural, teeth Woman women Goose geese Child children Mouse mice Foot feet Louse lice Ox oxen Cow formerly kine but now regular, cows 145. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular form of the pin* ral, but with different significations ; as— ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 27 Singular, > Plural. Brother (one of the same family) brothers Brother (one of the same society) brethren Die (a stamp for coining) dies Die (a small cube for gaming) dice Genius (a man of genius) geniuses Genius (a kind of spirit) genii Index (a table of reference) indexes Index (a sign in algebra) indices Pea (as a distinct seed) peas Pea (as a species of grain) pease Sow (an individual animal) sows Sow or swine (the species) swine Penny (a coin ) pennies Penny (a sum or value) pence 146. Note. — Though pence is plarni, yet such expressions as fourpencef sixpence, Ac, as the name of a sum, or of a coin representing that sum, is often regarded as singular, and so capable of a plural ; as, *' Three four- pences, or two sizpencts, make a shilling." " A new sixpence is heavier than an old one." 147.->Compound8 ending ioful or full, and generally those whreh have the important word last, form the plural regularly ; as, spoonful, cupful, coachful, handfulf mouse'trap, ox-cart, courUyard, cmnera-ohncwra, &c.; plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, Ae. 148. Compounds in which the principal word stands first, pluralise the first word; as— Singular. Plural. Commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp K right-errant knights-errant Court-martial ^ courts-martial Cousin-german cousins-german Father-in-law, &c. fathers-in-law, &o. Manservant changes botli ; as, men'Servants. So also, women'servants, knights-templars. 149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word ; a?, fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, and not com* pounds of man, form the plural by the general rule ; as, TurcomaOj Mw- sulman, talisman ; plural, Turcomans, Mussulmans, ix* 150. Proper names, when pluralized, and other parti of speech used 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. HM as nouns, or mere names, form the plaral like nouns of similar endings; as, the Arutotles^ the Solona, the Maritutt, the Pompeys, the dettot; the aye» and noes, the in* and the outs ; by tixes and «even«, by >|/ZMt ; three /our^s, two halves; ** His ondt and his ors;** *'One of the butt it- superfluous.'* ' 151. ExOBFTioM.— 'Such words ending in y after a consonant, follow the general rule (187), and not the special rule (141) ; as, the Livys, the TuHyt, the Henrys — " The whys and the 6y»." 152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by adding *8 ; as, " Dot your t'» and cross yoi.r Vs.** — " Your «'« are not well made."— " The +'» and — '« are not in line."—" Four 6'« — eight 8'*."—" 9'« give place to 0'«." 153. Note. — Some good writers form the plural of proper names, &o. in this way ; as, the Marius's, the Pompey's,— the tvhy*t and the wherefores. But this is unnecessary, and should be avoided. 154. Words adopted without change from foreign languages, generally retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or o», have a in the plaral. Latin nouns in is, in the plural change U into es ; Greek nouns in ts, change is into ides : Latin nouns in a change a into tain sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, &c. 2. Means and amends, referring to one object, are singular ; to more than one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now nsed to signify the middle between two extremes. Mm^ {celmesse, Anglo-Saxon) and riches {richtsse, French), are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural sense. News, formerly singular or plural, is now mostly singular. Molasset &nd measles, though ending like & plural, are singular, and so used. Oats is generally plural ; gallows is both singular and plural, though a distinct plural form^ gallowses, is also in use. 160. Th€Kibllowing are singular in form, but in construction various ; thus, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, meaning per- sons, are always construed as plural ; cannon, shot, sail, cavalry, infantry, as singular or plural. People (also folk), when it signifies a community or body of persons, is a collective noun in the singular, and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural form ; as, " Many peoples and nati guage, however, the use of the t is more necessary, to avoid obscurity, especiallv in proper names. Thus, in spoken language, " Davy's Survey* ing," and " Davies* Survej|ring," sound precisely alike, though the names are different. Hence, to indicate the last name correctlv in speaking, it will be more accurate, though less euphonic, to say, " Davies's Surveyfng." Thus, also, ''Perkins' Arithmetic," "Sparks* Analysis," in spoken Ian- gnage, may be mistaken for " Perkin's Arithmetic," " Spark's Analysis." In eudi cases, precision will be secured at the expense of euphony, by retaining the s, while euphony will be attained, frequently at the expense of precision, by dropping it. 176. The meaning of the possessive may, in general, be esqjressed by the word of with the objective ; thus, for " Tnarit wisdom," " virtue*a re- ward," we may say, " the wisdom ofmmn," •* the reward of virtue-** This mode will generally be preferred, when the use of the possessive would appear stiff or awkward ; thus, *' the length of the day," is better than " the day's length." In some few words which want the possessive plnral, such as father-in'lato, court-martial, &q., this is the only substitute. These two modes of expression, however, are not always equivalent; thus, "the kin^s picture," means any picture belonging to the king ; '* a picture of the king," means a portrait of him, without saying to whom it belongs. So also, of witJn the objective, can not always be represented by the pos- sessive; as, "A piece of gold," "a cord of wood" "the house of regof*- fentativitt*' dro. 8 ir 34 iCNOLISM GRAMMAR* I! il 1! • » PARSING (93) THE NOUN. 177. A noun is parsed etymologically, by stating its accidents, or grammatical properties (110), as exempli- fied (182). 178. NoTR. — The possessive is easily known by its form. As tbe nora* iiiatiye and objective of nouns are alike, in piu'(what feminine ? — what neuter t To which of these does the word home belong ? Aus. Neuter. Whj f (Then write the word neuter after common, as above.) "What is the next property of the noun ? "What is number ? — How many numbers are tlioro f What does the singular denote ? — the plurnl ? Does House denote one or more than one ! X)f what number then is Howe ? Ans. Singular, (Now add as above the word singular.) What is the next property of a nuuii ? How many cases are there ? Niine them. Decline House in the singular : in thu plurnV Which of these cases is used when a uouu is raeiitiunod simply as the name of an object (164, 1.) t House being used in this manner here, in what case is it ? Ans. In the Nominative. (Then write nominative at the end, as above.) There will now have been written on the blackboard the following:— House, Noun, Common, Neuter, Singular, Nominative. The teacher may then ask, as a sort of review, why do you call house a noun? — why, common? — why, neuter? — why, singular? — why, the nom- inative? — requiring a distinct answer to each question. And lastly, he may require the pupil to state these reasons in order, without the questions being asked ; thus : — House — a Noun, because the name of a thing; Common, because it belongs to all things of the sort ; Neuter, because without sex ; Singular, because it denotes one, plural, houses; Nominative, because it is used only as a name (164-1.) By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongn to the parsing of a noun will become so familiar, and so clearly understood, as to be always easy. 182. In parsing, these accidents may be stated, either in the order above, or in such as the teacher prefers Some say, " A common neuter noim, in the nominative singular." Others prefer, as giving more promi- nence to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonious, to say, " A noun, com- mon, neuter, in the nominattve singular ; —or omitting the kind of noun, except when a proper noun occurs, for reasons stated (180), to say more briefly, '*A noun, neuter, in the Tuyminative singular.'^ This last method is the one here recommended, as being brief aud sufficiently descriptive. EXERCISES. 1. State the gender, case, and number of the following nouns, and always in the same order; thus, "Father, a noun, masculine, in the nom^ inaHve singular.** Father^ brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf* arms, wife, hats. t.-UgJi. ' ^..,.. -^ I. I I f 1 m SNOLISH ORAMMAB. sisters*, bride* s, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, oz*s horo, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, liobert's shoe, horse, bridle. 2. Oo over the tame list, giving a reaeon for everything stated ; thasf « Father, a noun, because the name of un obiect; masculine, because it decotes a male ; nominative, because mentioned simply as the name of an object (164-1) ; singular, because it denotes on$.'" THE ARTICLE. 183. An Article is a word put before a noun, to indi- cate the manner in which it is used (707 &c.) 184. There are two articles, a or an and the. 189. »i or an is called the indefinite article, because it 8ho^va that its DOUD denotes a person or thing indefinitely, or without distinction ; as, Jl man, i. e. any man, or some man, without stating which one. 186. A is used before a consonant ; as, a book ; also before a vowel, or diphthong, which combines with its sound the power of initial y, or w; as, a unit, a use, a eulogy, a ewe, many a one. 187. jln is used before a vowel or silent A; as, an age, an hour; also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical account;— because h'la such words is but slightly sounded. 188. Note.— The primary form of this article is Jn (ane). The n has been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony. 139. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of one, each, every ; as, " Six cents a pound ;" " two shilliogs a yard ;" " one dollar a day ;" " four hundred a year." 190. RKMARK.-»In the expressions a hunting, a fishing, a going, a run- nir^, a building, and the like ; also, in the expressions, now nearly obso- lete, "a Wednesdays," '^anights,'* *^ a pieces,'* (fee., a is equivalent tout, to, in, on, and is to be regarded, not as an article, but as a preposition (648). In the same sense, it is used as a prefix in such words as afloat, ashore, asleep, abed, Such are cireumsiantial, numeral, and definitive adjectives (202). 197. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence used as a substantive ; as, " To play is pleaaant."-^-*^ That ihs rich are happy is not always true.*' 198. Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same noun; as, "A smooth, round stone." 199. An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of another adjective, the two forming a sort of compound adjective ; as, " A bright-red color ;" " a dark-blue coat ;" " a cast-iron ball." 200. When other parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun or pronoun, they perform the part of an adjective, and ehould be parsed as such ; thus, Noun ; as, A gold ring ; silver cup, sea water, a stone bridge. Pronouns ; as, A A« bear ; a she wolf. Adverbs ; as, Is the child well ? for very age ; the then king. Prepositions ; as, The above remark ; the under side. 201. On the contrary, adjectives without a substantive are sometimes used OS nouns; as, **God rewards the good^ and punishes the bad.*" — "The virtuous are the most happy. ^* Adjectives used in this way are usually r);»if;d6ded by the, and when applied to persons, are for the most part con- sidered plural. DIVISION OP ADJECTIVES. 202. Adjectives are sometimes divided into the following'classes, viz. : 1. Common, vhich express quality ; as, good, bad, sweet, ^q. 2. Circura&^arUial, which express circumstances of time, place, nation, &c.; OS, Jl^ily, eastern, English^ American, &q. >-i!M " 8. Numeral, which express number ; as, one, two, three; flrst^ sceottd,^ 4. Participial, consisting of participles, or compounds of participles used as adjectives; as, "An amusing story;" "an unmerited re- buke ;" *' to pass unmolested" Some add — KTYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 39 parsed 5. Definitive, which do not express any property of an object, but merely point it out, or limit in various ways the meaning of the noun. To this class belong such words as thit, that, each, every, some, both, dec. These scmeiimes accompany the noun, and some- times refer to it understood, or stand instead of it, after the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes called Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronoune. (See 289.) 203. This classification of adjectives, however, is of but littk practical use, as adjectives of all classes are used in the same way. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 204. Adjectives expressing number are called Nume- ral adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and 07'dinal. 205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many ; they are one^ two^ three, four, &c. 206. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a number ; they are first, second, third, &c. In compound numbers, the last only has the ordinal form ; as, twenty^ FIRST ; two hundred and fifty-THUtn, &c. 207. Numeral adjectives, being also namea of numbers, are often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construotion of nouns ; thus, by (wos,hy tens, hyjl/ties. For ten's sake, for twenty's sake. One and one are two. Two is an even number. F%ve is the half of ten. Three fives ABB fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. Twice two is four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three /onr/A«. 208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 209. Common and participial adjectives for the most part have three forms, called degrees of comparison ; namely. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative, * In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of multiplying— such as " Twice two are four, twice three are six "—is incorrect. It should be, "Twice two is four," &c. ; for the word two is used as a singular noun— the name of a number. The adverb " twice " is not in construction with it, and consequently doe« not make it pluraL The meaning is, " The number two taken wwice is equal to four/* For the same renson we should say. " Three times two is six," because the meaning is, " Two takeu three times is six. ' If we say, " Three times one are three," we make *' times " the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really Is " one," and " times" is in the objective of number (828). 2 : 4 ! ; 6 : 12. should be read ''As2i«to4,sot«6tol2;" not, " As two are to four, so are,'' &c. But when nume- rals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substantive ezpresssd or nnderatoQd, they must have a plural construotion. t'ikJ._l-y!l.^-tu. . 40 eWGLTSH ORAMMAIt. 210. The Positive expresses a quality, simply; as, "Gold is heavy, ^^ fill. The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher degree in one object than in another, or in several taken together ; as, " Gold is heavier than silver." " He is wiser than his teachers.'* 212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object in the highest degree compared with several others ; as, " Gold is the most precious of the metals." 213. REKAax.— The aupeilative degree, when made by prefiziog the adverb moat, is often used ^o express a very high degree of a quality in an object, without directly comparing it with others ; as, " He is a moat dis- tinguished man." Thus usea, it is called the auperlative of eminence, and commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular ; and is without an article, if the uoun is plural. The same tt'.ng is expressed by prefix- ing the adverb very, exeeedingly, &,q. ; as, " a very dietinguiahed man ;" *• very distinguished men." The superlative of comparison commonly has the before it. SULKS FOR OOHPABISOM. 214. RtJLK 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the com- parative by adding er to the positive, and the superlative by adding est ; as, sweet, sweeter , sweetest. Words ending in e mute, drop « before er and est ; as, large, larger, largest (68.) 215. Rule 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are commonly prepared by prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous, 216. Rbvark. — Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, yet adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er and est; as, " Our tenderest cares ;" " The commonest materials," and some adjectives of one syllable, as, toise, apt, Jit, <&o., from regard to euphony or taste, are sometimes compared by more and most. Dissyllables in le and y are gen- erally compared b;y er and eat ; as, able, abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y into » before er aud est ; as, dry, drier^ driest / happy, happier^ happiest ('57); but y after a vowel is not changed; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 217. A lower degree of a quality in one object comparg ETYMOLOOf ADJECTIVES. 41 tea and leaat to the positive ; as, atoeei, Usa sweet, least svteet. Tkid,by wny of distinction, is eometines called the comparison of diminution, or com* parison descending. 218. The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished without em- ploying comparison, by annexing the syllable ish ; as, white, whitish ; black, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also various shades, degrees, or modifications of quality are frequently ex- pressed by connectmg with the adjective such words as rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, kc, and, in the comparative and super- lative, by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, (&c. 219. Such adjectives as, superior, inferior, exterior interior, Ac, though derived from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of comparison, are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than such words as preferable, previous, <&c. They have aeither the form nor the construction of the comparative (968-2.) ?■ IRREQ0LA.R COMPARISON. 220. The following adjectives are compared irregu- larly, viz. : ^ositive. cod lad, evil, or ittle [uch or man ate fear ar Wth (obsole' ore Id 221. Mvth, is a)^pUed to things weighed or measured ; many, to things that aro numbered; more and most, to both. Farther and farthest gener* ally denote place or distance ; as, '* The farther they went, the more inter- esting was the scene; further and furthest refer to quantity or addition; as, *' I have nothing further to say." Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age or duration ; as, " Homer is an older po«t than Virgil ;" " The pyramids are older than the pantheon." Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same family, and denote priority of birth ; as, " An elder brother." Later and IdteU have respect to time; latter and last to position or order. 222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to the oomparaUve, and aometimes to the word from which the eom{Mtratiy« is Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good better best Bad, evil, or ill worse worst Little less {sometimes lesser) least Much or many more most Late later (irregulary latter) latest or last Near nearer nearest or next Far farther farthest Forth (obsolete) further furthest Fore former foremost or first Old older or elder oldest or eldest !.u.ltii«yt.*r 4if^^-A .48 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. formed; a.9, upper, nppermott, or upmost from up; nethery nethermofl ; inner^ innermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hindermost, or hindmost, from hind; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out. ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 223. Adjectives whose signification does not admit of increase or diminution, can not properly be compared. These are — 1. numerals; as, one, two ; third, fourth, &c. 2. Proper adjecttvea ; as, English, American^ Roman, 8. Adjectives that deaote /fgrwrc, shape, or material ; as, circular, square, wooden, &c. 4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position: as, perpendicular, horizontal. 6. Definitives ; as, each, every, all, some, (fee. 6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative significution ; as, true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete. 224. Remark. — Of these last however, comparative and superlative forms are sometimes used, either to give greater force to the expression, or when the words are used in a sense not atrictly absolute or superlative. The following are examples : Extreme. — " The extremest of evils." — Bacon. *• The extremest verge." — Shaks. ** His extremest slate."— (Spenwr. [So in Greek ia-xardraros.} Chief.— " Chiefest of the herdsmen."— jBj6/ft " Chiefest courtier."— Shaks. " First and chiefest." — Milton. Perfect. — ''Having more perfect knowledge of that way," i.e., knowl- edge nearer to perfection. — Bible. So, " The most perfect society."— E. Everett. " Less perfect imitations." — Macaulay. ^ More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. 225. Parsino. — In parsing an adjective fully : 1. State its clasn. 2. Compare, if admitting comparison (209), and if not compared, so state it. 8. Tell its degree of comparison, if compared. 4. The noun which it qualifies. Do this always in the same order and in the fewest words pos- sible. EXAMPLES. " A wise son mnketh a glad father." — " Wisdom is more preciouM than rubies." — " The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit, than seven men that can render a reason." — " Blessed are the pure in hcni t." Wise is a common adjective, compared by er and est (214), positive, and qualifies son (196). Olad is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and <}uali- fies father BTYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES. 43 Mou precious is a common adjective, compared by more and moaty com- parative, nnd qualifies wisdom (705, 4). Wiser is a common adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and qualifies sluggard (196) and (705, 4). Seven is a numeral adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men. Blessed is a participial adjective, compared by more and most, positive, and qualifies men^ underEtood. Pure is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and quali- fies men, understood. 226. Abbreviation. — This process may be abbreviated without loss, by omitting the class (202), as of no use in Syntax (684), and also omitting to mention the degree of comparison (209), except the comparative or superlative, taking it for granted, in adjectives compared, that it i^ 'n the positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of degree, in adjectives not compared, would be improper. In this way the preceding adjectives may be parsed thus,— Wise is an adjective, compared by er and est, and qualifies son. More precious is an adjective, compared by mcri. and most, comparative, and qualifies wisdom. Wiser is an adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and quali- fies sluggard. ^ 227. PRELIMINABT OBAL EXEBCI8ES. "What is an adjective 1 The pupil having gi' a tho definition (195) in answer, for the purpose of illustrating it, a lis if uouns may again be formed on the blackboard as directed (181) ; and supposing the li»i to be man, i, tree, apple, house, tree, book, &c., tho teacher may take them up, each in order, and proceed in some such way as the following :— Man. — What part of speech is m^n? Why? Are all men exactly alike f If not, mention some things in which they dififer. Ans. Some are tall ; some are short ; some old ; some young ; some learned ; some unlearned i somewise; some/oo/tsA, <&o. When you say, " a tall man, a short man, an old man, a young man," what is the use of the words tall, short, old, ka. f Ans. They are used to qualify the word " mun" by telling what sort of a man is meant (190*1). Wl^t part of speech are words used to qualify nouns ! Then what part of speech are tall, short, old, young, &q. ? Prefix an adjective to eacn of the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prenx as many adjec- tives to each ncun separat<>l7, as you can think of, to make sense ; tlius : HoaSK — a large horse, a small horse, a young horse, «fec. What part of speech is large, small, young, &o. Why ? OOMPABATIVB DEGBBE. Are all men equally tall ? Ans. No ; some men are taller than others. When you say, "James is taller than John," in what form or degree is the adjeot'ye e them ; but> in nouns, omit the case. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 45 PRONOUNS. 228. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 229. The nouu instead of which a proDoun is used, is called its anteet- dent, because the pronoun refers to it as previously mentionedf or in some way understood (286), 230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speaking, to prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the noun. Thus, without the pronoun, the above example would road, " John is a good boy ; John is diligent in John^a studies." 231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun ; as, " Tou and /must attend to our duty." See 730. 232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal^ Rela- tive, Interrogativi , and Adjective. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 233. Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish the person by their form. , They are either Simple or Compound, SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 234. The simple personal pronouns are /, thouy he, she^ U ; with their plurals, we, you, they. 235. Of these, / is of the first person, and denotes the speaJcer; thou is of the second, and denotes the person addressed; /<«, she, it, are of the third, and denote the person or thing spoken of {111). 236. The pronouns / and thou denote the speaker, and the person. Ad- dressed, without previous mention, or even knowledge of their names, the persons intended being sufficiently indicated by their presence, or some other circumstance. The pronouns of the third person refer to some per- son or thing previously mentioned, or easily understood from the context, or from the nature of the sentence. 237. He, 9he, U, and they^ are frequently used as general terms in the beginning of a sentence, equivalent to "the person," <£^, without reference to a noun gomg before ; as, " He [the person] that loveth pleasure shall be j^ a poor m^n." " How fiu is it [the distance] to the city ?" >• ^ X 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SINGULAR. Nom. JPoss. Ohj, 1. M. or F. I mine me 2. M. or F. Thou (244) thine thee ( Masc. He his him 3. < Fern. She hers her Neut. It its it 238. They is also used in a vogue sense for >' people," in such ezpres* sioDs as "They say," [like the Frencli on, or the German mani, 239. The Accidents of personal pronouns, like nouns (110), are Person^ Gender^ Number^ and Case, They are thus declined : — FLUBAI,. Nom. Pots. ObJ. We ours us You (245) yours you They theirs them They theirs them They theirs them OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 240. In many Grammars, the possessive of all the pronouns, except h« and it, has two forms, as follows: My or mine; thy or thine; her or hers; our or ours; your ov yours; their or theirs. According to this arrange- ment, the first form, my, thy, <&c., is always used before a noun denoting the object possessed; the second form, mine, thine, &o., never before that noun, but only referring to it as previously mentioned, or evident from the connection. The possessive case of nouns, is used In both ways. To this classification there is no important objection ; and such as prefer it may readily adopt it, though, for reasons assigned (289)r a different classification is here preferred. Mine and thine are sometimes used as possessives for my and thy (298). 241. Some, again, regard my, thy, &c., as the only form of the -posses- sive case, and mine, thine, &o., not as a possessive case at ail, but as a substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun and the noun referred to together, and that it is in the nominative or objective case, according as the noun referred to would be, in the full expression ; thus, " Tour book is old, mine is new," is equivalent to " Your book is old, my book ii new." Hence it is inferred, that mine is not a possessive case, but a sub- stitute for my book, and the nominative to is. This, though plausible, is obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pronoun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun will have to be in the possessive case ; thus, ** Your book is old, John*s is new." The. construction in these two sentences being identical, if ** John's^* be the possessive case, so also is <*mtne;" and if in the possessive, it can not be the nominative to " is." The mistake lies in consideriug mine a substitute for my book, whereas it really is a sub- stitute only for my, including such a reference to the word book in the first part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not only unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, improper. The difference between the construction of the noun and the pronoun, in such sentences, is simply this : the possessives mine, thine, &c., according to usage, are never used before a noun, but the possessive of the noun is used both before a noun and after it. When it is deemed proper to express the nonn after the pronoun, the form mine, Slo,, must be ommged ICTYMOLOOY — PRONOUNS. 47 exprcB" nouns They Obj. Ill 8 you :s them :8 them PS them except he r or hers ; J orrange- \ denoting jQT before )r evident )oth wayB. t as prefer \ different !B used as he -posses* , but as a Q referred , according uB, "Your my book is but a Bub- lansible, is ibstitute a Your book Dces being e;*' and if kistake lies k^ is a sub- \ook in the id part not improper, ironoun, in according ie noun b proper to « (taged for my, Ac. Thus, we cunnot say "Mine book," but "My book;" but we can with equal propriety say, "John's buok," or "The book is John's." Bee Appendix IL, page 247. 242. In the same manner may be explained, the use of the possessive after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions ; thus, "James lost his books, and I gave him mine" meaning my hooks. — "A picture of the king's," is a picture of '}.. e. from) the king's pictures. So •• A book of mine," is a book of (from) my books. •* A friend of yours," is a friend of (from) your friends. It la worthy of notice, that though this use of the possessive after of, originally and strictly implies selection, or a part only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection is. or ever c^n be, intended. Thus we may say, "That hou* of yours," ''that farm of yours," without intending to imply that any ^^^.^r houses or farms belong t^ you; and when we say, "That head of yours," beleo- tion is obviously excluded by the sense. 243. In royal proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, where there is no individual responsibility, we is frequently applied to one T)erson. 244. Thou is now used only in the solemn style — in addresses to the Deity, or to some important object in nature, — or to mark special empha- sis, — or in the language of contempt. Te, the plural of tand ? Then what part of speech is he f Why ? For what noun does the word it stand ?— then what part of speech \iitf Why? What other words stand instead of nouns? (Write a list of them on the blaokboard.) Write sentences, each containing one of these pronouns, and tell for what noun it stands. i Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any reading lesson, or book, and say for what noiina they stand. EXERCISES. 1. Parse the following listt as directed (253). — I, thou, w0, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, oura, yours, mine, his, it ; — myself, ourselves, your- self, himself, themselves. 2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sentenoes, and parse them; if of tbe first or second person, state what they designate; if of the ^ third, state the nouns for which they stand. James says he is older than I ; but I am taller than he. — That book is mine ; take it and read it. — Let them do it them- selves. — When you learn the lesson, com > to me, and I will hear you say it. — ^TKey will go when we return.— :Thou art the man. — ^Your knife is sharper than mine ; lend it to me, if you please, till I mend my pen. 8. Write sentences, each of which shall contain a pronoun in the noni* ibativeoase — in the possessive ease — in the objective case. 4 i-y i JI 60 KNOLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Change the following sentADceit, so (hat the pronoun it ihall b« omitted, and the subjeot or thing spokeD of shall stand first (246-4). It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. It is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that the cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk. II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 255. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it called the antecedent (229) ; as, ".The master who taught us." 256. The anteoedeut of a relfttive may be a noun — a pronoun — an infini- tivo mood — a clause of a seDtenco (686)— or any fact or thing implied in it; as, "A king who'in just, makes his people happy;" "iTe that Is wise, is wise for himself;" '*He who reads all will not be abler to think, without which it is impertinent to read ; nor to act, wiibout which it is impertinent to think ;" " We are bound to obey the Divine law, which we cannot do without Divine aid ;" " The man was said to be innocent, which he was not." 257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 258. The simple relative pronouns are who^ whichj that, and what. That and what are indeclinable, and used only in the nominative and objective. Who is masculine or feminine, and which is masculine, feminine, or neuter. They are declined thus : — Singular and Plural, Singular and Plural. i:om. Who Which Po88. Whose Whose Ohj. Whom Which 259. Who is applied to persons only ; as, " The boy who reads." 260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things without life ; as, " The dog which barks"—" The book which was lost," 261. This relative, as in Latin, sometimes, for the sake of greater per- r m has its antecedent repeated after it; as, "I gave him a knife KTTMOLOOY— PKONOVNS. « with an irory bandle, toMeh knife he itill hns." Thti oonitrnotioD, how- ever, is inelegant, and ahoald be avoided. 262. Which \n applied also to oolleotive nouns, expressing colleotions of persons, when tho reference is to the oolleotion, and not to the persons composing it; ns, "The oommittoe which was appointed." Also to namea of persons considered only as a word ; as, " Nero, which is only another name for cruelty." 263. "^Vhich has for its possessive u'Aose ; as, "A religion trAose origin is Divine." Instead of "trAose," however, the objeotive with of before it is more common; as, "A religion the origin of which is Divine." 264. That is applied to both persons and things ; ad, " The boy that reads ;" " the dog that barks ;" " the book that was lost" (748). 265. IVhat is applied to things only, and is never used but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is wfuU I wanted : — 266. In this example, properly speaking, what neither includes the an> tecedent, nor has it understood, m the rdinarv sense of that expression. If it included the ante<^edent, then who. would be of two rases at the name time, which, if not absnrd, is an anomaly not to be readily admitted. If the antecedent were understood, it conhl be supplied, and then the sen- tence would stand, "This is the thing what I wanted." But this is not English. The truth is, what is a simple relative, having, wherever used, lilce all other relatives, but one case ; but yet it has this peculiarity of usage, that it always refers to a general antecedent omitted, but easily supplied by the mind, and to which belougs the other case in the con* struction. The antecedent referred to is always the word *' thing'* or "ihingt," or some general or indefinite term, obvious from the sense. When that antecedent is expressed, the relative following must be which or that, but never what. Thus. " This is what I wanted,'' is equivalent to " Tills is that which, or the thing which, I wanted." Hence, though it is true that what is equivalent in meaning to that which, or the thing which^ yet the error to which this has imperceptibly led, viz., that what is a com- pound relative, and iucludes the antecedent, should be carefully avoided. •—See Appendix III. p. 247. 267. I'he office of the relative is twofold : — 1. It is sometimes merely additive or descriptive, and connects its elause with the ooteoedent, for the purpose of further describing, without modi- fying it; thus used, it is a mere connective, nearly equivalent to and with a personal pronoun Ae, she, it, Aa. ; at, ** Light is a body which moves with great oelerity"— "light is a body, and it moyes with great celerity." if 62 SNOLI8H GRAMMAR. 2. It is more oommonly rutrietivep and oonaects its clause with the antecedent, in order to modify or restrict ite meaning. Thus used, the relative with ita olause is equivalent to an adjective ; as, " Every thing vAieh hot life is an animal"**" Every living thing is an animal." When used in thii way, the relative can not be resolved into and with a personal pronoun, for we can not say, " Every thing is an aclaial, and it has life." 268. The relatives who and which are used in both senses. That is used in restrictive, more commonly than in descriptive clauses. 269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pronoun (308), equivalent to this or these, ord qualifier or limits the substantive following it (676) ; as, '' Which things are an allegory"-**' These things are an allegory" 270. In English, a relative must always be in tlie same sentence with its antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connection with it. In Latin, tke relative often has its anteced«?«>t in a preceding sentence, and con- nected with it by a conjunctive ten',. When this is the case, it should be rendered into English by a demonstrative, or personal pronoun. This difference of idiom uiould be carefully marked by classical students. See Lat. Gr., 296. 271. In such sentences as the following^-** Shun such a» are vicious" — "Send such at vou have*'-— some grammarians consider the word a» a relative : in the ^rst example, as the nominative to are; and in the second, as the objective, governed by hate. Others, more properly, regard it, in uU saoh sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions as elliptical— to be supplied thus : " Shun such as [those who] are vicious." — " Send such at [those which] you have." — See Appendix IV. 248. COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNa "T^ 272. The relatives who, which, and whai, with ever or soever annexed, are called compound relativet. They are used instead of the simple rela- Uve and a general or indefinite antecedent ; as, " WTiosoever oommitteth sin is the servant of sin ;" that is, **Any one or every one who committeth flin," &0. ** Whatever is evil should be avoided;" that is, "Every thing which is evil," ho ;** '• The bird—which.'* 2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the anteo»> dent, or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is additive or restrictive (267):— A mpn who is generous will be honored. — God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, is eternal. — That is the book which I lost. — He who steals my purse, steals trash. — ^Thia is the boy whom tve met.— This is the man that did it. — These are the books that you bought. The person who does no good, does harm. — The woman who was hurt, is well.— This is the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack builtr iiiMa' ' .i!M!aiLljB«J.J^^'...x- i iBi g!^ : I 54 SiXOLISH OBAMMAR* 8. In each of the following sentenoes. point oat the eomponnd relative —mention the antecedent omitted, to wnich it refers. Insert the ante- cedent in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the relative (278):— Whoever steals my purse, steals trash. — "Whoever does no good, does harm. — Whatever purifies the heart, fortifies it. Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them also. — Whoever sins, will suffer. — I love whoever loves me. Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do. 4. In the following sentences, -wherever it can he done, change the rela- tive and antecedent for the compound relative : — Bring with you every thing which you see. — Any one who told such a story, has been misinformed. — Any thing that is worth doing at all, id worth doing well. — Any thing that gives pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure. — Every one who loves pleasure, will be a poor man. ni. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 279. TVho^ which, and what, when used in asking ques- tions, are called Interrogative Pronouns ; as, " Who is there .?"— « Which will you take ?"— " What did he say ?" 280. Who and which are declined like the relatives (268). 281. In questions, who is equivalent to xohat person ; which and vthat have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, they belong; or they refer to one understood, but easily supplied ; thus, " Who [what person] is there!"— "Which book will you take?"