. IIS.O}(z FM 17-1 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL ! us ' () 10/. ;.o: 17-1 (...) Q L.LJ ARMOR OPERATIONS ' ' ' HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY 0 C T 0 B E R 19 6 6 *FM 17-1 HEADQUA}tTE:RS FI~LD MANUAL} DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY No:~ 17-1 WASHINGTON, D.C., 11,. October 1966 ARMOR OPERATIONS Paragraphs Page CHAPTER 1. GENERAL Section I. Purpose and scope ---------------------------1-4 4 II. The role of armor units -----------------------5-9 4 111. Armor mission and capabilities ---------------10,11 6 IV. Conduct of armor operations ------------------12,13 7 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ARMOR Section I. Principles of war ----------------------------14,15 8 11. Active and nonactive nuclear warfare ----------16-18 9 III. Considerations of employment -----------------19..:.29 10 IV. Factors affecting employment -----------------30-34 12 V. Organization for combat -----------------------35-41 14 VI. Planning armor operations -------------------42-46 16 47-51 20 VII. Control -------------------------------------- CHAPTER 3. COMMAND Section I. Command and leadership ---------------------52-57 22 II. Troop leading procedure ----------------------58:-60 24 CHAPTER 4. THE COMMANDER AND HIS STAFF Section I. The Commander ----------------------------61,62 29 II. The unit staff ----------------------~---------63-68 29 CHAPTER 5. RECONNAISSANCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND SECURITY OPERATIONS Section I. Reconnaissance operations --------------------69-84 44 II. Surveillance operations ------------------------85-89 48 111. Security operations ---------------------------90-109 49 CHAPTER 6. THE OFFENSE Section I. Considerations of the offense ------------------110-112 63 II. Planning for the attack -----------------------113-119 64 111. Conduct of the attack ------------------------120-124 69 IV. Forms of maneuver and offensive operations -----125-132 73 V. Passage of lines ------------------------------133-135 77 VI. Reconnaissance in force ----------------------136-138 79 VII. Meeting engagement --------------------------139-141 80 VIII. Procedures and techniques of the bypass ________ 142-144 81 IX. Night attacks --------------------------------145-150 82 CHAPTER 7. DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS Section 151-156 88 I. General ------------------------------------- II. Organization of the defense --------------------157-166 90 111. Mobile defense ------------------------------167-173 94 IV. Area defense --------------------------------174-183 99 V. Relief in place -------------------------------184-192 101 CHAPTER 8. RETROGRADE OPERATIONS Section I. General--------------------------------------193,194 106 II. Considerations of the retrograde ---------------195-199 106 III. Delaying action ------------------------------200-203 109 * This manual supersedes FM 17-1, June 1963, including C 1, 30 November 1964. Paragraphs Page CHAPTER 8. RETROGRADE OPERATIONS-Continued Section IV. Withdrawal ----------------------------------204-208 116 v. Retirement ----------------------------------209, 210 118 VI. Withdrawal through a rearward position _______ 211, 212 119 CHAPTER 9. COMBAT SUPPORT Section I. General --------------------------------------213, 214 121 II. Field artillery support ------------------------215-219 121 III. Air defense artillery -------------------------220, 221 125 IV. Army aviation -------------------------------222-224 126 V. Chemical ------------------------------------225, 226 127 VI. Engineer ------------------------------------227, 228 128 VII. Communications -----------------------------229-234 130 VIII. Tactical air support --------------------------235-240 133 IX. Intelligence ----------------------------------241-246 136 CHAPTER 10. COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT Section I. General --------------------------------------247-249 138 II. Combat service support personnel --------------250-254 139 III. Brigade trains --------------------------------255-258 140 IV. Battalion or squadron combat service support elements and trains ------------------------259-263 141 V. Company and troop combat service support elements and trains ---------------------------264-267 142 VI. Employment of trains ------------------------268-272 144 VII. Battalion combat service support operations ____ 273-284 146 VIII. Supply --------------------------------------285-292 151 IX. Maintenance ---------------------------------293-300 154 X. Medical service ------------------------------301-305 158 XI. Area damage control -------------------------306-317 159 CHAPTER 11. OTHER OPERATIONS-ENVIRONMENT Section I. General --------------------------------------318,319 168 II. Jungle operations ---------------------------320-323 168 !11. Desert operations ----------------------------324-326 170 IV. Operations in deep snow and extreme cold _______ 327-329 171 V. Mountain operations --------------------------330-333 171 CHAPTER 12. OTHER OPERATIONS-MISSION TYPE Section I. General -------------------------------------334,335 173 11. Airmobile operations -------------------------336,337 173 111. Linkup operations ----------------------------338-342 173 IV. Raids ----------------------------------------343-345 175 V. Tank sweeps --------------------------------346-349 176 VI. Operations in forests or wooded areas ---------350-354 177 VII. Operations at defiles -------------------------355-358 180 VIII. Operations at inland waterways --------------359-370 183 IX. Operations in fortified positions ---------------371,372 198 X. Operations in built-up areas ------------------373-382 201 XI. Amphibious operations -----------------------383-400 208 XII. Shore-to-shore movements --------------------401-406 216 XIII. Internal defense operations -------------------407-414 218 XIV. Division rear area security -------------------415-419 243 XV. Psychological operations (PSYOP) ------------420-424 247 APPENDIX I. REFERENCES ------------------------------251 11. COMMAND FACILITIES -------------------255 III. STAFF RELATIONS IN SELECTED OPERATIONS ACTIVITIES --------------260 IV. STAFF RECORDS --------------------------265 V. REPORTS AND WARNINGS ________________ 268 VI. MOVEMENTS -------------------------------275 VII. ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION ___________ 295 Paragraphs Page APPENDIX VIII. COMMANDER'S APPLICATION OF 300 PRINCIPLES OF WAR ------------------- IX. OPERATION ORDER AND PLANS---------308 X. CONTROL MEASURES AND OVERLAY 319 TECHNIQUES --------------------------- XI. EXAMPLE OPERATION ORDERS AND GUIDE FOR THE PREPARATION OF 329 FIRE PLANS ---------------------------- XII. HANDLING PRISONERS OF WAR ----------330 XIII. TANK UNITS, CONDUCT OF FIRE AND MOVEMENT BY A MANEUVER FORCE --332 XIV. ORGANIC FIRE SUPPORT ----------------337 XV. NIGHT COMBAT TECHNIQUES -----------345 XVI. TASK ORGANIZATION ---------------------363 XVII. EMPLOYMENT OF THE ARMORED VEHICLE LAUNCHED BRIDGE (ALVB) AND THE COMBAT ENGINEER VEHICLE ( CEV) ------------------------------------ 365 XVIII. MINE WARFARE --------------------------369 XIX. OBSTACLE PLANNING AND EMPLOYMENT 379 XX. TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT AND COMMAND CONTROL OF ATOMIC DEMOLITION MUNITIONS -----------------------------386 XXI. EMPLOYMENT OF GROUND SURVEILLANCE RADAR -----------------390 XXII. PREDICTION OF FALLOUT, CHEMICAL DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION, AND RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING AND SURVEY ---------------------------- 397 XXIII. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDER CONDITIONS OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL OPERATIONS AND NUCLEAR WARFARE --------------------402 XXIV. ASSEMBLY AREAS ------------------------409 XXV. STANAG NO. 2113, DESTRUCTION OF MILITARY TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT __ ---------· 413 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL Section I. PURPOSE AND SCOPE 1. Purpose This manual is a guide for armor commanders and staffs in the employment, command, and control or armor units. 2. Scope a. This manual provides basic doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures of employment; exercise of command, reconnaissance and security; combat service support; control; movements; and offensive, defensive, retrograde, and special operations appropriate to all armor units. Unless otherwise specified, the material presented herein is applicable without modification to both nuclear and nonnuclear warfare. b. This manual is for use in conjunction with other manuals and training texts (app I). It presents doctrine that is common to all areas of operations. Special operations (northern, jungle, desert) are covered in detail in other manuals and are discussed only in general terms as they apply to armor. c. Users of this manual are encouraged to submit comments or recommendations for changes to improve the manual. Comments should be keyed to the specific page, para graph, and line of the text in which the change is recommended. Reasons should be provided for each comment to insure understanding and proper evaluation. Comments should be forwarded directly to the Commanding Officer, U.S. Army Combat Developments Command Armor Agency, Fort Knox, Kentucky 40121. 3. Armor Armor is a combined arms force designed to conduct mounted combat employing armor-protected vehicles and armed aircraft as a principal means of accomplishing a land force combat mission. Armor operates normally within a force structure that includes tanks, mechanized infantry, artillery, engineers, armored cavalry, air cavalry, and Army aviation, supported on the battlefield by a flexible and rapid communication system, and a mobile combat service support system. 4. The Role of Armor Armor conducts decisive, highly mobile, land-environment warfare, primarily offensive in nature and characterized by a predominance of mounted combat, through the use of both ground vehicles and aircraft. Section II. THE ROLE 5. General Armor units fight normally as combined arms forces of two or more arms. Each arm complements the other and aids the forward movement or defensive posture of the force by employing its own special capabilities. The organization of these combined arms forces is OF ARMOR UNITS tailored by cross-attachment to use the favorable characteristics of each type unit and to complement the strengths and compensate for the weaknesses of other units. Commensurate with its intended employment, the resulting force varies in degree of armor protection, mobility, and ability to deliver fire. 6. The Brigade The armored division brigade and the sepa'..:: rate armor brigade command and control attached combat maneuver, combat support, and combat service support units in training and combat operations. (Hereafter, the armored division brigade and the separate armor brigade will be referred to as the brigade.) The brigade is capable of conducting operations with either a preponderance of tank battalions or mechanized infantry battalions, or a balanced force made up equally of tank and mechanized infantry battalions. Tactical doctrine concerning the brigade is set forth in FM 17-30. The brigade is capable of conducting semi-independent and independent armor operations when appropriate combat support and combat service support elements are attached. 7. Tank Units a. Tank Battalions of Divisions and Brigades. ( 1) The tank battalion of the armored, mechanized infantry, and infantry divisions and separate brigades is the source of the tank elements for combined arms forces. (2) Although the airborne division does not have an organic tank battalion, airborne operations may require the attachment of a tank battalion. For airborne operations, the attached tank battalion may be equipped with the M56 airborne self-propelled 90mm AT gun or the armored reconnaissance/airborne assault vehicle (AR/ AAV). If the attached tank battalion is equipped with the M56 AT gun, it is used primarily to deliver heavy caliber direct fire to support dismounted airborne units in ground operations because of limited armor protection. When the attached tank battalion is equipped with the AR/ AAV, it may be used to provide heavy caliber fires to support dismounted airborne units or to form combined arms forces due to the added armor protection of the AR/AAV. Tank battalions equipped with the main battle tank may be attached to airborne divisions for conventional ground operations that do not require airlift. b. Tank Companies of Armored Cavalry Regiments and Separate Airborne Brigades. ( 1) The tank company of the armored cavalry squadron, armored cavalry· regiment, is the basic unit used to increase the capability for sustained, mounted combat of the regiment. (2) When a tank company is attached to the separate airborne brigade, it may be equipped with the M56 airborne self-propelled 90mm AT gun or AR/AAV (a(2) above). 8. Mechanized Infantry Battalion The mechanized infantry battalion of the armored division and separate armor brigade provides the combined arms forces of armor with a force capable of fighting dismounted. It possesses high cross-country mobility, light armor, and multiple means of communication, and complements and enhances the inherent capability of tank elements when employed as a part of a tank-infantry team. 9. Armored and Air Cavalry Units a. The armored cavalry squadron of the armored, mechanized infantry, infantry, and airborne divisions and of the armored cavalry regiment is the basic unit used for reconnaissance, security, and economy of force missions. Cavalry combat elements are capable of fighting with organic aircraft, ground vehicles, or dismounted. b. The mobility of air cavalry units greatly extends and improves the capability for reconnaissance, security, and surveillance and permits the rapid transport of lightly armed elements with little regard for terrain restrictions. Air cavalry, operating in conjunction with ground cavalry elements equipped with lightly armored, amphibious vehicles, provides a unique capability for operations in underdeveloped areas. Because of its varied capabiltities, air cavalry is an important information gathering means. The command and control facilities found in air cavalry units c. The armored cavalry troop of the sepamake them a sound structure around which to rate brigade is the basic unit used to performtailor other airmobile forces. reconnaissance and security for the brigade. Section Ill. ARMOR MISSION AND CAPABILITIES 1 0. Missions a. Tank units close with and destroy enemy forces, using fire, maneuver, and shock effect in coordination with other arms. b. Armored cavalry units perform reconnaissance and provide security for the unit to which organic, assigned, or attached, and engage in offensive, defensive, and delaying actions as an economy of force unit. c. Mechanized infantry units close with the enemy by means of fire and maneuver to destroy or capture him or to repel his assault by fire, close combat, and counterattack. 11. Capabilities a. General. Armor is capable of operating throughout the spectrum of warfare, from cold war to general war. Armored vehicles are particularly suited to a nuclear environment because their armor protection reduces significantly the effects on personnel of blast and radiation from a nuclear burst and have the capability of dispersing and concentrating rapidly over great distances. Armor's inherent characteristics of firepower, mobility, armor protection, shock effect, and responsiveness to command provide an optimum force for sus tained operations against any type of opposing ground force. b. Deep Penetration and Wide Envelopment. Large armor formations with inherent mobility and flexibility, controlling nuclear and nonnuclear fire support, provide forces with power and momentum for deep penetrations and wide envelopments. In the enemy's rear areas, these forces attain great freedom of action as they maneuver to seize terrain; disrupt communication; destroy command posts, missile sites, artillery, and troop reserves; and capture or destroy supplies. c. Exploitation. Armor has the combat power to create its own opportunities for exploitation. It also provides the higher commander with a destructive force to exploit rapidly the successes of other formations. For example, the armored division, as a part of the corps, may be used by the corps commander to expand the successes of other forces or the effects of nuclear fires. d. Mobile Defense. Armor is well suited to the conduct of a mobile defense. Since it is designed primarily for offensive action, it is employed best in defensive operations· as the mobile counterattack force of a higher command. The armored division, with or without the use of nuclear weapons, provides the corps and army commander with a powerful reserve for destroying enemy attacking forces. The armor unit's capability to move, live, and fight on the nuclear battlefield permits its employment in compressing or canalizing enemy forces for destruction by nuclear weapons. , e. Destruction of Enemy Armor Formations. Defeat of enemy armor is essential to successful ground combat and is a continuir.g requirement in offensive and defensive operations. The tank is the primary armor-defeating weapon of armored formations. f. Reconnaissance and Security. As the range of weapons is extended, as the battlefield becomes less densely populated, and as units are more widely dispersed, the need for reconnaissance and security becomes more acute. Armored cavalry units provide reconnaissance for the higher commander by ground and air means. Reconnaissance and security missions demand highly mobile forces with a ground combat capability. These forces detect enemy forces, warn of them, and destroy them within their capabilities. Armored cavalry units are well suited to conduct covering, guarding, screening, and rear area security operations and to conduct limited probing attacks. The capability of armor units for rapidly maneuvering great firepower makes them well suited for reconnaissance-in-force operations. g. Counterguerrilla Operations in Rear Areas. Armor units can be employed in operations against forces conducting guerrilla operations in defined rear areas in limited and gen eral war field army-type operations. Forces conducting guerrilla operations may vary frorp irregular to enemy airborne and airmobile reg::. ular armed forces. Terrain may require armor units to be tailored for antiguerrilla operations. h. Close Support of Infantry. This task is fulfilled most frequently by the tank battalions of the mechanized infantry and infantry divisions and tank battalions attached to airborne division~. Tank battalions increase greatly the firepower and mobility of the infantry attack nnd defense and provide a powerful armor-defeating capability. i. Economy of Force. Armored cavalry units are particularly suited to perform economy of force missions, thus permitting a commander to maneuver the preponderance of his other forces to another area for a decisive blow. j. Stability and Internal Defense Assistance (IDA) Operations. The armor-protected firepower, shock effect, mobility, and mass of ar mor produce psychological effects which make armor well suited for conducting stability operations such as a show of force. In IDA operations, these characteristics similarly enable armor to conduct successful tactical operations ~gainst insurgency tactical forces, especially during insurgency phase II and phase ·III. Air cavalry units are particularly well suited for IDA operations in terrain that does not provide trafficability for ground armored units. Armor units, as part of stability and IDA operations, also may be employed to support internal security operations, conduct or support military civic action, provide advisory assistance to host country (HC) units, and engage in psychological and intelligence operations (para 404-414). In stability and IDA operations, armor units may be attached or assigned to independent task forces, MAAG, Missions, or Military Assistance Commands (MAC), and may be employed to support host country and US divisions, brigades, battalions, or specific political and/or military areas. Section IV. CONDUCT OF ARMOR OPERATIONS 12. General Armor operations are conducted by fire and maneuver and are combined and controlled to create a preponderance of combat power that culminates in a powerful and violent action at the decisive time and place. Commanders must avoid rigid adherence to the original plan in the face of significant changes in the situation that provide opportunities to destroy the enemy. The cross-country mobility, firepower, and communications of armor units allow the armor commander to rapidly mass or disperse his combat power for the accomplishment of any given task. The armor commander seeks every opportunity to employ his combined arms force in mass and thus bring maxi mum combat power to bear against the enemy. Every effort is made to gain knowledge of the enemy before, during, and after engagement. Commanders and leaders at all levels must make continuous estimates and react rapidly to changes in the situation. Armor operations are mobile in nature, violent in action, and calculated to obtain decisive results. 13. Type Operations The basic doctrine discussed in paragraph 12 is employed by the armor commander at every opportunity regardless of the type operation he may be conducting. The techniques used in the conduct of offensive, defensive, retrograde, reconnaissance, security, and other operations are discussed in specific chapters. CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ARMOR Section 1. PRINCIPLES OF WAR 14. General a. The principles of war govern the conduct of all military operations. They represent the major factors essential to the successful conduct of war. b. A successful commander applies the principles to specific situations. He knows when to emphasize one at the expense of others. In some instances a commander may elect not to apply a given principle. If he does so with the knowledge that he is doing it and if the failure to apply the principle works to his ultimate advantage, he has not violated the principle. The commander uses the principles of war during his estimate of the situation. In formulating courses of action, he must consider and compare each course developed in light of the principles. Thus, the commander's decision is a result of the direct application of the principles of war. Appendix VIII provides an example of the commander's application of the principles of war in a specific situation. 15. Application a. The Objective. The objective of a military force is to accomplish the goal or aim for which the force was constituted. This principle is overriding and is always applicable to any operation, at any level of command. The objective of a force can be stated in broad or precise terms depending upon the nature of the goal. Each element of an armor unit contributes to the attainment of the objective of the larger unit of which it is a part. For example, when the objective of a division has been defined, all elements of the divis_ion must be assigned objectives that assist in the attainment of the division objective. The objective or goal of a military force is expressed, in general terms, as a mission. Success in combat operations is measured by the accomplishment of the mission. b. The Offensive. By the offensive the commander can impose his will on the enemy, set the pace and course of battle, exploit enemy weaknesses, and meet unexpected contingencies. Even in the defense the commander must be alert to regain the initiative by offensive counteractions. Aggressiveness, flexibility of mind, and the ability to make rapid, reasoned decisions are required to apply fully the principle of the offensive. In defense, the armor commander can often best accomplish his mission by offensive action. c. Simplicity. Simplicity demands that de tailed, simple plans be adopted in every military operation. It is, of course, a relative term because all actions in war are essentially complex. Simplicity is especially important on the nuclear battlefield, where the full use of available means will require close control and coordination and where plans must be as simple as the situation will permit. Detailed, simple plans lead to coordinated, timely execution. d. Unity of Command. Unity of command is the establishment of a single authority. This is the best means to insure unity of effort, which implies a singleness of purpose and cooperation by all elements of the command. e. Mass. Mass demands that superiority of combat power be attained at the critical time and place for a decisive purpose. This superiority is both qualitative and quantitative. Combat power is primarily a combination of firepower and maneuver, which is applied at the right place and time for a decisive purpose. Mass does not require continued concentration of forces; it does require that forces be so disposed that maximum combat power can be con:.: centrated at the decisive time and place. The use of nuclear weapons by enemy forces. will require greater dispersion for passive defense; therefore, greater stress must be placed on the application of mass from the point of view of time rather than space. Whenever possible, tanks are employed in mass. The speed, maneuverability, and communication of armor permit the rapid massing of mobile firepower. The armor leader seeks to concentrate his mobile firepower at one decisive point, overcome that point, then shift to another decisive point. Violation of this principle exposes the commander to the risk of piec,emeal defeat by even an inferior enemy. f. Economy of Force. Economy of force requires that sufficient force be applied at other than the decisive time and place to permit mass to be applied at the point of decision. These two principles are so closely related that they cannot be considered singly. Application of the two principles requires a sound estimate of what is sufficient elsewhere to permit the attainment of decisive superiority at the decisive time and place. "Sufficient" is the key. It connotes the application of the force necessary to accomplish the purpose and not the application of as little force as possible. g. Maneuver. Maneuver requires that all military resources be brought to bear in the accomplishment of the objective. Correct applica tion of the principle of maneuver requires not only the full use of combat power at the decisive time and place but includes the movement of elements of combat power (including combat ·service support) to the area of operations. Application of this principle is a function of command at all levels. At the highest level it usually means the movement of men, means, and supplies to an area of operations, and at the lowest level it means the positioning of troop units and fires to destroy the enemy. h. Surprise. Surprise connotes striking the enemy when, where, or in a manner that he is unable to counter effectively. The achievement of surprise is not necessarily dependent upon misleading the enemy as to intentions, such as, for example, concealing from him an intention of attacking. He may know from the situation that he will be attacked, yet the attacker may achieve surprise by the time, place, direction, size or composition of forces, or tactics employed. i. Security. Security provides readiness for action or counteraction and is enhanced greatly by flexibility. Flexibility in mind, organization, and means contributes to security. Its attainment embraces all measures designed to avoid being surprised or interfered with seriously, and the retention of freedom of action. Securi ty does not imply undue caution and avoidance of all risks, for bold action is essential to success in war. When security is provided, unexpected developments will not interfere seriously with the pursuit of vigorous operations. Section II. ACTIVE AND NONACTIVE NUCLEAR WARFARE 16. Geneaal a. Basic armor doctrine is generally applicable under conditions of both active and nonactive nuclear war and major changes in tactics and techniques are not required. The impact of nuclear weapons on the battlefield is considered to require, primarily, increased emphasis on dispersion and the armor protection and mobility of armor units. The employment of armor units in nuclear war will not vary significantly from that of the nonactive nuclear environment. Armor missions will remain essentially unchanged and will continue the employment of armor units in wide envelopments or deep penetrations to seize objectives. b. A primary distinction between the nuclear and nonactive nuclear battlefield may be the dispersion of forces. On the nuclear battlefield, greater dispersion between principal elements or battalion-sized elements will be required. The requirements for dispersion are not new to armor elements, and massing for the attack or assault can be accomplished in space and time by reason of inherent armor unit mobility. 17. Active Nuclear Warfare a. Employment of armor on the nuclear battlefield in the offense will be based primarily on the basic forms of maneuver: the pene tration and the envelopment. The frontal atbattlefield environment. Although the techtack is a variation of the penetration; a double niques of night operations will include the useenvelopment and a turning movement are var of night viewing devices, the principles of iations of the envelopment. Each form will asmovement and combat will not change marked sign objectives deep in the enemy rear and the ly. Frequency of limited-visibility operationsadoption of any one form will depend in varywill increase in the conduct of troop move ing degrees upon the mission, the terrain, the ments, realinement of forces on the battlefield,enemy situation, and the troops available. In a movement to attack positions, movement tonuclear war, the penetration as a form of lines of departure, and attack of limited .objecoffensive operation may be used more frequenttives.ly than was previously considered normal forarmor units. When time, space, and an assaila18. Nonactive Nuclear Warfareble flank are available, the envelopment may be Nonactive nuclear war is a condition that re used in preference to the penetration. After quires the conduct of operations without usingachieving success through the penetration or nuclear weapons although the threat of theirenvelopment, the attack progresses into an ex use may be present. The firepower available ploitation and pursuit. The preferred use of arunder conditions of nonactive nuclear war ismor units in the defense is as a counterattack reduced materially. The tactics of the nonacforce wherein their inherent mobile charac· tive nuclear battlefield and the forces employedteristics are exploited fully. Organization for may be similar to those employed in past wars.combat in the mobile defense will stress the The armored division will continue to be aprovision of a reserve weighted heavily with powerful striking or exploiting force for thetanks. The commander dispersing his forces as corps. Within the division, the brigade will bea passive defense measure against enemy nuassigned missions involving wide envelopmentsclear weapons must recognize that he may or penetrations to seize deep objectives. Briafford the enemy opportunity to infiltrate in gade commanders and staffs can expect to reforce. To prevent infiltration, the commander ceive mission-type orders and substantial tactimust insure thorough surveillance of the areas cal freedom in carrying out assigned missions.between the dispersed formations 24 hours a Great reliance is placed on the initiative of briday in all weather. gade and subordinate unit commanders. Nor b. Greater use of night or other limited visimally, brigades will be able to rely on eachbility conditions will be a result of a nuclear other for a degree of mutual support. Section Ill. CONSIDERATIONS OF EMPLOYMENT 19. General have separate missions. The mission of the maThe successful employment of armor forces neuvering force is to close with and destroy the is dependent upon certain fundamentals. The enemy by fire and shock effect. It will consist degree of success obtained in the use of these of all available tank and infantry units. The fundamentals depends largely on imaginative, mission of the base of fire is to minimize the resourceful, audacious, prudent, progressive, enemy's capability to interfere with the moveand flexible thinking commanders and staffs. ment of the maneuver force and, within its caThe commander must be willing to take calcupabilities, to destroy the enemy. The base of lated risks. fire normally does not join the maneuveringforce in the assault. The base of fire may con 20. Fire and Maneuver sist of mortars, attached antitank weapons,Armor units fight by combining fire and masupporting artillery, tactical air, and navalneuver. This is a tactic used by the comgunfire. Tanks and air cavalry are not normalmander, of establishing a base of fire and a ly included in the base of fire because this rolemaneuvering force. These two distinct forces does not take maximum advantage of their 10 characteristics. However, when necessary, tanks and air cavalry may temporarily support by fire the other elements of the maneuvering force. 21. Gaining and retaining the Initiative a. The initiative is a condition in which a commander retains the capability to apply his resources at will to influence the action. The commander possessing the initiative is able to take actions that so threaten his opponent that the actions must be countered. b. Armor commanders seek every opportunity to gain the initiative. Bold and aggressive employment of overwhelming combat power, the achievement of surprise, or the exploitation of enemy errors or weaknesses all serve to gain the initiative. c. Once the initiative is gained, every effort is expended to retain it. Once lost, the initiative is difficult and costly to regain. The continuous application of force against those parts of enemy units least capable of withstanding attack, the neutralization or destruction of the enemy's means of influencing the situation, and the prompt exploitation of successful actions at all levels all serve to retain the initiative. The initiative is retained by commanders who conduct actions rapidly and decisively and who have alternate plans ready to be implemented. 22. Exploiting Enemy Weakness Because combat power is relative, armor commanders actively seek to take advantage of any enemy weakness to enhance success (weaknesses from faulty dispositions, poor morale, insufficient support or troop strength). Nuclear weapons are used to create enemy weakness. 23. Mobility The mobility of armor units must be exploit ed to maneuver firepower into position to de stroy the enemy. Mobility makes possible the achievement of surprise. It permits the rapid concentration and prompt dispersal of combat forces required by nuclear warfare. It makes feasible the assignment of multiple missions and permits the rapid disengagement of com mitted forces. It permits the concentration of converging forces on a single objective from several directions. Commanders at all levels must anticipate, and plan to overcome or avoid, conditions that inhibit mobility. These conditions are not just terrain obstacles but all restrictions to movement, from enemy fires to the state of maintenance which affects material readiness. 24. Flexibility a. The interaction and reaction of events and conditions in mobile warfare make it necessary for combatants to adapt their actions to significant circumstances that may develop. b. Armor units, by virtue of their organization, extensive communication, mobility, and variety of weapons, are capable of rapid and frequent changes in organization for combat and direction of movement. c. Armor commanders at all levels must keep themselves and their superiors abreast of fast-moving situations and be willing to modify their plans to meet significant changes. 25. Combined Arms Forces a. The versatility of armor operations is realized when combined arms forces are used. The special characteristics of each type unit, tank, infantry, artillery, or engineer, are used to contribute to the success of the force. b. The proper combination of tanks and infantry supported by engineers, artillery, and aviation normally makes the most effective force. In this combination, tanks engage in mounted combat while infantrymen fight dismounted or mounted. Tank and infantry units are sometimes, by necessity, employed separately. Tank and infantry may be separated providing time or distance will permit mutual support. 26. Deliberate Planning-Violent Execution Successful armor operations are characterized by careful planning followed by violent execution. Once plans are put into effect, the degree of aggressiveness with which the attack is executed will determine the measure of success. Shock effect cannot be obtained without violent execution. Armor operations involve large spaces, careful timing, and detailed plans for logistical support. They involve careful coordination and teamwork by all units. They require carefully thought-out communication plans. It tion as possible. Only under these conditionsis desirable that each armor commander be can commanders take immediate advantage ofgiven information as to the intentions of the favorable changes in the situation.next higher commander. With this knowledge,he can rapidly direct successive efforts toward 28. Use of Environment to Best Advantagefurtherance of the overall plan as he finds opa. Armor commanders must seek to useportunity to exploit local successes. The comevery advantage offered by the terrain, airmander must plan ahead to anticipate actions space, weather, and time.that may be required during the conduct of b. The cross-country capability of armoroperations. units reduces dependence on roads. Armorunits seek to capitalize on this capability. 27. Orders Armor commanders make maximum use of 29. Adequate Combat Service Supportmission type orders which tell the subordinate Adequate and timely combat service supportcommanders what to do but not how to do it, is essential to the successful accomplishment of and thereafter, depend on fragmentary orders the tactical mission. Detailed planning for ade for issuing changes or additions as the situaquate supply, evacuation, and maintenancetion dictates. The speed of armor operations must precede the operation. During operations,and the rapidly changing tactical situation durlogistical estimates are continuous, and plansing mobile warfare make it necessary that are implemented to maintain the fighting capacommanders be allowed as much freedom of ac-bilities of combat forces. Section IV. FACTORS AFFECTING EMPLOYMENT (METT) 30. General c. The commander studies the mission to in a. To be successful, commanders must emsure that he understands it and to determineploy armor in a manner calculated to make tasks that are specifically stated. He must anamaximum use of its favorable characteristics. lyze the mission in relation to the other factorsThis calculation is based on a reasoned analysis affecting employment to deduce requirementsof certain factors affecting the employment of and tasks that are not stated specifically butarmor units. that must be done to accomplish the mission. b. These factors are considered within the Other implied tasks may be determined during four paramount groupings of mission, enemy, the commander's estimate of the situation. terrain and weather, and troops available 32. Enemy Information (METT). The tactical environment in which a. General. All possible information of thearmor units are employed is described under enemy location, strength, disposition, composithese four groupings. The commander must tion, and activity is obtained before the comkeep the following factors constantly in mind mitment of armor units. The collection of into make maximum use of his combat power. formation is continued throughout the opera 31. Mission tion. All means and sources are exploitedto furnish the commander with accurate and a. The mission assigned by higher headtimely information so that he may make a conquarters guides the employment of armor tinuing estimate of enemy capabilities. units. The success of tactical operations is b. Nuclear Capability. An enemy capability measured by accomplishment of the mission. to employ nuclear weapons must be given serib. A mission is a statement of a task and its ous consideration. This will result in increasedpurpose, which clearly indicates the action to attention to passive defense measures such as be taken and the reason therefor. Missions wiii dispersion, concealment, movement· during prescribe what is to be done but leave how it is darkness, cover, stringent traffic control, radio to be done to the judgment of the subordinate discipline, and individual protective measures.commander. c. Air. An armor unit will be a high-priority 12 target for enemy tactical air forces. Although servation means, including visual and armored vehicles are relatively invulnerable to electronic, ground and air, to keep the enemy under constant surveillance. all but direct hits by conventional weapons, unGood fields of fire are essential for thearmored vehicles organic to armor units are effective employment of direct-fire vulnerable to all types of air to ground fires. Therefore the employment of organic weapons; weapons. Fields of fire are analyzed attached air defense artillery (ADA); all in connection with the nature of the forms of deception, cover, dispersion, concealweapons and the nature of the tar ment; and, particularly, movement is of imporgets. tance. An enemy capability of employing air(2) Obstacles. borne or airmobile forces must be considered (a) The effect of obstacles, either in by the commander. hindrance or support of operations, d. Firepower Capability. The enemy capabilis considered. ity to counter the employment of armor units (b) Obstacles may be natural terrain is of vital concern and must be considered in features, manmade obstructions, the preparation of plans. Factors to be considobstructions created by nuclear fire, ered in determining his firepower capabilities or restrictions imposed by chemical are-fires. Minefields, roadblocks, anti (1) Location and disposition of his weaptank ditches, and other antitank obons and their fires. stacles are constructed to restrict (2) Characteristics of his weapons, such the maneuver of armor units and as range, rate of fire, mobility, and slow their operation. The commander needs to know the location, effectiveness against the various type vehicles being used in the operation. extent, and strength of obstacles if he is to calculate accurately the (3) Vulnerability of the enemy weapons measures needed to overcome orto the combat power available to the avoid them. friendly commander. (4) Number and type of weapons in (c) Obstacles may be used by both friendly and enemy forces to possession of and available to the en emy. strengthen a defense, or deny use of key terrain for observation and e. In addition to the aforementioned enemy defensive positions, to assist incapabilities which are of special concern to the economy-of-force measures, and toarmor unit, see FM 30-5 for discussion of protect the flank of a moving force. others that may be considered by the commander. (d) Nuclear weapons can create the fol lowing obstacles: induced and fall 33. Terrain and Weather out radiation, cratering, rubble, a. General. The terrain and the weather are fires, or tree blowdown. The obstaimportant factors in armor operations. The cle-creating effect must be considered when nuclear weapons are commander makes a thorough analysis of the terrain to determine the advantages it offers used. and to evaluate the advantages it may afford (3) Concealment and cover. Concealment the enemy. Weather affects virtually all operais protection from observation. Cover tions, both combat and combat service support. is protection from fire. Every advan b. Terrain. tage afforded to friendly forces by the terrain and conditions of visibility to ( 1) Observai'ion and fields of fire. The effect of observation on both friendly provide concealment and cover must and enemy operations is considered. be exploited. Concealment and cover High ground that affords line-of-sight are essential in masking assembly of troops, for protection against all observation is of particular importypes of fires, and in aiding in tacticaltance. The commander employs all ob 13 cover and deception measures. Natuc. Weather. Weather conditions have an imral and artificial camouflage, smoke portant bearing on any decision and should bescreening, and natural and manmade a primary consideration in operational planareas may be used to conceal and ning. The primary effects are on visibility andcover forces. Measures to counter adtrafficability. The basic meteorological elementsvantages afforded the enemy by cover affecting operations are wind (speed and direcand concealment must be considered. tion), temperature, humidity, cloud cover, pre (4) Key terrain. Key terra'in is any localicipitation, and atmospheric stability (inverty or area the control of which sion, lapse, and neutral conditions). Theaffords a marked advantage to either forecast, which includes such items as sunrise,combatant. Key terrain must be sunset, moonrise, and moonset should be conseized, neutralized, or otherwise considered. Weather conditions may prohibit ortrolled to deny its use by the enemy limit some phases of an operation. In the planor permit its use by friendly forces. ning of operations, adverse weather conditions (5) A venues of approach. should be considered; often the success gainedduring unfavorable weather offsets the limita (a) Possible avenues of approach are tions and difficulties imposed by soil trafficabil analyzed based upon the availabil ity of observation, concealment and ity and slow rate of movement. Weather fac cover, fields of fire, space for distors are of special importance in the conduct of persion and maneuver, and trafficaoffensive or defensive operations that include bility. The obstacle-producing efnuclear, chemical, or biological employment.Fallout and chemical and biological cloud trav fects on avenues of approach by el are greatly influenced by weather conditions. nuclear weapons must be considered. Detailed information is contained in FM 3-10, (b) In analyzing approach routes for FM 3-12, FM 5-26, and TM 3-240. airmobile operations, the major concern is achieving or avoiding 34. Troops Available tactical surprise. Favorable routes a. No realistic plans can be made or actionsprovide defilade and ease of navigataken that do not consider the capabilities oftion. Heavily forested and swampy the forces available. areas provide good routes, as b. The capabilities of a force are dependentground troops have less opportuni on ty to see or fire at low-flying air (1) Number of units. craft. Ridges reduce the possibility (2) Type of units. of detection by radar. If steep (3) State of training. defiles or canyons are used as (4) Morale. routes, careful reconnaissance must be made due to possible enemy (5) Strength in men and equipment. ground fires and the effect of down(6) Previous, present, and contemplated drafts on control of aircraft. employment. (c) All avenues of approach are consid(7) Location and disposition. ered; use of less obvious or desira(8) State of maintenance and supply.ble avenues of approach may (9) Adequacy of combat support and comachieve a degree of surprise that bat service support.offsets disadvantages. (10) Personalities of commanders. Section V. ORGANIZATION FOR COMBAT 35. General a specific mission or task. This serves as a baOrganization for combat is a concept of sis for the task organization which is theforming an appropriate combination of various grouping of specifically designed elements totypes of combat and combat support units for accomplish a specific mission or task in imple 14 menting the commander's organization for 37. Company Team combat. For a discussion of how the factors of a. A company team is a tactical grouping of METT apply to organization for combat, see combat units under one company commander paragraph 30. Tank and mechanized infantry formed for a specific operation or mission. The battalions are normally attached to brigades. company team normally consists of a complete The brigade commander may employ the atcompany with one or more nonorganic combat tached battalions without attachment, or he units attached, or a company with one or more may organize them for combat by cross-attachorganic units detached, and one or more nonorment. Similarly, tank and rifle companies norganic combat units attached.mally operate directly under control of one of b. In the battalion task force, the task forcethe battalions. The battalion commander may commander may organize company teams. Theemploy his companies without attachment, or ratio of tanks to infantry in a company teamhe may organize them for combat by cross-at varies with the factors of METT. Tank and intachment. The armored cavalry squadron norfantry units are usually employed together. Ifmally operates under the control of division or they are separated, they should be mutuallyits parent armored cavalry regiment. supporting by fire or maneuver. c. Platoons normally are employed as a part 36. Battalion Task Force of the company team. Typical exceptions would a. A battalion task force is a temporary be combat or reconnaissance patrols or grouping of combat units, formed to provide direct-fire support missions. The platoon is the the battalion commander with the number and smallest armor unit to be attached to another type of units necessary to accomplish a specific organization.mission or task. A battalion task force normald. The tank and rifle platoons normally arely consists of a tank or mechanized infantry commanded directly by· the team commander.battalion headquarters and headquarters comNormally, a platoon leader will not command pany and one or more organic and attached any platoon other than his own. Coordinated companies. Combat support units are attached action between platoons of a company team is or placed in support of the battalion task force attained by orders to each platoon leader from as required. the team commander and by coordination between the platoons. If it is deemed necessary to b. There is no definite rule to determine the place two platoons under a single commander,size and composition of a battalion task force; the company executive officer or the senior plait is based on a consideration of the factors of toon leader may be designated to commandMETT. In this regard, the battalion task force them. is similar to the brigade. Units required are attached, or placed in support, in sufficient 38. Heavy Mortar Platoon and Davy Crock numbers to carry out the assigned missions. ett Section The composition of a battalion task force can a. The heavy mortar platoon normally is embe readily changed to meet varying tactical sitployed under battalion control (general supuations. port). The platoon or its mortar squads may be c. A task force organized around a mechagiven a mission in which control is retained at nized infantry battalion headquarters is norbattalion, but the platoon or its squads are pomally infantry-heavy or balanced. Likewise, a sitioned to fire in support of a particular comtask force using a tank battalion headquarters pany team (direct support). The platoon or its is normally tank-heavy or balanced. (A battalsquads are rarely attached to company teams. ion task force is balanced when it contains rifle b. When authorized by Department of the companies and tank companies in equal Army, Davy Crockett sections are provided by number, infantry-heavy when it contains a modified TOE to mechanized infantry battalpreponderance of infantry companies, and ions, airborne infantry battalions, and armored tank-heavy when it contains a preponderance cavalry squadrons of the armored cavalry regiof tank companies.) ment. The section is normally employed in gen 15 eral support under battalion control. On occa(5) Missions reqmrmg defense against sion, the section or its squads are positioned to modern mechanized forces favor bal fire in support of a particular team, but control anced forces. is still retained at battalion. b. Enemy. Action against 39. Scout and Reconnaissance Platoons (1) An enemy protected by strongly organized antitank defenses or by obsta The scout platoon organic to armor or mechcles favors infantry-heavy forces. anized infantry battalions and the reconnaissance platoon organic to the infantry and (2) The anticipation of encountering enairborne infantry ballations are normally ememy forces in meeting engagement faployed under battalion control. In special vors tank-heavy forces. situations, these platoons or their elements (3) An enemy conducting a hasty defensemay be attached to company teams. or a retrograde action favors a tankheavy force. 40. Armored Cavalry (4) An abundance of enemy automaticThe attachment of combat or combat supweapons and massed indirect fires fa port units to armored cavalry units is referred vors tank-heavy forces. to as reinforcement. The type and amount of (5) A vague enemy situation favors tankreinforcement are based on an analysis of the heavy or balanced forces. factors of METT. (6) An enemy capability for using strong 41. Factors of METT in Relation to Organizatank forces favors tank-heavy or puretion for Combat tank forces. a. Mission. c. Terrain and Weather. (1) Missions requiring wide ranging or (1) Conditions that provide good observarapid maneuver favor tank-heavy tion and long range fields of fire favorforces. tank-heavy forces. (2) Missions requiring close and detailed (2) The presence of obstacles, other thanorganization of terrain favor inchemical or radiation obstacles, fafantry-heavy forces. vors infantry-heavy forces. (3) Missions requiring semi-independent (3) Tank-heavy forces require trafficableoperations of a subordinate unit favor terrain.an organization for combat that pro d. Troops Available. The discussion of vides for an organization which is troops available in paragraph 34 is a considerself-sustaining. ation primarily of those factors that determine (4) Counterattack missions favor tankthe feasibility of different organizations forheavy forces. combat. Section VI. PLANNING ARMOR OPERATIONS 42. General 43. The Decision The tempo of events in mobile warfare and a. The decision is the result of a reasoned the rapid fluctuations in tactical situations analysis of all factors affecting the employmentplace a premium on time. The successful comof units in combat. The steps to be consideredmander makes sound and timely decisions. He and their sequence are contained in the estiis assisted by his staff in developing a plan to mate of the situation (app VII). Because ofimplement the decision and an order to dissemrapidly changing situations, estimates normalinate the plan to subordinates. ly are accomplished mentally. 16 ( 4) Purpose of the operation (to destroy b. The decision encompasses the following the enemy in position to be able to as a minimum. Some items may be fixed by order of higher headquarters. continue the attack, to block enemy movement, to determine enemy (1) WHO (the unit to take some action, strength and dispositions) . the command as a whole). (5) Purpose of the reserve (number of (2) WHAT (the type action to be taken; units and their organization for comattack, occupy, delay on successive pobat, general location, and anticipatedsitions). employment). (3) WHEN (time the operation is to start (6) Preparation for future operation or end). (changes in organization for combat, (4) WHERE. (the area from which, positioning of units, or order ofthrough which, or to which the action march; special efforts to support fuwill be accomplished). ture operations). (5) HOW (statement of the scheme of (7) Special instructions (security meas maneuver, organization for combat, ures, employment of combat and comand plan of fire support). bat support units, use of aircraft). (6) WHY (statement of the purpose, (8) Control measures (objectives, phasewhich includes details necessary to inlines, boundaries, axis of advance, desure intelligent preparation and exelay lines, blocking positions). cution of the plan). (9) Nuclear weapons (use in scheme of 44. The Concept maneuver, restrictions on use, allocations). a. The concept is an elaboration of the decision and is used for two purposes-(10) Troop safety. This is expressed as the degree of risk to troops that the (1) To announce the concept to individ uals who will prepare the plan to commander is willing to accept to accomplish the mission. execute the decision. It will be as detailed as necessary to insure that (11) Priorities (priorities of fire, combat plans are developed in accordance with service support priority). the commander's desires. (12) Any departure from standing oper (2) To form the basis of the concept of ating procedure (a change in the the operation stated in paragraph 3a amount of combat rations carried, a of the operation order. For a discuschange in the employment of the sion of the concept in this form, see trains).appendix IX. b. The commander's concept may include, 45. The Plan among other things n. A plan is a method or scheme for a mili (1) Type of operation (penetration, envetary action. It is a proposal to carry out a delopment, delay on successive posicision or project of a commander. As discussedtions, mobile defense, reconnaissance in this section, it is a part of the planningin force, screen, and covering force) . process in preparation for an armor operation. (2) Area of opemt'ion (avenue of apb. A good plan shouldproach, sector of defense, flank to be (1) Be capable of accomplishing the mis secured). sion. (3) Scheme of maneuver (formation for (2) Be based on facts. The facts influenc the attack, disposition of forces for defense and delaying action, organiza ing planning are discussed in para tion for combat). graphs 30 through 35, under METT. 17 (3) Use existing resources. All means of plishment of the m1sswn. Evenapplying or supporting combat power though the armor commander desiresmust be included. The use of these to permit maximum freedom of actionmeans is planned so that all resources of his subordinates, he must still plancontribute to the accomplishing of the to control and direct their efforts tounit's mission. ward a common goal, the accomplish (4) Provide the necessary task organizament of the mission. For overlay techtion. The organization for combat deniques used to express the commandcided upon by the commander must be er's desires concerning controls, seetranslated into the specific terms of appendix X. task organization. For example, a de (8) Be simple. Plans may, of necessity, becision to attack with a tank-heavy detailed but should avoid complexiunit must be converted into the ties. The planner strives for simplicispecifics as they will appear under ty of execution. As an' example, com"task organization" in the order. This mitting a following unit around awill be a determination of what unit leading unit is normally simpler thanwill be the nucleus, how many suborcommitting it through the leadingdinate elements should remain under unit.the unit's control, how many elements (9) Be flexible. Planners strive for flexiwill be attached, what unit or units bility in plans. One reason why un will these elements be detached from, necessary restrictions are not imand when the attachments will be posed on subordinates is that theeffective. Command relationships and exercise of initiative at all levelsresponsibilities must be indicated in adapts the conduct of operations tothe organization for combat. circumstances. Other parts of the (5) Provide continuity. The plan must plan that may contribute to flexibilitymake all necessary arrangements for are the composition and location of athe full period of the operation. Arreserve, the use of balanced task orrangements should be made in detail ganizations, and the preparation ofas far in advance as the events of the alternate plans.operation can be foreseen. This in (10) Be coordinated. All aspects of thecludes such items as displacement of plan that affect units or support agensupporting weapons, command post cies not under control of the unitfacilities, and trains. must be coordinated to prevent (6) Provide decentralization. Subordiconflict of action.nates should be allowed maximum c. The two basic elements of the plan are thefreedom in the discharge of their scheme of maneuver and the plan of fire supresponsibilities consistent with the port. They are developed together and are sonecessity for coordinating their efinterrelated that they normally are referred toforts. As a planning technique, the by a single name-plan of attack or plan ofplanner normally visualizes the action defense.of units two levels below his own. d. The overall plan is made up of manyThis technique must not be carried parts of supporting plans. To insure that thisover into the order. Adherence to the overall plan is complete and that each part confundamental of using mission-type tributes to it, a basis for planning must beorders will require that the planning used. The basis is the scheme of maneuverdevelop what subordinates are to do the employment of the basic maneuver units,without specifying how they are to do and the plan of fire support-the employmentit. of fire support units. Specific plans developed (7) Provide control. All actions and to support the scheme of maneuver and plan ofefforts must contribute to the accom-fire support may include airlanded forces, and waterborne (1) Employment of organic or attached forces (if applicable). indirect-fire weapons. These plans are usually integrated into the plan of fire (10) Attached or supporting engineers. .support. Plans for use of engineers are made; however, engineer support is more (2) Employment of attached air defense effective when control of the engineerartillery. This plan insures proper alwork effort is under central control. location and employment of resources to defend the priority elements dur(11) Standing operating procedures. SOP specify many routine procedures and ing the operation. actions to be taken within the unit (3) Employment of organic or attached during operations. Any departurereconnaissance and security units. from such procedure or actions willThese plans are based on the recon require a stated change to the SOP. naissance or security unit's capabiliNewly assigned personnel must imties and tactical requirements. mediately become familiar with the (4) A communication plan. This plan is SOP. prepared to support the commander's (12) Intelligence plans. These plans areconcept and to overcome difficulties required in order to make maximum that might interrupt communication. use of means and to insure that noAll means are considered and altersources of information are overnate plans are developed. The movelooked. The employment of all surveilment of any command facility is a lance means must be integrated into amajor factor in the communication single overall effort that best contribplan. utes to the accomplishment of the (5) A plan to insure adequate logistical unit mission. support for sustained operations. All (13) Employment of nuclear and chemical organic, attached, and supporting loweapons. These plans must be caregistical means are integrated into a fully coordinated with other plans. single effort aimed at maintaining the The commander must weigh carefully combat power of the unit. This logisthe degree of risk he will accept in tical plan encompasses supply; transorder to accomplish his mission withportation; maintenance; battlefield reout undue exposure of his men. covery, evacuation, and salvage; and (14) Weapons such as mechanizedservices. ftamethrowing vehicles or special (6) A plan for maintenance of unit transportation means such as helicopters. Use of these units are normally strength; morale and personal serv ices; medical service; graves registraintegrated into the scheme of maneuver; however, their employment may tion; discipline, law, and order; han dling of enemy prisoners of war, and require other supplementary plans, control over circulation of personnel. such as an airlanding plan or a loading plan. (7) Control of civilians. The presence of (15) Illumination means other than thosecivilians in the area of operations will delivered from weapons. The use ofrequire plans for their control. this illumination is integrated into (8) Area damage control. These plans are the scheme of maneuver and coordimade to minimize the effects of masnated with the plan of fire support. sive damage or contamination of the (16) Movement plans in preparation for unit. an operation. The specific movement (9) Rear area security. Plans are made plans required will depend upon the to secure the unit against hostile type of transportation available and infiltrators, guerrillas, airborne or must include considerations for neces 19 sary traffic control in view of the 46. The Order nature of mounted operations. The plan usually is presented to subordi( 17) Operations that require special trainnates by means of an order. The order may being or rehearsals. Plans to accomplish verbal or written. For format and techniquesnecessary training must make best use used in preparing the order, see appendixes IX of the time available. and XI. Section VII. CONTROL 47. General made of ground and air radio relay.Success in mobile warfare demands effective Wire is used to supplement radiocontrol of the combat power available to armor when practical.commanders. Control as discussed in this sec (2) The command post. The commandtion concerns all means available and used by post is the principal facility fromthe commander to enhance unit responsiveness. which the commander and his staffIt also involves attitudes of the commander perform their duties. For further deand his staff as to freedom of action of subortails, see appendix II.dinate commanders in combat operations. Co (3) The command group. When the situa operation on the part of subordinate commandtion requires, the commander accom ers also increases control. Control involvespanied by selected staff officers maya. Effective orders and coordination. locate himself away from the comb. Adequate control facilities. mand post (CP) to better control c. Proper organization for combat and use operations. This group is small andof formations and terrain. mobile and normally operates for rel d. Responsive, informed subordinates. atively short periods. For further discussion of the command group, see 48. Orders appendix II. a. Orders contribute to control of a unit by ( 4) Alternate control means. Normally,their clarity and timeliness. To be effective, alternate CP's are not established atorders must clearly express the wishes and inbrigade level or lower. Subordinatetentions of the commander. headquarters are designated as succes b. For a detailed discussion of orders, see sor headquarters. However, in certainappendix IX. situations, a requirement for an alternate command post at brigade and 49. Control Facilities battalion level may exist. In this a. Keeping abreast of the situation assists event, additional equipment, particuthe commander in maintaining control of the larly communication equipment, mayunit. To do this he must receive reports from be required. subordinates (subordinate commanders and (5) Movement of the command post.staff officers), higher headquarters, and adjaMovement of the command postcent units. He must be aware of the situation should be planned so as to cause miniand condition of his subordinate units, and be mum interference with normal operacognizant of the mission and general situation tion. A quartering party with comof his superior headquarters. munication facilities may move to the b. The primary means employed by the comnew command post location and esmander are-tablish communication and conduct (1) Communication. All forms of signal operations while the command postcommunication must be used to the displaces. best advantage. Great reliance is ( 6) Liaison. The commander must makeplaced upon radio. Maximum use is maximum use of their liaison officers 20 to establish contact with higher, of subordinate units to counter terrain varia lower, adjacent, or supporting headtions and enemy activity. For a detailed discus quarters and subordinate units to insion of formations in various types of opera sure mutual understanding and unity tions, see FM 17-15, FM 17-30, FM 17-36, and of action. See paragraph 69m for FM 17-95. liaison officer's duties. 51. Subordinates 50. Control Through Organization for Coma. For control, subordinates must be responbat and Formations sive to the will of the commander. This means prompt reaction to orders or to changes in the a. The commander exercises control of his unit through proper organization for combat. situation. Mobile warfare demands the utmost in commanders or other persons in responsibleCombat, combat support, and combat service support units are grouped to best accomplish positions. The flexibility of armor operations depends on the mental flexibility of all soldiers the mission. Organization for combat has two in the operation. necessary functions-it combines resources to b. To encourage this mental flexibility andaccomplish each part of the mission, and it provides the means to insure adequate comto foster the sense of teamwork that contribmand and control of these groupments by the utes to his control of the unit, the commander commander. Organization for combat is diswill keep his subordinates fully informed of his cussed in paragraph 35. concept of the operation and the situation as it develops. b. Formations used by the commander to aid control of his units are based on an analysis of c. In turn, subordinates must keep the com METT. He must insure that the formation semander informed. Control of the unit depends lected for an operation provides necessary conon the timeliness and accuracy of information trol to facilitate maneuver and rapid shifting provided to the commander. 21 CHAPTER 3 COMMAND Section I. COMMAND AND LEADERSHIP 52. General checks on the execution of all orders issued. a. The primary objective of armor units is The armor commander will normally receivesuccess in combat. This requires the develophis orders from the next higher headquarters. ment, integration, and employment of the In the absence of such orders, he must be pre unit's ability to move, shoot, and communicate. pared to take action on his own. In preparing for operations, the armor leader c. Relations with Subordinates. The armor must understand thoroughly the tactical and commander's relationship with his subordi technical employment of his unit, and the nates should be direct and personal. He mustoperations and employment of normal support keep them informed of the situation and of hising or attached units. In combat operations, desires. He should encourage them to deal dithe armor commander normally commands a rectly with him whenever they feel that suchcombined-arms force. action is desirable. However, the chain of com b. In cold war operations, particularly those mand must be emphasized to insure rapid reacinvolving deployment in oversea areas, the com tion to orders and to facilitate control. Hemander must have a thorough understanding of should frequently visit subordinate units to obthe people with whom he deals, and the ability tain firsthand information and to foster espritto adapt his concepts and thinking to the limitade corps; this is particularly desirable in thetions that may be imposed on the use of his case of newly attached units. Attached or supforce, political or otherwise. porting unit commanders advise and assist thearmor commander in technical matters per 53. The Armor Commander taining to the employment of their units. a. Responsibilities. The armor commander is responsible for the training of his unit, its acd. Command Supervision. Supervision is themost difficult part of the order-execution pat tions in combat, the health and well-being of tern. The commander must use his subordiits personnel, its supply, and the maintenance of its equipment. In short, he is responsible for nates to the fullest extent during supervision.Supervision includes but is not limited to all that his unit does or fails to do. To dis charge these responsibilities efficiently, he (1) Questioning subordinates and assist must train and use his subordinate comants to determine understanding of manders and staff officers to the fullest. To entasks to be accomplished. courage ingenuity, initiative, self-reliance, and (2) Insuring that policies and orders be aggressiveness, he should indicate his policies carried out in the highest military to his subordinates and then allow them maxitradition. mum freedom of action. (3) Making personal visits to subordi b. Command. The armor commander makes nates to observe, offer advice, anddecisions, which are transmitted as orders. To make corrections when necessary.insure that they are understood and executed ( 4) Encouraging initiative and creative satisfactorily, he continually supervises and thinking by recognizing efficient exe 22 cution of orders and prompt provision Everything else is subordinate to the mission. of services. The leader briefs, instructs, and trains his men so that the _mission is accomplished. The wel 54. Succession of Command fare of his men is the leader's second most im a. The nature of armor operations requires portant responsibility. See FM 22-100 for a dea clearly understood procedure for succession tailed discussion of leadership. of command upon the sudden loss of the comb. Command of armor units presents unique mander. The succession of command should be leadership problems. For example,. the armor defined clearly, either through orders or in the leader must convince his unit that being comunit SOP. As a fundamental of leadership, pletely separated from other fri.endly units and each commander must train and use his suboroperating well within enemy-held terrain, .is a dinates so that a smooth and efficient transinormal armor operation. 'Problems of maintetion of command is insured. With few excep-: · nance and supply for both personnel and equip-· · tions, succession ·of command should be vested ment assume major i:n~oportions in armor war'". in the next senior in rank. Under exceptional fare. · circumstances, a subordinate other than the c. Welfare is concerned with · the physical next senior in rank may assume temporary and moral needs of the command. The com-. command. mander avoids coddling his men for the same reason that he avoids pamperinghimself. Cod b. The designation of authority is a function dling soon blinds a unit to the distinction be of command. This is especially important dur tween real needs. and luxuries. As a result, ing periods in combat when contact with the when the demands of a mission require the commander is temporarily lost. The armor sacrifice of luxuries, morale and esprit de corps commander should provide adequate guidance as to his concept of operations and should delesuffer needlessly. Techniques used by the commander to improve the welfa~e .of his men gate sufficient authority to permit his key sub are- ordinates to exercise command in his name (1) Being approachable. . during periods of temporary loss of communi (2) Developing ·an intimate knowledge cation. Responsibility cannot be delegated. and understanding of subordinates. 55. Responsiveness to Command (3) Maintaining an interest in living conditions of members of the command, Armor commanders are responsive to command. They are capable of accepting a missionincluding their families. type order, understanding it clearly,· and tak( 4) Providing for recreation, personnel ing immediate action to execute the order. services,·and religious services. Responsiveness to command is achieved by ful( 5) Protecting the health of the command ly understanding and exploiting the extensive by insuring an efficient preventiveand flexible communication systems of armor medicine program.units. It is also accomplished through a com (6) Administering justice impartially. bination of the mental mobility of the com (7). Insuring a fair leave and pass policy. mander and the mobility and flexibility of the (8) Sharing the hardships imposed upon unit. Mental mobility is the mental state of a the command. commander which permits him to respond rap idly, aggressively, and boldly to any battlefield (9) Developing a sincere interest and situation with a maximum utilization of his appreciation of the duties performed force. Responsiveness enables the armor unit by subordinates. commander to direct the employment of organ 57. The Human Factor ic, attached, and supporting units with speed, accuracy, and efficiency. a. Although the most striking features of armor forces are their powerful weapons and 56. Leadership fighting machines, the successful employment a. The primary responsibility of the leader · of these material assets in combat· depends ultiis the accomplishment of his assigned mission. mately on the courage, intelligence, profession 23 al competence, and endurance of the soldier. b. Armor leaders operate with their forward The individual soldier of an armor unit must elements. They must possess mental mobility be indoctrinated with the spirit of the offenand be responsive to command. They must sive. His thinking must be geared to the speed know and follow sound troop leading proce and violence of armor warfare. He must be dures and techniques. They must be alert, trained to operate deep in hostile territory, and aggressive, and decisive in the selection and to recognize that the presence of the enemy to pursuit of a suitable course of action to over his front, flanks, and rear is a condition to be come the varied and complicated problems that expected. will confront them. Section II. TROOP LEADING PROCEDURE 58. General b. Upon receipt of a mission, the com a. Troop leading procedure describes the semander analyzes this mission to determinequence of actions and thought process a leader tasks necessary to accomplish it. He issues afollows while preparing for and executing aswarning order to his force including as muchsigned missions. He must make the best use of information as is available. He then begins histime, equipment, and personnel. estimate of the situation based upon all information available at the time. He arrives at a b. The sequence of troop leading procedure tentative plan and, based upon this plan, conmay vary depending on the size and type of ducts his reconnaissance. He may at this point unit, nature of the mission, and time available. Certain procedures may be undertaken concurrevise his plan or continue with his completed plan or decision. He then issues his order and rently, and some are considered continuously, supervises to insure that it is carried to a suc throughout an operation. Regardless of the cessful conclusion. technique used in troop leading procedures, thecommander must make an estimate of the situ 60. Techniques of Troop Leading Procedure ation. c. Time is one of the leader's most impora. Receipt of Mission. tant considerations. Leaders must allow their ( 1) Analyze the mission to insure a comsubordinates maximum time for planning. If plete understanding of the assignedsubordinates do not have enough time to make mission and to determine what tasksadequate preparations, even the most brilliant must be performed to accomplish it.plan cannot be executed properly. On the other Ask questions of the commander forhand, a plan conceived in undue haste places a any points not understood.great burden on the combat soldier. Therefore, (2) Plan the use of available time. Allothe armor leader allocates the time available cate enough time to subordinates tofor troop leading procedure, consistent with perform their troop leading procethe situation, to prepare and execute his misdures. sion. 59. Sequence of Troop Leading Procedure b. Warning Order. Subordinates are alerted a. The sequence of troop leading procedure that some action will be required. The warning is-order allows units to make such preparations (1) Receipt of mission. that do not depend on specific orders, such as (2) Warning order. performing maintenance; boresighting weap (3) Estimate of the situation. ons; checking radios and individual equipment; (4) Tentative plan. and distributing ammunition, fuel, rations and (5) Reconnaissance. other supplies. These tasks are supervised by (6) Decision and completion of plan. the platoon sergeant, platoon leader, and vehi (7) Order. cle commanders. The desirable minimum ele (8) Supervision. ments of a warning order are 24 (1) Addressee. The warning order is relayed down the chain of command to every soldier. (2) Nature of operation. If security conditions permit, at least the general nature of the operation should be disseminated. (3) Time of action. If known or if it can be estimated, knowledge of this element will assist subordinates in their preparations. (4) Time and place of the issuance of the complete order. This element, if known or anticipated, should be disseminated. c. Estimate of the Situation. The purpose of the estimate is to arrive at a decision through a logical and orderly examination of all factors affecting the accomplishment of the mission. The estimate of the situation is opened by the initial evaluation of information available. As an example, information of the terrain may be gathered from a map reconnaissance as a minimum. The estimate is progressively refined as more information becomes available. The estimate is a continuous process of evaluation before and throughout the operation. For a further discussion M the estimate, see appendix VII. d. Tentative Plan. Based on the decision as a result of the initial estimate, the leader makes a tentative plan, which guides his actions and the actions of his subordinates and, at the appropriate levels, serves as guidance for staff planning. The tentative plan may be modified after coordination and reconnaissance and before the final decision. At this point in troop leading procedures, the tentative plan serves as a basis for the following: (1) Coordination. Information is exchanged and coordination is made with all units or agencies that might be affected by the impending operation. If other leaders are present when the order is issued, coordination based on the tentative plan should be initiated at that time. Coordination is continued as the plan is put into final form. (2) Movement of the unit. Arrangements for movement of the unit are made, if required. The tentative plan will contain at least initial plans for a task organization to implement the organization for combat decided upon. The movement and "marrying up" of the units affected by the planned cross-attachment should be planned at this time. Movement plans are as detailed as necessary to accomplish the purpose, and normally include who is to move, where they are to go, and when the move is to be made. (3) Planning the reconnaissance. Thereconnaissance must be planned to make the best use of time. The plan must include where to go, the sequence of areas or places to be reconnoitered, such as routes to the attack position; attack position; routes to line of departure; line of departure; location of friendly elements and enemy positions, and transportation to be used; persons to accompany the leader; and coordination to be effected during the reconnaissance. Certain persons, such as a weapons platoon leader, scout platoon leader, or other subordinates, may be directed to make a specific reconnaissance. (4) Plan for time and location for issuance of order. A plan for issuance of the order must be made. Armor leaders normally issue orders to subordinates at a terrain vantage point. If subordinates cannot be assembled at a single place to receive the order, the plan to issue the order may be a combination of the following techniques: (a) Radio. Leader to subordinates. (b) Personal contact. Leader to individual subordinate or designated staff officers. (c) Messenger or other means of communication. e. Reconnaissance. On his ground reconnaissance, the leader continues the estimate process, adjusting his courses of action accordingly, and selects the best course of action. He then selects or confirms, as appropriate, such items as objectives, phase line, line of departure, defense areas, routes, weapons position OBJECTIVE ~~,-::. ~~~-~-~: -~-..... ------~-~-:- ------.......__ -' ------..., -~-~ ---.....__ ---.... :-----<~~ LINE OF DEPARTURE --------~~KEY TERRAIN \""' ~---- ....... ' \ ~ DIRECTION OF THE ATTACK ROUTE TO ATTACK POSITION TRAFFicAsA!TY, ~"'-~ATTACK PO.SITION KNOWN & SUSPECTED ~-ROUTE TO LINE OF DEPARTURE ENEMY LOCATIONS -.....____ ·---..._' -, ----- LOCATION FRIENDLY ELEMENTS LOCATION OFFRIENDLY AND ENEMY M~NEFIELDS Figure 1. Reconnaisance, completing the plan and issuing the order. areas, sectors .of fire, and targets (fig. 1). He sance serve to give the leader the elementsnotes the effects of the terrain on his tentative necessary to complete the plan. plan, and he rejects, alters, or adopts appropri-g. Order. Orders must be clear, concise, and ate parts of this plan accordingly. During his as complete as required to insure that ther~connais~ahc~, he coordinates with adjacent order is understood (fig. 1). It must be delivand. supporting unit leaders as planned. To ered in a manner that insures complete underexpedite his re(!onnaissance, the leader will use standing of the leader's concept. Subordinates an aircraft if appropriate and available. ask questions after the order has been issued. f. Decision and Completion of Plan. The h. Supervision. The leader, with the assistcompleted plan is a result of refinements made ·ance of his subordinates, actively supervisesof the tentative plan (fig. 1). Recommen-.. his unit to insure that the order is carried outdations. from attached or combat support unit satisfactorily. If he notes a deficiency or a misrepresentati~es (infantry, artillery, engineers, understanding, he takes immediate corrective.or air force), and·the results qf the reconnais:-action. 26 DECISION MISSION ' "' PLAN OF MOVEMENT TO ATK POSITION ACTIONS ON OBJECTIVE- USE OF FIRE SUPPORT REPORTS -~~-"' ATK POSITION LINE OF DEPARTURE Figure 1-Continued. ISSUE ORDER OBJECTIVE ,,--------i~' ~ I I I ; I .. ~ I : i ! l_._L I i i rv I ----~ ----==---·. ~ =---- -1t---_.....,_ SITUATION MISSION EXECUTION ADMIN AND LOGISTICS COMMAND AND SIGNAL Figure 1-Continued. CHAPTER 4 THE COMMANDER AND HIS STAFF Section I. THE 61. General The commander and his staff are a military entity with one purpose: successful accomplishment of the commander's mission. The commander's mission involves varied and complex problems as reflected in chapter 3. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the specific duties of the staff to include its actions and relation ship with the commander to insure the successful accomplishment of the mission. 62. The Commander's Conduct in Combat a. The commander uses all available means to accomplish his mission. His plans, orders, and supervision insure that the actions of all units contribute effectively toward that end. When additional units, weapons, or other support is required to accomplish the mission, the commander takes action to obtain it. He coordinates the activities of his command with Section II. THE 63. General ct. A staff officer is an assistant to the unit commander in the exercise of command. The five broad functions of the staff officer are providing information, making estimates, making recommendations, preparing plans and orders, and supervising the execution of orders. He transmits his commander's orders to unit commanders or conveys his commander's instructions or desires. Staff officers may, when so authorized, issue orders based upon the policies of the commander. Whenever a staff officer is sues an order, he informs the commander as soon as possible. The staff assists the com- COMMANDER those of adjacent and supporting units. b. The commander goes where he can best direct, control, and influence the operation. He may be with the command group element, at his command post, or anywhere else in his area of operations where his presence is required. Before he leaves the command post, he informs his staff on plans to be made or actions to be taken if the situation changes. When he is away, he insures that he can communicate with his command post and subordinate com manders. If, while away from his command post, he issues orders or obtains pertinent information of the situation that has not been made available to the staff, he informs them without delay. c. The commander influences the conduct of battle by employing supporting fires, shifting maneuver elements, and making his presence felt at critical points. UNIT STAFF mander by relieving him of time-consuming details. The staff keeps its information and estimates current on the strength, location, and action of lower units; enemy capabilities, strength, location, and composition; and the status of combat service support. On the basis of this information, the staff makes recommendations to the commander. When a decision is made, the staff members assist in translating the decision into orders and in supervising their execution. b. The unit staff is a closely knit team. The successful functioning of this team depends primarily upon close coordination among its members and between the staff and elements of gence officer (S2), operations and training the unit. This coordination includes teamwork officer (S3), logistics officer (S4), and the ser with the staffs of higher and adjacent units. geant major. Coordination is developed through under c. Special Staff, Brigade and Regiment. The standing, training, and practice. Prompt disspecial staff of the division armor brigade andsemination of all pertinent information, decithe armored cavalry regiment consists of the sions, and orders promotes the efficiency and aviation officer, chaplain, chemical officer, fireteamwork of the unit. Conferences and personsupport coordinator, liaison officers, signal al contact promote coordination and cooperaofficer, surgeon, headquarters commandant,tion. There is some overlapping of duties in the and other staff positions as may be establishedbattalion staff sections, and only by coordi by the commander. For the unit special staff ofnation and cooperation will contradictions and the separate armor brigade, see FM 17-30.duplication of effort be avoided. It is essential d. Special Staff, Battalion and Squadron. that staff officers know the duties and responsiThe tank battalion or armored cavalry squadbilities of other members of the staff so that ron unit special staff is composed of the comthey may take over such duties in case of emermunications officer, fire support coordinator,gency. The staff sections should be organized to headquarters commandant (headquarters andoperate on a 24-hour basis. headquarters company or troop commander),c. The staff officer organizes and trains his liaison officers, maintenance officer, surgeon,assistants to function in his absence. Before and other staff positions as may be establishedleaving the command post, he acquaints himby the commander. self with the general situation, announces his e. Other Special Staff Officers. When combat destination and probable hour of return, and support and combat service support units aredetermines what assistance he may give to attached to or placed in support of the battalother staff officers. ion, the commanders of these units function as d. The staff cultivates friendly relationships special staff officers for their field of interest.with the commanders of lower and attached For example, the commanding officer of an atunits. A staff officer must remember that he is tached or supporting engineer company alsonot the commander but acts only in the comfunctions as the battalion staff engineer. Tamander's name. Commanders of lower and atbles of organization do not provide separatetached units are consulted to determine their special staff officers for such functions as safe needs and problems. Staff officers visit lower ty, claims, postal officers, or others. The comunits to get firsthand knowledge of the tactical mander may appoint one of his staff or othersituation and combat service support condiofficers to serve in a special staff capacity intions. Commanders or their representatives are addition to his other duties.contacted personally as the first and last stepsof each visit. When conditions are observed 65. Unit Staff lntrarelationsthat are contrary to announced policies, they Figure 2 shows the general relationship beare called to the attention of the appropriate tween the unit primary and special staffs.commander. Details that do not require a comThough not indicated in the diagram, specialmand decision may be settled with the unit staff officers have direct access to all memberscommander at the time of the visit. Concise reof the primary staff on matters within theirports of facts are provided the battalion comprimary responsibilities. During staff functionmander following such staff visits. ing a. The primary staff insures that the special 64. Unit Staff Organization staff is informed of the plans, policies, and de a. General. The unit staff consists of the pricisions of the commander. It obtains informamary staff and the special staff. Their function, estimates, and recommendations from thetions are similar to those outlined for small special staff and uses this data in preparingunit staffs in FM 101-5. integrated reports, estimates, recommenda b. Unit Staff. The unit staff is composed of tions, and plans for the commander. Staffthe executive officer, adjutant (S1), intelli-officers, both primary and special, must keep 30 TYPE UNIT STAFF ORGANIZATION COMMANDER I I I LO I EXECUTIVE OFFICER I I I UNIT STAFF I I I I 51, ADJ, PERS STF OFF 52, INTEL OFF 53, OPN & TNG OFF 54, LOG OFF I -~ i SPECIAL STAFF I ; I I I I !I I ! I I ' I '~ I I Signal Off* Moint Off** Surg Attached or Spt Intel Comm Off** Cbt Svc Spt Units Chaplain Units Scout Plot Ldr** Support Plot Ldr** Cbt Svc Spt Units Gnd Surveillance Hv Mort Plot Ldr** Food Svc Tech* Arty LO (FSCOORD)Section** CO of Cbt Spt Units CA Off (if oval) CML Off* CBR Off** ALO The dotted line indicates primary unit staff responsibility *Bde or Regt only. Note. **Bn or Sqdn only. for staff coordination of the personnel or activity. This is on example and the commander will base his decisions·on his desires and the best arrangement to achieve his objectives. Figure 2. Relationship between unit primary and special staffs. each other informed on matters of common in66. The Armor Brigade and Armored Cavalterest. ry Regimental Unit Staff and Princi b. A special staff officer usually deals with pal Staff Assistants the commander through the appropriate pria. General. The functions, procedures, aumary staff officer; however, technical considerthority, and responsibilities of the staff are ations of a particular problem may make it decontained in FM 101-5. The responsibilities sirable for him to present information and and functions of the unit staff are comparable recommendations directly to the commander. to those of the division general staff. Whenever a special staff officer has direct conb. The Brigade or Regimental Executive tact with the commander, he should inform the Officer. appropriate staff officer or officers of the information exchanged and the recommendations (1) The executive officer is the principal made, when appropriate. assistant and adviser to the com 31 mander. His functions and responsibilities are similar to those of a chief of staff. He supervises the staff, and represents and acts for the commander during the temporary absence of the latter when directed to do so. He normally is the materiel readiness officer. As required, he assigns tasks to the members of the staff in addition to their primary duties. He is prepared to assume command at any time. (2) The executive officer is responsible for the overall functioning of the command post. He is assisted by the headquarters commandant. He and the commander should not be absent from the command post at the same time. (3) The executive officer establishes and supervises liaison with adjacent, higher, subordinate, and supporting units. For details of liaison activities, see FM 101-5. c. The Brigade or Regimental Adjutant (S1). The duties of the adjutant correspond to those of the G1 (FM 101-5). He has unit staff responsibility for personnel activities and other administrative matters not assigned to other staff officers. He may, when the need arises, advise the commander in those areas of 81 interest which would normally concern, at higher staff level, the inspector general, staff judge advocate, provost marshal, special service officer, and finance officer. The divisional brigade 81 does not enter the personnel and administrative channels between the division administrative company and attached units except for policy matters, to develop training and operational plans, as directed by division, and to insure effectiveness of the brigade. The extent of operation in the personnel and administrative fields by the separate armor brigade or the armored cavalry regimental 81 will depend on the policy and procedures of the corps or field army to which attached. The unit 81 exercises staff supervision of the activities of the surgeon. He has staff responsibility for the , movement, initial arrangement, organization, and operation of the headquarters and the allocation of shelter within the headquarters. His principal assistant for this function is the headquarters commandant. d. The Brigade or Regimental Intelligence 0 fficer (S2). The duties of the unit intelligence officer correspond to those of the G2 (FM 101-5). He has staff responsibility for matters pertaining to combat intelligence and counterintelligence. He coordinates surveillance and reconnaissance activities of organic or attached units and is a nuclear weapons employment officer. It is his duty to keep the commander, staff, subordinate units, and all other interested agencies fully informed of enemy capabilities and terrain and weather. He is authorized a captain as assistant 82. e. The Brigade or Regimental Operations and Training Officer (S3). The duties of the unit operations and training officer correspond to those of the G3 (FM 101-5). He has staff responsibility for all matters pertaining to the organization, training, and combat operations, and works closely with the fire support coordinator (F8COORD) to insure the adequacy and effectiveness of supporting fires. He is a nuclear weapons employment officer. He exercises staff supervision over organic and attached aviation units and over CBR, civil affairs, psychological warfare, and signal activities. He has staff responsibility for the overall security of the command, including the rear area when applicable. He is authorized two captains as assistant 83 and 83 air. In the combined intelligence operation section, the 82-83 work as a team with each being qualified and prepared to take full charge of both activities during the absence of the other. f. The Brigade or Regimental Logistics Officer (S4). The 84 has staff responsibility for logistics, except medical service. His duties correspond to those of the G4 (FM 101-5). He is primarily a planner and an advisor to the brigade or regimental commander; he operates in the logistical support system only when necessary to insure proper support to organic, attached, and supporting units. The 84 does not become involved directly in preparing or processing supply requisitions or the distribution of supplies except when the unit is on an independent mission, a class IV item is requested by a subordinate unit, or when aerial delivery of supplies is required. He selects the location of the brigade trains area and has staff responsibility for the operations, security, and displacement of the trains as required to support tactical operations. He also is responsible for area damage control planning and for the integration of the area damage control plan with that of the next higher unit. He is author· ized an assistant 84 and a food service technician, who normally are located in the brigade trains area duting tactical operations. g. The Brigade or Regimental Sergeant Major. The sergeant major is the senior noncommissiQned officer assigned the armored brigade or ann:ored · cayalry .rerfment. He fnnctionl!l UJ'lder the direction of the 'unit connnandet. ~· may assist the S1 in administrative matters. He exercises no command :prerogative except in the absence of all commissioned officers assigned or attached. However, he is expected to make on-the-spot corrections and decisions. Specifically, the sergeant major is concerned with soldierly appearance, conduct, and discipline within the unit and its attachments with emphasis on these qualitieS in the noncommissh:ined officers. He utilizes a direct channel to all attached battalion or squadron sergeant majors and attached compani~ first sergeants. He evaluates and makes recommendatiom in the areas of appearance, conduct, and discipline ot administrative matters. He actively assists in the investigation of any charges involving noncommissioned officers and functions as a member of any board pertaining to noncommissioned officers. The sergeant major monitors training in drill and ceremonies. He instructs noncommissioned officers assigned to brigade or regiment in their duties and orients all newly ~ssigned personnel (officer, noncommissioned officer, and enlisted) in the history and traditions of the brigade or regiment. He supervises the ~nit's noncommissioned officers' mess and should be a member of the fund and character guidance councils. k. Th~ Brigade or Regimental Aviation Officer. The duties of the brigade or regimental aviation officer correspond to those of the division aviation officer in FM 101-5. The aviation officer is the staff advisor to the commander on army aviation employment. He assists the S3 in planning airmobile operations, the S2 and S8 in planning reconnaissance and surveillance operations, the 84 in aerial resup. ply operations, and the chemical officer in aerial radiological surveys. H;e coordinates constantly with the assistant S3 air on the employment of organic and ·supporting ~rmy aircraft in the · brigade or regimental area, to jnclude air traffic .control and · coordination with air detense agenciea. i. The Brigade or Regimental Chaplain. The brigade or regimental chaplain will operate in accordance with command staff relationships and doctrine outlined in FM 101-5. He is the senior Chijplain assigned to the brigade or re~;rimental hea'dquati;ers -~nd ,.headquart~s .COD1• .Ptlfly or troop. He.fullctions qndet the it'd s,_ }Jehrision of the St. The bng~e 9r re«imental chaplain supervises the activities of all assigped chaplains. He insures that religious services and pastoral care are provided for all units or elements assigned or attached to the bri4fade or regiment. j, The Brigade or Regimental Chemical Officer. The chemical officer is the advisor to the commandet in all asp~cts of che~ica~ biological, and radiological ( CBR) ~pe:r~dbns. In coordination with appropriate staff officers, th~ chemical officer supervises the CB:,l operation and tra.ining of subordinate units. The chetnical officer is responsible for the accomplishment of ce~in ClJR functions in the brigade or regimental headquarters. He is a nudear weapons employment officer. The members of the staff coordinate with the chemic~.l oftleer those aspects of CBR operations and training Which fall within their purview, (1) In coordination with the 81, the chem~ ical officer ( a) Assists with records ·and reports regardtn~ CBn casualties. ~ · (b) Maintains records of radiat.on dosage statw; of units. (2) In coordination with the S2, the chem~alofficer-. . (a) Prepares fallout pr~dictiqns. (b) Disseminates the fallo~t prediction message to units. (c) Disseminates the effective wind message to units. (d) Plans and supervises ground radiological surveys. (e) Consolidates radiologic~! monitoring and chemical detection repotis received from units, and forwards them to division. (f) Plans aerial radiological surveys. He also coordinates with the brigade aviation officer in this role. (g) Maintains contamination maps. (h) Recommends CBR reconnaissance. ( i) Assists the S2 to estimate enemy CBR capabilities. (3) In coordination with the S3, the chemical officer ( a) Prepares the brigade CBR training program. (b) Supervises, and when appropriate, conducts CBR training within the brigade. (c) Prepares the brigade CBR SOP. (d) Prepares plans for the integration of chemical fires with the scheme of maneuver. (e) Assists the FSCOORD in the preparation of the fire support plan by preparing chemical target analyses and recommending integration of chemical fires. He calculates troop safety requirements when toxic chemical agents are to be used. (f) Prepares recommendations to integrate chemical mines into minefield and barrier plans. (g) Assists in planning the employment of flame weapons, flame field expedients, and smoke in support of operations. (h) Advises on the employment of attached or supporting chemical units. ( i) Advises the CBR officers of attached and supporting units on technical matters. (4) In coordination with the S4, the chemical officer ( a) Inspects chemical equipment of subordinate units. (b) Monitors the requisition and distribution of chemical equipment and supplies. (c) Plans for and supervises the installation of collective protection facilities, when appropriate. (d) Supervises CBR decontamination activities. k. The Brigade or Regimental Fire Support Coordinator. The armor brigade or armored cavalry regimental fire support coordinator is normally the commander of the supporting artillery battalion or his designated representative. He operates under the staff supervision of the S3 and advises and assists the commander and his staff on all fire support matters concerning the delivery of fires on surface targets. The fire support coordinator's duties include ( 1) Advising the commander and staff on all fire support matters. (2) Preparing the fire support part of the unit SOP. (3) Preparing plans of fire support. ( 4) Coordinating all supporting fires, including certain aspects of close air support and air-delivered nuclear weapons (in conjunction with S3). ( 5) Keeping supporting artillery units informed of the situation. (6) Planning and coordinating air defense artillery fires employed in the ground support role according to the policy established by higher headquarters and the commander's directives. l. The Brigade or Regimental Headquarters Commandant. The duties of the headquarters commandant (headquarters and ··headquarters company commander, armor brigade, and headquarters and headquarters troop commander, armored cavalry regiment) are similar to those listed in FM 101-5. His principal duties are performed under the staff supervision of the Sl. In coordination with the unit staff, he supervises ( 1) The custody and evacuation of prisoners of war and civilian internees in coordination with supporting military .Police. (2) The custody and return of stragglers to units in coordination with supporting military police. (3) Establishment of command post facilities. ( 4) Operation of a brigade forward prisoner of war holding point if military police collecting points are not available. ( 5) Implementing command post security plans. (6) The quartering party in the absence of the 81. m. The Brigade or Regimental Liaison Officers. The armor brigade and armored cavalry regimental liaison officers function under the staff supervision of the executive officer. They are normally given duties as assistants to specific staff sections when not engaged in liaison activities. Liaison officers must insure dissemination of information to all interested staff officers. Their general duties are as outlined in FM 101-5 and as listed below. ( 1) Before departing on their liaison mission, they thoroughly familiarize themselves as to the situation, future plans, and new policies of their unit. (2) They coordinate with the staff to determine areas for coordination. (3) On arrival at the headquarters to which sent, they report to the commander or appropriate staff officer; pass on information and orders as required; and become familiar with that unit's situation and plans that they are to transmit to their own unit. (4) While moving between headquarters, liaison officers should observe all locations of troops and command posts and other actions of interest to their commander not otherwise obtained by liaison visits. n. The Brigade or Regimental Surgeon. The duties of the brigade or regimental surgeon correspond to those of the division surgeon (FM 101-5). He plans, advises, supervises, and coordinates medical matters for the brigade's or regiment's attached and supporting units. The surgeon monitors requests for air evacuation originated by battalion or squadron surgeons and establishes priorities for support when requirements conflict; he coordinates air ambulance flight requirements with the staff as required. He keeps the commander informed concerning the health of the command as a whole. He maintains direct . liaison with the surgeons of attached and supporting units. The surgeon operates under the staff supervision of the 81. o. The Brigade or Regimental Signal Officer. The armor brigade or armored cavalry regimental signal officer is the principal adviser to the commander and staff on all communication matters. His duties are generally the same as those performed by the division signal officer outlined in FM 101-5. He coordinates and exercises technical supervision over the training and activities of the communication personnel in the brigade or regimental headquarters and headquarters company or troop and organic and attached units. He keeps informed of current and planned activities of the unit. Under the staff supervision of the 83, the signal officer plans and recommends the employment of all communications-electronics means in the unit. He is normally a member of the quartering party. p. The Brigade or Regimental Assistant S2, Intelligence and Ass1~stant S3, Operations and Training. The duties of the assistant 82, intelligence and assistant 83, operations and training are as prescribed by the 82 and 83 respectively. Their normal place of duty is the command post unless otherwise directed. They must be prepared to assume the duties of the 82 or 83 as appropriate and to act in their absence. q. The Brigade or Regimental Assistant S3 Air. The assistant 83 air assists the 83 and fire support coordinator (FSCOORD) in Army or Air Force air support and fire support coordination. He performs other duties as specified by the 83. He submits request for tactical air support and air strikes. He coordinates such activities with the FSCOORD and the air liaison officer of the tactical air control party. Other duties of the 83 air include (1) Preparing SOP for ground/air operations. (2) Preparing the air support portion of the fire support plan. (3) Preparing or processing request for immediate and preplanned close air support. (4) Assisting the 82 by forwarding request for tactical air reconnaissance. (5) Supervising air/ground recognition and identification procedures within the unit. ( 6) Coordinating air-to-surface fires. (7) Assisting the fire support coordinator and S3 in the preparation of fire plans. r. The Brigade or Regimental Assistant SJ,, Logistics. The assistant a.rmor brigade or armored cavalry regimental S4 assists the S4 in all logistical matters. His specific duties include ( 1) Establishing a brigade or regimental logistics control point which serves as the trains headquarters and is located in the brigade or regimental trains area. (2) Keeping informed of the status of vehicles, equipment, personnel, and supplies in the trains area. (3) Recommending to the S4 the internal arrangement of the trains-including locations of battalion or squadron field trains and supporting logistical elements. ( 4) Functioning as. the logistical representative on the brigade or regimental area damage control and assessment team. ( 5) Implementing the security plan for the trains. ( 6) Keeping abreast of the tactical and logistical situation, posting the logistical situation map, and maintaining the journal. (7) Maintaining communication with, and disseminating information to, subordinate units and commanders of logistical activities in the trains area as directed by the S4. (8) Keeping higher headquarters informed of the location of brigade or regimental trains and supporting logistical elements. ( 9) Maintenance officer duties (armored cavalry regiment). s. The Brigade or Regimental Food Service Technician. The armor brigade or armored cavalry regimental food service technician is the S4's principal assistant in planning for and managing class I supplies. He exercises techni cal supervision over food service activities. His primary duties include ( 1) Insuring that units are issued the rations to which they are entitled and that the rations-are received in proper condition. (2) Recommending to the S4 location of the forward class I distributing point in the trains area. (3) Inspecting kitchens for proper handling, storage, preparation and serving of food, maintenance of sanitary standards, and adequacy of mess equipment. ( 4) Supervising the training of the mess stewards and cooks. ( 5) Assisting in the continuous operation of the trains headquarters. 67. The Armor Battalion and Armored Cavalry Squadron Unit Staff and Special Staff Officers a. General. The functions, procedures, authority, and responsibilities of the armor battalion and the armored cavalry squadron unit staffs correspond to those of the division staff contained in FM 101-5 and to those of the ar mor brigade and armored cavalry regiment contained in paragraph 66. b. The Battalion or Squadron Executive Officer. For duties of the executive officer, see paragraph 66b. In addition to the duties listed in paragraph 66b, he is the unit information officer and the unit materiel readiness officer. c. The Battalion or Squadron Adjutant (Sl). The adjutant performs the functions of the personnel officer of the general-staff-type organization, the functions of the secretary of the general staff, and the functions of the commander's personal staff. He may, when the need arises, advise the commander on those areas within the S1 interest which would normally at higher staff levels concern the adjutant general, inspector general, staff judge advocate, provost marshal, and special services officer. He has primary staff supervision over the unit surgeon. His major areas of responsibility for staff supervision are (1) Maintenance of unit strength to include but not limited to (a) Preparation of loss estimates. (b) Maintenance of personnel records and reports reflecting the status of personnel matters in the command. (c) Obtaining replacements (unit and individual) and arranging for their reception, processing, assignment, and quartering. (d) Maintaining records of remaining radiation service of organic and attached units. (2) Personnel Management to include but not limited to ( a) Classification, including promotion, demotion, and awarding and changing of MOS's. (b) Assignment, including reassignment, transfer, reporting and requisitioning of personnel. (c) Reenlistment.. (d) Preparation and processing of reports on casualties and prisoners of war. (e) Administration of civilian employees operating with the unit or in the unit area. (f) Arrangements for the collection and evacuation of prisoners of war in coordination with the S2 and S4. (3) Development and maintenance of morale to include but not limited to ( a) Personnel services, including leaves of absence, awards, and decorations. (b) Medical services, including preventive medicine, dental service, and treatment and evacuation of sick and wounded. (c) Evaluation of the morale aspects of health services in the unit, personal hygiene, sanitation, and in coordination with the unit surgeon, selection of the medically fit and disposition of the medically unfit. (d) Operation of the unit postal service. (e) Recovery and disposition of the dead. (f) Coordination of recreation for unit personnel and evaluation of morale. ( 4) Maintenance of discipline, law and order to include but not limited to (a) Recommendations to the commander of measures that will maintain or improve discipline within the battalion. (b) Maintenance of records on military justice procedures and assistance in the review of courts-martial proceedings from an administrative viewpoint. (5) Headquarters management to include but not limited to ( a) Operation of the headquarters communication control, distribution centers, and messenger service. (b) Internal arrangement of the command post and establishment of a standing operating procedure to guide its operation and security. (c) Assignment of shelter and quartering areas. (d) Command and supervise the activities of the quartering party to include selection of the exact CP location. (6) Miscellaneous. The Sl is responsible for all administrative matters not assigned another staff officer. d. The Battalion or Squadron Sergeant Major. (1) The sergeant major is the senior noncommissioned officer in the battalion or squadron. He acts as the commander's representative in dealing with other noncommissioned officers, and is his noncommissioned officer adviser in enlisted personnel matters. He establishes direct contact with the first sergeants, personnel staff noncommissioned officer of organic units, and first sergeants of attached units. He holds periodic meetings with them to disseminate information and instructions from the commander. He assists in inspections of activities as prescribed by the commander. He accompanies the commander on visits and at ceremonies. (2) Other duties and functions of the sergeant major are discussed in paragraph 66g. e. The Battalion or Squadron Intelligence Officer (S2). The S2 has staff responsibility for intelligence and counterintelligence matters. His duties are similar to those of the G2 (FM 101-5). He keeps the commander, staff, subordinate units, and all other interested agencies fully informed of the enemy situation and capabilities, and terrain and weather. Among his duties, he (1) Plans and supervises (in conjunction with S3) the intelligence and counterintelligence training of the battalion. (2) Plans and supervises troop counterintelligence measures in the battalion. ( 3) Prepares and presents the intelligence estimate. ( 4) Prepares the intelligence plan, including the collection plan and orders and requests to collecting agencies, and coordinates subordinate collecting agencies (coordinating with S3). ( 5) Records all pertinent enemy information on the situation map. ( 6) Evaluates and interprets enemy information, and disseminates intelligence information to his commander, the staff, and higher, lower, and adjacent units. (7) Supervises the questioning of enemy personnel, including civilians (hostile or friendly) who may possess information of immediate tactical value. Examines captured documents and materiel if of immediate tactical value, and expedites the sending of captured materiel, documents, and personnel to higher headquarters. (8) Requests and supervises distribution of maps, airphotos, imagery-interpretation reports, defense overprints, annotated airphotos and photomaps for the battalion. (9) Plans and supervises the. operations of the ground surveillance section (coordinating with the S3). (10) Supervision and coordinating of prediction of fallout from enemy em~ ployed nuclear weapons and coordination of radiological survey. f. The Battalion or Squadron Operations and Training Officer (S3). (1) The S3 (a) Has staff responsibility for all matters pertaining to , ·organization, training, and tactical operations. His duties correspond to those prescribed for the G3 (FM 101-5). (b) Is the commander's principal adviser on organization for combat. (c) Has staff responsibility for civil affairs and psychological functions, and staff supervision over civil affairs or psychological elements or personnel that may be attached. (d) Has staff responsibility for fire support planning and coordination. (e) Is responsible for overall planning and supervision of tactical security for the unit. (f) Is a qualified nuclear weapons employment officer and will normally prepare the detailed target analysis when required. (2) Among his specific training duties, the operations and training officer ( a) Prepares and has staff supervisory responsibility for the execution of training directives, programs, orders, field exercises, and maneuvers, based on plans approved by the commander. (b) Selects training areas and ranges, and allocates training aids, ammunition, and equipment. (c) Organizes and conducts battalion or squadron schools. Based upon the commander's directives, he prepares the program of instruction, selects and trains instructors, and recommends the selection of units or personnel to attend schools. (d) Makes training inspections, and prepares and supervises training tests based on Army training tests. (e) Prepares training records and reports. (3) His operations duties include the following: (a) Informs his commander and other staff officers of the tactical situation and is prepared to recommend to the commander actions to be taken by the unit. (b) Studies the situation as affected by the enemy, orders from higher headquarters, actions of adjacent and supporting units, and location and capabilities of the battalion or squadron. He studies the effects of casualties and replacements, terrain and weather, and the status of supply and equipment, as they apply to the mission. (c) Maintains up-to-date information on the battalion or squadron and friendly units; supervises the posting of friendly and enemy information on the situation map. (d) Recommends the general location of command post sites. (e) Plans troop movements, including units involved, formation, and type of transportation required ( coordinating with S4). He prepares the march order after the plan of movement is approved. (f) Recommends the tactical employment of units after a study of the factors of METT and after conference with other staff officers and unit commanders. (g) Recommends tactical and counterintelligence measures to attain secrecy and effect surprise ( coordinating with S2). (h) Coordinates with the communication officer in the preparation of the signal communication plan to maintain communication between the commander, battalion or squadron headquarters, and subordinate units. ( i) Prepares the operation order for the commander's approval. Material for inclusion in the order is obtained from other staff officers (S1, S2, S4, FSCOORD, and communi cation officer). Although the commander normally issues the operation order verbally, a complete order, often in pencil form only, should be written and filed for record. Frequently this done during lulls in combat after the action involved has been completed. (j) Transmits the commander's orders and instructions to organic, attached and supporting units. (k) Prepares for future operations, guided by information obtained from the commander and S2 and by knowledge of the present situation. ( l) Prepares operational and after-action reports, and recommends training to correct combat deficiencies. g. The Battalion or Squadron Logistics 0 fficer ( S4). The logistics officer ( S4) is responsible to the commander for the formulation of logistical policy and for planning, coordinating, and supervising the logistical effort. The S4 is a logistical operator at battalion or squadron level. His duties are generally as described for the G4 in FM 101:.._5 and include (1) Advising and keeping the commander informed on logistical matters. ·(2) Planning, coordinating, and supervising supply, maintenance, and evacuation. (3) Coordinating with the higher headquarters on logistical matters. ( 4) Assisting subordinate commanders with logistical matters. ( 5) Controlling the battalion or squadron combat trains. (6) Submitting logistical reports as directed. (7) Accomplishing area damage control planning. (8) Preparing paragraph 4 of the operation order. (9) Exercising staff supervision over receiving, storing, and issuing supplies. h. The Battalion or Squadron CBR Officer. The armor battalion or armored cavalry squadron CBR officer is appointed by the battalion or squadron commander from his staff. His principal assistant is the chemical NCO. He advises and assists the st~ff on chemical, biological, and nuclear defense matters. Duties of the CBR .officer and the chemical NCO are (1) To assist the S2 in the collection, processing, 'nd dis~eminatioll of CBR. i'ittelligenee jnforJJlation te fnclude 1"&diological survey control party duties (FM 3-12), use of the effective wind messages, fallout prediction messages, nuclear biological chemical reports as appropriate, CBR contamination messares, . enemy CBR materiel; and the ~tntof CBB eontaminatiol\ data. ' (2) To assist th~ S8 on chemical, biological, and nuclear defense plans and operations including ·preparation · of CBR and n~dea~ defense 9:nnexes to the unit SOP, the training of unit OBR teams, determination of radiological time of entry, time of stay calculations, cGmputation of the battalion radiation dose, preparation of the CBR portion of the master training ~;~chedule, the inspection of all CBR training, and the selection of individuals fOl" CBR school training. (3) To assist the S4 in the issuance, maintenance, in.spection, and 'repair of chemical materiel and equipment in the battalion or squadron. i. 'l'ke Battalion or Squadron Communicar tion Officer. The armor battalion or armored c~valry squadron communication officer is both a special staff officer and the commander of the b4ttalion or squadron communication' platoon. Jlis place of duty b. the command post, His duties corre-spond to those of the signal officer !as outlined in FM 101-5 and paragfaph 66D. The communication officer's duties include- (1) Advising the battalion or squadron commander on all communication m~tters. (2) Supervising the communication training conducted in the battalion or squadron. (3) Supervising the communication activities of attached units. (4) Working under the staff supervision of the -executive officer or S3 depend ing on the desires of the commander and coordinating with other staff officers as appropriate. ( 5) Keeping the commander and the 84 informed of the status of signal maintenance and evacuation. (8) Maintaining contact wlth subordinate elements and supporting signal elements to insure that signal maintenance supply activities are coordinated. (7) Procuring and maintaining repair paris and components. j. The Battalion Dr Squadron Fire Suwort Coordinator (FSCOORD). 'l'he armor battalion or armored cavalry squadron fire support coordinator is normally an artillery liaison Qfficet from the supporting artillery battalion. When an artillery liaison officer has not been provided, the commander normally designates the heavy mortar platoon leader or sa air as FSCOORD. For duties of the FSCOORD, see paragraph 66k. k. The Battalion or Squadro?t Headquarters Commandant. For duties of the tank battalion and armored cavalry squadron headquarters commandant, see paragraph 66l; however, those duties concerning prisoner of war, stragglers, and civilian internees are accomplished with battalion resources. Military police may assist in evacuation of prisoner of war or in~ ternees from battalion. l. The Battalion or Squadron Liaison Officers. For duties of the tank battalion and armored cavalry squadron liaison officers, see paragraph 66m. m. The Battalion or Squadron Maintenance Officer. The armor battalion or armored cavalry squadron maintenance officer is both ;a. special staff officer and the commander of the battalion or squadron maintenance platoon. He works under the staff supervision of the executive officer or -S4 depending on the desires of the commander. His duties include (1) Supervising and coordinating the maintenance activities of the battalion or squadron, except medical or signal. (2) Keeping the commander and 84 informed of the status of maintenance and evacuation of equipment, except signal and med~cal. ( 3) Recommending to the commander and coordinating with the S4 the composition and employment of maintenance elements. ( 4) Preparing a vehicle evacuation plan, based on the tactical situation and the plans of the commander, and coordinating this plan with the S4 to insure that it is in consonance with the overall logistical plan. ( 5) Efficient operation of the maintenance facilities of the unit to keep equipment in the most efficient operating condition. (6) Maintaining liaison with the subordinate elements of the units to insure that maintenance activities are coordinated. (7) Coordinating with higher maintenance category. (8) Supervising the recovery and evacuation of vehicles from the battlefield. (9) Supervising the tactical training of the maintenance platoon. (10) Supervising the technical training of all maintenance personnel, except communication and medical personnel, and monitoring training in vehicle operation and maintenance for drivers and crews of the battalion or squadron. ( 11) Procuring repair parts and maintenance supplies, except signal and medical. n. The Battalion or Squadron Surgeon. The armor battalion or armored cavalry squadron surgeon is both a special staff officer and commander of the battalion or squadron medical platoon. His duties correspond to those outlined in FM 101-5 for the division surgeon and as outlined in FM 8-15. He works under the staff supervision of the Sl. The surgeon duties include ( 1) Advising the commander on all medical matters, including sanitation, first aid, and health of the command. (2) Keeping the commander and interest ed staff officers informed of the medical situation. (3) Recommending locations for the aid station, and controlling its operations. (4) Preparing a medical plan, based on the tactical situation ·and the plans of the commander, and coordinating this plan with the S4 to insure that it is in consonance with the overall logistical plan. ( 5) Planning for and supervising the provision of all medical services including acquisition of patients, treatment, and evacuation to supporting medical units as required. (6) Procuring medical supplies. (7) Supervising preparation of reports on and maintaining records of the sick and wounded. ( 8) Technical and tactical training of the medical platoon. o. The Battalion or Squadron S3 Air. The armor battalion or armored cavalry squadron 83 air is the principal assistant of the 88 and p~rforms duties assigned him hy the SS. He a~ sists in planning and relieves the sa of some of his administrative workload by ~ssembling data and preparing reports. He is prepared to assume duties of the 83 and act in his absence. l{e coordinates the employment of close ·air support with ground operations and has M;aif resp(msihility for coordinating the activities of the REDEYE teams. These two activities are coordinated with tlie FSCOORD and the air liaison officer or forward air controller with the tactical air control party. For other duties. of the S3 air, see paragraph 66q. p. The Battalion or Squadron Support Platoon Leader. The armor battalion or armored . cavalry squadron support platoon leader commands the battalion or squadron support platoon and functions as the assistant 84. His duties include ( 1) Controlling the field trains. (2) Insuring that the organic cargo transportation is loaded with fuel•· and lubricants, ammunition, and rations in accordance with instructions from the S4. (3) Functioning as the ammunition officer. ( 4) Organizing the internal security of the field trains. ( 5) Training the support platoon. ( 6) Maintaining communication with the higher headquarters logistical control facility. (7) Coordinating employment and locations of the mess teams. 68. Command and Staff a. General. The command and staff sequence presented in this section is included as a training vehicle for development training of the commander and his staff. Becoming thoroughly familiar with the steps in the command and staff sequence develops the ability to use abbreviated estimates discussed in appendix VII. In highly mobile, fast-moving situations, the sequence described in b below will be compressed or curtailed frequently due to time limitations. Trained and experienced commanders and staffs continually keep abreast of the situation and constantly make or revise estimates. The commander makes rapid decisions and, for the most part, issues oral and fragmentary orders. Once an operation begins, subordinate commanders will seldom be called to the rear to receive an order. The techniques of application of the command and staff sequence will vary with the personalities of the commander and staff, the time available, and the professional abilities of the commander and his staff. b. Command and Staff Sequence. (1) Upon receipt of a mission from higher headquarters, the commander and his staff study the mission to insure that they thoroughly understand its implications regarding specified and implied missions and tasks. The commander assembles his staff and receives the latest information from their respective fields of activity. Based on this information, his knowl edge of the situation (including a study of the map), knowledge of the guidance. This guidance provides the necessary direction for concurrent planning by the staff and a framework for making studies and estimates. It should include an analysis of the mission, any special aspects of the situatiQll, any courses of action the commander desires the staff to consider in their estimates, restrictions placed on the operation, and an indication as to allocations of means (combat power). Planning guidance from the commander is essential and eliminates needless exploratory work by the staff. The planning guidance may be brief or exceedingly detailed, depending upon the relations of the commander with his staff and the length of the time they have functioned as an entity. (2) The staff, having received the commander's planning guidance, begin their individual staff estimates. Formulation of the operation estimate requires certain detailed information from other staff officers. The 82 furnishes the 83 the results of his analysis of the weather, terrain, enemy situation, and enemy capa_bilities. The · 81 and 84 furnish the 83 details per~ taining to their respective fields. The 83 then determines the possible courses of action that will accomplish the mission and announces them to the other staff officers. The 82 evaluates his own estimate in the light of the courses of action to determine if additional detailed intelligence is required. The 81 and 84 evaluate their estimates, from their respective viewpoints, to determine what limitations exist as to their support and which course is favored. During the preparation or revision of staff estimates, planning for the employment of supporting fires, including nuclear weapons, is accomplished by the fire support coordinator. next higher commander's future plans and intentions, and his professional experience and judgment, he formu (3) Each unit staff officer completes his estimate, arriving at recommendations to be made to the commander. lates and disseminates his planning A meeting is then conducted during which the S3 presents one or more courses of action and recommends priority. Each of the other staff officers comments in turn on significant aspects in his respective field and recommends the best course of action from his standpoint. The commander may question his staff to ascertain any additional information he requires to complete his own estimate (commander's estimate). (4) The c'ommander completes his estimate and announces his decision. The decision is a statement of the general ·course of action that the unit will adopt to accomplish the mission. So that the staff may prepare detailed plans to execute the decision, the commander must elaborate upon the decision by issuing the concept. This concept is presented to the staff at the time of the announcement of his decision, in enough detail to permit preparation of orders. This concept in refined form becomes the basis for paragraph 3a of the operation order (app IX). For a discussion of what may be included in the commander's concept, see paragraph 44. · (5) Based on the decision and the concept, the staff will complete their planning and prepare necessary orders. The S3 has primary staff responsibility for the preparation of the plan. Additional details for the operation are furnished the S3 by unit and special staff officers as a result of their planning. The plan will then be presented to the commander for his approval. After approval, the plan may be issued to subordinate units to facilitate their planning or it may be converted into an order and issued to subordinate units. ( 6) After the order is issued, the commander, assisted by his staff, supervises its execution. The staff coordinates with and assists the subordinate units where possible. (7) The executive officer supervises the staff through the entire planning sequence to insure that the proper coordination takes place between staff officers, and that the commander's desires are being followed. By keeping abreast of the situation, the executive officer is prepared to assume command if necessary. CHAPTER 5 RECONNAISSANCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND SECURITY OPERATIONS Section I. RECONNAISSANCE OPERATIONS 69. General sence of contamination or the degree of con a. Reconnaissance is the directed effort in tamination in specific areas. the field to collect information of the enemy 70. Reconnaissance Agencies and the area of operations by ground and airactivities. This information is classified under a. Ground reconnaissance agencies include the headings of enemy, terrain, weather, and personnel and units specifically organized, de enemy's resources. signed, or designated to perform reconnaissance. Armor units specifically designed for re b. The purpose of reconnaissance is to obconnaissance are the armored cavalrytain combat information of the enemy and the regiment, the divisional armored cavalryarea of operations for the production of comsquadrons, and the scout platoon organic tobat intelligence. The combat intelligence proeach combat maneuver battalion. Armored cavduced is used by the commander in planning alry regiments and divisional armored cavalryand conducting combat operations. Reconnaissquadrons are equipped to conduct air andsance information and the resulting combat inground reconnaissance. Other units not orgatelligence seek to reduce the unknown aspects nized and equipped essentially for conductingof the enemy and the area of operations and reconnaissance may be considered reconnaiscontribute to the accuracy of evaluating risks sance agencies when their missions involve theinvolved and the successful application of comperformance of reconnaissance to a considerabat power. ble degree. c. Reconnaissance and security complement b. Army aviation units provide air observaeach other and cannot be readily separated. tion, photography, and electronic surveillanceEffective ground and air reconnaissance proand are excellent agencies to supplementvides a certain amount of security, and a secuground reconnaissance efforts. rity force provides information of the enemy c. Air Force tactical air provides an air reand the area of operations. connaissance and photography capability. d. Reconnaissance is a continuing responsid. FM 17-36 contains the detailed procebility of each commander and each soldier. dures and techniques for conducting reconnaisUnit training, SOP's, and the commander's insance missions. structions to subordinates must emphasize theimportance of timely and accurate reports of 71. Fundamentals of Reconnaissance Operaboth positive and negative information of the tionsenemy and the area of operations. Reports Reconnaissance operations vary with the sitshould contain facts not opinions. Information uation and conditions in the area and with theis reported as it is obtained. assigned missions, size, type, and composition e. The use, or the threat of use, of nuclear of the reconnaissance units. Ground combat reweapons and chemical agents necessitates the connaissance operations are performed in conemployment of techniques to determine the ab-formance with the following five fundamentals. 