— "What [thing] did he say?" 282. Who applie-s to persons only; which and what, to persons or things. 283. As applied to nersons, who inquires fur the name ; which, for the individual; what, for tne character or occupation; as, *'Who wrote that book ?"— •• Mr. Webster."— "H^icA of them V'—Noah Webster."— " TTAof is he I" — *• A lexicographer." 284. The same prouonns used responsively, in the beginning of a de* pendent clause (636), or in what is called the indirect question (i. u., in a way which, in an independent clause, would be a direct question), are pro- perly neither interrogalives nor relatives, but a sort of indefinite pronouos (806). This will be best illustrated by an example : — Interrogative. — **Who wrote that letter?" Relative, — ^" I know the person toho wrote that letter ;'* that is, I am acquainted with him. Indefinite. — " I know who wrote that letter ;" that is, I know by whom that letter was writteo. ETTMOLOOT — PROITOUNS. 55 285. It i« DeoesBaiy to these words being regarded as indefinites—l. That they begin a dependent clause ; 2. That they do not ask a question ; 8. That an antecedent can not be supplied without changing the sense; and 4. That the whole clause be either the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or prepoBitioo. These remarks will apply to nil the following examples: "I know who wrote that letter." — "Tell me who wrote that letter." — " Do you know who wrote that letter ?" — •• Nobwiy knows who he Is." — " Who he is, can not be known." — " Did he tell you who he is !" — " We can not tell which is he."—" I know not tohat I shall do."—" It is uncertain to whom that book belongs." — " Teach me what is truth and what is error.*' PARSING. 286. Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and the indirect questions, are parsed by stating their gen- der, number, and case ; thus : — « **Who comes ? I know not who comes." Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or feminine in the nomina* tive singular. Who is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pronoun used respon* sively), masouline or feminine, in the nominative singular. Reasons may be assigned for each statement, as exemplified (263). EXERCISES. 1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, which, and what are relatives; in which, interrogatives ; and in which, indefinites. Who steals my purse, steals trash. — To whom did you give that book ? — What I do, thou knoweet not now. — Who you are, "whftt you are, or to whom you belong, no one knows. — What shall I do? — Who built that house? — Do you know by whom that house was built ? — ^Is that the man who built that house ? Which book is yours ? — Do you know which book is yours ? I saw a book which was said to be yours. •--I know which book is yours.— What in me is dark, iU amine. — What is crooked, can not be made straight. — What is wanting, can not be num- bered. — What is wanted ? — 1 know what is wanted. 2. Write sentences, each of which shall contain one of these pronouns in one or other of these different senses. IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 287. Adjective Pronouns are words used, sometimes like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. I I' r 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 288. Adjective Pronouns are divided iniO four classes: Possessive, Distributive^ Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 289. Adjectives used ns nouns, or with a noun understood, eomr ^only take th'3 article the before them (201) ; as, the young; the old; the good, &c. Adjective proDOuns do not. 290. Of the adjective pronouns, the Possemve* (291) clearly have a double charncter. As an adjective, they qualify a noun, and as a pronoun, stand instead of a noun. The Distributives^ Demonstratives, and Indefinites, as adjectives, quality a noun expressed or understood, or they stand instead of a noun, and thus may be regarded sometimes as adjectives, and some- times as pronouns. Hence they arc cl.issed by some grammarians as e '• jeotives, and called pronominal adjectives; and by others as pronoun, and called adjective pronouns. The latter classihcation and name arn here preferred, bccauRe they have been admitted into the grammars of almost all languages; and because a change of established nomenclature is aq evil of so serious a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for the most urgent reasons. Still, it is a m»tte ^f little moment in itself which of these classifications is adopted. 11 • principal point for the learner is, to know what words are adjective pronouns [or pronominal adjectives], and their character and use ; and every teacher may adopt tbr.t classification arid name which ho prefers. For the convenience of such ne, prefer to ounaider tiiem pronomiruil adjectives, they are classed as definitives (202-5). .! POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 291. The Possessive Pronodns are such as denote possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, — our, your, their — own, ^ 292. The possessive pronouns arc derived from the personal, and com- bine the office of the adjective and pronoun, for ihey always limit one nouD denoting the object possessed, and stand instead of another denoting the possessor. They agree with the possessive case of the persona] pro- noun in meaning, but differ from it in construction. The possbssive pro- noun, like the adjective, is always followed by its noun ; as, " Thi^ is my book ;" the possessive case of the personal is never followed by a noun, but refers to one Known or previously expressed ; as, •' This book is /nm«.*' The posseHsive case of nouns is used both ways ; as, " This is John's book ;" or, "Thisbookis/oAn'a." 293 Formerly mine and thine were used before a vowel, or the letter A» instead of my and thy; as, "Blot out all mine iniquities;" "Commune with thine heart." This form is still in use. 294 His, her, and its, when followed bv a substantive, are possessive pronoQus; not followed by a substantive, his is the possessive case of he; Mr, th ^ objective case of she ; and its, the possessive case of it. . In die English Bible, his is neuter as well as masculine, and is used where itt would now be used. See Prov. xxiii. 81 ; /*. Ix. 22. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. m 295, (hm is not nsed as a possessive proooan bj itself, but is added to the othe. possessive pronouns, or to the possessive case of nouns, tc render the po8se!)sioo expressed by them emphatio; as, "My ovm book;" "The boy's own book." The possessive pronoun, with oum following it may have its substantive understood ; as, " This book is my oum." DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. *' 296. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as taken separately. They are each^ every^ either, neither, 297. Each denotes two or more objects taken separately. 298. Every denotes each of more than two objects taken individually, and comprehends them all. 299. Either means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes used for each ; as, " On either side of the river." 300. Neither means not either. 301. The distributives are always of the third pcrsoa singular, even when they relate to the persons speaking, or to those spoken to; as, " Each of us — each of you — each of them — has his faults.'* DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 302. The Demonstrative pronouns point out objects definitely. They are this, that, with their plurals, these, those, (692-694). 303. Yon and uuMch, be.ore a noun, seem more properly to belong to this class of words than to any other ; as, " Yon trembling coward ;" " Yon tall cliff;" " Which things are an allegory" — " These things," &e. 304. Former and latter, first and last^ with the prefixed — though often used like that and this — referring to words contrasted, are properly adjec- tives (201). INDEFINITE PHONOUNS. 305. The Indefinite pronouns designate objects indefi- nitely. They are, none, any, all, such, whole, some, both, one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three last are declined like nouns. 306. To these may be added no, much, many, few, several, and the like ; also, who, which, and what, used responsively (284). 307. One, denoting a definite number, is a numeral adjective (205) ; as, I' One man is suflicient." But one, referring indefinitely to an individual, is an indefinite pronoun. Thus used, with its noun following, it is inde* ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \ « olinable like the adjective, as, " One man's interest is not to be preferred to another's." Without rts noun following, it is either singular or plural, and is declinable, like the substantive; as, **0n9 is ns good ns another;" " One^t interest is as good as another's;" " Ho took the old bird, and left the young ones ;" " One might say." The same remark is applicable to the indefinites, other and another. The expressions the one — the other, denoting contrast (692), have the singular form only ; but thev sometimes refer to antecedent words denot- ing more than one, regarded, however, either distributlvcly or as a class ; thu|, " For that which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts — as the one dieth, so dieth the other." — Eccl. iii. 19. See also, Philippinn 824. PRELIMINART ORAL EXEROISE. When we say, "John runs," what part of speech is John?— Why/ What is the use of runs in the sentence f It tells what John does, la vhat a person or thing does, the act ot that person or thing t What part of speech are words that express the act of a person or thing 9 Verbs. Then what part of speech is runs /—Why ? Of what is it that verla express the act, being, or state t Of their subject. Whose act does runt express? Then what is John to the verb runtf When you say, "John runs,'* does it mean that he does anvtbing to another t What sort of verbs express on act not done to another U What kind of a verb, then, is rwns/ If you say, "John cuts wood," which word tells what John doesf Then what part of speech is cuts f Is it transitive or intransitive f — Why ? EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why -^ whicl^ are transitive, and why — ^which are intransitive, and why. Tbe boy studies grammar. — ^The girls play. — Grass grows in the meadows. — The farmer plougns his neld, and sows his 63 XWOLTSH ORAMMAB. .■ f ■ grain. — Romulus built Rome. — The sun shines. .^Tbe winds blow. — The tree fell. — Bring your books, and prepare your lessons.: — Have you recited ? — Who read last ? — Go^ '^reated the heavens and the earth. — Columbus discovered America. 2- Write a list of douii3, or names of persons or of things, in h. oolamn on the left side of the blackbonrd ; write after each, a word which tells Bomethiog that each of these doei; tell what part of speech that word is, and why : if a verb, whether transitive or intransitive, and why. DIVISION OF VERBS. 325. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regu- lar, IrregtUar, and Defective. 826* A REGULAR verb is one that forms its past tense (415) in the indicative active, and its past participle (554) by adding ed to the present ; as, present, act; past, acted ; past participle, acted. NoTK. — Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed; as, /ovtf, loved, loved, (68). See 494. 827> An IRREGULAR verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative active, and i\9 past participle, by adding ed to the present ; as, present, write ; past, wrote ; past participle, written. 828. A DEFECTivB Verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly, AuxiU iary and Impersonal verbs. AUXILIARY VERBS. 829. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the help of which other verbs are inflected. They are, do, have, he; — shall, will;— may, can, must; — and, except be, they are used only in the present and the past tense ; thns : — Pruent. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. Patt. Did, had, should, would, might, could, 330. Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, belong to irregular verba (512). Be ia used as an auxiliarj in all its parts (864). For the infleotion of auxiliaries with the principal verb, see 494, 607, and 616* KTTMOLOOT — AUXILIARIES THE USE OP AUXILIARIES. 331. Verbs, now uaed as nuxiliarifB only, were probably nt flr»t used m independent v(?rbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb in the influitivu — the sign to being in prooess ot time omitted, as it now is after such verbs as see, hear, feel, Ac. (877) ; thus, •' I can [tol do" — " They will [to] write" — " We could [to] i?o," Ac ; and some grammarians contend that they should bo so considered still (881). * 332. Shallf will, may, can, and their past tenoes, should, would, Ac, as auxiliaries, retain the personal endings of the second person singular; thus, shait, wUt, mayst, canst — shouldst, wouldst, mightst, couldst. But in their present they do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular; thus, we say, he shall, will, may, can — not he shalls, wills, mays, cans. This will be seen by their use in the inflection of verbs. 333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tenro, and did in the past, to render the expression emphatic ; as, " I do love" — " I did love." Also when the verb in these tenses is used interrogatively, or negatively ; oa, " Docs he study 1"—" He does not study."—" Did he go I"—" He did not go." — Do is used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of the im- perative; as, •' Do thou love." 334. Ifave is used as an auxiliary in the prese/it'per/ect tense, and had in the pant-perfect. Shall and Will — Should and Would. 335. Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation ; and will, present incIiuHtion, purpose, or volition, from which the futurity of the act, Ac, is naturally inferred. But, as nuxiiiariea, the primary signifioa* tion is lost sight of, and they are need simply to denote futurity — still modified, however, in their use, by their primary sigiufioatioa. They are usually distinguished as follows : — Shall and Will, expressing resolution, pueposk, Jtc* 336. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a person, in reference to his own acts; and shall, h\a purpose, Ac. in reference to the acts of o'hers over whom he has authority or ])ower. As the pui pose expressed may be that of the speaker, of the person addressed, or of the person spoken of, hence will arise the three following forms, viz. :— First Foiiii.-— Expressing the resolution of the spenker. It is my pur- pose or intention that — I mil wiite — you shall write— he shall write. Or, without a preceding clause : I will write — you shall write — he shall write. SxooND Form.— Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. It is your purpose, Ac, that— -I shall write — you will write— he shall write. Third Form. — ExpreEsing the resolution of the person spoken of. It \% bis purpose, Ac, that— I shall write — you shaXl write— he (him* self) will write— he (another) shall write. Th« fecond and third forms can not be used witJk^nt a preceding clani*. ENGLISH GRAMMAK. I I , \ / 337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose^ re«o/iiing, or repugnant, ahall is usei* with reference to the first perdon, even when others are represented as foretelling ; as — You seem to think ) .. ^ ( I ahall recover. He seems to fear J ( I shall not recover. Interrogatively respecting the future. 342. Shall is used interrogatively in the first and the second person, and will in the third ; as, ** Shall I arrive in time ?"— " Shall you be at hotne to-morrow ?" — " Will your brother be there ?" 343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided, though, unleaa, &o. — the adverbs wheUf whiU, until, after, before, avi«r. 349. Might and could express, in past time, the same ideas generally that are expressed by mav and aan in the present. They are ua^^ aa aux* iliaries in the past potential. 350. Might, before the subject, is alio used to express « wish; m, '^Might it but turn out to be no worse than this 1" 351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, m (i t In other words, the verb, in the active yoice, ezprewM the aei of its Rubjeot ; — in the paBsiye, it ezpreisss the ttmi$ of Its subject, as affected bj the net. la the active voice, the subject of the Terb.ac<«-— in the pasaivo, It is aeted upon* 370. It is manifest from these exatnplesi that whether we use the active or the passive voice, the meanioff is tlie snme, except in certain verbs in the present tense (600). The^e is the same act, the same actor, and the same object acted upon. The diiference is only in the form of expression. By the active voice, wo represent the subjeet as acting ; by the passive, as aeted upon— Witli tlie active voice, the actor in the nmninative cote is (he subject of tlie verb (76U) ; with the passive, the actor is in the objective case after a prepofiition (818). — In using the active voioe, the object acted upon is in the objective case, govei'ued by the verb (801); in using the passive, the object is in the nominative cose, as the subject of the verb. 371. It is manifest, also, that when we know the aot done, the person or thing doing it, and tliat to which it is done, we can always, by means of the two voices, express the fact in two different ways; thus, *'God created the world ;*' or, " The world was created by Qod" Also— 372. When tho active voice is used, we may sometimea omit the object ; thus, we can say, "John reads," without saying what he reads (828) ; and when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or aotor{ thus, we can say, **The letter is written," without stating by tiAom. 373. Hence, the following advantages arise from these two forms of expression :— 1. Wo can, by the form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the actor, or to that which is aeted upon — to the former, by using the aotive voice— "God treated the world" — to the latter, by using the passive— "The WORLD was created by Qod." 2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we either do not linow, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, bv whom the act was done. Thus we can say, "The glass is broken," thougn we do not know who broke it ; or if we know, do not wish to tell. 8. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice of expression, and ma^jr, at pleasur^ use that which to ue appears the most perspicuous, convenient, or elegant. 374. Intraneitive verbs can have no distinction of voiee, because they have no object which cnu be used as the sul^ect in the paisive. Their form is generally active ; os, " I stani;" " I rim.*' A few are used also in the passive form, but with the siome sense as in the active; as, "He it come ;" " They are gone ;" equivalent to, " He Aas come," " They have gone." 375. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and so mpti- Ue of a passive form— 1. By the addition of another word: thos, "I laugh^ is intransitlTe ; " I Uiugh srf (him)" is transitive ; passive, <* He it laughtd at (by me)." .■.•*i^ STTMOLOaT — YSRBS— MOODS. 69 In parting suoh exanaples, it la cenenlly better in the aotire voice, to parse the words separately— /ati^A, as an intransitive verb, and at as a preposition, foUowea bj its object ; but in the piissive voieo, they must bo parsed together as one word — a transitive verb, in the passive voice. 2. Intransitive verbs are transitive, vben followed by a noun of similar sfgaification as the object; as, intransitive, " I run ;" transitive, active " I run a raoe ;" passive, ** A raoe i§ run by me." 8. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a cauuuHve sense ; that is, vhen they denote the eauting of that act or state which the verb properly expresses ; as, " Walk your horse round the yard." — " The pro- prietors run a stagensoach daily." Passivoly, "Yovr horse wat walktd [made to walk] round the yard."—" A stage>ooaoh %$ run [made to run] daily by the proprietors." Intransitive verbs, used in this way, are called Oaubativks. 4. Ma IV verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which the passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field ploughn weU">-<* These lines read smoothly "— " This fruit tatttt bitter "— " Linen wtart better than cotton." The idea here expressed is quite different from that expressed by the passive form: '""bis field is well ploughed'^ — *' These lines are smoothly read.** E^ .diimes, however, the same idea is expressed by both forms : thus, " Wheat $*U» rcsdilv," or, " i$ told readily at an advanced priee." (Expressions of this Idna are usually made in French by the reflected verb; thus, "Oe oharop $e labour* bien," — "Oes lignes ««7»MM dent on, another verb expressed or understood. " If he Mtttdy, he will improve." — " [I wish] that thou wert," Ae. 385. The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indioaiive in the present tense only ; in the verb to be in the present and past. 386. Both the indicative and the potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, are . sed subjunctively ; that is, they are used to express what IB conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on another verb ; as^ " If he sleeps, he will do well."—" He would si> if he eould" (go), 387. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood, which has the subjunctive forpi. When the indicative or potential is used sub- junctively, it should be so stated. "~^"-^Y / ; ETYMOLOGY — TERBB — MOODb. ft MkliTe in the 388. The conditionality or contingency, «bo., expressed by thia mood, is usually intimated by such oonjunotiooB as if, though, U»l, unlcns, $o, (be, prefixed, which, however, make no part of the vevb. 389. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary befote the subject or nominative ; as, "Hadl," for " J/ / had"—" Were he," for "If he were''— ** Had he aone,"— {or '* If he had gone"— " Would he b\xi reform," for *' If he would but reform^' Ac. 390. Some grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that the supplement may always be made ; thus, " If he Hludy," &o., that is, " if he shall (or should) study,'^ Ac.—*' Though he [should] come," Ac. This view is plausible, and may apply to the present tense of the sub* junctive in most cases ; but it will not apply to the past subjunctive of the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we might say, " If I should be," for "If I be," yet we cannot say, "If I should were •** and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form seems to be indispensable; os, " See tbou do it not"— -"If he do but ti;y, he will suooeed." Still, — 391. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling greatly into disuse. Tlie tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only when it has a future reference ; as, " If he come [viz., at a future time] he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by saying, " If he eimies^ (^06), " If he shall come " — or, " If he should come " — and one or other of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present_subjunctivr was used, whether it had a future )ect to the 13 present 892. The Imperatite mood commands^ exhorts, en- treats, or permits ; as, " Do this " — " Remember thy Creator"— "Hear, O my people" — "Go thy way" (696). 393. The Infinitiye mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a general manner, without any distinction of person or number ; as, to love, 394. The inficv.'.ve is often used as a verbal noun (866, 867) in the nominative case, as the subject of a verb ; as, " To play is pleasant.'* Or, in the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition ; as, « Boys love toplay'*—*' He is about to go'*—^ What went yc out /or to see 7 " 395. The infinitive mood generi^ly has no subject ; yet the act, beings or state, express ^d by it, is referable to some word connected with it. Thus, in the above exa/nples, to play is referable to beys ; to go is the act of Ae, Ac.^See Appendix ^' I. p. 250, 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 396. But when the infinitiye as a subject has its own subiect, it is in the objective case, introduced by /or; as, "For us to lie, is base." But when the infinitive with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, that subject in the objective case needs no connecting word ; as, '^ We believe him to be nncere." Here, him is the subject of to be, and the whole clause, " him to be sincere " — ■ " that he is sincere " is the object of " be- liete » (872). 397. The infinitive active by an anomaly not uncommon in other lau" guages, is sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, " Tou are to blame " (to be blamed) — " A house to let " — *' A road to make " — " Qoods made to sell "— " Kniyes to grind," Ac. TENSES. • 398. Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which serve to point out the. distinctions of time. 399. Time is naturally divided into the past, the present, and the future The past includes all that goes before the present ; the future includes all that comes after the present ; and the present, strictly speaking, is the point in which the past and future meet, and which has, itself, no space or continuance. In grammar, however, the present is not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a greater or less period of which the passing instant forms a part; as, this moment, hour, day, week, &e. In each of these, an act, &c., may be expressed, either simply and indefinitely as present, or definitely as completea ; and these are expressed by different forms of the verb called tenses. Hence— 400. The tenses in English are six — the Present^ the Present-perfect y X^-^ Pasty the Past-perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect.* 401. Of these, the present and the past, in the indicative mood, and the present in the subjunctive, are simple tenses, consisting of the verb only ; as, " I love ** — " 1 loved" All the rest are compound, consisting of the auxiliary and the verb ; as, *' I ham loved." TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 402. The Present tense expresses what is going on at the present time ; as, " I love " — " I am loved,'*'' * 'f he past tense in English does not correspond to the imperfect iu Latin or Oreek, but rather to the Ort^k Aoriat. There is, therefore, no propriety in retaining the name imper/eet. The Latin imperfect corresponds precisely to the past-progressive in Bnglisn (S06). So, also, the present-perfect does not correspond precisely to the Latin perfect, as that is used in an indefinite sense, like the Greek Aorist, and also in a deflnlte sense, like the English present-petfeot. The past-perfect corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin. The future tmd. ihe jUture-perfeet in English corres- pond to the tenses of the same name in Latin.— see Latin Grammar, § 44. BTTMOLOO Y — VERBS — TBNS£S . 78 403. This tense is used ulso to express what is habitual, or alitayi true ; as, "He goes to church" — *' Virtue is its own reward " — ** Vice produces misery." 404. It is used, in animated Darration, to express past events with force and interest, as if they were present ; as, '* Craaar leaves QanI, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy " (1046, 6). 405. It is used sometimes instead of the present-perject tense, in speak- ing of authors loi^ since dead, when reference is made to their worlca which stil! exist ; as, " Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abra- ham '*— " Virgil imitates Homer ;' instead of •' ha* told," " has imitated." 406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before, if, as soon as, after, tillt and also after relative pronouns, to express the relative time of a future action, thai is, of an action future at the time of speaking, but which will be present at the time referred to ; as, " When he comes, he will be welcome " — " Wo shall get onr letters as soon as the post arrives''—** He will kill every one [whom] he meets,** Ac. " No longer mourn fur me when I am dead.** — Shake. 407. The Present-perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time, or in a period of which the present forms a part ; as, " I have sold my horse " — " I have walked six milel^ to-day " — " John has been busy this week " — " Many good books have been jnUfliahed this century." See 912. 408. The o'^ of the present-perfect is Aave— 'inflected, have, host, has, or hath. 409. In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ogo the act re- ferred to may have been performed, if it was in a period reaohing to and embracing the present, or a part of which is not yet past ; as, ** Many discoveriet in the arts have been made since the days or Bacon," that is, in the period reaching from that time to the present. On the other hand, if the tiiiae of an act mentioned is past, and docs not include the present, this tense ean not be used however near the time may be. Thus, we oan not properly say, " I have seen your friend a moment ago ;' but, " I saw your friend,*' 4e. 410. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through a period of time reaching to the present ; as, " He has studied grammar six months " — ** He has been abeent [now] six years." 411. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the refer- ence is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and still existing ; as, ** Cicero hoe written orations " — ** Moses has told us many important fads in his writings"— "Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." Sut if the thioff completed does not now exiftt, or if the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this tense oan not be used ; thus*, we can not say, *' Cicero has written poems," becaose no studi productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God iS*V-*^ ^«^l 74 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. hai created the heavens," because reference ia only to the act of God at a certain past time indicated by the words, " In the beginning." 412. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the future- perfect, to represent an action, have written yesterday (921). Nor can we say, ** I hoped — ^I desired — I intended, Ac. — to have written yesterday," because an act regarded as perfeot or finished, the doing of which, of course, is past, can n<^ be the objeot of ftops, desire^ intention^ Ac. We should say, " I hoped fs write yesterday" (920). * The word preeent la omitted before ner/act in dedgnatlng this tense in the i»- JMtive and parUeipU*, becanse the refarence in tibese is only to the st«t4 of ttie act, 4c, and not particttlarly to the present time (tfe). :■ 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PARTICIPLES. -/ 4B2. A Participle is a word which, as a verb, ex- presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, " The man came seeing " — ^^ Having finished our task, we may play." See 494, 407* 453. Partioiple* are to cnlled, because they belong partly to the verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they nave tignification, toUt^ and ttnee ; and they perform the office of the latter. 454. Verbs have three participles — the present^ the past^ and the perfect; as, loving^ loved, having loved, in the active voice; and being loved, loved, having been loved, in the passive. See 494, 507. 455. The partioiples, taken by themselvea, like the infinUiyei do not flo properly denote the time of an notion, as its atate; whi! . i,he time of the act, whether progresaive or fioiBhed, is indicated by tiie verb with which it is oonneoted, or by some other word \ thus, " I saw him toriiing yester- day ;" " I see him writing now ;" " I will see him writing to*morrow." In all these examplea, writing expresses an act present^ and still in pro- greu at the time referrad to; but with respect to the time of speaking, the act of writing, expressed in the first example, is past ; in the second, it UpreeeiU; and in the third, it wfuture^ as indicated by the aeoompanying verbs, eaw. tee. mil see. 456. The present participle active ends always in ing. In all verba it hM an active signification, and denotes an action or state as continuing and progressive ; as, ". Jamea is building a house." In some verbs, it has alsd a passive progressive signification : as, " The house is building,*' Ap- pendix Vni. p. S62. 457. This usage, some suppose, has its origin in the use of the verbal noun after in, to express the same idea ; thus, " Forty and six years was tliis temple in building ;** ** And the house when it was in buuding was built of stone made reader— so that there was neither hammer nor Axe heard in the house, while it was in buUding." In the absence of emphasis, Uie tn being indistinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be writteOi a; as, " While the ark was a preparing^ (1 Pet.iii. 20), and finally to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have in the expresslens, a going, a running, a hunting, a fitking, &a. Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an original idiom of the Umgaage, •imuar to the passive use of the infinitive active noticed before (397). But whether either of these is the true account of this matter or not, the fact Is certain. It is therefore the duty of thegrammarian to note the fact, though be may be unable to account for it. l^e following are examples : '' This new tragedy was aetvugr-'E. Everett, « An attempt waa making*"'^D, Wehettr. <^ The fortress wae (ttOcKng," rei)co of mcaniog with respect to the time or state of the action ns the present indicntivo pasHivu (fiOO). 459. The Pait participle hiis the same form In both voices. In the active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has always nn nolivo senso — f»rinn, with the auxilinries, the Pres'zntperfeot and Pust'perfect tenses — and is never found but tlius oombined ; as, "has loved" "hiid loved," &c. In the pastive voici It has always a paasive sense, and, with the verb to be as an auxiliary, forms the passive voiea ; 08, " He is loved;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, " A man loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the a'^tive and the passive participle will be seen in the following examples, vis.: Aormi— "Ho has co*icealed a dagger under his oloak ;" I'lsaivx — " He has \ dagger conceited under his cloak." 460. The Perfect participle is always compound (47*7), and represent* an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It haa always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense in the passive : as, Active : "Having finished our task, we may play." Passivs : '* Our ta»k having been finished, we may play." 461. Tho Present participle active, and the Ptut participle passive, when separated from the idea of time, become adjerlives, and are usuailr called participial adjectives ; as, *' An amuiing sU/rj "— " A bound book '* (202-4). 462. The partioiple in ing is often used as a nirbal noun (107-8), har* ing the nominative and the objeotivo casa, but not the posseesivOi Id this character, the partioiple of a transitive verb may still retdn the goTem* ment of the verb ; as, " In keeping hii commandment§ there Is % great reward ;" or, it may be divested of It by inserting ao artiele before i^ and the preposition of after it ; as, " In Me keeping of his ecmunandmenis." When of follows the participle, the or a {an) should precede it (890). Bat q/'oan not be used before a preposition. 463. So also the Perfect partioiple ; as, " There is satisfaction in having done well " — " His having done his duty, was, afterward, a source of satis- faction." NUMBER AND PERSON. 464. Every tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Singular and tho Plural, corresponding to he singular and the plural of nonns and prononnib The singular asserts of one ; the plural, of more than one, 465, In each number, tliO verb has three Pxbsoms, called the firtt, ucond and third. The first asserts of the person epioking; the seoond, of Am person tpoktn to; and the third, of the periOQ or thing tpokm of. dO BirOLISH GRAMMAR. 4C6. The sabject of the verb, in the first persoD siogular. i« always /| in the plaral, we; in the aecond pereon singular, thou^ in the [dural, ye or you; in the third person, tho subject is the name of any person or thing spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in its stead ; also, it may be an infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, or any thing of which a person can think or speak (162). 467. In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the second person, because a command, exhortation^ tbc, can be addressed only to the person or persons spoken to. 468. In such expressions as *'Let us love** — *'Let him lovi,'*'^"Let them ^e,"— -phrases by which the first and the third person of the imperative in somo languages are rendered — let is the proper imperative, in the second person^ with thou or ye as its subject understood, and love the infin> itive without the sign (Sll). Thus, <* Let ithou} us [to] love," Ac 469. This mode of expression is som ^times used, even when no definite individual is addressed ; as, " Let there be light." 470. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a first and a third penKMi in the imperative ; as, ** Confide toe in ourselves alone** — "With virtue he we armed." — Hunt's Tasso, '* And rest we here, Matilda said." — Scott, **Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm, And live the rest secure from future harm."— Pope. "Laugh those that can, weep those that may." — Scott. 471. Suob expressions as "Hallowed be thy name" — "Thy kingdom come *' — " fie it enacted " — " So be it," <&e., may be regarded either as exau> pies of tb« third person in the imperative, or as elupUesl for "Mctyt* ot, '*Ut thy name be hallowed "—** Let it be enacted"—** Let it be a^** ^ '. 473. Th« infittitive, because it usually has no subject (872), has nUtber number nor person. CONJUGATION. 478. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- nation and arrangement of its several voices^ moods, tenseSy numbers, and perse :«.* 474. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms — the Common and the Progressive. See Appendix VIIL, I., 1, p. 862. ^ *lHVXAOTioir properly speaking, is the mskina of those chancss of fttrm which the verb undergoes in its several parts ; Ooi\iiiKation is the combtning or arranicinff ofthMe forms in the several voiets^ moods, ttnses, numbers, and persons, to wSldE thegr Belong. Both are usually included under th^ term eonjuffntum^ ETYMOLOOY — VERB — CONJUGATION. 81 Cbmmofi and 1 . The Common form expresses the simple existeDce of the fact ; as, " He tpeaki "— " She urritei "— " They talk." 2. The Progrurive form rnpreseDts an action as begun, and in progress^ bat not completed. It is formed by annexing the present participle to (he verb '* to bt," through all its moods and tenses ; as, " / am writing!' Ac. (606). 475. Besides these, there is in the present and the past indioative, a third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with emphasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the auxiliary do, in the pres- ent tense, and did, in the past; aa, "1 do write" — "I did write." The other tenses, and also the pro|;resfliye form and passire voice are rendered emphatic, by placing empnasis on the auxiliary; as, "I have written"— **Iam writing"— "The letter i» writtten." 476. To these may be added, the toltmn form of the third person tin- gular, present indicative, ending in th, or eth, instead of the common, in a or M. Thus — solemn form, loveth, hath loved; common, lovee^ haa loved^ 477. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an auxiliary, are called SmPLX tenses ; those inflected with an auxiliary placed before the past participle, are called Compound tenses. 478. The only regular terminrtions added to Terbs are — 1. The terue endingt: ed of the past tense and past participle (826 and note); and tild have, would huvt \ould have. — Inflect with each. 1. I might have been. 1. //e might have been. 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been. 8. He might have been. 3. They might have been. * CVm Aovf M an MuUiary, Is not used in infflnnaiive sentences. Plural. 1. We may be. 2. You may be. 3. They may be. 84 ENOLTSH GRAMMAR. Singuff"-. 1. I^ '' 5 >ie. 2. Ir thou be. 3. It lie be. 1. If I were. 2. If thou wert, or were. 3. If he were. Singular. 1. Be, or be thou. P&ESENT TENSE. To be. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). PlurcU. 1. If we be. 2. If you be. 3. if they ..'i. PAST TENSE. L If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If they were. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Plural, 2. Be, or be ye or you. INFINITIVE MOOD. FEBFECT TENSE. To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 487. All the tenses of the indicative, and ah<»4f the potential mood are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunctipn before them, thus : Present—'' It I am,' "If thou irt," " If he is," &o. (886). Present-perfect --" If I have been," Ac. Past—" If I was," &c. 488. The verb to he, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular future tense, which often expresses dutyt necessity, or purpose : 'u*. " Government u to be supported" — "We are to pay cur debts 'f we were to depend on others "=" If we should depend," Ac. (B1b~d). 489. This verb has no progressive form. The emphatic form is used only in the imperative ; as, "Do thou be" — *' Do you be." Anomalous Usage. 490. Were is sometimes uaed for would be ; and had been, for would have beeUf as, "This were excellent avfvicc." — Cowley. "It were a folly."— Sidney. " My fortune had been his," lor would have been (868).— Dryrfen. m , I • • . .1 . II I I I ■ • The corj'juctions, if, though, lest, unless, Ac, do not form part of the sub- junctive IP vi', but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388). \I'he pupil inny ro orer the iuf!icativ{», as a subjuuctlvet with om or other of these oonJuuctiouM prelkecL ETYMOLOGY— TEB 7^— CON JCJGATION. 