44 a. Orient on the Location or Movement of the Intelligence Obiectives. Units performing reconnaissance must maneuver according to the location or movement of the intelligence objective rather than the location or movement of friendly forces. The objective may be enemy troops, a terrain feature, or a locality. To effectively perform the operation, commanders of units conducting reconnaissance must be allowed maximum freedom of action. b. Report all Information Accurately. Reconnaissance is conducted to obtain information to be used in the production of combat intelligence. To be of value to the commander, this information must be received in time to be of use and must be accurate in answering the questions what (including how many), when, where, and doing what. All members of units conducting reconnaissance missions must report all positive or negative information rapidly and accurately to the next higher headquarters. When considered in conjunction with information from other sources, information that appears unimportant to one level of command may be extremely valuable to the next higher commander. The development and use of brief reconnaissance spot report forms (app V) will facilitate the rapid transmission of essential information. A unit performing reconnaissance has not fully accomplished its mission until it has reported all information gathered to the next higher headquarters. c. Avoid Decisive Engagement. Units performing reconnaissance obtain information by stealth whenever possible, but fight when necessary to gain the desired information. The reconnaissance mission must not be jeopardized by combat with the enemy when combat is not essential to obtain the information desired. d. Maintain Contact with the Enemy. In the performance of a reconnaissance mission to obtain information of an enemy force, contact with the enemy is gained as soon as possible. Once contact has been made, it is. maintained and is not voluntarily broken without authority from higher headquarters. Contact can be maintained by ground or air observation. e. Develop the Situation. When contact with the enemy is made, or an obstacle is encountered, the situation must be developed quickly and a decision made regarding subsequent operations. In the case of enemy contact, the following actions, known as Actions on Contact, are taken: (1) Deploy and report. Units move immediately to positions from which they can fire, observe, or be employed against the enemy. The commander immediately reports the enemy contact to higher headquarters in as much detail as is available. (2) Reconnoiter. The enemy's location, strength, composition, and disposition are determined, with a special effort being made to determine the flanks of his position. When terrain permits, the enemy position is reconnoitered by mounted elements. Reconnaissance by fire may be employed when time is critical. If terrain restricts vehicular movement, the enemy position is reconnoitered with dismounted patrols. Patrols, whether mounted or dismounted, are supported by other elements of the unit. (3) Choose a course of action. After reconnoitering the enemy position to gain as much information as he can, the commander must choose a course of action appropriate to the immediate situation as well as to the accomplishment of the assigned mission. A decision to attack, bypass, or contain the enemy must be made as quickly as the reconnaissance will permit. (4) Report. The commander then reports to his higher headquarters. This report includes the additional enemy information gained by the reconnaiss;mce and the decision as to what course of action the commander plans to follow. 72. Types of Reconnaissance Missions There are three types of reconnaissance missions: route, zone, and area. The type to be employed is determined after considering the information desired, where the information is to be sought, the known enemy situation, terrain, size of the reconnaissance force, and the time available for obtaining the information. FM 17-36 contains detailed procedures and techniques for conducting reconnaissance operations. 73. Route Reconnaissance a. Route reconnaissance is the directed effort to obtain information of the route, obstacles, and enemy along a specific route, and the terrain adjacent to the route, which, if occupied by the enemy, would affect movement along the route. b. Route reconnaissance may be assigned to obtain information of a specific route (see FM 5-36 for discussion and report format) or of an enemy force moving generally along a specific route. When intelligence indicates that the enemy is moving on one or more routes, or when terrain features canalize his advance, these routes may be reconnoitered to obtain enemy information. Routes of advance of friendly forces may be reconnoitered when specific information of a route or series of routes is required. c. The technique employed and the requirements of a route reconnaissance are less time consuming and can normally be performed more rapidly than zone or area reconnaissance. 74. Zone Reconnaissance a. Zone reconnaissance is the directed effort to obtain detailed information of all routes, terrain, and enemy forces in a zone defined by boundaries. Zone reconnaissance is more thorough and time consuming than other reconnaissance missions. b. When the enemy's location is in doubt, or when it is desired to locate suitable routes or determine cross-country trafficability in a zone, a zone reconnaissance may be directed. The width of the zone assigned to subordinate units is determined by the pattern of the road net, terrain features, type of information desired, anticipated enemy action, troops available, weather, visibility, and time available to accomplish the mission. 75. Area Reconnaissance a. Area reconnaissance is the directed effort to obtain detailed information of all routes, terrain, and enemy forces within a clearly defined area. b. Area reconnaissance is performed to gain information of a definite locality such as towns, woods, or crossing sites over a river. The area may be reconnoitered for possible enemy or to determine its suitability as an assembly area or for other uses by friendly forces. The area to be reconnoitered must be clearly delineated. The unit assigned the mission moves directly to the area and conducts the reconnaissance employing the same techniques as a zone reconnaissance. 76. Reconnaissance by Fire a. Reconnaissance by fire is accomplished by firing on likely or suspected enemy positions in an attempt to cause the enemy to disclose his presence by movement or firing. During reconnaissance by fire, positions being reconnoitered must be observed continuously, so that any enemy movement or return fire will be definitely located. b. Reconnaissance by fire is used when time is critical. It is made at the risk of losing surprise, but it tends to lessen the probability of moving into a well-concealed enemy position without being aware of its presence. c. If the enemy returns the fire, the unit proceeds to develop the situation. If the fire is not returned, the unit continues on its mission. However, caution should be exercised, because reconnaissance by fire may fail to draw the fire of seasoned enemy troops. 77. Reconnaissance of a Town, Obstacle, or Enemy Position ct. In reconnoitering a town, obstacle, or enemy position, it should be approached from the flanks or rear if possible. If time is available, the reconnaissance is made dismounted; however, if time is short, the unit remains mounted. In either case, detailed observation should precede the actual reconnaissance and reconnaissance by fire made depending on the tactical situation. b. When time is available, dismounted patrols move forward, covered by the remaining elements of the unit. The number of patrols depends upon the size of the objective and upon available approaches, cover, and concealment. If the patrols find that the near edge of the area is clear, the remainder of the unit moves forward. The dismounted patrols then continue the reconnaissance, overwatched and followed closely by the rest of the unit. c. In conducting a mounted reconnaissance, part of the unit moves forward rapidly, overwatched by the remaining elements. If the near edge of the area is clear, the overwatching elements move forward and the advance continues. Vehicles move through a town by bounds in staggered formation, covering the buildings on the opposite side of the street by observation and fire. It is desirable for dismounted troops to precede the vehicles. 78. Reconnaissance of a Bridge or Defile Visual reconnaissance is made for enemy positions that dominate the bridge or defile before leading elements of the unit cross the bridge or enter the defile. When mines, boobytraps, or ambushes are suspected, patrols, accompanied by supporting engineers, reconnoiter the approaches of the bridge or defile. Reconnaissance of a bridge includes checking underneath as well as on top for mines, boobytraps, demolition charges, or weakened construction. Any demolitions located should be removed or neutralized. The class of a bridge should be determined and a sign placed on the bridge to indicate the class to troops using it later. 79. Reconnaissance at Night Reconnaissance operations are slower and less effective at night. Night reconnaissance is limited usually to dismounted patrolling, observation of routes, and the use of listening posts. Ground radar is used in coordination with observation and listening posts. Only against light enemy resistance and with favorable terrain and routes of advance can vehicular reconnaissance be used without being preceded by dismounted patrols. Cross-country movement is more difficult. Engines and tracked vehicle movements can be heard for considerable distances. Observation is limited, making vehicles highly susceptible to ambush. For further discussion of night reconnaissance, see FM 17-36. 80. Reconnaissance in Force a. A reconnaissance in force differs from a route, zone, or area reconnaissance in that it is a limited-objective offensive operation by a considerable force to discover and test the enemy's dispositions and strengths, or to develop other intelligence. Although its primary aim is reconnaissance, it may discover weaknesses in the enemy dispositions which, if exploited promptly, may enhance tactical success. b. The reconnaissance in force normally develops information more rapidly and in more detail than other reconnaissance methods. c. For a detailed discussion, see chapter 6. 81. Reconnaissance by Aircraft a. Army aircraft extend, supplement, or, in some instances replace ground reconnaissance means. Commanders not having organic aircraft should request them to support their reconnaissance efforts. b. Army aircraft are normally employed in conjunction with, and in close support of, ground reconnaissance forces. Aircraft are used to extend the reconnaissance effort by air observation, air photography, and electronic surveillance. c. Army aircraft may be used to conduct radiological surveys and to locate routes through or around contaminated areas. 82. Reconnaissance Frontages There is no established frontage for a given size of force conducting a reconnaissance mission. The visibility, terrain, road net, enemy situation, nature of the information sought, and time available are factors that influence reconnaissance frontages that are assigned to a unit. If detailed rather than general information is desired, the operation will be more timeconsuming; therefore, the frontage should be narrower than that for general information. Wider frontages may be assigned when aircraft or air cavalry units are available. 83. Coordination and Control During Reconnaissance Operations a. Reconnaissance must be coordinated at all levels of command. This will insure maximum results from the intelligence effort, prevent duplication of effort, and provide for economical use of reconnaissance forces. Coordination is accomplished primarily by assigning a specific mission to each unit conducting the reconnaissance. b. The commander conducting the reconnaissance uses rttdio as the primary means of con . trol. Phase lines, checkpoints, contact points, boundaries, routes, objectives, and time limitations are used by the commander in controlling his unit. Liaison personnel, staff officers, messengers, and aircraft are used to assist in the rapid transmission of reconnaissance instructions and reports. 84. Reconnaissance Instructions Reconnaissance instructions must be complete and include exactly what combat information is to be obtained, the time by which the information must be reported, where the information is to be sought, and when the mission is to be executed. Essential details may include- a. Pertinent information of the enemy and friendly troops. b. Plans of the higher commander. c. Specific information desired. d. Zone, area, or route to be reconnoitered. e. When, where, and how information is to be reported to the higher commander. f. Time of departure. g. Appropriate control measures. h. Action to be taken when mission is completed. Section II. SURVEILLANCE OPERATIONS 85. General a. Battlefield surveillance involves the systematic a:nd continuous observation of selected areas, routes, or static locations such as crossroads, bridges, aircraft landing areas, or other specific type installations. Factors influencing surveillanc~ are visibility, terrain, natural or manmade concealment, enemy air defense capabilities (aerial surveillance), and types of surveillance equipment. Units performing surveillance missions provide commanders with cunent information by keeping a systematic watch over the assigned surveillance area for the purpose of detecting, locating, identifying, and repotting information of military value. b. Although surveillance as part of unit security is conducted 'in each combat operation by all combat units, surveillance as discussed in thi's section is an assigned mission to be conducted by an armor unit. 86. Type$ of SurveUh;mce a. Visual.,· Visual surveillance is accomplished by air cavalry or ground armor units. Reports of an immediate nature are relayed by radio through intelligence or command channels, depending on the channel established by the surveillance mission order. b. Electronic. Electronic surveillance is performed through the use of ground and airborne radar and infrared equipment. Information secured by use of ground mounted radar and infrared equipment is reported in the same man ner as that used for reporting information gained visually. Aircraft equipped with infrared and radar provide a simultaneous transmission of imagery data from the aircraft to a ground station (data link) where the imagery is recorded for processing and subsequent evaluation. The data link equipment normally is located near the force headquarters to facilitate the immediate passage of information (FM 30-20). c. Photographic. Photo coverage by armor units performing a surveillance mission usually is limited to hand-held or special mounted cameras operated from organic aircraft. Other type aerial photo coverage is provided by Army aviation or Air Force units. 87. Surveillance Agencies a. Armor units capable of performing surveillance missions are the armored cavalry regiment, the divisional armored cavalry squad ron, and the reconnaissance or scout platoon organic to each combat maneuver battalion. Armored cavalry regiments and divisional cavalry squadrons are capable of performing both air and ground surveillance. Tank units may perform surveillance missions; however, it is not considered an appropriate mission since the firepower of these units can be better utilized in other combat missions. b. Army aviation units provide air observation, photography, and electronic surveillance. They are excellent units to supplement the ground and air surveillance efforts of armor tening posts, and patrols are established to provide continuous and systematic observation. units. A surveillance force is not usually capable ofc. Tactical Air Force units may provide air offering strong resistance to the enemy; howreconnaissance and surveillance support to asever, it must be capable of protecting itself. sist armor units performing surveillance misAir cavalry units are integrated into and exsions. tend the surveillance capabilities of ground units. When air cavalry units are performing 88. Surveillance Operations surveillance missions forward of the FEBA,When planning surveillance operations, the commanders must give careful consideration tofactors of METT will govern the organization enemy antiaircraft capabilities, due to the conand disposition of forces. Since surveillance tinuous operation of the aircraft in enemy terusually consists of systematic and continuous ritory. observation of large areas, long routes, or sev eral specific locations, armor units normally 89. Night Surveillance commit the bulk of their forces to performing observation while retaining a small reserve to Surveillance by armor units normally is less assist elements that may be attacked by enemy effective at night. Observation is limited to the forces. Ground armored units performing a range of organic radar and infrared equipment. Use of patrols and listening posts is in surveillance mission will usually operate in rear areas, areas adjacent to the FEBA, or creased. Air cavalry is limited to photography provide dismounted elements which will be airunless other night vision equipment is mounted lifted into areas forward of the FEBA. Suron the aircraft. Support from Army aviation veillance missions are conducted in a manner or Air Force units whose aircraft mount insimilar to that of a screening force or a rear frared and radar equipment is usually rearea security operation. Observation posts, lis-quired. Section Ill. SECURITY OPERATIONS from the accomplishment of the mission of the 90. General force being secured. a. Security includes all measures taken by a c. FM 17-36 contains the detailed procecommand to protect itself from espionage, obdures and techniques for conducting securityservation, sabotage, annoyance, or surprise. Its purpose is to preserve secrecy and to gain and operations. maintain freedom of action. 91. Security Against Ground Action b. Security is achieved by effectively providGround threats to the security of a commanding for the detection of a threat; for sufficient include reconnaissance, fire, attack by ground time and maneuver space to react to the forces, infiltration, guerrilla forces, partisans, threat; and for the avoidance, neutralization, and airmobile and airborne forces. Security or destruction of the threat. Security is imforces must use terrain and obstacles to aug proved by timely and accurate intelligence and ment their security efforts. Security against rapid, aggressive movement. All units are reground attack is provided by air and ground sponsible for their own security, regardless of reconnaissance; covering, guard, and screeningthe security provided by other units. A securiforce; and local security elements. Covering, ty force for a larger formation must be strong guard, and screening missions may be preenough, and properly located, to provide adeformed to the front, flank, or rear of a friendly quate time for the force being secured to react. force. Size and composition of security forces Within their capabilities, security forces will are dependent upon the factors of METT. engage the enemy as necessary to accomplish Against a highly mobile enemy, strong in artheir mission. However, security measures mor, security forces must possess equal or must not unnecessarily divert forces or effort greater mobility and have adequate antitank 49 capabilities. In any case, security forces must maintained until the enemy ceases to be abe afforded the capability of effective opera threat to the force being secured or moves outtions under the same conditions as the enemy of the assigned area of responsibility. For dis force that poses the threat. cussion for actions on contact, see paragraph 71. Contact is not voluntarily broken unless or 92. Fundamentals of Security Operations dered by higher headquarters. Enemy forcesAlthough the fundamentals of security are must not be permitted to surprise the force beclosely related, the provision of timely and acing secured. If the enemy force moves out ofcurate warning and space for maneuver is the area of responsibility, action must be takenparamount. The actions of security forces to inform the adjacent unit and to assist in esshould be guided by the practical application of tablishing contact with the enemy force.these fundamentals through the effective use ofavailable resources. 93. Frontages in Security Operations a. Provide Timely and Accurate Warning. The extent of the frontage assigned in secu The security force must provide the comrity operations depends on several factors, in mander of the force being secured early warncluding the degree of security desired, the ing of the location and movement of enemy length of time the security is required, the en forces that constitute a threat to his mission. emy capabilities, the terrain (with emphasis on Only by timely warning and accurate informaavenues of enemy approach), and the weather. tion can the commander of the force being seWider frontages may be assigned when air cured choose the forces, time, and place to encraft or air cavalry units are available. gage the enemy, and maneuver his forces to 94. Degrees of Security gain tactical surprise and advantage. b. Provide Space for Maneuver. Security a. Cover. To cover is to operate as a force forces operate far enough from the force being apart from the main force and oriented in thedirection of the enemy for the purpose of inter secured to insure that this force has enough cepting, engaging, delaying, disorganizing, and time and space to maneuver to meet or avoid deceiving the enemy before he can attack thethe enemy threat. The distance between a secuforce being covered. rity force and the force being secured varies b. Protect. To protect is to operate to the according to the factors of METT. flank, front, or rear of a larger moving or sta c. Orient on the Location or Movement of tionary force in a manner that precludes en the Force Being Secured. A security force ma emy ground observation, direct fire, and surneuvers according to the location and move prise attack. This is done by defeating,ment of the force being secured, and positions destroying, or delaying the enemy within the itself between the friendly force and the protecting force's capabilities. known or suspected enemy threat. c. Screen. To screen is to maintain surveil d. Perform Continuous Reconnaissance. All lance to the front, flank, or rear of a moving orsecurity forces must perform continuous and stationary force, and to provide early warningaggressive reconnaissance. The reconnaissance to this force by observing, reporting, andprovides the security force commander with inmaintaining contact with enemy forces encounformation of enemy forces in his area of retered. The screening force will, within its capasponsibility and enables him to properly posi bility, impede and harass the enemy by organiction the,security force in relation to the force and supporting fires and destroy or repel enbeing secured and the enemy threat. Reconemy patrols. naissance provides security from surprise bykeeping the commander of the force being se95. Security Forcescured informed of enemy locations and moveA security force may be a covering force,ments, and by maintaining contact with enemy guard force, screening force, or a rear area seforces that constitute a threat. curity force, according to the degree of security e. Maintain Enemy Contact. Once contact required and to its location in relation to thewith the enemy has been gained, it must be force being secured (fig. 3). It may engage in 50 ADVANCE COVERING FORCE t CONTACT ly, bypassed, or enveloped. The covering force should be completely mobile, tank heavy, and reinforced with infantry, artillery, engineers, aircraft, and air cavalry as required. These forces should be placed under one commander who operates under the direct control of the t FLANK ~ FLANK ADVANCE COVERING COVERING -I 1 GUARD FORCE FORCE """ ~ FLANK FLANK GUARD GUARD ~~ I REAR GUARD f CONTACT l REAR COVERING FORCE Figure 3. Relationship of advance, flank, and rear guards to covering forces. offensive, defensive, or delaying actions as required to accomplish the mission. 96. Covering Force A covering force is a tactically self-contained security force that operates at a considerable distance to the front, flank, or rear of a moving or stationary force. Its mission is to develop the situation early, defeat hostile forces if possible, and to deceive, delay, and disorganize enemy forces until the main force can cope with the situation. This mission is not normally assigned to a unit smaller than a battalion task force or reinforced armored cavalry squadron. A covering force engages in any action necessary for the success of its mission and may be employed when the main force is engaged in offensive, defensive, or retrograde actions. The commander of the force being covered specifies the area to be protected. The covering force must not become engaged decisive commander of the forces being covered. 97. Advance Covering Force-Offense An advance covering force mission for a force engaged in offensive operations is conducted employing techniques that are similar to those used in a route or zone reconnaissance operation. The covering force advances with companies or troops abreast to insure complete coverage of the area and to find enemy forces. Enough forces should be retained in reserve to influence local actions. The reserve is located to permit immediate employment to assist in the accomplishment of the mission. When contact with the enemy is made, the advance covering force attacks and destroys or disperses the enemy. An enemy force may be bypassed if au thority to do so has been stated in the unit's mission or on order of the next higher commander. 98. Advance Covering Force-Defense A covering force may be employed by a larger unit conducting a defensive or retrograde operation. The distance which the covering force operates forward of the FEBA is normally prescribed by the commander of the force being covered. The covering force sector is divided into company or troop sectors, and these units occupy blocking positions within their assigned sectors. Observation posts and mobile patrols are established forward of the blocking positions. The blocking positions are located on key terrain that dominates likely avenues of enemy approach. Normally, a company or troop size reserve should be retained. Tanks, infantry, artillery, engineers, and air cavalry should be attached to the covering force. When forced to displace, the covering force conducts a delaying action to the FEBA, avoiding decisive engagement with the enemy. Every effort must be made to deceive the en emy as to the true location of the friendly dis positions and the FEBA. 99. Flank Covering Force A flank covering force employs techniques, similar to those of a flank guard except that the covering force operates at a greater dis tance from the force being covered. It is beyond the flank guard of the force being cov ered and is usually out of range of fire support of the force being covered. 100. Rear Covering Force A rear covering force may be designated by a higher commander to cover a withdrawal or a retirement. When employed in this manner, the covering force uses the friendly front line, or a position near it, as its initial position. The techniques used in performing this mission are the same as those described for the Advance Covering Force-Defense in paragraph 98. 101. Guard Force A guard force is a security force that operates to the front, flank, or rear of a moving or stationary force to protect that force from enemy ground observation, direct fire, and surprise attack. It defeats, destroys, or delays enemy threats within its capabilities. A guard force is normally composed of units assigned or attached to the force being protected. 102. Advance Guard a. An advance guard is a security force, primarily offensive in nature, that operates to the front of a moving force to insure its uninterrupted advance and to protect it from surprise attack by defeating, destroying, or delaying the enemy. The advance guard may protect the deployment of the protected force if it is committed to action and may facilitate the advance by removing obstacles, repairing roads and bridges, or locating bypasses. b. The advance guard moves as fast as the situation will allow but should remain within supporting distance from the protected force. It performs continuous reconnaissance to the front and flanks and pushes back or destroys small enemy groups before they can hinder the advance of the protected force. When the advance guard encounters large enemy forces or heavily defended areas, it takes prompt and aggressive action to develop the situation and, within its capability, employs offensive action to defeat the enemy. It employs every means available to determine the location, strength, disposition, and composition of the enemy. It may then be required to join in the attack of the protected force. The advance guard must be far enough in front of the protected force to insure that the commander of the protected force has freedom of action in the employment of his forces. However, it must not be so far in front that it can be destroyed by enemy attack before assistance can reach it. The protected force commander usually specifies how far in front of his force the advance guard is to operate. Distances are reduced at night, in close terrain, and under conditions of low visibility. c. The advance guard normally advances in column until contact is made. It may move continuously or by bounds. It moves by bounds when contact with the enemy is imminent and the terrain is favorable. For additional information, see FM 17-36. 103. Flank Guard a. General. ( 1) A flank guard is a security force that operates to the flank of a moving or stationary force to protect it from enemy ground observation, direct :fire, and surprise attack by defeating, destroying, or delaying the enemy within its capabilities. It may employ offensive, defensive, or delaying action as necessary to accomplish the mission. During offensive or retrograde operations, the flank guard is mobile when the force being secured is moving. This is known as a mobile flank guard. When the force being secured is conducting defensive operations, the flank guard is normally stationary but is prepared to conduct a mobile flank guard action should the need arise. (2) The protected force commander specifies the units to be protected or the zone of responsibility. Normally, the flank guard responsibility begins at the rear of the leading battalion (TF) and ends at the rear of the other combat elements of the protected force (exclusive of the rear guard), unless otherwise specified. c. Flank Guard Planning and Conduct The route of advance generally parallels the axis of the protected force and provides rapid access to preplanned blocking positions on key terrain dominating likely avenues of en-· emy approach into the flank of the protected force. b. Flank Guard Methods of Movement. There are three basic methods of movement that are employed by the mobile flank guardalternate bounds, successive bounds, and continuous marching. The method selected depends upon the rate of advance of the protected force and the enemy situation. (1) Alternate bounds. This method may be used when the protected force is advancing slowly and strong enemy action is anticipated against the flank guard. In this method of movement, designated elements of the flank guard occupy blocking positions while other elements leapfrog forward to occupy new blocking positions as required by the movement of the protected force. This method of movement is the most secure but is the slowest. (2) Successive bounds. This method is used when the movement of the protected force is characterized by frequent short halts, and enemy action against the flank guard is light. Each subordinate unit occupies designated blocking positions. When forward movement resumes, subordinate units move simultaneously, retaining their relative position in the flank guard formation as they move forward to occupy new blocking positions. (3) Continuous marching. This method is used when the protected force is advancing rapidly at a constant rate and there is no enemy action on the flank. The flank guard uses a column formation and moves without halting, adjusting its rate of advance to the movement of the protected force. Air and ground elements reconnoiter to the flank as the remainder of the unit moves along the route of advance. (1) The commander plans a flank guard mission in the following sequence (fig.4): (a) Initially he makes a map reconnaissance of the area of operations and selects the most likely avenues of enemy approach from the flank. He selects a series of blocking positions on the flank that generally parallel the axis of advance of the force being protected. These blocking positions should be located on defensible terrain that dominate likely avenues of enemy approach. The blocking positions should be far enough from the flank of the force being protected to give it timely warning of enemy approach and to provide it with sufficient time and maneuver space to react to an enemy threat. The blocking positions should be located in such a manner as to deny the enemy ground observation and direct fire on the protected force. These positions should be within the supporting range of the artillery of the protected force. If the flank guard force encounters a superior enemy force, the positions should be far enough to provide sufficient terrain for the con duct of a delaying action toward the force being protected. However, the distance between the axis of advance or flank of the force being protected and the line of blocking positions should not be so great that one armored cavalry troop or company team cannot secure this frontage. (b) The flank guard commander selects the route of advance unless it has been prescribed by higher headquarters. The route of advance should be far enough from the axis of advance of the force being protected to prevent the flank guard from interfering with the maneuver of the protected force. The route should permit rapid access to the line of blocking positions. BRIGADE OBJECTIVE PL RED 0 G PL BLUE 0 -, ,SAM( ' I \ I '-J [!] / .... I \ /JOHtvl \ I \,./ ,, E) I JDICi 0 < u.. 0 w 1 ~0 0 Legend. 0 D ,.. ...,, \ ',.:, I \ froM t \ I \,_...I Checkpoint Contact point Proposed blacking position PL RED PL BLUE ~ ~ cg~o[Q] ~(-) Figure 4. Planning for a flank guard operation. (c) The flank guard commander next develops a scheme of maneuver that will enable him to seize and hold selected blocking positions and secure, the area between the axis of advance of the leading task force of the protected force and the route or axis of advance of the flank guard force. The scheme of maneuver provides for seizing the blocking positions either by individual units or by the entire flank guard force. (d) Contact points are selected between blocking positions to delineate the area of responsibility for the unit holding each position. Contact points should be easily identifiable on the ground, located forward of the line of blocking positions, and centered between blocking positions. When a unit is ordered to occupy a blocking position, it is responsible for the area between the contact points on each flank. The unit is required to make physical contact with adjacent units at the contact points. (e) The commander selects a formation that will permit rapid employment against an enemy threat. The formation must be flexible to meet any change in the situation. The column formation provides the best control and flexibility. The flank guard force provides its own security. Aircraft or air cavalry elements may be used to secure the flank guard force and extend reconnais sance. (2) During a mobile flank guard operation, the lead unit of the flank guard force acts as the advance guard. It secures the area between the force being secured and the flank .guard route of advance and maintains contact with the rear of the leading battalion or task force of the force being protected. It may be necessary to reinforce the leading unit to enable it to accomplish its threefold mission. The remainder of the flank guard moves in column, prepared to secure blocking positions on order. The decision to occupy these positions will depend on the speed with which the protected force is advancing and the enemy situation on the exposed flank. The method of movement selected depends on· the rate of advance of the force being protected and the enemy situation. If the flank guard becomes overextended, the flank guard commander should ask for permission to screen the area (observing and reporting) or to be relieved of responsibility for the rear part of the area. This request will be in the form of a recommendation to the protected force commander. d. Flank Guard for an Attacking Force. ( 1) The area of responsibility of a flank guard for an enveloping or exploiting force of larger than battalion size normally starts at the rear of the leading battalion task force and extends to the rear of the last combat element of the protected force. The responsibility of a flank guard for a battalion task force normally begins at the rear of the leading company team and ends at the rear of the combat elements of the battalion task force. (2) There are special considerations in planning for the use of the flank guard in a penetration or when conducting a passage of lines. These considerations are the relatively narrow front on which a penetration is normally conducted and the limited maneuver room associated with a passage of lines. In the performance of a flank guard mission under these conditions ( a) The blocking positions normally are selected by the protected force commander. (b) Initially, when a penetration is made through friendly frontlines, a division or brigade flank guard's area of responsibility starts at the shoulder of the penetration (which is held by friendly forces) and extends forward to the rear of the leading battalion task force or company team of the protected force. When the last combat element of the protected force moves through the gap, the flank guard's area of responsibility is normally changed to that of an enveloping or exploiting force as discussed in ( 1) above. (c) The movement through the gap of the penetration by the force conducting the penetration and the flank guard unit must be closely coordinated. The leading element of the flank guard normally follows the leading major command of the protected force through the gap until the situation permits its movement to the flank. The lead flank guard unit acts as the advance guard for the main flank guard force and secures the area between the rear of the leading battalion task force and the flank guard route of advance. When the remainder of the flank guard unit moves through the gap, it moves to the flank and is prepared to seize and occupy blocking positions or to meet a counterattack by the enemy. The initial phase of the operation will usually be slow-moving; therefore, the flank guard normally employs the alternate bound method of movement. When the flank guard is attacked by a superior enemy force, it conducts a delay action, providing time and space for the protected force to react to the enemy threat. e. Flank Guard for a Defensive Force. The flank guard for a defensive force occupies a series of blocking positions on the flank. The blocking positions are· located on key terrain features that dominate likely avenues of enemy approach into the sector. The flank guard normally is given a sector of responsibility which is tied in to specific terrain features. In the accomplishment of the mission, the flank guard employs defensive or delaying tactics. If forced from its positions, it conducts a delaying action, providing time and space for the commander conducting the defense to react to the threat. f. Flank Guard for a Retrograde Movement. The operations of a flank guard for a unit performing a retrograde movement are similar to those of a flank guard for an advancing force. The major difference is that the area of responsibility for the flank guard must be specified by the protected force commander. 104. Rear Guard a. A rear guard is a security force that operates to the rear of an advancing or withdrawing force to protect it from enemy surprise attack or annoyance by defeating, destroying, or delaying the enemy within its capabilities. The rear guard follows the protected force at a distance prescribed by the protected force commander and usually moves over the same route or routes. It is prepared to intercept and engage enemy forces that attempt to attack the rear of the protected force. If attacked by superior forces, the rear guard conducts a delaying action. It must not permit itself to be bypassed or driven into the protected force until the protected force can react to the threat. b. When planning a rear guard operation, the commander considers the following: (1) Terrain. The commander analyzes the terrain in the area of operations and selects a series of delaying positions along the prescribed route of advance or withdrawal. With respect to terrain, the ideal procedure is for the rear guard to withdraw over routes used by the forces being protected. (2) Organization of the rear guard. The commander must determine the size force to be employed on the initial delaying position. If the situation permits, he may position subordinate units in depth. He assigns a route or routes of withdrawal and designates measures to insure effective control, which may include delay lines, delay positions, phase lines, checkpoints, contact points, coordinating points, and routes of withdrawal. (3) Security. The commander plans for flank security and reconnaissance to the front and flanks of occupied delaying positions. The enemy must not be permitted to bypass the rear guard and attack the rear of the force being protected. One or more subordinate units may be assigned to reconnoiter an area to the front or flanks of a position. Normally, however, rear guard units are assigned the additional mission of protecting the flanks and extending reconnaissance forward of the delaying position. Aircraft and air cavalry improve control and communication and extend observation to the front and flanks. The organic ground radar sets may be used to augment security to the front or flanks. Air cavalry elements may be employed to maintain contact with the protected force and to prevent the enemy from bypassing the rear guard and attacking the rear of the force being protected. Air cavalry elements may establish an air screen to the front and flanks of the rear guard to warn of enemy approach. (4) Supporting elements. The rear guard commander, in coordination with the artillery representative, develops the plan of fire support for the operation. The plan of fire support includes planned artillery fires (nuclear and nonnuclear), tactical air, and the fires of organic weapons. Frequently, engineers are attached to or placed in support of the rear guard. The rear guard commander, together with the engineer unit commander, plans to construct obstacles to delay the enemy. (5) Coordination with the force being protected. Liaison must be maintained with the force being protected to regulate withdrawal of the rear guard. The rear guard commander must be thoroughly familiar with the plan of the force being protected. Communication between the protected force commander and the rear guard commander must be continuous so that both commanders are informed of any situations that affect the withdrawal of the rear guard. e. The rear guard follows the force being protected, occupying successive delay positions at a prescribed time interval or distance. When contact with the enemy has been made or is imminent, the rear guard occupies each delaying position until the protected force has cleared the next delaying position. If the protected force is moving rapidly and no contact is made with the enemy, the rear guard may move at a given rate behind the force being protected, regulating its speed to maintain the prescribed interval. d. The rear guard engages enemy forces that threaten the rear of the force being protected. It fights to insure that the enemy does not impede the movement of the protected force. The rear guard fights a delaying action, trading space for time until the protected force has moved beyond the range of effective enemy action. When contact with the enemy has been made, it is maintained until the enemy is no longer a threat to the force being protected or has moved out of the area of responsibility. 105. Screening Force a. A screening force provides early warning by surveillance over an extended frontage to the front, flank, or rear of a moving or station . ary force. The missions of the screening force are to ( 1) Provide timely warning of enemy approach. (2) Gain and maintain visual contact with, and report the movement of enemy forces. (3) Destroy or repel enemy patrols. (4) Impede the advance of enemy forces by employing long range organic and supporting fires. b. A screening mission is assigned when economy of force requires that an extended area must be kept under surveillance and there are few troops available to perform the mission. The mission is accomplished by manning a series of observation posts that cover avenues of enemy approach into the sector. tact with the enemy and continuing to adjustFoot, motor, and air patrols reconnoiter those supporting fires. Under some circumstancesareas that cannot be observed from the obsersmall enemy patrols may be permitted tovation posts. infiltrate the security screen so that larger en c. The commander of the force being emy forces may be observed. Precaution mustscreened designates the general trace of the be taken to insure that infiltrators do not joinscreen, the unit to be screened, and the responwith other infiltrated forces and threaten thesibility for the area between the screening screened force.force and the screened units. In determining f. When the flank of a moving force is to bethe units to be screened the commander conscreened, the mission is conducted in the samesiders the factors of METT and the capability manner as is a mobile flank guard operationof the screening force to-except that (1) Maintain contact with the screened ( 1) The screening force normally does notforce. have responsibility for the area be (2) Reach and man the line of screening tween the screened force and thepositions (OP's). screening force as does a flank guard. d. In planning a screening force operation, (2) The screening force may not alwaysthe screening force commander selects the genbe within range of support from theeral location for establishing a series of OP's screened force. and designates contact points between and for(3) The screening force occupies observaward of the line of OP's. When selecting the tion posts in succession along thelocation of OP's, the following should be conflank instead of blocking positions. sidered: (1) Overlapping fields of observation with 106. Rear Area Securityother OP's. a. General. A rear area security force pro (2) Concealment of OP's and access tects rear area units, installations, and routesroutes. of communication (all routes, land, sea, and (3) Ease of installation. air, along which supplies and replacements (4) Maintenance of communication. move) from attack by enemy airborne and air ( 5) A voidance of landmarks. landed forces, guerrilla forces, and infiltrators. e. Observation posts are positioned to proThe rear area security force commander must coordinate with combat and other type units in vide for maximum observation and concealment. Mounted or dismounted patrolling is the area. He should avoid stereotyped operation of patrols, observation posts, and listening conducted between contact points consistent posts in regard to time, areas, and patrol with the need for security. To be effective, ascreening force must have good radio comroutes. See chapter 12 for the conduct of rear munication between OP's and enough personarea security operations. nel to man the OP's for sustained periods and b. Securing Lines of Communication. Theto patrol between the OP's and contact points. techniques of guarding lines of communicationGround radar should be used to cover major vary with the terrain, road net, length of theavenues of enemy approach. Aircraft and air lines of communication, and the type of enemycavalry elements may be used to extend reconactivity expected. The following techniquesnaissance and materially increase the effecform the basis for plans to secure lines of comtiveness of the security screen. It is desirable munication. that each OP have one automatic weapon. Once (1) If the lines of communication to be visual contact has been made with the enemy, secured extend a short distance, sub it is maintained. OP's make accurate and timeordinate units of the rear area securi ly reports and may direct the fires of supportty force may be assigned areas of reing elements to harass advancing enemy sponsibility. Small security forces areforces. If permitted to withdraw, the screening placed on dominating terrain featuresforce moves by bounds, maintaining visual con-overlooking likely avenues of enemy 58 approach along the route. The commander maintains a centrally located and highly mobile reserve to counter enemy threats that develop. (2) If the lines of communication are long and must be guarded over a great distance, both flanks of the route are covered by a series of observation posts. These observation posts warn of enemy approach. Aircraft or air cavalry elements may be employed to provide early warnings. The remainder of the rear area security force may be employed to patrol the line of communication and escort vehicles moving through the area, or it may be positioned as small reserves at locations along the route of communication. The security force commander must control reserve groupings so that he can employ them singly or in mass. Plans are prepared to commit the reserve in likely areas of enemy activity. Aircraft may be employed to increase the mobility of dismounted elements of the reserve. c. Protecting an Installation. An installation in the rear area may be of such importance as to warrant protection beyond the capability of the local commander operating the installation. Additional forces should be attached to the local commander for this purpose. As an alternative, the commander of the rear area security force may be charged with the responsibility of the installation defense. In this case, the local installation commander would be relieved of this responsibility. d. Security Against Airborne, Airmobile, and Guerrilla Force Attack. (1) When protecting a rear area against enemy airborne, airmobile, or guerrilla forces, the commander deploys his troops to best counter the enemy threat. The commander reconnoiters the area and selects likely drop zones for airborne forces, landing areas for airmobile forces, and potential assembly areas for guerrilla forces. He establishes observation posts to view likely drop zones, landing areas, and areas where guerrilla forces may assemble. These areas are patrolled. Whenever possible, a small reserve is retained in a central location, prepared to move rapidly to any part of the area. When the size of the area and lack of troops preclude the holding of a reserve, threatened areas are reinforced by security forces located in adjacent areas and which are not actively engaged with the enemy. (2) The key to success against airborne or airlanded forces is rapid deployment and the placing of maximum fires on the airborne or airmobile forces during the early phases of the landing. Consequently, movement to attack enemy forces is of paramount importance and piecemeal commitment may be required. (3) Action against guerrilla forces includes defensive actions to prevent or minimize their effectiveness, and offensive actions to destroy them. Guerrilla forces must be detected early, taken under fire, and attacked rapidly to destroy them. e. Army Air or Air Cavalry Elements. These units may be employed to perform air reconnaissance of rear areas and reconnoiter likely landing areas for airborne and airmobile forces. The capability of air cavalry units to move at relatively high speeds without regard to terrain obstacles should be used to the maximum to locate, destroy within their capability, and maintain contact with enemy forces. 107. Air Defense Security Measures a. General. Armor units are vulnerable to air attacks during all phases of operations. Active air defense means available include tactical aircraft, Army air defense artillery weapons, and organic weapons. Passive air defense means include air warning systems, conceal ment, and dispersion. b. Air Warning System. Air attack alerts are given by hand signals, radio, a continuous series of short blasts on a vehicle horn, bugles, whistles, or other available wind instruments, depending on the situation. Air alert sentries are on duty in every vehicle during a march. Air alert observation posts are established in bivouacs and assembly areas. Sectors of observation are usually assigned. A small armor unit acting alone must observe in all directions. Personnel are trained in the recognition of both friendly and enemy aircraft. c. Concealment. Natural concealment is used whenever possible; camouflage is used to supplement it when necessary. The entire unit must not be crowded into a limited area of natural concealment, such as a small isolated woods, that merely provides the enemy with an easily defined target. Groves, orchards, hedgerows, and shadows of buildings should be used for protection against observation. Every effort is made to fit vehicles into the natural lines of the terrain. Vehicles parked in shadows must be moved as the shadows shift. Tracks made by vehicles moving into a new area must be brushed out or camouflaged. d. Dispersion. Dispersion is achieved by increasing the distances and intervals between individual vehicles and by distributing the unit in small groups. Dispersion is employed on the march, during halts, in bivouacs, in assembly areas, and in attack positions. If possible, dispersion is increased when the unit actually is under air attack. An armor unit that is attacked by enemy aircraft while advancing on a road should disperse off the road and continue its advance, the individual vehicles taking evasive action. Such action requires expert driving and complete control. If vehicles cannot leave the road, they continue to advance on the road while firing at the attacking aircraft. e. Defense Consideration, Organic Machineguns and Small Arms. Machineguns and small arms provide armor units with a limited self-defense capability against hostile low-flying aircraft. These weapons are employed as part of the unit's local defense with a dual mission of ground and air defense. They are not components of an integrated and coordinated air defense system. (1) During a march, all vehicular-mounted machineguns are kept manned, uncovered, and ready for instant action. Platoons or separate vehicles are assigned air defense zones of fire (app VI, para 20c). In assembly areas, attack positions, or at halts, certain guns are trained on points where low-flying aircraft are likely to aPpear such as the top of a nearby tree line. (2) "Rules for engagement" for the attack of hostile aircraft will be estab"' lished by the appropriate commander. Unit commanders may establish their own· SOP for hostile aircraft engagement within the confines of the "rules for engagement." Normally, aircraft will not be engaged unless they are committing a hostile act. (3) When hostile aircraft are attacked, all weapons which can be effectively employed will engage the aircraft. ( 4) Against fast-flying aircraft, it is best to have all weapons fire at maximum elevation in the direction from which the aircraft are approaching. This method forces the aircraft to fly through a curtain of fire and results in a greater probability of hits than does aimed fire. Against slow-flying aircraft, gunners may obtain the best results by employing aimed fire techniques. For specific guidelines for employment, defense design, and engagement techniques of the caliber .50 machinegun, see FM 44-1 and FM 23-65. f. Defense Considerations, REDEYE. (1) General. The REDEYE weapon system provides armor units with a limited self-defense capability against hostile, low-performance, low-flying aircraft within range and engagement capability. The REDEYE weapon system is not a component of an integrated and coordinated air defense system but may be augmented with the fires of organic crew served weapons. Site selection for crew served weapons should, when possible, be made so as to complement the fires of the REDEYE weapons systems. Tank battalions and cavalry squadrons are provided REDEYE teams for each organic company, troop, or battery. These teams are organic to the headquarters and headquarters company or troop and are placed in support of or attached to subordinate elements depending on the tactical situation. A REDEYE team consists of two men, one %-ton truck with trailer, and other necessary equipment. Normally the rules for engagement for the REDEYE weapons systemare (a) Engage aircraft identified as hostile. (b) Attack aircraft committing a hostile act. (2) Defense of the unit in position. REDEYE positions are selected to provide for maximum observation . and unobstructed fields of fire. In selecting these positions, consideration is given to likely avenues of aircraft approach, the desire .to engage an enemy aircraft before it can strike the defended unit, and local ground security. Surveillance is maintained in all directions with emphasis on the expected or most likely direction of attack. REDEYE team members may be separated short distances when observation is limited. During periods of intense enemy air activity, both REDEYE team members may act as gunners, thereby increasing the rate of fire or covering additional avenues of approach. l3) Defense during unit movement. (a) When a company or troop is moving in column, the commander may place one REDEYE team member near the front and one near the rear, each with a portion of the available missiles. This will necessitate transporting one member of the team in a company or troop vehicle other than the one authorized the REDEYE team. It will also require a driver for the REDEYE team vehicle in order for the other team member to perform his duties. (b) During movements when the company or troop is tactically deployed, the REDEYE team is usually employed as a team and is placed where it can best protect the company or troop as a whole. (c) During movements in which more than one REDEYE team is involved (battalion or brigade) teams should· be placed throughout the column with emphasis on the front and rear. Route coverage may be improved by directing certain teams to occupy critical points along the route; however, road condition or column speed may prevent leapfrogging. (d) In all movements, appropriate primary and secondary zones of responsibility are assigned to REDEYE teams. If possible, all-round observation is maintained and necessary missiles are prepared for immediate use. (4) Control. The gunner normally attacks the targets on his own initiative since time and engagement range do not permit the gunner to request permission to fire on any particular target. Unit commanders may impose further weapons control of REDEYE fires to prevent compromising the unit location, but under no circumstances will the unit commander allow freedom to fire beyond that established by higher authority. The gunner has no authority to deviate from the established action status, rules of engagement, identification criteria, and rules for target selection. g. Unit SOP. Units should prepare detailed SOP's for air defense based on Army and theater guidance. These SOP's should incorporate provisions for early warning, rules of engagement, personnel to fire, techniques of fire, and the control measures to be exercised. For other items to be covered in the SOP, see sample shown in FM 44-1. 108. Security Against Nuclear, Chemical, Biological Attack Armor units obtain security from nuclear, chemical, and biological attack by dispersion, consistent with efficient conduct of operations, active use of their inherent mobility, construe tion and use of protective shelters and field fortifications, individual protective clothing and equipment, marking and avoiding contaminated areas, training in individual and collective protective measures, and decontamination. For details, see appendix XXIII. 109. Security Against Covert Threats· Security against hostile threats of espionage, sabotage, and subversion is best provided by effective counterintelligence operations (FM 30-7). Because the principal covert threats to security are espionage and sabotage, security measures to counter these activities must be emphasized. These measures include training of all individuals in the safeguarding of information and other aspects of personnel control and security; the control of personnel movement and communication; physical protection of sensitive areas, installations, and individuals ; and the fostering of friendly relations with the civil population. CHAPTER 6 THE OFFENSE Section I. CONSIDERATION OF THE OFFENSE 11 0. Doctrine of the Offense a. Armor units employ firepower and maneuver in the attack to dominate, neutralize, or destroy enemy forces; to control terrain; or to disrupt enemy rear areas. Armor plans boldly and thoroughly and attacks aggressively and violently to gain maximum shock effect in destroying the enemy, including his materiel and will to resist. This violence contributes to success by weakening the enemy to the point where he can no longer resist effectively. b. Current trends in military tactics tend to move more and more into the tridimensional battlefield. In modern warfare, the airspace over the combat zone must be considered another dimension of the ground commander's sphere of action. The armor commander must employ air cavalry, Army aviation, Air Force tactical aircraft, and Army air artillery defense not only to seize the objective and further extend his sphere of influence but also to protect his attacking force from the effects of an aerial counterattack. c. Friendly guerrilla forces directed by U.S. Army Special Forces may be encountered during offensive operations. These lightly armed units normally will have detailed knowledge of the terrain and enemy dispositions in their areas. While not organized or equipped for sustained infantry combat, they may be utilized to produce immediate effects against enemy combat forces and reinforcement capabilities, and to occupy key terrain for short periods of"time. An understanding of their capabilities and limitations is necessary to achieve maximum benefit from the employment of guerrilla forces in conjunction with armor operations. For a detailed discussion of guerrilla warfare operations, see FM 31-21 and FM 31-20. 111. Fundamentals of Offensive Action a. Armor units participate in offensive operations by attacking with fire and maneuver. Fire and maneuver are accomplished by a base of fire and a maneuver force. (1) Base of fire. (a) Mission. The base of fire pins the enemy to the ground and neutralizes his weapons, thereby permitting freedom of action by the maneuver force. The base of fire normally does not close on the objective. (b) Composition. The base of fire may consist of mortars, attached antitank weapons, supporting artillery, tactical air, and naval gunfire. Tanks and air cavalry normally are not included in the base of fire because this role does not take maximum advantage of their characteristics. However, when necessary, tanks and air cavalry may temporarily support by fire the other elements of the maneuvering force. (c) Employment. 1. The base of fire should be assigned specific targets and target areas on which to fire during the advance of the maneuver force, during the assault, and during continuation of the attack or the consolidation of the objective. Signals for lifting or shifting these fires must be prearranged and should include visual signals. The base of fire must be prepared to deliver fires on targets of opportunity. 2. The base of fire is located in a position or is prepared to move to positions from which it can continuously deliver fire to support the maneuver force. Alternate positions are selected for all weapons. (2) The maneuver force. (a) Mission. The maneuver force closes with and destroys the enemy. (b) Composition. The maximum possible strength should be placed in the maneuver force. When possible, it should be a combined arms force of tanks and mechanized infantry. (c) Employment. The maneuver force closes with the enellly as quickly and directly as possible to exploit the effects of the base of fire. Usually it is committed so that it has mass and depth, and when possible, it seeks to attack one or both flanks of the enemy. Once the rna-. neuver force is committed, it should proceed with all the speed and violence at its command. The advance should be timed so that the elements of the maneuver force arrive on the objective simultaneously, so that the tanks and mechanized infantry can provide mutual support. As the objective is reached and overrun, the base of fire is 'shifted to the flanks and rear of the objective and the assault fires of all weapons of the maneuver force are intensified. b. The attack is planned thoroughly and executed violently. The commander must take maximum advantage of the inherent characteristics of his combined arms force to insure a concentration of superior combat power at the proper time and place. Planning should take advantage of terrain and be sufficiently flexible to permit enemy weaknesses to be exploited rapidly. 112. Factors Affecting the Planning Cll1d Conduct of the Offense Throughout the planning and conduct of offensive operations, commanders and staff officers must consider the factors of METT. Regardless of the situation or level of command, these factors are considered continuously and simultaneously to insure maximum use of all available combat power. For a detailed discussion, see paragraphs 30 through 34. Section II. PLANNING FOR THE ATTACK 113. General In planning the attack, the commander and his subordinates (including his staff) follow the procedures described in chapters 3 and 4 as regards estimates, troop leading procedures, orders, and supervision. In offensive operations, the plan normally includes those general planning items discussed in paragraphs 42 through 46. 114. Plan of Attack a. General. When the commander arrives at his decision, he completes his plan of attack. The plan is simply a detailed elaboration of the fifth step of the estimate-the decision. Itmust be simple, but cover all essential details. The plan of attack includes the scheme of maneuver and the plan of fire support. b. Scheme of Maneuver. The scheme of maneuver is the detailed plan for the placement and movement of the maneuvering force into advantageous positions with respect to the enemy or the objective. In developing the scheme of maneuver, consideration is given to its possible effects on future operations. The scheme of maneuver includes but is not limited to- ( 1) Task organization. (2) Formations. (3) Control measures. (a) Objectives. (b) Direction of movement. (c) Line of departure. (d) Time of attack. c. Plan of Fire Support. This plan must provide for the coordination of all available fires of organic, attached or supporting fire support agencies to include tactical air and naval gunfire. The plan of fire support includes but is not limited to (1) Location of fires. (2) Schedule of fires. ( 3) Type of fires. ( 4) Assignment of missions and tasks to fire support units. ( 5) Priority of fires. d. Air Defense. The need for air defense during offensive operations is considered in the initial stages of planning. When air defense units are provided, their mission is included in the operations order as an annex. 115. Organization for Combat Organization for combat is the commander's visualization of an appropriate force to meet the varying requirements of the battlefield (para 35-41). For a discussion on the employment of combat support units, see chapter 9 and appendix XIV. Armored cavalry units, organic or attached, are employed in accordance with FM 17-36 and FM 17-95. 116. Formations a. General. ( 1) The initial formation for the attack, and subsequent changes to it, are based upon the factors of METT. (2) It is desirable to attack in depth because this formation permits greater flexibility in the employment of the attacking force, and assists in maintaining the momentum of the attack. (3) An attack in depth is favored ( a) Against deep objectives. (b) When the enemy situation is vague, and major enemy strongpoints or troop locations are not known. (c) When there is a requirement for security against a counterattack. (d) During periods of poor visibility when maximum control is desired. (4) A formation with less depth is favored (a) Against limited objectives. (b) When major enemy strongpoints and troop concentrations are known. (c) When the objective is strongly held by the enemy, and there is a requirement to place maximum fire upon the objective. (d) When the situation requires maximum freedom of action by subordinate units. b. Column. (1) The column formation (fig. 5) provides depth to the attack since units are in position to move through or around a leading unit. This capability contributes to ( a) Flexibility. The commander using a column will normally have several courses of action open to permit him to retain the initiative, maintain momentum of the attack, and provide the response required to meet varying situations. (b) Retent-ion of the initiative. The commander using a column will have significant uncommitted combat power in the form of reserve units to introduce into the situation at a time and place of his choosing. (c) Maintaining the momentum of the attack. The commander using a column has forces available to assume the mission of the leading unit should its combat power decrease and to commit significant combat power to exploit success. (2) The column formation provides a high degree of security to the flanks since units are in position to counter threats to either flank. (3) The column formation facilitates control of the unit. ( 4) Considerations that favor adoption of the column formation are ( a) Restricted maneuver room. (b) Enemy defenses that must be attacked on a narrow front. l~ l~ l ~ [Q] ~ ~ ~ [Q] [Q] Figure 5. Variations of the column. (c) Enemy reserves in such strength and location that a sustained attack or a meeting engagement is anticipated. (5) VVhen forced by terrain and the enemy situation, the commander may use a column formation. However, care must be taken that the use of a column does not unduly emphasize security and flexibility at the expense of speed and the placement of maximum firepower forward. c. Line. (1) The line is formed by placing two or more units abreast to lead the formation (fig. 6). The line formation provides combat power forward over a relatively wide front. This deploy ment contributes to ( a) Coordinated attacks and assaults. A commander using a line formation can employ leading units so that their attacks are mutually supporting. He can converge the combat power of leading units into one, massive, coordinated assault. (b) Rapid development of the situation. The commander using a line formation gains information from a broader front than if he were using a column. Gaps, weak points, or flanks of the enemy's dispositions are more rapidly discovered. Figure 6. Variations of a line. (2) The line is more difficult to control than the column. (3) Considerations that favor the adoption of the line are (a) Adequate maneuver space. (b) Shallow enemy defenses. (c) A requirement for more combat power than one subordinate unit. (d) A requirement for a rapid advance on a broad front. (e) A requirement to develop the situation. 117. Reserves in the Offensive a. General. (1) A reserve is a part of a body of troops that is kept to the rear of the formation, or withheld from action at the beginning of an engagement so as to be available for decisive employment. In armor operations, reserve forces are kept well forward in the formation to be readily available for the commander's immediate use. (2) Reserves, when so designated, are employed to ( a) Exploit success or friendly nuclear fires. (b) Maintain the momentum of the attack. (c) Defeat enemy counterattacks. (d) Provide security by protecting the flanks and rear of a force. (e) Reinforce the attack. (3) A tank company is an assault unit and does not normally constitute or designate a reserve. Every effort is made by the tank company to destroy the enemy by employing all available combat power. (4) Committing the reserve is a matter of reasoned judgment by the commander, based on his analysis of the factors of METT. b. Size of the Reserve. A deep objective, limited knowledge of the enemy situation, available friendly combat power, or inability to visualize the attack or its conclusion requires the retention of a stronger reserve than when these conditions do not exist. c. Location and Movement of the Reserve. In attacks by armor units, the reserve, when designated, is part of the maneuver force. It moves in the formation of the overall unit. In the formation, the reserve is positioned to (1) Permit rapid movement to points of probable employment. (2) Provide security by its presence. d. Nuclear Weapons. The commander normally holds a part of his nuclear weapons in reserve. e. Establishment or Reconstitution of the Reserve. When the commander has all maneuver units actively engaged, he should provide for means by which he may influence the action. He may either ( 1) Constitute forces for a reserve from other elements of the command. (2) Determine which unit may be most profitably disengaged if an urgent requirement for a reserve arises, or (3) Request additional means from higher headquarters. 118. Control Measures In the attack, armor commanders impose upon subordinates only the controls necessary to coordinate maneuver and fires. For a discussion of control measures, see appendix X. 119. Methods of Attack a. General. The maneuver force, composed of tanks and mechanized infantry, accomplishes its mission by closing with and destroying the enemy. There are three general methods of attack employed by the maneuver force. ( 1) The maneuver force attacks in a single direction. (2) The maneuver force attacks in two or more converging directions. (3) Tanks of the maneuver force support by fire only. b. Maneuver Force Attack in a Single Direction. Using this method, the entire maneuver force closes on the enemy in a single direction. (1) Coordination. Because the force attacks in the same direction, coordination and control of elements is less difficult. (2) Mutual support. Since all elements of the force are together throughout the attack, mutual support within the maneuver force is simplified. c. Maneuver Force Attacks in Two or More Converging Directions. Using this method, the maneuver force closes on the enemy from more than one direction. (1) Surprise. An attack that converges on the enemy from more than one direction forces him to fight in more than one direction simultaneously and may achieve surprise. (2) Coordination. When elements of the maneuver force are attacking over different terrain with varying enemy resistance, the coordination and control necessary to insure a coordinated attack and simultaneous assault may be difficult to achieve. Measures must be taken to prevent elements from firing into each other. (3) Mutual support. The separate directions used by the maneuver force make mutual support between elements of the force more difficult than in the single-direction attack. d. Tanks of the Maneuver Force Support by Fire Only. The only justification for this method of attack is under conditions where terrain or enemy-emplaced obstacles prevent tanks from moving with the maneuver force. This an attack, any one or more of the three methmethod does not take maximum advantage of ods of attack may be used. As the situation the mobility, shock effect, and combat power of changes, the commander is alert to vary his tanks. method of attack. The factors of METT are e. Selection of a Method of Attack. During analyzed in selecting a method of attack. Section Ill. CONDUCT OF THE ATTACK 120. The Advance to the Assault a. The advance to the assault is initiated from a line of departure and is conducted in a manner which minimizes casualties to the maneuver force while placing combat power in position to impose maximum destruction on the enemy. b. The maneuver force conducts the advance to the assault as a continuous rapid movement, to insure that it passes through the enemy's defensive fires in minimum time. c. Where possible the assault is always conducted in mass. However, enemy action may require the maneuver force to employ fire and movement. For a discussion of fire and movement, see appendix XIII. d. Throughout the advance to the assault, the commander supervises the execution of his plan and continues his estimate. He keeps abreast of the situation as it develops to determine if changes must be made in the scheme of maneuver or plan of fire support. 121. Tank and Infantry Teamwork During the Advance to the Assau It a. General. Armor operations are based on the combined arms concept in which each arm contributes its capabilities to the combat power of the overall force. To weld the capabilities of infantry and tank units into one effort, the commander considers the following relationships between tanks and infantry in the advance to the assault. ( 1) Whenever possible, tanks lead the attacking formation in order to take maximum advantage of their capability for mounted combat. (2) It is desirable that the infantry remain mounted as long as possible so that (a) Movements can be conducted at the speed of the tanks to rapidly close with and destroy the enemy. (b) The battlefield mobility of both elements of the tank and infantry team will be retained. (c) Casualties will be minimized in areas covered by small arms, mortar, and artillery fire. (d) Artillery airbursts can be employed over the attacking force. (e) Some protection will be afforded against nuclear weapons. (f) The infantry can conserve energy to be better able to fight dismounted when needed. (3) Infantry normally dismount when it is necessary for them to ( a) Breach or remove obstacles that are preventing the forward movement of the tanks. (b) Assist in the neutralization or destruction of antitank weapons that are holding up the forward movement of the tanks and armored personnel carriers. (c) Lead an attack through heavily wooded areas or over very rough or broken terrain. (d) Lead an attack across defended rivers that cannot be crossed by armored personnel carriers or forded by tanks. (e) Take part in an attack through fortified areas or defended towns and villages that cannot be bypassed. (f) Assist the tanks forward movement during certain conditions of low visibility and restricted fields of fire (darkness, fog, smoke, heavy woods, broken terrain, or other similar conditions). b. Mounted Infantry. (1) Tank and mounted infantry elements are coordinated by combining them into one mutually supporting formation. Mounted infantry must be prepared to fight from the carrier. They are positioned in the formation according to the tactical situation. In determining the location of the carriers in the formation, the commander must consider the primary requirement for having the mechanized infantry readily available. He must also consider the vulnerability of the carrier to enemy fire. The armored personnel carriers can provide additional flank and rear security to the maneuvering force during the attack by employing their vehicularmounted machineguns. (a) When undue enemy interference is not anticipated, the carriers will follow more closely behind the tanks. (b) Where hostile antitank fires are encountered, the location of the carriers with relation to the tanks will depend partially on the type and caliber of the hostile antitank weapons. If the enemy is equipped with only short range antitank weapons, such as rocket launchers, the carriers may follow the tanks more closely than if the enemy were using long range, high velocity antitank weapons. (c) The distance between the tanks and carriers must not become so great that mutual support between the tanks and mechanized infantry is lost. (d) In terrain affording numerous defilade positions, the mechanized infantry may follow the tanks closely. (e) The carriers can follow the tanks closely during darkness or periods of limited visibility. (2) The rate of advance of mounted infantry is based on the actions of the leading tank units. (a) When the tanks are advancing in mass, the following mounted in fantry may advance in mass or by bounds. Mounted infantry moving by bounds stays behind the tanks and moves forward rapidly from cover to cover as the advance of the tanks uncovers successive defilade positions. (b) When the tanks are employing fire and movement, mounted infantry advances by bounds as described above. c. Dismounted Infantry. ( 1) When mechanized infantry is required to dismount, tanks and infantry operate sufficiently close together to provide mutual support. The infantry may move between tanks, or immediately in rear of them. As the advance progresses, the relative positions of tanks and infantry are adjusted according· to the enemy resistance and the terrain. This permits close coordination and maximum mutual support but sacrifices speed, making the tanks more vulnerable to antitank fire. ( 2) When terrain, obstacles, or enemy antitank weapons restrict or stop the movement of the tanks but permit infantry to move forward, tanks may support by fire while the infantry advances. As conditions permit, the tanks should move forward, pass through the infantry, and lead the assault on the objective. (3) The armored personnel carriers should follow dose enough behind infantry to be readily available when needed to continue the attack mounted or to assist in the consolidation of the objective. They may move forward by bounds, or follow closely the attacking force and augment the fires of the tanks and infantry with their vehicular weapons. 122. The Assault The desired goal in the assault is to bring the maximum combat power of tanks, mechanized infantry, and the base of fire to bear upon the enemy simultaneously and to destroy him as rapidly as possible with minimum casualties to friendly forces. The assault of a defended position by tanks and mechanized infantry in coordination with the base of fire may take one of three forms a. Tanks and Dismounted Infantry Assault in Coordination. ( 1) Regardless of the method of attack used to bring the force into the assault position, the assault is conducted as a coordinated effort. As the force approaches the objective, the objective is under heavy fire from the base of fire. The tanks maintain their rate of advance and increase the volume of fire on the objective. As the tanks approach the objective, the mechanized infantry moves quickly to dismount positions to support the tanks. Fire from the base of fire is lifted as the tanks move onto the objective. Mortar and artillery overhead time fires are shifted to the flanks and far side of the objective. The local commander determines when and where the mechanized infantry will dismount taking maximum advantage of defilade for the armored personnel carriers. (2) As the tanks continue their assault to the far side of the objective, the infantry follows and protects them by engaging infantry-type targets, including individual antitank weapons and tank killer teams. Coordination should be accomplished before the attack to maximize infantry support of tank elements during the assault. Whenever possible, the machineguns of the armored personnel carriers are used to support the assault until their fires are masked by advancing riflemen. The riflemen use assault fire to close with the enemy. The shock effect of assaulting tanks and infantry is multiplied by rapid movement and heavy volume of fire. As the tanks arrive at the far edge of the objective, fire is directed on the enemy positions beyond the objective area. During the assault of an objective lo cated on high ground, care must be taken to acquire and destroy any enemy antitank and automatic weapons sited on the reverse slope. These weapons are normally positioned so as to engage tanks and dismounted infantry as they crest the hill. (3) Once the assault has cleared the objective, the carriers are moved forward to remount their squads for continuation of the attack. They should be moved forward under control to avoid "cruising" the objective searching for their squads. The following techniques may be employed to move carriers forward under control. (a) Radio. Armored personnel carriers are provided with radios that net with those carried by the dismounted infantry. The range of the transmitting station must be considered with respect to the position of the carrier and the driver must constantly monitor the radio. (b) Messenger. A dismounted messenger may be sent to the position occupied by the carriers to guide them to their respective units. This is the slowest method and depends on a route clear of the enemy. (c) Pyrotechnic devices. A pyrotechnic signal may be fired to indicate to drivers the time to move and the approximate location of the unit. This technique requires constant scanning of an area by the driver, good visibility, and availability of pyrotechnics. b. Tanks and Mechanized Infantry 'in the Mounted Assault. In some situations, because of the nature of the terrain or of limited enemy resistance, it may be unnecessary to dismount the mechanized infantry. The decision to keep the infantry mounted is up to the local commander at the time and can rarely be preplanned. The mounted assault differs from the dismounted assault in the employment of supporting fires. In .the mounted assault, integrated forces may assault the objective under cover of overhead artillery and mortar fire. Tanks and mounted mechanized infantry overrun the objective. If necessary, supporting fires may be shifted to isolate the objective, and mechanized infantry, as required, dismounts to mop up. c. Tanks Support by Fire. Terrain or obstacles may make it impossible for tracked vehicles to join in the assault. In this situation, dismounted mechanized infantry will conduct the assault. Tanks support by fire, with full consideration given to the long range and rapid rate of fire of the tank weapons and the precision and control with which these fires can be delivered. As soon as the situation permits, tanks will rejoin the mechanized infantry and, if appropriate, again lead in the attack. 123. Continuation of the Attack a. General. Armor units seek to conduct the attack as a single advance and assault that continues until the assigned objective is seized. The momentum of the attack must be maintained. When intermediate objectives must be seized, armor units strive to avoid halting. If there is no requirement to hold the objective, the tanks and mechanized infantry continue the attack, reorganizing on the move. If the objective is to be held, the unit will consolidate, reorganize, prepare to repel enemy counterattack, and continue the attack on order. b. Intentions of the Higher Commander. The overall plan of attack contained in the "concept of operation" is an expression of the commander's intentions. Subordinate commanders require a full understanding of the purpose of the operations so that they may exercise initiative in continuing the attack without waiting for further orders. c. Continuous Reorganization. All steps are taken to maintain the combat effectiveness of the unit. Whenever possible, this is done while on the move. To save time, actions that cannot be accomplished on the move are preplanned. d. Supporting Elements. (1) Combat support elements are kept well forward in order to provide immediate assistance to the combat elements. (2) If contact with the enemy is lost, reconnaissance and security units, especially those with aircraft, are employed to regain contact. (3) Combat service support elements seek every opportunity to supply the combat and combat support units with the means required to continue the attack. 124. Consolidation and Reorganization a. General. The actual occupation of the objective is the critical stage of the attack. Control is most difficult and it is the time when an aggressive enemy delivers a carefully planned and coordinated counterattack, supported by all available fires. When possible, the seizure of the objective should be followed by an immediate continuation of the attack. In nuclear warfare, a rapid move to dispersed locations from which the unit can dominate the objective will avoid presenting a lucrative nuclear target. In many situations, small armor units will be required to hold an objective. In these cases, consolidation of the objective is required and the unit should be reorganized. b. Consolidation. Consolidation pertains to all measures taken to use a newly captured position or terrain feature against possible enemy counterattack. The action may vary from a rapid redisposition of forces and security elements on the objective to the organization and detailed improvement of the position for defense. When consolidation is anticipated, many of the actions can be preplanned aiid announced initially in the attack order. These instructions may be changed or supplemented by fragmentary orders as the attack progresses. Actions to be taken include- (1) Security. Observation or listening posts are established; and, if required, patrolling is initiated. (2) Reconnaissance. In addition to the reconnaissance efforts to effect security, commanders take steps to reconnoiter in anticipation of immediate and future missions. (3) Positioning. Tanks are positioned on armor avenues of approach and mechanized infantry cover infantry avenues of approach. Combat support and combat service support elements are relocated if necessary. ( 4) Fire planning. While fire planning is continuous in an operation, specific actions may be preplanned and exe (2) Casualties. Casualties are replaced as cuted for a consolidation. Registra soon as possible or men are reas tion is completed when possible, and signed within the unit to cover the integrated fire plans are prepared to loss of key personnel. support the consolidation. If the time for the continuation of the attack is not known, tank commanders begin preparation of individual range cards. c. Reorganization. Reorganization includes all measures taken to maintain the combat effectiveness of the unit. Reorganization is continuous throughout the attack, but halts for consolidation offer opportunities to accomplish those activities that are difficult to do on the move. Actions to be taken include (1) Reports. Units report their location and status to assist the next higher commander in his planning for subsequent operations. (3) Evacuation. Plans made before the at tack for the evacuation of casualties, prisoners of war, and damaged equipment are implemented. (4) Supply. Ammunition and equipment are redistributed within the unit if necessary. Basic and prescribed loads of supply are reconstituted as time permits. (5) Control. New communication plans are made or old ones revised as required. Command and control facilities are located to control the consolidation and anticipated future actions. Section IV. FORMS OF MANEUVER AND OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS 125. General Offensive maneuvers and operations that armor units conduct, or in which they participate, are the penetration, envelopment, turning movement, and exploitation (including pursuit). The basic forms of offensive maneuver are the penetration and envelopment. The frontal attack is a variation of the penetration; a double envelopment and a turning movement are variations of envelopment. Infiltration is a technique of movement used in conjunction with the several forms of maneuver. The exploitation is an offensive operation which may follow a successful penetration or envelopment. The pursuit is an extension of a successful exploitation. The choice of a specific form of maneuver or a specific type of operation is influenced by the mission, enemy, terrain and weather, and troops available. 126. Penetration a. General. In the penetration, the attacking force passes through the enemy defensive position, ruptures it, and neutralizes or destroys objectives to break up the continuity of the defense. The penetration is accomplished by means of three tasks: rupturing the enemy defensive position; holding or widening the gap; and overrunning or seizing objectives that destroy the continuity of the enemy defense and create an opportunity for exploiting the breakthrough. If the rupture is not made sharply and the seizure of the objectives accomplished quickly, the penetration becomes a frontal attack. This may result in high casualties and affords the enemy an opportunity to adopt other defensive measures. Armor units participate in the penetration by accomplishing one or more of the three tasks by maneuver forces or, under some circumstances, by fire alone. b. Rupture of the Pos'ition. (1) The rupture of the enemy defensive position is made by a violent attack on a relatively narrow front. The forces involved must be strong enough to overwhelm the defenses and open a gap to permit highly mobile forces to pass rapidly through to exploit the enemy's rear. The employment of nuclear weapons may allow attack of the defense positions on a broader front. (2) The attack is planned and coordinated carefully to insure that the assault has sufficient force and momentum to overcome the enemy's defenses. (3) Preparatory fires are used in the rup ture to weaken the enemy defense and neutralize his reserves. Enemy forces isolated during the rupture may be neutralized by fire. (4) The rupture must be completed and widened as rapidly as possible to preclude reinforcement or blocking actions by enemy reserves, or to prevent engaged enemy forces from adopting delaying tactics. c. Holding or Widening the Gap. Holding or widening the gap may be accomplished by maneuver forces, by fires, or by both. Actions are aimed at preventing the movement of enemy forces into or out of the area of operations. Enemy counterattacks are engaged rapidly with reserve units or by fire. Desirably, it is performed by fire or by other forces to avoid dissipating the maneuver forces. d. Destroying the Continuity of the Defense. (1) Armor units participating in a penetration expend every effort to maintain the violence and momentum of the attack. Overrunning the enemy or an attack deep in the enemy rear that disrupts the continuity of his defenses requires friendly forces to have relatively greater battlefield mobility than that of the enemy. (2) As the rupture is completed, the tem po of the attack is increased to create an opportunity to exploit deep into the enemy rear. e. Exploiting the Penetration. The force given the mission of exploiting the penetration is not normally committed until the rupture is completed but may be committed to hasten the penetration. In the latter event, it executes a passage of lines through the force making the rupture to continue the attack with unrelenting pressure on the enemy. 127. Envelopment a. General. In the envelopment, the attack ing force avoids the enemy's main defensive strength by going around it on the ground or over it by air to seize an objective in his rear. Its purpose is to disrupt his communication and support, to cut his escape routes, and to subject him to destruction in position. b. Considerations of the Envelopment. ( 1) A successful envelopment requires that the enemy have an assailable flank. An assailable flank may be created by nuclear weapons or by a successful penetration. (2) An envelopment of both enemy flanks simultaneously usually requires greater superiority in combat power than that normally available to the units considered in this manual. ( 3) Fixing the enemy in position is accomplished by fires or, if required, by a supporting attack. Although favored as the enveloping force, armor units may participate in the envelopment as a supporting attack force. (a) A supporting attack fixes the enemy by striking him with enough combat power to seriously threaten the enemy forward defensive positions and to force premature commitment of enemy reserves. (b) Fixing the enemy is accomplished by fires to allow the maximum number of maneuver elements to be placed in the enveloping force. ( 4) Maneuvering around the assailable flank is accomplished by the enveloping force. (a) The enveloping force seizes terrain that dominates enemy supply lines and avenues of escape or reinforcemeJ?.t. (b) The enveloping force may make a close or wide maneuver. In a close maneuver, fire support elements are usually capable of easily supporting both the enveloping force and the supporting attack forces from a central location. In a wide maneuver, fire support elements are usually not capable of supporting both the enveloping and supporting attack forces from a central location. Enveloping forces conducting a wide maneuver may be accompanied by fire support elements. (c) The seizure of the objective by the enveloping force may be followed by an exploitation if the opportunity occurs. ( 5) The success of the envelopment depends largely upon surprise and mobility of the enveloping force, and the ability of the supporting fires or supporting attacks to fix the enemy in position. (6) Rapid movement of the enveloping force and application of a supporting attack, if required, are essential to prevent the enemy's movement of reserves to occupy previously prepared positions. c. CondW)t of the Envelopment. (1) A supporting attack may be launched at the same time as the attack of the enveloping force, or earlier, to increase deception. (2) Preparatory fires for the attack of the enveloping force may be omitted in the interest of secrecy. If used, these fires may be intense but of short duration. (3) A supporting attack that is conducted aggressively and violently may lead to an opportunity to' convert the supporting attack into asuccessful penetration. (4) The enveloping force moves rapidly and directly to the objective, bypassing enemy forces that cannot interfere with the accomplishment of the mission. If the enemy attempts a frontal attack against a supporting attack, the enveloping force continues to the objective while tll.e supporting attack force blocks or delaY:s. ( 5) Enemy counterattacks that threaten the accomplishment of the mission by the enveloping force are engaged in a manner similar to the meeting engagement (para 139-141). 128. Frontal Attac:k The frontal attack is a variation of the penetration. It normally consists of a series of small operations that strike the enemy all along his front. It is used to overrun and destroy a weaker enemy. 129. Turning Movement The turning movement is a variation of the envelopment. The attacking force avoids an enemy force and seizes an objective deep in the enemy rear to force him to abandon his position or divert major forces to meet the threat. The enemy is thim destroyed on ground of the attacker's choosing. Normally, brigade and lower units participate in the turning movement as part of a larger force. For details of turning movements, see FM 61-100. 130. Exploitation and Pursuit a. Exploitation. In the exploitation, the attacker seeks to follow up the gains of a successful penetration or envelopment. The attacker drives deep into the enemy's rear to destroy his means to reconstitute an organized defense or to initiate an orderly withdrawal. b. The Pursuit. The pursuit is the final phase of the exploitation. Its goal is annihilation of the enemy force. It is accomplished by maintaining direct pressure on the withdrawing enemy and by intercepting and destroying the main enemy force. c. Consideration of the Exploitation. ( 1) Opportunities for major exploitations are indicated by an increase in prisoners captured, in abandoned equipment, and the overrunning of artillery, command facilities, signal installations, and supply dumps. The transition from the attack to the exploitation may be abrupt or so gradual as to be hardly distinguishable. (2) Speed and combat power are required in exploiting forces. (3) In the exploitation, class III consumption rates are high, and provisions for rapid supply by ground or air are essential. Security of ground or air supply columns must be considered since forward elements may be behind enemy forces. (4) Minimum necessary control measures are used. The decentralized execution characteristic of the exploitation requires the exercise of great initiative on the part of all leaders. ( 5) In the exploitation, nuclear, conventional, and chemical weapons may be used principally on targets of opportunity. Fire support units march with or immediately in rear of exploiting forces. (6) Reconnaissance efforts are intensified. The rapid gathering of information on enemy activities and strength coupled with information of the terrain assist the commander in making decisions involving the bypass or changes in the scheme of maneuver. d. Conduct of the Exploitation. (1) Exploiting forces advance rapidly on a broad front. Only the reserves necessary to insure flexibility, and essential security are retained. (2) Once the exploitation is begun, it is carried relentlessly to the objective deep in the enemy rear to cut his lines of communication and disrupt his command and control. (3) Maximum use should be made of air cavalry to increase the reconnaissance and security of the exploiting force. Airmobile fires may be used to assist in seizing terrain that becomes key to the tactical success of the exploiting force. ( 4) Enemy forces encountered are not engaged unless they can interfere with the accomplishment of the mission. Based on the factors of METT, information gained from efforts to develop the enemy situation and the determination of suitable bypass routes, the commander may attack, block, or bypass the enemy. If his decision is to bypass, he must determine the possible impact the bypassed enemy force may have on his mission and the mission of the larger force. If the enemy force can hinder movement during the bypass, a force may be employed to block the enemy. Armored or air cavalry elements or other aircraft may be used to facilitate movement around an enemy force. For techniques of the bypass, see paragraphs 142 through 144. (5) Commanders use all means and weapons to overrun enemy forces that cannot be bypassed. ( 6) Meeting engagements may occur frequently in the exploitation. For a discussion of the considerations and conduct of meeting engagements, see paragraphs 139 through 141. (7) Following and supporting units normally follow armor units in the exploitation to relieve them of time-consuming tasks that dissipate the combat power of exploiting forces. (8) As enemy demoralization begins and enemy forces disintegrate under pressure, exploitation may develop into pursuit. e. Considerations of the Pursuit. (1) Armor units participate in the pursuit by ( a) Maintaining direct pressure on the withdrawing enemy by a maneuver force that seeks to engage the withdrawing enemy's main body. This direct pressure force attacks constantly to overcome or bypass the enemy's,rear guard. (b) Intercepting and destroying the main enemy force by a highly mobile encircling force that seeks to get in rear of the enemy force to block his withdrawal. Once this is accomplished, the enemy is destroyed between the direct pressure force and the encircling force. If the encircling force cannot outdistance the enemy, it attacks the flank of the enemy main body. (2) Successful pursuit requires unrelenting pressure against the enemy to prevent reorganization and preparation of defenses. Commanders may take greater risks to achieve decisive results. In the interest of the tremendous gains at stake, troops and equipment are pushed to the limit of their endurance. (3) Destruction of the enemy force is the primary objective of the pursuit. (4) Adequate preparation is made for logistical support. Class III consumption is particularly high. Air transportation may be used for rapid delivery of supplies to forward units. attack. Deviation from plans is difficult to coorMaximum use is made of captured endinate once movement has begun. Linkup plans emy materiel. or plans to extricate the force must be pre f. Conduct of the Pursuit. pared. (1) The direct pressure force attacks on as broad a front as possible. The attacks continue day and night. When conditions permit, elements of the enemy force are enveloped or cut off. If the enemy main force establishes itself on a position, the direct pressure force attacks in an effort to dislodge it. (2) The encircling force attacks along an avenue of approach that facilitates early engagement or interception of the withdrawing enemy force. Formations are used that contribute to control and speed of movement. 131. Infiltration a. Infiltration is a technique of movement used in conjunction with several types of offensive actions. In the attack, its purpose is to deploy strong forces in the eriemy rear while exposing only small forces to enemy defensive fires. b. The movement and assembly of forces by stealth among enemy positions is a slow operation. While dismounted mechanized infantry or armored cavalry units are most suitable for infiltration, tank units can be carefully infiltrated by taking advantage of faulty enemy dispositions, gaps created in obstacles without enemy knowledge, or by diversionary attacks by fires or maneuver forces~ c. Planning for infiltration must be detailed and coordinated closely into the overall plan of d. Infiltration lanes, assembly areas, attack positions, and objectives are the control measures used primarily; phase lines and checkpoints assist in control while rallying points or areas are required for units that become scattered and disorganized. e. The infiltrating elements in small groups pass through, over, or around enemy forward defensive positions. They avoid detection, and if detected, avoid decisive engagement. They normally move over multiple lanes, to assembly areas adjacent to their objectives. Closely coordinated demonstrations and fires in areas not included in the infiltration may be used to assist their movement. Fires in the area of infiltration may serve to reduce the enemy's surveillance capability. f. Upon arrival at the assembly area, the infiltrating unit prepares for action, deploys, and at the appropriate time, performs its mission. Consolidation includes preparations for linkup or withdrawal. 132. Movement to Contact Movement to contact is a means of gaining contact or of reestablishing lost contact with the enemy. Its purpose is the early development of the situation to provide an advantage prior to decisive engagement. During a movement to contact armor units may be given missions of a covering force, advance guard, flank guard, rear guard, or moving as part of the main body. For a detailed discussion, see FM 17-30 and FM 61-100. Section V. PASSAGE OF LINES 133. General The commitment of a unit through one which is in contact with the enemy constitutes a passage of lines. A passage of lines may be required to continue the momentum of the attack or to exploit a weakness in the enemy position. A passage of lines requires careful planning and close coordination between the units. Due to differences in organization and techniques of operation, the passage of armor through infantry is more difficult than is its passage through another armor unit. 134. Planning for Passage of Lines a. Scheme of Maneuver. The scheme of maneuver is based on the factors of METT. The scheme of maneuver normally determines the location at which the passage of lines will take place. b. Reconnaissance. A thorough reconnais " sance should be made by commanders and key members of the unit making the passage. This reconnaissance should cover routes to the area of the passage, the area itself, existing troop locations, proposed positions, and, if necessary, proposed locations of individual combat vehicles. A visual reconnaissance should be made of the area forward of the frontline po'sition; aircraft may be used in this reconnaissance. In reconnoitering, care must be taken not to alert the enemy by offering indications that a passage of lines is to take place. It may be necessary to limit the number and size of reconnaissance parties, or it may be advisable to use ground vehicles and aircraft of the units in contact. c. Intelligence. The units in contact should provide all possible information of the enemy and the terrain to their front to the unit making the passage. This information should include strength, disposition, composition of enemy forces, and location of enemy armor, antitank weapons, and obstacles. d. Fire Support. The fire support agencies of the units in contact are normally integrated into the fire support plan of the unit making the passage. Artillery liaison officers, forward observers, air liaison officers, and mortar platoon leaders of the unit making the passage should contact their counterparts in the unit in position to exchange information and develop the details of the fire support plan. e. Priorities of Routes and Areas. The higher headquarters directing the passage normally establishes an overall priority on routes and areas. If it does not, a priority must be established between the commanders concerned. Complete information on routes to be used and areas to be occupied should be disseminated as early as possible to avoid confusion and delay. f. Movement Through the Area. The routes established for movement into the forward areas must be well marked and controlled. Ideally, the passing unit and the unit in contact provide guides down to platoon level. As a minimum, the units in contact provide guides. Guides lead elements of the passing unit through the unit in contact along prearranged routes. For increased security, the movement into the forward areas may be conducted at night; this requires stringent control and thor ough planning and reconnaissance. Artillery fire may be employed during the movement to cover the noise of the vehicles. If the movement is conducted during daylight, smoke may be placed on known enemy observation posts and forward positions. While the passing unit is moving through the area of the unit in contact, the resulting concentration presents an excellent target for nuclear attack. Therefore, the passage should be completed as quickly as possible. During the period of concentration, maximum passive defense measures against nuclear attack should be taken. g. Control Measures. The type and number of control measures will depend upon the experience of the commanders involved but will normally be more restrictive than those used in other operations. For a discussion of control measures, see appendix X. 135. Liaison and Coordination in Passage of Lines a. Liaison. As soon as it is determined that a passage of lines will be made, liaison must be established between the passing unit and the unit in contact. At brigade and battalion level, liaison officers are exchanged until completion of the operation. b. Coordination. Thorough coordination is essential to the success of a passage of lines. Normally, the unit in contact is given the definite mission of "assisting in the passage." Special emphasis must be placed on the following coordination measures (1) Refueling areas and routes into and out of these areas are reconnoitered by personnel from the passing unit, assisted by guides furnished by the unit being passed through. It may be necessary for the unit being passed through to adjust its positions to permit a satisfactory passage, but such adjustments should be held to a minimum. (2) Clearing and marking the lanes through friendly minefields and obstacles to permit rapid passage are accomplished by the unit being passed ·through. Passing units should provide their own control personnel at difficult gaps or defiles to check through each subunit. (3) Details of fire support are furnished by the unit through which the passage is being made. ( 4) Details of communication nets and channels required by the passing unit are coordinated between the units and with their higher headquarters. (5) Within its capabilities, the unit being passed through furnishes combat service .support to the passing unit during and immediately after the passage. This support may include medical services, handling PW's, traffic control, straggler control, clearing roads of refugees, and assisting in handling the dead, but normally will not include supply of Class III and V. c. Passage of Command. The time or circumstance when responsibility for the zone of action is transferred to the commander of the unit executing the passage of lines must be mutually agreed upon by the two commanders concerned. Normally, the commander of the unit making the passage of lines assumes responsibility for the zone of action at or before the time of passage. The responsibility for the zone may shift at the time of the firing of preparatory fires or earlier at the direction of the headquarters ordering the passage. Section VI. RECONNAISSANCE IN FORCE 136. General A reconnaissance in force is an attack to discover and test the enemy disposition, composition, and strength. Although its primary aim is reconnaissance, it may discover weaknesses in the enemy dispositions that, if promptly exploited, may permit tactical success. Terrain objectives are selected that, if threatened or seized, will force the enemy to react to the threat. 137. Considerations a. In deciding to reconnoiter in force, the commander considers the (1) Knowledge of the enemy situation that he has and the urgency and importance of the information sought. (2) Efficiency, speed, and availability of other collection agencies. (3) Extent to which future plans may be revealed to the enemy by the reconnaissance in force; ( 4) Possibility that the reconnaissance may lead to a general engagement under unfavorable conditions. b. The size of the reconnoitering force varies in accordance with the factors of METT. The force must be of sufficient size and composition to cause the enemy to react strongly and definitely to the attack,/thus disclosing his forward troop locations, dispositions, and strength in addition to the location of his reserves. The force is normally not less than a reinforced squadron or a battalion task force with artillery, engineer, and air cavalry or Army aviation support. 138. Conduct a. Restrictions may be placed upon the commander of the force to avoid actions that might cause a general engagement. The higher commander is alert to exploit success gained by the reconnaissance in force, including continuation of the attack or retention of terrain seized. Suitable targets discovered by the force may be attacked by nuclear weapons, and their de struction completed by local exploitation by the reconnoitering force. The higher commander prepares to assist in . the extrication of the force if it becomes decisively engaged. Nuclear weapons may provide a means of doing this. Upon completion of its reconnaissance, the force may remain in contact with the enemy or withdraw. If the reconnaissance is to be followed by further attack, other units pass through the reconnoitering force in the attack or it may itself continue the attack. b. When information is sought of a particular area, the reconnaissance in force is planned and executed as an attack with a limited objective. If the enemy situation along a front is to be developed, the reconnaissance in force is an advance employing strong aggressive probes to determine the enemy situation at key points. Section VII. MEETING ENGAGEMENT 139. General a. A meeting engagement is the combat action that occurs when a moving force, incompletely deployed for battle, engages a moving or static enemy force about which it has little or no intelligence. The action ceases to be a meeting engagement when the enemy situation has been developed and subsequent operations are undertaken for the specific situation at hand. b. Meeting engagements are characterized by (1) Limited knowledge of the enemy. (2) Minimum time available to the commander to develop the situation, formulate plans, and execute them. (3) Rapidly changing situations. c. Under the conditions of highly mobile warfare, with combat units dispersed laterally and in depth, meeting engagements may occur frequently at brigade and lower echelons of command. In the attack, armor forces may encounter enemy units in depth either in blocking positions or on the move. 140. Considerations a. In each meeting engagement, the commander of the advancing force is normally confronted with three possible courses of action (1) Attack directly from march formation as rapidly as his units are available for employment. (2) Reconnoiter and block the enemy with forces in contact until other units can be committed in a coordinated effort, either offensively or defensively, as they become available. (3) Attempt to break contact and bypass the enemy force. b. The paramount objective of the commander fighting a meeting engagement is to gain and retain the initiative. In so doing he may adopt one or a combination of the aforementioned courses of action that will contribute most effectively to the accomplishment of his mission. Without the initiative, he can only react to the enemy's actions. c. The character of the battle is such that the commander must use bold initiative to quickly develop the situation. Frequently, aggressive action must be initiated despite the vagueness and uncertainty of the situation. Mobile forces are required to develop the situation rapidly and aggressively to seize an initial tactical advantage. d. Success in the meeting engagement requires that the enemy be kept off balance by offensive actions. Proper balance must be retained by the attacker to rapidly follow up the gains of initial actions. Accomplishment of this complex goal depends largely upon aggressive reconnaissance and rapid commitment of forces from the march formation in a coordinated effort. e. The tempo and speed of this fight dictates that the commander take personal control with minimum reliance on written or formal instructions through normal staff channels. His decision should be based on firsthand knowledge and, if practicable, on personal reconnaissance. He should move quickly to the scene of action, make a rapid estimate of the situation, formulate a simple plan, and issue fragmentary orders. f. Speed and combat power are required in this uncertain and vague situation. When friendly and enemy forces attack simultaneously from the march formation, fighting may develop wherein the initiative of the engaged commanders; the experience of the troops; and the fire and striking power, particularly of tanks, will be decisive. g. Minimum control measures are used. However, commanders at all levels must retain a firm hand on their units and not allow coordination to be impaired by the necessity of committing units rapidly or piecemeal. Lack of coordination may cause subordinate units to become engaged in actions that do not assist the force mission. 141 . Conduct of the Meeting En.gagement a. The desired goal in the meeting engagement is to strike the enemy force continuously until he ceases to exist as a fighting entity. The armor commander must orient his forces against the enemy and strike violently and re and may evolve only as the engagement con lentlessly. The terrain may offer such an adtinues. vantage that it will be best to defend, inflict e. Maneuver units direct their attacks losses on the enemy, and then counterattack against the flanks of a fixed enemy to produce with all available forces. This is particularly decisive results. Frontal attacks are avoided. true when the enemy has superior tank f. If the enemy force is moving when con strength. tact is made, a rapid flank attack may hinder b. The security elements will normally be seriously his ability to deploy and maneuver the first to contact the enemy. The initial his main body. fighting by security elements is particularly g. It is of utmost importance that the comimportant to the successful continuation of the mander recognize changes in the situation in engagement and is of great concern to the comtime to act accordingly. He may be required to mander. These forces must make a rapid rechange plans rapidly, and assign new tasks to connaissance as accurate information is rehis units already in motion to support the iniquired by the commander from the outset. tial plan. They may attack or block the enemy, making it h. Units committed from the march columnpossible to occupy important terrain. often encounter enemy forces in unreported lo c. Forces in the march column deploy rapidcations. The action taken against them must ally and are normally committed to the fight ways assist in the accomplishment of the overwhile on the move to achieve tactical surprise. all mission. Adjacent and higher headquarters Certain forces may be deployed adjacent to the must be advised of this enemy contact and the route of march and constitute the commander's commander's plan of action. reserve. i. Commanders may be directed to bypass·an d. Artillery supports the security forces and enemy force. Minimum forces are employed to forces committed to the action from the march block the enemy and allow the uninterrupted advance of the main force. Blocking forces will formation. Artillery units quickly move as far forward as possible to provide the required fire initially be security elements and should be re support. This maneuver is essential because the lieved of this mission as rapidly as possible by confines of the fight cannot be predetermined units that have a follow and support role. Section VIII. PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES OF THE BYPASS c. Regardless of the level to which authority 142. General has been granted, the commander conductinga. In a bypass operation the commander dethe bypass immediately notifies the next higherliberately avoids offensive combat with an encommander of his intention and reports on theemy force, position, or installation. This action enemy force to be bypassed. is designed to avoid dissipation or diversion of combat power to efforts other than accomplishment of the mission. Bypass operations are 143. Considerations particularly applicable during the exploitation, a. The first consideration in the decision to pursuit, or other offensive action when the enbypass an enemy force is an analysis of the emy force encountered is of insufficient factors of METT.strength to jeopardize the accomplishment of b. Initially, limited information of the enthe unit's mission. emy may be available. Aggressive action mustb. Authority to bypass is delegated by be initiated to develop the situation to obtainhigher headquarters but is not normally deleaccurate detailed knowledge of the enemy. gated below task force level. Because of the ex tended front over which the armored cavalry c. Minimum time is available to develop the squadron normally operates, authority to bysituation and formulate plans to hasten execu pass may be delegated down to troop level. tion of the bypass. 81 d. Mobile forces are required to develop the c. Actions of the Blocking Force. situation rapidly and aggressively and to locate (1) Normally the blocking force will enpossible bypass routes. gage the enemy until the maneuvere. The availability of follow-and-support ing elements have completed their byforces may influence the commander's decision pass and then disengages from theto bypass an enemy force. enemy to rejoin the maneuver units. The blocking force normally employs 144. Conduct defensive, delaying, and limited offen a. Developing the Situation. When enemy sive actions in this type operation. contact is made, engaged friendly forces de (2) The commander conducting the by ploy, develop the enemy situation (location,strength, composition, and disposition), choose pass may direct the blocking force to a course of action, and report to higher headblock and maintain contact with the quarters. Concurrently with actions to develop enemy until relieved by follow-andthe situation, reconnaissance is conducted to losupport forces. This may require the cate possible bypass routes. If available, arblocking force to be reinforced with mored cavalry, air cavalry, or other aircraft combat support elements since a commay be employed to facilitate the reconnaisbination of offensive, defensive, and sance of enemy positions and possible bypass delaying actions are employed to acroutes. complish this mission. The blocking force commander coordinates with b. Techniques of the Bypass. One or both of the follow-and-support force comthe following techniques may be employed: mander as early as possible and pro (1) Block the enemy by fire and bypass vides him with all available informawith the maneuver elements. tion about the enemy and terrain. (2) Block the enemy with part of the maConcurrently with this action, theneuver elements and bypass with the blocking force commander plans to balance of the force (fig. 7). rejoin the main force. Section IX. NIGHT ATTACKS 145. General require the use of special techniques of night a. Night combat is an integral part of all arattack operations. These periods of reducedmor operations. Night attacks and night operavisibility should be taken advantage of to contions offer excellent opportunities for achieving duct offensive operations. deception and surprise. e. The fundamentals involved in night b. Night combat that achieves surprise may operations are the same as those in daylightoffer opportunities for success when daylight operations; however, techniques may vary. Foroperations are impractical. This is especially example, more control measures may be place~true when friendly forces lack air superiority. upon units during night operations than durContinuous pressure applied day and night, ing daylight operations.particularly against a weakening enemy, has f. Battlefield illumination and surveillancetens decision. Relentless exploitation around equipment increase the efficiency of units operthe clock denies the enemy time for regaining ating at night and facilitate the employment ofhis composure and speeds his destruction. supporting fires. c. Troop movements, concentration of forcesbefore the attack, and the conduct of the attack 146. Basic Considerations of Night Attackmay result in minimum risk to friendly forces a. Night combat is characterized by a deand fewer casualties. crease in the range of aimed fires and a corre d. Operations in smoke, fog, haze, falling sponding increase in area type fires and closesnow, and other conditions of reduced visibility supporting fires by direct fire weapons. 82 COMPANY TEAM EXECUTING A BYPASS ~ ... \ ICJI ... / IC) I g/ ... / [§§] BATTALION TASK FORCE EXECUTING A BYPASS ARMORED BRIGADE EXECUTING A BYPASS Figure 7. Examples of the bypass. b. Morale of troops, both friendly and enemy, is highly sensitive to physical and psychological factors. Troops trained and conditioned in night operations can use these psychological factors to their advantage. c. Darkness increases difficulty of movement, maintenance of direction, and control. The time required to execute movement and emplace weapons is greater at night than in daylight. Simple schemes of maneuver with well-defined objectives and routes simplify control. Leaders must be well forward in attacking echelons. Full use is made of navigational aids to assist in the maintenance of direction. d. Subordinate commanders should have adequate time for reconnaissance. They should be able to observe, during daylight, terrain over which their units will move in order to fix terrain features which will aid maintenance of direction. e. Coordination of nuclear fires with maneuver at night is difficult. Darkness increases troop safety considerations because of degradation of night vision. Obstacles created by nuclear fires are difficult to traverse at night and these fires may destroy landmarks which were to be used as control measures. f. Enemy use of nuclear weapons may affect the vision of attacking or defending troops, causing them to be temporarily less effective. Fires created by nuclear or conventional weapons may assist in identification of objectives and maintaining direction but may also silhouette forces of either side. g. The paramount consideration is that the attacking troops be as familiar as possible with the terrain over which they will attack. It is desirable to employ troops in night operations that have not been engaged in fighting all day. Troops become fatigued more easily in night combat due to the added physical and psychological stress and strain. h. During night operations, the effectiveness of armor is increased by the use of illumination, including tank-mounted infrared devices and searchlights. Illumination also aids the adjustment of artillery fire. i. Illumination by diffuse lighting in rear areas assists in troop movements, logistical operations, and the operation of supporting weapons. 147. Planning the Night Attack In general, planning for the night attack is similar to that of a daylight attack. However, plans for the night attack are in greater detail with stringent control measures to insure coor dination within and between attacking and supporting elements. Subsequent paragraphs will discuss areas that require emphasis in planning offensive operations at night or under conditions of reduced visibility. Appendix XV contains techniques for night operations. a. General. The commander's decision to conduct a night attack must be disseminated to subordinate leaders in time to provide them an opportunity for reconnaissance, detailed planning, and coordination. The amount of planning will depend on the time available, especially when armor units are continuing a daylight attack into the night. The commander must consider the inherent risks in such an attack. Nevertheless, attacks in progress are not discontinued merely because of nightfall. Brigades and subordinate units in the attacking echelon plan to continue the attack through the night unless ordered :otherwise. b. Reconnaissance. A detailed day and night reconnaissance should be made of the route of march, attack position, positions for searchlights, and platoon points of departure. Daylight reconnaissance of terrain not held by friendly troops may be accomplished from aircraft and from vantage points controlled by friendly units. Reconnaissance should be conducted to platoon level as a minimum and lower if time permits. When a passage of lines is required, the reconnaissance should be conducted jointly with the units in contact. It should include as a minimum location and identification of guides from units in contact, routes through friendly positions, and known minefields and obstacles. Air photographs of the area over which the attack is to be conducted should be obtained and distributed at least down to company level. It may be necessary to send out patrols to obtain detailed information of the terrain and of the location and strength of enemy security elements. Every effort is made to locate enemy minefields and plans are made to breach these and other obstacles before the attack. c. Surprise and Security. In a night attack, surprise is obtained mainly through secrecy. Measures to obtain secrecy include ( 1) Restricting the size and time of par~ ties engaged in reconnaissance and other preparations. (2) Using artillery and mortar fire to cover the sound of tanks and armored personnel carriers. (3) Conducting local attacks in areas not designated for the night attack. (4) Attacking at a time and from a direction heretofore not used against the enemy. Set patterns, including methods of attack, are avoided. (5) Illuminating areas other than the attack area to mislead the enemy. ( 6) Imposing radio listening silence, at least until reaching platoon points of departure and preferably to the probable line of deployment. (7) Conducting the attack nonilluminated until the attacking force is exposed by the enemy or until it reaches the probable line of deployment. d. Control Measures. The following control measures are normally used in the night attack (1) General. Attack positions, line of departure, contact points, boundaries, direction of attack, and objectives are night attack principal control measures and are discussed in Appendix X. (2) Limit of advance. To retain control and prevent the assault echelon from l;>eing endangered by friendly fires, the commander establishes a limit of advance. This limit should be easily recognizable under conditions of reduced visibility. It should be far enough beyond and to the flanks of the objective to allow space for security elements to perform their mission. Fire support agencies can engage enemy forces beyond this line without clearance from the supported unit. (3) Point of departure. This point is where the attacking platoons cross the line of departure. Platoons will normally cross in column formation. The point of departure should be readily identifiable and if necessary, guides should be posted to facilitate control. ( 4) Probable line of deployment. The probable line of deployment should be an easily identifiable terrain feature (road, trail, or other feature). This line is where the unit will assume its assault formation if enemy contact has not been made. Illumination is normally initiated at this time if it is to be used and radio listening silence lifted. (5) Special control means. For special control means, see Appendix X. e. Illumination (1) If there is little or no chance of surprising the enemy, artificial illumination may be used as soon as the attack is launched. If surprise can be gained, illumination may be withheld until the enemy places effective fires upon the attacker. In any event, illumination must be planned for and performed when the enemy fires become effective or if he chooses to illuminate the battlefield himself. (2) Battlefield illumination facilitates control and coordination within the attacking elements, permits delivery of aimed fire, and allows rapid minefield removal and evacuation of casualties. For a discussion of battlefield illumination, see Appendix XV. f. Fire Support. (1) In a night attack, supporting fires are planned and controlled in the same manner as in a daylight attack. They may be employed before, during, and after the attack. To assist in gaining surprise, the attacking force may advance within assaulting distance of the . objective without supporting fires. Once the assault on the objective begins, fires are delivered to isolate the objective, prevent or limit counterattacks, and support the assaulting force. (2) Nuclear fires may be used just before the attack to neutralize known hard targets. The employment of on-call nuclear fires should be avoided. The exact location and protective measures afforded the attacking troops may be difficult to determine. Special precautions must be taken to increase troops safety considerations because of dazzle effect at night. The creation of obstacles is to be avoided as they are more difficult to negotiate at night. Nuclear fires may obliterate landmarks that were to be used as control measures. ( 3) Normal fires are maintained before and during an unsupported attack. They do not alert the enemy to an impending attack but assist in maintaining secrecy by muffling the noise of advancing tanks and armored personnel carriers. ( 4) Positions for supporting weapons are reconnoitered and marked, and firing data is prepared during daylight. Weapons are moved under cover of darkness. In a night attack by a battalion task force, it may be desirable to provide all supporting fires from units not in the task force. When this is done, all the battalion's supporting weapons can follow the attacking echelon to the objective by bounds. g. Communication. Radio is the primary means of communication in the mounted attack. Listening silence may be imposed on the attacking force to mislead the enemy as to the intentions of the moving tracked vehicles. When the enemy discovers the attack, listening silence is lifted. Dismounted mechanized infantry given the mission of breaching minefields and securing the probable line of deployment should use wire communication until the attack is disclosed. In any event, supplemental means such as pyrotechnic signals, infrared searchlights, and electronic devices are planned and employed. 