85 PARSING. 4nT A verb is parsed by stating its class (trans^ldve or intransitive) its form (resfular or irregular), conjugating it if irregular* (485), and stating its tense, mood^ voicCy person^ and number^ and also the subject of which it affirms ; thus, "He is." — h is a verb, intransitive, irregular— om, wa$, hem — found in the present, indicative, active — tliird person, singular, and affirms of its subjeot he. 492. Besides stating the several properties of the verb, a? above, the teacher may occasiooally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exer- cise, to assign a reason for each statement ; thus, — •' Is — a verb, because it affirms being or existence of " He" intransitive — it has no object. irregular — its past tense and past participle do not end in «rf— am, was, been. present — it refers to the present tinoe. indicative — it declares simply and without limitation. active~\tB subject is not acted upon. third person — its subject is spoken of. singular-^M asserts of but one, ' lie." As this process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is famiUar with it, aod prompt in assigning the reasons as above. SENTENCES, 493. NOMINATITK. 1. A sentence is an affirmation and must contain a verb, in the indica- tive, potential, or subjunctive mood, by which he affirmation is made ; and a subject, of which the verb affirms. The subject is generally a noun or pronoun, in the nominative case ; thus, the sentence, " God is good," coutiiins an affirmation. The verb is affirms of the noun God, which is of course its subject, and in the nominative case. 2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain u command; exhortation, &c. The subject is that to wbich the command is given (117). 8. The subject of a verb, except in the infinitive mood, is always in the nominative case. 4. When that which is affirmed of a subjeot in the nominative case, is something expressed by a noun or pronoun after the verb to be, that noun or pronoun is always in the nominative case, and called the predicate- nominative, or nominative rfter the verb; as, "Socrates was a philoaO' * In parsing, it will save time to omit conjuKating the verb when it is regular, and it 18 unnecessary, because its being annotiuced to be regular sufficiently ascer- tains ita principal parts. All irregular verV)s should be conjugated as in 513. Every teacher, however, will adopt the oourso which he prefers. 86 ETOLMH QRAMMAR. pher.'* Hero philosopher ia Id the predioatfi-nomio. live, aod expreMce what tbe verb *' was" affirms of its suDJeot, " Socrates.'* See 790. EXERCISES. 1. State tk« tense, moodf person, and numbi}' of the rerb " to &V in the following exampl 08 ; thus, "Jim,^' present, indloative, active, first person singular. 2. Parse nil the words. Thus, " .^m," a verb, Intransitive, irregular— am. was, been — in tbe present, indicative, active, first person iiqguUr;— (491), and the pronouns as directed (268). Am ; ia ; art ; I was ; we were ; they are ; you Hare been ; she had been ; he was ; we will be ; they shiall be ; we had been ; hast been ; hadst been ; wast. We may be ; they may have been ; he might be ; you miffht have been ; you must be ; they should have been ; if I be ; thou wert ; though he were ; if I had been ; though I were ; if we could have been ; they might be. Be ; to be ; do thou be ; be ye ; to have been ; being ; been ; having beeTi ; be thou. CONJUGATION OP THE REGULAR VERB "TO LOVE." 494. The regular transitive verb " To love " is in- flected through all its moods and tenses as follows :— - AC'flVB VOICE. PniNOIPAL rAHTS. Past, loved. Past participle, loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENS'!:.* Plural. 1. "NVelove. 2. You love. Present, love. Singular, 1. I love. 2. Thou lovest. .1. He loves {or loveth). 3. They love. *«M?HATI0 rORMS. 1. I do love. 8. Thou dost love. 3. He does love (or doth love). 1. 1 did love. 2. Thou didst love. 3. Ho did love. VTAEitV:^ TBX8I. nfWM rij;irsB. i. We do love. 8. You do lovo. 3. They do love. 1. We did love, a. You did love. 3. They did love. BTTMOT.OOY— yBSB— CONJUG ATION . m PBunnvpiRf EOT Tsmi. Sigo, hmtt, 1. t have loved. 1. We have loved. 2. Thou hatt loved. 2. You have loved. 3. He haa loved. 3. They have love^. 1. I loved. 2. Thonlovedat. 3. He loved. FAIT nma. 1. We loved. 2. You loved. 3. Thay loved. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. I had loved. Thou hadat loved. He had loved. PAtr-PIBVCOr TEKtB. Sign, had, 1. We had loved. 2. You had loved. 3. They had loved. POTU&a TKMSB. SIgDt, thallf ict//.~Inflect with each. I shall love. 1. We ahall love. Thou Bhalt love. 2. You »hall love. Heahalllove. 3. They ihall love. irOTUBK.PBarBCT TBiraa. Sign*, thatt hafHf toUl have. — Infleot with eaob. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. He shall have lovod. 3. They shall have loved. POTENTIAL MOOD, pannrr niisi. Signs, may, can^ mtif^— lofleot with each. Singular, Plural, 1. I may love. 1. We may love. 2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 3. He may love. 3. They may love* PaUBMT-PCB7K0T TBMSK* Signs, may have, can have^* mutt Aave.— Inflect with CMoh. 1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 3. He may have loved. 3. Tliey may have loved. * Can hav9, as »n siaiUai^, U not iiaed In tuSUrDUktive se n twuass. 88 EiraLISH GRAMMAR. PAST TKKBK. Signs, might, would, could $hould. — Infleot vriih «acb. 1. I might love. ' 1. We might love. 2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 3. He might love. 3. They might love. rAST-PKimCT TKN8B. Signs, might have, could have, vxndd Aave, thotUd have. — Tnfleot with eicli. 1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 2. Thou mightit have loved. 2. You might have loved. 3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. Singular^ 1. If I love. 2. If thou love. 3. If he love. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). PBBSKKT TBN8B (485). Plural. 1. If we love. 2. If you love. 3. If they love. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pbbsknt, To love. Perfect, To have loved. PARTICIPLES. PsESEirr, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 495. PIlELIMINART ORAL EXERCISE. Review the ezerclBe (824), and then proceed thus : — When you say, "John loves learning," which word expresses what John doet 7 Whnt part of speech are words which express the act of a person or thing (814) f Then what part of speech is lovee ? Why t Whose act does loves express t llien what is John to the verb hvts (816) ? Then John is the subject of loves. What is it said that John loves? Learning. What does John do to learning? Of what class are verbs which express what one person or thing does to another (817)1 Is loves, then, transitive or intransitive? Transitive. Conjugate love (486). What is its past tense? — its past p«rtioi|de? In what do they end ? Of what form are verbs which have the past tense and the past participle ending in sd (.S26)? Then is love regular or irr^- iplar ? Regular — eoi\jugated, love, loved^ loved. JCTYMOLOOY — VEIIB— CONJUGATION. 89 (Do all rerbs form the put t«oi« and the pait participle by adding ed f Let us try. Is it right to say, " / go ?" Would you say, " I goed to church yesterday V What would you say t What are thoee^ verbs called which do not add ed to form the past tense ond the past participle (827) t Then is " go " regular or irregular f Why ?) When yon say, " John loves learning," does lovet express a present, a past, or a future act f When a verb expresses a present act, in what tense IS it (402) t In what tense, then, is lovet ? Present. Why f (What would yon say, to expntss the same act as past! — as future! Then what tense is loved?^unll lov6 ?) When you say, " John loves learning," do you declare a fact timply, or with any limitation ! What mood declares an act simply (878) I Then what mood is lovee ? Indicative. In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is acted upon ! What voice represents the subject aa aoting (808) ! Then what voice is loves ? Is John represented here as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of? What person represents the subject as spoken of (465) ! Then what person is loves ? Third p^^rsoo. Does loves asiiert the act of one person, or of more thru one ! What number asserts of one (464) ! Then what number is loves { Singular. 496. The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order, thus ; ^Loves^ — a verb, transitive, regular, conjugated love, loved, loved — found in the present indicative, active, third person singular, and expresses the act uf '*John." This is called pabsino, in which the same order of statement ehould be observed. 497. This may be extended, by giving the reasons of each statement, as follows: " LoTss" — a verb, because it expresses an act of its subject (814). transitive, because it expresses an act that josses over from the actor— JoAn to an object learning (319). regular, because its past tense and past participle end in ed, conjugated, luve, loved, loved (486). present,— it expresses what John does now (402). indicativ4,— -it expresses the act simply (378). active, — it represents its subject as acting (368). third piirson, — its subject is spoken of (466). ttnguZar,~it asserts of only one (464). EXERCISES, NO. I. Inflect the following irregular verbs in the same manner as the verb "to love :'*->taki;tg care to use the past participle in the compound tenses (477). r r r r Present. Past. Past Participle. Go went gone Write wrote written 5? did done giv« gave riven Have had had ■WOLISH GRAMMAR. EXEROISES, NO. II. 1. In the foUowipg exorcise, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and number, and always in this order, thus: " Luvet" — Present, indicatire, active, third person, singular. 2. In the Imperative, omit the terue, andsajr thus, " Love thuu" — Imper- ative, active, seeond person, singular. 8. In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, and say thus, <* 7b ^e"— Present, infinitive, active ; " Loving" — Present parti- ciple, active. N. B. — The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helpR to show its person and number. The auxiliaries ( or Hgru) are not taken separate- ly, out always with the verb ; so that the two ufords^ and sometimes . '/ W Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 872-4503 -^^^,^ # ENOLISH OLAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. J/'thou do not love, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. 2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pbesent. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved. PARTICIPLE. Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. Perfect. Not having loved. Interrogative form of the Verb. 502. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominatiye or subject after the simple form ; as, " Lovest thou ? '* and between the auxiliary and tlie verb in the "compound forms ; as, " Do I love?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed between them ; asi "Shall I have loved?" 503. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can not have the interrogative form. 504. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interrogative form . — Present. Pres.-Perf. Past. Past- Pbrf. Future. Fut.-Perf. INDICATIVE MOOD. Do I love ! 2. Dost thou love ? &c. 2. Hast thou loved ? inc. a, 2. Didst thou love ? r«flx«d. 96 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. PfiRrEcr, Having been loved. OBSERVATIONS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 508. The passive voioe, in the fiuite moods, properly affirms of the subject the receiving of the act performed by the uotor ; and in all tenses, except the present, expresses passively the same thing that is expressed by the same tense in the active voice : thus, ** Caesar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul ioas conquered by Ocesar," express the same thing. Hence, the subject of the verb in the passive voice, is the object of the act, i.e., it ia acted upon by the actor (869). 509. The present-passive has a somewhat different meaninsr in different verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress— in others, as now completed. In the former, it expresses passively the preseut contin- uance of the action, just as the present active does. Thus, " James loves Robert," and " Rol)ert is loved by James," express precisely the same thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses not the continuance, but the result of the act now finished, as a predicate of the suUect ; ai " The house is buUt ! " The act of building is here representeof not as continuing, but as completed; and the result of the act expressed by *^ built " is predicated of " house." 510. In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present'passive differs from that expressed by the present-active ; the latter expressing a con- tinuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in this class of verbs, can be expressed passively only when the participle in ing has a passive as well as an active sense (466). 511. There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form in the active voice, except where the participle in ing is used passivelv ; as, " The house is building." The form introduced within the last fifty years, and now defended by some grammarians, viz., " The house ti being ouilt," ought to be regarded only as a clumsy solecism. On this subject, see 467 and Appendix viu. p. 262. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. XXSaOISKS, NO. I. Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved^ 607. Present. Am commended, Am taught, Am told, Amplac9dy Past. was commended, was taught, wag told, was placed, Past participle. commended, taught, told, placed^ JCTYMOLOOY — VERBS— IRREOULAB. 97 EZER018K8, MO. D. 1. In the following exercises, tell the iente, mood^ voice, numhtTf aod ptr ton, and always in this order, viz. : " Is loved "—present, indioative, pasBiv* third person, singular. 2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus: "Be ye lored," im- J^erative, passive, second person, plural. 8. In the infinitive and participles, omit the person and number, andtay thus : " To be loved," present infinitive, passive. " Being loved," preaent participle, passive. Tiiey are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is loyed ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I have heen loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be loved ; thou will be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved ; you wi!l have been loved. He can be loved ; thou raayst be loved ; she must be loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have been loved ; if I be loved { thou wert loved ; we be loved ; they be loved. Be thou loved ; be ye loved ; you be loved. To be loved ; loved ; having been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 4. Put the above exercises, first in the negative fonn, and then^ in the indicative and potential mood, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 602). BXBROISES, NO. UI. Change the exercises (page 90) into the passive form. Write them oat, and then parse them ; thus, " We are loved hj him," dko. Put each exam- ple in (He negative form, and those in the indicative or potential, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 602). IRREGULAB VERBS. 512. An Irrcgular verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative active, and its past partici- ple, by adding ed to the present. 513. *•* The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verba in the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, aro marked wiUi an B. iThose in italics are obsolete, or obsolescent, and now Past participU. abode been arisen but little used : — Present. Past, Abide abode Am was Arise arose M' KNOLIAH UKAMMAR. M -. Prestnt, Aw&ke Bake Bear, to bring forth Bear, to carry Beat Begin Bend Bereave Beaeeoh Bid Bind, un Bite Bleed Blow Break ^ Breed Bring Build, re- Bum Burst Buy • Cast Oatoh Ohide Choose Oleave, to adhere Gleaye, to split Cling Clothe Come, he- Cost - Creep Crow Cut Dare, to venture Bare, to chaUengey ia B. dared Deal dealt 5« dug, E. Do, mis-un- did Draw drew Past. awoko, \{. baked boro. bare , bore, brte beat began bent, li. bereft, R. besought bid, bade bound bit bled blew broke, brake bred brought built, R. burnt, R. burst bought cast caught, R. chid chose cleaved, dave cleft, clove clung •lad, R. came cost crept crew, h. cut durst Past participle, awaked baked, haken born borne beaten, beat begun bent, R. bereft, II. besought bidden, bid bound bitten, bit bled blown broken, broke bred brought built, R. burnt, R. burst bought cast caught, R. * chidden, chid chosen cleaved cleft, R, cloven clung clad, R. come cost crept crowed cut dared dared dealt, R^ dug, E. done drawiv ■TTMOLOOY — VBRBS—- IRREGULAR. 99 Pri$ent, Dream Drink Drive Dwell Eat Fall, be- Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling Fly Forbear Forget Forsake Freeze Get, be-for- Gild Gird, he-en- Give, foT' mis- Go, under- Grave, en- R. Grind Grow Hang Have Hear Heave Hew Hide Hit Held, he- wUh- Hurt Keep Kneel Knit Know Pait. dreamt drank drove dwelt, R. ate, eat ftU fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbore forgot forsook froze got, gat gilt, R. girt, R. gave went graved ground grew hung had heard hove, R. hewed hid hit held hurt kept knelt, R. knit, R. knew Poit partieiph. dreamt, R. drank, drunk driven dweh^,, «. eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forborne forgotten, forg^ forsaken frozen gotten, got gilt, R. girt, R. given gone graven, graved gro>ind grown hung* had heard hoven, R. hewn, R. hidden, hid hit held, holden hurt kept knelt, R. knit, knitted known / * StMff, *jO take away Ufs by hangioff, Is resnlar, m, ** The robber wn htmg^dt but th« gown was hmnt vp> 100 BVOLISH OBAMMAB. Pnttnt. Pa$t. Pott parikifU, Lade, to load* laded laden Lay laid laid Lead, mis- led led Loave left left Lend lent lent Let let let Lie, to recline lay lain, lien Light lighted, lit lighted, lit Lose lost lost Make made made Mean meant meant Meet met met Mow mowed mown, R. Pay, r«- paid paid Pen, to e^tcloH pent, R. pent, R. Put put put Quit quit, R. quit, R. Read readf readf Rend rent rent Rid rid rid Ride rode, rid ridden, rid Ring rang, rung rung Rise, a- rose risen Rive rived riven, R. Run ran, run run Saw sawed sawn, R. Say said said See saw seen Seek sought sought Reethe seethed, sod seethed, sodden SeU sold sold Send sent sent Set, &<>- set set Shake shook shaken Shape, mis- shaped shapen, R. Shave shaved shaven, R. Shear sheared shorn, * Lade, to dip, is regular. tIhronouncedr<^. fryMOLOor— VB«1M— IBRXOCLAII. toi PreienK Patt, Past participle. Shed shed ■hed Shine ■hone, it. shone, R. Shoo flhod shod Shoot shot shot Show showed shown, R. Shrink shrunk, ihrank shrunk Shred shred shred Shut shut shut Sing ■ang, sung sung Sink sunk, $ank sunk Sit sat Eat Slay- slew slain Sleep slept slept Slide slid slidden, slid Sling slung, slang slung Slink slunk slunk sat slit slit, slitted Smite smote smitten Sow, to acaHer sowed sown, B. Speak, be- spoke, spake spoken Speed sped sped Spell ■pelt, B. spelt, B. Spend, mU' spent spent Spill spilt, B. ■pUt, B. Spin spun, span spun Spit, 6c- spit, spat spit Split split split Spread, be- spread spread Spring sprang, i^rung sprung Stand, w%th', dro. stood stood Steal «i stole stolen Stick •tuck stuck Sting Stink stung stunk or stank stung sttink Stride, de- vtrode, siarid stridden, strid Strike itruck struck, stricken String strung strung Strive strove striven Strew,* he- stretred strewed, strewn * SIrmo and «ft«i9 MO now Bifittg wur t« 4«row an d show, as they are pronoouoed. lot ■NOLISH ORAMMAK. Prtitnt, Pai>t. Pa$t participU. Strow, 6«- Btrowed strowed, strown Swear ■wore, fwavf sworn Sweat •woat, R. sweat, R. Sweep iwopt swept Swell swelled swollen, R. Swim swam or »wum swum Swing swung swung Take, 6e-, itc. took taken Teaoh, mit- re- taught taught Tear tore, tare torn Tell told told Think, be- thought thought Thrive thrived, throve thriven, R. Throw threw thrown Thrust thrust thrust Tread trod trodden, trod Wax waxed waxen, R. Wear wore worn Weave wove woven Weep wept wept Wet wet, B. wet, R. Whet whet, R. whet, R. Win won won Wind wound, R. wound Work wrought, B. wrought, R. Wring wrung, R. wrung Write wrote written DEFECTIVE VERBS. 514. A DErECTivB verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. The following list comprises the most important. They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary : — Pretent, Past. Preunt, Ptut, Oan could Shall should May might Will would Must Wia wist Ought Wit, ) Quoth quoth Wot ) Imperativt'-'BawBTe. wot ETVMOLOOY VKRBS— DRKBCTIVK. 103 515. Ought, origiiinlly thu piut t«nio of owt, \» now used to litn'^ry pro«ent duty ; niid muit to donot« pre»«nt obligntioii or uecetiity. Whfo they refer to pnst time, a chnnge li made In tho inflnitive with which I'u^j nro joinud ; tliiii, Present — " Theae tkingi ye ought to do ;" Pa$t — "ThcM things y<« ought to hnro done." (486 and 420). 516. Will, ns an nuxillRry, bus wilt, and $haU has thatt, in the lecood pertou Hiitgulnr. Tliey are. both without inflection in the third perioa singular. Will, m a principal verb, ii regular. 517. WU, wixt, which aignifies to know, to imagine, if now obsolete. Wit, of thu same meaning and origin, is now used only in the inflnitire, in tho plirawo, " to wit," that is, " namely." 518. Htware (properly be and ware, or wary) is now used only in the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary; as, '* Beware of him**— •• We should beware.'* 519. Qttoth, to $ay, to eptak, is URed only In ludicrous language; its noroinativo always comes after the verb, and it has no Tariatioo for per- son, number, or tense ; as, *' Qttoth he " — " Quoth they," Ac. To defectiro verbs jilso properly belong-— IMPERSONAL VERBS. 520. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the ex- istence of some action or state, but refer it to no parti- cular subject. They are always in the third person singular, and in English are preceded by the prononn it ; as, " It raim "— " It haUa "— " It behooves;^ &c. 521. To this class of words belong the expressions, meihinkt^ methought ; meseems, meseemed ; sometimes used for, " U Heme to me "•— " 1/ appeare to me" Ac. 522. The pronoun it preceding the imperconal verb m its subject, it (ha substitute of some unknown and general, or well-known oaose, the aetioD of which ie expressed by the yeth, but which can not, or need not, itself be named (246-6). EXERCISES. 1. Oonjugato the followins irregular yerbe (486 and 618), stating why they are uaTled irregular ; abo^ wuch are transitire, and which are intran* siUve and why (820-1) :— Take, drive, creep, beg^n, abide, buy, bring, arise, catcb, be- renye, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel. 104 ENOLI8H GRAMMAR. foFRake, grow, tav©, iiear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, tear. 2. Take the first three traneitive verbs of the preceding list ; coDJugnte and inflect them through all their moods and teusea id the active and in the passive voice. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. In the following exeroiees, parse the several words ; viz., the nonns at directed (182)— articles as (194)— adjectives rj (226) pronouns as (258) — and verbs as (491 and 49C). ^ .[The ^ords in Italics are prepositions, and the nouns or pronouns follow- ing them are in the objective case.] The wind shakes the trees. — The apples fell io the ground. — God created all things. — The heavens are the work of his hands. — Alexander the Great conquered many countries. — The sun shines. — The fields are covered with grain. — The crops are excellent. — The rivers run into the sea. — A good man shows pity to the poor (201). — The fear of the Lord is the beginning q/ wisdom. — Bemember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. — Time flies. — ^All things come to an end. — A bad man can not be happy. —Redeem time. — Do good to all men. — Truth is mighty. 8. Form a list of (en nouns ; say something respecting each ; and parse the lentenees so formed, as above. ADVFRBS. 528. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- tive, or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some circumstance respecting it ; as, " Ann speaks distinctly ; she is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly J^"^ 824. An adverb is generally equivalent to a modifying phrase, or ad- Hence, sidverbs and adverbial adjuneta are often used iudiscrimluatelj in taiodi!ying verbs, adjeetivfs, and adirerbs. KTYMOLOOT— A DTERB9. 105 » 525. On the samg principle that an adverb modlfldi khbther Adrerb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a phrase, or a tentenee ; as, " I met your brother rAKfrom home"—'*B.e will be here soon after midday ^^-^ " We shall go immediately after the mail arrives'* 526. A few adverbs are Eometimei used as adjuncts of nouns and pro* nouns ; as, I only [that ' 7, and no one else] am escaped alone to tell thee."— "The women < j were present," that it, the wf abid, t{float, dic^ « 'th them. Some^times it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too •trmig to admit of other words being spoken. A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 567. The following is a list of the interjections most commonly used. They express various kinds of emotions, but in so vague and indefinite a way, as not to admit of accurate classification :— - Ah ! alas ! O ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush ! pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! fie ! avaunt ! ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzea ! bravo ! hist ! hush ! hdgho ! heyday ! hail 1 lo ! welcome ! halloo ! adieu ! <&c. 558. Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an uneonneoted and forcible manner, to express emotion, are called inter- jeetions ; as, nonsense ! strange i wonder/ul ! shocking ! what I behold ! off! away ! hark ! come ! well done ! welcome ! &c. 559. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be pre- fixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " O Virtue ! now amiable wou art 1" Oh is used detached Arom the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh ! what a sight is here !" PARSING. &60* An interjection is parsed by stating the part of speech, why, and the emotion expressed ; as, "Oh ! what a sight is here !" Oii->aD interjeotioD, because used as an exclamation, and expresses a^ emotion of iwin. ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 113 CONJUNCTIONS. bSl. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects words, phrases, or sentences ; as, " He and I must go, but you may stay." — " Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things." 562. Here, and connects the wordo He ami /, and but ooDnects the sen- tences, " He and J mu$t go," and *' you may etay" 363. Conjunctions aoinotimes begin sentences, even after a full perio conjunction, and connects the sentences^ " He and I must go," and "yc •\y stay." 573. FBELIMINABY ORAL EXEBOISE. When we say, " John and James study," what word connects John and James! * What claia of words connect words or setitencea t What part of speech is and 7 In the sentence, " Juhn reads and writet*,'' what duos and connect t What does and connect in the following phrased, " A red and white rose " — " A red rose and a white rose " — " Well and truly said I" What oonjunction connects the following sentences, "They are happy, because they are good"! Here the following facts may be noticed (V46, Ac): — 1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they aro in tbo same case, and in the same construction. 2. When two verbs are connected, they have the same subject; as. "James reads and writes." 8. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the same noun or pronoun. 4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word, 6. When oooj unctions connect sentences, they do not connect individual words in the sentence. Thus, *' They are happy, because they are good," the conjunction does not connect they with they, nor are with are, nor happy with good; but, "They are happy," with "they are good." So also when they connect phrases: "He spok6 to James, and to me " — ** Of him, and through him; and to him, are all things." EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS. 1. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, jind state what words, or sentences, or phrases, they connect. Sometimes the order is so inrerted, that the conjunctive clause stands first. 2. Parse the words in their order. Time and tide wait for no man. — The evening and the morn- ing Were the first day. — The memory of the just is hiessed, but l^e name of the wicked shall rot. — ^If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. — Two and two make four. — George or John will go. — They will succeed because they are industrious. — Because they are industrious they will succeed. Of him, and through him, and to him, are all thiugs. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the fiesh. — My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. STTMOLOOY — PARBIITO. 115 ID tbo same PARSING. 574. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech. 575. Word, may be parsed in two ways : Etymologi- cally (576), and Syntactically (983). 1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and deri- vation, if derived. 2. Syntactical parsing adds to the above a statement of the relation in which the words stand to each other, and the rules according to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 8. Id the oatural order, Etymological parsing should precede Jnalysia, because we can not analyze a seutenco before we havo learned the char- acter of the words it contains; and Jlnalysia should precede Syntactical parsing, because, till we know the pnrts and elements of a sentence, wo can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. Still, these are all so intimately connected and blended together, that to do any one of them in the best manner, a knowledge of all is necessary. As Etymological parsing has to do only with the accidenti of words, it matters not whether the words parsed are unconnected, or in sentences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical parsing, not only must the words constitute a sentence, but that also must be both intelligible and understood ; for no one can either analyze or parse syntactically that which he does not understand. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 576. Words are parsed etymological ly in the manner directed under each part of speech, viz. : Nouns (182) —articles (194) — adjectives (226) — pronouns of differ- ent kinds, viz., personal (263), relative (278), interrog- ative (286), adjective (313)--verbs (491 and 496)— adverbs (637) — prepositions (565) — interjections (660) —conjunctions (672). "^ S77. That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercise, is of mooh importance, m order to pursue with pleasure and success the study of Syntax, and to a correct underatanding of the forms and usages of speech in the English language. 4 > 116 ENGLISH ORAMMAR; !i > i': ii 578. A anttiic* to be parsed mutt be intellif^ible, and it is neceseary for tbo pupil, in (he first piano, to understand it. When he uudemtands a sen* tence, nnd nito the definition of the different parts of speech ffivcn in the grnmmar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertnining to wiiich of (hem enoh word belongs; ihat is, which of the words are "names of things " or nouni} which *' qualify the names of things," or, "affirm nnjlhing conoeru* ing them," that is to say, wliioh words are adjectivei, and which are verbs. This method will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, engage his attention mueh more, and, on tnaf, be found much more easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every occasion — a Elan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, instead of leading im to exercise his own powers, and depend on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish dependence on the authority of others. 579. The following general principles should be remembered, and stead* ily kept in view, in parsing every sentence, viz. :— 1. Every adjective qualiOet or limits a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood (1 95, and 1 06). 2. The subject of a verb, that is, (he person or thing spoken o/, is Always in the nominative (except when the verb is in the lnfinitivo)i and said to be the nominative to the verb (815 and 762). 8. Every verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative, has a nominative or subject, expressed or understood (661, 4). 4. Every verb in the aotivo voice used transitively, and every preposi- tion, is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective ease, or by an infini- tive mood or a clause of a sentence equivalent to it ; and every objective case, except as in (828), is governed by an active transitive verb, or pro- position (661, 6). 6. The infinitive mood, for (he most part, depends on, or is governed by, a verb or adjective (865). 580. MODEL OF ETTMOLOGIOAL rABSUTG. "The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively sxprained, affords a thonsand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent Hand by which it was created."* * In parainr nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is qaite unnecessary to repeat the words gender, number, ease, tenu, mood, voice. Thus, "Father U a noun, masculine gender, in the nominative ease, singular number." It is eno'jgh, «ind is both neater and briefer, to say, "a noun masculine, in the nominative singular.'* So with this verbt instead of saymg, ''Loves is a veth," fcc., " in the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, third person, singular namber," it Is sufficient and better to say, "In the present indicative, active, third person singular." The conjugatfon of regular verbs also ^485), wiUiont any detriment, may be omiued, the form of the principal parts being sufficiently ascertained when they are said to be regular (491, note). Ail this saves much time, and it is just as explicit as the full form often used. For the same reason, and as formerly mentioneil-' (lOS), the words proper and eommon, as applied to nouns, may be omitted t becaose, whether a noun is proper or common, makes no difference m the eonstmetion of a sen- tence t no use is made of it, nothing depends on it. In lUce manner, the designation of person, as applied to nouns, may be omitted, except when they are of th« first or second, .J ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 117 PreTi'oaa to parsing tbis Bcntenee, (be pupil miiy be I«d to underitand it better, and perceive its parts more diitinotly, bv attending to ■uch questioni at the follo\?inff: What is spoken of in this sentence t Uow tii'o plant and animal qualified t What is said of Diera thus qualifled t How is wonders limited t What else is said of plant and animal f Whom do they oblige f What do they oblige ut to do f How is hand qualified t WbatibfKi? Ao. 581. These words may be parsed fully, thus :— The DxriNiTE AnricLB, shewing that plant and animal are de* fined or limited. minutctt .... An Adjkctivb, because it qualifies a noun, plant, &c. compared by «r and est, or by prefixing more and most, tuperlative degree— expresses the greatest degree of minute- ness compared with othera plant A NOUN— the name of an object. neuter — is without sex. nominative, because the subject of afforde and oblige. singular — it denotes but one ; plural, plants. or A DigJUNcnvB conjunction — connects plant and animal ns alternates. animal A ncun — the name of an object. neuter — considered without sex (126) nominative singular, for reasons above : — (see plant). ^ if A GONJUNOTioN — connects the sentence, " [it is] attentively examined," as a condition, to the sentence, " affords,'* 0->ex presses an act done by one persoh of thing to another. frgular — its past tense and past participle cod in ed. p((«<— expresses an act now past, indicative — declares simply. passive — represents its subject as acted upon. third person — its subject is spoken of. singular— tt&vrai of one. ABBREVIATED MODEL. 582. The length of time necessary to parse even a few words in this way, renders it impracticable to do it often, though occasionally it may be pi*ofitable. The following brief method will answer every purpose : — 77(e Definite article, betonging to plant and animal, and showing them to be limited. minutest. . . . Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying plant, ibc. platit A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, snbject of affords. or A disjunctive conjunction, connecting plant and animal as alternates. animal A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords, if A conjunction, connecting the sentences. it Third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of t« examined. is examined. A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, expressing what is done to its subject it, uced (or plant or animal. attentiveli/ .. An adverb, modifying examined; compared by more and most. affords A verb transitive, regular, in the preeent indicative, active, third person singula.*, and affirms of plant or animal. a Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be indefinite thousand. ... A numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders. wonders A noun, neuter, in the objective plural, object of affords. and A copulative conjunction ; connects the predicates affords, Ac, and obliges. obliges A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative active, third person sirgular, and affirms of plant or animal. ^ us First personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the objec- tive plural, object of obliges, and subject of to admire, Ac. to admire ... A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinit./e, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges. and A copulative conjunction ; connects to admire and to adore. to adore ... A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, attribute of us, or object of obliges. / 120 £\QLISH GRAMMAR. ^ that DerooDstralive ndjoctive pronouD, defioitely pointing out AaHr lo be the author of such a work.** — ' To he surety for a stranger is dangerous." — <'Tlie atrocious crimc'of being a young marif I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny." — Ptff.' In all such examples, whether the phrase bo the subject of a verb, or -the object of an aotire-trar itive verb or preposition, the noun or pronoun following the verb "to be," ^r a passive verb, is properly in the predicate*nominative (651 and 199). The words may be parsed separately, or the whole phrase may be parsed as one word. 1. He had the honor of beingX director for life. 2. By being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his profession. 8. Meny benefits result to men from being wise and temperate (men). g^26. It o/ien re/ere to pereont, or to an infinitive coming after: as, 1. It is John that is to blame. 2. It was I that wrote the letter. 8. It is the doty of all to improve. 4. It is the business of every m4D to pre* pare for death. 6. It was Reserved for Newton to discover the law of gravitation. 6. It is easy ifi"^ form good resolutions but difficult to put them in practice.^ 7. It is^incumbent on the young to love and honor their parents. 26. WoreU,' especially in poetry, are often tnwh transposed; M, 1. Qreat is.Diana of the'Ephesians. 2. On yourself depend for aid, 8. Happy the man[who puts his trust in his Maker. 4. Of night the gloom was dark and dense. 6. Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, Showers on'^her kings barbario, pearls and gold. 6. No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. *t. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. As additional exercises in parsing, the little work entitled ** Frogkessivx ExxftouBS in Analysis and ParslDg " may now be used, or sentences from iiny plain, simple, and aeourate^composition, such as are contained in the reading lessons, may | be selected. The] exercises under the head of '* ANAtTSis," page 12, dec, may be used for the same purpose. rerb ^e sub- verb N PART III. SYNTAX. 584. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the proper arrangement and connection of words in a sentence. DEFINITIONS. 585. A eiNTXNOB ig sucb an asiemblage of words m contains fXi tifinn* atioD, and makes complete sense ; as, **Man %» mortal" (660). 586. A PHBASB is two or more words lightly put together, but not con* taiuing an affirmation or making complete sense; as, "/» truth" — "In a word"-^** To My the least." 587. A SUBSTANTIVE PHRASE is One which, in the construction of a sen- tence, is equivalent to a nouu or substantive, being 1. The subject of a verb ; as, " To do good is to be happy ;" 2. The olg'ect of a transitive verb (820, 1) ; as, " To do good forget not." 8. The object of a preposi- tion (640) ; as, " By pureuing thi» eouree he succeeded.'* 4. The attribute after a copulative yerb (604); as, "He appears to be doing vull/* 588. An ADJUNCT is a preposition with its regimen (641) as related to its principal or antecedent term; as, "The waters of /orilan"— "They came to Jordan." 589. Sentences are of different kinds, according to the nature of the tlought intended to be expressed. They are — 1. Declaratory, or such as declare a thing ; as, " Qod it love.** 2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question; as, "Lovest thou nuf* 8. Imperative, or sach as express a command; as, **Lasarui come forth.