148. Scheme of Maneuver The amount of maneuver possible during a night attack depends mainly on the nature of the objective and the visibility. It is difficult to change direction. Complicated maneuvers are avoided to decrease the danger of firing on friendly troops. Attacks normally are made in one direction and in a relatively close formation to facilitate control. Nevertheless, simple maneuvers may be used by tank and mechanized infantry units employing vehicular mounted navigational aids and infrared equipment. a. Formations. In an attack that is not illuminated initially, tank companies cross the line of departure in line formation with platoons in column. Attached mechanized infantry may be in column behind a tank platoon. Intervals between company teams are such that units can deploy when necessary. Deployment by platoons to the line formation is made when forced by enemy action or at the probable line of deployment to attain maximum firepower and shock effect. In an illuminated attack with supporting fires or when visibility permits, platoons may employ the line formation from the attack position to the objective. In any event, the rate of advance is timed to permit a simultaneous assault on the objective by the leading units. For a discussion of formations in a dismounted attack with tanks, see FM 7-20 and FM 7-11. b. Time of Attack. Time patterns are avoided to facilitate surprise. Consideration must be given to the mission and enemy situation. If the attack is to seize favorable terrain for a succeeding daylight attack, it may be launched during the final hours of darkness to give the enemy minimum time in which to interfere with the subsequent attack. However, attacks launched during early darkness permit the attacker to take maximum advantage of a long period of darkness and exploit the enemy's confusion and loss of control. Attacks may be initiated during darkness and continued without pause during daylight. 149. Conduct of the Night Attack ct. The attacking forces cross the line of departure at the time prescribed by the operation order. Commanders are well forward to insure aggressive movement of their units, maintenance of direction, and coordination with other· units and the base of fire. All leaders must ex ercise close control over their elements to prevent a premature assault. The ideal is to conduct the attack nonilluminated as far forward as possible then conduct the action from the point of discovery to the consolidation of the objective in a manner similar to a daylight attack with maximum illumination. b. Enemy security forces encountered during the advance are disposed of by the leading elements. This action may require engaged elements to deploy before the planned time. Adjacent units may continue to advance during this action. Following u~its may be committed around the flank of the engaged unit and assume its mission. After the resistance has been reduced, engaged units may reform and follow the main force. This technique is effectively used in an attack of a deep objective. In any event, the entire attack should not be halted because of engagement by leading elements with enemy security forces. If the resistance is such that commanders may lose control or receive effective enemy fire during the attack, visible illumination may be employed and the advance continued as a daylight attack. c. The ideal to be achieved in the night assault is the same as in a daylight assault. Deployment by platoons to line formation is completed without halting; any prolonged halt at this stage of the operation increases the chance of detection and allows the enemy time to redispose his force on the objective. Mechanized infantry remain mounted until dismounted action is required. When further surprise cannot be achieved, visible illumination is initiated or increased. Mechanized infantry is dismounted to allow the force to place its maximum aimed and concentrated firepower on the enemy. The key to firepower in the assault is volume. The key to shock effect is moving tracked vehicles. Every effort is made to maintain the line formation and prevent it from breaking into isolated groups. 150. Actions on the Objective Security elements are sent out far enough to warn of enemy forces forming for counterattack within assaulting distance of the captured position. If they are required to go beyond the established limit of advance, their movements are carefully coordinated with the base of fire. Consideration must be given to the use of infrared during the consolidation and reorganization of the objective. This is necessary because the attacking unit will suffer from night blindness for 15 to 30 minutes after extinguishing visible lights. Before daylight, all elements should be in position, prepared to continue the attack or defend the position. CHAPTER 7 DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS Section I. 151. Purpose of Defense In the defense armor units prevent, resist, repulse, or destroy an enemy attack. The purpose of the defense is to gain time pending the development of more favorable conditions for undertaking the offensive; economize forces in one area to concentrate superior forces for decisive offensive action elsewhere;· destroy or trap a hostile force; reduce the enemy capacity for offensive action; or deny an enemy entry into an area. 152. Doctrine of Defen.se The doctrine of defense envisions the use of security forces to provide early warning to detect, delay, deceive, and disorganize the enemy attack; forward defense forces to organize the forward defense area to repel the attacker and develop the situation; and a reserve force to eject or destroy the attack by offensive action. This doctrine also envisions capitalizing on mobility, firepower, and offensive action to establish a defense to retain the initiative, denying the attacker his decisive objectives without the defender becoming fixed and destroyed; and destroying the enemy by fire and maneuver. When the enemy possesses a modern mechanized force, the forward defense force must contain sufficient tanks and other antitank weapons that will enable them to repel the attacker or develop the situation whichever is desired. The nature of the operation demands adequate space for maneuver and a high degree of mobility. GENERAL 153. Basic Consideration of Defensive Operations The planning, organization, and conduct of the defense are based on the following considerations: a. Proper Use of Terrain. Terrain is a major factor in the selection of the defensive area and the location and distribution of defending forces. The defender seeks to control key terrain features essential to observation, communication, and maneuver of reserves. He seeks to deny the enemy the use of terrain which might jeopardize success of the defense. Advantage is taken of obstacles to strengthen the position or to divert the enemy into areas suitable for counterattack. Obstacles in the area have a strong bearing on the general defensive scheme, including the distribution of forces and positioning of the reserves. An evaluation of the enemy avenues of approach in conjunction with key terrain features serves as the basis for positioning troops, surveillance means, and fire. In an analysis of terrain, the following factors should be considered: ( 1) Key terrain features. (2) Observation and fields of fire. ( 3) Cover and concealment. ( 4) Obstacles. (5)• Enemy avenues of approach. b. Security. Precautions must be taken to avoid tactical surprise by the enemy since the attacker normally retains the initiative as to the time, place, direction, and strength of the attack. Commanders provide for all-round security to insure early warning and reliable information of approaching enemy forces. All units, regardless of their size, are responsible for their own security. c. All-Round Defense. Although the defense is designed primarily to combat an enemy attack along the most probable avenues of approach, the enemy may attack from a direction other than expected or considered likely. Also, the enemy may attack the rear by envelopment or large-scale guerrilla action. The defending unit must be capable of meeting an attack from any direction. It must not permit the enemy to gain a decisive advantage by surprise as to the direction or location of the attack. The defender prepares for all-round defense by the careful initial disposition of forces and by the planned redisposition of troops and shifting of fires to meet contingencies. d. Defense in Depth. Adequate depth to the defense is essential. It must be expected that a strong attack, particularly if supported by nuclear weapons, will permit the enemy to advance some distance in the defense area. There must be sufficient depth to the defense to contain or canalize the enemy and to permit execution of counterattacks. Shallow defenses are inherently vulnerable because the enemy may breach them before he can be contained or effective counteraction taken. Depth to the defense is achieved by proper deployment of forces, selection and preparation of blocking positions in depth, maneuver of forward elements to supplementary positions as necessary, and use of mobile reserves in any part of the defensive area. e. Responsiveness. The success of the defensive battle will, as in the offense, depend upon the application of superior combat power at the decisive time and place. Both maneuver units and fire support elements must be responsive to the commander's needs if this superiority is to be gained at the proper time and place. f. Dispersion. In a nuclear situation, dispersion is an important consideration in organizing the defense to limit or minimize vulnerability to nuclear attack. The need for maximum dispersion must be balanced against certain operational requirements for concentration that may be necessary to accomplish the mission. For example, the retention of specific terrain may oppose maximum dispersion. In such cases the mission is paramount, and the degree of risk in accepting a lesser dispersion is secondary. A force that disperses laterally rather than in depth, risks isolation of its separate forward combat units, subsequent penetration by frontal attack, and defeat in detail. Dispersion in depth is preferable to purely lateral formations since it avoids frontages that overextend the defender, provides a larger percentage of a given force as a reserve, avoids lateral movements in the face of an enemy attack, permits detection and destruction of infiltrators, and provides a better posture from which to launch offensive operations. g. Maximum Use of Offensive Action. In the defense, every opportunity is taken to wrest the initiative from the enemy and to destroy him. The defender must be prepared to take offensive action whenever the opportunity presents itself. The counterattack or spoiling attack is often the key to success in the defense. h. Integration and Coordination of Defensive Measures. The overall defense plan involves the careful integration and coordination of all defensive measures. Special attention must be given to antitank defenses when the enemy possesses modern mechanized forces. ( 1) Fire planning is conducted and coordinated at all levels. Fire planning must provide for continuous fire support to the forces in the security area, forward defense area, and reserve area. Fires are also planned to control gaps and cover barriers. (2) When time permits, natural obstacles are supplemented by minefields and other artificial obstacles to form effective barriers. Such barriers are designed to restrict the movement of the enemy without restricting the planned maneuver of our own forces. For a detailed discussion on barrier planning, see appendixes XVIII and XIX. (3) Mutual support is provided between units by fire or movement, or both, and coordinated and incorporated into the overall plan of defense. ( 4) All surveillance means are coordinated closely and incorporated into the overall plan of defense. See appendix XXI for employment of radar. i. Time. Time available for planning, preparation, and occupation of defensive positions is of major importance and will often determine the defensive posture of a unit. 154. Basic Forms of Defense There are two basic forms of defense, the mobile defense and the area defense. a. The mobile defense employs a combination of offensive, defensive, and delaying actions with the ultimate success of the defense depending upon offensive action. The primary objective of the mobile defense is the destruction of the attacking enemy force. In the mobile defense, minimum forces are deployed as fixing forces in the forward defensive area to detect, disorganize, delay, and destroy the attacking enemy and to provide time and space for action by the reserve. The bulk of the combat power of the command is deployed as a counterattack force which employs the principles of offensive combat to destroy the enemy at the most favorable time and place. b. In the area defense, emphasis is placed on retention of specific terrain. Offensive and defensive actions are directed at stopping the enemy forward of the forward defensive area or ejecting him if he penetrates this area. The bulk of the combat power of the command is committed to defense of the forward defensive area. Reserves are employed to add depth to the defense, to block or destroy enemy penetrations, to counterattack and restore the defensive position, or to reinforce threatened forces. 155. Selection of the Type Defense a. Selection of the type defense to be used depends on the mission, terrain, mobility, nuclear weapons, air situation, time, and enemy capabilities. See FM 61-100 for detailed discussion. b. Mobile defense is the preferred type of defense for armor. Its adoption is favored when ( 1) The mission and the area of operation permit the defense to be organized and fought in sufficient depth. (2) Terrain permits relatively free movement by the defending force. ( 3) The mobility of the defending forces compares favorably with that of the enemy. ( 4) The enemy has the capability of employing nuclear weapons and the defender must employ maximum dispersion and mobility to decrease vulnerability to nuclear attack. (5) The air situation permits relatively free movement of the defending forces. (6) Minimum time is available for deployment of forces and organization of the ground and defensive positions. c. Area defense is less desirable for armor units because it does not make maximum use of the mobility of the tank. Its adoption is favored when ( 1) There is a lack of depth in the defensive area. (2) There is a requirement to retain specific terrain. (3) Terrain restricts maneuver by the defending force. ( 4) The attacker possesses a mobility differential over the defender. ( 5) The attacker possesses air superiority. ( 6) Time is available for the construction of defensive positions to include the preparation of barriers. 156. Factors Affecting Employment The commander must employ armor in a manner calculated to make maximum use of its favorable characteristics. Regardless of the type defense that may be employed, this calculation is based on a reasoned analysis of the factors of METT (para 30-34). Section II. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEFENSE 157. General In either the mobile or the area defense, armor units may be required to organize the defense of specific terrain in accordance with the overall plan of defense of the higher commander. In mobile defense, a small armor unit may be required to organize a sector of the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA) or one or more blocking positions. In the area defense, the unit may be assigned a sector to defend as part of the forces in the forward defense area. Techniques in organizing the defense of the ground in these cases are basically the same and are discussed in this section. They include reconnaissance, planning, organization of the ground, command and control, fire planning, surveillance, and employment of supporting troops. 158. Reconnaissance for Defensive Action Upon receipt of an order to assume the defensive, the commander makes a map study and formulates tentative plans. As soon as possible, he reconnoiters his assigned sector as completely as time and the situation will permit. While on reconnaissance he determines ( 1) The probable avenues of enemy armor and dismounted approach. (2) The terrain that is to be occupied by security forces. (3) Key terrain that is to be retained or denied the enemy. ( 4) Natural obstacles forward of and in the area that can be used to strengthen the defensive area. ( 5) Location of reserves. (6) Location of command posts. (7) Location of logistical support installations. 159. Planning for Defense Normally, the defender has ari advantage in that he can select the terrain and has time for organization of the ground and opportunity to improve natural obstacles. Initially, the commander develops a tentative plan from his reconnaissance and issues a warning order. This is followed by more detailed plans, including plans for ( 1) Organization of the ground. (2) Organization for combat. (3) Command and control. ( 4) Fire support. ( 5) Security and surveillance. ( 6) Employment of supporting troops. (7) Logistics. 160. Priority of Work in Organization of the Ground for Defense In the defense, measures for increasing the effects of fire and movement take precedence over all other work. The goal is to insure that accurate fire can be delivered on the attacker, to make his fires ineffective, and to impede his movements while improving the movement of defending forces. The normal tasks associated with organization of the ground include a. Preparation of Counterattack Routes. A reconnaissance is conducted for each counterattack plan to determine the best routes for movement of forces. This task also includes the reconnaissance and improvement of routes from primary to supplementary positions. b. Preparation of Defensive Position. (1) As soon as defensive positions are occupied, units organize the ground for defense to include air defense weapons. Fields of fire are cleared, tanks are placed in hull defilade, emplacements are dug for crew-served weapons, and foxholes are dug for personnel. Alternate and supplementary positions are planned and prepared as time permits. (2) Armored personnel carriers and air defense artillery automatic weapons may be integrated into the forward defense positions. These vehicular weapons can be assigned fire missions to augment the long range, close-in, and final protective fires of other automatic weapons. Due to the high silhouette and vulnerability to certain types of enemy fire, armored personnel carriers are usually placed to the rear in defilade. However, provisions are made to move the carriers, as the situation requires, to previously selected firing positions from which they can augment protective fires. When in defilade, they can provide flank and rear protection. (3) Range cards are prepared for all crew-served weapons. All vehicles, weapons, and emplacements are camouflaged. Every effort is made to deceive the enemy as to the true location of the defensive positions. Move ment of individuals and vehicles within the defensive areas is kept to a minimum. c. Strengthening the Defensive Position. Obstacles are improved and mines are used to provide close-in protection for each blocking position. Protective, defensive, and dummy minefields may be installed. Protective minefields may be installed, upon authority of the company commander, to the front and flanks of the blocking positions to provide security. Dummy minefields may be used as gaps by the reserve. Time permitting, and upon authority of the brigade commander, defensive minefields may be installed to add strength to each blocking position. Each minefield must be marked and recorded properly. d. Preparation of Routes for Supply. Supply routes are established for each battalion task force. Supply routes must be coordinated with the plan of defense to insure that they do not conflict with the maneuver of forces conducting the defense. Alternate supply routes may be required. Supply routes should be marked and traffic entering the forward defensive area should be controlled. e. Establishment of Early Warning System. Emphasis will be placed on early detection and warning of enemy approach. This is accomplished by establishing OP's, LP's, and by employing air and ground surveillance and security forces. See chapter 5 for employment of surveillance and security forces. 161. Organization for Combat Organization for combat is the method by which a commander organizes his forces to meet the varying requirements of the battlefield in terms of the factors of METT. These factors are of such importance and sufficiently different in the two basic types of defense that a detailed discussion of each is set forth in paragraphs 167 through 173 (Mobile Defense) and paragraphs 174 through 183 (Area Defense). 162. Command and Control a. General. The defense commander must insure effective control and coordination of the defensive action. However, this control must permit maximum flexibility of employment of the forces conducting the defense and allow freedom of action by subordinate commanders. The commander initiates control and coordination by announcing his concept of the operation and the plan of defense, by insuring adequate communication, and by employing necessary control measures, together with priorities of effort and sequence of action. b. Control Measures. (1) Objectives are normally established for the coordination of each counterattack plan. In addition, fire control measures, lines of departure, axes of advance, zones of action, or directions of attack are established for each counterattack plan. (2) Phase lines may be used to control the rearward movements of the security force, to delineate areas for surveillance, and to coordinate the movement of the reserve. (3) Boundaries are used to delineate lateral responsibilities in the forward defensive area. Boundaries normally extend forward to the extent of the area of influence which is normally the range of organic, attached, or direct support weapons and rearward to the depth of the blocking positions. (4) Coordinating points are used in the forward defensive area for the coordination between adjacent units. ( 5) Contact points may be designated to insure coordination of units performing surveillance missions and of units operating observation posts or combat outposts. c. Communication. Although radio is the means of communication most often used in armor units, all forms of signal communication must be utilized to the best advantage. Maximum use must be made of both ground and air relay. In the defense when time and the situation permit, more reliance is placed on wire comm1r1nications. A discussion of communication is contained in paragraphs 229-233. 163. Fire Planning in Defense a. Mission. The fires of organic and supporting weapons are coordinated to (1) Bring the enemy under effective fire as early as possible. (2) Subject the enemy to progressively heavier fire as he approaches the defensive area. (3) Destroy the enemy by fire if he attacks the defensive positions. ( 4) Support the counterattack and movement of other units to support the plan of defense. b. The Plan of Fire Support. The plan of fire support is the coordinated and integrated plan for all fires, nuclear and nonnuclear, available to the commander at each echelon. Components of the plan of fire support include detailed· plans for fires of automatic weapons, tanks, mortars, and all available fire support agencies. Planning for fires is continuous and is as detailed as the situation and the time permit. Fires are planned on all targets and areas on which a need for fire might arise. This permits prompt and effective delivery of fires under all conditions of visibility. Provision must be made to allow departures from the plans to permit prompt attack of targets of opportunity. (1) Each unit develops plans for employment of its organic weapons. Requests for supporting fires are included in the plan of fire support which is submitted to the next higher headquarters. Subordinate fire support plans are incorporated into the next higher echelon's plan of fire support. (2) Planned fires for the defense fall into four categories-long range fires, close defensive fires, :final protective fires, and fires within the defensive area. c. Long Range Fires. ( 1) Long range fires are planned to engage the enemy as early as possible to inflict casualties, to delay his advance, and to disrupt his organization. (2) Long range fires are employed initially in support of the security force. ( 3) As the enemy continues his advance and comes within range of additional weapons, he is brought under an increasingly heavy volume of fire. (4) Long range fires should also support counterattacks and spoiling attacks conducted forward of the defended area. d. Close Defensive Fires. Close defensive fires are planned to disorganize the attacking force before the enemy can assault defensive positions. These fires are planned to inflict the greatest possible number of casualties; to disrupt command, control, and communication; to deny observation; and to neutralize his supporting fires. Close defensive fires also support counterattacks or spoiling attacks made immediately forward of the battle area. e. Final Protective Fires. Final protective fires are designed to break up the enemy assault on the forward defended positions under all conditions of visibility. Such fires consist of a first priority, prearranged, barrier of fire laid down just in front of forward blocking positions. They consist of mortar and artillery barrages and final protective line fires of machineguns. Tanks in the blocking position engage targets of opportunity. f. Fires Within the Forward Defensive A rea. Fires within the position are planned to limit possible penetrations of the forward defensive areas or support counterattacks. Fires are planned to seal off the penetrating force and to prevent movement of enemy reinforcements. Plans should be made for fires of adjacent units to support the penetrated units by firing on the flanks and rear of the penetration force. In addition, fires should be planned to cover gaps between blocking positions. g. Air Suppo'rt. When available, air cavalry and close air support fires are integrated into the plan of fire support. If possible, ground alert or air alert aircraft should engage targets of opportunity. Preplanned on-call missions should be planned on locations where enemy troop concentrations are likely to occur during an enemy attack. Preplanned missions should be requested to support counterattack plans. h. Add'itionnl lnformaUon. See chapter 9 and appendix XIV for additional information on fire support planning. 164. Security and Surveillance in Defense Gaps throughout the defensive area must be secured against infiltration, guerrilla action, or airborne and airmobile attacks. The commander plans for the employment of all availa ble means in providing adequate surveillance of the defensive area. See appendix XXI for employment of ground surveillance radar. 165. Combat Support Units in Defense a. Field Artillery. ( 1) The massed fires of supporting artillery are essential to the success of the defense. Every effort is made to meet enemy attacks with massed artillery fires. If the frontage is so extensive that artillery fires cannot be massed across the entire front, plans must be developed for concentrating fires on likely avenues of enemy approach and on areas to be denied to the enemy. (2) Artillery normally is placed in direct support of each brigade conducting the defense. Artillery liaison officers are provided to each battalion of the brigade, and forward observers are provided to each company-size combat unit. (3) Fires of general support artillery may be made available by request through direct support artillery channels. ( 4) Artillery elements are attached normally to the security force during the initial conduct of the defense. When the security force is forced to withdraw, the artillery withdraws to preselected positions to support the defensive action. b. Air Defense Artillery. The static nature of units and installations in a defensive posture increases the probability of detection and attack by enemy aircraft. Use of ADA must be considered in defensive plans and appropriate action taken to defend priority areas. Air defense artillery units must also be considered in plans for counterattack to provide protection of displacing units, particularly when in march column. Natural and manmade features essential to success of a counterattack such as defiles, river crossing sites, and bridges must be protected from air attack (para 220-221). c. Engineers. Engineer support during defensive operations is discussed in chapter 9. d. Air Cavalry. Air cavalry is used to augment the ground reconnaissance and security effort. Initially, maximum support is provided to the security force. After the security force has withdrawn through the forward defensive area, air cavalry may provide surveillance of the flanks and the areas between blocking positions. They may support the movement of forces in the defensive area, particularly counterattacking forces. 166. Defensive Areas Defensive areas include the security area, the forward defensive area, and the reserve area. Each of these areas is allocated forces and fires as part of the overall plan of defense. Section Ill. MOBILE DEFENSE , 167. General a. The mobile defense employs a combination of offensive, defensive, and delaying actions. The ultimate success of the mobile de fense depends upon the offensive action of the reserve. The primary objective of the mobile defense is the destruction of the attacking enemy force. b. Although armor units may employ some of the techniques of the mobile defense, the division is normally the smallest unit to conduct such an operation. Armor units participate normally in a mobile defense as the security force, the fixing force, or the reserve. 168. The Security Forces n. General. Security forces consist of the covering force, observation posts, listening posts, patrols, and rear area security forces. b. Covering Force. (1) The covering force detects and reports the approach of the enemy; deJays and disorganizes his advance; and deceives him as to the location of the main force. The division covering force seeks to destroy the enemy within its capabilities employing supporting fires, including nuclear weapons when authorized, and ground action. (2) The size and composition of the covering force depend upon the front to be covered and the amount of delay required. The covering force for a division may be a brigade, the armored cavalry squadron, or a battalion task force. In some situations, the armored cavalry regiment may be attached from corps to perform this mission. The covering force is reinforced normally with combat and combat support units necessary to accomplish the mission. (3) When the armored division is executing the mobile defense as a part of the corps, the covering force will coordinate its actions with the security forces of adjacent divisions. ( 4) When the armored division executes the mobile defense independently, the covering force may be located from 8 to 25 kilometers forward of the FEEA. (5) When engaged heavily with the enemy, the establishment of a covering force may not be possible. c. Observation Posts and Listening Posts. In the mobile defense, sizable gaps will often exist between elements of the fixing forces. Observation or listening posts are established forward of, between, and to the rear of blocking positions. Observation posts provide early warnings of the enemy approach and adjust long range supporting fires on the enemy. They are located on dominant terrain generally from 800 to 2,000 meters forward of the FEBA. Troops required to man the observation posts are provided from the fixing forces. The location of observation posts is coordinated by the brigade commander with adjacent units and must insure complete surveillance of the defensive area. Listening posts and ground radar are employed during darkness and other periods of reduced visibility. Communication must be provided each observation post or listening post to permit accomplishment of their mission. d. Patrols. Foot and motorized patrols are employed between blocking positions and observation posts. These patrols are used to prevent or detect infiltration and to maintain surveillance over assigned areas. Patrols may be used at night to check listening posts, to maintain liaison with adjacent units, to seize PW's, and to gain information of the enemy. e. Rear Area Security. The increased dispersion , required by nuclear warfare, together with the enemy's capability of employing airborne, airmobile, and guerrilla forces in rear areas, requiresthat units provide their own local security. However, combat units may be assigned missions to assist in rear area security. The armored cavalry squadron may be assigned such missions. See chapter 12 for rear area security operations. 169. Fixing Forces a. General. Fixing forces, consisting of minimum forces and heavy in mechanized infantry, are employed in the forward defensive area. However, adequate tank strength must be provided for antitank defense when the enemy possess modern mechanized forces. The mission and the area to be defended should be stated with minimum restrictions. This permits fixing force commanders to use their means to maximum advantage within the framework of the overall plan of defense. The holding of specific terrain by the fixing force may restrict the execution of the mobile defense. However, fixing forces may be required to hold terrain on the flanks of other defending units that are conducting an area defense. b. Mission. Missions suitable for units assigned to fixing forces are (1) Warn of impending attack and provide information on the progress of the attack. (2) Defend. (3) Delay, deceive, and disorganize the attacker. ( 4) Canalize the attacker into an area suitable for attack by the reserve or by nuclear fires. (5) Force the attacker to mass. c. Actions of the F-ixing Forces. Fixing forces accomplish the mission assigned by a combination of the following actions: (1) Establishment of observation or listening posts and other surveillance means. (2) Patrolling. (3) Occupation and defense of blocking positions. ( 4) Delaying action. ( 5) Offensive action within their capabilities. 170. The Reserve a. General. The reserve is the decisive element in the mobile defense. It consists of the bulk of the combat power of the command and is strong in tanks. b. Mission. The reserve destroys the enemy by offensive action. c. Actions of the Reserve. The reserve accomplishes its mission by attacking within, to the flanks, or forward of the FEBA. 171. Considerations of the Mobile Defense a. Organization of the Ground. Organization of the ground consists of use and optimum improvement of the natural defensive features of the terrain with the men, materials, and time available. The specific location of the units in the defensive area is determined from the following: (1) Unit missions to be assigned and the maneuver room required to accomplish them. (2) Enemy capabilities, known and assumed. (3) Military characteristics of the terrain, particularly the defensive strength of obstacles, all possible enemy avenues of approach, and the area trafficability. ( 4) The capabilities of friendly forces, including all available combat support units. In this connection, the relative mobility of all units and their responsiveness have considerable bearing on the positioning of units. b. Organization for Combat. (1) SecU?·ity foTces. (ct) The covering force is organized as a highly mobile, self-contained force in keeping with the funda mentals of security discussed in chapter 5. (b) The observation and listening posts established by the fixing forces are coordinated by the brigade commanders. Artillery or mortar observers are employed with elements that provide the best observation of the area. (2) Fixing forces. (a) Brigades in the fixing force receive the attachment of combat maneuver battalions in the number and type best suited for the accomplishment of the mission. Balanced forces (infantry-tank) may be required to provide adequate antitank defenses when the enemy possesses modern mechanized forces. However, when possible, such brigades will normally be mechanized infantry heavy. The reserve of the brigade, if established, is usually tank heavy. (b) Battalion task forces and company teams are organized in accordance with an analysis of the factors of METT. The anticipated mission of the task force or team is a major consideration in determining the size and composition of the force. Normally, frontages occupied by task forces in the fixing force preclude their withholding a reserve. (3) Reserves. The reserve is organized with as much combat power as possible, is tank heavy for maximum offensive power, and is employed under a single commander. 172. Planning for the Mobile Defense a. Covering Force. The plan for the covering force is prepared as outlined in chapter 5. b. Fixing FoTces. The plan for the fixing forces makes the most effective use of the forces available to develop the situation. Commanders at all levels express clearly their intenttons to their subordinates. (1) Brigade. Based on the division order, brigade commanders assign defensive sectors to battalion task forces. In assigning sectors, the commanders consider the forces available and the enemy avenues of approach into the brigade sector. Boundaries, coordi nating points, and the general trace of the FEBA are designated according to the definitions and purposes outlined in appendix VII. Based on an analysis of key terrain, certain brigade blocking positions may be designated for occupation by task forces. If an analysis of the situation indicates, a small, tank-heavy reserve may be held at brigade level. Normally, elements of the fixing forces are initially deployed in their blocking positions. However, the brigade commander may determine that his forces should be initially disposed in assembly areas. He designates the appropri . ate assembly areas and issues the orders for theoccupation of the defended localities (FM 17:...30). (2) Battalion. Battalion task force commanders normally assign sectors to company teams .based on the brigade order, the forces available, and the enemy avenues of approach into the battalion task force sector. Boundaries, coordinating points, and further refinements of the trace of the FEBA are designated. See appendix X for a discussion of appropriate control measures. Frontages occupied by battalion task forces rarely permit holding a reserve. (a) Based on an analysis of terrain, the battalion task force commander may designate a specific terrain · feature as a blocking position. He must specify when or under what circumstances the position(s) is to be occupied and the priority. (b) If the battalion task force commander determines that his forces should be disposed initially in assembly areas, rather than in defended localities, he designates the appropriate assembly areas. Orders for the occupation of the defended · · localities are ·issued by the task force commander. (c) When the battalion task force commander determines that he will conduct a delaying action or offensive action, he employs the techniques outlined in chapters 8 and 6 respectively. Combinations of these actions may be used. Such combinations add to the complexity of the plan and must be expressed clearly to subordinates. (3) Company. Company team commanders assign positions and sectors of fire to platoons based on the task force order, forces available, and enemy avenues of approach into the company team sector. The company team normally does not hold a reserve. (a) Blocking positions are organized as outlined in FM 17-15 and FM 17-36. (b) A delaying action is planned in accordance with· the techniques outlined in FM 17-15, and FM 17-36. (c) Offensive action is planned in accordance with the techniques outlined in FM 17-15, and FM 17-36. c. Counterattack Planning. (1) Counterattack plans are prepared, as a minimum, to attack an assumed major penetration on each principal enemy avenue of approach into the divisiOn area. First priority in counterattack planning is for assumed penetrations. Planning priorities may shift as intelligence of the enemy develops. (a) Counterattack plans permit, to the extent possible, the reduction of the time required to commit the reserve if the penetration develops as envisioned. These plans also assign priorities for reconnaissance, engineer efforts, and coordination. If the enemy penetration does not conform to the assumed penetrations, modification can be made without excessive loss of time. (b) Assumed penetrations will normally conform only generally to actual enemy actions. Although useful for planning, assumed penetrations are not to be construed as preselected areas into which the enemy must be canalized before being attacked by the reserve or nuclear fires. (2) When disseminated to the commander of the reserve, the division counterattack plans will include- (a) Assumptions of the status and loca tion of both friendly and enemy forces. (b) Control measures. (c) Organization for combat. (d) Missions for brigades and other units subordinate to the division. (e) Plans for fire support. (3) Based on the division counterattack plan, the commander of the reserve prepares and disseminates detailed plans to subordinates. The sequence of work is in accordance with the priority established by the commander conducting the mobile defense. Depending upon the time available, detailed reconnaissance is accomplished by all commanders, and rehearsals are conducted. Fire plans are prepared to support each counterattack plan. ( 4) Counterattack plans employ the principles of the offense (chap 6) and are designed to strike the enemy forward of, within, or in the rear of the forward defensive area. (5) Counterattack plans must be flexible to meet the actual situation. The actual counterattack will probably be a variation of one of the counterattack plans. Particular consideration must be given to multiple penetrations to avoid piecemeal commitment of the reserve. See FM 17-30. 173. Conduct of the Mobile Defense a. The mobile defense is conducted as a resilient opposition to enemy attack. Minimum forces are used within their capabilities to gain information, delay, disorganize, divert, and otherwise weaken the attack in preparation for a counterattack by the bulk of the command to destroy the enemy. b. Unless surprise offers a great opportunity for success, the enemy is taken under fire as early as possible. As the enemy advances, he is taken under fire by the security forces who warn, deceive, and execute maximum delay, within their capabilities, without becoming engaged decisively. They attempt to inflict maximum casualties on the advancing enemy and force him to deploy. As a means of collecting information, elements of the security force may remain in the area after passage of the enemy. c. The attacker's strength and dispositions during the engagement with the security forces may favor action by the reserve forward of the FEBA to destroy him. The commander must weigh carefully the risks in terms of their effects on the accomplishment of the mission. d. A tank sweep to disrupt the enemy attack during its formative stages should be considered. The decision to commit such a force must be carefully considered against the possible piecemeal loss of the strength of the command to the detriment of the overall mission. e. As the security forces withdraw through the fixing forces, the attacker is taken under fire by all weapons within effective range. The fixing forces accomplish their mission by a combination of holding ground and a delaying action extending over considerable depth. As the attack develops, commanders are able to judge the degree to which specific terrain features must be held. Forces and fires not affected by the attack may be shifted to concentrate against the enemy. Forces may occupy blocking positions in company team to battalion task force strength to force the enemy to mass or become canalized. Normally these positions are held only long enough to contribute to the overall plan. When required, elements of the fixing forces may be given the mission of occupying blocking positions to be defended at all costs. This action should be taken only when specific terrain must be held to permit success of the overall plan of defense. Forces in the fixing force may be employed in limited offensive action when opportunities occur to inflict damage on the enemy. f. The decision as to when and where to launch the counterattack by the reserve is made by the commander of the overall defense (normally the division or higher commander). It is advantageous to launch the counterattack when the enemy attack has been slowed, stopped, or disorganized. However, these are not essential prerequisites for the counterattack. Criteria for determining where and when the counterattack should be launched are primarily those for assessing offensive maneuver. For considerations on the launching of the counterattack, see FM 61-100. g. The reserve is committed normally as a unit to destroy the enemy. The counterattack plan may include terrain objectives for control purposes, but the goal of the reserve is destruction of the enemy, not seizure of terrain to restore the position. The reserve seeks to employ the principles of the offense to destroy enemy units, reserves, command facilities, fire Section IV. 174. General a. The area defense requires the retention of terrain for a period of time. In this type of defense, forward positions are strongly held and emphasis is placed on stopping the enemy forward of the FEBA. The bulk of the combat power is committed to this task. It may not be possible or advisable to physically occupy all key terrain in the defended area, but sufficient combat power must be available to dominate the area. If the enemy penetrates the defense, he is destroyed or ejected by counterattack of the reserves with the principal objective of regaining control of the forward defense area. Reserves are also employed to block enemy advances and to reinforce threatened areas. b. Although armor units prefer to employ the techniques of the mobile defense for defensive operations, they may establish an area defense when the terrain or the mission requires it. 175. Distribution. of Forces in the Area Defense In the area defense, forces are distributed to accomplish three functions-to provide security and prevent surprise attacks; to stop and repel the enemy's attack; and to destroy or eject penetrations of the forward defensive area. To accomplish these functions, three tactical groupings are organized-the security force, forces in the forward defense area, and the reserve. support elements, and combat services support. Many techniques of the meeting engagement (para 133-135) are used to seize the initiative from the enemy. h. In the event of multiple enemy penetrations, they may be dealt with simultaneously or individually in the order of the seriousness of their threat. The reserve may be committed to destroy the major threat, while sufficient force is applied to contain the other threats. It may be necessary to detach part of the reserve and attach it to the fixing force to assist in containing secondary threats. Simultaneous counterattacks by elements of the reserve divide combat power and should be avoided. AREA DEFENSE 176. Selection of the Forward Defensive Area and Reserve Positions a. The Forward Defense Area. Higher headquarters will normally designate the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA) by establishing boundaries and coordinating points. b. The Reserve Position. The reserve should be located where it can best accomplish prepared plans for its employment. Consideration must be given the probable direction of the enemy's main effort, terrain, route of communication, concealment, and security. The characteristics of a good reserve position include (1) Accessibility. It should have good routes for rapid movement to the anticipated sectors of employment. (2) Concealment. It should not be under enemy ground observation, and should offer the best possible concealment from air observation. (3) Dispersion. It must permit dispersion of units and vehicles. (4) Firm standing. It must offer standing that permits free movement of all vehicles in the reserve force. 177. Organization and Function of the Security Force The size and composition of the security forces depend upon the time required for the defending forces to prepare defensive positions, the terrain, and the troops available. In the area defense, the security force at brigade level is normally deployed as a combat outpost (COP). For a discussion of the COP, see FM 7-20. 178. Organization and Functions of Forces in the Forward Defense Area The commander selects the terrain that must be held to accomplish the defense mission and determines the enemy avenues of approach leading to them. Based on this, he then designates defensive sectors to subordinate units. Where possible, avenues of approach or key terrain features are not divided between units. Boundaries and coordinating points are established between battalion task forces and company teams. Boundaries are extended forward of the FEBA to designate areas of responsibility and are limited to the maximum effective range of organic, attached, or direct support weapons and to the rear to include the subordinate reserve location. The gaps between defensive areas are covered by fire, obstacles, and surveillance. Fires are coordinated between adjacent units. For a discussion of the armored brigade, tank battalion, and tank company, see FM 17-30 and FM 17-15, and for armored cavalry units, see FM 17-36 and FM 17-95. 179. Organization and Functions of the Reserve Normally, armor units are cross-attached with infantry for the conduct of the area defense. In the area defense, terrain and front ages may permit such units to hold a reserve at task force and team level. Armor units may also be designated as an element of either a division or brigade reserve. The reserve is constituted from forces not required in the forward defense area. The reserve is located to protect key terrain and is positioned to block penetrations from both the front and the flanks. Counterattack plans are developed for possible penetrations by the enemy; in addition, counterattack plans are developed to strike the enemy in front of the FEBA or to the flanks. Objectives, routes, lines of departure, and direction of attack are selected for each counterattack plan. Key personnel should reconnoiter the route for each counterattack plan. The reserve plans to reinforce or cover the withdrawal of frontline units. The reserve should be heavy in tanks; however, the exact composition of the reserve is determined after a study of the factors of METT. For a discussion of the armored brigade, tank battalion, and tank company, see FM 17-30 and FM 17-15. 180. Conduct of Area Defense The success of the area defense depends upon the solidity of the defense, maximum application of firepower in front of the FEBA, and timely execution of counterattacks to destroy or eject enemy penetrations. The commander conducts the defense aggressively. He maintains continuous surveillance, using aircraft, air cavalry, and other agencies to locate enemy formations and attack positions and to adjust supporting fires. Once contact has been established, he makes every effort to obtain detailed and timely information about the enemy. The defense progressively disrupts and weakens the enemy from the time he comes within long range fires of the security forces. Emphasis is placed on blocking avenues of approach at the FEBA. Forward defensive forces exert every effort to halt the enemy. However, if the enemy penetrates the area, forward defensive forces attempt to force him into areas favorable for counterattack. When launched, counterattacks are aimed at eliminating the penetration and restoring the integrity of the battle area. 181 . Actions of Security Forces in Area Defense The security force accomplishes its mission in the same manner as discussed in paragraph 168. The security force maintains contact with the enemy until it withdraws through the FEBA. 182. Action of Forces in the Forward Defensive Area Forces in the forward defense area engage the enemy at maximum effective range of their weapons. Initially, long range fires are deliv ered on the enemy. As he continues to advance within range of other weapons, the volume of fires is increased. If the attack is not disrupted by the close defensive fires and the enemy prepares to assault the position, final protective fires are delivered. Adjacent units may be moved to positions from which they can deliver or ejected, the reserve may return to its origiadditional fires upon the flanks of the enemy. nal positions or may occupy and defend the regained ground. 183. Actions of the Reserve in the Area Defense a. If the enemy penetrates the forward defense area, the commander uses his reserve or other forces to limit the penetration. Once the penetration has been slowed or stopped, the commander launches a counterattack to destroy forces in the area and to restore the FEEA. b. All available combat and combat support forces are u'sed to support the counterattack. c. Once the enemy force has been destroyed d. The reserve may be used to conduct limited-objective attacks to the front of the FEBA to destroy or disrupt the enemy as he forms for the attack. e. The reserve may be used to reinforce a unit in the forward defense area. f. If a strong enemy attack penetrates the battle area and counterattacks are unsuccessful, the reserve may be used to block the penetration or to cover the withdrawal of forces from the forward defense area. Section V. RELIEF IN PLACE 184. General a. When tactical operations continue over a prolonged period, conservation of fighting power, maintenance of effectiveness, and the tactical plan may require the periodic relief of committed units. Such reliefs are accomplished by a relief in place or a passage of lines. See paragraphs 133-135 for passage of lines. b. Armor units prefer to conduct relief operations by a passage of lines due to the inherent difficulty of concealing armor vehicle movement. However, armor units may be required to participate in a relief in place as part of a larger unit or it may direct and control reliefs in place of subordinate units. 185. Definition A relief in place is an operation in which all or part of a unit is replaced in a combat area by an incoming unit. The combat mission and area of operation responsibilities of the outgoing unit are assumed by the incoming unit. The relief in place is accomplished when the outgoing unit is in the defense. The incoming unit may have the mission of continuing the defense or preparing for a subsequent attack. In either case, the outgoing unit or elements thereof are withdrawn. 186. Basic Considerations a. Relief operations must be executed in an expeditious and orderly manner. b. Units in forward combat areas are normally relieved at night or during periods of reduced visibility. c. Very close cooperation and coordination of plans is necessary between the commanders and subordinates of both the incoming and outgoing units. d. Detailed prior reconnaissance by the incoming unit is essential. e. The incoming unit must fit into and accept the general defense plan of the outgoing unit until passage of command. f. During the relief, to preserve secrecy, normal patterns of activity in a defense sector should be maintained. g. Every effort must be made to effect the relief without weakening the tactical security of the position and by offering the least profitable target for attack by nuclear weapons. h. Units of the supporting arms normally should not be relieved at the same time as the units they support. 187. Planning Procedures a. General. When an armor unit relieves another unit in place, the warning order to the incoming unit must specify, as a minimum, the time for commencing and completing the relief and the priorities for use of routes involved. The warning order normally will direct that the relief be carried out under cover of darkness or other conditions of reduced visibility. Upon receipt of the warning order, the unit commander and staff analyze the mission, issue warning orders, establish liaison, and visit the unit to be relieved. The unit will normally establish its command post in the vicinity of the command post of the unit being relieved. Conferences are held between the commanders and staffs of the two units concerned to work out the details of the relief. b. Details To Be Coordinated. Procedures for the accomplishment of the following must be agreed upon: ( 1) Exchange of plans and liaison personnel. The incoming unit commanders and staffs must be briefed and become thoroughly familiar with the existing defensive plans to include fire plans, barrier plans, and counterattack plans. To make the most efficient transfer of information concerning the plans, dispositions and area of operation, the outgoing unit leaves liaison personnel with the incoming unit. The number of these personnel and the duration of their stay with the incoming unit vary with the situation. Normally, they will remain with each combat and combat support headquarters of the incoming unit from company level up. These personnel usually remain until the incoming units become familiar with the situation. (2) Sequence of relief (if not specified by the headquarters ordering the relief). To establish the strongest defen,se during relief, the relief in place is executed by stages, either rear to front or front to rear. In determining the sequence of the relief, both commanders should consider ( a) The subsequent mission of the unit that is conducting the relief. (b) The strength and combat efficiency of the unit presently in the forward defense area. (c) The capability of the enemy to detect and react against the relief. (d) The characteristics of the area of operations. (e) The need to vary the pattern of relief. (f) Size and type of elements involved in the relief. (3) When "command is to pass." The time or circumstances under which the incoming unit commander will assume responsibility for the area must be clearly established. Until command passes, the outgoing unit commander retains responsibility for the area and mission and exercises operational control over all subordinate elements of the incoming units which have completed their portion of the relief. During this period, the incoming units must fit into and accept the general defense plans of the outgoing unit. Normally, command passes to the incoming commander when the units in the forward defense area have been relieved by his · subordinate units and when adequate communications means have been established. When command passes, the incoming commander assumes operational control of all units of the outgoing unit which have not been relieved. ( 4) Reconnaissance. Arrangements must be made for a thorough daylight reconnaissance by commanders and staff officers of all echelons of the incoming unit. Reconnaissance should include an inspection of terrain to the front, defensive installations, relief routes, assembly areas, weapon positions, and combat service support installations. ( 5) Security. Every effort must be made by all echelons of the incoming and the outgoing units to prevent the enemy from learning that a relief is taking place. In addition to conducting the relief during periods of reduced visibility, the following security measures should be taken: (a) Every form of normal activity in the area of operations must be maintained during the relief. The incoming unit should assume the normal pattern of harassing and interdicting fires, patrols, communications traffic, and movement previously employed by the outgoing unit. (b) Restrictions on the size of advance parties and reconnaissance parties must be enforced. These parties should move to the area of operations by infiltration. (c) If applicable, aerial reconnaissance by members of the incoming unit should be made in aircraft of the outgoing unit. (d) Radio nets of the incoming unit should not be used in the new area until after the relief is complete. (e) Registration of fires of the incoming unit should be coordinated by the outgoing unit until command passes. (f) An integrated tactical cover and deception plan should be executed by both the incoming and outgoing units. ( 6) Movement control. Arrangements between the incoming and outgoing units must be made for the control of units moving into and out of the area. Coordination must include (a) Routes to be used and priorities for their use. (b) Responsibility for traffic control. (c) Location of assembly areas. (d) Provision of guides for incoming units. (e) Common use of transportation, if necessary. (7) Intelligence. The outgoing unit transfers to the incoming unit all information and intelligence concerning the enemy and the area of operations. Additional intelligence information required by the incoming unit should be obtained by the outgoing unit. ( 8) Fire support. (a) The method of relieving fire support units must be clearly established. Normally, the fire support units of the outgoing unit remain in position until the units in the forward defense have been relieved. By using this procedure, fire support units which are familiar with the fire support plans and the area are in position to fire during the critical period of the relief of forward units. For a discussion of artillery units relief in place, see FM 61-100. (b) Battalion or squadron organic fire support elements may elect not to take over the firing positions of outgoing units if sufficient firing positions are available from which the same fire missions can be accomplished. In this case, the incoming fire support units move into position by platoons or sections. When the lack of firing positions so dictates, fire support units may be relieved in place. In this case, it may be necessary to relieve by squad or section to avoid congestion. (c) Concurrent planning. The relieving unit and the unit being relieved will issue operation orders directing the conduct of the relief in accordance with procedures agreed upon between the two units. Prior to the issuance of the operation orders, fragmentary orders are disseminated to subordinate units to allow concurrent planning by these units. 188. Sequence of Relief A relief in place is executed in stages to insure the most effective defense during the relief. Reserves may be relieved first, followed by relief of forward elements, or vice versa. Normally when minimum forces are employed on the FEBA, the relief is conducted from rear to front, and when maximum forces are employed on the FEBA, the relief is conducted from front to rear. In determining the sequence of the relief, commanders should also consider: a. Strength and condition of elements involved in the relief. b. The subsequent mission of the relieved and relieving units. c. The enemy situation and the capability of the enemy to detect and react against the relief. d. Characteristics of the area of operations. e. The need to vary the pattern of relief. 189. Methods of Relief a. When the determination as to sequence of relief has been made, the commander then selects the method of relief for forward units. Choices are: ( 1) Relief of the first of two forward companies to be completed before relief of the second company begins when two companies are employed forward. (2) Relief of the two flank companies simultaneously followed by the center company when three companies are employed forward. (3) Relief of the center company followed by simultaneous relief of the flank companies when three· companies are employed forward. ( 4) Relief of all forward companies simultaneously. b. In analyzing these four methods, the commander sho~ld consider: ( 1) The enemy situation and capability of the enemy to detect and react against the relief. (2) Characteristics of the area of operation. (3) The time available for accomplishing the relief. ( 4) The degree of concentration of forces acceptable. 190. Transfer of Responsibility for Mineflelds A report of transfer is a written report which transfers the responsibility for a minefield from one command to another. The report of transfer must be signed by both the relieved and relieving commanders and must include a certificate stating that the relieving unit commander has been shown, on the ground, or otherwise informed of all mines within his zone of responsibility and that he assumes full responsibility for such mines. The report of transfer is forwarded to the next higher commander having authority over both the relieved and relieving unit commanders. This transfer includes local protective minefields as well as minefields directed by higher headquarters. 191. Exchange of Equipment Because of the difficulty in accurat~ly laying weapons at night, commanders of the fncoming and outgoing units arrange for the mutual exchange of crew-served weapons which cannot be easily moved, or when necessary to insure the effective delivery of fires. As an alternative, machinegun tripods an9. mortar baseplates should be exchanged. The exchange is on a weapon-for-weapon basis. The authority for this exchange is included in the relief order of the next higher commander. Outgoing units leave on position bulky and excessive supplies such as ammunition, field fortification materials, and other supplies and equipment which are difficult to move. 192. Conduct of the Relief a. Defending forces areyulnerable to an enemy conventional or nuClear attack during the conduct-of a relief. Appropriate counterintelligence measures are employed to avoid disclosure of relief operations to include continuation of normal activities such as supporting fires, radio traffic, vehicular traffic, radar employment and other activity. Maximum fire support from outgoing and incoming units should be available to insure the success of the operation and neutralize enemy reaction in the event the operation is discovered. The tactical situation usually dictates ·whether the relief is made during daylight or periods of limited visibility. In some instances, the relief may be conducted over a period of more than one day. Reliefs at battalion level in daytime are avoided if possible; however, smoke may be used locally or on enemy observation to conceal visible stages in a daylight operation. The relief is conducted as rapidly as possible, consistent with secrecy and control. The outgoing battalion furnishes security and surveillance during the conduct of the relief. The incoming commander must insure that coordination is made with adjacent and supporting units. b. Mechanized infantry will dismount far enough to the rear to avoid compromising the relief and move forward to effect the relief on foot. The carriers will move forward after completion of the relief by dismounted troops. Outgoing mechanized units will exfiltrate carriers prior to relief providing such action will not compromise the relief; otherwise, the carriers of the outgoing units will not move until the relie~ is completed. c. Time permitting, tank units may be relieved by individual tanks (usually, company te~ms with only one tank platoon), platoon, or company to fit maintenance or resupply periods. See FM 17-12 for preparation for and occupation of night firing positions. d. To limit confusion inherent in a relief and to avoid excessive massing, adjacent companies of the battalion are not normally relieved at the same time. Elements of the outgoing battalion leave the area as soon as they are relieved and control is established. e. Battalions do not designate assembly areas for units larger than a company. Company assembly areas are separated as much as possible to minimize vulnerability to enemy fires. Delays within assembly areas are avoided by precise planning, timing, and execution. f. During the relief, commanders at each echelon are together at the command post or observation post of the outgoing unit. The incoming uriit commander assumes responsibility for the defense when the majority of his unit is in position and. communication and .control are established, or at a time previously designated by the next higher commander. In the absence of orders from the next higher commander, the exact time of exchange of responsibility is agreed upon by the commanders concerned. When command passes, the incoming commander assumes control of all units of the outgoing unit which have not been relieved. If an attack occurs before the incoming commander assumes responsibility for the defense, he assists the outgoing commander with all means available to him; In this event, elements of the incoming unit in the battalion area are under the operational control of the outgoing unit. Changes in organization of the defense desired by the incoming unit commander are initiated after the change of responsibility. CHAPTER 8 RETROGRADE OPERATIONS Section I. 193. General A retrograde operation is an organized movement to the rear or away from the enemy. The operation may be made voluntarily or forced by enemy action. Retrograde movements are conducted for one or more of the following reasons: a. To harass, exhaust, resist, delay, and inflict punishment on the enemy. b. To draw the enemy into an unfavorable situation. c. To permit the use of elements of the force elsewhere. d. To avoid combat under undesirable conditions. e. To gain time and avoid a decisive engagement. f. To disengage from combat. g. To place the forces involved in a desired position in relationship to other friendly forces. h. To shorten lines of communication. GENERAL 194. Types of Retrograde Operations a. Delaying Action. A delaying action is a retrograde operation in which maximum delay and damaged are inflicted on an advancing enemy without the delaying force becoming decisively engaged or outflanked. In a delaying action, minimum space is traded for maximum time. b. Withdrawal. A withdrawal is a retrograde operation in which all or part of a deployed force disengages from the enemy. It may be executed during daylight or darkness and may be forced or voluntary. Regardless of the type withdrawal being conducted, contact is maintained with the enemy forces to provide security and deception. c. Retirement. A retirement is a retrograde operation in which a force not in contact marches away from the enemy to avoid combat under existing conditions. It may be made following a withdrawal. Normally, a retirement is performed to allow future combat operations to be conducted under more favorable conditions or in a more decisive place or at a more decisive time. Section II. CONSIDERATIONS OF THE RETROGRADE 195. General Armor units are capable of inflicting heavy damage to enemy units during retrograde operations, particularly in the delaying action. Under these conditions, success depends upon planning and conducting operations so as to capitalize on the capabilities of the unit. The following are considerations that affect the employment of armor units in the retrograde. 196. Weather and Terrain a. Weather and terrain have a major influence on the planning and conduct of retrograde actions. Clear weather provides good observation and assists in attaining maximum results from fires. Unfavorable weather conditions may limit observation, reduce the effects of nuclear weapons, limit cross-country movement, and increase the problem of control. b. Terrain is selected that provides long range observation and fields of fire, concealment from enemy observation, and protection. This allows the commander to engage the enemy at maximum effective range and to maintain this fire as the enemy maneuvers toward the position. c. Obstacles are used extensively to ·impede the advance of enemy units, to protect exposed flanks, and to force the enemy to mass. Mines and demolitions aid in slowing and canalizing the enemy advance. Nuclear weapons, as well as other fires, are employed to destroy the enemy when he attempts to breach or bypass the obstacle. d. Good road nets and trafficable terrain facilitate the movement of units and the commitment of counterattacking forces. Terrain affording good cros~-country trafficability permits wide dispersion and thus reduced vulnerability to enemy air and nuclear attack. e. Effective use of existing cover and concealment assists armor units in destroying the enemy by achieving surprise and reducing the enemy's ability to locate friendly forces. 197. Control and Coordination a. Armor units conducting retrograde operations will be deployed frequently on an extended front. Subordinate units may be dispersed widely, especially during rearward displacements. Retrograde operations normally consist of decentralized actions within the framework of the overall detailed plan. Effective control and coordination of such operations require centralized planning and control and decentralized execution. Subordinate commanders must be aware of the overall concept of operation to insure effective and intelligent execution. b. Radio is the primary means of communication at all echelons to exercise control and coordination. It may be used by security forces to simulate normal traffic during a retirement or withdrawal operation. c. Displacement of units in contact is controlled primarily by establishing boundaries between units. Boundaries are not used between platoons except in armored cavalry actions. For units not in contact, routes of withdrawal are designated together with time of movement. Phase lines, checkpoints, and other control measures appropriate to tactical marches for coordinating and controlling movement may be used. When units must share routes, road priorities are assigned. d. Civilian control policies must be simple to execute, easily understood, and capable of enforcement with minimum employment Of tactical troops. Refugees must not be permitted to interfere with military operations. 198. Security and Deception. a. Employment of nuclear and nonnuclear fires, coupled with limited offensive action, assists in providing security during retrograde operations. Knowledge of the intent to execute a. withdrawal or to displace is denied the enemy as long as possible. Maximum passive security and deception measures are adopted to deprive the enemy of knowledge of the move. These measures may include radio listening silence for units displacing; maintenance of a normal radio pattern in the forward area; maintenance of normal artillery and other supporting fires; displacement of units during darkness or under conditions of reduced visibility; and retention of sufficient troops in position to indicate the presence of the entire force. b. Security against nuclear attack is provided by operations on a broad front, and by denying the enemy observation and information. c. Positive measures must be taken to provide security to the front, flanks, and rear of forces. Security detachments are employed to hold defiles that must be traversed during the operation. Security precautions taken must include measures against air attack. d. Deception measures are employed to assist in withdrawing with minimum enemy interference. _199. Combat Support a. Air Support. (1) Tactical Air Force aircraft are employed against hostile aircraft and to delay the enemy advance by harassing and interdicting hostile ground forces at critical localities. Maximum use is made of Tactical Air Force offensive aircraft to support ground actions. (2) Air cavalry is used to perform reconnaissance and security missions. Their fires are used to assist ground units in delaying enemy forces, disengaging from enemy forces, and the extrication of friendly forces that have become decisively engaged. (3) Army aircraft are employed in reconnaissance and to assist the commander in the execution of his plan. Aviation units can be used in shifting troops rapidly, in supplying units, and in evacuation. b. Field Artillery. (1) Artillery is employed in retrograde operations to take the enemy under fire at maximum ranges, to interdict enemy avenues of approach, deliver harassing fires, destroy enemy concentrations, and provide continuous close support of maneuver units. (2) Retrograde operations conducted on a wide front will often require the attachment of artillery units to committed brigades. (3) For details, see FM 6-20-1 and FM 6-20-2. c. Air Defense Artillery. ( 1) When provided, air defense artillery is employed in retrograde operations to defend priority installations and units. Typical vital installations that need defending during retrograde operations will be bridges, road intersections and defiles. (2) Retrograde operations conducted on a wide front may require the attachment of air defense artillery units to committed brigades. d. Engineer. ( 1) The requirements for engineers by units in contact with the enemy may require attachment. (2) Engineers provide advice and assistance in the formulation and implementation of obstacles which are used to delay the enemy or to canalize him into areas where he can be destroyed with fires. Obstacles must be coordinated with higher headquarters to prevent interference with future operations. (3) Under favorable conditions, subsurface or surface nuclear detonations may be employed to create obstacles that will slow or impede the enemy's advance. The employment of such atomic demolition munition (ADM) must be authorized (app XX). (4) Detailed plans are prepared for the use of demolitions along enemy avenues of approach. Demolitions are placed in defiles and on routes traversing natural and artificial obstacles. Demolition plans include (a) Provisions for placing and firing the necessary demolitions. (b) Adequate guards to prevent premature firing of charges or seizure by enemy infiltrators. (c) Fixed responsibility for the destruction of bridges. (d) Schedule for the destruction of bridges when no longer needed by friendly forces. (e) Covering by fire those obstacles that are created by demolition. (5) The destruction of bridges is of major importance to the retrograde force commander. Care must be exercised to insure that bridges are not blown prematurely or that they are not seized intact by the enemy. Responsibility for blowing bridges in a zone is delegated to the tactical commander. A demolitions firing party and a demolition guard are designated for each bridge. The guard commander has the authority to destroy the }Jridge, subject to conditions established by the higher commander. A list of all units that are to use the bridge is furnished the guard commander. Each unit commander notifies the guard commander when his unit has cleared. After the main body has crossed, the majority of the bridges in the zone are destroyed. Certain predesignated bridges are left for use by security commander will destroy it even elements. When capture of the bridge though all security elements have not is imminent, the demolition guard crossed. Section Ill. DELAYING ACTION 200. General a. A successful delaying action gains maximum time while surrendering minimum space without the delaying force becoming decisively engaged or outflanked. b. A unit withdraws from one delay line or position to another only with specific authority of the commander designating the delay line or position. c. A unit is decisively engaged when it loses freedom of action to accomplish its mission and no longer has the resources available to regain freedom of acti6n. · d. A unit is outflanked when enemy forces with a capability of adversely affecting the mission of the delaying force are on the flank or in the rear of the delaying force. e. Offensive action is taken whenever opportunities arise to inflict serious damage on the enemy, disengage a unit decisively engaged, seize dominating terrain, or deceive the enemy. f. Delaying actions are accomplished by (1) Delay on successive positions. In the delay on successive positions, the initial delaying position is organized and occupied by the unit. When withdrawal becomes necessary, the unit displaces to the next rearward delaying position providing certain elements to remain in contact with the enemy. This procedure is repeated through successive delay positions. Since wide frontages are common in the delay, armor units will normally delay on successive positions. (2) Delay on alternate positions. The force is divided into two elements. . The first element occupies the initial delaying position while the second element occupies and improves the next rearward delay position. When the first element is forced to withdraw, it displaces through or around the second element. It occupies and improves the subsequent delay position to the rear. Before displacing, the first element provides forces to remain in contact with the enemy. As the enemy continues to advance, the second element repeats the procedure used by the first element. Armor units will seldom operate on a front narrow enough to permit delay on alternate positions. Note. A combination of (1) and (2) above may be employed. g. Regardless of how the delay is accomplished, continuous delay must be achieved in each action. Continuous delay is accomplished by maintaining constant contact with the enemy with at least a portion of the delaying force during the entire delay period. Armor units will use all available forces to inflict maximum damage upon the enemy as he attempts to close on the delay position. 201. Basic Considerations of Delaying Actions Delaying actions vary with the situation, terrain, and weather conditions in the area and with the size, type, and composition of the delaying force. Considerations which must be applied in developing plans and conducting a delaying action are- a. Centralized Control and Decentralized Action. A delaying action is characterized by operations on a wide front with maximum forces in contact and minimum forces in reserve. This results in a series of independent unit actions across the front in which each commander must be permitted freedom of action in engaging the enemy. In the conduct of the delay, the rearward movement of all units must be closely coordinated. This will insure that the enemy does not bypass or envelop elements of the delaying force or achieve a penetration that would prevent the successful accomplishment of the delaying mission. b. Maximum Use of Terrain. Delaying forces must make maximum use of all terrain from which delay of the enemy can be obtained. Maximum delay must be achieved and the enemy must not be allowed to advance great distances unopposed. Delaying positions should be located on terrain features that dominate the likely avenues of enemy approach. c. Force the Enemy to Deploy and Maneuver. Maximum use must be made of the terrain in order to exploit the firepower of the delaying force. The enemy should be engaged at maximum ranges of all weapons. This action should cause the enemy to take time-consuming measures in deploying, in developing the situation, and in maneuvering to drive the delaying force from its position. Repeated use of this technique will slow the forward progress of the enemy and will exchange space for time. d. Maximum Use of Obstacles. The use of demolitions, mines, and artificial and natural obstacles is exploited to the maximum to delay the enemy. They are used to canalize and slow his forward progress and to provide security to the flanks of the delaying force. To obtain maximum effectiveness, obstacles should be covered by fire. e. Maintain Contact With the Enemy. Continuous reconnaissance must be conducted to establish and maintain contact with the enemy. Enemy forces possessing freedom of maneuver and mobility will attempt to bypass or envelop the flanks or penetrate between units conducting the delay. To prevent penetration or envelopment, contact must be maintained with all enemy forces encountered. f. A void Decisive Engagement. In a delaying action, positions are occupied for sufficient periods of time to cause the enemy to deploy, develop the situation, and maneuver to attack each position. The delaying force withdraws to the next delaying position before becoming decisively engaged with the enemy. If units conducting the delay become decisively engaged, they may fail in their mission and jeopardize the entire operation. 202. Planning a. General. Planning the delaying action is centralized but execution is decentralized. Orders to armor units will state the mission normally in general terms and specify, as a minimum, the following: (1) The general location of the initial delaying position (lDP). This general location is refined at each level of command until, finally, positions are selected for men, weapons, and combat vehicles. If the unit is in contact when the order to initiate the delay is received, the present friendly positions may become the IDP. (2) Area for delay. The area assigned to each unit down to company team level is indicated by lateral ·boundaries. Company team commanders normally assign areas to their platoons by orientation on the ground. (3) Period of delay. Commanders guide their subordinate's planning by announcing the time the enemy is to be held forward of a specified line. The primary purpose of this measure is to assist coordinated action among adjacent forces and establish a planned time phasing of the operation. The stated time does not imply authority for withdrawal or displacement. The delaying force holds the enemy forward of designated areas for the longest time possible. ( 4) Contemplated future action. Any future plans, such as a withdrawal through or around a rearward position must be announced if they affect ' the planning of subordinates. ( 5) Limitations imposed upon the operation. If the commander visualizes any conditions that might limit the planning of his subordinates, he must announce the limitations. For example, the unrestricted demolition of bridges might interfere with subsequent offensive plans. b. Selection of Proposed Delaying Positions. (1) Proposed delaying positions are selected that will afford the greatest opportunity for inflicting maximum damage on the advancing enemy as well as insuring continuous delay. Proposed positions are selected where minimum forces can, whenever possible (a) Stop or repel the attack of enemy security forces so as to force the enemy main body to deploy, develop the situation, and attack. (b) Cause the enemy main body to mass and thus present a profitable nuclear target. (2) Terrain offering advantages to the delaying force incorporates the following characteristics: (a) A series of parallel ridges perpendicular to the lines of hostile advance. (b) Obstacles to the front and flanks. (c) High ground with good observation and long range fields of fire. (d) Concealed routes of displacement. (e) An area road net providing good trafficability. (3) Phase lines, checkpoints, and contact points may be used to coordinate actions in the delay. Commanders may use phase lines and a stated time to express their concept of the time phasing of the delaying action. These phase lines may later be designated as delaying positions. (4) Delaying positions are determined in the following sequence: (a) Based on the division order (fig. 8), the brigade commander may select additional delay positions as part of the brigade scheme of maneuver (fig. 9). (b) The battalion task force commander, in developing his scheme of maneuver, also may select additional delay positions (fig. 10). (c) The company team commander, guided by the delay positions directed in the battalion task force order, selects terrain to be used in the delaying action. These terrain features will be organized as blocking positions on and between delay positions. to control avenues of enemy approach. Blocking positions in the vicinity of the IDP are occu pied while others, in depth, may be reconnoitered and prepared as time permits (fig. 11). c. Organization of Ground. (1) In planning for a delaying action, definite zones of responsibility are assigned to each committed unit down through company level (platoon level in armored cavalry operations). The limits of each zone are delineated by boundaries. These boundaries may extend through the depth of the zone and, as a minimum, must extend through the next rearward delay line as described in appendix X. (2) In assigning sectors to subordinate units, each likely enemy avenue of approach is assigned, in its entirety, to one unit. Boundaries are assigned so that terrain features which control fire and observation into a zone are assigned to the unit having responsibility for the sector. Coordinating points are designated for coordination and to insure continuity of the delay. (3) Natural obstacles are improved and artificial obstacles are built within the limitations of available materials, time, and manpower. Obstacles alone must not be relied upon to halt the enemy's progress. (4) Blocking positions are organized .in the delay similarly to those used in defense. However, more emphasis is placed on reconnaissance and preparation of routes of withdrawal. Each mechanized infantry squad and each tank crew should be familiar with the routes of withdrawal from their primary and alternate positions as well as their supplementary positions. Less emphasis is placed on the installation of tactical and protective wire, final protective fires, and stockpiling of ammunition. The position is organized in width with little depth. d. Disposition of Forces, Delaying Action. Forces in the delaying action are disposed in three echelons. These echelons are the security forces, delaying forces, and reserves. (1) Security forces. A covering force or LINE KANSAS 020001 IDP JUN 2 X 3 1 X 2 LINE TEXAS 031200 JUN LINE GEORGIA 050001 JUN Figure 8. Initial and subsequent delaying positions depicted on division order. 020001 LINE KANSAS IDP JUN PL X-RAY--~------------------------------_, (MAY BE TIME-PHASED DUR-ING CONDUCT 2-12 2-91OF OP) 1 X 2 COORDINATED WITH 1ST BDE AND DIVISION / "' / "' ,-'"' LINE ZULU 022200. JUN _/ ADDITIONAL DELAYING POSITION LINE TEXA_s___________, 031200 JUN Figure 9. Additional delay positions and phase lines depicted on brigade order. 113 LINE KANSAS 020001 IDP JUN A-B 020530 JUN COORDINATED WITH 1ST BDE BN TF AND 2D BDE 1 X 2 ADDITIONAL ·DELAYING POSITIO COORDINATED WITH 2-91 ANO 2D BDE 2-12 =2.-91 A-B PL X-RAY {MAY BE TIMEPHASED DURING CONDUCT OF OP> Figure 10. Battalion task force scheme of maneuver showing additional delaying positions selected by ~ask force commander. LINE KANSAS 020001 ~ (@) IJ)P ,Jun , --, I ~-' ' ... ., ) (.... ... -... \ ... -""J --" r--, ( .,1 '-" '-... ... B-C r' ••• .., \ A-B """) I --\ ... '-... " (-... \ \ ... ... " I ( "'\I --, r--l'-... .... ... \. ) r-"' ... \._ • • • I ... B-C A-B 1X2 Figure 11. Company team commander's selection of blocking positions. 115 other security forces may be em203. Conduct of Delaying Action ployed forward of the IDP when the situation permits. The highest headquarters conducting the delaying action prescribes the force to execute the security mission. (2) Delaying forces. The bulk of the unit's combat power is normally in the delaying force. (a) Maximum firepower is forward with the bulk of the forces concentrated on likely avenues of approach. (b) The delaying force is deployed in width with little depth. (3) Reserves. The brigade is normally the lowest level that designates a reserve. However, frontages, terrain, or weather may allow the retention of a small reserve by task forces or teams. In the delay on alternate positions, elements not in contact can perform the functions of a reserve. e. Organization for Combat. Forces are organized for combat based on an analysis of METT. ( 1) Security forces are organized for combat as discussed in chapter 5. (2) Delaying forces are organized to capitalize on the long. range fires and mobility of tank units. Combat support and combat service support elements are often attached to better accomplish their mission in support of combat troops. (3) The reserves are small tank-heavy forces and nuclear weapons. f. Routes of Withdrawal. Routes of withdrawal are selected to provide good traffi.cability and cover or concealment. Although withdrawal during the delaying action is normally decentralized, specific routes, together with priorities, may be assigned. g. Logistical Plans. See chapter 10. Section IV. 204. General a. A withdrawal is a retrograde operation in which all or part of a deployed force disen a. The enemy is taken under fire as soon as he is within effective range of available weapons. As he nears the position, fires are increased to inflict casualties, cause him to deploy early, and require him to take time-consuming maneuvers to close with the position. b. Each position is defended until the enemy actions threaten decisive engagement. Commanders are alert to detect significant events that may require modification of the basic plan. Rigid adherence to plans conceived before the enemy situation develops may prevent the accomplishment of the mission. The original concept of time-phasing may be adjusted to the situation as it develops. This allows delaying units to seize opportunities to gain greater delay than anticipated or to preserve the delaying force against an attack. in overwhelming strength. c. When the maximum . possible delay has been achieved and it becomes apparent that further occupation of the position will result in the units becoming decisively engaged, withdrawal is begun. Withdrawals may be initiated in accordance with prearranged plans or on order of the higher commander. Withdrawing forces must coordinate their action with adjacent units. d. When a unit withdraws to the next delay position, elements of the unit maintain contact with the enemy. These elements provide security for the withdrawing units and continue to provide maximum delay between delaying positions. They utilize maneuver, available terrain, long range fires, air cavalry, tactical air, mines and demolitions. e. The opportunity to inflict heavy casualties on the enemy by offensive action should be exploited. Limited objective counterattacks and tank sweeps should be employed to gain additional time or to extricate units which have become decisively engaged. WITHDRAWAL gages from the enemy. It may be executed during daylight or under cover of darkness and may be involuntary or voluntary. Preferably a withdrawal is made while a unit is not under heavy pressure from the enemy. To deceive the enemy, armor units move with as much secrecy as possible, applying techniques that keep the withdrawal hidden from enemy observation. When a unit under heavy pressure from the enemy is forced to conduct a withdrawal, if disengages by fighting a delaying action and then a rear guard action until it regains complete freedom of action. When these techniques are used, it is called an involuntary withdraw al. b. Until a withdrawal is completed, contact is maintained to provide deception, security: and to prevent a rapid enemy advance. 205. Considerations a. Plans and orders for a withdrawal are prepared in detail. b. Sufficient information should be provided subordinates in time to permit their making a daylight reconnaissance. c. The withdrawal may be facilitated by the conduct of limited-objective attacks or the employment of nuclear weapons. d. Withdrawals conducted at night or under conditions of reduced visibility are preferred over daylight withdrawals. However, the protection, mobility, and long range firepower of armor units enable them to conduct daylight withdrawals with greater success than units that do not have these characteristics. 206. Plans and Orders Plans and orders include- a. New location to be occupied and missions of units upon arrival. b. Organization for combat and time phasing of attachments and support. c. Zones or routes of withdrawal to be used. Existing boundaries are used when possible. d. Provision for security forces and other security measures. e. Provision for fire support. f. Provision for breaking contact in an involuntary withdrawal and action to be initiated in the event the enemy attacks to follow up a voluntary operation. g. Deception measures. h. Time and priority of withdrawal of units. i. Traffic control measures. j. Provision for evacuation or destruction of excess supplies. k. Evacuation of casualties. l. Communication plan. m. Provision for combat service support. 207. Volun.tary Withdrawal Armor units in a voluntary withdrawal may begin the operation as forces in contact or the reserve. a. Forces in Contact. (1) A unit withdrawing designates a part of its force, both maneuver and support, to remain in contact with the enemy. These forces are called "detachments left in contact" (DLIC). These forces provide security and cover the withdrawal of the major elements of the unit. The size and composition of the DLIC force are based on an analysis of the factors of METT. The DLIC is normally commanded by the task force and team executive officer at their respective levels. In any event, the DLIC must have a single commander. The DLIC performs the following functions: (a) Delays and deceives the enemy and prevents interference with the withdrawal. (b) Simulates normal radio traffic, fires, and other activities. (c) Is prepared to act as rear guard for the main force, on order. (2) The main elements of the withdrawing forces initiate movement to the rear in the following sequence: (a) Elements to reconnoiter and prepare new locations. (b) Combat service support elements. (c) Combat support units less elements essential to the support of the security force left in contact. (d) Units in contact less then DLIC. (3) The withdrawal of forward units, less the DLIC is executed simultaneously on a broad front. Units move directly to the rear, form march columns, and proceed to the designated location. To facilitate control, assembly areas may be designated for subordinate units before march columns are formed. These assembly areas are dispersed and are occupied for a minimum time. ( 4) When the withdrawing units, less the DLIC, have formed march columns, further movement is conducted in a manner similar to that of a retirement (para 209 and 210). (5) The DLIC withdraws at a prescribed time. b. Reserve or Part of a Reserve. ( 1) Units in reserve may be committed in offensive actions to assist in the withdrawal of units. See chapter 6 for a discussion of the offense. (2) The brigade or battalion task force, as division reserve, may form a covering force through which forces in contact will withdraw. See chapter 5 for a discussion of the covering force. c. For employment of mechanized infantry and infantry units in a voluntary withdrawal, see FM 7-11 and FM 7-20. 208. Involuntary Withdrawal As in the voluntary withdrawal, armor units in an involuntary withdrawal may begin the operation as forces in contact or the reserve. a. Forces in Contact. (1) A unit in contact provides and controls its own security force (detachments left in contact) (DLIC). Close coordination of these forces is required, but control normally is not centralized above battalion. The size and composition of this DLIC are Section V. 209. Planning a. In a retirement, the force is organized into a main force and security forces in a manner inverse to that employed in the movement to contact. b. In the initial stage of a retirement, control may be decentralized. However, plans pro based on an analysis of the factors of METT. The DLIC ( a) Delay the enemy and prevent interference with the withdrawal. (b) Are prepared to act as rear guard for the main force, on order. (2) The movement of the main force is decentralized consistent with the requirements for control. Assembly areas are not used. Units move directly to the rear, form march columns, and continue movement without halting. (3) Though no particular sequence is followed, normally command and support facilities and less heavily engaged units are withdrawn first. (4) If a subordinate unit becomes decisively engaged, the next higher commander may use unengaged units or units that can be easily withdrawn, and fires to assist in the withdrawal of engaged elements. b. Reserve or Part of a Reserve. (1) The division reserve normally will form a covering force to assist forward units to break contact and to conduct a delaying action after withdrawal of the forward forces. See chapter 5 for a discussion of the covering force. (2) Brigade reserves may be used to support by fire the withdrawal of forward units, conduct limited objective counterattacks, or other offensive action. c. For employment of mechanized infantry and infantry units in a voluntary withdrawal, see FM 7-11 and FM 7-20. RETIREMENT vide for centralized control as soon as the situation permits. Normally centralized control is achieved very early in this operation as compared to the delay or withdrawal. c. Appropriate control measures are used to insure that the retirement is conducted as a coordinated operation. 21 0. Conduct of the Retirement b. For the conduct of a tactical march, see appendix VI. a. When the retirement is preceded by a withdrawal, the rear guard is formed from the c. For the conduct of the advance, flank, and security force left in contact. rear guards, see chapter 5. Section VI. WITHDRAWAL THROUGH A REARWARD POSITION 211. General Armor operations may involve many actions that require men or units to withdraw through a rearward position. The following general considerations pertain to such actions as withdrawing an outpost; return of patrols or armored cavalry units to friendly positions; termination of a covering force mission; or during a delaying action on alternate positions. 212. Considerations a. Commanders and troops involved must be familiar with the details of the plan. Fires must be coordinated. Direct and indirect fires may be required to assist the withdrawal. b. The commanders of the withdrawing force and the forces on position are concerned with (1) Mutual cooperation and coordination. Neither commander exercises command over the other but each force may support the other by fire and maneuver. (2) Responsibility for control of the sector. Responsibility must be passed from the withdrawing force to the forces on position at a time and place mutually agreed upon. (3) Troop density. Withdrawing units use multiple routes through the depth of the positions and avoid the use of assembly areas or other halts within the position. Withdrawing forces normally have priority on roads. Fueling areas may be selected in rear of 'the friendly frontline units to provide emergency fueling if required. (4) Traffic control. Withdrawing commander is responsible for traffic control forward of the main defensive position. Commanders of forces organizing the main defense are responsible for providing traffic control to units passing to the rear through their areas. (5) Control measures. Stringent control is necessary for a smooth withdrawal through a rearward position. Measures by which the operation will be controlled are prescribed by the higher commander or agreed upon between the commanders concerned. Deviations from preplanned control measures must be coordinated between the effected units and made known to all interested agencies. Control measures normally include ( a) Contact points. A point on the ground is designated where two or more units are required to make physical contact. To insure detailed coordination between the two units, a primary and alternate contact point is designated by the commander in each company sector. These points are coordinated by liaison personnel and are located on easily identifiable terrain features beyond the direct-fire range of weapons on the FEBA. Elements along the FEBA which have designated contact points will send a contact party, equipped with a radio and guides, forward to the contact point. (b) Passage points. These are points on the FEBA through which friendly forces will withdraw. They must be easily recognized by withdrawing forces. These points are also used to provide a means of reporting specific locations and information relative to the control of units. Guides from the friendly units occupying the FEBA will normally meet the withdrawing elements at the contact point and guide them through the passage point on the FEBA. These actions are coordinated by the liaison personnel of the two units. (c) Routes of withdrawal. These are designated through a rearward position and facilitate a smooth and continuous withdrawal. Adherence to the prescribed routes within the position is mandatory. (d) Time of passage. The overall time of passage is prescribed by the commander ordering the operation. At each subordinate level, specific times are designated for each unit by the commanders concerned. In addition, a representative of the unit with a radio will precede each march unit to the passage point. This representative provides the friendly unit being passed through with the number of vehicles to pass and a positive identification of the last vehicle. (e) Recognition signals. These are included in the order and should be based upon the signal operation instructions (SQI) and unit SOP's. Positive recognition signals must be used and mutually agreed upon by the two units. Normally, recognition signals will cover both daylight and night withdrawals. (6) Liaison officers. Units exchange liaison officers at all levels of command. These officers exchange information and keep their respective commanders informed of the situation. They are normally located at critical points during the actual passage and render assistance to ·both the withdrawing force and the defensive force when required. (7) Exchange of SO/ information. This will be accomplished during the liaison visit between the two uriits. (8) Designation of units to move through respective withdrawal points. This will be accomplished between the two liaison officers in their coordination of the withdrawal. CHAPTER 9 !•'. COMBAT SUPPORT Section I. 213. Combat Support Elements The armor unit commander can expect to receive combat support elements from higher headquarters to the extent necessary to accomplish assigned missions. These elements may be placed in support qr. attached and may include field artillery, air defense artillery, engineers, signal, chemical, or aviation units. The commander must make plans for the employment of these elements in accordance with their capabilities and the mission of his unit. Discussion of combat support in this chapter refers Section II. FIELD 215. General Artillery support provides the supported commander with a powerful means of influencing the course of combat. To make effective use of artillery support, the supporte!l commander must be familiar with artillery organization, tactical employment of artillery, and the means by which !lrtillery fires are obtained. 216. Tactical Employment of Artillery a. Tactical employment of artillery is accomplished by the assignment of an artillery tactical mission to each artillery unit, by attachment to another artillery unit, or by attachment to a supported unit. Generally, missions are not assigned to batteries within a battalion or to battalions within a field artillery group. Tactical missions for artillery units are assigned by the force commander on the recommendation of the force artillery commander. GENERAL to the brigade, battalion, and company. Unless otherwise specified, it is also applicable to the armored cavalry· regiment, squadron, and troop. 214. Organic Combat Support Element The organic combat support elements available to armor unit commanders at brigade and below are the fire support, communication, and aviation elements authorized by the TOE. For additional discussion, see FM 17-30, FM 17-95, and appendix XIV. ARTILLERY SUPPORT b. An artillery tactical miSSion defines the fire support responsibilities that are inherent with the mission assigned. Tactical missions are general support, general support-reinforcing, reinforcing, and direct support (FM 6-20-1). 217. Armored pivision Field Artillery a. General. The armored division artillery consists of a headquarters and headquarters battery; three 155-mm battalions, self-propelled; a 155-mm/8-inch battalion, which contains three 155-mm howitzer batteries, selfpropelled and one 8-inch howitzer battery, self-propelled; and an Honest John battalion; b. Organization for Combat. Field artillery units organic or attached to the division are normally employed under the centralized control of division artillery headquarters. Subordinate artillery units are controlled by the assignment of appropriate tactical missions. When the tactical situation, distance between units, communication, or other factors prevent centralized control of artillery units by the division artillery commander, artillery units may be attached to subordinate elements of the division. (1) Each of the three 155-mm howitzer battalions is normally employed in direct support of one of the three brigades. An artillery unit with the mission of direct support remains under the command of the higher artillery commander assigning the mission. If one brigade is in reserve initially, the 155-mm howitzer battalion that normally supports that brigade may be assigned a general support, general support-reinforcing, or a reinforcing mission by the division. This artillery battalion must be prepared for direct support of the reserve brigade when committed. (2) The 155-mm/8-inch howitzer battalion is normally employed under division artillery control in a general support or general support-reinforcing role. When it is desirable to detach one or two howitzer sections to execute a special mission, part of the battery fire direction center must accompany these sections. The detached sections may operate under control of the battery, battalion, or they may be attached to another artillery headquarters. (3) The Honest John battalion will normally function under division artillery control in a general support or general support-reinforcing role. However, elements of the battalion may be assigned a reinforcing mission or, when necessary, be attached to another artillery unit. The firing batteries are so organized and equipped that they are capable of operating by platoon for limited periods of time. The platoons may be attached to another artillery headquarters for special missions. 218. Fire Planning and Coordination a. Coordination of fire support is a command responsibility. The senior artillery officer at each echelon (battalion and above) is the fire support coordinator and principal adviser to the commander on fire support matters. At company level, the company commander is the fire support coordinator, advised by the artillery forward observer. b. The plans of fire support at company, battalion, and brigade are coordinated and fully integrated to assure success of the plan of attack or defense. The plan of fire support includes fires of organic, attached, and supporting weapons. Fire planning is continuous and as detailed as time will permit. The following definitions must be understood to establish a common basis in planning. ( 1) Fire plan. A tactical plan for using the weapons of a unit or formation so their fire will be coordinated. (2) Planned fires. Fires (concentrations) planned on areas and targets for which a need can be anticipated. This includes known enemy locations, avenues of approach, observation posts, suspect weapons locations, and similar-type targets. (3) Prearranged fire. Fire that is formally planned and conducted against targets or target areas of known location. Such fires are usually planned well in advance and are conducted at a predetermined time or during a predetermined period of time. (4) Scheduled fires. Prearranged fires that are to be delivered at a specific time or upon occurrence of a specific event. ( 5) On-call fires. Prearranged fires that are be fired as requested. (6) Concentration. A volume of fire placed on an area within a limited time or an area designated and numbered for future references as a possible target. (7) Barrage. A prearranged barrier of fire, except that delivered by small arms, designed to protect friendly troops and installations by impeding enemy movement across defensive lines or areas. It is fired as part of the final protective fires. (8) Preparation. A heavy volume of prearranged ground, air, and naval fire delivered to destroy, disrupt, disorganize, and neutralize the enemy's positions, materiel, observation, communications, and command. These fires demoralize and destroy enemy defending forces prior to the initiat~on of the friendly attack by the assault echelon. (9) Group of fires. Two or more concentrations to be fired simultaneously; groups may be fired individually, consecutively, or concurrently. (10) Series of fires. Number of concentrations or groups of fires planned to support a maneuver phase such as the fires planned on an objective area just before the final assault. (11) Targets of opportunity. A target visible to a surface or aircraft observer which is within range of available weapons and against which fires have not been scheduled or requested. (12) Final protective fires. Planned defensive fires designed to break up the enemy's assault on the battle position under any conditions of visibility. It is a first priority, prearranged, barrier of fire laid down just in front of the forward edge of the battle area. It consists of mortar and artillery barrages and final protective lines of fire of machineguns. c. Fire planning and fire support coordination are accomplished at all combat echelons. At brigade level and below, fire planning and fire support coordination functions are carried out informally. Each supported unit commander has an artillery officer as his fire support coordinator who will assist in planning fire support. (1) Company (team). Normally, a forward observer from direct support artillery units and organic mortar units will operate with each company team. They are the principal assistants to the commander on matters of fire support. The company commander and the platoon leaders should solicit the forward observers' advice as to how the supporting artillery can best help the company in any particular situation. The commander is responsible for providing an armor protected vehicle with communication facilities to the forward observers when required. Radio is the primary means of communication for requesting and controlling fire support. (a) In the initial planning phase of an operation, the company commander must discuss the company's mission and his concept of operation with the platoon leaders and the forward observers. The platoon leaders in planning the employment of their platoon may submit requirements or recommendations for supporting fires to either the commander or the forward observers. Based on the commander's concept of the operation, his plan of fire support, and requirements submitted by the platoon leaders, the company commander and the artillery forward observer formulate a plan of fire support. They select targets that must be engaged to support the operation and decide the best method of attacking them. Targets suitable for attack by the company's organic weapons are assigned to those weapons so far as their capabilities and available ammunition permit. In addition, the commander and artillery forward observers prepare a fire plan to support the company's scheme of maneuver. Included in this plan are the targets not susceptible to profitable attack by organic weapons. This fire plan is normally only a target list showing location and description of targets. This plan or target list is sent to battalion headquarters where the artillery liaison officer incorporates it into the battalion fire plan. (b) During the conduct of the operation, requests for artillery and mortar fires are processed through the artillery and mortar forward observers respectively. They transmit these requests to the supporting fire direction center and adjust fire upon the designated target. The forward observers may call for fire on their own initiative on targets that affect the actions of the company. They locate themselves where they can best observe and adjust fire. They must maintain communication with both the supported company and the supporting fire direction center. When the commander desires supporting fire, he will normally request the fire through the forward observers who will transmit the request direct to the supporting fire direction center. If the company commander cannot contact the forward observers, he may send his request to the battalion fire support coordinator (FSCOORD) by using the battalion task force command communication net. The FSCOORD will then transmit the request to the supporting fire direction center. A platoon leader should send his request for supporting fire direct to the forward observers with the company. If a platoon leader cannot contact the forward observers, he should send his request to his company commander. In either case, the company commander and the forward observers, if practical, will discuss all requests for fire before sending them to the appropriate headquarters. (c) For details of field artillery employment, see FM 6-20-1 and FM 6-20-2. (2) Battalion (task force). The artillery liaison officer at battalion task force is the fire support coordinator. As such, he is the principal adviser to the task force commander on all fire support means. (a) Based on the supported commander's concept of the operation and the fire plans or request received from the artillery forward observers with the companies, he prepares the artillery fire plan to support the actions of the battalion task force. Additionally, he supervises the preparation of all other fire plans and formulates the fire support plan. (b) The fire support plan normally includes the fire plans for the employment of the supporting artillery, tactical air support, and organic weapons. (c) As the fire support coordinator, the liaison officer insures that targets that would affect the accomplishment of the mission are attacked as rapidly as possible with the best fire support means. If sufficient means are not available, he will request additional support through artillery channels. (d) When the fire support plan and all supporting fire plans are completed, they are sent to the artillery liaison officer at brigade if time permits; otherwise, they may be sent direct to the supporting artillery fire direction center. (e) The artillery liaison officer is assisted by representatives of other fire support agencies available to the battalion. 1. When tactical air support is available, a tactical air control part (TACP) is furnished the unit by the Air Force (para 235-240) . 2. The battalion task force S3 air represents the battalion staff on this fire support coordination team. He formulates and prepares the air fire plan. 3. The tank battalion heavy mortar platoon leader advises on the employment of the heavy mortars. In conjunction with the artillery liaison officer and battalion commander, he prepares the heavy mortar fire plan for the battalion. (f) In a battalion-size task force, the fire support coordination personnel will be present at the command post or at a designated location during the planning phase of an operation. These officers resolve any problems of fire support that arise. (3) Brigade. At brigade level, the sup fire plan. He is assisted by the air liaison officer and the brigade S3 air. Their duties are the same as outlined at battalion task force level. porting artillery battalion commander is the fire support coordinator. He makes recommendations on the employment of his battalion, and on the basis of the commander's decision, coordinates and integrates the various fire plans. (a) In the absence of the supporting artillery commander, the artillery liaison officer at brigade acts as the fire support coordinator. In actual practice, a large portion of the detailed work of coordination will be performed by this officer and his section. (b) VVhen the fire support coordinator receives the fire plans from the battalion task forces, he integrates them into the fire plans to support the brigade. Based on the fire plans received from the battalion task forces and on the commander's guidance for employment of all available fire support, the liaison officer formulates and prepares the fire support plan and the artillery Section Ill. AIR 220. Air Defense Artillery a. Overall army air defense of the field army is the responsibility of, and is provided by, the air defense artillery brigade at field army level. ADA units in the field army include Nike Hercules, Hawk, and automatic weapon units. Nike Hercules units and some Hawk units will normally be retained at field army level under the control of the ADA brigade commander. These units provide area air defense of the field army. The balance of Hawk units will normally be assigned or attached to corps under control of ADA groups. The ADA missile units are integrated with Air Force interceptors to provide a coordinated, integrated air defense system responsive to a single commander. (c) VVhen the fire support plan is completed, it is sent to the S3 of the supporting artillery battalion, who makes final changes and additions. After completion, it must be approved by the brigade or regimental commander. The brigade fire support plan is then sent to the division artillery S3 who integrates it into the division fire support plan, which is issued as an annex to the division operation order. The regimental fire support plan is published as an annex to the regimental operations order and forwarded to the higher headquarters for review and to be included in their fire support plan if approved. 219. Fire Support Control Measures . Certain control measures must be established to protect the safety of friendly troops and to permit maximum support with minimum restrictions. All of the control measures are established in coordination with the supported commander (app X). DEFENSE ARTILLERY b. Forward area ADA automatic weapon battalions are attached to divisions as required. Further organization and assignments are the prerogative of the division commander. Although the ADA AVV battalion may be employed directly under division control or further attached to division artillery, direct division control is to be preferred from the air defense viewpoint. Battalion elements may be further attached to, or placed under, operational control of maneuver units. These elements may be of battery, platoon, or section size, depending upon the size of a defended installation, its priority, and the number of weapons available. For independent division operations, increased air defense capability may be provid ed by attachment of Hawk or additional automatic weapon units. For further discussion on employment of Hawk, see FM 44-1 and FM 44-96. c. The nuclear surface-to-surface fire support missions by ADA units are planned and coordinated by the fire support coordination element (FSCE) with the Air Defense Element (ADE). Weapons allocated to the field army air defense commander for use in the air defense role are not employed in the surfaceto-surface role without special authorization of the commander making the allocation. When employed in the surface role, ADA automatic weapon units do not require this special authorization and coordination and planning is not required by the FSCE. Employment in this role is inherent in the mission assigned by the maneuver force commander. ADA automatic weapon units employed in the division area may, as part of their assigned mission, be required to integrate their fires in local security plans, and defend against airmobile and airborne attacks or air-landed troops in or near their positions. This part of the mission should be carefully integrated with the battalion or squadron plan for countering these enemy forces. 221. ADA Automatic Weapon Battalions n. Mission. The mission of ADA automatic weapons is to attack and destroy hostile airborne and surface targets. This mission encompasses a primary air defense role and a secondary ground support role. Commanders whose forces include ADA A W units assign the role, air defense or ground support, which best counters the greatest threat to the accomplishment of the overall force mission. Weapons should be positioned to best accomplish the assigned role, with secondary consideration being given to the other role. Commanders must keep in mind that the primary role and justification for ADA automatic weapon units is defense against air attack. This is the role for which they are best trained, organized, and equipped. b. Assignment. Air defense artillery units attached to the division are controlled by the division commander to the extent specified by the field army or corps commander and within control measures established at theater level. These ADA units may be retained under division control or attached to subordinate maneuver elements as appropriate. c. Employment. The battalion is the basic tactical and administrative organization for ADA automatic weapon units. It consists of a headquarters and headquarters battery and four firing batteries. Firing batteries each consist of two platoons of eight automatic weapons each. As required by the tactical situation, these units are tailored to best accomplish the assigned mission. Individual defenses are designed to provide all around coverage, defense in depth, and when terrain dictates, weighting along low altitude avenues of approach. The number of weapons required for a specific defense is determined by the priority of the defended installation, its size and shape, terrain, and the anticipated air threat. ADA units must be capable of moving with, and providing con~ tinuous air defense of division elements. d. For details of ADA employment, see FM 44-1, FM 44-2, and FM 61-100. Section IV. ARMY AVIATION 222. General Army aviation increases the mobility, versatility, and combat efficiency of ground combat units. It is integrated into combat, combat support, and combat service support units when the employment of Army aircraft will benefit operations. Aircraft provide the commander with a capability to move rapidly throughout the area of operations to influence critical ac tions by his personal presence. In addition to the armored divisions and armored cavalry regiments organic aircraft, army and corps aviation units provide information of the enemy and area of operations by both visual and electronic means. This timely information enables the armor commander to fully exploit the capabilities of armor units at the time and, place of his choosing. Aviation units provide on a continuing basis such valuable services as expanding lines of communications, barrier crossing capabilities, providing aircraft for airmobile operations, aerial fire support, and limited resupply for fast moving situations. For discussion of the capabilities and limitations of Army aviation, see FM 1-5, FM 1-15, FM 1-100, FM 17-36, and FM 57-35. 223. Organic Aircraft, Armored Division and Armored Cavalry Regiment a. Command, Control, and Observation Aircraft. The armored cavalry regimental headquarters, the armored cavalry regimental squadrons, division headquarters, division artillery, and divisional brigades are provided helicopters by TOE for command and control and to provide visual aerial observation, reconnaissance, and liaison. These helicopters are normally employed under unit control and operate from heliports in the vicinity of unit command posts. Brigades and regimental air elements provide aircraft to attached maneuver battalions on priorities established by the brigade or regimental commander. These aviation units may be augmented by corps or army aviation units for specific operations. When armor brigades conduct airmobile operations, corps or army aviation units are placed under operational control of the brigade or attached, depending on the type and length of the operation. b. Air Cavalry Troop. Each armored cavalry regiment and each divisional armored cavalry Section V. 225. General Guidance relative to the employment of toxic agents by armor units will be received through command channels. There are no restrictions on the initial employment of nontoxic chemical agents such as flame and smoke. After use of toxic chemical agents is authorized, their employment will be planned and executed subject to policy restrictions of higher headquarters. Operations involving the use of toxic biological agents will normally be planned and executed by corps or higher units. Chemical employment planning parallels fire planning and plans are squadron has an organic air cavalry troop. For the basic employment of this troop, see FM 17-36 and FM 17-95. c. Logistical Support Aircraft. The transport section of the armored cavalry regiment's aviation platoon provides a capability for limited aerial movement of troops, supplies, and equipment for units of the regiment. The helicopters in the aircraft maintenance company in the division support command are used for maintenance support. Other organic aircraft may be diverted for logistical support missions on a priority basis. 224. Army and Corps Aviation Support Army and corps aviation units consist of light and medium airmobile companies for troop and cargo lifts, heavy helicopter co~panies for heavy equipment and cargo lifts, fixed wing surveillance companies for visual and electronic surveillance, separate air cavalry troops, escort helicopter companies (armed), and air ambulance companies. Aircraft requirements for airmobile operations either tactical or logistical aerial electronic surveillance, and other type operations requiring additional aircraft over those provided armor units by TOE will be allocated by army or corps as required. These aviation units may be attached to, placed in support of, or under the operational control of an armored unit. Armor commanders at all levels must consider the availability and capability of corps and army aircraft during the planning and conduct of operations. CHEMICAL forwarded to division for inclusion in division plans. 226. Chemical Support Units Certain chemical units may be attached or in support of brigade or battalion operations or may be operating in the brigade zone of action. Such a unit is the chemical company, smoke generator. This unit provides concealment of troops or installations under all operating conditions by the use of smoke. It is equipped to defend itself against hostile ground attack and is 100 percent mobile. Section VI. ENGINEER 227. Division Engineer Battalion a. General. The primary mission of the division engineer battalion fis to increase the combat effectiveness of the division by means of engineer combat support. A secondary mission is to undertake and conduct infantry combat missions when required. b. Capabilities. The division engineer battalion is specially organized, equipped, and trained to perform tasks that assist division units. These tasks include ( 1) Providing engineer staff planning and supervision of organic and attached engineer troops. (2) Performing construction, repair, and the maintenance of roads, bridges, fords, and culverts. (3) Providing support to hasty river crossing operations with boats, rafts, and bridges; preparation of deepfording or vehicle swim sites; coordinating of organic, attached, and supporting engineer troops in the conduct of deliberate river crossing operations. ( 4) Providing fixed bridging for passage of short gaps. ( 5) Assisting in the removal of obstacles, including mines. ( 6) Assisting in the emplacement of obstacles, including minefields and boobytraps. (7) Preparing and executing demolitions, including employment of nuclear demolitions (ADM). ( 8) Technical assistance to other troops in the preparation of field fortifications, camouflage, and deception devices. (9) Performing engineer reconnaissance and intelligence missions. (10) Accomplishing general construction, including construction of airlanding facilities. ( 11) Producing a supply of potable water. (12) Providing assistance in the as.sault of fortified positions. (13) Conducting infantry combat missions, when required·. 228. Employment of Engineers a. General. The division engineer battalion is designed to provide an optimum combination of engineer equipment and individual skills for combat engineer tasks. Some of these tasks are performed by the battalion operating as a unit. However, most of them are accomplished by the combat engineer companies and platoons that support the brigades, battalion task forces, or company teams. These engineer units may be reinforced with engineer construction equipment from headquarters and headquarters company and stream crossing equipment and assault bridging from the bridge company (FM 5-135). b. Fundamentals of Employment. (1) Combat engineer support is allocated on the basis of anticipated engineer work as determined by the factors of METT. The amount of engineer support given to a tactical unit is based on the anticipated engineer work, as determined by the mission of the tactical unit, capabilities of the enemy, scheme of maneuver, type of terrain, expected weather conditions, and capabilities and amount of engineer effort available. (2) Combat engineer units are used most effectively and efficiently in a direct support status. Greater flexibility and efficiency in the overall engineer effort are realized by retaining the subordinate engineer ·elements under the control of its parent. engineer unit. However, engineers are attached when distance, terrain, or mission make operation under the control of the parent unit impractical and undesirable. Engineer units will often be attached to armor units in operations such as the offense, exploitation, and pursuit, or if one brigade or battalion task force is conducting an independent mission. ( 3) In an offensive action, engineer ele ments must be positioned to assist in the movement of the maneuver forces. To provide effective support to the attacking force, it is essential that combat engineer units be located well forward. This forward location promotes rapid river crossing and the removal or breaching of obstacles that cannot be bypassed. This technique enables the engineer commander to maintain constant liaison, to anticipate the needs of the attacking troops, and to have maximum engineer effort available for meeting those needs promptly. ( 4) In a defensive situation, the location of the engineer units is dictated by the assigned task priorities. In a defensive operation, the senior commander specifies the form of defense, and the priorities of engineer tasks. These engineer tasks are normally accomplished by attaching a reinforced engineer unit to the security force, placing a reinforced engineer unit in support of each brigade occupying the forward defensive area, and retaining the remainder of the available engineer effort in support of the division. An engineer unit reinforced with assault bridging is normally attached to the reserve when committed. This engineer commander establishes early liaison with the commander of the reserve and functions as his engineer staff officer during all planning. This engineer unit also assists in the preparation of blocking positions, improvement of counterattack routes, and coordination and rehearsals of counterattack plans. ( 5) In a retrograde operation, engineers play a vital role in delaying the advance of the enemy and in providing adequate withdrawal routes. Proper coordination and accomplishment of engineer tasks in retrograde operations normally require the attachment of engineer elements to the delay force in a delaying action, the rear guard in a retirement, or the detach ments left in contact in a 'withdrawal. The leading elements of the friendly troops must be kept moving to their destination, therefore, routes to these destinations must be kept open and clear to provide for the continuous flow of traffic. The obstacle plan is prepared so as not to interfere with future operations. Engineers may destroy bridges and culverts, block roads, lay mines, destroy supplies, and demolish railways and rolling stock in carrying out the obstacle plan. The engineers in coordination with combat and other combat support units prepare successive delaying positions and maintain routes of withdrawal. (6) The senior engineer representative functions as the tactical unit's engineer staff officer. Nondivisional engineer units in support of the division are attached when their missions necessitate close command control. All engineer combat support provided to the division is coordinated by the division engineer (FM 5-135). (7) Considerations for commitment of engineers to an infantry combat mission. (a.) M'ission of tacticctl force. 