** 4. Exclamatory^ or such as contain an exclamation; as, *' Behold how he loved him." 590. All sentences are either eimple or compound. See 686. Norx. 591. A eimple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, "Life t« short.** •TNTAX— AITALTSIS. 197 592. A compound lentenoe ooDsiati of two or more dmple MotenoM ooDoeotod together ; at, "Xt/«, vhieh t« short, $hould be well improved," 593. The simple sentences which make up a compound sentence, are called OLAUSCB or mrmbibs (686, 086), I. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. The subject of Analysis here introduced will be found to be an intcreet* ing and profitable exercise for pupiln, and an imi}ortant preparation for the OoKBTRUOTiON ov Sentenorb (660, (tc). After tne pupil has gone through this portion and become tolerably familiar with it, the Analysis of two or three fentences daily will be an amusement rather than a taf«k. He should begin of course with sentences of the simpleot character, gradually advanc- ing to those that are more complex. For this purpose, sentences mny be selected from any " Reading book" of easy lessons, or from " Parsing Exer- cises" (688), or from the little work entitled '^Pboqbksbiyk Exkrcibbs in Analysis and Pabbino," adapted to this Qrammar. At first, the teacher may direct the attention of the pupil orally to the order of Analysis by such questions as the following : What is a sentence ? — Is this senter:ce ["Ood it aood"] simple or compound ? — Why simple t — What are the parts of a simple sentence (698) 9 — What is the subject of a sentence (696) t— Of whom docs this sentence aflSrro ? — Then, what word is the subject of this sentence ? — What is the predicate of a sentence (600) t — What is here affirmed of the subject '* God " ?— Then what is the predicate in this sen- tence 7— Of how many parts does the predicate consist (601 )f — What are they t —In this predicate, what word is the attribute ?— What, the cupula) What is a verb called when used as a copula only (604) 1— What are the verbs commonly used as copulatives (605)? Having, in some such way as this, conducted the analysis of simple sentences tii; the pupil has become familiar with it, the same, or a similar proeess may be pursued with sen- tences in which the subject or the predicate is modified ; and so with sen* tences having a compound subject (618), or a compound predicate (627); and then proceed to compound sentenoes (686), and to abridged proposi* tions (648). After a few trials of th'^ kind, the pupil will be able to analyze sentences without the aid of questions, and do it more rapidly and satisfactorily; thus: ^Ood ie goodJ" This is a simple declaratory sen* tence; it affirms of "God** that he "iegood"; therefore, **0od" is the subject; and ''Ugood,'* the predicate. In this predicate, "good** is the attribute, and " t«i" the copula ; it is therefore here a copulative verb (604). SIMPLE SENTENCES. 594. A SIMPLE sentence or proposition conBiBts of two parta — the euljeett and the predicate. 595. The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; aB, Snovo is white.— 7tm« flies. 596. The subject of a verb or sentence is commonly a nmm or a pr<^ noun; as, "Ooa is good; hs does gcod." Also, it may be an injinttive, 11^ ]£:NOiiISH ORAMMAlt. with (691) or withoui'a subject (394), ft participial noun (462), a nuhatdn- tiv0 pkra80 (687), or a dame of a nenteiice (693); as, "TV) lit is base." — **For 1M to lie is base." — ** Lying is base." — *' To do wrong knowingly is bJise."— " That men ahould lie is base" (646). 597. When the infinitive with a subjtict in the objective case (872), !■ used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the particle /or; 01, *'For us to lie is base.'' 998. When a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb (761) and its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the conjunction that; as, " That men should lie is base." 599. When the infinitive or the clause of a sentence as the subject fol- lows the verb, the pronoun it precedes it, refearing to the subject (246, 2, 4); as, **It is base that men ehoUld lie."— "It is base to lie,"^"It is base for ui to lie." 600. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject ; as, " Truth t« mighty.*'—" God reigna.^ Note 1. — The word *'ajfftrm^^ here is to be understood as applying to all kinds of sentences — declaratory, whether affirmative or negative, interroga- tory, imperative, or exclamatory (689). Note 2.— -The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of the aentenoe; as, ^La»ar%t9, come forth." 601. The predicate properly consists of two parts— the attribute affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is made. Thus, in the sentence, " Ood is love," "&o^" is the subject, and " is love** ii the predicate, in which **love** is the attribute, and "«s" the copula. 602. The attribute and oopula are often expressed by one word, which, in that case mast always be a verb ; as, " The fire frurn«.'*«->" The fire ia burning,** 60d. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, someUmes a prepoaition with ita eaae, or an a(ft;«r&— also an infinitive, or elaute of a tenttneCf connected with the subject by a copula^ see examples (621 and 622)] or it may be a verb, which includes in itself both attribute and copula (602). 604. Whoi a verb does not complete the predicate, but is used as a copnia only, it is called a copulative verb ; as, " Home ia sweet :" When it includes both attribute and copula, it is called an e^tributive verb ; as, "TimeTfi**" 605. The copulative verbs are snoh as to be, to become, to aeem, to dppear, and the passives of deem, atyle, call, name, consider, <&c. 606. The verbs to be, to appear, are sometimes also used as attributives ; as, "There are lions in Africa "-i-" Lions are in Africa.** — "The stars ap- pear." When so used, and the subject is placed after the verb, tibe sen- tence it introdneed by the word there (629), as in the first elatnple. SYNTAX — A ITALYSIS. 129 itires ; n ap- kesen- EXERCISES. 1. In tko following, point out which are sentenc s. and why — which are phraten, and why. 2. In the sentences, what is th** mhject, and why f— "What is the predi' cat*, and why. Also which predicnt^B are made by eopulative verba, and which, by attributive a. In both, what is the attributtf Snow is white. — Ice is cold. — Birds fly. — Itosea blossom — The tree is tall. — The feelds are green. — Grass grows. — To say nothing. — Man is mortal. — God is immortal. — Home is sweet. — Sweet is home. — Who is Paul? — Has he come?— Will James go P — Are you tired ? — At all events. — To be sure. 8. Make sentences of which one of the following words shell be the sub- ject, i. e. afSrm something respecting each of them. Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thundei, the wind, the clouds, time, he. 4. Analyse each of the sentences thus made, as directed above, No. 2. THE SUBJECT. 607. I. The subject of a proposition is either prammatieal or logical. 608. The ^ramma,«fl, *^ Knowledge is powfer." 609. The logical subject is the peraon or thing spoken of, together with all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined : thus. In the sentence, " Every man at his best state is vanilv," the grammati* cat subject is " man ;" the logical is, *^Every man at hi$ beet $tate" 610. When the grammatical subject has no limiting words conneeted with it, then the grammatical and the logical subject are the same ; as, " God m good." 611. XL The subject of a proposition Is either »imple or compound, 612. A timple subject consists of one subject of thought (596); as, " Time Is money." 613. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjeots, to which belongs but one predicate ; as, " Jameg and John are brothers."— •* You and I are friends." — " Two and three are five.'* — " Time and tide wait for no man."* * The subject is here considered as compound, whether the predicate can be affirmed of each simple subject or not. Thus, we can say, " Time waits for no man, and tide waiu for no man;" but we can not say, " Two are five, and three are five.*' Still the Ipreeeding examples—" Time and tide," and " two and three**— ark eqtlally considered Si •empotiM subjects, because they consist each of more than one subject. 180 IVOtlSH OAAMMAR. EXERCISES. 1. 1. In Moh oi the following BeDt«D0«8, point out tLe grammatical sub- jeot— the logical. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wiodom. — Wisdom'ii ways are pleasantness : all her paths are peace. — The love of money is the root of all evil. — Human knowledge is progres- sive. — ^Bighteousness ezalteth a nation. 11. 1. In eaoh of tha following aentenoeB, |ioint out the «tiA;'«c^ — the predicate. 2. State whether the subjeott are »imph or compound; limited or un- limited. In eaeh, point out the grammatical subjeot — the logical subject. Paul and Silas sang praises to God. — Peter and John went up into the temple. — Gold and silver are precious metals. — Lo- custs and wild honey were bis food. — Socrates and Plato were Grecian philosophers. — ^In unity consist the welfare and secu- rity of society. — Summer and winter shall not cease.— -Three and three are six. — John and Jane are a handsome couple. 8. Write predicates to the following compound subjects: — James and John. — He and she. — ^You and I. — The rich and the poor. — ^Virtue and vice. — Heat and cold. — France and Mexico. — The sun and the moon. MODIFIOA'rtOKS OF THE H OBJECT. 814. A grammatioal subject, being a nouo, nii.j be modified, limited, or desoribed, Ui various ways ; as, 1. By a noun in apposition — i. e., a noun added in the same case for the sake of explanation (868); as, ** Milton the ^^oet was blind." 2. By a noon in the possessive case; as, **Aaron*» rod bndded." 8. By an adjonet (641); as, "The works of Nature are beautiful." 4. By an adjective word (that is, an article,* adjective, adjective pro. noun, or particirl^) ; as, *' The hour has arrived."— **j1 good name is better than riches.'— "Four time is precious." — "Lost time can not be recovered." 5. By a relative and its clause ; as, *' He tofto does no goodj does hiurm.'* 6. By an infinitive mood ; as, " A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 7. By a olanse of a sentence (693) ; as, "The fact that he vas a scholar was manifest." 8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; as, " Seve- ral stars of less magnitude, which we had not observed before, now appeared .'* * Though, for the reason assigned (192), the article is not properly a limiting word, yet as It show* that the word is limited or modified in some way, it is here ranked amomr the modifiers. ^ STITTAX— AWALTlIf. 181 615. A gimnmatieal ■ubjact, being a pronoun, is usually modified by a noun in apposition ; as, *' I, Fault would hare come :" or by a relntira clause aa in No. 6 nboTO. Note. — Pronouns of the third pereou, and also relaUve pronouns, refer to their antecedents together with their modifications ; as, " Ilebulie a wit4 man, and he will love thee." 616. When the grammatical subject is an infinitiTe, or a participle used oa a noun, it may be modified like the verb in the predicate (680). EXERCISES. In t)ie following propositions, point out the grammatieat subject — the logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified :— All men are not wise. — ^Tall oaks from little acorns grow.— Milton's ** Paradise Lost '* is a work of great merit. — Wisdom's ways are pleasantness. — The love of money is the root of all evil. — Evil communications corrupt good manners. — The dispo- sition to do good siiould be cherished. — The walls of Babylon were fifteen miles long. — A desire to excel will stimulate to exertion. — The effort to succeed will be crowned with success. — All things come alike to all. Write sentences which have the subject modified by a noun in apposi* tion— or a noun in the possessive case— or by an adjunct— or by an adjec- tive word— or by an innuitive mood— or by a clause of a sentence. MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 617. Modifying or limiting words may themselves be modified :— 1. A noun modifying another, may itself be modified in all the ways in which a noun as a grammatioal subject is modified (614). 2. An adjective qualifying a noun' may itself be modified:— 1. By an adjunct ; as, " Be not weary in well-doing.** 2. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men often endure reproach." 8. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, and slow to tpeaJk," 8. Again, an adverb may be modified :— 1. By an adjunct ; as, " Agreeably to Nature** 2. By another adverb ; as, '* Yours very sincerely." 618. A modified grammatical subject, regarded as a complex idea, may itself be modified; as, The old black horse is dead. — The first tv>o lines are good, the last two are bad. Here old,Jirit, /asf,— each modifying sub- jects already modified, viz., black horte^ two lines, two (lines). EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modify ingBCQQS modified f— the adjectives)— the adverbs t 132 BNOLIBH GRAMMAR. Solomon, the boh of David, built the temple at Jerusalem. — Josephus, the Jewish historian, relates the destruction of the temple. — That picture is a tolerably cood copy of the ori?^inal. — Pride, that never failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. — The author of Junius' s letters is still unknown. — Truly great men are far above worldly pride. 2. In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicnto. In modified subjeots, distinguish the fframntatUal and logical (008, 609). To be good is to be happy. — To create creatures liable to wants, is to render them susceptible of enjoyment. — To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are tho great perfections of conversation. — To speak the truth is but a small part of our duty.— It is a difficult thinp; to be idle (599). — It is a wise pro- vision of Providence that inferior animals have not the girt of speech. — It is not intended that any individual should possess all advantages.-— That any individual should possess all advau- tages is not intended. ^ ^ THE PREDICATE. , 619. I. The predicate, like the subject (607), is either grammatical or l<^ical. 620. Tlie grammatical predicnte consists o' the attribute and copula (601), not modified by other words. 621. The Attribute, which, together with the copula, forms the predi- cate, mapr be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, a preposition with its regimen, and sometimes an adverb; as, "James is a w/io/ar" — <* James i»h$*' — "James is ^i^^«H<*'—*' James is learned*' — "James is in health" — ^'* John is not so." 622. The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive, or a dependent clause: as, "To obey is to enjoy'* — ** The day is to he celebrated^* — "The order is, that we muet go.*' 623. The logical predicate is tho grammatical, with all the words or phrases that modify it. Thus — ••Nero was cruel to his subjects." — "Was cruel" is the grammafieal, and "was cruel to his subjeetc*," the logical predicate. Again: "The Greeks t>ook Troy by strataarem."— *' Took " is the grammatical, and " took Troy by stratagem " is the logical predicate. 624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terras connect- ed with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the ssme :. as^ "Life is «/wr<."--'«The fire 6unif.'» EXERCISES. la the following lentences, name the subject and predicate. In each, tell what la the grammatical predicate, and what Is the logical predicate : 1 c a a \i VI it m tr STNTAX-^ANALYfllS. 133 heot- I AS. lack, ite: Time flies. — The summer is past. — The fields are covered with grain. — Great is truth. — Columbus discovered America. — America was discovered by Columbus. — A free press is the beginning of a free government. — All governments should bo founded on love. — It is religion that gives liberty to the world. 625. — II. Tho predicate, like the subject, ia either timplt or comjpotmd (611). 626. A timple predicate Moribcs to its subject but odo attribute; no, •• Life is «/toW.'—" Time /•>«." 627. A compound predicate consists of two or iniore simple predicates affirmed of one subject; as, "Ooisar came, and saw, and eonqtterfd."'^ ** Truth i« great and will prevail** EXERCISES. In the following sentences, name tho subject and predicate. State whether the predicate is simple or compound. Distinguisu the grammati' cal and logical:'^ Man is mortal. — ^Y/isdom is the principal thing. — God is good and merciful. — Honesty is praised and neglected. — The heart is tho best and the worst part of man. — The use of travel is to wideu the Iphere of observation, and to enable us to ex- amine and jud^e of things for ourselves. — Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice.— -Talent is strength and subtilifcy of mind. — Genius is mental inspiration and aelioaoy of feeling. — Talent is tho lion and the serpent— genius is the eagle and the dove. MODIFICATIONS OP THE PREDICATE. 628. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different ways. 629. When the attribute (601) in Uto grammatical predicate is a noun, it is modified-— 1. By a noun or pronoun, limiting or describing the attribute; as, "Ho is John the £tfi> fore." EXERCISES. 1. Abridge such propositions in the preceding exercises as can be abridged. 2. Extend the following abridged simple sentences into compound sen- tenoes. Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for California. — ^What to do 1 know not. — No one can tell us where to go, or how to do. — The war being at an end, the troops were disoanded. — At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss where to go. — The industrious and capable need fear no want. — A good name is the richest possession we have while living, and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead. — Of his having been successful, we have full assurance. — Of his being BUCcesBful now, there is reason to doubt. 658. DIBEOIIOKS FOB AKALTSIS. State whether the sentence is simple or compound. If simple, name the logical subject and the logical predicate. Name the grammatical subject. Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical subject is modified in the logical Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is modi fied. Name the grammatical predicate. Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical predicate is modified in the logical. Show by what modifying words or phrases, if any, each modifying wwd is modified. ell IB SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 139 If the sentence is compouDd, mentiion the members or olauset. State whether they are independeDt or dependent. Show how the members are connected. Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its sabject, pre* dicate, dec., as above. In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary to supply words left out by ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to the relative what, and to the com- pound relatives, whoever, who$oever, whatever, whateoever ; making tilso the change which is necessary iij the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is supplied (260). in be * 1 sen- 659. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 1. « God is good." This is a simple sentence, because it contains a single nfiSrmatioa (691). Ood is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good is affirmed. h good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its sub* ject. /• is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. In' this sentence, the grnmmatical subject and predicate re the same as the logical, because they are not modified by other words (610 and 624). Or, more briefly, thus, The logical subject is Ood, The logical predicate is t« good, in which U is the verb or copula, and good the attribute. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 2. " The Sim and moon stood still." This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject The logical subject is The tun and moon. Tlie logical predicate is »tood Hill. The grammatical subject is <«n and moon, compound, and eoncected by and, both modified b;r the (614, 4, Note, and 711). The grammatical predicate is »tood, modified by $till, an adverb, ex- pressing manner. • 8. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." This is a simple sentence. The logical subject is fhefew of the Lord. The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. The grammatical subject is /ear. It is limited by the adjunct of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the (614, 4, Note). The grammatical predicate is t« oeginning, in which is is the verb or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by tlie adjunct, of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 4. "A good man does what (-i- that which) is right, from principle.'* This is a compound sentence, containing one leading and one dependent clause, connected by which. The independent clause is A good man dots that from principle. 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Tbe dependeot olause it tohieh is right, and is restriotive of thtU in the leading clause, the antecedent to which, the connecting word. In tbe^r«< or leading clause— The logical subject is A good man. The logical predicate is does that from principle. The grammatical predicate is man, qualifier ^y good, and shown to be indefinite by a. Tlie grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object, that, and the adjunct/romprtm;tp/e; that is modified by the relative clause. In the second, or dependent clause — The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with nhe ante- cedent that, and restricts it. The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, and right is (he attribute. Tbe grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical (610 and 624). 5. '* There is nothing which all mankind venerate anu admire so much as simple truth." • This is a compound sentence consisting of one independent clause, and two dependent clauses. The independent clause is JTiere is nothing. The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate and admire so much, connected to the preceding by which. The second dependent clause, connected by as to the preceding, as il' leading member, is, [they venerate and admire'} simple truth. In the first or independent proposition — The logical subject is nothing '-^not any thing. The logical predicate is is. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. There is an introdactory expletive, used in such sentences when the sulgect follows the verb. Ill tbe second proposition, dependent on the first — The logical subject is all mankind. The logical predicate is venerate and admire which so mtLch. The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by aU^ The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, compound, connected by and, and modified by their object, which, which also connects its clause with its antecedent, thir^, for the purpose of restricting it, and by the adverbial phrase, so much. In the third proposition, connected with the second by as — The logical subject is they, understood (for all mankind). The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth. The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the preceding clause. The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, understood, modified b^ their object, truth, and that is qualified by the adjective, simple. SYNtAX — AWALYSId. 141 Dlanse. idified 6. ** OonversatioD makes a man wax wiser than himself, and that more by an hour's di^oursa than by a day's meditatiou." This is r. compoand sentence, oonsisling of two independent clauses, connected by ana; each of them has its own dependent clause. The first independent clause is Conversation makea a man [to] wax viter. Its dependent clause is him»et/[ia'\. connected ty them. The second independent clause is [A« does] that more by an hour^i dit- course. Its dependent clause is [Atf does] by a day'e meditation^ connected by than. (The words supplied are included in brackets.) In \he first indepec-^ • -^t clause— >• The logical subject la eonvertation. The logical predicate is makee a man [to"] wax wiser. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object, man, which is also the subject of the verb to wax (872). It is shown to be used indefinitely by a, and is qualified by the predicative adjective wiser. In the clause dependent on the preceding, and oonneeted by than — The logical subject is himself (in the nominative) (249). The logical predicate is is (understood). The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. In the second independent proposition connected to the first by and-^ The logical subject is he understood (for a man), i The logical predicate is Idoes] that more by an hour's discourse. The grammatical subject is the same as the lexical. The grammatical predicate is does (nnderstood). It is modified by its object thcU, representing the phrase wax wiser than himeelf; also by the adverb mare, and the adjanot by discourse; and discourse is limited by hour's which again is shown to be indefinite by the article an. In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by /Aon— The logical subject is he (a man) understood. The logical predicate is Idoes"] by a day's meditation. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical The grammatical predicate is does (understood, as before), modified by the adjunct by meditation — meditcUion is limited by days, and that (a shown to be indefinite by the article a. *l, **The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges ua to admire and adore Uie Omnipotent hand by which it was oreatea." This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent ehinsei and two dependent clauses. Tlie independent clause is The minviesi plant or animal affords a thous* and wonderSf and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnypotent hand. 14« llfOLISr OSAMMAS. 'J i The firit dependent clause is [it i«] attentively examined, coDDected ae a oondition by (/ to the leading verbs affords and obligee. The second dependent clause is by whkh it was created, connected also hj tohich to hand in order to describe it. In the independent clause — The logiool subject is The minutest plant or animal. The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire ana adore the Omnipotent hand. The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound ; its parts are connected as Alternates by or (569), and both modified by minutest ■ (704). The grammatical predicate is affords and obliges, compound ; its parts are connected by and. .Affords is modified by its object, teonders, which is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object, us, the infinitive to admire and to adore, of -which us is also the subject, and these infinitives are modified by their object, Aaruf, which is c^uali> fied and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by which it was created. The verbs affords and obliges are modified also by the conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined. In the first dependent clause — The logical subject is t^, referring to plant or animal. The logical predicate is is attentively examined. The grammatical subject is it. The grammatical predicate is is examined} which ia modified by the adverb of manner, attentively. In the second dependent olanse— The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. The logical predicate is was created by tohich. The grammatieal subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct, by which, refernng to hand, its antecedent: The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so much room on paper, may be accomplished oraihf with great rapidity. Let this be done m the following — EXERCISES. In the same way, analyze the following sentences:— Knowledge is power. — ^Trath is the basis of honor : It is the beginnio«[ of virtue : It liveth and conquereth for ever. — Time is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. — ^The heart and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man. Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. ' '^ Praise is more acceptable to tbe heart than profitable to the mind* i iaa a i also I us to ■tfl are nutest I parte onderf, !0t, Wt ubject, J quali- ohxch it by the by the adjunct, room on be done is the -Time heart to the STMTAX— -AVALTUt. 143 He who is flrat to condemn, will often be the laat to forgiro. True religion givca ordur and beauty to the world, and, after life, a better existence. A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a great- er brings us back to it again. What wo know is nothing, but what we are ignorant of is immense. Whatsoever yo would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. Many men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but great and glorious in life and death. To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great per- fections of conversation. Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions which save the labor of working, are in universal demand. Solon compared the people to the sea, and orators and coun- sellors to the winds ; for (he said) that the sea would be calm and quiet if the winds did not trouble it. Some cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect phi- losophers in practice; as others anvocate religion, who are nevertheless indifferently religious. II. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 660. Words are arranged in sentences, according to certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax (662 and 666). 661. OENEBAL FBIirOIFLES. 1. lu every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (or subject) expressed or understood. 2. Every article, adjective, iidjective pronotm, or participle, must have a substantive (109), expressed or understood. 8. Evcy nominative or subject has its own verb, expressed or under- stood. 4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the iofiuitive or partioi- ples) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 6. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive whose signification it serves to limit. 6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the aotive V- ( ,v 144 BNOLtSH ORAMMaA. Toioe, or a prepoaition, or deDOtet oircamitances of time, valut, tptight, or meoMure (828). 7. The infinitivo mood io gorerned by a verb, ad motive, or noun. The exceptions to these genertil principles will appear under the Rules of Syntax. PARTS OP SYNTAX. 662. The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to three heads, viz., Concord or agreement , Governments and Position. 668. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another in gender, number, case, or person. 664. GoYERNMBNT IS the power which one word has in determining the mood, tense, or case, of another word. The word governed by another word is called its regimen, 685. Position means the place which a word occupies in relation to other words in a sentence. 666. In the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean* ing of a sentenoe often depepds much on the poiition of the words of which it oonsistfl. ii .. EULES OF SYNTAX. RuLB L-^Substantives denoting the same person or thing agree in case; 'as, The river Thames. Oioero the orator. Paul the apostle. I myself. I Paul have written it I Wisdom dwell with prudence. Napoleon the third (emperor of that name). Te men of Athena. Queen Mary (667, ibe.) Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies the subjstantive to which it belongs ; as, A good boy; a new book; and old bat; a rough road; a steep hill ; a lofty mountain ; Ood is good ; an amusing atory ; a man loved by all. 2. Adjectives denoting one^ qualify nouns in the sin- gular : adjectives denoting more than one, qualify notins in the plural ; fis^ One man ; this book ; tliat house ; two men ; tlieSe books ; those houses ; the sixth day ; seven days : several weeks; mflny sorrows; these people this " Honor Ihy father and mother." — " Them that honor me I will honor.*' — >"B^ys love to play." — "Boys love playing."— "I know tliatthou fearcet Qod.* — " Jeaoi I know, and Paul I know ; but who art thou f" (801. &c.) Rule XI. — A preposition governs the objective case ; as, ^ Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things: to whom bo glory for eTer.-'— " To whom much is given, of him mueh sliall be required." — *'Oome with us and we will do (to) thee good."— ''Soienoe they do not pretend to."— "Whom did ho speak tot" (818, ^) ^ EuLE XII.— Certain words and phrases sbQukJ l^ fbU lo^ved by appropriate prepositions; as, r f "Confide pellation, belonging to it The words so related must always be in the same member of the sentence — that is, both in the subject, or both in the predicate. A sub- stantive predicated of another is not in apposition with it^ tiiough denot- ing the same thing. The substantive in apposition commonly stands last; sometimes yir«/. 669. Two or more words forming one oomplex name, or a name and a title prefixed, though really in apposition, are properly dedined and parsed as one word; as, **Oeorge Washington**'-^** Ckneral Washington's tent." In such examples, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last (848), and sometimes also when tJie words in apposition do not form a complex name ; as, " We arrived at om friend Wilson*s plantation. For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see 161. 670. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence, and a sen- tence or infinitive mood, sometimes in apposition with a noun; as, ** The toeather forbids walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both."-—" The promise, that he should be the heir of the world, was given to Abraham " — "De* lightful task, to rear the tender thought 1" 867, 4. 671. A plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or more substantives singular, to combine end give them emphasis; as^ ** Time, la- bor, money, all were lost." Sometimes the same substantive is repeated for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Cisterns, broken cisterns,** 672. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plural substantive; as, " Thep went each of them on his way" (801). — " They all went, sotm one way, and some another." In the construction of a sen- tence, the distributive word is sometimes omitted ; as, '* They [interroga- tive pronounsj do not relate leach"] to a preceding noun." 673. Of this character are such expressions as the following: ** They stood in each other's wav "—that is, they stood each in the other's way*— " They love om onoMer"— that is, they lore, one (loves) an othir (811). 91 • as. nrould ended "person )eopU of us men." •ho chief d of Dr. her, and •elongiog )r of the Asub- ;h denot- \fir8t. ne and a d parsed :« tent" the last b form a od a Ben- " The promUe, " ««De- or more IVme, to- repeated a plural -•• They [>f a Ben- tterroga* '*They I way,— SYNTAX — Ai>JXCTIYi:8. 149 674. A BubstantiTe is Bometimes connected with another in a soi t of ap- position by the word a$, meaning in the condition of, in the capacity oft thas, ** Cicero, as an orafor^ was bold— as a soldier, he was timid." But here — the reverse of the former case (669) — the substantiTO in apposition with another in the possessive case, or with a possessive pronoun, is vnth- out the sign, while the other has it ; as, " John's reputation as an author was great — his fame as an artist still greater." 675. In designating time and place, instead of a noun in apposition, a preposition with its case is often used ; as, ■'* The month of August/* — "The state of OWo."— "The city of New York^ Throughout the exercises in syntax—first, correct the errors ; secondly, analyze orally the sentences so cor- rected ; thirdly, parse all the words etymologically ; and last, parse syntactically the word or words to which the rule refers. EXERCISES. In the following sentences, what words are in Apposition, and to what f In what ease do they agree ? Give the rule :— BeligioD, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity.-^ ByroD, the poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. — Coleridge, a remarkaole man, and rich im- a^native poet, was the friend of "Wordsworth, — My brother William's estate has been sold. " And on the palace floor, a lifeless corse she lay." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. Ab the nominative and the objective oaee in novns are alike in English, there is no liability to error undier this rule, except in the case of prononna. Please give that book to my brother William, he who stands by the window.: — The gentleman has arrived, him whom I men- tioned before. — ^Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? — I speak of Virgil, he who wrote the -Slneid. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 676* Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies the substantive to which it belongs (196); as, ^^ A good man, S. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the sin' ■^ * 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ill gvlar; adjectivtj denoting more than one, qualify nouns in thepluralj as, " This man." — " These men." — " Six feet." 677. Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals j^r«f, second, third, At, (206), last — this, that — one, each, every, either, neither, miKh, and its com> paratiye more— all, denoting quantity, enough, whole, 678. When any of these is joined to a plural noun, the whole is re* garded as one aggregate ; as, '* The first ^100 loeeke "— " Every ten miles " — ** The last four lines ".^" The last days of summer^'' ing examples, vix. :— > ADJIOnVXS. ADVBBBS. John grows [becomes] old. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner.] She looks j[iB] cold. Shelooks coldly [in a cold manner] on him. He feels [is] warm. He nals warmly [in a warm manner] the insult The eagle flies [is] high. The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift manner.] The apple tastes [is] sweet. Mary sings sweetly [in a sweet Ibanner.] 687. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thus, "miserable poor,'* shonld be, " miserably poor "— " singi elegant" should be, " sings elegantly,** So also, adverba should not be used as adjectives (926) ; thus, ** He arrived ta/e/sf," should be, ** He arrived M/e.** 688. T%is herCf that there, them books, are vulgarisms, for ihis^ thatf those books. 689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and noun together as one compound term ; as, " A venerable old man" — ** The best bla(» tea.** 690. Sometimes an adjective modifies the meaning of another adjec- tive ; as^ ** red-hot iron " — " a bright-red color." 691. Several adiectivea frequently qualify the same substantive; w, ** A large, strong, black horse.'* 7%is, that'-ihese, those. 692. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to the last mentioned, that to the first; as, Virtue and vice are opposite qualities; thai ennobles the mind, this debases it" 693. Former and latter are used in the same way (804). So also, the one, the other, referring to words in the ^ingi^eor plural (807). 694. When no eontrast is expressed, Mm^QN to a thing near, or just mentimed, and that to a thing more remote or formerly mentioned. OONffTRITOTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 695. When one object is compared with one other of the sam* class, or witii more than one of a different class, indiviloally, or in the aggregate, 158 BNOLISH GRAMMAR. the oomparativa it used ; an, "Janes is the Wioker of the two*'—" He is taUer than his father.—** He is taller than any of his brothers." 696. Sometimes however, when two obieots of the «ame olnss are com* pared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal ; as, " James is the weakest of (he two." 697. "When one object is compared with more than one of the $ame elate, the superlative is used, and commonly has the prefixed (718); as, " John is the talleet amongst us "— " He is the beet scholar in a class of ten " — " He is the moet dUigent of them all." 698. In the use of the eomparntive and superlative, when more than two objects are compared, the following distinction should be carefully observed, vis. : — 699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of comparison must always exclude the former; thus, "Eve was fairer than any of her daughters.' — " Russia is larger than any other country in Europe,**-— "Ohina has a greater population than anv nation of Europe," or, *' than any other nation on the globe.'* Thus used, the comparative requires than after it (96S-2). 700. Whew the superlative is used, the latter term of comparison must always include the former ; as, ** Russia is the largest countrv in Europe.** — ><* China has the greatest population of any nation on tiie globe." 701. DouMe comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, " Jamea is more taller than John "-—omit more--'** He is the moet wieeet of the three " —omit moet. 702. The double comparative leeeer, however, is sanctioned by good authority; as, "Lesser Asia" — ** Every lesser thing." — N, Y, Review. — ** Like Lesser streams."— Cb<«rt(fge. 703. Adjectives not admitting oompaiison (228), should not be oom* pared, nor oonneeted with companfcive words, snob as, so, ae, and the like. Thus, more univereal, so tmtversa/, at univer^, should be more general, to generalf at general; and so of similar words. As exceptions see 224. POSITION OP ADJECTIVES. 704. An adjective is commonly placed before its cubstantive ; as, " A good man " — " A virtuout woman." 1. Adjectives should be placed as near as possible to their substantives, and so that it may be certain to what noun they belong ; thus, " A new Kir of shoes "— " A fine fiield of oom "— *' A good glass of wine," should , '* A nair of new 8ho^fl||)" A field of fine oom" — "A glass of good wine "—because the adjcm^s qualify thoet, com, wine, and not pair, field, glast. When ambiguity can not otnerwise be avoided, the use of tbe yphen may be resortea to with advantage ; thus, " A goodrman't ooat " — '* A good man't-coat. 2. When an adjeetive qualifies two or more substantives, «onnected by and, it is osually expressed before the first, and understood to tibe reaft ; as, ** A man of great uritdom and moderation.** 8TMTAX-— ADJCcrrrm. i5S . »i by 8. It hu been disputed whether the numerals, twOf thru, four, Ae., should be placed biftir* the wuids Jlrtt nod latt, or q/Ver them, when used to indioate the beginning and the end of a series. On this point, with small numbera, usage id nearly equally divided ; and, as the matter now stands, in some eases the one form seems to be preferable, and in some, the other. In this oonstruetion, as in some others whioh iovolye no impropri* ety, euphoiiy and taste seem io govern. This mnch is certain— -neitner form can be justly condemned, on the ground of cither authority or pro- priety. — See Appendix X. p. 256. 705. An acyective is placed qfler its substantive— 1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun*, as, " We saw him faitit and weary." 2. When other woids depend on the adjective ; as, "A mtm tick of the palsy " — '• A pole ten feet long." 3. When the quality results from the action expressed b^- a "rerb ; a», "Extravagance makes a man poor** — "Virtue i lakes a poor man happy." 4. When the adjective ia predicated of the substantive ; as, ** Ood is good" — "We are happy" — "ife who is good is happy" — **He looks feeble "—'* To play is pleaeant "— ." That he ehoidd fail is strange." 706. In many oases, the adjective may stand either before or after its substantive, and somotimea — especially in poetry, and in oonnection with an infinitive or participle — at a considerable distance trtna It In all these, the variety is so great that no rules can provide for them. Care, however, should be taknn to place the adjective wnere its relation to Uie substantive will be clear and natural, and its meaning effective. EXEROISES TO BE OORREOTED. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the change : — These kind of books can hardlv be got. — I have not been * from home this ten days. — We walked two mile in half an honr. %- — I ordered six ton of coal, and these makea the third that baa been delivered. — ^This lake is six fathom deep. — Tho garden wall is five rod long ; I measured it with a ten-foot pole. — Twenty heads of cattle passed along the road.- Tt is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the baj.^-liiat three pair v of glovea cost twelve shilling. — (159-2) A man who is pru- i dent and industrious, will, by that mett^s, increase his fortune. ' — Charles formed expensive nabits, aiuN^ those means became . poor. — If you are fond of those sort of things yon may have /> them. — (680) There was a blot on the first or second paffea. — , o The first and second verse are better than the third and roiuth. (687) Come quick and do not hinder us. — ^Time passes swift, though it appears to move slow. — We got home safely before j f 154 KirOLISH GRAMMAR. dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. — The boat glides smooth over the lake.~ (685) Magnesia feels smoothly.— Open the door widely.— The door is painted greenly. (688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst of all. — Them books were sold for a leaser price than they cost. (692) *' For beast and bird ; Th6M to their grassy oouoh, those to l^eir nests, repair." " Night's shadows heuce, from thence the morning's shine; That bright, this dark, this earthly, that divine. (694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still involved in mystery. — This vessel, of which you spoke y ester- terday, sailed in the evening. (698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neigh- bors. — China has a sreater population than any nation on earth. — That riiip is larger than any of its class. — There is more sold in California wan in any part of North America. — The birds of Braiil are more beautiful than any in South Ame- rica. — Philadelphia is the most regular of any city in Europe. — ^Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. — Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. (701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find. — The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. — A worser evil yet awaits us. — ^The rumor has not spread so universally as we supposed. — Draw that line more perpendicular. — ^This figure is a more perfect circle than that is. — He is far from being so perfect as he thinks he is. THE ARTICLE AND ITS NOUN. 707. RuLK IH. — 1. The article a. or kv is put before common nouns in the singular number when used iitdef- iMXTBLY (186); as, "-4 man" — "-4n apple;" that is, "of^ man "— " any apple " ( 186, 187). 2. The article the isptU before common nouns^ either singular or plural^0ken used definitelt (191) ; as, « The sun rises "—" The city of New York." [See Etymology of Uie Article 18S.] 708. A. oommon noun, in the singular number, without an artiele or limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense ; as, " Man is mortal V- " M^tr is a short madness," . ^^ STUTAX — ARTICLE. 158 her as, di 709. The it sometimes used before a lingular noun, to partioalarUe a species or class, without speoifyiog any individual under it ; as, iJU oak, the rote, the horae, the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, Aorsc, or raven, but the class, so oalled, in a general sense. In such oases, vheth- the noun is used to denote a class or an individ>:tf i, can be determined only by the sense, as in the following example.* : ** The oak produces acorns '^—" The oak was struck by lightning." — " The horie is a noble anl* mal"— "TAe horte ran away."— "I^f lion shall eat straw like the ox*'— "7%« lion tore th« ox in pieces." — "TAe night is the time for repose"— •TAsniyA/ was dark." 710. Every article belongs to a noun, expressed or understood, except as in 714 and 716, 711. When several nouns are connected in the name construction, the article is commonly expressed with the first, and understood to the rest; as, "The men, women, and children are expected.** But when emphasis, or a differeut form of the article is required, the article is prefixed ; as, " Tlie men, the women, and the children, are expected " — " A norse and an ass." 712. But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunotively connected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, or the women, or the children, are expected." v;v 713. 7%« is commonly put before an adjeetive used as a noun ; as, **Tk€ righteotu is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before adjectives in the superlative degree, when comparison is implied (218); aa, **Qoldis the most precious of the metals." But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either without an article, or has a or an preceding It; as, "ji most excellent man." ' 714. The is sometimes put intenHvely before adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree; as, " The higher the mountain, the colder its top" — '* The fatter he goes, the eooner he stops." Thus used it performs the function of an adverb. 715. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, oommonly has the article the before it; as, •* Alexander the Great "-."Charles the nfth.** This may be considered as inverted for *'The great Alexander.'* "The fifth Oharles;" or, by ellipsifi, for "Alexander, the great [conqneror]," " Charles, tiie fifth [emperor of the name]." 716. A or an \a sometimes put before the adjectives /eir, htmdr^, thou- sand, followed by a plural noun; as, "A few men" — **jS hundred acres"— ".i thousand miles." In such cases, the adjective and noun ma^ be consid- ere J as a compound term, expressing one aggregate, and having the con- struction of a collective noun (790). Or the adjective may be r^arded as a coUeeti ve noun (207), and the noun following governed by of, understood ; as, '*A few [of] men" — "A hundred [of] acres," «fec. This is evidently the construction of larger numbers ; thus, wc never say, ** A million dollars," but, ** A million of dollais." 717. When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, the article of the noun is put with tlio first adj^^ctive, but not with the rest ; as, **Jl red and lohite rose," that is, one rose, partly red and partly uohite. Bnt, 718. When two or more adjectives belong each to a different object of the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective; as, "A 156 BNOLtflR ORAMMAA. radand white ro8e"=s«" x h. great and that good man." 720. So also when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both designate the iome person, tho artick ^recedes the first onlv. If they designate dif> ferent persons, the article must precede each; that, "Johnson, tho book- teller and stationer," means one man, who is both a bookseller and a sta- tioner; but, "Johnson the bookseller, and Me stationer," means two men, ono a bookseller, named Johnson, and the other a stationer, not named. 721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the tame person or thing, the last must want the article ; as, " He is a better toldier than statesman." But when they refer to different persons, the laat muit have the article ; as, " He is a better soldier than a statesman [would be]." 722. The article a before the adjectives /eto and little, renders the mean* ing poettive ; aik, *' A few men can do that " — " He deserves a little credit" But without the article the meaning is negative; as, "Few men can do that"— ** He deserves little credit." 723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and some other writings of that time, the is often used before which ; as, '* That worthy name by the which ye are called " — "The which when I had seen."— £unyan. 724. The article is generally omitted before proper names, ahstract nouns^ and namet of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, &o., when not restricted, and tuch other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to require it ; at, "ChrUtmas is in December ** — "Logic and rnaihematics are important ttudiet'*— *'3V« or more words taken together^ it becomet plural ; and, if they are of different persona, prefers tht first person to the second, and the second to the third; as, " He and she did their duty," "John and you and / will do our duty." RuLi 2. — When a pronoun refers to txvo or more words in the singular taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it must be singular ; as, " A olook or a watch moves merely as it is moved." RuLK 8. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the pronoun must beptuml also ; as, "Neither be nor they trouble themselves," Distri- butives are always of the third person singular (801). 731. Nouns are taken together when connected by and — separately when connected by or or nor^ as above ; also after each, every, no, though connected by and ; as, " Each book and each paper is in Us place." 732. When singular i^onns of different genders are taken separately, they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun, eonuBon gender, except by a olamsy repetition of pronouns of the corres- pooding genders; thus, "If any man or wo/man shall violate his or her pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such cases, though sometimes used, is improper ; as, " If any man or woman shall violate Metr pledge," dec. 733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the com- mon gender ri2d), taken in a g^eneriLl sense, are commonlv masculine ; as, ** A paront fhould love Au child." — " Eveiy person has ni$ fanlts." — " No one should commend himself,** The want of a singular personal pronoun, oomaaon gender, is felt also in this construction. 734. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, ei- pressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular; but wht^n the noun expresses many aa Individuals, the pronoun should be plural ; as, <' The army piroceeded on its march."—-" The court were divided in thHr opinion." 735. A slnffular noun after the phrase, " many a," may take a pronoun in tbeplonl, but never in the same clause ; as— *' in Hawick twinkled fMony a l^t Behind him foon fhty set in night"— H^. Scott, SYNTAX — P110N00N8. 150 No ex- rhtin as, loun 736. The p«rMnnl pronoun is Bomttimcs uiod at tlk« b«ginDing of a RtDtMMM, ioBtead of the word piraon or ptrioiu ; at, *' //« who **— " T%ty who "— alflo " Those who "—for •♦ Th« p€raon$ who." 737. ProDouus representing nouna person ifled (129), taka the gender of the noun as a person ; as, '* Night sable goddess, from htr ebon tliiotie." But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorleallj (1046, 8) agiee with them in their literal sense ; as, ** Pitt was the jiukar wkioh ia Ha strength upheld the state." 738. It is improper in (he progress of a sentence to denote the same person hj pronouns of different numbers; as, "I labored long to make thee happ>, and now you reward me bv ingratitade." It nhoald be either " to malce you happy," or " thou rewardest,'* (t46). 739. In the use of pronouns, when it would be uneertain to whidi of two or more nnteoedeut words (229) a pronoun refers, the ambignitj may be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the proiioaii, or by changing the. form of the sentence, thus, "When we see the beautiful variety of color in the raiuKow, we are led to consider its cause " — better " the cause of that variety.^ 4 POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 740. The first and the second personal pronoun commonly stand instead of nouna implied, but not expressed. Possessive pronouns, and the pro- nouns of the third person, are oonunonly placed after their aoteeedents (229) ; bnt soinetimei this order, especially m poetry, Is reversed. 741. When words of different persons «ome together, the usual order of arrangement, in ^glish, is to place the second person before the third, and the first person last ; as, " You aud he and 1 are sent for.*^ — " This matter concerns you or him or me." In connection with these rules and obeervationa, see also the observa* tions on gender (128-184), on number (165-160), and* on personal pro- nouns (240-262). EXERCISES TO BE OORREOTED. In each sentence, state the antecedent words to wluch the pronouns re- fer; change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the change : — r729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieye noth- ing. — ^IbLtremes are not in its nature fayorable to happiness.-;- A man's recollections of the past regulate their anticipations of the future. — ^Let every boy answer for themselyes. — Each of us had more than we wanted. — ^Eyery one of you should attend to your own business (801). ^ (730-1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his coun- tenance.— ^Both cold and heat haye its eztremes.—Tou and your friend should take care of themselyes.— Yon and I must be diligent in your studies. too BNGLI8H OKAMMAB. i (780-2) John or James will favor us with their company. — One or other must relinquish their claim. — Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. — (781) Every plant and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. — Each day and each hour brings their changes. — Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. — No thought, no word, no action, however secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be good or evil. (782) Let every man and every womau strive to do their best. — If any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall for- feit their place.'—No lady or gentleman would do a thing so unworthy of them. (788) One should not think too highly of themselves — A teaisher should always consult the interest of her pupils. — A parent's care for her children is not always requited. — ^Every one should consider their own frailties. — Let each esteem others better thas herself. (784) The assembly held their meetings in the evening. — The court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. — The regiment was greatly reduced in their number. — ^Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their members. — f he committee were divided in its opinions. — The public are informed that its interests are secured. (787) The earth is my mother ; I will recline on its bosom. — That freedom, in its fearless flight, may here announce its glorious reign. — Policy keeps coining truth in its mints, such truth as it can tolerate, and every die, except its own, it breaks and casts away. — As time advances, it leaves behind him the traces of its flight. (785) Thouehyou are great, yet consider thou art a man. — Care for thyself, if you would have others to care for you. — ^If thou wert not my superior} I would reprove you. — If thou for- get thy friend, can you expect that your friend will remember thee? ^ (^89) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his enemy. — John gave his friend a present which he highly valued. < (741) I and ray father were inviwd. — An invitation was sent to me and George. — ^You and I and James were to be of the party ; but neither I nor you nor he can go. SYNTAX — BELATIYX. 161 be ia ligbly was be of TH RELATIVE AND ITS ANTECEDENT. 742. Rule V. — The relative agrees with its antecedent in number and person ; as, " Thou who speakest." — " The book which was lost." [See Etymology, 265, Ac] 743. The number of the relative can be determined only from the Dumber of the antecedent. 744. Who t« applied to pertoru or thingi pertonified {I2d) ; as, "The man who'* — " The/o« who had never seen a lion." 745. Which t« applied to thinge and inferior antma/*— Bometimes to children— to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity — and also to persons !n asking questions. 746. In the translation of the Bible, which is applied to persong ; as, " Our Father which art in heaven." 747. Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the character^ or the name merely as a word, is referred to ; as, " He is a good writer, which is all he professes to be."—" That was the work of Herod^ which is but another name for cruelty.'* 748. That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words 9*ry, tame, and aU— often after no, tomCf and any— and generally in restrictive clauses (268). 2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things; as, "The man and the horse that we saw." 8. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pronouns ; as, " Who that knew him ooold think so I " — '* / that speak in righteousness." i. Generally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, " The little child that was placed in the midst." 749. The relatives who or which and theU should not be mixed in a series of relative clauses having the same antecedent. Thus it is impro- per to say, " The man that met us and whom we saw." It should be, ** who met us," or " that we saw." 750. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by on adjec- tive, sometimes to the infinitive. But this construction is rare. See ex- amples (266). 751. The relative in the ol^ective case is often omitted ; as, " Here is the book I promised ^ou." 'Hie relative in the nominative case is hardly ever omitted except in poetry ; as— " In this, 'tis Qod — directs, in that, 'tis man." 752. Tlie antecedent is omitted before what (266), and generally before the compound relatives (278). It is sometimes understood, eapeciolly io poetry; as— " [He] who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." U 16!^ engltsh oraMMah. 753. What should not be used for the Conjunction that. Thus, " I can not believe but what it is so," should be, " but that it is so." Also the demonstrative that should not be uaed for (be rolative w/iat ; m^ " We apeak that we do know," better, " what wo do know." POSITION OF THE RELATIVE. 754. The relative is generally placed after its at eccdcnt. 755. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed as ner.r its anteoedent as possible, and so tliat there can be no uncertainty as t6 what word it refers. 756. Id most instances, the sonee will be a sufficient guide in this mat* ter ; thus, " Thev removed their wives and children in wagons covered with the skins of animals, wJiich formed their simple habitations." Here the sense only can determine to which nf the three words wagoutt fkina, or animals, the relative which refers. But — 757. "When the antecedent can not be determined by the ««»)««, it f^'aould be determined by the poiition of the relative, whicn, as a general rule, ahould belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers, in the first •entence, to bam^ ond in the second, to houte, 758. So also when the antecedents denote the same object, the one be- iDg in the subject and the other, in the predicate, the relative takes the person of the one next it; af*, "I am the man who commands you"— not *' command jou." If the relative refer to /, the words should bo arranged, " Iwluf command you am the man." Hence — 759. A relative clause which modifies the suljcel sl^ould not be placed in ihe predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that can not ride." Bbould be, " He that can not ride, should not keep a horse." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECl'ED. In the foUowiog sentences, which are the relatives f What is the ante- cedent to which each refers ? Correct those which are wrong, and give the rule, or the reason for the change : — ^744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. — This is the friend i^hich I love. — (745) That is the vice whom I hate. — The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. -»The court who gives currency to such manners should be ex- emplary. — The nations who have the best rulers are happy.— Your friend is one of the committee who was appointed yester- dn,j,— The family with whom I lived has left the city. — (747) His father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired to be. — If you intend to be a teacher, who you can not be without learning, you must study. SYNTAX — NOMTNATITB. 163 (748) It is the best Bituotion which can be got. — Thrt man was the first who entered. — This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. — Solomon was the wisest king whom tlie world ever saw. — The lady and the lapdog, which we saw at the win- dow, have disappeared. — I who speak unto you am he. — No man who respects himself would do so mean an action. (749) O Thou who hast preserved us, and that wilt still pre- serve us ! — The man whom we met to-day, and that was at our bouse yesterday, is the same — O Thou that art, and who waat, and that art to come ! (752) I have sent everything what you ordered. — All who- soever came were made welcome. — Everything whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye e^^n so to them. — lie whoever steals my purse steals trash. — (7*. 1 can not believe but what you have been sick. — It is not impossible but what you are mistaken. (765ll The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had i ver before committed so unjust an actioa. (759) He needs no spectacles tha . can \ not see, nor boots that can not walk. — Those mu^t not xpect the sympathy of the diligent, who spend their time in idleness. ; ante- give 760. Rule VI. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative ; as, " Jam" — " Thou art " — ^^He is " — " They are "—'* Time flies."—" The letter is written." 761. A finite verb is a verb in tho iiulicativc, potential, subjunctive, or imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these parts it is limited by person and number. lu the iDfinitive and participles, it is not eo limited. 762. The subject of n finite verb (316) may be a noun, a pronoun, nn infinitive mood (894), a participle used as a noun (462), or a clause of a sentence (036). All these, when the subject of tho verb, are regarded ns substantives in the nominative (109 and 867). 763. Every nominative, not absolute (769), or in apposition (G68), or In tie/ predicate (796), is the subject of a verb, < xprcseed or understood. 764. The following setitenoe is wrong, because the nominative who has no verb to which it is the nominative, viz. : These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not Imve been exposed to so great dangers." Better — " If Catiline, by whom these evils were caused, had been punished," dc. Henc^ — 164 ENOLIflH GRAMMAR. 65. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as the nomina' to the same verb ; thus, " The king he is just, should 765. tiye to the same verb ; thus, " The king he is just,^' should bo, " The king is just." Except when the compound pronoun? are added to the sutjeot for the sake of emphasis (249) ; as, " The king hiimelf has come." 766. The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after than or cw, often has the verb uaderstood; as, " Who said so?"— "H« [said so]." — "James is taller than / [am] ; but not so tall as you [are].'' POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. 767. The subject is commonly placed before the verb. But in impera- tive or interrogative sentences, and in sentences inserted for thc' sake of emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed after the verb ; as, '* Oo Ihou."—" Did he go ?"— " May you be happy 1"—" Were / he."—** Neither did they."—" Said /."— " There was a man,^ Ac. Under this rule there is liability to error' only iu the use of pronouns, and in leaving a nominative without its verb. EXERCISES TO BE COllREOTED. Which nouns or pronouns in the following sentences are the subject of a verb ! If not ia the proper case, change them, and give the rule, or reason f;)r the changes :— (760) Him and me tire of the same age — Suppose you and me go. — Them are excellent. — Whom do you think has arrived ? — Them that seek wisdom shall find it.— You and us enjoy many privileges. (760) John is older than me. — You are as tall as her. — Who has a knife ? Me. — Who came in ? Her and him. — You can write as well as me. — That is the boy whom we think deserves the prize. (765) Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet men are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE OR INDEPENDENT. 768. Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute. Note. — The nominative under this rule, is usually called the nominative absolute or indcpetulent ; because, in English, though always in the form of the nominative, yet it has no grammatical dependence on any wcrd in the sentence. This occurs in all examples under the following— SPECIAL RULES. 769. Bulk 1. — ji substatUive with apartidphf whose cote depends on no other wordf is put in the nominative ; as, " He being gone, only twc remain." ct , STirt AX — NOMIN ATIVE . 106 s on 770. In this eODstrnetioD, the Babstantire is sometimes understood ; as, "His conduct, viewing it even favorably, can not bo commended ;" that is, " ton [o person] viewing it," ko. 771. Sometimes being and having been are omitted; as, * Her wheel [being] at rest " — " He destroyed or won," Ac., that is, " He having been destroyed or v> '*; otl>"T-vi8e. — Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour. -A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. — So much of ability and merit are seldom found. — A judicious ar- rangement of studies facilitate improvement. — Was you there? — Circumstances alters cases. — There is sometimes two or three of us. — I, who are first, has the best claim. — The derivation of these words are uncertain. — Much does human pride and follv reouire correction. — ^To do good unto others are the duty of all. — To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable. — (482) She needs not trouble herself. (777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour. — The horse was sent forward to engage the enemy. — The foot, in the mean- time, was preparing for an attack. — Fifty sail was seen ap- proaching the coast. — ^Two dozen is as many as you can take. — One pair was spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. i778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains, jife and death is in the power of the tongue. — Anger and impatience is always unreasonable.— Out of the sa. j mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. — Idleness and ignorance pro- duces many vices. — Temperance and exercise preserves health. — ^Time and tide waits for no man. — Our welfare and security consists in unity. — To profess regard and to act differently marks a base mind. — To be good and to seem good is different things. — ^To do good and to shun evil is equally our duty. (781) That able scholar and critic have died. — Tour friend and patron, who were here yesterday, have called again to-day. (782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, teem with life.— Every man and every woman were searched. STWrAX— HOMWAtiriB. 169 —Each day, and hour, and moment, are to be diligently im- proved. — >io wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares.-— No oppressor, no tyrant, triumph there. (785) Either the boy or the girl were present. — Neither pre- cept nor discipline are so forcible as example.— ' ur happiness or misery depend much upon our own conduct. —When sick- ness, infirmity, or misfortune, affect us, the sincerity of friend- ship is tried. — Neither ability nor inclination are wanting. — A man's being rich, or his being poor, do not afiect his character for integrity. — To do good or to get good are equally neglected by the fbolish. (786) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost in the undertaking. — He, and not we, are to blame. — James, and also his brother, have embarked for the gold region. — Books, not pleasure, occ ^ie«i his mind. — He, and not they, are mistaken. (787) Neither the sc'ii:)lard nor the teacher was present. — Whether the subjects or the king is responsible, maKes no dif- ference. (788) Either he or I are willing to go. — Neither thou nor he art of age. — Tou .e your brother are blamed. — ^Neither James nor i has had a letter this week. — ^Either Bobert or his sons has met with great losses. — Thou, or he, or John, art the author of that letter. (790) Stephen's party were entirely broken up. — The meet- ing were large and respectable. — ^The people often rejoices in that which will prove their ruin. — The British parliament are composed of loras and commons. — Congress consist of a senate and house of representatives. — Never were any nation so infat- uated. — ^The noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! — A great number of women were present. — The public is respect- fully informed. — The audience was much pleoBed. — The council was not unanimous. — Congress have adjourned. While Btill the busy world is treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before. (793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. — Many a broken ship have come to land. (795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came by mail, is lost. — ^It was proposed by the president to fit out an expedition, and has accomplished it. — Our friend brought two loads to market, and were sold at a good price. 170 ENGLISH OBAMMAH^ THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE, &o. 796. Rule IX. — The predicate substanlive, after a verby is put in the same case as the subject be/ore it ; as — " It is /"—"He sholl be called Jb/m '*—" She walks a queen''-^*' I too* It to be him " — "He seems to be a scholar'* — "The opinion is, that he will live** Hence — NoTB. — As the subject of a verb can Im) only iu the nominative (7C0), or objective (872) the predicate substantive can bo only in the uomiiiative or objective. 797. Any verb may be the copula between the subject and the predicate subHtnutive, except a transitive verb in tlie active voice. But those most commonly used in this way are the verbs to be, to become, to seem, to appear ; intransitive verbs of motion, position, dc, and passive verba, denoting to caU, name^ style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, reckon, <&c. 798. The predicate substaotivo after a verb may be anything that can be the subject of a verb (762). 799. Tlie infioitive without a subject, or the participle of a copulative verb (604) iu a subatantivo clause, has a prodicute substantive after it in the nominative ; as, •• To be a foreigner is a disadvantage.*' " He was not known to be a foreigner,** •' His being a foreigner was not known." "He was suspected of being a foreigner.** " We did nut know his being [or, of big being] a foreigner. In all these examples, the word foreigner is the predicate nominative after to be, or being, because these pbraves being only abridged dependent clauses (651), the predicate noun remaivs iu the same case after the clause is abridged as it was befure. Thus, "He was not known to be a foreign-' er">— " It was not known that he was a foreigner.*' As, then, in the latter fnrm,/oret§:ner is in the uuniinative under the rule, it remains the same in the abridged form, and so of the other examples. But when we say, " For him to bo a foreigner," or, •• Wo did not know him to be a foreigner " (896), him, in both examples, is the subject of /o be, and foreigner is in the objec- tive, according to the rule. POSITION. 800. Tiie usual position of the predicate substantive is after the verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construe* tion. Bat in both the direct and the indirect question, and in inverted sentences, its place is often different ; thus, ** Who is he ? ** — " Wo know not wco he is " — " Is he a siudknt ? " — " Ho is tha same that he was" — " The SYNTAX — OBJECTXYK. 171 tsoQ it was that died "— " A man A« was to all th« country dear " — " Fcit was / to tho lame " — " Far other soknk is Thratynieni now." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In cncli of llio following sentences, which is the copulative verb t-^ what is its subject? — what the predicate substantive? Correct where it is wrong, niid give the reason for the correction. Thus, mc is the predicate substantive, and should be i, because thu subject it is in the nominative. Rule — " The predioote," &o. (796) It ia me. — It was ine who wrote the letter, and him who carried it to the post-office. — I am sure it could not have been her. — It is them, you said, who deserve most blame. — You would probably do the same thing if you were him. — 1 understood it to be he. — It may have been him, but there is no f)roof of it. — If I were him, I would go abroad at once. — I ittlo thought it had been him. — It is not me you are in love with. — Art thou proud yet ? Ay, and that I am not thee. "Whom do you think he is? — Who do you think him to be? — Whom do men say that I am ? — She ia the person who I understood it to be. — He is the man whom you said it was. — Let him be whom he may. — Can you tell whom that man is ? — Is it not him whom you thought it was ? — Thomas knew not whom it was that called, though quite certain it wad not her who we saw yesterday. — Let the same be she who thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac. — He was not .the [)erson whom he affected to be. THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 801. RuLc X. — A transitive verb in the active voice governs the objective case ; as, " We love him.^^ — " He loves M«.** — " Whom did they send .^" 802. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or part of n sen- tence, may be the object of a transitive verb, ns well as a noun or pronoun ; as, "Boys love to play.** — "I know who ia thrre.^* — "I wish that they were tciw."— •' You see how few have returned." SPECIAL RULES. 803. Rule 1. — An intransitive verb doea nof govern an objective caae (820,1). Thut— in EirOtlSH OBAMMAA. "Repenting him of bis dMign,** ibould b«, "Repenting of his design/, Still, a Tew anomnlies of (his kind are to be found ; a<^, " They laughed him to icorn."— "The mnnlinefs to look the iubject in the face."— " Talked the night awny." 804. RuLB 8. — Intratuitive verbt in a tramitive tentt (875) govern the objectivi cate (821, 1,2); as, " He runs a raee."—** They live a holy /»/«." 805. To this UMge may be referred such expressions in poetry as the follo\ving: "The brooks ran nectar" — "The trees wept gum$ and balme" — " Her lips blush deeper $weet$," Ac. 806. To this rule also belongs the obiective after caumtivea (376-8) ; as, "He runs a rect remains as the predicate nominative after the verb, according to Rule IX. Thus, •• He was named John.*'-—" He was elected president,^ — " It was made » book.'* 812. Besides the direct or immediate object in the objective case, some verbs have a remote object between the immediate and the verb, governed by a preposition understood ; as, "John gave me a book." But when the remote object comes last, the preposition must be expressed ; ss, " John gave a book to mx." The verbs thus used ate such as signify to ask, teach, offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others. 813. These verbs properly take the immediate object of the active K 1 SYlfTAX— OBJIOTITB. 178 » it; it.- I was ▼oioe u the lubieot in tli« poMive, ansion of the farm was taken t)y them." This anomaly arises from inadvertently making tho object of the preposition, (/arm,) instead of the object of the verb in tho active voice, (poaeeuion,) the subject of the verb in the passive. Suoh anoma- lies are tho following: "The circumstance was made use of." " Tho ship was lost sight of." — **The occasion was taken advanta|i;e of." Either the regular passive form of expression should be used, or, if that be awkward, a different form of expression should bo chosen. POSITION. 815. As the nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike, the arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one ease fron- the other. The nominative generally preeedea the verb, ond the objective follow* it. Thus, " Brutus killed Ctesar." If one (or both) of these should be a pronoun, the order may be varied without obscuring the sense, and sometimes tho objective is rendered more emphatic by being placed ^rs< ; as, ** Him he slew." 816. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, it precedes both the verb and its nominaUve ; as, " The man whom we saw is dead.*—'* Whom did you send r 817. The objective slionld not, if possible, be separated from its verb by intervening clauses. Thus, " We could not discover, for the want of proper tests, the ^^tality of the metal." Better. " We oould not, for want of proper tests, dtteover the quality of the metal. EXEROISES TO BE OORREOTED. In the following sentences, correct the errors according to the rule, and give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences corrected. Thus. I should be me, because governed by loves. Rule, X, " A transitive verb," Aa J— (801) He loves I. —He fod they we know, but who art thora —She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. — Ye onl^ have I known. — ^He who committed the offence tnou shouldst correct, not I who am innocent.— Th'^y that honor me I will 174 ENGLTSH GRAMMAR. honor. — Who do you think I saw yesterday? — Who did lie mar- ry ?~ She who we met at the Springs last summer. — Who, having not secjn, we love. — Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ? — Who dost thou tako to be such a coward? (803) You will have reaton enough to repent you of your foolish conduct. — They did not fail to enlaige themselves on the subject. — Go, flee thee away into the land of Judci. — Hasten thee home. — Sit thee down and rest thee. (807) Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. — Fifty men are deserted from the array. — I am purposed that I will not sin. — He is almost perished with cold. — I am resolved to go. — He is !«. tired to his room. — The plague was then en- tirely ceased. — Is your father returned ? He was not returned an hour ago. (809) No country will allow of such a practice. — False ac- cusation can not diminish from his real merit. — His servants ye are, to whom ye obey. — He ingratiates with some by traducing others. — They shall not want for encouragement. We do not want for anything. — Covet earnestly for the best gifts. Change the following iuto the regular form, and give a reason for the change : — (813) I was promised a pension. — He was offered a jpaidou. — She would not accept the situation, though she 7«as offered it. — 1 was paid a dollar for my services. — I was given a book of great value. — The commissioner was denied access. (817) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so powerful an interest, his resolution to maintain bis right. — The troops pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates. THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 818. Rule XI. — A preposition governs the objective case ; as, " To whom much is given, of him much shall L^ required." 819. The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood— a participle uted aa a norm — part of a sentenet — a phrase, or dependetU clauM, as well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " He '« about to depart." — " AvTEE foe eame,** — ♦' On remtitng his diploma"'-''* Much depends on who ax* hii adviasrs." ' 820. As a general rule, it is oonsidered inelegant to connect either an active transitive verb aLd a preposition, or two prepositions with the same object. Thus, " I wrote to and warned him.'^ Better, " I wrote to th W( T\ wh "n( "( an SYNTAX — OBJECTIVE. 176 2. 8. him and warntd him" So, "Of him, and Ihrotigh him, and to him, are all things.'* Not of, and through, and to him," &c. 821. This general rule is so little reearded, even by the best writers, that it is a matter of doubt whether it should any lunger retain a place in our grammars. In many instances, at least, the form of speech con- demned by the rule fs clearly better in Mfieet of perspicuity, brevity, and strength, than that which it rccotliai#d», kml in snch casfs it should be adopted. In Rome cases, again, as in the above example, the full form is belter than the elliptical. In this matter, every one must be guided by his taste and judgement, avoiding equally obscurity and harchness. 