1. Will the enemy force be able to seriously affect the tactical force if the engineer unit is not committed? 2. Can the tactical force afford the temporary loss of the engineer unit and the possible degradation of the future engineer capability? (b) Capabilit-ies of the engineer unit. .1. Is the combat strength of the engineer unit sufficient to signifi cantly influence the action if committed? 2. What combat support will the engineer unit need to perform the combat mission? 3. Could the available engineer unit be committed piecemeal as rein forcement for existing combat units thereby achieving a better tactical posture? 4. How quickly can the engineer unit be modified to assume a combat mission? 5. Does the equipment of the engineer unit lend itself to commitment in the current tactical situation? (8) Conduct. Commitment of an engineer unit to an infantry combat mission is not instantaneous. It requires time for the engineer unit to prepare for such a mission. Normal organization of the engineer platoon or company is modified to provide effective use and control of crew-served weapons; security of equipment not needed for combat; and the special requirements of command, communication, and supply in combat. The extent of modification varies with the size of the engineer unit, the time available, and the mission. See FM 5-135. Section VII. COMMUNICATIONS 229. General Communication is a function of command. Each armor unit commander is responsible for the establishment, operation, and maintenance, within his capabilities, of the communication system of his command and its operation in the system of the next higher headquarters. He must adhere to the following principles in establishing and operating his communication system: a. The communication system must be organized to fit the unit task organization. The communication systems of subordinate and supporting elements must be integrated into the unit communication system. b. Planning for the maximum use of all available means of communication will prevent the overloading of any one means and will minimize the effect of a disruption of one or more means. 230. Communication means Radio is the means of communication used most in armor units. Wire, messenger, visual, and sound communication are supplemental means employed extensively under certain circumstances. Instructions for the use of these means are contained in SSI's, SOl's and other pertinent directives. a. Radio. The flexibility of radio communication affords the commander the ability to control and coordinate subordinate elements, yet does not restrict maneuver of these elements. Radio communication may be affected adversely by enemy jamming, unfavorable terrain, and weather. Armor leaders habitually operate their own voice radios to insure the direct and personal contact characteristics of armor command. Armor units generally employ three types of radio equipment in the basic configurations discussed below (1) FM radios. (a) Mounted FM radios. These radio sets, mounted in ground and air vehicles, consist of combinations of components which are configured to satisfy the communications requirements of various users. The components used include-short-range transceivers with a planning distance of 24-32 kilometers ; auxiliary receivers; and short-range, lowpower transceivers with a planning distance of 8 kilometers. (b) Portable FM radios. These are radio sets which are back-packed or hand-carried and have planning distances of 500 meters to 8 kilometers, depending on the radio set and type of antenna used. (2) AM radios. (n) AM radios (voice or CW). These are medium range, HF radio sets both portable and vehicular mounted, which provide for transmission and reception of voice or CW signals. Depending on equipment and antenna used, these sets have the following planning distances: voice, 16-80 kilometers; and CW, 32-120 kilometers. (b) AM radio teletypewriter (RATT) sets. These are vehicular mounted, medium range, HF radio sets which can provide either separate or simultaneous transmission and reception of voice and RATT signals. Additionally, these sets can transmit and receive CW signals. Planning distances for these sets are from 80-120 kilometers dependent on mode of transmission and antenna used. (c) For additional details concerning these radios, see FM 24-19. (3) UHF radios. These are vehicular mounted radio sets which are voice operated and are used for ground-toair communications. Planning distances are dependent on altitude of the aircraft and vary from 48 kilometers (at 1,000 ft air elevation) to 160 kilometers (at 10,000 ft air elevation). b. Wire. Wire communication supplements radio and is used whenever practicable. The installation of wire is dependent on the situation and the time available. It is used mainly in defensive situations and in assembly areas. c. Messenge1·s. Messengers are used to supplement radio and wire. Messenger communication is more secure and dependable generally than other means but lacks the speed inherent in radio or wire communication. Use of air messenger service will speed delivery time. d. Visual. Visual communication is a means available to all units. Visual signals are transmitted by flags, lights, pyrotechnics, panels, arm and hand signals, and aircraft maneuvers. (See ACP 126 and FM 21-60.) They are suitable for transmitting simple prearranged messages rapidly over short distances as well as for recognition and identification of friendly forces. Their use is restricted by distance, visibility, security, and the nature of the signal. e. Sound. Sound communication is typified by such devices as sirens, shots, horns, and alarms. The chief value of sound signals is to attract attention, transmit simple prearranged messages, and to spread alarms. Sound signals are satisfactory only for short distances, and their effectiveness is greatly reduced by battle noise. 231. Employment of the Battalion or Squadron Communication Platoon It is the function of the communication platoon to insure the efficient operation of the battalion or squadron communication system and to perform organizational maintenance on communication and electronic equipment organic to the battalion or squadron headquarters and headquarters company or troop. The communication platoon provides the following services: a. Operates the message center and provides messenger service. b. Installs wire lines to subordinate units and staff sections when required. c. Operates the battalion or squadron switchboard, panel displays, and message pickup facilities. d. Provides facilities for encrypting and decrypting messages. e. In coordination with the S4 section, procures communication and electronic repair parts for the battalion or squadron (less cryptographic) and evacuates all communication and electronic equipment that requires repair beyond organizational maintenance level. 232. Liaison a. Liaison is a means of establishing communication. Each commander maintains liaison with higher headquarters, supported units, and adjacent units by any means available. b. Liaison may be accomplished by personal conference between commanders or by means of a liaison agent or officer who represents the commander. Usually both methods are employed concurrently. 233. Communication Security The armor unit commander is responsible for the security of his communication system, which includes all measures taken to prevent or delay the enemy from gaining information from friendly communication systems. The commander must determine the maximum degree of communication security that he can employ consistent with his mission and the reaction time of the enemy. For a detailed discussion of radio security measures, see FM 24-1, FM 24-18 and (GM)FM 32-5. 234. Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (Antijamming) ct. General. The possibility of electronic interference to command and control communications must be carefully considered in planning operations. Electronic counter-countermeasures include but are not limited to (1) Siting of communications and surveillance equipment to reduce its vulnerability to jamming. Such measures include dispersion, adoption of reverse slope positions for other than line of sight antennas or radiating and receiving devices, and frequent displacement when practicable. (2) Minimizing the use of radiating communication and surveillance equipment (including such measures as periods of radio listening silence) to hamper the enemy's signal intercept and intelligence acquisition systems. ( 3) Providing alternate means in both the communication and surveillance fields with the alternate means operating on different transmitting frequencies and from different locations. ( 4) Training operators in antijamming techniques and in detecting enemy deceptive action taken against our surveillance devices. (5) Use of decoys and simulating devices. ( 6) Use of radar-homing missiles. b. Radio Jamming Checklists. Enemy forces usually have the capability to jam all radio circuits. Until jam-proof equipment and techniques are developed, all possible steps must be taken to minimize the effects of enemy jamming. (1) Commanders and staff. (a) Reduce use of radio messages to absolute minimum. (c) Keep messages as short as possible. (d) Stress radio discipline and security. (e) Destroy enemy jamming stations where possible and if deemed advisable by the tactical commander. (f) Always inform the next higher headquarters of jamming. (2) Communications officer. (a) Use the radio only when necessary. (b) Train radio operators to readjust equipment and continue operating through jamming. (c) Enforce radio discipline and security to maximum. (d) Require authentication of all transmissions. (e) Site radio stations and antennas to evade enemy jamming. (f) Always include alternate call signs and frequencies in signal operation instructions (SOl) and include prearranged plans for their use. (g) Always report jamming to the commanding officer and staff. (3) Radio operators. (a) Site station and antenna to evade enemy jamming. (b) Learn to recognize enemy jamming and report details to officer in charge. (c) Learn to readjust the set to minimize effect of jamming. (d) Operate with minimum power until jammed-then increase the power. (e) Shift to alternate frequencies and call signs as directed. (f) Authenticate all transmissions. (g) Use dummy antenna, when one is provided, on tuneup of transmitter. (h) KEEP OFF THE AIR, except as absolutely necessary. ( i) Observe radio discipline at all times. (j) Keep transmission as short as pos (b) Preplan all operations possible; use sible. brevity codes to implement plans (k) When jammed, keep calm, keep try and directives. ing, keep operating. Section VIII. TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT 235. General a. Tactical air support consists of close air support and tactical air reconnaissance in areas of concern to the ground commander. b. The Air Force provides tactical air control parties (TACP's) to Army units down to battalion level. The TACP's are composed of selected Air Force officers who are tactical fighter pilots. They are responsible for advising the ground commander on Air Force capabilities and limitations, transmitting immediate air requests to the direct air support center (DASC) over the Air Force air request net, controlling air strikes, and keeping the S3 air informed on status of air request. c. All equipment and personnel for TACP's are provided by the Air Force. When the situation dictates, full-tracked Army vehicles are provided the TACP's by the supported unit. d. The battalion level TACP is composed of two officers (an air liaison officer (ALO) and a forward air controller (FAC)), vehicular and portable communications equipment, and sufficient enlisted personnel to operate and maintain the equipment. The TACP's above battalion level have a senior air liaison officer ( ALO), specialized assistants according to echelon (e.g., at division, tactical air reconnaissance and tactical airlift operation's officers) vehicle mounted communications, and enlisted communications personnel to operate and maintain the equipment. e. The T ACP should be collocated with the fire support coordinator (FSCOORD). This will a;;sure timely coordination with ground support elements to determine the most appropriate weapon system to be used. f. Targets for supporting tactical air include enemy armor, enemy columns, targets out of range of artillery, enemy strongpoints, and enemy communications centers. Tactical air may perform visual, photographic, weather, or electronic reconnaissance missions and make a 24hour a day all-weather light bombardment attack. g. Close air support provided by navy and marine elements is controlled by attached ANGLICO personnel as described in FM 31-12 or by TACP's provided by USAF. 236. Tactical Close-Air Support Requests There are two types of request for close support air missions a. Preplanned. A preplanned mission is one that is decided upon early enough to allow complete planning and thorough preparation. The deadline for submission is outlined by orders (SOP). Preplanned air requests are submitted thru army channels moving progressively up and through each level of command, until they reach the senior TOC (TASE). (Field army is the highest army command echelon considered to be involved in preplanned air request). If the request is approved at this level by the to be involved in preplanned air request.) If is then submitted to the TACC as a requirement to the appropriate close air support unit. A preplanned air request should include the following information: ( 1) Target location. Coordinates; speed and direction, if moving; location with regard to prominent landmarks. (2) Target description. Guns: size, hasty or fortified positions, camouflage. Strongpoints: size and type of construction. (3) Time on target (TOT). Specify limits, if any. ( 4) Troops. Bivouac, marching, type of dugouts, and their depth. Supply areas: size, dispersed or concentrated, revetted or in the open, and class of supply. ( 5) Results desired. Destruction, neutralization, harassment limitations. (6) Tact,ical significance. How attack will aid mission of requesting unit. (7) Target distance and direction from troops. Distance and azimith or limiting coordinates of troop positions, landmarks if possible. (8) SpeC'inl control information. Special bombline; marking of frontlines, whether marked on call of pilot or otherwise; facilities available for marking targets; desired direction of attack. (9) Other pertinent informcttion. Flak suppression if provided ; artillery and naval gunfire maximum ordinate; forward air controller ( F AC) identification and location. Note. Photo requests should contain information as to type of photography, scale, information desired, and quantity of prints. Visual reconnaissance should include specific area or route to be coyered. b. Irmnediate. Requests for immediate close air support are passed over the Air Force air request net directly from the TACP at the originating headquarters to the DASC at corps (fig. 12). Every request is acknowledged by each echelon having approval authority. If any intervening headquarters wishes to disapprove a request, it so indicates and informs the requesting agency of the type support to be used. In the absence of acknowledgment following a length of time specified by the appropriate commander, the request will be processed as though an acknowledgment had been received. 237. Control Measurer To insure the safety of friendly troops and installations, a fire support coordination line (FSCL) is established on the ground by the ground forces, generally by the corps commander, and it must be coordinated with the supporting Air Force commander. This is a line beyond which the Air Force or other agencies may attack targets without danger to, or approval from, the ground forces. The movement of the FSCL must be anticipated and appropriate recommendations must be submitted enough in advance to insure dissemination to tactical air force. The FSCL must be easily identifiable by terrain features from the air and ground to prevent confusion and accidental air attacks on friendly ground forces. Tactical aircraft may attack targets short of the FSCL when ground forces request or give cleai·ance for such an attack. 238. Close Air Support The following types of missions are employed normally in close air support operations: a. Column-Cover. These missions are performed usually by tactical fighter aircraft and are accomplished by positioning the aircraft over the ground formation to perform visual reconnaissance to the front, rear, and flanks, and to attack enemy air or ground elements that impede or threaten the progress of the ground force. A F AC is located usually in one of the forward armored vehicles and directs aircraft onto targets. The column cover mission is of great assistance to armor in the exploitation of enemy disorganization and weakened resistance following a breakthrough. Aircraft on column cover missions can often neutralize elements of impending enemy resistance before these elements have been contacted by friendly ground forces. b. Air Escort. When heliborne forces are employed, air escort may be used to defend the force against enemy air and ground attack in addition to eliminating enemy resistance in the objective or landing area. c. Air Strike. These missions are the backbone of close air support. Heavily armed tactical fighters perform their missions by attacking weapons positions, tanks, troops, vehicles, and other equipment. d. Specictl Missions. These may include such missions as electronic countermeasures performed by specially equipped aircraft to neutralize enemy electronic equipment. 239. Armament ct. Bombs. Bombs are used to destroy or neutralize a selected target. This is achieved usually by blast, shock, fragmentation, or fire effect. Varied fuse arrangements are used to control bomb bursts as desired. Types of bombs that may be used by tactical air support aircraft are (1) Fragmentation (against personnel and aircraft on the ground) . (2) General purpose (same as HE shell). (3) Special purpose: ( n) Penetrating. (b) Demolition. (c) Chemical. (d) Mining. (e) Fire bombs (thickened fuel). ( 4) Nuclear. b. Rockets. Air-to-air and air-to-ground rockets are used to destroy small targets such FIELD ARMY (3) c::~~~ A .... ~~ "1.-,1,..' .) "1.-'"1.-''1..."' ,."" CORPS r-...L----...::-::::"'.!:.,.....:..:1--::::..:::"'~1--:::"' "t."' 1.-,..... AIR ALERT DIRECT AIR SUPPORT AIRCRAFT TACTICAL AIR CONTROL PARTY CENTER (1) TOC ALO (TACT) (DASC) \ '"' DIVISION (2), TACTICAL AIR I \ v\_,..,"!1 '"" ..,-,", CONTROL PARTY ALO (TACP) ' BRIGADE (2),....------.~~...-______, TACTICAL AIR CONTROL PARTY ALO (TACP) GROUND ALERT AIRCRAFT BATTALION TACTICAL AIR CONTROL PARTY ALO & FAC (TACP) ~AIR REQUEST NET (1) DASC PROVIDED EACH CORPS IN OPERATIONS INVOLVING A FIELD ARMY OR ARMY GROUP. A DASC (REDUCED) IS COLLOCATED WITH DIVISION DURING INDEPENDENT DIVISION OPERATIONS. r-, (2) REMAIN SILENT WHEN APPROVING A REQUEST FROM LOWER ESHELON. '~"'<-SCRAMBLE CIRCUITS ......~~ (3) FIELD ARMY REQUIREMENTS FOR IMMEDIATE CLOSE AIR SUPPORT OR - TACTICAL RECONNAISSANCE ARE SUBMITTED TO A CTOC OR TO THE TACC AS THE SITUATION DICTATES. - Figure 1!2. Immediate tactical air request. w "' as tanks, armored vehicles, trucks, gun emplacements, strongpoints, and aircraft. c. Machineguns and Cannons. These weapons are an integral part of armament of tactical fighters and feature: (1) High cyclic rate of fire. (2) High muzzle velocity. d. Missiles. These weapons may be employed air-to-air or air-to-surface. There are two general types-guided and nonguided. e. Chemical Spray. Tactical air support aircraft may be fitted with spray tanks filled with Section IX. 241. General Combat intelligence is intelligence for use in a combat area, whether based upon information collected locally or provided by higher headquarters. An armor commander uses the three elements of combat intelligence-information of the terrain, weather, and the enemy -in the performance of any combat mission (app XII). In internal defense operations, information of the civil populace becomes another intelligence element. Information of the enemy situation is normally the most critical intelligence requirement because this information is difficult to obtain. The S2 must be certain that routine intelligence production activities are undertaken in order of urgency to insure that the commander is provided with answers to his intelligence questions in time to be of use. Forward armor units constitute a major source of combat information. The S3 must support the intelligence effort by understanding and accepting conclusions concerning the effects of the weather, the terrain, and the enemy situation on the operation plan. An effective collection effort must be made to determine the existing enemy situation. This permits the commander to develop plans that take advantage of weather and terrain and exploit known enemy weaknesses. The actions of the unit generate combat information for its own use and for use of higher headquarters in the production of combat intelligence (FM 30-5 and FM 30-7). 242. Agencies Maximum use must be made of combat intelligence collection and production agencies. The smoke agent to provide smoke screens or filled with chemical agent to deliver spray attacks. 240. Typical Targets for Close Air Support a. Weapon positions. b. Vehicles and armor. c. Command posts. d. Troop concentrations. e. Strongly defended positions. f. Missile launch sites. g. Defended roadblocks. INTELLIGENCE agencies and organizations that will most frequently be in support or attached are a. Divisional Agencies. ( 1) Artillery forward observers. (2) PW interrogation teams. (3) Armored cavalry squadron. b. N ondivisional Agencies (normally not under brigade or battalion task force control, but frequently in the ·area of operations). (1) U.S. Army Security Agency division support company. This company supports the division and its units by assisting in the maintenance of communication security and providing communication intelligence. Elements of this company usually are located in the brigade and battalion areas. They can be of great assistance to the commander if informed of the brigade and battalion intelligence requirements. (2) Combat electronic warfare company. This company may be attached or in support of the division. It provides the division G2 information regarding enemy electronic equipment, organization, and locations by detecting and studying enemy electromagnetic transmissions. Information gathered by this unit can be obtained through intelligence channels. (3) Technical intelligence company. This company, organic to the military intelligence battalion, field army, provides centralized performance of technical intelligence functions in the field army. The company, which is located in the army rear service area, oper ates under the direct control of the military intelligence battalion com mander. The technical intelligence field team organic to the military in telligence unit of corps is responsible for the collection of technical materiel within the division areas to include immediate combat evaluation and to make arrangements for the evacua tion of captured enemy equipment to the technical intelligence company, field army. Technical intelligence in formation required by brigades or bat talions can be obtained through intel ligence channels. ( 4) Military intelligence detachment. This detachment performs specialized intelligence and counterintelligence functions that require the employment of special or foreign language skills in support of the armored cavalry regiment or separate armored or infantry brigades. The detachment provides the cavalry regiment, or separate armored or infantry brigade S2, assistance in the specialized fields of order of battle, imagery interpretation, interrogation of prisoners of war, document translation, and counterintelligence activities. ( 5) Armored cavalry regiment. Armored cavalry regiments are equipped to collect information of the enemy and the area of operations by ground and air activities. See chapter 5 and FM 17-95. 243. Reconnaissan.ce Effective reconnaissance provides much of the information necessary for the conduct of operations (ch 5). 244. Target Acquisition Targets result from study or interpretation of the data supplied by many sources and agencies. Speed and accuracy in reporting are vital for successful engagement and destruction of targets. Soldiers must be trained to report all enemy activity or lack of enemy activity. 245. Surveillance Surveillance involves the systematic observation of the battlefield by visual, electronic, photographic, and other means. It must be conducted on an all-weather, day-and-night basis to provide timely information to support combat operations. Appendix XXI provides guidance on the employment of ground radar. 246. Counterintelligence Counterintelligence consists of means to deceive the enemy, deny the enemy information, and detect and expose, or neutralize, the enemy intelligence effort. Active counterintelligence measures block the enemy's attempts to gain information or to engage in sabotage or subversion. Among these measures are counterespionage, countersabotage, countersubversion, and the use of smoke to deny observation. Security of a unit can be so effective that it can deny the enemy any information and thus aid in achieving surprise. Passive counterintelligence measures conceal information from the enemy; they include censorship, security of classified documents and materiel, signal communication security, concealment, camouflage, electronic countermeasures, and ~ontrol of civil population. A part of the counterintelligence section of the military intelligence detachment which is attached to division may be attached to brigade to advise the commander on counterintelligence measures. The S2 assists in planning and supervising unit counterintelligence training. CHAPTER 10 COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT Section I. 247. Purpose and Scope a. This chapter provides guidance to commanders and staffs of armor units below division level in combat service support operations, including supply, combat service support aspects of medical treatment and evacuation, transportation, maintenance, and services in an active theater of operations. It also outlines command and staff combat service support responsibilities. b. Discussion of combat service support in this chapter refers to the brigade, battalion, and company, unless otherwise specified, it is also applicable to the armored cavalry regiment, squadron, or troop. 248. Principles of Combat Service Support Combat service support is the part of administration that provides for and manages supply, evacuation and hospitalization, transportation, and maintenance and service. Although procedures may vary at different echelons, the principles of combat service support remain constant and are applicable to all forms of warfare. However, the mass destruction of personnel, supplies, and equipment that may result from nuclear attack, and the mass casualties and contamination of supplies and equipment that may result from chemical and biological attacks requires that additional consideration be given to applying these principles. For discussion of combat service support operations under conditions of chemical, biological, and nuclear warfare, see FM 54-2. All echelons in the combat service support structure adhere to four basic principles. a. Combat Service Support is a Function of Command. Commanders at all echelons are re- GENERAL sponsible for the combat service support of organic and attached elements of their commands. From the tank commander or squad leader upward, each commander assures himself that combat service support is adequate by anticipating his requirements, making his wants known, and employing properly the combat service support elements available to him. The logistics officer (84) assists the commander in performing his combat service support responsibility. To-, insure an active, wellcoordinated effort, the commander makes his policies and decisions known to his logistics officer. b. The Impetus of Combat Service Support is From Rear to Front. All combat service support echelons must be impressed with the necessity for constantly pushing the combat service support forward to the user to provide him the means to accomplish his missions. At all echelons, combat service support agencies must be in reasonable reach of the organic transportation of lower units. This is especially important in armor operations, which normally extend over great distances. c. Advnnce Planning is Essential tq Successful Combat Service Support. The logistical plan is based upon and provides adequate and timely support to the tactical operation. It is complete, simple, and flexible. It must be prepared with foresight and coordinated with all appropriate staff officers. Combat service support and tactical planning are concurrent. The logistics officer advises the commander on all combat service support matters pertaining to anticipated operations. d. Reserves of Supplies nre Maintained at All Echelons. Certain reserve supplies, includ ing rations, ammunition, fuel and lubricants, and repair parts, are carried by all echelons. These reserves insure that the combat units can continue to operate if the supply chain should be broken temporarily; they must be replenished when supplies become available. 249. Logistical Characteristics of Armor Units a. Battalions, squadrons, and separate companies and troops are logistically capable of operating independently for limited periods of time. Companies of tank battalions and troops of armored cavalry squadrons are dependent upon the parent unit, for combat service support. b. Headquarters and headquarters companies or troops of the division brigade or armored cavalry regiment contain only the personnel and equipment required to establish and maintain the headquarters and the company lo gistically. These units do not have organic combat service support elements required to support attached combat battalions or combat support units. c. Armored cavalry regiments and separate armored brigades receive combat service support from direct support units of the field army support command. d. Logistically, armor units are characterized by their large consumption of fuels, heavy expenditures of ammunition, and support requirements. The success of the armor unit depends on how well these requirements are satisfied. e. Armor units may be logistically supported by air for limited periods. Supplies and equipment are delivered by parachute, by low-level extraction, and by utility or cargo helicopter. Terrain and tactical situation permitting, lowlevel extraction is preferred due to accuracy of delivery. Section II. COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT PERSONNEL 250. General ct. At brigade and battalion level, the commander is provided a logistical staff officer (S4) and other key combat service support personnel to assist him. At company level, the commander is provided warrant officers or trained enlisted men whose primary duties are concerned with combat service support matters. b. For discussion of the commander's combat service support responsibilities, see FM 54-2. 251. Brigade Combat Service Support Personnel The divisional brigade headquarters is primarily a tactical headquarters and normally enters combat service support channels only to coordinate and establish priorities for critical items of supply. However, the commander must insure adequate combat service support for the subordinate elements. Higher headquarters attaches or places in support the combat service support means to support operations. The commander is provided a staff to monitor the. combat service support situation, control and coordinate combat service support elements, and recommend adjustment of combat service support means, as necessary. Separate brigades have an organic combat service support battalion. For duties of brigade and regimental combat service support staff personnel, see paragraph 66. 252. Battalion or Squadron Combat Service Support Personnel n. GeneTal. Within the division the normal chain of combat service support is direct from divisional support command elements to the battalion or squadron. The armored cavalry squadron of the armored cavalry regiment's normal chain of combat service support is from direct support units of the field army support command. The battalion commander is provided with a logistics staff officer (S4) and other key combat service support personnel to assist him. For logistical duties of the S4, communications officer, maintenance officer, support platoon leader, and surgeon, see paragraph 67. b. TmnspoTtntion Section Conunande1·. The transportation section commander (lieutenant) commands the transportation section in the battalion support platoon. His duties include (1) Supervising the hauling of cargo and movement of personnel in vehicles of the transportation section. (2) Supervising the selection and training of personnel in his section in the operation, maintenance, and employment of cargo vehicles. (3) Instructing and supervising in the proper loading of cargo. (4) Directing the movement of supply vehicles in convoy. ( 5) Conducting inspections to determine vehicle and load conditions and insuring compliance with prescribed procedures. (6) Advising the support platoon leader on motor transport problems. (7) Assisting the S4 in the control, security, and displacement of the combat trains. c. Supply Section Leader. The battalion supply section leader (warrant officer) commands the supply section of the support platoon. His duties include ( 1) Maintaining records to reflect the current logistical situation. (2) Preparing requisitions and other logistics documents. ( 3) Preparing logistical reports. ( 4) Assisting the support platoon leader in the operation of the field trains. 253. Company Combat Service Support Personnel a. The key combat service support personnel at the company level include supply, communication, and maintenance warrant officers or noncommissioned officers who perform or supervise the functions of supply or maintenance. b. Normally the company executive officer is responsible to the commander for the supervision of all combat service support matters of the unit. This does not preclude the assignment of other unit officers as assistant supply or maintenance officers. c. In the air cavalry troop, a support platoon commander (lieutenant) supervises all troop maintenance and supply activities. d. For additional discussion of company or troop combat service support personnel, see FM 17-15 and FM 17-36. 254. Separate Company or Troop Combat Service Support Personnel The separate company-level armor units are organized to operate without battalion-level support. These units have organic mess teams. In addition to the personnel discussed in paragraph 253, the separate unit has an automotive maintenance technician (warrant officer) who performs the duties of unit motor officer. Section Ill. BRIGADE TRAINS 255. General The brigade trains consist of a control group, elements and units of the division support command attached to or in support of the brigade, and the field trains of units attached or organic to the brigade. These trains are established to provide adequate combat service support to the tactical elements of the brigade and to control, coordinate movement, and protect the supporting elements and unit field trains. 256. Organization for Control The brigade trains are organized under the tactical control (movement, security, and location) of the brigade S4. The S4 section estab lishes the control element of the trains, which is known as the brigade logistical control point. Movement of all combat service support elements is coordinated at this point. 257. Composition and Employment The composition of the brigade trains varies, depending upon the tactical situation and the type and number of units attached or in support. For a discussion of the composition and employment of brigade trains, see FM 54-2, and for regimental trains, see FM 17-95. 258. Brigade Trains Under Division Control In certain situations, when route space is at a premium, it may be advantageous to place the brigade trains under the division support command commander, who then becomes reand moved as a serial. The retention of brigade sponsible for their movement and protection. trains as a unit greatly improves their logistiHowever, brigade trains, when so attached, cal efficiency, particularly when they are re should be kept as a unit positioned together leased to brigade control. Section IV. BATTALION OR SQUADRON COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT ELEMENTS AND TRAINS 259. Battalion (Squadron.) Combat Service Support Elements There are three basic combat service support elements organic to the tank battalion and armored cavalry squadron-the support platoon, maintenance platoon, and medical platoon. The size and composition of these elements vary depending on whether the parent unit is a tank battalion or armored cavalry squadron and depending on the major command to which the unit is assigned (division, regiment, or separate brigade). The functions performed by the combat service support elements are identical regardless of the unit to which organic. a. Support Platoon. The support platoon of division and separate brigade armor units is organized with a platoon headquarters, transportation section, mess section, and supply section. In the armored cavalry regiment, mess elements are organic to each troop and battery. ( 1) Transportation section. The transportation section is organized and equipped with the personnel and trucks to transport supplies from supporting supply or distributing points to the companies of the battalion. The section normally transpotts a part of the unit basic load of ammunition and prescribed loads of fuels and lubricants. (2) Mess section. The mess section is organized and equipped to receive class I supplies and prepare and deliver meals or rations to all units of the battalion. The cellular organization of the mess section permits the attachment of a mess team to each company or troop when required. (3) Supply section. The supply section is organized and equipped to receive supply requests, except for repair parts, from the companies and prepare and forward battalion requisi tions or requests to the appropriate agency. Upon receipt of supplies, this section stores (if required) and distributes the supplies in the battalion. b. Maintenance Platoon. The maintenance platoon is equipped and trained to perform organizational maintenance, as outlined in the 20series technical manuals, which cannot be ac complished by company or troop maintenance sections. It provides repair parts and evacuation of all equipment for repair (except signal and medical} and accomplishes battlefield recovery of repairable tank-automotive equipment. c. Medical Platoon. The medical platoon is composed of the battalion surgeon, noncommissioned officers, aidmen, ambulance drivers, and aid station personnel, together with their equipment and transportation. The battalion surgeon is on the special staff of the battalion commander and commands the medical platoon, and operates under the staff supervision of the Sl. The platoon is organized to provide emergency medical treatment within its capabilities. It provides for patient acquisition, emergency medical treatment, and evacuation to the battalion aid station. At the battalion aid station, the patient receives treatment and is returned to duty or evacuated to the rear. In combat operations, the battalion medical platoon will habitually attach a medical aid-evacuation team to each company. d. Commun·ication Platoon. The communication platoon is normally located in the command post area. It provides organizational maintenance as outlined in the 20-series technical manuals for the headquarters and headquarters company's communication and other electronic equipment (less cryptographic). It also provides limited backup and organizational maintenance for the line companies. The platoon procures signal repair parts for the battalion (less cryptographic) and provides for the evacuation of all signal equipment that re quires repair beyond organizational maintenancelevel. 260. Battalion Trains Organization The organization of trains varies with the mission, tactical and administrative situations, and such other factors as terrain, weather, and time and space. The trains may be organized as unit trains, with all combat service support elements grouped directly under the S4, or as combat and field trains (para 268-272). n. Combat trains are organized to provide immediate combat service support for the combat operation and consist of supply, medical, and maintenance vehicles, personnel, and equipment. b. Field trains consist of administrative, supply, and maintenance vehicles, personnel, and equipment not included in the combat trains and not required for the immediate support of combat operations. 261. Composition of Battalion (Task Force) Combat Trains The composition of the battalion combat trains is variable, depending on the tactical and administrative situations and such other factors as terrain, climate, road nets, and location of field trains. In slow-moving operations, the bulk of maintenance and medical facilities and a minimum number of supply vehicles are normally located in the combat trains. In such situations, the field trains are positioned close enough to the combat elements to supply them daily. In fast-moving operations such as an exploitation, it is desirable to place the bulk of organic combat service support elements in the combat trains since the location and disposition of the field trains will normally preclude their issuance of supply on a daily basis to the com- Section V. COMPANY AND bat elements. Regardless of the trains area from which supplies will be issued to the combat units, the supply vehicles must be organized to be responsive to the demand of the supported units. When road space is limited, higher headquarters may restrict the size of battalion combat trains. 262. Composition of Battalion (Task Force) Field Trains The factors used in determining the composition of the battalion combat trains also apply to the battalion field trains. Battalion field trains consist of those combat service support elements not included in the combat trains and not required for the immediate support of combat operations. Generally, field trains include kitchen, ration, administrative, fuel and lubricant, and ammunition vehicles. Elements of the maintenance platoon may be part of the field trains to perform scheduled maintenance and to provide maintenance for other field trains elements. For specific operations, the maintenance section of the headquarters company of the tank battalion may be located in the field trains to provide maintenance for the field trains elements and thus allow the maintenance platoon to operate as an entity away from the field trains area. 263. Control of Battalion (Task Force) Trains Control of the battalion trains, when employed either as a unit or as combat and field trains, is the responsibility of the battalion S4. The battalion combat trains are located in the general area of the battalion command post and are under the direct control of the battalion 84. The battalion support platoon leader, as the assistant S4, directly controls the battalion field trains, which are normally located in the trains area of the next higher command. TROOP COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT ELEMENTS AND TRAINS 264. Organization of Company and Troop Combat Service Support Elements The organization and equipment of combat service support elements organic to the different armor company-size units are not standard but vary in each TOE according to the mission of the unit. a. Tank Cornpany and ArrnoTed Cavalry Tnwp. Tank companies and armored cavalry troops organic to divisional battalions or squadrons have two basic combat service support elements-a maintenance section and a supply element. The organic elements provide organizational maintenance and company-level supply support to the company and any at tached units. Mess support, backup organizational maintenance, medical, and supply and transportation support are provided by the parent battalion or unit to which attached. In the airborne division, the armored cavalry troop combat service support elements have limited ground mobility means and, during sustained ground operations, require an augmentation of cargo vehicles to attain full mobility. b. Air Cavalry Troop. The air cavalry troop has an organic service platoon. The service platoon is organized with a maintenance section to provide organizational maintenance and a supply section to provide troop-level supply, including transport of ammunition, fuels, and lubricants. The air cavalry troop is dependent on the parent squadron for mess support except for the air cavalry troop of the armored cavalry regiment which has its own organic mess team. In the airborne and airmobile division, the troop service platoon is provided limited transport means and requires an augmentation of cargo vehicles or aircraft during sustained operations. c. Headquarters and Headquarters Company or Troop. ( 1) The battalion headquarters and headquarters company and the squadron headquarters and headquarters troop contain organic combat service support elements to provide combat service support for the unit as a whole. See paragraphs 259 through 263 for a discussion of battalion or squadron logistical elements. (2) Brigade headquarters and headquarters company contains organic maintenance, medical, mess, and supply elements required for normal company operations. The maintenance element of the headquarters contains the personnel and equipment necessary to perform organizational repair and maintenance on all equipment except aircraft. The crew chiefs of the aviation section perform organizational maintenance on aircraft under the supervision of the maintenance supervisor. The brigade surgeon and medical aidman provide limited medical treatment for the headquarters and headquarters company. The head quarters and headquarters company does not contain the combat service support units to support the brigade as a whole. 265. ·Company Train a. The company train consists of organic and attached combat service. support elements. The company train may be employed as a unit train or organized into a combat train and a field train. The factors considered in determining the composition of trains are discussed in paragraphs 259 through 263. b. A company detached from the parent bat talion will have attached to it a proportionate share of the battalion combat service support. The attachments will normally include ammunition, fuel, and lubricant supply vehicles, a company mess team, and a medical aid-evacuation team. Additional medical aidmen and equipment and a supply of fast-moving repair parts may accompany a detached unit. Upon joining the unit to which attached, the company commander will organize the company train to support the combat operation. The organic and attached combat service elements not required for immediate support of the combat operation become a part of the trains of the higher headquarters. c. An important consideration in companylevel logistics is that each vehicle in the unit carries its prescribed load of rations, fuels, lubricants, authorized repair parts, and its part of the basic load of ammunition, as appropriate. 266. Composition and Employment of the Company Train a. The company normally organizes a combat train and a field train. In some situations, dispersed operations preclude the echelonment of the train and require the employment of a unit train. ( 1) Company combat train. The company combat train consists of the maintenance section, the attached medical aid-evacuation team, and supply vehicles that may be required from the support platoon for the immediate support of the combat operation. (2) Company field train. The company field train consists of the personnel and equipment not located in the combat train. b. The combat train remains with the company under the control of the executive officer. In fast-moving situations, the combat train normally moves as a part of the combat formation to gain security from its proximity to combat elements. In a slow-moving situation, the combat train follows the combat elements by bounds, taking advantage of cover and concealment. c. The company field train normally moves with the field trains of the next higher headquarters. 267. Composition and Employment of Air Cavalry Troop Train a. General. The air cavalry troop train consists of the personnel and equipment of the troop service platoon together with any attached combat service support elements. The air cavalry troop organizes an air train and a ground train to support troop combat elements. The size and composition of the air train and ground train will normally depend upon the size of the combat element to be supported, the extent of operations, and the distance of the combat elements from the troop train areas. b. Air Echelon. The air cavalry troop may employ an air train to provide responsive combat service support to the troop combat elements. The air train consists of the two utility helicopters organic to the service platoon to gether with their assigned crews and designated loads. The designated loads may consist of maintenance personnel and repair parts, attached medical personnel, ammunition, or externally carried fuel containers. Actual loads are based on estimated requirements to support specific missions. The air train may be located with the ground train or at a predetermined area from which it moves to rendezvous with the combat elements to accomplish supply, maintenance, or evacuation functions. Rendezvous points and times may be predetermined or the air train may stand by to rendezvous with the troop combat elements on an on-call basis. c. Ground Echelon. The air cavalry ground train consists of the organic and attached ground logistical vehicles and the combat service support personnel, equipment, and supplies not included in the air train. The ground train may be organized and employed as a unit train or echeloned into a combat train and field train as discussed for the company train in paragraph 265. The air cavalry troop unit or combat train is normally employed under the control of the service platoon and is located where it can best support the combat elements of the troop, such as the air cavalry troop assembly area, squadron combat trains area, or a ground troop combat train area. The field train, when organized, normally becomes part of the squadron field trains. Helicopters may return to the train areas for fuel and ammunition supply, or ground vehicles may be dispatched to rendezvous points for supply functions. Section VI. EMPLOYMENT OF TRAINS 268. General The major considerations in the employment of trains are a. Combat Service Support to the Combat Units. In all situations, the trains are organized and positioned to provide adequate and timely supplies, medical evacuation, and maintenance support to the combat unit. The trains of the higher echelons are oriented on and convenient to the location of subordinate units. The movements of trains are based on the movements of the combat units to insure continuous and responsive support. b. Minimum Interference With Tactical Opemtions. The location and movement of logistical support vehicles must be integrated with the planned location and movement of combat units. Combat service support activities and vehicular traffic must not impede a combat unit's freedom of action. c. Secu1·ity and Protection to Elements of the Trains. Trains should be employed in areas and on routes that have been cleared of enemy by the combat units. Ideally, the area should provide natural passive protective means such as barriers, cover, and concealment. Trains should be located to take advantage of the protection afforded by the disposition of combat units. In certain situations, it may be neces BRIGADE OBJECTIVE I I I I ( w\ 1:::> ~\ 'i\ a. ~\ FEBA Notes. 1. Trains displace along supply routes. 2. Logistical vehicles moving forward are met by team guides at release points (RP) which have been selected by the 54 in coordination with the company executive officers. 3. Dotted lines are projected supply routes. I I I I I ~I ~, I I ~I I Q. I 1/ ~I UJ !;/ I! 0 CK/ "-1! fl /I ;;;/ "' f/ 0 II Figure 13. Supply 1·outes. :sary to assign combat elements to protect the trains. 269. Characteristics of Trains Areas The desirable characteristics of an assembly area discussed in appendix XXIV are applicable to trains area. Additionally, the trains area should be convenient to suitable routes to the combat units, subordinate headquarters trains, and the trains of the higher echelon. 270. The Supply Route cc The supply route is a specified direction or route in relation to an axis of advance, zone of operations, or area of operations to be established for the supply, evacuation, and transportation of personnel and materiel. b. The supply route extends from a logical juncture with the main supply route (MSR) of the next higher headquarters to a location convenient to subordinate elements. In offensive operations, the supply route may be projected forward as far as practical (fig. 13). The supply route may be announced in the operation order or other appropriate means and will be changed by fragmentary order as necessary. c. The headquarters designating the supply route is responsible for its security. d. In defensive and retrograde operations, the supply route should be parallel to the expected or planned movement of subordinate combat elements. 271. Employment of Battalion (Task Force) Combat Trains ct. In fast-moving tactical situations, continuous movement of the combat trains is required for responsive combat service support. In this type operation, the combat elements will soon pass beyond supporting distance of the combat trains if the trains are kept stationary. The continuous movement of the combat trains to keep up with the combat elements limits the performance of combat service support, particularly in maintenance, because of the lack of time and optimum operational con ditions. b. In a slow-moving tactical situation, the combat trains can remain stationary for longer periods, moving by bounds when the distance between combat elements and the trains becomes too great for timely support. c. The combat trains are under the direct control of the battalion 84 for operations, movement, and security. The combat trains provide their own local security. Normally, overall security is provided by locating the combat trains near the combat elements; however, in a fast-moving situation, it may often be necessary for combat elements to provide protection for the combat trains or make the trains part of the combat formation. 272. Employment of Battalion (Task Force) Field Trains The field trains normally operate in the trains of the next higher echelon. This assists in providing adequate combat service support to the combat elements and provides control and coordinated movement of and protection to the field trains. It further disperses and echelons combat service support elements. The field trains are under the control of the battalion support platoon leader. In some situations, time and space may require that the field trains be located between the combat trains and the trains area of the higher echelon. In this case, the parent unit has full responsibility for security and movement of the field trains. Section VII. BATTALION COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT OPERATIONS 273. Combat Service Support During Marches a. Position of Battctlion Trains on the Mm·ch. On the march, the trains normally march as a unit near the rear of the formation. b. Supply or Class Ill on the March. (1) On the march, fueling is normally ac complished during scheduled halts by fueling from bulk fuel tankers. One or more fuel and lubricant vehicles from the support platoon may be placed in support of each company. At halts, trucks move down the column, dropping off the required lubricants at each vehicle and bulk tank trucks will transfer fuel directly to vehicular fuel tanks. (2) During halts when units coil up, fuel trucks may move from one vehicle to another in the area or may form the basis of a gas-station method of refueling. (3) On extended marches in rear areas, empty fuel and lubricant vehicles replenish their loads at class III supply and distributing points often established by higher headquarters along the route of march. It is frequently possible for empty fuel vehicles to precede the column to these points to be refilled before the arrival of the main body. c. Mess1:ng on the March. Halts for feeding should, if possible, coincide with scheduled halts. The tactical situation permitting, the kitchens may move with the quartering party so that meals can be prepared before the arrival of the unit as a predetermined location. Kitchens may march with the unit, cooking en route so that hot meals can be served at prescribed halts or at the end of the march. If the tactical situation does not permit serving hot meals en route, small detachment rations or combat rations are used. d. Medical Service and Evacuation on the March. The battalion aid station usually marches near the rear of the formation. However, if the situation warrants, it may march with the headquarters. The surgeon places an aid-evacuation team in support of each com pany. The medical aid-evacuation team, mount ed in a frontline ambulance, marches near the rear of the company column and is available for the evacuation of casualties to the battalion aid station. If necessary, ambulances evacuate casualties from the aid station to the nearest medical installation. Maximum use of available aero medical evacuation capabilities must be planned and utilized during the march since medical support from organic medical facilities is limited. e. Maintenance and Evacuation on the M((TCh. (1) When a warning order for a march is received, vehicles that cannot be repaired before the movement are evac uated to the supporting maintenance unit. If time does not permit evacuation or if the vehicles cannot be moved, their location and condition are reported to the supporting maintenance unit. (2) The maintenance platoon marches near the rear of the battalion formation. Company maintenance sections march with their respective units. (3) Disabled vehicles are moved to the side of the road so they do not interfere with the passage of the rest of the column. Personnel of the company maintenance section will first attempt to repair inoperative vehicles. If repair cannot be made, they will tow the vehicles to the destination. Vehicles that cannot be repaired or towed are left to be repaired or evacuated by the maintenance platoon. If maintenance or evacuation cannot be accomplished by the maintenance platoon, vehicles are left with their drivers or members of their crews. The vehicle's condition and location are reported to the supporting maintenance unit. 274. Combat Service Support in Assembly Areas In an assembly area, combat service support operations are accomplished in accordance with available time and the tactical situation. a. Supply. In an assembly area, first priority is given to the supply of ammunition, fuels and lubricants, rations, and water. If time is available ( 1) All classes of supply will be issued. Requests for supplies are submitted to the appropriate agency; items to fill shortages-are drawU: and issued. (2) Supplies and equipment are checked to determine that prescribed and basic loads are on hand in proper condition. b. Medical Service and Evaluation. Normally, personnel receive only first aid medical treatment in the assembly area. Persons re quiring further treatment are evacuated by supporting ambulances to the nearest higher medical facility. c. Maintenance. Maximum advantage must be taken of the time available in assembly areas to accomplish as much maintenance as possible. Drivers and maintenance personnel must realize that after they leave the assembly area, opportunities to perform maintenance will be limited. All commanders, vehicle crews, and maintenance personnel do everything possible to insure efficient operation of equipment. Maximum effort should be devoted to maintenance checks and repairs that cannot be accomplished properly during periods of combat. Equipment should be inspected, cleaned, and put in the best possible condition. The commander may request assistance from supporting maintenance units. Materiel that the battalion cannot repair is evacuated or turned over, in place, to the supporting maintenance unit. 275. Combat Service Support in Fast-Moving Offensive Operations a. In an exploitation or pursuit, the battalion combat trains move with the battalion and are usually near the end of the formation, where they gain security from their location between the forward combat elements and the rear guard. When the battalion becomes engaged, the combat trains move into an area that affords them cover and concealment and a degree of security by their proximity to combat elements. b. In the exploitation, supply lines become much longer. Overcoming the problems of supply over greater distances requires detailed combat service support planning. The accomplishment of this supply may require attachment of additional cargo transportation to the battalion from the higher combat service support echelon and the use of aerial resupply. Increased protection for trains and supply convoys may be required. Some situations may require all of the battalion combat service support elements to operate as unit trains. c. Ammunition expenditures during an exploitation are usually light, while consumption of fuels and lubricants is heavy. To meet this increased need for hauling fuel and lubricants, kitchen equipment may be unloaded or consoli dated into a few trucks and the empty kitchen trucks used to transport fuel and lubricants. d. Each vehicle should carry a minimum 5day supply of either small-detachment or individual combat rations rather than the normally prescribed 3-day supply. e. The number of casualties from combat normally decreases, but the distance for their evacuation increases. When possible, aircraft are used for evacuation of casualties. f. During an exploitation, the percentage of vehicles lost to combat decreases with respect to other operations; however, the percentage iost through mechanical failure increases. The maintenance platoon thus directs its efforts toward making minor repairs on the maximum number of vehicles, rather than major repairs on a few. Vehicles that cannot be repaired by the maintenance platoon are towed to the supply route of the next higher headquarters and their location and condition reported to the supporting maintenance element. 276. Combat Service Support in Slow-Moving Offensive Operations a. During a slow-moving offensive situation, the battalion combat trains move forward by bounds behind the combat elements. Movement should be screened from enemy observation. If the road net is limited, location of the combat trains at a point from which adequate combat service support is insured assumes increased importance. b. Ammunition expenditures in a slow-moving offensive situation are high, contrasted with consumption of fuel and lubricants. Supply and transportation of ammunition must be emphasized. c. Patients are normally high during this type of offensive action, necessitating rapid evacuation by the supporting medical aid-evacuation team from the companies to the battalion aid station. When attacking through a friendly unit, coordination should be made with the friendly unit surgeon to receive patients from the attacking companies. This will speed evacuation from the battlefield to a medical facility and assist the attacking unit medical aid station to retain mobility. d. Vehicular losses are likely to be high, therefore, close and continuous maintenance support is essential. The techniques used in providing this support are discussed in paragraphs 296 through 300. 277. Combat Service Support in Defensive Operations, General The combat service support of an armor unit must be flexible enough to support a defensive operation and to permit immediate change to the support of an offensive operation. This flexibility is especially important in the mobile defense. Defensive operations are normally characterized by relatively heavy expenditures of ammunition and light expenditures of fuel and lubricants. However, in the mobile defense, the expenditure of fuel and lubricants may become heavy due to the offensive characteristics of the operation. 278. Combat Service Support in the Mobile Defense The combat service support plan for the mobile defense must provide for alternate methods of supply and medical evacuation, multiple routes of supply and medical evacuation to insure adequate support and avoid interference with the tactical maneuver, and rapid maintenance and evacuation of equipment. The combat service support of the security force, the fixing force, and the reserve must be adaptable to either the offense or the defense. Supply and medical evacuation by air are employed to supplement the normal ground means. Alternate locations are planned from which the combat trains can support the battalion in either an offensive or defensive maneuver. a. Combat Service Support for Security Force. Combat service support for the security force is similar to that for a unit in a delaying action (para 71). The battalion trains may be augmented so that additional supplies are available should the unit be cut off by enemy action. Plans must be prepared for supply by air. Casualties are normally evacuated by air. Maintenance is necessarily confined to minor repairs. Frequently, time will not allow repair of disabled vehicles, and they must be evacuated quickly. To support vehicular evacuation for units in the security force, as well as in the fixing force and the reserve, it will often be necessary to designate or establish maintenance collecting points in depth along the supply route. When capture of inoperative equipment located in maintenance collecting points is imminent, it must be destroyed. b. Combat Service Support for Fixing Forces. Detailed plans must be made for the combat service support of each blocking position, including multiple routes and alternate means of supply and medical evacuation. Combat service support for elements of the fixing force is essentially the same as for a unit conducting an area defense (para 279). The combat trains are reduced to essential maintenance and medical elements; class III and V vehicles are placed in the field trains out of range of the enemy's light artillery. c. Combat Service Support for the Reserve. In the event a task force is part of the reserve, plans are made to hold all trains elements except the armored recovery vehicles and medical armored personnel carriers in place during the initial stages of the counterattack. Once the situation has stabilized, other elements of the combat trains may be moved forward. Since a counterattack is made at rapid speed, but to a relatively limited distance, the action is often completed before the bulk of the counterattacking force trains move. The S4 must have detailed plans formulated and sufficient supply vehicles organized for resupply of the teams. d. Requirements of Combat Service Support Personnel. In the mobile defense, supply and maintenance personnel, often having to work in unsecured areas, are extremely vulnerable to attack and must be responsive to rapidly changing situations. 279. Combat Service Support in the Area Defense a. Battalion combat trains normally contain only the medical platoon (minus the medical aid-evacuation teams with the companies) and all or the bulk of the maintenance platoon. The outer perimeter of the combat trains area is in close proximity to the battalion command post, generally between 200 to 1,200 meters. Supply vehicles, when not required, are located in the field trains. Fuel and lubricant trucks normally are not needed forward because of the light expenditures of these supplies. If necessary, additional ammunition is stockpiled during hours of darkness (upon approval from higher headquarters) in the forward areas. b. VVhen mess trucks are used to transport rations to forward defense elements, they move from the field trains area under cover of darkness and normally return to the field trains before daylight. c. The medical platoon aid-evacuation teams, equipped with frontline ambulances, evacuate patients from the companies to the battalion aid station. In some cases, dismounted litter bearers are required. Patients are evacuated from the aid station by elements of the supporting medical unit. d. Personnel of the company maintenance sections recover and evacuate disabled vehicles to the established maintenance collecting point, using organic recovery vehicles. Disabled vehicles that cannot be repaired by the battalion maintenance platoon are evacuated to the supporting maintenance collection point. 