822. When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of places, the follcving usoge should be carefully observed, viz. : — 1. To — h used after a verb of motion toward ; as, " Ho went to Spain.* But it is omitted before home ; as, " Oo home." Al-^'n used before names of houies, villafttn, iotena, and foreign cities : as, " He resides at the ^lansion House."—" At Saratoga Springs."—" At Lisbon." /n— 'is used before names of countriet and large eitie» ; as, '* He lives tn England"— "in London"—" in New York." But a< is used before the names of places and large cities after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently after the verb to be; as, '' We touohed at Liverpool, and, after a short passage, laudt'd at New Orleana."— " 1 was at New York," 4. In Rpeaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the No , and tn before the $tr0€t ; as, " He resides at No.— ." — *• He lives in State street." When both are mentioned together, the f>reposition is commonly understood before the last ; as, " He ives af No. , State street," or "He lives tn State street, No ." 823. The preposition is frequently understood as follows : — 1. A preposition expressed with the first noun or pronoun of a series, may be understood to the rest ; as, "Be kina to John and Jame» and Mary." 2. When the remote object of a verb, governed by a preposition, is placed between the verb and its immediate object, the prcposi* tion is often omitted ; as, " Give me your hand." — " Bring me a chair."—" Ge , me a book," (812). 3. To is commonly omitted after ItJee, n«ar, nigh ; as, " Like his father.' —" /7if«r H river," Ac; and of frequently after worthy and un- vjortfty. 824. Sometimes the antecedent tern? of a preposition, and sometimes the subsequent (539), is omitted. Thu'i, the anteetdent : " [/ fay] in a word." — *' All shall know me [reckouing] from tlio least to the greutest." The ttUiseguent : " There is a man I am acquainted with "—-that is, toith whom I am acquainted. Tlie mhsequtnt is always omitted when it is the indefinite antecedent to which a compound relative refers (273): as, " Give it to whoever will take it." 826. The phrases, in vain, in secret, at first, at last, in short, on higk, and the like, may either be parsed together as adverbs, or the noun may 176 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. be sapplidd, and each srord parted separately ; as, " Id a vain manner. — " In a secret p/a«0," d / ^ .\ diminution of. Disabled /*wv». Diagrei) mth a person; to a pro* p«}pal. Disagreeable to. Disappointed o/* what we do not get; in Vvliat does not answer when goL DJBapproYe vf. Discourage from ; discouragement' to. Disgusted at, with. Dispose of ; disposed (adj.) to, DiapussesB of. DisquaUfy /or. Dissent /rom. Distinct from. Divested of. Divide bettceen two; among more. Eager in, ott, of, for, after. Embark in. Employ in, on, aboiU. Enamoured with. Encroach upon, on. Endeavor after a thing. Engage in a work ; for a time. Enjoin upon. Entrance into. • Equal to, with. 8YNT A X — PREPOSITIONS. a pro* lore. k«« EquivaleDt to. Espouse to, Estimateil at. ExccptioD /rorn, to. Exclude, exoUmoa /row. Exclusive of. Expulled from. Expert at (before a noun) ; in (be- fore au active participle). Full under disgrace ; from a tree ; into a pit ; to work ; upon an enemy. Familiar to, with ; a thing is famil- iar to U8 — we viith it. Fawn upon, on. Followed by. Fond of. Foreign to, sometimes /row. Founded upon, on, in. Free yi cm. Fruitful in. Full of. Glud of uomclhing gaiucd by our- selves ; at something that be- falls another. Grateful to a person ; for favors. Hanker after. Hinder from. Hold of; as, "Take hold of me." Impose upon. Iacorporat<> (active transitive) into; (mtrausitive or passive) tnth. Inculcate on. Independent of. Indulge with a thing not habitual ; in a, tiling habitual. Indulgent to. Influence on, ever, mtli. Inform of, about, concerning. Initiate into a. place ; in an art. Inquire. — (See a9k.) Inroad into. Inseparable /rom. Insinuate into. Insist upon. Instruct in. luspection (prying) into; (superin- tendence) ouer. Intent upon, on. Interfere utiih. Intervene between. Ialroduc« into a place ; to a persoii. Inti'i^du into a p'> s'\f''ic'.o«td: Ujjon a person, or a thfrj!? vot ♦•n- closed. Inured to. Invested vnth, in. Lame of. Level with. Long /or, after. Look on what is present; fur whnt is absent ; after what is distant Made of. Made much of. Marry to. Martyr /or. Militate againU, Mistrustful of. Need of. Obedient to. Objaot to, againtt. Observanoe, observation of. Obtrude upon, on. Occasion for. O&nsive, to. Operate upon, on. Opposite, opposition to. Partake of; participate of, in. Penetrate into. Persevere in. Pitch upon. Poor in. Prefer to, over, above. Preference t», over. Preferable to. Prefix to. Prejudice agai: it. Prea.ue over. Prevent /rom. Prevail (to pci-suadc) y'Uh, on, unon ; (to overcome) over, against. Prey on, upon. Productive of. Profit by. Protflct othars/rom; ourselves afjn&i. Pronounce against a person ; on u tiling. Provide with, for. Proud of. Purge of, away. Quarrel with. Reckon on, upgn Reconcile (to friendship) fo ; (to make consistent) wiUt. 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Reduce (subiitio) undtr ; (in other Submit to. P^: • f 4 coses) to. Reflf^ct upon^ on, Hevard /or ; In vogunl to. Rely upon, on. Replete wiih. Repn)nched for. Resctnblancu to. Resolve on. Respect to; \\\ rospoct to, oj. Restore —Come in the houae.— We SYNTAX — POSSKiSITE. 181 ymeni ; city or ime, an Ate). insiliTf) ; before ter lhe»c, uch upon height "— ance. In mt never prepoii- 5, usually de in "— nteoedent ' recom- sulty of 'hanged Limes of [my rely im good le no oc- |d to tho hue and le.-We rode into a carriage with four homos. — The boy foil under a deep pit. — Such conduct cnnnot be reconciled to your profos- sion. — Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. — A man had four sons, and he c'lvided his property between them. — I am now engaged with that work. — He insists on it that he is right. THE POSSESSIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 839. Rule XIH. — A substantive tliat limits the signi' Jicaiion of another^ must he put in the possessive case ; !^ '^ '/ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 863. The subjuhctive mood is used to express a wish or desire ; as, " 1 wish I were at home." " O, that he were w'lae 1 " 864. A suppositioa or wish, implying a present denial of the thing sup- posed or desired, is expressed by the past subjunctive; as, "If my kin|f- dom were of this world, then would my servants fight," implying, " It is not of this world." — " 0, that thou wert as my brother 1 " implying, " Thou art not" (439-2). EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. What verbs in the following sentences, should, according to the rule, be in the subjunctive mood, and what in the indicative? — correct them accordingly — parse the sentences corrected. (857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely be put to death. — We must go to-morrow, unless it rains. — There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good. — Though the sky be clear, it is cold. — He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. — We may get letters, if the mail arrives in time. — If JohA be come, why did you not tell me ? — If it snows all night, the roads will be impassable. — Ask John if he know when the legislature meets. — If he know any thing, he surely knows, that unless he gets better he can not be removed. — If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. (861) Take care that the horse does not run away. — See that thou dost it not. — Let him that standeth take heed lest he falls. — Kiss the Son, lest he is angry. — Reprove not a scorner, lest he hates thee, (862) If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great thankfulness. — If he does but run, he will soon overtake them. — If he be but in health, I am content. — O, that he was wise ! — I wish I was at home. (864) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. — If it was not so, I would have told you. — If he was a year older, I would send him to school. — Was gold more abundant, it would be of less value. — If he was an imposter, he must have been detected. — If I was he, I would accept the offer. — Was I he, I would accept the offer. THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 86-3. Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by VERBS, NOUNS, Of ADJECTIVES ; as, " I desire to learn "— **A desire to learn" — ^^ Anxious to learn." SYNTAX — INFINITIVE . 'I8t i; as, "t ling sup- my kin^- It 18 " Thou the rule, ect them II surely rains. — is good, itain bis 3, if the not tell e. — Ask low any n not be it these ly. — See d lest he scorner, of great [e them. as wise ! -If it older, I it would ve been I he, I 'tied by 866. The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, and has the construction of both a verb and a noun. 867. As a noun, the infinitive raay be, 1. The subject of a verb, (394) ; as, " To play is pleasant." 2. The object of a verb (802) ; .13, •' Boys love to play." 3, The predicate nominative after a copulalive verb CiOS); up, »*He is to bii married." 4. In apposition with another noun (670); as, "Spare, spare your friends the task, to read, to nod, to scoff, condemn" 5. The object of a preposition (819) ; as, " About to depart "— " Whiit went ye ont for to see ?" 868. At the same time that the infinitive is used ns a noun, it may have .all the modifications of a verb in respect to time, government, or ad- juncts, forrainff, with them, an .abridged sentence, or clause or phrnse (653); as, "To pee the sun at midnight is imposj-ible." Uvw, to si'e\& modified by its object, the sun, and by the adjunct, at midnight, and the whole clause is the subject of is. Uence the following — SPECIAL RULES. 869. Rule 1. — One verb being the subject (592) of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, " To study is profitable" (872). 870. Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its objkot, or complement in the infinitive ; as, " Boys \o\cjoplay " — '' They seem to study " (319,-680, 4,-802). 871. Verbs which take the infinitive a^ their objecf, nre traneitive verbs in the active voice ; and the inflnitive, either alone, or modified by other word?, is equivalent to the objective cise (802). Verbs which take tl«e infinitive as their complement, that is, in order to Jill owf or complete, as it were, the idea intended, are intransitive or passive veibs, which form a sort of modified eopula between their subject and the infinitive follow- in;?. Thus, *' The Avatch seems to go " == " The watch is nppjirently going " 872. lIuLE 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, some- times has a subject of its own in the objective case. 873. In either construction, the infinitive, with its subject, is an abridy;ed depentlont clause (653) and when u?ed as the subject, is introduced by for. Thus, Subject — *• For ws to do so would be improper," '=-"Tli;it we should do so would be improper." Object — " I know him to bo an honest man," «= '• I know ihat he is an honest man." Here the object of know is neither Aim, nor to be, &c., sepaiately, but the whole clause, "him to be an honest man," taken together, equivalent to, " that he is an honest man." 874. In many such pcntences, the subject of the infinitive resembles the direct, and the infinitive itself the indirect object of (lie preceding verb, as in the construction (810). Hence, when the verb is changed into the passive form, the objective after the active verb (which is also the subject of the infinitive), becomes the nominative to the passive verb, and the infiDitive remains after it, like the indirect object (811). Thus, Active, " I desired him to go." — Passive, " He was desired to go." 188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 875. ROLK 4.— The infinitive i$ used as a predicate nominative after any verb as a copula (697); ae, " You are to blame " (397). 876. When used as a predicate nominative after the verb to be, the in- finitive denotes — 1. An equivalent expression ; as, *' To obey is to enjoy," 2. "What is possible or obligatory ; as, " Gold is to be found in Califor- nia " — " The laws are to be observed." 3. What is settled and determined upon, and, of course, future; as, i' The ship is to sail to morrow." 877. RuLK 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the verba BID, DARE, NEED, MAKE, EEE, HEAR, FEEL, and LET, in the activt Voicfi, nOT after let in the passive; as, "I saw him do it" — " You need not go "— '• He was let go." 878. To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only to euphony and usnge, to may be inserted when harshness will not thereby be produced ; thus, " Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised." — McKenzie. 879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verba per- ceivCj behold, observe, have, and know. 880. When several infinitives come together in the same construction, the sign to expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted before those that follow ; thus, " It is better to be a king and die, than to live and be a prince." This should never be done when either harshness or obscurity would be the result. 881. To, the sign of the infinitive, should never bo used for the infini- tive itself. Thus, " I have not written, and I do not intend to," is a col- loquial vulgarism for, " I have not written, and I do not intend to write." 882. Rule 6. — JTie infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or, design of the preceding act ; as, " Some who came to scoffs remained to pray." Here, to scoff and to pray are not governed by came and remained ; but are put without a governing word, to express the end for which they came and remained. 883. This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by the phrase, "in order;" and formerly was preceded by /or; as, "What went ye out /or to see ? " This is now obsolete. 884. Rule 7. — In comparisons^ the infinitive mood is put after so as, too or THAN ; as, " Be so good as to read this letter " — " Too old to learn "— " Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider this construction as elHpticab and that the infinitive depends on a word understood. 885. The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form the reason of that which goes before; as, " Base coward that thou art I tofiee ! " — " Ungrateful man I to waste my fortune, rob me of my peace ! " (fcc. — " Must not one sigh, to reflect on bo grave a subject." fter any '., the in- Oalifor- 'ure; as, the verbs loiee, nor ot go "— only to ; thereby lised." — jrba per- truction, ire those re and be >b8curity >e infiai- is a col- write.** KND, or, ained to mained ; Ich they by the at went AS, TOO 'am "— ipticali d form ou art I eace ! " SYNTAX — INFINITIVE . 189 886. The infinitine is sometimes put absolutely, without a governing word ; as, " To say the truthj I was in fault." 887. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I consider liira [to be"] an honest man." 888. The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes expresses obligation or necessity ; as, " We have to do it," that is, *• We must do it." 889. In parsing, the infinitive, in these several constructions, may be briefly stated thus : *' The infinitive as the subject of " — " as the object of -"— " as the predicate-nominative after " — •' The infinitive of purpose — comparison — cause — used absolutely." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except in its tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign to. When there is no rule to authorise the omission, it should be inserted. (865) Strive learn. — They obliged him do it. — You ought not walk so fast. — (869) It is better live on a little than out- live a great deal. — It is better to be a king and die than live and be a prince. — (870) He scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or be guilty of evasion. (877) Tou need not to be so serious. — I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. — He bid me to go home. — The boys were all let to go at once. — Let no man to think too highly of himself. — They all heard him to say it. — He was ^eard say it by everybody. — Some one saw them to pass the house. — They were seen pass the house. — I have observed some artistes to use the term. — Dare be wise. — They were bid come into the house. — (881) Be sure to write your». self, and tell him to. — I strive to live as God designed me to^ Point o'-.t the use of the infinitive in the following correct sentences, and show how it is goyerneJ. It too often happ^'ns that to be above the reach of want just places us within the reach of avarice. — It does no good to preach generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor soul.— He was born to be great. — To accomplish these ends, savages resort to cunning. — They thought to make themselves rich. — Great desires are difficult to be gratified. — Some people are di£5cult to please. — To know ourselves, we must commence by knowing o'^r own weakness. — If we have not always time to read, we ha > always time to reflect. — ^To be or not to be ? that is the question. — I do well to be angry. — Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. — Haying food to eat and raiment to put on, be content. 190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE PARTICIPLES. 890. Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction ofnaunSy adjectives, and verbs (452, <^c.) 891. The participle as a nouD, in tbe uomiuative case, roay bo the subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-nominative after it (798); as, ** Saving ia not doing." In the objective case, it may be the object of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819); as, •'Avoid doing evil." — *' There is pleasure in doitig good." 892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect participle (as well as the infinitive 799) of a copulative verb (604), is iu efijarded as iritroduo- ent to an td; as, " I negative end of the righteous, ied in the ^MLcqu«in- his way a flYMTAX — AOV1BRB0. 197 pleasing variety of eipreMJon is sometimes produced. But the word only with the negative, preserves the negation ; as, *' lie was not only illiberal, but even covetous," 934. The adverbs nay, no, yea, yei, often i^taud alouo na i\ negative or an affirmative answer to a qicetion ; ns, " Will h« go?" — "A'l; "— '• He will not go.'*— "la ho at heme ?"—" Fes"— " IFo is ut home." Jlmen is an affinnative verb, equivalent to *^Bf it so" or '*May it be so.'* 935. No, before a noun, is an adjective; ai", *'No man." Beforfl an ndjcc- live or adverb in the comparative degi-oe, it is an adverb; as, "iVo taller " — "No sooner." In nil other casts the proper negative is not ; as, " Uo will not come " — " Whether he come or not." POSITION. 936. Rule 8. — Adverbs are for the most part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the single form, and after the first auxiliary in the compound form ; as, " He is very attentive, behaves well, and is 7nuch esteemed." 937. This rule applies geucially to adverbial adjunct phrases as well as to adverbs (826). 938. This is to be considered only as a geuuial rule, to which there are many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, which is not liable to exceptions. Thut order is the bett which con* veys the meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the vero, or at some distance aftei it. 939. Never, often, always, sometimes, generally precede the verb. Not, with the participle or infinitive, should generally be placed before it (600). 940. The improper position of the adverb only often occasions ambi- guity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by placing it before the predicated term ; und when it refers to a subject, by placing it after its name or description; as, **Only acknowledge thine iniquity." — "The thoughts of his heart are only evil." — " Take nothing for yonr journey but a staff only.^* These observatioaa will generally be applicable to the words merely, solely, chiefly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 941. In prose, io, the sien of the infinitive, or rather a part of it, should never be separated by placing an adverb immediately after it. Thus, "They are accustomed to carefully study their lessons," should be " to study carefully," or " carefully to study," Ac. 942. I'he adverb enough is commonly placed after the adjective which it modifies; >is, "A large enough house — "A house large enough for all." 943. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded ; thus, " Sel- dom or ever," should be " Seldom or never," or " Seldom if ever." Ever so. referring to quantity or degree, means in whatsoever degree. Hence " Charming ruver so wisely," should be •• ever so wisely." go, " Evtr to much," •• ever so yr'iie," Ao. * 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '-. 4.,,' . • it"*-. ^ ^1 ' ' ' " M^J^ ■;:<«' W *'%W *''-j .'■tl m EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. As adrerbB are indeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chieflj in their position, or in using as adverbs words that are not bo, or in using adveros where other words are required. Correct the errors in the fol- lowing: — (825) They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. — The then emperor was noted for bis cruelty. — He was be- friended by the then reigning duke. — She walks graceful. — He spoke eloquent. — She die that work good. — Our friends arrived safely. — The boat moves rapid. — His expressions sounded harshly. — She is a remarkable pretty girl. — My foot slipped, and I pretty near fell down. (926) He departed fron^ thence into a desert place. — I will send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. — From nence ! away ! (927) Where art thou gone ? — And he said unto me, *'Come up here." — Tl^e city is near, oh ! let me escape there. — Where I am, there ve can not come. (928) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. — The condition where I found him was deplorable. — He went to London last year, since when I have not seen him. (932) I can not do no more. — He will never be no taller. — He did not nay nothing at all. — ^Neither he nor no one else can do that. — I have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor from his friend. — ^I never did repent for doing good, nor shall not now. — I can not see to write no more. — Nothing never can justify ingratitude. — (935) Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. (936) We should not be overcome totally by present events. — We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. — It -^ im- possible continually to be at work. — Not only he found her em- ployed, but pleased and tranquil also. — In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. — They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. — (937) I wished that any one would hang me a hundred times. (938) The women contributed all their rings and jewels v«ii- untarily, to assist the government. — He determined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends. — (939) Having not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. (940) Theism can only be opposed to .polytheism. — Bv great- ness, I do not only mean the balk of any single object, but th^ SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 199 tlo chiefly in or in using ; in the fol- to the war. le was be- leful.— -He ids arrived I sounded ot slipped, .—I will ice ! away ! ce De, le Come 3. — Where ed his own rable. — He en him. 10 taller. — ne else can )ct, neither for doing 10 more. — 80 kind as mt events. I — It •' im- id her em- lisposition as well M [—(937) I Liewels v*ii- to invite I) Having [oposed, he -By great- ;t,butth9 distinctness of a whole view. — Only you have I known of all the nations of the earth. — In promoting the public good, we only discharge our duty. — He only read one book, not two. — Ho read the book only, but did not keep it. — Pie only read the book, but not the letter. — He chic' spoke of virtue, not of vice. — He only reads English, not Irench. (94il) Scholars should be taught to carefully acrutin'zo the sentiments advanced in the books they read.— To make this sentence perpicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 944. Rule XJX. — Conjunctions connect words, PHRASES, or SENTENCES (561). 945. Words of the same cIobb, having a similar relation to another word to \trhich they belong, are connected by a conjunction. Thus — 1. Nouns or pronouns; as, "James and John and /are here." 2. Adjectiveti; as, " A prudent, brave, and honorable man." .S. Verbs ; as, *' Caesar came and saw and conquered.'* 4. Adverbs, or adverbs and adjuncts; as, "He won the prize /air/y and honorably," or ^^ fairly and wUh honor," or ** with fairness and with honor!* 5. Prepositions ; aa, " To and Jrom the city " — " Up and dovm the hill." 946. Verbs connected have the same nominative; as, "James reads and writes." 947. Nouns or pronouns connected in the nominative case, either as sub* jeota or attributes, are related as such to the same verb ; as, " John and James are cousins." — '* He is a gentleman and a scholar.** 948. Nouns or pronouns connected in the possessive case are governed by the same noun ; as, "John's and Jameis books.*' 949. Nouns or pronouns, connected in the objective case, are governed by the same verb or preposition ; as, " He studies grammar and Icgic^*— " Qive the books to him and me." 9B0. When nominatives belong to different verlfc, or verbs to dilTercnc nominatives, the conjunction connects the sentences, not the words; as, '^John reads and James writes^ 951. Simple seBteoces or clauses are connected by conjunctions, so as to form one compound sentence; as, "/ said that ye are gods; but ye shall die" 952. Similar sentences, whether dependent or independent, are connect- ed by the conjunctions arui, or^ nor, but, yet, &o. 953. Dependent members or clauses are connected with their leading clauses by such conjunctions, or other connective words, as may properly indicate the relation intended (962 and 963). jgOO iBNOtrSH ORAMMAtti 954. Conjunctions are frequently understood between the Words of sentences connected ; as, " Caesar came, saw, and conquered." — " The men, tcomen, an«l children, were present." — " It is the part of those that are great, to give — of those that are poor, to ask."— " Learning collects materials ; wisdom applies them." SPECIAL RULES. 955. Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, "Do good, and seek peace." — "Honor thy father and mother^ [This rule applies to the infinitive and participles.] 956. Verbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are generally also in the same form (474); as, "He reads and writes," (not, does write). 957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by a conjunction, but haying a different construction, may be in different moods and tenses ; as, '' I read that I may learn." 958. "When two or more verbs in the compound tenses, or in the pro- gressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are connected, the auz- ilir..y expressed with the first, may be understood to the rest; as, "He can neither read nor torite."-—" Diligence should be commended and reward- ed." Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is often more emphatic : as, " They shall come, and they shall declare his truth." 959. Verbs of the same mood, tense or fori , connected as a compound predicate (627), have the nominative expressed with the first, and under- stood to the rest ; as, '^ Csesar came, saw, and conquered." But— - 960. When verbs connected are not of the same mood, tense, or form, and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but, though, yet, is intended the nominative is frequently repeated; as, "He came, but he would not stay." But still — 961. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony and perspic- uity ; and when these are preserved without repeating the nominative, it may be omitted ; as, " The two charges had been, and still are, united in one person." — North British Review. 962. After expressions implying doubt, fear, cr denial, the conjunction that is properly used — not lest, but, but that ; as, " I do not doubt that he is honest ." — " I am afraid that he will die." — Also, what should never be used for that. Thu), *'Ho will not believe but what I am to blame," should be, " bu*. that I am to blame." 963. Rule 2, — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentence, require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one ; thus — 1. In clauses or words simply connected — Both requires and (567) ; as, •' Both he and i came." Either or (670) ; as, "EUher he or I will come." Neither nor (570); as, "Neither he nor I came." Whether or : as, ** Whether he or I came." SYNTAX— CONJtTNCTIOIfS. 201 metion ikat he sver be lehould itencCf Though Kot only yet ; as, Though he slay tne, yet t«rill t trnst in him." but also; as, "I^ot only he but alto his brother goes." 2. la clauses connected so as to imply comparison — The comparative degree requires than ; as, " He is taller than I am." Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." Else than ; as, " What else do you expect than this ?'• As as (expressing equality )\ as, " He is as tall as I am." As so (expressing equality) ; as, " As thy day is, so sbal* thy strength be." So as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, " E^e is not so learned as his brother." 80 that (expressing consequence) \ as, "He is to weak that he can not walk." Such as (expressing similarity) ; as, " He or such as he." Such that (with a finite verb, to express a consequence ) ; as, " The difference is such that all will per* ceive it." For as and so, in comparison, see 581. For as sometimes regarded as a relative, see 271 — as a connective of words in apposition, 674. For the infinitive after so — ae, see 884. 964. And, or, nor, do not require the corresponding antecedent, and though does not always require yet. By poetic license (1048-6), or and nor are sometimes used as antecedents, instead of either, neither (670), 965. In sentences implying comparison, there is commonly an ellipsis in the second member, after than and as ; " My punishment is greater than [that is which'] I can bear." — " My punishment is as great as [that is which"] 1 can bear." And sometimes in senterces not implying compari- son, after though and if ; as, " Though [it ia] coarse, it is good." — " He is kin^, if [he is] sincere " (978-7). 966. A relative after thou is put in the objective case; as, "Satan, than whom none higher sat." This anomaly may be regarded as a case of simple enallage (1044-4). 967. RuLB 3' — When a subsequent clause or part of a sentence is com- mon to two different but connected antecedent clauset, it tnust be equally ap- plicable to both ; as, " That work always has been, and always will be, admired." — " He is as tall, though not so handsome, as hit brother.** 868. Whea this rule is violated, the correction is made, either— 1. By altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subsequent may be applicable to both. Thus, " The story has and will be believed," is not correct, because, though we can say, will be believed, we can not say, has he believed. It should be, " The story has been, and will be be< lieved " or— 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. If this can not be done, we may complete the construction of the first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave the subse- quent of the second understood. Thus, " He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cynthio," is not correct, because we can not say. " He was more beloved as Cynthio." It should be, " He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired." 969. The principle of this rule applies to the appropriate selection of words as well as to their constmction ; thus, '• This doctrine is founded and consistent with the truth," should be, "founded iipon, and consistent m7/i," «fcc. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences point out the conjunctions, the words or sen- tences connected by them — see whether they correspond, according to the rulos, and if not, correct and give a reason for the change. (955) He reads and wrote well. — Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. — If he understand the subject and attends to it, ho can scarcely fail of success. — Enjoying health and to Iwe in peace are great blessings. — Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about showing it.— Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than to show it. You and me are great friends. — This is a small matter be- tween you and I. — My father and him are very intimate. — He is taller than me ; but I am older than him. (956) He reads and writeth well. — He reads and does write well. — He reads and is writing well. — Does he not read and writes well ? — Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him ? — Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life. (958) He can neither read nor can write — ^I will come and will see you, and will tell you the whole story. — He should have written, or should have sent, or should have come himself. (960) Can these persons consent to such a proposal, and will consent to it ? — How distinguished for talents he is, and how useful might be. — He might have been happy and now is con- vinced of it. — He could command his temper, though would not. (962) I do not deny but he has merit. They were afraid lest you would be offended. — We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened to him. We can not deny but what he was ill-treated. — We can not doubt but what he is well. — I oan not see but what he is well. (963-1) It is neither cold or hot. — It is so clear as I need not explain it. — The relations are so uncertain, as that they re* SYNTAX — INTERJECTIONS. 203 quire much examination. — The one is equally deserving as the other.— I must he so candid to own that I have heen mistaken. — He would not do it himself nor let me do it. — He was as an- gry as he could not speak. — So as thy days so shall thy strength be. — Thougli he slay me so will I trust in him. — He must go himself or send his servant. — There is no condition so secure as can not admit of change. — He is not as eminent and as much esteemed as he thinks himself to be. (963-2) He has little more of the scholar besides the u'lme. — Be ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. — They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies. — These savage people seemed to have no other element but War. — Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided. — He gained nothing further by his speech, but only to be com- mended for his eloquence. — This is none other but the gate of Paradise. (967) I always have and I always shall be of this opinion. — He is bolder but not so wise as his companion. — Sincerity is as valuable and even more so than knowledge. — Their intentions might and probably were good. The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him. — Will it be urged that these books are as old or even older than tradition. — This book is preferrable and cheaper than the other. He takes no care nor interest in the matter. • re» INTERJECTIONS. 970. Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical connection with the other words in a sentence (556). 971. After interjections, pronouns of the Aret person are commonly in the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; as, " Ah mo 1" — "Othoul" 972. In neither of these, however, docs the case depend on the inter- jection. The objective is commonly thought to be governed by a word understood; thus, "Ah [pity'] me l" — "Ah [what will become of } me T The nominative is commonly the nominative of the person addressed (778). GENERAL RULE. 973. In every sentence^ the words employed^ and the order in which they are arranged^ should he such as clearly and properly to express the idea intended ; and 204 WgQLlSa QLAMMAB. at the same time, aU the parts of the sentence should cor- respond, and a regular and dependent construction he preserved fhroughout. 974. TliiB may be regarded as a general rule, applicable to every case, and therefore comprehending all the preceding. Though these are bo full and minute as to embrace almost everything belonging to the proper con- struction of sentences, yet there will sometimes occur instances of impro- priety in the use, and arrangement, and connection of words, for the avoid- ing or correcting of which no very specific rule can be given. 975. Among the evils to be guarded against under this general rule, are the following: — 1. The use of words which do not correctly or i-roperly convey the idea intended, or which convey another with equal propriety. 2. The arrangement of words and clauses in such a way that their re- lation to other words and clauses ia doubtful, or difficult to be perceived. 8. The separating of adjuncts (541) from their principals, and placing them so that they may be joined to words to which they do not belong (882). 4. The sepMrating of relative clauses improperly from their antecedents (755 and 759 ) 5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or popsess- ive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse (1129.) EXERCISES. The following eenteuoes are not grammatically incorrect, but from some of th<5 causes mentioned affove, are obscure, inelegant^ ambiguout, or unin- telligible. Let the pupil point out the error and correct it, and give u reason for the correction. The son said to bia father that he had sinned against Heaven. — A farmer vreut to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had gored his ox. — The Greeks fearing to be surrounded on all sides wheeled about and halted with the river on their backs. — Nor was Philip wanting to corrupt Demosthenes, as he had most of the leading men of Greece. — Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip the father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way into Asia. — Belisarius was gene- ral of all the forces under J ustinian the First, a man of rare valor. — Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends. — Carthage was demolished to the ground so that we are unable to say where it stood, at this day. — '"hus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Pitnic war, and two after it had been begun.-— Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a n^an. STlfTAX-- ELLIPSIS 205 th le 976. Another olus of improprieiies arises from the improper omission of words, by which tbo grammatical conslruction of a ecntenco is broken up. Asa general rule, the fewer the words are by which we express our ideas, (he beter, provided the meaning ia clearly brought out. Phis may often be done without using all the words uecesnary to the full gramnmt- ical form of a seutenoe, and hence, as the tendency always ia to abbre- viate ppeeoh, sueh words as can be cpared, according to the usnge of the language, are properly omitted. This omission is ci\lled ELLIPSES (1044-1). Respecting the use of this figure, nothing more definite can bo laid down than what is contained in the following SPECIAL RULES. 977. Rule 1. — An ellipses, or omission of words, is admissible when they can be supplied by the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to obsewe the sense. Thus— Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and he was 9. good man," we may say, "He was a learned, wise, and good i> man. 978. According to common usage, au ellipsis of the different pnrts of speech is allowed in the following cases, viz. :» 1. Noun and Pronoun. -^ When tvro or more things are asserted of the same subject, the noun or pronoun is expressed before the first verb, and omitted before the rest. Also, when ^ne same noun or pronoun is the object of several verbs, it is omitted after all except the last ; as, " 1 love, fear, and respect him,*' instead of, " I love him, /fear /ttm, and /respect him." 2. A noun is frequently omitted after the comparative degree ; as, " I will pull down my bams, and build greater [barns]." 8. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the noun is omitted after all except the last ; as, " A great, wise, and good mfn," for " A great man, a wise man, and a good mau." 4. Adjectivx and Artiolb. — When an adjective qualifies two or more nouns, it is omitted be£pre all except the first only ; as, " Good qualities and actions "—•" JEToppy boys and girls" — "He is an honest, learned, and well'bred man,** for, **an honest, a learned, and a well-bred man." 6. Verbs.— A verb is often omitted after its subject, preceded by the comparative degree; as, •' He is wiser than I [am] " — '• I am younger than he [is]." 6. When several clauses come together, having the same predicate verb, the verb is often expressed in the first, and omitted in the rest ; as, "The Italians have imitated the Latins; the English, the Italians; and the Americans, the English." Sometimes it is omitted in the first, and expressed i?) t^e last; M, "Not only men, but nations, imitate one an- other," 206 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. Ill 7. The verb to be, with its subject, in deDendent clauses, is often omitted after the connectives, if, though, yet, when, Ac; as, "Study, if [it u] neglected, becomes irksome." — " Though [he wot] poor, he was honest." (965). 8. Tn poetry, verbs wliich express addrea$ or answer, are often omitted ; as, "To him the prince [replied,]." Also, when the words connected readily indicate what the verb must be, if expressed ; as, " I'll henee to London "—♦' I'll tn "— "^way, old man 1 "--5AaJt«.— " Up, up, Glenarkin 1'" — W. Scott. 9. The Terb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after the auxiliary, when the same yerb is used in the first clause ; as, " You have read, but I have not [r^ad]." Also, verbs connected in the same voice, mood, and tense, having the auxiliary with the first, omit it with the rest ; as, " He will be lovwl and respected tor his virtues." 10. Adverb.— When an adverb modifies more words than one, it is placed only with the last ; as, '* He spoke and acted gracefully." 11. Preposition. — When the same preposition connects two or more subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually omitted before all except the first ; as, " Over the hills and the valleys " — " Through woods and wilds." 12. CoNJDNOTioN. — When sereral words and clauses come together in the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely, sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all ex<:ept the last ; as. " He caused the blind to see, the lame to walk, the deaf lo hear, the lepers to be cleansed." — " We ran hither and thither, seeking novelty and change— sympathy and pastime— communion and love." — •• Youth is the Reason f^f joy, of bliss, of strength, and pride." 13. Inter JBOTioK. — The interjections are neyer omitted, but, in the expression of sudden emotion, all but the most important words are com- monly omitted ; as, " Well done I " for, " That i» well done 1 " Also, after interjections, there is often an ellipsis of the obvious word ; as, " for a lodge," in the objective plural, the object of, and governed by, obliges- — Rule a. " A transitive verb," Ac. (801). It is at the same time the subject of to admire and to adore. — Rule 8 under Rule XV. " The infinitive as the subject," Ac. (872 and 873). to admire, . .is a verb, transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, governed by oWigc».— Rule XV. "The infinitive mood is governed," Ac. (865). and is a copulative conjunction; it connects to admire and to adore. — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," Ac. (944). to adore ... .is the same in parsing and construction as to admire. the is the definite article ; it belongs to hand, and shows it to be limited.— Rule III., 2. "The article the," Ac. (707). Omnipotent Aa an adjective, not compared, because it does not admit of increase (223). It qualifies hand. — Rule II., 1. " An adjec- tive or participle," Ao. (676). hand is a NotJN, neuter, in the objective singular, gorerned by to admire and to adore. — Role X. " A transitive verb," Ac (801). by is a PREPOSITION ; it shows the relation between was created, the antecedent term, and which, the subsequent term (688, 689). which is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the objective singular; re- fers to, and agrees with hand as its antecedent. — Rule V. "The relative agrees," &c. (74i); and ia governed by 6y.— Rule XI. "A preposition governs," Ac. (818). It connect* its clause with hand, and describes it (646 and 610-6). a . w . i . » « .is & i^BONOUN, same as before ; is the subject of was created.-^ RutB VI. " The subject of a finite verb,"*' Ac (760). SIO ■IfOUlH ORAMMAII. wn» ereattd An A vitn», trnnnltlTn, reffnUr, In the pnut {ndlontir*, pAii«lr«, third pei'Min niiiKuliir ; nfflnnn of. mm iigtoes ^vitll it. — IluLS VIII. "A veih HKi «•««," «tc. (77rt). In \h« pnme ninnncr, pnr-'o llio othor npntencog fini(lyr.(>«l (flftO); nml AtiKlycrt iind pimo Mi« i>xciflia«*B folluwiDg them pnge MA, Mid any ouirecl ittut«r.C('B (rum nny goml author. PROMISCUOUS EXEUCISES ON THK HULKS OP SYNTAX, ETC. ly In tlift preccdittg " Rxorolnes to be corrected," onre hnm been tnken to iii-ii'it inch t'Xtiiiinlen only r« oiin bo oorreiMed by th« rule, or the ol). •ervHlions under whiah tliey )ire pliioed, or by tlioMe which precede them. In I he folloTvinR " PromiicnoUH Kxeroiset,'* no pnrticular HrnuiKemvut it obacrvt'd Kvery •ontence contnini one error, nmny of them two, and Boine ol I hem till ee or more. Mnoy of the errorH, too, arc nuch as aru oflcn II) ulo, and, on Hccoimi of our familiarity wiib them, aro not so readily noiioed. Othem nro eiioh a« nobody w<»uld make, and of ooiupo will at once bo detected. Those are in^eited. not bo much to bo guarded agaiuflt, as to illuBti-nte and draw attention t(t the rule which they violnlo, and to bIiow that others which are not bo obviooB, and which are fomctimes com- mittcd, involve the pnrae error. For exuinple, nobody would say, " Him write"." 8«imH perhaps might uny, " Here in the man whom everybody ■.■ <>X'* prrpsed — and the exerois for him is to express that idea grammatically, in the best manner There can ho no danger of inntating an exprossioQ which he is forewarned la wrong; while it will exercise his ju Ivmont to detect tlie error, test his knowledge of grammar, and be a profitable exer- oise in composition to put the Bcntenoe right. All thcBC exeroJBCB may flrst be corrected tirally — showing wherein each is wnmg, and why — correcting the error — and giving a reason for the cha ge made. 1'hey may then be written out in a corrected atate. After that each sentence may be analysed m directed (668), and then parsed Byntiittically as directed (083). I. — 1. Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken tho judgment. — 2. I called to see you, but you was not at home.— 8. To act with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish the manly character. — 4 Tho crown of virtue is peace and honor. — 6. In the human species, the influence of instinct and habit are generally assisted by the suggestions of reason. — 6. The train of our ideas are often interrupted. — 7. They were both unfortunate, but neither of them were to blame. 2. — I. We arrived safely at our journey's end. — 2. That is a matter of no consequence between you and I.— 3. This should not happen between such friends aa hitn and me« — 4t. Them ); ami Dorrecl 1 tnken th.' oh- ) them, iniuil it vo, nud M ni'tt rendily ) will at ugiiinAt, (, Hitd to u'B com- ', •' Him eryhody eaine, e object t> bo «'x« icully, troHBion incut to e Gxer- in oftoh for the After parsed eu the )ine. — aguisii !e and ct and 3on. — were it is a jihould [Them HTNTAX — PROMIiCVOUf IXBROISKt, 211 that neck knowledge will find it. — 5. Such are the men whom, wo might Hupposo, know better. — 0. Our welfare and Bccurity con«iHlfl in ntiity. — 7. Tlio love of virtue, and devotion to \)\vn- sure, iH opposed to I'ach other. — 8. Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with life.— 0. No oppreHHor nnd no tyrnut triui.iph there. — 10, All the world la spectatorM of your conduct. }J. — 1. Nothing i« more lovelier than virtue. — 2. Ilia naso- ciatea in wick^ulnoas will not fail to mark the alteration of hia conduct. — 3. Iloia taller than nie,but I am atronger thnn him. — 4. Neither richea or beauty furniah aolid ncaco and content- ment.— 5. The abuao of morciea ripen ua ror judgments. — 0. John, William, and Henry's hata were atolen. — 7. A mnna manners frcnuently influence hia fortune.— 8. Much dencnda on this rule ueing observed. — 9. Such will ever be the eticct of youth aaaociating with vicioua companiona. — 10. Give to every one their due. — 11. It has been rully shown that neither of them are correct. — 12. Every bone, every muscle, every part of man, are known to Him which mode him. 4. — 1. IIo writes tolerably well. — 2. Three months* notice are required to bo given previous to a pupil's leaving of the achool. — 3. That rose smells sweetly. — 4. He employed another friend of hia father to assert bin claim — [whose claim?] — 5. A soul inspired with tho love of truth, will keep all hia powers attentive to the pursuit of it. — 0. It is the duty of every one to be careful of their reputation. — 7. It is remarkable his con- tinual endeavours to serve us. — 8. Whatever antiquities he could procure, he purchased them at any price. — 0. I am not so well as when you was here.— 10. It is tnree days yesterday since you have promised that money. — 11. This mode of ex- pression has been formerly in use. — 12. He promised long ago, that he had attended to that matter. — 13. He was expected to have arrived earlier. 6. — 1. Twice three are six. — 2. Sixtimesth^'o are eighteen. — 3. As two are to four, so are six to twelve. — 4. Five are the half often. — 5. The half of ten are five. — 6. Nine are not an even number. — 7. One man and one boy is suflBcient. — 8. Two boys is equal to one man. — 9. Two boys are less than three — three is better than nothing. — 10. Two is better than one. — 11. Two are an even number — three are not. — 12. Two are twice one. — 13. Two and two makes four. — 14. Three- fourths are more than one-half. — 16. Five men is too many for 212 KNOUSk GRAMMAR. Buoh a j)ioce of work — three is too few. — 10. Tl\peo shot was fired without efioot. — 17. The Ceet consisted of six saila.— 18. A drove of forty hoada of cattlo passed along. 6. — 1 . Mohisaes are thicker ihau water. — 3. The measles are spreading thro\jgl\ the country. — 8. Wheat is heing sold fi>r a dollar a hushcl, and oats is iu demnud. — 4. The news hy the Inst arrival isbotter than were oxpeoted. — 6. "We hoped to have heard from you before this. — 0. Do you not think ho writes f'ood P— 7. The wind blows coldly from the north, and the snow lea deeply on the ground. — 8. James is as tall if not taller than I am.— 0. He never has and ho never will do so well. — 10. lie whoever said so was mistaken. — 11. There are a heroic inno- cence as well as a heroic courage. — 12. He puts down the mighty and exalteth the humble.— 18. Piety toward God, as well as sobriety and virtue» are n uessory to happiness. 7.— -1. Take care who you admit into your friendship. — 2. I always understood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book. — 8. If I was him, I would take more care for the future. — 4. There is two or three of us who have been at Europe last year. — 6. Wo wore iu Havre when the revolution broke out at France. — 6. I have been to Boston for a few days, and spent the time very pleasant. — 7. That is the man and the horse which we met before. — 8. George was the most enterprising young man whom I ever knew. — 0. All who were present were pleased with the entertainment. 8. — 1. This excellent porson was fully resigned either to have lived or to have died. — 2. Between he and 1 there is some dis- parity of years, but none between he and she. — 8. To be mod- erate in our views, and proceeding temperately in pursuit of themi is the beat way to insure success. — 4. Ex\joyin^ health, and to live in peace, are great blessings. — 5. Which dictionary do you prefer, Webster or Walker P~G. Though this event bo strange, it certainly did happen. — If he does but consider the subject, be will no doubt ooange his opinion. — 8. Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration.— 0. Let him be whom he may, I can not wait for him, — 10. We have no need for his assistance. — 11. Among every class of people, self-interest 0. — 1* Many have profited from the misfortunes of others.-^ 2, Many ridiculous customs have been brought iu use during the hundred last years. — 8. Is there no person who you con lend on that business f — 4. LitUe attention to business is ueoes- SYNTAX — PROMISCUOUS t^XURCISCd. 213 liavo le dis- mod- luit of »alth, ►nary lilt bo )r the loe is r'hora )r his iorest iring can snry, if you woultt 8uccoed.~5. A truth ia virtue to which we Mhould pay Httlo regnrd. — 0. Without firmnesa, nothii)); thiit is f{ront cun bu uudertnkeu; that is htiiiardoua, iuicou^plinhod. — 7. Th ) people of the United States enjoys a free consLitutiou aud laws. — 8. That is a property moat men have, or at least may attain. — 9. The pyramids of l^gypt stood more than three thous- and years. — 10. It is thougnt they have been built by the Egyptian kings. — 11. AVheu the nation complain, ilie rulers should listen to their voice. — 12. Whom say the people that 1 am P 10. — 1. They that honor me, I will honor. — ?, Ho oidy got the money for a few days. — 3. Ho was mistaken evidently in his calculations. — 4. No man is fit for free conversation, for the inquiry after truth, if he bo oxcecdinglv reserved ; if he bo haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and dogmatical in nis opinions; if he be one who always aftects to outshine all the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; If he afleet wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. — 5. A good end does not warrant tlie using of bad means. — 0. A good end does not warrant using of bad means. — 7. Humility neither seeks the last place, or the last word. — 8. Either wealth or power may ruin their possessor. — 9. Avoid lightness and friv- olity ; it is allied to roily. — 10. Do you know who you are tt^lkiug to P — 11. Art thou the man who hast dared to insult ine P — 12. that the winter was gone ! .11' — 1. Wo are often disappointed of things which, before possession, promised much enjoyment. — 2. We can fully confide on none but the truly good. — 8. You nmy rely in that. — k The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their power. — 6. He was accused with acting unfairly, at least in a manner illy adapted for conciliating regard. — 6. There is more business done in New York than in any city of the United States. — 7. The same laws and the same constitution which belongs to one citizen of tho United States belongs to all. — 8. If there was better manogement, there would be greater security. — 9. The ship Panama is early expected from Canton in tho spring. — 10. Every year, every day, and every hour, bring their changes. — 11. Whom say ye that I am P 12. — 1. Many a youth havo ruined their prospects for life by one imnrudout step. — 2. No power waa ever yet intrusted to man without liability to abuse. — 3. A conceited fool is more abominable than all fools. — 4. My gravity never did no one any ^14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. harm. — 5. A constant display of the graces are fatiguing to A sober mind. — 6. These coins of compliment and flattery circu- late everywhere in society : the true is of gold, the base is of brass. — 7. Expectation and reality makes up the sum total of life.— 8. Music, the love of it, and the practice of it, seems to pervade all creation. — 9. All soils are not adapted for cultiva- tion — 10. The vain abhors the vain. — 11. The author dreads the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the judge, the horse dreads the whip, the lamb dreads the wolf — all after their kind. — 12. The intellectual and the moral censor both have the same ends in view. 13. — 1. I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never shall be again concerned in it. — 2. We do those things frequently which we repent of afterward. — 3. Not to exasperate him, I only spoke a few words. — 4. Shall you attain success without that preparation, and escape dangers without that precaution which is required of others ? — 5. That picture of your mother*s is a very exact resemblance of her.— 6. The winter has not been as severe as we expected it to have been. — 7. In ref- erence to that transaction, he deserved punishment as much or more than his companions. — 8. In such circumstances, no man, no woman, no child are safe.— 9. Every one of those pleasures that are pursued to excess, convert themselves into poison. — 10. Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time. — 11. The sea appeared to be more than usually agitated. — 12. By these attainments are the master honored and the scholar encouraged. — 13. The tem- ple consisted of one great and several smaller edifices. — 14. Whether he will be learned or no, depends on his application. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. SELECTED CHIEFLY FHOM PICKEBINO's VOOABULART. Improper. The a/one Ood. The (i/ontf motive. I anU ; you anU ; he arCt, &o. Any manner of meand. He was walkiog hack and forth. His argument was based od tLis fact. The moDey was ordered paid, I calculate to leave town loon. A chunk of bread. Proper. The one Ood. The only motive. I am not -, you are not ; he is cot, <&c. Any means. ' backward and forward. His argument was fouuded on this fact. The money was ordered to be paid. I intend to leave town soon. ▲ piece of bread. SlfNTAlf— l*tfNCtCATIOl/« M In this A ctever liotise. He conduct* well. He is eonsiderablt of a scholar. His farm was convenient to miDe. He is a decent scholar, writer. Her situation was distressing to a degree. A Mai aestitution of capacity. The United States, or either of them. Equally aa well ; as good, &o. Mr. A B . Esq. I expect he must have died long ago. These things are in a bad fix. Will jow^x these things for me I What do folke think of it t Talents of the highest grade. Do you love play f I guesx I do. We may hope the assistance of God. A horse colt ; a man colt. It would illy accord. When did you come t» town t A lengthy sermon, t&c Why don't you strike like I do t A good house. He conducts himself well, respecta* bly. He is a pretty good scholar. His farm was contiguous to mine, olusc. He is a pretty good scholar, writer. was extremely distressing. A total want of capacity. The United States, or any of them. Equally w«'ll, or just as well, &c. A B , Esq. I think he must have died, dc. in a bad state or condition. Will you put these things in order for me ? What do people think of it t Talents of the bighi>st order. there is no doubt of that. We may hope for the asai^tance of God. A colt ; a filly. It would would ill accord. When did you come into town. A long sermon, <&c. as I do, or like as I do f PUNCTUATION. 984. Punctuation treats of the points and marks now used in writing. 985. The use of these points is to mark the divisions of a sentence, in order to show the meaning more clearly, and to serve as a guide in the pau^ies and inflections required in reading. 986. The principal marks used for this purpose are the following : the env^ma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period (.), the interrogation point (?)/ the exclamation point (I), the dash ( — ), the parentheaia ( ), the brackets [ ]. 987. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these marks, no very definite rule can be given — the same point in certain kinds of competition, and in certain positions, requiring sometimes a longer and sometimes a shorter pause. 988. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause ; the semi- colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, a pause still longer than that of the colon. 216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. COMMA. 989. The^omma is generally used in those parts of a sentence in which a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in cloeeness to that which is unbroken. SPECIAL RULES. 990. RuLS 1.— In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used ; as, •'Hope is necessary in every condition of life." 991. RuLK 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the gram- matical subject, a comma is usually inserted before the verb ; as, " A steady and undivided att ^ntion to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind." 992. Rule 3. — Tn compound sentences, the clauses or members are usually separated by commas ; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the comma is not used ; as, " Revelatiou tells us hovo we may attain happiness." 993. Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunc- tion expressed, do not admit a comma between them ; as, " The earth and the moon are planets." — " He is a ms9 and prudent man." — " He catches and arreate the hours, — "He acts prudently and vigorously^ But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted after each ; as, " Reason, virtue, answer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, the last should not be separated by a comma from its noun ; as, " He is a plain hon- est man :" Nor can two adjectives be separated from each other by a com" ma when used together as a compound adjective ; as, " A bright-red color." 994. RuLi 6.— More than two words of the same class connected by conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as, " Poetry, musio, and painting, are fine arts." But when the words oon- nected are adjectives, the last should noi be separated from its noun by a comma after it ; as, " David was a wise, brave, and prudent king." 995. Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as, "Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war.** 996. Rule 7. — Nouns in opposition are separated by a comma, when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected with it ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a single noim in apposition with another is not separated by a comma ; as, *' Paul the apostle." 997. Rule 8. — The nominative independent, and the nominative abso- lute (TdS), with the words dependent on them, are separated by commas was in fault." 998. Rule 9.— Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated by a comma; thus, "As the heart pantoth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." — " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet pot PUNCTUATION. 217 as. com- color." ed by ; as, con- by a ; as, •e tho imas thy )eiDg b. I |bya my pot dull." But 'when the oomparisoo is ehovt, and the connection intimate, the comma is not used ; as, *' Wisdom is better than rubies." 999. RuLK 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, Ac, when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sen- tence, ehould be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Nay, but we Avill serve the Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or quotation ; as, &o. 1000. Rule 11.— A relative with its clauses, explanatory of its antece* dent, is usually separated from the rest of a sentence ; as, " He who dis- regards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, "He mu|t be utterly abandoned, who disregards," le representation of the Deity in these words: ' God is love.'" 1017. Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is nut expressed before the con- cludiut; member, which would otherwise bo separated by a eemiculon, the colon is used ; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon ; as, " Apply yourself to learning: it will redouud to your houor." — "Apply yourself to learning; for it will redound to your honor." PERIOD. 1018. Sentences which are complete in sense, and not connected in either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a period ; thus, " Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all men." 1019. But when short sentences arc connected in meaning, but not ia construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010). 1020. Long sentences, if complete, even thou^^h grammatically con* nected by coojuuctions, often insert a period (663) ; thus, " He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part. 1021. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, sections, &c. ; also after all abbreviations; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II, Obs. S., J. Smith, &Q. INTERROGATION. 1022. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the iotcrro* gation point ds equal to the period. 1023. The note of interrogation is always put at the end of a direct lestion; as, *' What is truth ?" But the indirect question does not require question; as, *' What is truth ?' a»ui, buc wtuwcvt 4iicdhvu m ■ ■ :iterrogation point; as, "Pilate inquired what is truth." the int Note. — Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they fullow a uniform system. It is, therefore, for the most part, best, in preparing matter for the press, to leave this matter to them, except where tlie mean- ing intended may not be clearly perceived without the punctuation. OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 1024. The Da^h { — ) is used where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; also, to denote a signifiGant pause — an uuexpected turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in thi» definition. 1025. The note of Exclamation (!) is used after expressions of sudden 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. emotion of any kind; also, in invooations or addresses; as, '* Eternity 1 thou pleasing, dreadful thought," Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word ; of, " Oh 1 that he would come." But when O is used, the note is placed after some intervening words; as, "0 my frienda !" 1026. Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the body of a sen* tence, in order t» some useful or necessary information or remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he livelh." In reading, the parenthetic part is distinguished by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is short, and accords with the general tenor of the sen- tence, commas are now generally used instead of parenthesis; as, " Thou sluggish power, if power thou be. All destitute of energy." The use of parentheses should be avoided as much a possible. 1027. Brackets [ ] are properly used to enclose iv word or phrase inter" polated for the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a defici" ency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, nnd which did not belong to the original composition; thus, it is said, "The wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty " 1028. The Apostrophe ( *) is used when a letter or letters are omitted i as, e'er for €»«•, tho' for though ; or to mark the possessive case. 1029. Quotatian marks (" ") are put at the beginning and end of a pas- sage quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a passage regard- ed as a quotation. 1030. The Hyphen ( - ) i^ used to connect compound words which are not permanent compounds, as, lap-dog : also at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word not completed is at the beginning of the next line. 1031. Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 1032. Paragraph ( ^ ) was formerly used to denote the beginning; of a new paragraph. 1033. The Brace C-—*-^) is used to connect words which have one com- mon term, or three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 1034. Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, fi"— g for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose ; as, 1035. The Caret ( a ) ^b used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined. 1036. The Index ( |g^ ) is used to point out anything remarkable. 1037. The vowel marks are : the Dieeresis ( •• ), on the last of two con- current vowels, showing that they are not to be pronounced as a diph- thong; the Acute accent (' ); the Grave (^); the Long sound (-); the Short sound ( « ). 1038. The marks of reference are : The Asterisk ( • ) ; the Obelisk or Dagger (f); the Double Dagger (^:); the Parallels ( g ). Sometimes, also, the § and Tf. Also small letters pr figures which refer to notes at the foot of the pa^^e, FIGURES. 221 FIGURES. 1039 A Figure, in grammar, is some derivation from the ordinary form^ or construction^ or application of words in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression. 1040. There are three kinds of Figures ; viz., of Etymology^ of Syntax^ nnd of Rhetoric. The first nod the second refer to the /orm of words, or to their construction ; and the last to their application, FIGURES OP ETYMOLOGY. 1041. A figure of Etymology is a departure from the ustial or simple form of words, merely. 1042. Of these, the most important are eight; viz., A'phtBr-e-sis^ Proa- tke-sis, Syn-cope, Jt-poC'O-pe, Par-a^gog-ge, Di-ar-e-sis, Syn'cer-e'siSf and TmC'Sit. 1. JphtBresi$ is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of a word ; as, gainst, 'gan, 'bove^ 'neath, for agaimt, began, above, beneath; 2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, adown, agoing, <&c., for dovm, going, &o. 8. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short one, from the middle of a word ; as, medicine, spirit e'en, for medicine, spirit, even, 4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word; as, tho\ for though, th* for the. 6. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word ; as» deary, for dear, 6. Dieeresis is the dirision of two concurrent vowels into different syl< lables, usually marked thus ( ** ) on the second vowel ; as, cooperate, aerial^ 7. Syneeresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either ortho* graphy or pronunciation ; a£), dost, seest, for doest, seSst, or, loved, learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learned. 8. Th.esis is separating the parts of a compound word by an interven- ing term ; as, "What time soever** — "On which side soever" — " To us ward.** t FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construction of words in a eontence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force. 1044. Of these, tiie most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis, EnallagS, Hyperbaton. 1. Ellipsis is the omiLdion of a word or words neiiessary to the fall 222 BNOLISR GRAMMAR. construction of a icnteoco, but not necessary to cnnvey the idea intended (977). Such words are said to be understood ; a% "The men, women, and children," for "The men, the women, and the children." 2. Pleonasm is tlie using of more words than are necessary to the full cunstructiou of a sentence, to give greater force or emphasis to the ex- pression ; as, " The boy, oh ! where was Ac." 8. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by wliicli wo con ceive the sense uf words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, wo say, " He ihines "—of a ship, " She sails " (130). 4. EnallagS is the use of one part of speech for another, or of one modification of a word for another; as, an adjective for an adverb, tlius: "They fall successive, and successive rise," for successively; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an individual, &c. (246) ; the use of one case for another ; as, " than whom,** for than who (066). 6. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition; as, "Now come we to the last," — •• j1 man he was to all the country dear." — " He wanders earth around** FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 1045. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from tlie ordinary application of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to the compo- sition. These figures are sometimes called tropes. 1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz. : — Personificatioii, Hyperbole, Climax, Simile, Irony, Exclamation, Metaphor, Metonymy, . Interrogation, Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis, Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 1. Personification, or prosopopeeia, is that figure of speech by which we attribute lifie and action to inanimate objects ; as, " The sea saw it and fled.** 2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers af water." 8. A metaphor is a simile without the sign {like, or as, &f Israel vine out lunyan's its past senses ; -" The POSTIO LIOSnSEfl. £td 6. An hyperbole ii a figure that represents things as greater or lets, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of Saul and Jona* than, " They were swifter than eaglet, they were stronger than lions." 7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the - ontrary of what we say; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, •• Cry aloud, for h§ is a god,^' &c. 8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for 'ho effect, or the efl'eoi for the cause; a?, when we say, *' He reads Milton." we mean Milton's works. *'Gray hairs stiould be respected" — that is, old age. 9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part, a definite number for an indefiiiit' , <&c.; as, ihe waves fur the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy, 10. jlntitheris, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary ob- jects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the oouravge of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked fiee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion.^^ 11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the circumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong light; as, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword i Nay," i sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. *«^ A full ooosideration of tlie^e topics, in a work of this kind, would be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and oxomplified in works on elocution — a subject which is, or should be, taken up as a iep«* rate branch of study. :ation» le pro- ng. ioD must ly of the loiild bo he uttor- mono* in a cor- oh is rti- wo short k as pin, u unac* ^hioh we jrior im- idea in- to enft- dtstinet |« whole le notes, Ithe dif- 1, would lequire a Vified in a sepa- PROSODY — VKRSIFICATION. 2S7 VERSIFICATION. 1059* Versification ia the art of uvranging words into poetical lines, or verses. 1060. A Verse^ or Poetical Line^ consists of a certain uuiubor of «o. cciitcd iind unacoontod sylliibles, nrrungod according to fixed rules. 1061. A Couplet, or DlstMi, oonsistd of two Hues or von^od Inktii to- f,'etlier, whether rhyming with oftch other or not. A Triplet oonrtiat."* of three lines rhjiiiing together. 1062. A Stanza is a combhmtion of severul voraoa or lines, vuryiDg In number according to the poet's fancy, nnd cotititituling a roguhir division of a poem or sung. This is often incorreetly onlled u cersc. 1063. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in thu la^t Hyllnbles oi two or r.ioro lines arranged in a cortnin order. Poetry, the vorscB of which liiive this similarity, is (eter ; as — Wh8n all | thy mer j cies, O | my God, | my ris | ing soul | surveys, Transport|ed with|the viewjFm lo8t,|in wou|der, love,|and praise. 1083. Each of these kinds of iambio verse, may have an additional short syllable, and so be called iambie hypermeter ; thus — 1. Disdain | ing. 2. Upon I a moun | tain. 3. When on | her Ma | ker's bo | s5m. 4. But hail, I thou god | ess, sage | and ho | ly. 5. What s?-^n j der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o [ dor. 6. Whose front|can brave|the storm, |but willlnot rear|the flow|8r. 7. To scat|tero'er|hispath|of fame|brighthueslof gemjlike show|ers. 1084. It often happens that a trochee, or sometimes a spondee, is ad- mitted in place of the firet foot, which gives a pleasing variety to tlie verse ; as — Planets | &nd suns | run law | less through | the sky. Fierce, hard | y, proud, | in con j scidus free | dom bold. 1085. Iambic Monometer, Dimeter, and Trimeter. — Of these metres there is no regular form, but they are sometimes introduced into etanzaa. 1086. Iambic Tetrameter. — This verse may extend through a consider- able number of verses. .1087. IamJ>ic Pentameter,— Inahic verse of five feet is called Heroie 230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. verse. Such is Millou's " Paradise Lost," dbc. By the aJmissiun of trochee* anapiests, Ac, in cerUin places, it is capable of many varieties. 1088. Limbic Uexamrlcr. — A vcree of six feet is called ,1Icxafulrine. 1089. The Elegiac .sLauzn cousia'.s of f(»ur pentameter Hues rhyming, alternately ; as — *V The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | tug diiy, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; The ploiighmun homeward plod.-? his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 1090. The Spenccrum stanza (which takes its name from the jwet Spen- cer) consists of eight pentameter or heroic versas, followed by one hexa- meter, or Alexandrine verse. This is the stanjta in which the '• Fairie Queeue " is written. 1091. Iambic Heptameter. — Iambic verses of seven feet, formerly writ- ten in one line, are now commonly divided into two, one of four, and one of three feet ; as — When all I thy mer I clos, O | my God, My ris ( ing soul ( surveys, Transport | ed with | the view, | I'm lost. In won I der, love, j and praise. 1092. This is called common metre. Stanzas having three feet in the first, second, and foarth lines, and four in the third, are called shmt metre ; and those eonsiating of four lines, each containing /our feot, are called long metre. TROCHAIC VERSE. 1093. Trochaic verse consists of Trochees, and consequently has the accent on the /rs^, third, fifth, (fee., syllables. It has different metres, as follows : — 1. One foot, or Monometcr; as — Staying, Playing. 2. Two fecty or Dimeter ; as — Rich th§ I treasiire, Sweet the | pleasure. 3. Three feet, or Trimeter ; as — Go where I glory | waits thee ; But wh§n j fame e | liites thSe. 4. Four feetf ov Tetrameter ; SkB — Maids ftro | sitting | by thS ( fountain, Bright th§ I m5on o'er | yond6r | mountain. taOX PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 231 long tea, ns 5. Five feet, or Pentameter (very uncommon) ; as — In th6 I d&rk, ftnd | glSomy I vall8y, Satyrs, | by the | brooklet, | love to | dally. 6. Six feetf or Hexameter ; as — On & I mountain, | stretched bS | neath ft J hoary | wil15w, Lay & I shephSrd | swain, &ud | viewed the | rolling | billow, 1094. Each of these mny tnke nii additional long syllable, and bo be- come hypereatahetiey or hypermeter ; thu3— 1. Tiimiilt cease, Sink td peace. 2. In the days of | old, Fables plainly I t61d. 3. Restless | mortals | toil for I nought, Bliss in | vain from j earth is | sought. 4. Idle I after | dinner, | in his | chair. Sat a I farmer, | ruddy, | fat, an.! j fair. 5. Hail to I thee, blithe | spirit ! ] bird thou | never | wertf That from | heaven, or | near it, | pourest | thy full | lieart 6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Water | l6o. Cocks hadlsung thoir|earlie8t|greeting|faint aiid|low theylorew. 1095. In the last two forms, each liue in usually diviciei] into two, thus — 5. Hail to I thee, blitho | spirit ! Bird thou | nevar | wert. G. Night and | morning | were at | meeting. Over I Water | loo. • 1096. Troohaiti verse, with an additional long syllable at tho end. Is the same as Iambic verse, wanting a short syllable at the beginning. .>' ANAPiESTIC VERSE. 1097. Anapmtic veree, consists chiefly of anapixsln, and, when pure, has tho accent on every third syllable. It has different metres, as fol- lows: — 1. One foot, OT Monomet^r , as — Biit to6 far, £&ch proild star. 2. Two feet, or dimeter ; as— Bilt his cou I r&se 'g&ti fail, or no arts | could avail. 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Three feetf or Trimeter ; ye wdods ! | sprSad yoilr branch | gs ^.pace, To your deep I est recess | es I fly, 1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 4c. Four feety or Tetrameter ; as — M&y I g5v I Sm my pass | idns with ab | s61iite sway, And grow wis | er and bet | ter as life | wears away. 1098. Of these, the fir»t is ambiguous, for bj plaoiDg an accent on the first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer fij/permet«r. 1099. The teeond sometimes admits an additional short syllable at the end; as— On thS road | by thS val | ISy, As he wand | ered lament | ing ; To the green I of the for | Sst, He returned | him repenting. 1100. The thhrd is a very pleasing measure, and is mnch used in both solemn and cheerful subjects, but it seldom takes an additional syllable. 1101. The fourth, or tetrameter^ admits an additional syllable, which often has a pleasing effect ; as — On the warm | cheek of youth | smiles and ros | es are blend | ing. DACTYLIC VERSE. 1102. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of dactyls, and has the following varieties : — 1. One footf or manometer ; as — . Fearfully, # TearfuUy. 3. Two feetf^OTldim,eter ; aa — Free fr6m sa | tl8ty, Care and anx i iety, Charms in va I riety Fall to his | share. 3. Three feet, or trimeter ; as— Wearifng & | way In his I yOuthfiilnSss, Loveliness, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 1103. Each of these sometimes takes an additional long syllable, and so becomes hypermeter ; as — 1. OvSr a I mead, Pricking his j steed. 2. CovSred w!th | sn5w was the | vale, Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, "When to the | night, woful | wail Bose to the | skies — to the | skies ! PR080DT — VERSIFICATION. 235 3. Time It h&s | passed, &nd thS [ lady is J pale, Pale as the | lUy that \ lolls on the | gale. 1104. By oombioing these kindi, examples of Mramettr, ptntameter, and even hexamttert ere obtained ; but they are seldom used. 1105. A dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl; it more commonly adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the following lines :— Brightest &nd | bSst 5f th§ \ sOns 5f thS | mOming, Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us thine | aid. 1106. The following is an example of dactyh and spondee* aller- nately : — Green fti thS | wlldwood | proudly thS | tall tree | looks on th5 | brown plain. The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter : OvSr thS I vallgy, with | speed like th§ | wind, &11 thS | steeds wSre & — gSlldplng. 1107. Considering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar ndaptedness to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that Is has not been more mltivated. MIXED VERSES. 1108. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet Iambic verse, for example, sometimes admits other feet into the line, particularly nt the beginning, as has been already noticed. The following are exam- pies of iambic lines with different feet introduced : — Trochee. PrOphSt j of plagues, | forev | er bod | ing ill ! Dactyl. Mtirmiiring, | and with | him fledjthe shades|of night. Anapcest. Before | all tem { plSs th§ up | right heart | and pure. Pyrrhic. Brought death j lnt6 J the world } and all— our wo. Tribrach. And thun — ders down | impet — tloiis t6 | the plain. 1109. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted ; nnd the verse becomes trochaic with an additional long syllable. 1110. In trochaic verse, thelniiial long syllable is sometimes omitted ; nnd the line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable. 1111. If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of an anapoittic line, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So — 1112. If the initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it be- comes anapcestic with two short syllables added. 1113. A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling iambuse* and anapcestic, as in the following lines : — " I comej j I come ! | y§ h&ve called | me long ; I come I o'§r th§ moun | tains with light | and song ! Y§ mS,y trace my steps | o'er thS wak J fining earth. By the winds which tell | 6f the vl | diet's birth. By the prim | rose stars ) 6f the shad | 8wy grass. By the green | leaves op | ening | &3 I pass." 234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1114. In odes and lyrio pieces, verses of difTerent kinds and different metres or measures are often intermingled, after the manner of the ancient choral otic, with a pleasing effect, " Alexander's Feast," Collins' •' Ode to the Passions," &c., are examples. POETIC PAUSES. 1115. Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in reading, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated by the punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition, required by, and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line. 1116. These are chiefly the Final pause and the Goesural pause. 1117. The Jinal pause is required at the end of every line of poetry, even where there is no sentential pause. When that is the case, it consists in a brief suspension of the voice, without any change in its tone or pitch. When a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very often, it takes the place of, and supersedes the Jinal pause. 1118. The ccesuxal pause is a suspension of the voice somewhere in the line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be mani*- fest when poetry is well read. It does not occur in very short lines. In lines of some length, it generally occurs near the middle; sometimes, however, nearer the beginning, and sometimes nearer the end ; often iu the middle of a foot, but never in the middle of a word. Somettmest besides this, a sort of demiccesural pause is required, to give full effect to the expression. The following lines furnish examples of the coeaural pause in different parts of the line, and also of the demiccesural pause. The former is marked ( " ) and the latter (')!•"" " The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet, And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet." ** The crested basilisk" and speckled snake." *' And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day." _— — . «< But not to me returns (( u Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn." No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all The multitude of angels" with a shout. Loud" as from numbers without numbers," sweet As from blest voices" uttering joy." Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze. Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent." m Pi in EXERCISEa As exercises in ecnnning. Hues or stanzas from any poetical work may be selected. - ( COMPOSITION. 235 rent ;ient Ode ^ion, aary try, BUtS itoh. very I the laDi- In mes, n iu tnesi pt to ause The Lr^^ my COMPOSITION. 1119. Composition is the art of expressing our senti- ments in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, Prose and Poetry, 1120. Prone compositions pre those in which the thoughts nre expressed in the naturni order, in common and ordinary language. 1121. Poetic compositions aie those in which the thoughts and seiiti- roents are expressed in raesiured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by ^orda and figures Bsleoled and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect. 1123. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his own sentiments. 1124. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. 1125. In the^r«/, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person 7 or w*. When he refers to the person or persons addrcased, he uses the second person thou, you, &o. 1126. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker is re- ported as referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, the third person is used in either case ; as, he, she, they, &c. An example will best illustrate the distinction. Thus: 1127. DIUKOT DISCOUBSB. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars hill and said: "Ye men of Ath> ens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription : 'To THE Unknown God.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him de- clare I unto you." ;,;,< 1128. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus: — Then Paul, standing on Mars hill, told the men of Athens, he perceived that in all things they were too superstitions ; for as he passed by and be- held their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription : " To tue Unknowh God." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worsnipped, him de- clared he unto them. 1129. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or per* sons addressed, are dififerent in gender or number, there is no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the progress of the dis- course, to designate dififerent persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also :— "Then the son went to his father and said to him, [direef] * I have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight.' " 236 BNOLT8H GRAMMAR. "Then the flon went to his father and said to him, [- 2S8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1143. Rule 1. — AH words and phrases, particularly harah and not aUo* lutcly necessary, should be dismissed. 1144. Rule 2. — When the etymology plainly points to a different sig* nificatloa from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 1145. RuLR .3. — When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they gire the style an air of vulgarity and cunt, when this general disuse renders them obscure. 1146. Rule 4.— All words and phrases which, analyzed grammatically, include a solecism, should bo dismissed. 1147. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the established rules of language, either have no meaning, or involve a oootradiotion, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. '^^ 1148. In order to write any languige with grammatical purity, thr^e things ore required :— ,{ 1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of this rule is called a barbaritm. 2. That they be conitruod aud arranged according to the rules of syn* tax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a »oleciam. 8. That they be employed in that sense whiofa iisage has annexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. 1149. A barbariim is an offence against lexicography. The soUeitm is an offence against the rules of syntax ; and the impropriety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the meaning of woras and phrases. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 1150. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the ahoke of words, ana partly upon the form and structure of sentences. I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be observed are purity f propriety, and precision. PU&ITT. 1151. Purity couaists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers or speakers. 1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, " Fraieheur **— "poZi^MM"—" He repents him of his folly." 2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; a?, albeit, aforetimt^ intpec- tator^ judgmatical. COMPOSITIOir. 239 J aa ai'e Iters or FRopRirrv. 1152. Propriety cooBista iu the uae of such words oa arc beat adapted to expresa our meaning. 1. Avoid low and provincial ezpreaaioDa; as, "To get into a acrape." 2. In writing proae, reject worda that are merely poetical ; aa, " Thia morn "— " The celestial oi ba." 8. Avt.id technical terms, unleaa you write to tlioae who perfectly under* atand th«m. 4. Do not U! ed or contrasted with Cboh other wher® either resemblance or opposition is tu be expressed, acme resemblance i'^ the language and construction sliould be preserved. 6. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any inoon* aiderable word or phrase, uuless ft is emphatia 1157. riQURis or bpkkoh. 1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when it serves to illostrate or enforce what is said. 2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 8. literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together. 4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be pre- served throughout, and different figuros never jumbled together. TRANSPOSITION. 1158. As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, the pupil, alter lie has acquirea a knowledge of grammar, may be exer* eised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how mauy different ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a oommand of language, and prove, at th") some time, a source of considerable mental cultivation. It is often necersary to give an entirely new turn to the expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspieuons. 1159. There are ch!e% four ways in which the mode of expressing a thought may be varied : — 1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into u active ▼erb; m, "The sun tUitohM the idow"— "Tht inow <« - ploits, influence on Boeieiv for good or cVil, death. 1167. The following list of Themes is se^-^Qted from Parker's Exercises in OctnpositioD :— 26. On Fortune, 2*7. " Fear, 1. On Attention, 2. 3. 4 6. 6. 7. 8. 0. 10. H. 12. 13. 14. 16. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. «( i< « Adversity, Ardor of Mind, Art, [cal, Attachment, lo- Anger, Air, Benevolence, Beauty, Biographv, Bad Scholar, Charity, Clemency, Compassion, Conteieuco, Constancy, Oar^cBsness, Curiosity. Cheerfulness, Contentment, Diligence, DupUcity, Early Rising, Envy, Friendship, 76. Knowledge is power, 77. Progress of Error, 78. Progress of Truth, 79. Government of tho Tongue, 80. Government of the Temper, tt 28. " 29. " 80. " 81. « 82. " 83. " 34. " 86. " 86. 87. 88. 89. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 46. 46. 47. 48. 49. 60. Forgiveness, Government Grammar Greatness, true, Genius, Habit, Bonor, Happiness, Humilitv, Hypocrisy, History, Hope, Indolence, Industry, . Ingratitude, Jastioe, Learning, Love of Fame, Music, Moon, Novelty, l^ight, Order, 61. On Ocean, 62. " Pride, 63. •♦ 64. « 65. « 66. " 67." 68. «' 69. »' 60. " 61. " 62. « 03. " 64. " 66. « 66. « 67. " 68. « 69. " 70. " 71. « 72. 78. 74. 76. (C u Party Spirit, Poverty, Principle, Perseverance, Patriotism, Politeness, Providence, Punctuality, Poetry, Piety, Religiou, Reading, Sincerity, Summer, Sprii^. Sun, System, Truth, Time, Talent, Yaniiy, Virtue, • Wealth, 82k Love of Coontry, 83. The Power of Association, 84. The Immortality of the Sou^ 85. Tlte Uses of Knowledge, 86. Power of Oonsdence, 1( 1( l( 1( 11 11 11 11 81. Government uf the Afflictions, 87. The Power of Habit, COMPOSITION. 245 c Revo- profauo tl ioflu- posltioD ood, the f giving t remr- fall of attle of d » ' ttP- pt ! 50- s known pies, ex>- Ixereises 88. Life is Short, 89. Miseries of Idleness, 90. Nerer too old to Learn, 91. Public Opinion, 92. Diligence insures Suocese, 98. Idleness destroys Character, 94. Contrivance proves Design, 96. Avoid Extremes, 97. Pleasures of Memory, 98. Example better than Precept, 99. Misery is wed to Quilt, 100. Value of Time, 101. Virtue, the way to HapiiineES, 102. No one lives for Himseir, 105. Thou God seest me, 104. Trust not Appearances, 106. Whatever i«i, is Right. 96. Vbit to an Almshouse, 106. "An honest man's the noblest work \>f Go<]." lOY. Every man the architect of his own fortune. 108.. Man, "Mysterious link in being's endless chain." 109. "A little learning is a dangerous thing." 110. How blessiogs bii^ten, as they take their fliglit. 111. Advantages deriv>ed from the invention of the mariner's oompass-— of the telescopo->»the steam-engine— the art of pripting-^-of gunpowder. 112. History of a needle — a cent — a Bible— -a beaver hat 113. Description of a voyage to England — coast of Africa — Constantinople —South Ameri ^a-~£aat Indies-^Chinn. rit, nee, «, y. ; i. sA*! [>n, sou^ APPENDIX. APPENDIX I. OKNDKR or NOUNS. Tn t\\[ langitngcfl, tho distincUon of nouns with regard to rox, bai beun nnt«(i. Kvoiy eiib^tnntiTe denotes oithor n male or female, or tbat wbioli is neitber the one nor Iho other. This nocident, or oharaoteristic of nouns, is oalled their Omder. In English, all words denoting male animals, are considered as maseuline; all those denoting female animals, feminine; and those denoting things neither nmle nor fcmalit, are termed ncitter, " In this distribution," say* Orombie, "we follow the or^ier of nature, and our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated." Both in Latin and Gicek, many words denoting things without sex, are ranked as mancu line or feminine, without any regard to their meaning, but simply on no- couut of their terminations. In French, all nouns are regarded as either masouline or feminine, which is a still greater departure from the order and simplieity of nature, for which the English language on this point is distinguished. Some have objected to the designation of three genders ; they think that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philosophioal and acourato to say there are only two genders ; and to regard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. A little refleotlon, I think, will show that this ol^t>etion has no just foundation, either in philosophy or fact, and that the change it proposes would be no improvement. It hai probably arisen fh)m confounding the word gender^ which properly signifies a kind^ eltus^ or specie*, (Lat. genus, French genre), with the word »ex, and considering them as sjnouymous. This, however, is not the case ; these words do not mean the same thing ; and they can not bo propcrlpr applied in the same war. We never say, "the mnsculine sex, the fcmmine sex;" nor "the male gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word sex can be predicated only of animated beings ; the word gender, only of tho term by which that being is expressed. The being man, has sex, not gender ; tlie tcord man, has geuder, not sex. Though therefore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper to speak of thrco genders ; that is to say, there are three classes (genders) of nouns, distin- guished from one another by their relations to sex. One denotes objects of the male sex, and is called masctUine ; another denotes objects of the female sex, and is called feminine ; and the third denotes objects neither male nor female, for which a name more appropriate than the term neuter oeed not be desired. The term "(7ommora gender,"*' applied to such words as parent, child* friend, etc, does not constitute a distinct class of word^, which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neutei^ but ii UMd for oonyeoieDce, Imt b«vii at whio]) of nouns, mals, aro line ; and \er. " In , and our in Latin 18 mas^cu >ly on no- 08 either the order I point \% Li |<, child. ilch are ^eoience, APPENDIX PRONOUNS MINK, ETC. — WHAT A UKLATIVK. 247 mid HoiiM*' merely to indlonlo timt nuoIi wordfl vomctinioH denote u iiuil) Mn>p« a fomnlo. Tnatead of "common/' thoio who prefer It, mny eall snch words "mnfoulinc or feminino." APPENDIX II. TUB PRONOirNB MIJfB, TniNII, RTC. Borne grammnriauB have given it ai their opinion that mine, thine, onrn, ;/(>»»»«, tJieirn, are not pronourm in the possessive case, btit that they aro Hunuthing or other in Mio nominative or o1)jeotivo caiMt, but never in tUo poHHessive. This is surely a very singular notion. The anomaly which such tin idea would intrudiieo into our Inngungo, would be a curiouH oiio. According to this view, these wordi^ flouM l)elon;» to no part of speech hitherto defined. Thoy are not nounn, for they are not the name$ of any- thing — nor a:^ictiveif, for they do not qualify nouns, nor can over bo joined with them — nor pronouns, for they never stand instead of a tioim, but always instead of a pronoun and a possosaivo pronoun t<»gether. Thev huvo always the sense of the posseBsivo oaHo, and are always construed junt an the possessive ease of a noun is, not followed by a noun ; and yet they are never i»' the popsossivo case. These words, standing by themselves, have no Tixcd or determinate meaning, and yot in Hcutenoes they may liavo as many different meanings as there are objects capable of being possessed. Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my hat, my stick, my gnn^ my — anything you please. And besides this, those of them which aro singular in form, according to analogy, may have a plural verb, and those of them which are plural may have a singular verb ; thus, " John's books are now ; mine are old ;" ogam, " John's house is built of stone ; mirs it built of brick." Such is the result to which this notion leads us ; and if these words are not possesives, but in the nominative or objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more curious words in the English, or in any other language. APPENDIX III. What AS A aBLATIVR. " Varioua opinions havo been entertained about the nature of the rela- tive what. It is said to be a 'compound relative pronoun, including both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which, or the thing which.* Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examina- tion, that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sentences :— " * I saw whom I wanted to see '■— " ' I saw what I wanted to see.' "Kwhaty in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the ihing which, whom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom, * Who steals my purse steals trash,' is equivalent to he who, or, the man who, " And, on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the antece- dent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. 248 RNOLtSH GRAMMAR. Thup, ' I hhw ilio mnn I wnntcd to ioo.' Iloro, man aliouUl be roprcBcnlcd M oquivnlcnt (o the man uhom. "Thfl cnuHO of the error in rospoot to xphat, is, thnt tho antoootlont is novor expressed with it. U is not iilce the word 10/10. whioli ifl used both Avhon the nntoccdcnt ii exprcMed, nnd when it in omitted. Tlie rolaiivo that, liowovor, was formerly uwd in many oa^cB where we u«o vihatj that in, witli tho antecedent omitted. A few examples of this will help ub to nnoertnin Die nature of what; 'We Rpcak that we do know.* — English liibh.-^* I am that I am.'— 76. *" Who had been seen imagine raot« thereby, That whylome of Hercules hath becu tohV—Spena«r. •' ' Esobcwe that wicked is.'— Coto^r. " ' Ih it poBsible he shauld not know what he is, and bo that he ia.'—Shakt. " • Gather tho sequel by that went before.'— /&. " In these examples, that is a relative, nnd is exactly synonymous with irhat. No one would contend, that that stands for itself and its nnteoe* dent at tho pame time. The antecedent is omitted because it is indefioite, or easily supplied." — Butler"* Orammar, p. 48. These remarks appear to mo just, and conolusive on this point APPENDIX IV. IS as BVKR A BELATIYK? That tho word as should not be considered a relative in any circtim- stnnoe?, I think io plain from the following considerations: — 1. It has neither the meaning nor the use of a relative. Its ofHcc is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its antecedent word, to express the idea of equality, likeneta, kc, between them; thus, "James is as tall as his father.^' — " Tour hat is such as mine." 3. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before it, called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but is related only to the comparative word, as, tuch^ «o, t&c, in the preceding olau<:e. Thus, in the sentence, " As many as received him,'* the second as relates to the first, and the two convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send Bucb books as you have " Here, ae refers not to booke, but to stich. Take away such, and a$ can not be used. 8. A» can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. 4. In sentences in which a» is said to be a relative, it evidently has the same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be only a con- junction. Compare the following examples : " As many a» five men re- , ceived a rewara." — " As many a» received him."—'* As many a« Uiey can give." In all these, the phrase " as manv as " means, and is felt to mean, the same thing— equality of number. Tiiere surely, then, can be no pro* priety in calling the second as a conjunction in the first sentence, and a relative in the other two. The same thing will be evident if we change the antecedent word. Thus, ''Such books ronomina/ adjective*. In many grammars the possessives mv, thy, hit, her, it», our, your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal pronouns, with mine, thine, hia, here, its, onre, youre, theire, making two forms of the poesessive case: thus, my or mine, thy or thine, etc. Which of these methods is adopted in teaching or studying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment : some grammarians adopt the one, and some the other, merel v as a matter of taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classi- fication in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple, because the possessives my, thy, etc., like the adjective, can never stand alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported bv a noun fol* lowing them ; thus, we say, " It is the kind's ;" " It is yours ;" but we can not say, " It is your," — the presence of a noun being necc-^nry to the last expression. This classification is favored by the analogy of other languages both ancient and modern. The possessives mv, thy, dec, for example, have pre- cisely the some meaning as the Latin Meu», mea, meum; or the French J/on, ma; or the German Mein, for meiner), meine, mein; or the Anglo- Saxon (which is the mother of Uie Englisn la^uage), Min, mine, tiiin ; and they are used in precisely the same way. ^ere seems, therefore, n adjectives and pronouns, and nr<» r<>m(>timcs used as the one and soinctimee as the other, without the strict and appro- Eriatu charaoter of either. They are generally adjectives in construction, aving a noun expressed or understood, which they servo to limit or re- strict 'in various ways. On the ojher hand, with few exceptions, they arc •o often used without a noun, or as its Hubstitute, that they are not im- properly regarded as pronouns, though in a sonse less strict than the others ; thus, " Let each estecM others better than themselves." — " Among men, 401/10 are good, othen bad, none perfect." **All things come alike to all," Ao. From this equivocal or rather double character of these worde, they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, among whom arc Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutclifife, Allen, Cooper, Brown, tbc, class them with adjectives, and call them "Pronominal Adjcctivet ;" and others, such as Lowth, Prieslily, Smart, Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, Cobbet, Kirkham, Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, aud call them "Adjective Pronouns." Smce all are ogrced about the use of these worda, it seems in itself a matter of less importance to which of these two classes they be attached, or whether they are more appropriately called Pronom- inal Adjectivis, or Adjective Pronouns, APPENDIX VI. THB VERB. Though there Is little, if any, difference of judgment among gramma- rians, as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it a difficult matter to give an accurate and at the same time a brief definition of it; and, ac- cordingly, nearly all grammars differ in their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that " a verb is a word which signifies to be, io do, or to suffer," though unexceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly de^ctive in stating nothing respecting the functio.is or use of this pnvt of speech. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to a^rm or declare, and that of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. This is alwavs the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive. In the use of ita other parts, however, namely, the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no affirmation, though the action or state expressed by the vetb in these ports is clearly seen to be the act or state of some person or thing, and which for that reason is strictly and properly, though not technically, its snljeet. Thus, " For me to die is gain," is a simple proposition, containing two verbs, tha first of which, to die, in the APPEVDIZ — DlVISlOIf OF TERIW. 351 infinitire expresses no eijirmatioQ, though it evidently, witltout affirming, attributes djfing to a person, expressed by the word me. So vben we say, " I see a man walking" the word walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is properly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this," the verb do attributes action imperntivoly to tho pereoD aJdrevsed, but there is no affirmation. To ppeak of ** affirming imperatively" is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a bet* ter expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. For these reasons, the definition of a verb which rays it is "a part of speech which atiert* or affirmi," appears to mc to be dufeotivc. It states one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at lenst doen not in- clude, others. It gives, as the distinguishing clmrnctcriatic of a verb, that which docs not belong to it in several of its parts nnd uses. Jt u too re- atrictive. Tho definition formerly given in my " rrinciples of English Grammar," is liable to an objection of an opposite kind : it ia too general, and not sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, " express an action or atate" but there ore other words that do so also. Nouns such as love, desire^ wiah, hope, Ac, and most verbal nouns, such a!^ eruption, fiction , colliaion, diffuaion, progreation, (bo., express action, and many words, both nunni and adjectives, express a atate. The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexceptionable, occupiei a middle place between these extremes, avoids the indefiniteoess, of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objection than most of those which have been given. APPENDIX VII. •-: f rt of )e, to yet this and and itate tate erly, is a the DIVISION or VRBBS. The division of verbs into Trantitive and Intranaitive is now so gene- rally adopted by grammarians, instead of the former division into Active, Passive, and Nenter ; and its propriety and simplicity so obvious, that it seems now uunecessary to argue the point. Of this division, it ia need- ful only to observe — 1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intransitive, distinguished .by a dear and definite characteristic, derived from their u^iie in the construction of sentences. To the first belong thoste which are usr^d transitively, whatever be their meaning or form ; and to the second, all that are used intransitively, whether they denote action or not (319). 2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the term Active and Paaaive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and the paaaive voice. 8d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, os applied to verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the designation of gender only. t^^ tUfOtlSn GRAMMAR. APPENDIX Vin. TtlK I'UMENT IJfDICATIVR PASSIVIC, AND THE rARTICIPLK IN tng, IN A rASSIVB BEN8B. According to the definition, the pftsaive voice expresses, paBsively, the same thiuK tbat the aotiro does actively. For example, " Coeaar couquei'od Goul," and " Gnul waa conquered by Crosar," express precisely the same idea. Thie, however, is not always done by the regular passive form in the pr«ff«nM0n«e, though it generally is done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at once that the expressions, " deanr oonquers Gaul," aou " Gttul is conquered by Coisar," do not express the same tiling. In regard to this matter, there are evidently two claaaeB of verbs *. namely, those whoso present-passive expresses precisely the same thing pnsBively, as the active voice does octivoly, and those in Avhich it does not. I. To the^r«^ of these classes belong— 1. All those verbs which, in the regular pvescnt-passive, imply a con' tinuation of the act ; such as to love, to hate, to regard, to esteem, to envy* topleate, &c. Thus, "James loves me," and "I am loved by Jamee," ex- press precisely the same idea, and consequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as in the active. Hence, "t« loved^* is a true passive, in both form and meaning. lu verbs of this class the progressive form iu (he active voice is seldom used, because it would expi'ess the same thing generally as the common form ; " James loves ia«," and " James is loving mo " (though improper), express the same thing. 2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general truths, or what is usual or customary from time to time. Thus, " Vinegar dis- solves pearls" — "Vice produces misery"— "The cobbler mends shoes" — " Masons build houses," &q. These verbs, used in this way, express pre- cisely the same thing in the regular passive form as they do in Uie active, ^'hus, •• Pearls are dissolved by vinegar " — " Misery is prodtued by vice " — "Shoes are mended by the cobbler" — "Houses are built by masons," &c. In verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed. The use of it would change the meanmg from a general expression to a particular act Thus, " Vice is producing misery." woi^ immediately direct the mind, not to a general truths out to a nartieular ease. But, again, when these verbs express a particular act, and not a general truth, the present active and the present passive express different ideas; thus, *' James builds a house," represents an act in progi'ess ; but when we say, " A house is built by James," the act or operation of bnilding is repre- sented as completed, 3. To this class belong all verbs which by the figure called vision (104C -5), are used in the present tense to express what is past. Thus, actively, " CsDsar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, en /tfrs Italy." Passively, " Gaul is left by Coesar, the Rubicon is crossed, Italy is entered." In all these, used in this figurative way, the present-passive expresses the same thing, ns the present-active. II. The second class of verbs consist of those (perhaps the greater number), whose present*passive implies that the act expressed by the act- ive voice has ceased, and the effect or result only remains as a finished APPENDIX— PRESENT INDICATIVE, ETC. 253 an ci ex- 04C ely, aul ese, ing, act, a.id oa suoh it predicated of the subject. Thus, "The house is built." Here it is implied that tho act of building' is complete'', aud has ceased, and th« re$ult, expressed by built, is predicated of the liouao. In all verbs of this kind, the past participle, after the verb to he, has reference to the Btale resulting frcm the act as predicated of, or quolirying tho subject of tho verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly cpeaking, tliun, the past parti- ciple with the verb to b« is not the pre';ent tease in the passive voice of verbs thus used ; that is, this ^orm d(<er press, but which has gained such currency, and is beootnlDg so famihar to tne ear, that it eecms likely to prevail, with all its uncoutbness and d^ormity. I refer to such expressions as " Tho bouse is being built " — " The letter is being written" — "The mine is being worked" — " The news is being telegraphed," t&a <&c. Respecting this mode of expreesion, it may be noticed — 1. That it had uo existence in the language till within the last fifty years. This, indeed, would not make the expression wrong, were it other- wise unexceptionable, but its recent origin shows that it ia not, as is pre- tended, a necessary form. 2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to express what it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as are either ignorant of its imjport, or are careless and loose in their use of language. T6 make this mani^st, Itb it be considered, first, that there is no progres- sive form of the verb to be^ and no need of it; ^cee, there is no sirIi ■1^' ^54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. oxpresBion in English as t< being. Of course, tho expression "t« being built," for example, h not a compound of it being and htilU but of t« and being built ; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle pattive. Now, let it be observed that tlie only verbs in which the present participle passive expresses a continued action are those mentioned above as the fiist class, in which the regular passive form expresses a con/inuanc« of the action ; as, it loved, is desired, &c., and in which of course the form in ques* tion {is being bvilt) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, *'He is being loved " — ** This result is being desired." * In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the present tense, in tho second class of Verbs mentioned above, expresses, not a eon- tinued action, or the continued receiving of an action, bat that the action had ceased, and the result only exists in a finished state. Thus, " Our ar- rangements being made, we departed.*'— "The house being finished, was immediately occupied." — " Our work being finished, we may rest," (be. In nil such expressions, tho present participle passive represents the action as now fininhed, and existing only in its results (609). This finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, by being asserted of a subject, which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence, it is manifest that is being built, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed. 8. For the same reason that ia being built, Ac, is contended for as a pro* per expression, we should contend also for " Has been being built" — "Mad been being built" — •' Shall have been being built" — "Might have been being built"— "To be beiug built"— "To have been being built "—" Being being built " — " Having been being built." When all these shall have been introduced, our language will be rich indeed. ~ 4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an established usage of the langunge, namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the par- ticiple in ing (467). In refererce to this it is flippantly asked, " What does the house build f" — " What does the letter write ?** dec— taking for granted, without attempting to prove, that the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in any verb. The following are a few examples from writers of tho best reputation, which this novelty would condemn : " Whilo tho ceremony was performing." — Tom Brown. "The court was then holdinj^." — Sty O. M^Kemie. *' And still be doing, never done."— 5u. Webster. " The church now erecting in the city of New York." — A. A. Review. ** This movement was making." — Cooper. "These things were transacting in England." — Bancroft. 6. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judgment of tho most distinguished grammarians and critics, who have oonsidared the subject, and expressed their views concerning it. The following are a specimen : " Expressions of this kind arc condemned by some critios ; but the usage is unquestionably of far bettei authority, and (according to my npprehensioD) in fur better taste, than tie more oomplex phraseology APPENDIX — FIRST AND SECOND, ETC. 2te wbicb Bome late writers adopt in its stead ; as, " The books are no\7 being sold.' " — Goold Brown. " As to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation ; as, ' Tbe bridge is being built.' * the bridge was being built,' and so forth, it is one of the most absurd md monstrous innovations ever thought of." "Tliework is now being p\tb- lifhed " is certainly no better Enligeh than, " The work tvat bring published, has been being published, had been being published, shall or wHl be being published, shall or will have been being published^ and so on through all the moods and tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbe are thus conjugated l" — Brown's Gr. o/Eng. Gra. p. 861. De War observes : " The participle in ing is also passive in many instances } as, * The house is building' — ' I heard of a plan forming,' " may it not also allow us to say, wheat is selling at a dollar, in a sense that is not active ?" — Hart's Gram., p. 76. '* The prevailing prac- tice 0^ the best authors is in favour of the simple form ; as, " The house is building.' "--We/fs School Gram,, p. 148. "Several other expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and moat un couth solecism * is being done^ for the good old English idiom < is doing ' — an absurd periphrasis driving out a pointed and pithy ixan of the Eng- lish language.'*— iV. A. Review, quoted by Ur. Wells, p, 148. "The phrase ' is being built,' and others of a similar kind, have been for a few years insinuating themselves into our language ; still they are not Eng« , lish." — Harrison's Rise, Progress, and Present Structure of the English Language. This mode of expression [the house is being bailt], is becom- ing quite common. It is liable, however, to several important objections. It appears formal and pedantic. It has not, as far as I koow, the support of any respectable grammarian. The easy and uatural expression is, the house is building.— Pro/". /, W. Gibbs. APPENDIX IX. FinST AND 8EC0MD, ETC. I'wo or more adjectives connected, with an article intervening, belong to the same noun ; as, "A red and white rose "—that is, one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be taken to see that the Quali- ties expressed by adjectives so used be consistent, or such as may be found in one object. Thus, it would be improper to say, " An old nod young 256 ENGLISH ORAAIMAR. man " — " A rouDd and square hole " — " A hot and cold spring " — because a man can not be old and young at the same time ; nor a hole rou,Jl and square ; nor a spring hot and cold. Hence — When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to different objects of the aame name, and that name expressed only with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective. Thus, " A red and a white rose " means two roses— one red, and one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the qualities expressed by the adjective be consistent or not since they belong to different individuals. Thus, wc can say, ** A yonng and an old man " — A round and square hole " — " A hot and a cold spring "'—that is, one man young, and another old, &o. It is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first and second page "—"The fifth and sixth verse"- "The Old and New Testa- ment "—Mcause no page can be at onoe first and second— do verse fifth and sixthf and no Testament Old and N^io. It is eaually improper in principle to say, "The first and second pages" — "The fifth ana sixth verses'" because two adjectives can not oe joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it separately. We can not say "The^lrs^ pageSf^ nor " the second pages," when we mean but on$ first and one second. Besides, when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and the second pagCf^ and the omission of the first noun can not, on any correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, too, the use of the plural, if it wovdd relieve fi-om the absurdity of uniting incon- sistent qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambiguity, For if^ to avoid the absurdity of saying " the old and young man," we say .. ., ij » u ^1-. '-*t^p expression may mean fifty, or a instead of two— one young and one usage has prevailed over principle in quite common to say. *'the old and young men," the latter expression may hundred, or any number of men, old. Notwithstanding, however, this as well as in other cases ; and it has become *♦ The first and second verses"—" The Old and New" Testaments "— " Tfie hot and cold springs" — "The indicative and subjunctive moods," «bc. Where no ambiguity exists in the use of snob expressions, they must be tolerated. IJ^e correct expression, however, in all cases in which one is intended, is made by repeating the article with the adjective^ and retaining the noun in tht singular ; thus, " The first and the second verse " — " The Old and the New Testament " — The hot and the cold spring," '.ide. On the other hand, when a whole is divided into equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence of the census every five years — of the Olympic games every four — of the Sob- both every seven days — of four lines in each stanza of a poem, and the like — then the expression, first four, second four, last four, Ac, is pre- ferable, because it implies a reference to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the number is large; or, " The first hundrea" — " The last thousand," <&o. 5. Several distinguished Fcholors and grammarians have examined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as follows : " It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede or foUova the ordinal nu- merol."— Atterbury says in one of his letters to Pope : " Not but that the four fii.'t lines are good."—" We conceive the expression to be quite cor- rect, though the other form be often employed to denoio the same con- ception."— CromftiVa English Syntax, p. 240.— "Some grammarians ob- ject to the use of the numerals two, four, superla- and not mitted ft generally/ The Jint [er of the lay, ' Th0 ,«aii