280. Combat Service Support in Retrograde Operations Retrograde operations are characterized by heavy expenditures of fuel and lubricants. The nature of the operation may involve comparable expenditures of ammunition. All classes of supply are often prepositioned to insure continuous support for the combat elements since the supply route is extremely vulnerable to enemy attack. Movement of supply vehicles is normally accomplished during periods of reduced visibility because of the enemy's superiority in combat power. Maintenance and recovery of damaged materiel is difficult since it is often performed in the face of enemy fire. 281. Combat Service Support in the Delaying Action a. In the delaying action, control and security of the logistical elements are vitally important. The plan for the operation must provide for adequate support during movement to and occupation of each delaying position. The size of the battalion combat trains is held to a minimum. b. Supply of the combat elements is accomplished immediately upon their arrival at selected delaying positions. As soon as practical, the 84 or his representative directs the move ment of battalion combat trains to the immediate rear of the next delaying position where they can effectively support the operation. c. The battalion commander must give special consideration to demolitions and engineer class IV supply requirements. Transportation must be provided for these items, and they must be so located that they are readily available to the combat elements. It may be expedient to stockpile these items on successive delaying positions. This permits the early withdrawal of supply vehicles and provides additional time for the supply vehicles to replenish loads at supporting supply or distributing points. d. The evacuation of casualties is generally the same as that in offensive or defensive operations. The aid station operates in the battalion combat trains area. If the medical aidevacuation teams attached to the companies cannot evacuate all casualties, it may be necessary to use company vehicles and the armored ambulances from the medical platoon. Plans should be made for air evacuation of seriously wounded personnel. e. During delay operations, four courses of action exist for the disposition of disabled vehicles. One course of action may be emphasized while two or more are employed simultaneously. These courses of action are (1) Normal evacuation to higher categories of maintenance (teams evacuate disabled vehicles to task force maintenance collecting points by use of their recovery vehicles). (2) Maximum on-site maintenance using work parties from organic, attached, and supporting elements. (3) Towing disabled vehicles with other than the recovery vehicles. ( 4) As a last resort, destruction of disabled vehicles. 282. Combat Service Support in the Withdrawal a. Combat service support plans in the withdrawal provide for the support of the main body and for security forces remaining in contact with the enemy. Combat service support for the main body is similar to that for a unit conducting a march (app VI). Combat service support for the security force in the withdrawal is similar to that of the security force in the mobile defense (para 278). b. The combat service support plan provides for evacuation or destruction of excess supplies and equipment, except medical, in a manner not to compromise the plan of wit,h.drawal. Medical supplies and equipment are not intentionally destroyed (FM 27-10). Section VIII. 285. General a. In the division, supplies are distributed to battalion and separate companies using a combination of supply point and unit distribution. The division support command delivers all classes of supply, except class V, down to the brigade trains and, whenever possible, directly to the using unit. Supplies delivered to the division by direct and general support units are delivered directly to the using units without transloading whenever possible. See FM 10-50 and FM 54-2 for a discussion of division supply procedures. b. In the battalion, all supplies are delivered directly to the companies. c. The prescribed loads of fuel, lubricants, and repair parts carried by armor units are established by the field army commander. Basic loads of ammunition are established by the Department of the Army based on recommendations of theater commanders. d. A request or requisition may be a formal requisition on a specified form, an informal request in a message form, or an oral request. Although the terms are used interchangeably, each constitutes a demand on a supply activity for supplies or equipment. Throughout this section, the term requisition generally refers to the written formal requisition. 286. Class I a. Definition. Class I supplies are items consumed at a uniform and predictable rate, irrespective of combat or terrain conditions, and require no adaptation to individual requirements. Class I supplies consist primarily of ra 283. Combat Service Support in the Retirement The combat service support of units conducting a retirement is as discussed for a unit conducting a march (app VI). 284. Combat Service Support in Special Operations See chapter 12 for logistical support in special operations. SUPPLY tions. Post exchange supplies issued on a gratuitous basis are also included in class I. b. Requests and Requisitions. In the division, a formal requisition for class I supplies is not required. The division supply and transport battalion requests rations for the division, based on estimated strength figures provided by the adjutant general, 72 hours before the time rations are to be delivered. Upon receipt, rations are broken down into battalion and separate unit lots based on personnel daily summaries submitted by each unit. In rapidly changing situations, it may be necessary for units to submit daily informal request for the number of rations required. These requisitions compensate for cross attachments and casualties. When a unit requires a specific type ration, requisitions must be submitted in advance. c. D£st?·ibution. ( 1) In the division, battalions and separde units use organic transportation to pick up rations at the division class I distributing point in the division support area or at the division forward distributing point in the brigade trains area. Rations are then broken down into company-size lots and delivered to the. kitchens. (2) Mess personnel prepare rations in the trains area or on the move to serve hot meals whenever possible. 287. Class II a. Definition. Class II supplies consist of supplies and equipment for which allowances are prescribed by such documents as tables of organization and equipment (TOE), tables of allowances (TA), prescribed load lists (PLL), or special lists or letters. Class II (A) supplies are aviation supplies and equipment authorized by tables of allowance lists. Examples are clothing, weapons, vehicles, and repair parts. b. Requests and Requisitions. Armor units normally enter combat with all authorized class II items. When a class II (except repair parts) item is lost, destroyed, or worn out, the unit commander requests a replacement by message through the 84 or his representative. The supply section of the battalion support platoon consolidates class II requests for all units of the battalion and forwards the consolidated request to the division supply office in accordance with the division SOP or administrative order. Requests or requisitions may be transmitted electronically or by messenger. Requisitions for regulated or command-controlled class II items must be forwarded through command channels. c. Distribution. ( 1) Whenever possible, class II supplies are delivered by the supporting army supply unit or facility directly to the requesting unit. When this is not feasible, they may be delivered by the division supply and transport battalion to the field trains area of the requesting unit. They may also be delivered to the forward class I distributing point operating in the brigade trains area where the items are issued to the requesting unit. (2) Distribution in the battalion is made directly to the requesting unit. Distribution of class II items is normally accomplished at the same time ammunition, rations, or fuels are delivered. A large issue, such as changes from cotton to woolen clothing, is usually distributed when the unit is out of contact with the enemy. Requesting units may be required to furnish drivers for delivery of vehicles. 288. Class Ill a. Definition. Class III supplies consist of fuel and lubricants for all purposes, except for operating aircraft or for use as ammunition in weapons such as flamethrowers. Class III supplies include gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, lubricating oil, grease, and solid fuels such as coal, coke, and wood. Fuel for aircraft is classified as class IliA. b. Requests and Requisitions. No formal requisition is required for class III supplies. Empty class III containers presented at designated class III supply points or distributing points constitute a requisition. A daily POL status report is forwarded to the next higher headquarters. This report provides the status of class III supply within a battalion-size unit and gives a forecast of requirements. c. Distribution. ( 1) Class III supplies are distributed to battalions and separate units at division distributing points in the division support area, division forward class III distributing points in brigade trains areas, or designated rendezvous points. Units use organic cargo trucks and bulk fuel tankers or pods to obtain fuels and lubricants from these supply points. (2) Battalion fuel and lubricant trucks are dispatched to companies where the supplies are delivered to individual vehicles. If it is not practical to deliver directly to the individual vehicles in position, supplies are hand-carried by the vehicle crews or vehicles are withdrawn from their positions and moved to the location of the refueling vehicle. The class III trucks return to the battalion field trains area where loads are redistributed. The empty vehicles are then dispatched to the appropriate supply or distributing point to be refilled. (3) The air cavalry troop uses organic vehicles to obtain class IliA supplies from division or corps support brigade distributing points and to deliver supplies to individual aircraft. 289. Class IV a. Definition. Class IV and class IV(A) (aviation) supplies consist of items for which allowances are not prescribed. Examples of this class are construction, roadbuilding, camouflage, and fortification materials; waterproofing supplies; and flamethrower, coldweather, and deep water fording kits. All classes of supply may be subject to class IV issue, or class IV control, when issued in excess of prescribed allowances. b. Requisition and Distribution. Class IV requisitions normally require command approval. Battalions submit requests for regulated items and items appearing on the commandcontrolled lists through command channels. Requests for class IV items not on these lists are submitted directly to the supporting supply unit who in turn refers the requests for approval by the appropriate commander. Once command approval is given, class IV supply is accomplished generally in the same manner as class II. 290. Class V a. Definition. Class V supplies consist of items containing explosives, propellants, initiating composition, or nuclear, biological, or chemical material for use in connection with defense or offense including demolitions. Ammunition is categorized as either conventional or special. Personnel concerned with the supply of ammunition should be familiar with these terms and with required supply rate, available supply rate, basic load, and special ammunition load (SAL) ( AR 320-5). Personnel concerned should also refer to FM 3-8, FM 3-10, FM 9-6, FM 101-10-3, and FM 101-31-1. b. Requ'isitions. Requisitions (transportation orders) are prepared by battalions and separate units to replenish their basic load. Replenishment of the basic load in an active situation may be made concurrent with, in anticipation of, or after expenditure. Transportation orders must be validated by the division ammunition officer before they are presented at any army supply point or mobile class V distributing point. In the armored cavalry regiment, they are validated by the regimental S4 or his designated representative. c. Distribution. (1) The normal source of class V supply is the supporting army ammunition supply point (ASP) and special ammunition supply point (SASP). When the tactical situation indicates that movement will be so rapid that the supporting ASP will not continually be within supporting distance, the division G4 may request a mobile ammunition distributing point to operate in the division area. (2) Supply of class V items is accomplished within combat units at every opportunity. The battalion S4 sends ammunition trucks, containing mixed loads of ammunition, from the combat trains directly to the combat vehicles of the companies, tactical situation permitting. After supplying the combat vehicles, the trucks return to the combat trains area. Here, remainders of loads are adjusted, and empty trucks are dispatched to the battalion field trains. Empty ammunition trucks are normally dispatched through brigade logistical control points, where they are formed into convoys for movement to the army ASP, SASP, or mobile class V distributing point (if one is established). After resupply, the unit ammunition trucks return to the battalion field trains area. They either remain in the field trains or are sent forward to joint the combat trains. 291. Water Water purification and production is a function of supporting engineer units. Water points are established in the most convenient locations available consistent with security requirements. Units using organic transportation draw water from the nearest water point. 292. Repair Parts a. Defin,ition. Repair parts are any parts, assemblies, or components required for the maintenance of an end item. b. Stockage. (1) Fast-moving repair parts are carried in each battalion and separate unit on the basis of a prescribed load list (PLL). The prescribed load must be kept on hand or on requisition and is used in day-to-day maintenance. Slow-moving repair parts are not stocked in the con'lbat area but farther to the rear. (2) The division maintenance battalion obtains (or provides requisitioning facilities for), stores, and issues repair parts and maintenance supplies authorized and required by armor units for the performance of organizational maintenance. Except for those items provided by the transportation aircraft maintenance company, the main support company serves as a base of supply for repair parts and maintenance supplies. It obtains and distributes repair parts and maintenance supplies required by the forward support companies and issues repair parts and maintenance supplies to divisional units. Each forward support company keeps a stock of supplies to support its maintenance activities and carries a stock of fastmoving repair parts and maintenance supplies for issue to the supported unit. The transportation aircraft maintenance company keeps a stock of transportation air items that are required and used primarily in support of its own maintenance operations. Repair parts and supplies from the transportation aircraft maintenance stocks are issued to supported units only in emergencies and only when authorized to be used at organizational level. c. Requests and Requis-itions. Repair parts and other maintenance supplies are issued on the basis of requests or by direct exchange. Separate company maintenance sections and Section IX. 293. Maintenance Responsibility Maintenance is a command responsibility. The commander is responsible for the proper maintenance of all equipment under his control. When the requirements for maintenance exceed a unit's capabilities, the commander must insure that the next higher category of maintenance is notified promptly. battalion maintenance platoons request repair parts whenever a stocked part that is not on the direct exchange list is expended, or when the authorized nonstocked part is needed for a current repair job. Repair parts are provided in several ways (1) Certain fast-moving items as well as direct exchange items may be provided by maintenance teams from the forward support companies during the course of their visits to supported units. No formal paperwork is required for this transaction, but items issued should be shown on the unit record of demand cards so that demand data is recorded accurately. (2) Direct exchange items may be obtained from the direct exchange section of the forward support company or main support company. The supported maintenance elements are required to take the unserviceable item, properly tagged in exchange for a like serviceable item. (3) Direct exchange for air items is provided by the transportation aircraft maintenance company. (4) For routine replenishment supply of organizational repair parts and maintenance supplies, supported units prepare requisitions and submit them to the supporting forward support company or transportation aircraft maintenance company, as appropriate. d. D'istribution. Repair parts may be picked up by the requesting unit at the supporting maintenance activity or delivered to the requesting unit by the maintenance battalion. For details, see FM 9-30. MAINTENANCE 294. Organizational Maintenance a. Organizational maintenance is that maintenance normally authorized for, performed by, and the responsibility of a using organization on equipment in its possession. Organizational maintenance incorporates operator or crew maintei1ance and organizational mainte nance performed by specially trained personnel. (1) Operntor o1· C'rew maintenance. Operator or crew maintenance is outlined in the 10-series technical manuals. It consists of inspecting, cleaning, servicing, lubricating, repairing, testing, and replacing parts as prescribed by applicable technical publications and parts lists. (2) Organizational mainten((,nce. Organizational maintenance is outlined in the 20-series, technical manuals and is performed by specially trained personnel. It includes all elements of organizational maintenance not prescribed as operator or crew maintenance, such as scheduled preventive maintenance, minor adjustments, repair, tests, technical assistance, supervision, and inspections. Operator or crew personnel normally participate in organizational maintenance by performing tasks within their capability. b. Each company of an armor unit has a maintenance section which is manned and equipped to perform organizational maintenance and evacuation. Maintenance and evacuation that are beyond the capability of the company are reported to the supporting maintenance elements. c. The battalion contains a maintenance platoon that is responsible for backup organizational maintenance performed in the company. It is manned and equipped to provide recovery, maintenance, and evacuation support to organic and attached companies. The maintenance platoon is provided specialists and tools to perform maintenance over and above that of company maintenance sections. Maintenance and evacuation that are beyond the scope of capability of the maintenance platoon are reported to supporting maintenance elements. 295. Direct and General Support and Depot Maintenance a. Direct support maintenance is provided armor units by the division maintenance battalion for all items except cryptographic, electronic accounting machines, quartermaster air, and medical items. These units are authorized a larger assortment of repair parts and subassemblies, and more precise tools and test equipment than are authorized supported units. These units repair assemblies and subassemblies and repair the overflow from supported units within limits of authorized skills, tools, equipment, and repair parts. They provide technical advice, mobile repair crews, and repair parts supply to supported units. Employment of the maintenance battalion is described in FM 9-30 and FM 54-2. Maintenance support for cryptographic and medical equipment is provided by the division signal and medical battalions. b. General support maintenance is that maintenance authorized and performed by designated TOE and TD organizations in support of the Army supply system. Normally TOE and TD general support maintenance organizations will repair or overhaul materiel to required maintenance standards in a ready to issue condition based upon applicable supported Army area supply requirements. Although armor equipment goes to general support maintenance shops, armor units do not normally deal directly with these units. Depot maintenance is performed at fixed installations. For details, see FM 29-22. 296. Recovery and Evacuation of Vehicles a. Commanders at all echelons are responsible for the prompt recovery and evacuation of damaged vehicles and their return to service. When combat units are unable to recover disabled vehicles, direct support maintenance units are requested to assist in recovery operations. b. Supply routes and the location of maintenance collecting points are designated before an operation. Company maintenance sections and battalion maintenance platoons recover disabled vehicles from the battlefield and move them to the supply route or to maintenance collecting points designated by the next higher category of maintenance. Division maintenance units assume responsibility at these locations and repair and return the vehicles to service. If the direct support unit cannot repair a vehicle immediately, a replacement vehicle may be issued from a maintenance float. c. Battlefield recovery is accomplished by company recovery vehicles, augmented if necessary by recovery vehicles from the battal ion maintenance platoon. Company recovery vehicles follow in close support of the unit; disabled vehicles are towed into defiladed positions and repaired if possible. In a fast-moving offense, if company maintenance personnel cannot repair a vehicle, they tow it to the battalion supply route and report its location and condition to the battalion maintenance platoon. In a slow-moving offense or defensive operation, if company maintenance personnel cannot repair a vehicle, they tow it to the battalion maintenance collecting point (fig. 14 and 15). Unit SOP will specify what personnel will accompany vehicles being evacuated. d. The battalion maintenance platoon COMPANY (TEAM) EVACUATES DISABLED VEHICLES TO BATTALION (TASK FORCE) SUPPLY ROUTES. BATTALION MAINT PLATOON EVACUATES DISABLED VEHICLES TO SUPPLY ROUTE FOLLOWED BY SUPPORTING DIVISION MAINTENANCE ELEMENT (FORWARD SUPPORT COMPANY). LEGEND. finding disabled vehicles along the route of supply or receiving disabled vehicles at the battalion maintenance collecting points repair them if possible. Repaired vehicles rejoin their units as soon as practicable. Vehicles beyond the immediate repair capability of the mainte ' nance platoon are evacuated by the platoon to the maintenance collecting point established by the supporting forward support company. In a fast-moving situation, it may not be practicable to evacuate to the established maintenance collecting point, in which case the battalion maintenance platoon evacuates disabled vehi ' cles to the brigade supply route. I e. V~hicle crews and maintenance personnel ----..ROUTE OF EVACUATION (LATERALLY) MDISABLED TANK Figure 14. Evacuation of disabled vehicles in fast-moving offensive situations. ArQl B~ c[Q] c~ \. I / \. I / ' .,/ e COMPANY (TEAM) EVACUATES COLL DISABLED VEHICLES TO BATTALION ••• II s~ (TASK FORCE) MAINTENANCE 1><1 3:8( COLLECTING POINT / ' ' / / ' ' ' ' / BATTALION (TASK FORCE) MAINTENANCE PLATOON EVACUATES DISABLED VEHICLES TO DIVISION ' 'e:/ / MAINTENANCE COLLECTING POINT OPERATED BY THE co ll DIVISION SUPPORTING MAINTENANCE ELEMENT (FORWARD SUPPORT COMPANY)FWD SPT Figure 15. Evacuation of disabled vehicles in the defense or slow-moving offense. must take security precautions when recovering or repairing disabled vehicles. Maintenance personnel who are fired on when performing battlefield recovery employ their individual and vehicular weapons to the maximum. Combat units in the vicinity provide supporting fires to permit recovery. Vehicles that cannot be recovered because of combat conditions, and whose capture is imminent, are destroyed in accordance with existing instructions (app XXV). f. During fast-moving offensive operations, vehicles that obviously cannot be repaired are not recovered by combat and direct support units. However, their exact location and condition are reported through maintenance channels. Recovery and evacuation of such vehicles are a responsibility of army. 297. Recovery and Evacuation of Aircraft n. Whenever possible, aircraft that cannot be flown are repaired in place. This repair may consist of only that necessary for a one time flight to more suitable repair facilities. The structural characteristics of an aircraft do not adapt it to extensive movement by ground transportation. Normally, the dismantling and special rigging required for evacuation of an aircraft require more personnel and time than if the aircraft were repaired and flown out. However, the extent of repairs, or the aircraft site, may leave no alternative to evacuation. b. Armor units having organic aircraft are not responsible for their recovery or evacuation, other than to assist as appropriate. However, the armor unit is responsible for requesting assistance from the supporting direct support maintenance unit. If recovery operations are required, it will be indicated in the initial request for assistance. The request will include location, type, and identification of aircraft, identification of individual and unit making the request, parent unit of the aircraft, and description of damage. See appendix XXV for destruction of aircraft if capture is imminent. 298. Recovery, Repair, and Evacuation of Communication and Electronic Equipment cL Companies recover and repair communication and electronic equipment within their capabilities. Such equipment requiring repair beyond the capability of company is evacuated as follows: ( 1) Equipment installed ih disabled vehicles is evacuated with the vehicle in accordance with procedures in paragraph 296. (2) Separate items may be evacuated directly to the battalion communication platoon or maintenance collecting point. Companies normally use available transportation moving to the rear to evacuate equipment. b. The battalion communication platoon repairs, within its capabilities, communication and electronic equipment organic to headquarters and headquarters company. It also provides limited backup repair services for organic or attached companies. The communication platoon works closely with the maintenance platoon to repair communication and electronic equipment in vehicles undergoing maintenance. The communication platoon evacuates all communication and electronic equipment that requires repair beyond organizational maintenance level. c. If capture of communication or electronic equipment is imminent, see appendix XXV for recommended priority of destruction. 299. Recovery and Evacuation of Medical Equipment Combat units normally recover or evacuate medical equipment requiring maintenance above organizational level through medical channels. However, when authorized, medical equipment may be evacuated to maintenance collecting points established by supporting maintenance units. 300. Recovery, Repair, or Evacuation Under Nuclear Conditions a. In nuclear warfare, maintenance elements will have two main factors to contend with that are not present in conventional warfarecontamination of the maintenance area by nuclear fallout, and the handling of contaminated equipment. Whenever radioactivity is suspected, maintenance personnel use radiacmeters to determine dose rate so that protective and decontamination measures may be taken. b. If radioactivity in the maintenance area exceeds the dose rate specified by the unit commander, the maintenance element should move to an area of less intensity. Maintenance personnel monitor radiation levels en route to equipment requiring recovery to avoid heavily contaminated areas. If the equipment is located in an area that exceeds the specified dose rate, recovery should be delayed until the radioactivity has decayed to a safe level. c. Contaminated equipment should be decontaminated before it is repaired. Decontamination procedures are discussed in paragraph 317 and appendix XXIII. d. The techniques of evacuation and the procedure for establishing maintenance collection points or supply routes are essentially the same as under nonnuclear conditions. Section X. MEDICAL SERVICE 301. General Commanders at all levels are responsible for providing proper medical service to the members of their commands. The objectives of such medical service are the conservation of manpower and the preservation of unit efficiency and morale. These objectives are attained by strict adherence to the principles and procedures of preventive medicine, sanitation, treatment, and by rapid evacuation if needed. Medical service must be planned and conducted to conform to and support the tactical plan. 302. Unit Medical Service a. Unit medical service includes battlefield acquisition of the wounded, injured, or sick; emergency medical treatment by company aidmen; evacuation to the unit aid station; and further emergency or definitive treatment at the aid station as required. Unit medical serv ice includes advising the commander on military field sanitation, disease prevention, and the health of the command. b. Unit medical service is provided to armor units by organic medical platoons. 303. Division Medical Service Division medical service is provided by the division medical battalion and includes the evacuation of patients from the battalion aid stations, the operation of division clearing stations, and the furnishing of medical supply and emergency dental service. Division medical service is discussed in FM 8-10, FM 8-15, and FM54-2. 304. Medical Treatment and Evacuation a. Each battalion medical platoon establishes a medical aid station and provides a medical aid-evacuation team for each organic company. The medical aid-evacuation teams move with company combat trains following closely behind the combat elements. Patients are given first aid or emergency medical treatment by the medical aid evacuation team. If further treatment is required, patients areevacuated to the battalion aid station by the medical aid-evacuation team. b. At the aid station, patients are sorted as to type and degree of injury or illness. If the tactical situation permits, patients who will be able to return to duty in a short time are retained in or near the aid station and are returned to duty from there. Patients who must be evacuated for further medical treatment are prepared for evacuation. c. The supporting medical unit is responsible for evacuation from the battalion aid station. Field ambulances from the supporting Section XI. AREA 306. General Definite measures must be taken before, during, and after a mass destruction or mass casualty attack or natural disaster to minimize the effects. The measures considered in this section, when appropriately modified, are applicable to the separate armored brigade and the armored cavalry regiment as well as units of the division. a. In rear areas, damage control is directed primarily toward minimizing the impairment medical unit evacuate patients from the battalion aid station to the clearing station located in the brigade trains area. d. Request for air evacuation is processed through medical channels, utilizing logistical radio nets. Command radio nets are used as required. 305. Medical Support of the Air Cavalry Troop a. The air cavalry troop receives medical support from the squadron medical section as described for the company in paragraph 304. However, during operations involving extensive use of the organic air-ground elements, one aidman may be provided for each tactical grouping (one per platoon or platoon team) commensurate with the availability of medical personnel. b. When the air cavalry troop is conducting operations in conjunction with ground combat units, patients requiring medical treatment beyond the capability of the troop aidman will normally be turned over to the ground unit for evacuation. c. When the air cavalry troop is operating in enemy controlled territory, normal evacuation means will be by air. Air ambulances of the field army medical service provide evacuation support on an on-call basis. If the army unit cannot provide the required support, aircraft organic to the division or the air cavalry troop may be used to evacuate patients requiring immediate medical or surgical treatment. Patients not requiring immediate medical attention will be evacuated when the troop or troop elements withdraw to friendly territory. In all cases, the tactical mission is given priority on the use of organic aircraft. I)AMAGE CONTROL of combat service support and aiding in reestablishing such support. b. In forward areas, area damage control operations are directed toward minimizing interference with tactical operations and the loss of combat power. c. Area damage control activities are a command responsibility, and the commander of each echelon is responsible for damage control training and implementation of damage control plans. The commander must direct all meas ures and means at his disposal toward accomplishing the tactical mission, and at the same time minimizing the possibility of losses of personnel and materiel to a mass destruction attack or natural disaster. 307. Staff Responsibilities The S4 has staff responsibility for area damage control planning. When the decision has been made to implement the plan, staff responsibility for control of the operation passes to the S3. The S2 exercises staff supervision over the collection, processing, reporting, and dissemination of radiological monitoring information and meteorological data. The S1 will exercise staff responsibility over the maintenance of records and reports which reflect the strength of the command as a result of radiation exposure. 308. Area Damage Con.trol Measures Before an Operation a. Damage control organizations and procedures must be established in workable damage control SOP. b. Units and individuals must be trained thoroughly in passive, protective measures against an enemy nuclear attack. These measures are discussed in appendix XXIII. c. Area damage control training in conformance with established SOP must be integrated with all phases of tactical training. d. During the planning of an operation, the commander and his staff must provide for area damage control measures that can be taken if the unit or its elements are subjected to an enemy mass destruction attack or a natural disaster. Rallying points are designated for each company and battalion and higher level unit for each operation. These points are used to collect survivors of units subjected to mass destruction attacks. They are designated in offensive or defensive operations approximately 1,000 meters to the rear of each unit or major headquarters. When possible, rallying points are designated on clearly defined terrain features. 309. Area Damage Control Measures Taken During an Operation a. The massing of troops and units should be avoided except when essential to accomplishing the mission and then only for a minimum period. b. Adequate dispersion between units and in units is maintained. c. When units are on the move, every effort is exerted to keep them moving. d. When units are not on the move, individual vehicle movement is minimized. Essential movement is restricted to periods of poor visibility preferably during hours of darkness. e. Units do not remain stationary for prolonged periods. f. Effective use of air and ground reconnaissance means is practiced. g. Maximum use is made of cover and concealment. h. The commander and his staff continually review their dispositions and actions to be taken if the unit is subjected to a mass destruction attack. 310. Area Damage Control Measures Taken After an Enemy Mass Destruction Attack a. Units Subfected to Attack. ( 1) Individuals and units immediately adopt protective measures, such as taking the best available cover and donning protective clothing and equipment to minimize the residual effects of the weapon. (2) Report expeditiously the situation and condition of the unit to the next higher effective headquarters. b. Units Observing the Mass Destt·uction Attack. ( 1) Every effort is directed toward continuance of the assigned mission. A report of the observation of the attack should be submitted to the next higher effective headquarters. (2) Commanders of units not subjected to the attack should anticipate a possible change in mission to counter the attack's effects on the plan of the next higher headquarters. This reduces reaction time when a change of mission is received. c. Next Higher Headquarters of Unit Subjected to a Mass Destruction Attack. ( 1) Receives, plots, and relays reports from subordinate units concerning the enemy attack; determines the extent of damage as early as possible; and issues necessary orders to continue the assigned mission. (2) As early as feasible, acts to restore the effectiveness of the unit subjected to the attack. If necessary, an area damage control organization will be employed. Appropriate functions for the organization performing area damage control operations are ( a) Determine and report the condition of elements of the unit subjected to the attack. (b) Assume control of disorganized personnel and elements of the attacked unit. ROAD ASSEMBLY POINT\ (c) Release combat capable elements to the control of the next higher headquarters. (d) Restore communications between the attacked unit and its next higher headquarters. (e) Evacuate casualties to appropriate medical installations. (f) Evacuate vehicles and major items of equipment to appropriate vehicle and equipment collecting points. (g) Perform limited decontamination. (h) Conduct monitoring. d. Control and location of area damage control elements. To facilitate control and to expedite rescue and aid missions, the control and assessment team (CAT) must utilize certain control measures (fig. 16). (1) Assembly point. This point is designated by the CAT commander and is DIRECTION OF THE ENEMY RADIUS OF VULNERABILITY (AREA OF SEARCH) SECTOR OF SEARCH 2 RAD/hR-LINE CONTROL MEASURES: 2D BN 80th MECH INF IN AN AREA DAMAGE CONTROL OPERATION. IN THIS SITUATION THE BN IS EMf'LOYING A CAT, BN RESCUE SQUAD AND THE RESCUE SQUADS OF TWO COMPANIES. Figure 16. Control measures, ·a,rea damage control operations. utilized to assemble the various provisional units and issue necessary instructions to commence the operation. The point selected should be centrally located and sufficient distance from the estimated ground zero (GZ). (2) Area of search. As a starting point for the operation, the CAT commander will designate the area of search. The size of the search area is based on the radius of vulnerability to the troops in the area of attack which is based on the assumed postures of the troops at the time of burst (protected or unprotected) and the estimated size of the enemy nuclear weapon employed. (3) Two rads per hour contour. Because of the significance of any movement within the two rads per hour contour, this radius must also be estimated and disseminated. All movement and operations within this contour must be controlled by the CAT commander who will estimate allowable stay time for the troops involved. Units which must pass through the affected area coordinate with the CAT in order to receive information relative to conditions within the area. ( 4) Sectors of search. Sectors of search are subdivisions of the area of search. Boundaries should be reflected along easily distinguished terrain features whenever possible. 311 . Provisional Area Damage Control Teams Units subjected to a mass destruction attack or natural disaster use all means necessary to reestablish unit combat readiness as rapidly as possible. In circumstances where assistance is required from sources outside the unit, other units may be directed to assist. Armored cavalry units are well suited for conducting area damage control operations. Where it is not feasible to employ TOE units, provisional area damage control units can be organized and employed. Provisional damage control teams are established usually by unit SOP. These teams must be capable of taking decisive and coordi- BN XO AND DRIVER 1 COMMUNICATION 1 RADIOLOGICAL 1 MEDICAL 1 LOGISTICS OFFICER , MONITORING SERVICE STAFF 2 RADIO MECHANICS AND SURVEY OFFICER OFFICER OFFICER 1 AMBULANCE 1 NCO SUPPLY 1 DRIVER DRIVER (DRIVER) 1 ADMINIS TRATIVE CLERK FUNCTIONS MOVES TO DAMAGE AREA ON ORDER, WITHOUT DELAY ESTABLISHES A CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT TEAM COMMAND POST DETERMINES AND REPORTS EFFECTIVENESS OF UNITS ASSUMES CONTROL OF UNITS IN AFFECTED AREA , IF NECESSARY I RESTORES COMMAND AND COMMUNICATION TO AFFECTED UNITS RELEASES C~MBAT EFFECTIVE UNITS TO TACTICAL COMMANDER REOUESTS REQUIRED COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT I DIRECTS AND CONTROLS THE OPERATION OF RESCUE SQUADS I RESUMES MISSIONS OF UNITS IN AFFECTED AREA WHEN DIRECTED Figure 17. Type combat battalion control and assessment team. nated action in area damage control operations when TOE units cannot be employed. a. Control and Assessment (CAT). Each battalion headquarters establishes a control and assessment team. A type battalion control and assessment team with personnel, major items of equipment, and a statement of functions is shown in figure 17. b. Battalion Rescue Squad. Each battalion headquarters establishes a battalion rescue squad. This squad will be assembled on order and attached to a control and assessment team for area damage control operations. A type battalion rescue squad with personnel, major items of equipment, and statement of functions is shown in figure 18. c. Company Rescue Squad. Each combat company-size unit establishes a company rescue squad which will be assembled on order and attached to a control and assessment team for area damage control operations. A type company rescue squad with personnel, major items of equipment, and statement of functions is shown in figure 19. Other organizations as desired by the commander can be established 1 OFFICER 1 NCO SENIOR RECOVERY 1•AID STATION ATTENDANT 1 DRIVER 1 OPERATOR 1 ASSISTANT 2 DRIVERS 2 ASSISTANT MECHANIC 1 AMBULANCE DRIVERS 2 RECOVERY DRIVER MECHANICS 1 AMBULANCE 1 TRACKED ATTENDANT VEHICLE MECHANIC FUNCTIONS OPERATES CASUALTY AND EQUIPMENT COLLECTING POINTS PROVIDES LIMITED EMERGENC:Y MEDICAL TREATMENT CONDUCTS RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROVIDES ASSISTANCE TO COMPANY RESCUE SQUADS Figure 18, Type combat maneuver battalion rescue squad. by SOP in conformance with his organizational point should be the assumed or known GZ. The structure and concept of performing area damCAT will have to depend to a large degree on age control operations. reports from observing units and initial assessment reports from aerial survey teams (nor 312. Method of Employment mally operating from the brigade aviation secTo control an operation, the CAT must have tion). From reports and the assumed posture a starting point and a means of controlling the of the involved unit at the time of the burst, actions within the concerned area. The starting the CBR officer will determine or estimate the SCTY SEC *1 NCCI **1 NCO *2 MECHANICS * * l (MECHANIC) DRIVER *1 DRIVER FUNCTIONS ADMINISTERS FIRST AID RESCUES AND REMOVES CASUALTIES EVACUATES VEHICLES AND MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT CONDUCTS RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING PERFORMS LIMITED HASTY DECONTAMINATION * PERSONNEL AND RECOVERY VEHICLE PROVIDED BY MAINTE· NANCE SECTION ** PERSONNEL AND %·TON TR:UCK PROVIDED BY CO HQ Figure 19. Type company rescue squad. GZ, type of burst (low or high air, or surface burst), the destructive power of the weapon (example 20 KT), and the induced pattern or fallout pattern. Based on this information, the CAT commander (assuming the decision has been made to employ the CAT) will be able to establish an assembly point, area of search, sectors of search, and establish the proposed CAT command post, salvage and maintenance points, and casualty collecting points. These sectors and locations are all tentative and if ' required, must be adjusted once actual conditions are determined in the area. 313. Employment of Provisional Area Damage Control Units a. Provisional area damage control units, established by SOP, are employed for area damage control when it is not practical to employ TOE units. If it is necessary to employ provisional area damage control units, brigade or division will determine which unit or units will participate in the operation. Normally, uncommitted forces will provide the provisional teams and squads. When more than one battalion-size unit provides provisional elements, the brigade will establish control of these elements through the brigade CAT. If the operation requires means in excess of those of the provisional units, division will provide division-level squads for heavy duty rescue and labor work. See division SOP, FM 61-100, for division-level squads and teams. b. Since the employment of provisional area damage control units reduces the parent unit's capability for sustained combat, it is imperative that provisional units rejoin the parent unit as soon as possible. Control of units and areas subjected to mass destruction attacks should pass to follow or support units as soon as practical. In the absence of relief, provisional area damage control units will terminate their operations when the personnel and equipment are required by the parent unit to accomplish its mission. It is also terminated when further efforts by the CAT and the rescue squads are no longer practical. 314. Conduct of Operation A method of conducting battalion-level area damage control operations after an enemy nuclear attack using a provisional area damage control organization is described in the follow~ ing illustrative example: a. Task Force 2-11 Armor has been advancing on two axes (fig. 20). Team B was struck by an enemy nuclear airburst. In the absence of assistance from sources outside the task force, the task force commander ordered Team A to bypass the area and to assume the mission of Team B. Other units continued their assign~ ed missions. b. The initial reports from units not involved in the attack indicated that the weapon was a 20 KT low airburst. As the reports are received, they are plotted and forwarded to the next higher headquarters. The task force executive officer is the CAT commander and as soon as possible he conducts an aerial reconnaissance survey over the affected unit. During the flight, he attempts to determine the extent of damage, number and location of survivors ' and the condition of the terrain (tree blow down), roads, and bridges. Concurrently, the commander and his staff are making estimates of the effect that the weapon has had on the accomplishment of their mission and what course of action must be followed. When the commander arrives at a decision, necessary orders are issued. In this situation the battal . ' wn CAT and rescue squads are to be used to give assistance to Team B. A message is sent to subordinate elements informing them of the employment of the CAT and the rescue squads. The message includes the location of the as~ sembly point and what radio net is to be used. The radio net may have a specific frequency set aside by SOP or the frequency of Team B may be used. During the preparation for the opera~ tion, continuing attempts are made to establish communications with Team B. Participating elements are assembled at the assembly point and issued necessary instructions by the CAT commander, such as the location of the CAT command post, collecting points, area of search, two rads per hour line, and sectors of search (fig. 21 and 22). c. During the conduct of the area damage control operation, the CAT commander will keep the battalion operations center informed of the progress of the operation and will direct all requests for assistance to the operations center. NOT TO SCALE Figure ~0. Task force situation before enemy nuclear att;ack. ASSY POINT NOT TO SCALE Figure ~1. Provisional area da'TfW11e control elements cO"Tnmitted to render assistance to Team B. AREA OF SEARCH 2 RAD /HR LINE NOT TO SCALE Task force continuation of tactical mission and damage control areas of responsibility. Figure 22. ment of area damage control provisional or 315. Brigade and Division Level Operations The brigade headquarters is a tactical headganizations are the same for natural disasters quarters and will not usually establish rescue such as floods, typhoons, or tornados as for nusquads but will be required to establish a CAT. clear attack. This team will only operate when division has 317. Decontamination Measures directed the brigade to conduct area damage control operations that will entail the use of a. Radiological Decontaminations. Radiologcontrol and accessment teams and rescue ical decontamination measures are unit and insquads from more than one battalion. Otherdividual measures taken to reduce the dose rate wise, the brigade S4 will monitor a battalion resulting from fallout. They includelevel operation and keep the brigade com(1) Brushing or sweeping off clothing and mander informed of the progress of the operaequipment. If possible, a complete tion. Other division units may be required to change of clothing should be issued assist during a battalion or brigade-level and the old laundered.operation. Such units consist of medical mass (2) Bathing as soon as possible. evacuation and heavy labor teams that are es(3) Turning over the soil in the imme tablished by the medical and engineer battalions or other divisional units as established by diate area of foxholes, vehicles, and occupied installations. This buries the SOP. Assistance from these teams is requested from the division G4. Brigade commanders fine fallout particles and reduces inhave operational control of these division tensity. teams when they are provided. (4) Hosing or washing equipment and vehicles with soap or other detergents 316. Natural Disasters at the earliest opportunity. Although not specifically described herein, measures taken and the procedures in employ-b. Decontamination of Vehicles after Toxic 166 Attack. A contaminated armored vehicle will continue its mission until the tactical situation permits decontamination by the crew. For very light contamination, exposure to the weather may be sufficient for decontamination. Decontamination of the interior of the vehicle may be accomplished by the use of forced hot air or wiping with rags. Other expedients are protec. tive ointment on small critical areas and solvents such as kerosene, fuel oil, and diesel oil on large critical areas. When such expedients are used, they must be washed off or otherwise removed before damage occurs to sensitive materiel. To decontaminate the outside of a vehi cle, the crew will spray the vehicle with a decontaminating apparatus. Should this prove insufficient, specially trained personnel may scrub the entire vehicle with hot soapy water or apply the bleach slurry or DANC method. Decontamination is performed at decontamination points in maintenance areas by vehicle crews and special units. c. Maintenance personnel should exercise care when disassembling or servicing previously contaminated equipment. For additional information on decontamination and further explanation of the above methods, see FM 21-40, FM 21-41, and TM 3-220. CHAPTER 11 OTHER OPERATIONS-ENVIRONMENT Section I. 318. General a. Armor units may have to be augmented with additional equipment or special equipment as required by the geographical area, nature of operations, or a combination of these factors. Tank units may require a lighter vehicle, such as the AR/AAV, to replace the main battle tank. The organization of a tank unit may require adjustment as to the number of platoons in a company or the number of companies in a battalion. Combined arms forces, to include infantry, engineer, artillery, and other s~pporting troops, may be organized prior to or subsequent to arrival i:h the theater of operations. Cavalry units may require vehicle and personnel changes or a different ratio of air cavalry troops to armored cavalry troops. This generally requires special considerations in training, techniques of operation, tactics, maintenance, and logistical support. b. Tactics. The fundamentals of employment and conduct of tactical operations for armor units discussed elsewhere in this text are appli- GENERAL cable, when modified, to meet the conditions of environment. c. Maintenance. Under conditions of extreme environment, maintenance is emphasized more than in normal operations. Special care is required for metal surfaces to prevent rusting, icing or frosting, or accumulating sand. Communication equipment is waterproofed, fungusproofed, or given other preventive maintenance. Special lubricants are required generally for vehicles. 319. Logistics Careful planning is essential to support operations conducted in extreme environments. The lack of supply routes will in many instances place great reliance on aircraft to supply units. The quantities of all classes of supply will vary greatly depending upon the environment. For example, in jungle operations, greater quantities of class V are needed ' while in cold weather operations and desert operations, class III supplies are in greater demand. Section II. JUNGLE OPERATIONS 320. General Jungle combat involves operations in tropical areas, largely overgrown with dense vegetation, that may contain deep valleys, steep ridges, and swamps. The conduct of combat operations requires a high degree of leadership and individual initiative to meet the problems imposed by climatic conditions, land forms, and vegetation. In tropical areas, knowledge of terrain is of vital importance. Armor unit leaders must strive to obtain information relative to the t.~rrain by prior reconnaissance. This information must be current and complement the frequent climatic and seasonal changes peculiar to the operational area. These problems may be overcome by proper acclimatization, training, and careful planning. See FM 31-30 for details in jungle operations. Also see paragraphs 350-354 for operations in forest or wooded areas. 321. Effects of Jungle a. The jungle affects operations by restricting observation, fields of fire, movement, and communication, and by providing concealment from air and ground observation. These factors make control difficult and continuous contact virtually impossible. In jungle operations, the leader is normally faced with situations that at best are vague. Narrower frontages than normal are assigned to attacking forces, and distances between units and individuals are reduced. The use of supporting fires is restricted. b. Jungle areas seldom have good roads. The road net consists usually of a few roads on the edge of the jungle and narrow winding trails in the interior. Often movement of armor units is limited to roads, beaches, grass or brush covered fields (secondary growth); however, armor vehicles can move through difficult terrain and at times they will be able to pass through even primary jungle. When the jungle vegetation is coupled with either steep slopes or swamps, it will be necessary to work with dismounted personnel or select routes based on careful reconnaissance. When the terrain cannot accommodate cross-country movement, armor must utilize the existing roads and trails. Administrative type column formations must not be selected because of the terrain restrictions. Movement by successive bounds should be given consideration to preclude ambush of the entire element. In these situations, it must be recognized that time will be lost and plans made accordingly. In jungle terrain, surprise may be gained by the appearance of armor from an unexpected direction rather than through speed of movement. c. Radio range is reduced greatly because of the screening effect of dense vegetation and steep slopes. The effectiveness of radio depends upon the radio's location and the atmospheric conditions; the use of aircraft for radio retransmission may prove advantageous. In a slow-moving attack, wire is the most satisfactory means of communication. Wire teams move with the assault echelon to provide communication to the rear. Increased reliance is placed on dismounted messengers and prearranged visual signals. d. The jungle gives excellent concealment for offensive operations. This permits dismounted infantry to advance close to the enemy before launching their attack. However, concealing foliage also permits ambush and infiltration attacks and requires increased security. e. Certain effects of particular interest to armor should be considered in nuclear warfare in jungles-shielding by thick vegetation, severe obstacles created by blowdown, and difficulty in accurately locating suitable nuclear targets. 322. Offensive Operations in Jungle a. The fundamentals of employment and considerations of the offense for armor forces apply to offensive combat in jungles. Roads, trails, and rivers are key terrain in jungle operations. Use of mechanized flamethrowers and the increased use of the cannister round should be considered since jungle conditions often require a variety of munitions. b. Jungle combat is essentially a fight by small dismounted infantry units operating extremely close to the enemy. A tank platoon may be attached to an assault rifle company to reduce enemy automatic weapons by closerange fires. In close terrain, dismounted troops and tanks move together at the same rate of speed. On trails, dismounted troops generally precede the tanks at about 25 to 50 meters, depending on the terrain and enemy resistance. At times the terrain may restrict deployment to the vicinity of the trail and may limit operations to a one-tank front. Tanks must be protected closely by dismounted patrols that reconnoiter for routes of advance, antitank guns, and antitank obstacles. Riflemen are designated to protect the flanks and rear of each tank. When the tanks are engaged, riflemen use the tanks as a shield while determining the location of the enemy firing position. When the enemy is located, the tank-infantry team attacks and destroys him. At times, close terrain makes it necessary for a tank commander to expose himself from the turret to locate targets and maintain contact with nearby tanks. c. Sometimes the terrain makes it impossible for tanks to take part in the assault. In this case, the tanks may support the attack with overhead and flanking fire. A tank forward observer may go with the assault rifle company to call for supporting fires. 323. Defense in Jungles a. In light jungles, the principles of defense in woods generally apply. Thorough and continuous ground reconnaissance is necessary because the observation of security elements is restricted and air reconnaissance is often ineffective. Long range fires can seldom be employed. b. In a dense jungle, troops are disposed along the forward edge of the battle area with minimum intervals between foxholes and no gaps between units. Security elements consist of small groups, dug in for all-round defense, to cover trails and other approaches to the position. Security should be out to a distance that will insure detection of the enemy before he is within range to effectively employ his handheld antitank weapons. Frequently units are isolated in this type of terrain. In this event, the need for all-round defense takes on added significance. Every effort should be made to establish a perimeter as soon after halting as possible. Particular care must be taken to guard against enemy infiltration and dismounted infantry attacks. c. Effective passive air defense .is possible for armor units in jungle operations, thereby reducing the number of air defense units required. Section Ill. DESERT OPERATIONS 324. General All deserts have certain characteristics-lack of water, absence of vegetation, large areas of sand, extreme temperature ranges, and brilliant sunlight. The terrain is not necessarily flat and level. There are hills, depressions, sand dunes, rocks, shale, and salt marshes, as well as great expanses of sand. However, these terrain features usually present, at most, only local obstacles to movement. 325. Effects of Desert a. Camouflage. The lack of vegetation in the desert makes concealment of men and equipment difficult. Artificial means of camouflage are employed extensively, including protective painting for all vehicles. Maximum use is made of shadows in broken ground, dried-out stream beds, and sand dunes. b. Mobility. As a rule, it is easy to move in desert areas; therefore, the force that has the greater mobility is the more effective. Movements are made normally for long distances, and speed is essential. Maintaining direction during movements is difficult because of the absence of roads, trails, and landmarks. Navigational aids and dead reckoning are used to maintain direction. c. Surprise. Visibility is often poor because of the absence of high ground for observation and the presence of blowing dust. Surprise is improved by the use of aggressive reconnaissance and security forces, speed of movement, and deception. Dummy positions, decoy movements, and the operation of false radio nets aid in deception. In open areas, a force can conceal its movements by moving at night or during dust storms. The glare of the sun, especially when it is low on the horizon, reduces visibility toward the sun. An attacker may gain surprise by moving with the sun at his back. d. Security. Because of the lack of natural obstacles in the desert, all-round protection is necessary at all times. Units must be prepared to fight in any direction. Reconnaissance must extend for greater distances than normal. The lack of natural concealment increases the difficulty~ of security against enemy air action. Dispersion and camouflage are used as passive means of defense against air attack, and active defensive measures are employed fully. Since it is virtually impossible to conceal logistical installations from either ground or air observation, the:ir security is best obtained through dispersion and through deception as to the nature of the installation. A larger than normal number of air defense units may be required to support an armored unit in a desert operation due to a lack of concealment. Increased emphasis must be placed on active defense of supply columns and logistical installations from ground attack. 326. Conduct of Desert Operations a. Offensive Operations. In desert combat, emphasis is placed on maneuver because flanks are most accessible. Terrain favors envelopments and deep turning movements. Wide movements around an enemy flank can often be made without deception. See chapter 6 for discussion of offensive operations. Section IV. OPERATIONS IN DEEP SNOW AND EXTREME COLD b. Defensive and Retrograde Operations. Defensive and retrograde operations are carried out as discussed in chapters 3, 7, and 8, taking into consideration the effects of the desert described in this section. c. For additional information, see FM 31-25. 327. General a. Deep snow and extreme cold weather present many problems for armor operations. Special training must be conducted for individuals and units, including small unit and battalion training. b. Leaders must supervise all activities and always set the example. In no other part of the world is the necessity for leadership more apparent than it is in that of deep snow and extreme cold. c. For detailed discussion of operations in extreme cold, see FM 31-70 and FM 31-71. 328. Effects of Deep Snow and Extreme Cold a. Troops require special clothing and heated shelters. Equipment and supplies that would be damaged by freezing are protected against the cold. Weapons and vehicles are winterized with special lubricants. Wheeled vehicles may be used on established roads in rear areas. Full-track vehicles with low ground pressures are used for movement over snow-covered or muddy terrain. Movement on icy slopes often requires special grousers fitted on the tracks. b. All movement is slow. This frequently limits the depth of combat missions. Careful reconnaissance by patrols on skis, snowshoes, or light oversnow vehicles precedes movement of units. Reconnaissance reports include information on snow depth and ice thickness. Short range weather forecasts are important in planning movement. c. Armor units advancing cross country avoid heavy forests and deep drifts, taking advantage of windswept ridges where snow cover is thinnest. Thickly frozen lakes and rivers, instead of being obstacles, are good routes for movement. d. In winter, the short periods of daylight and the difficulty of concealing movement in snow-covered terrain cause an increase in night movements which are frequently aided by clear atmosphere and bright moonlight. Deep snow provides concealment but increases the difficulty of orientation on the terrain. Long movements require the use of navigational aids. 329. Conduct of Operations in Deep Snow and Extreme Cold a. Offensive Operations. Offensive operations are conducted as described in chapter 6. b. Defensive and Retrograde Operat'ions. Defensive and retrograde operations are conducted as described in chapters 7 and 8. Section V. MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS 330. General Mountain combat may involve operations in areas of high altitudes subject to extreme changes in weather. These areas usually have snow-covered slopes much of the year, few roads most of which are narrow and twisting, and few, if any, communication centers. In general, operations in mountainous terrain retards and restricts maneuver, reduces the effect of fire, and makes communication and supply difficult. Mountain terrain and weather can be either a dangerous obstacle to operations or a valuable aid, depending on how well it is understood and to what extent advantage is taken of its peculiar characteristics. See FM 31-72 for detailed discussion of mountain operations. 331. Effect of Mountains a. The nature of the terrain normally limits the use of armored vehicles to roads and trails. Tactical surprise may be achieved by employing varying degrees of engineer effort to permit tanks to move to advantageous firing positions in the roughest types of terrain. b. Consideration should be given to obtain.:. ing information from local inhabitants of the area about trails and natural obstacles that often do not appear on military maps. c. Adequate logistical support for armor units engaged in mountain operations is extremely difficult. Roads are usually few in number and require extensive maintenance. Helicopters may be used for supply operations. d. Mountainous terrain presents many communication problems. Radio communication, particularly FM sets, may be affected by high ground between stations. See FM 24-1 for details on communications in mountain operations. 332. Offensive Operations a. In mountainous terrain, an armor attack must be planned in detail and the troops briefed thoroughly. The terrain may permit tanks to support attacking infantry with relatively long range direct fire. This requires excellent radio communication and thorough coordination between the infantry and tank units. b. Key terrain features are primary objectives. Attacks along low ground are usually costly because the defender has excellent observation. The route of an attacking force will normally be along ridge lines or on other ele vated terrain. On such terrain, the attacking force will often gain tactical surprise. Extensive engineer work may be required to place tanks on high ground where they can closely support the attack. It may be necessary to build a trail from low ground to the attack position. When mountainous terrain contains corridors that are favorable to the attack and permit employment of armor, armor units may attack down the corridors while infantry units attack along the ridge lines. c. Available roads and trails must be kept in good repair to permit the movement of armor. Tank dozers, armored vehicle launched bridges, and bridging material must be kept well forward. d. No more armored vehicles should be taken forward than are required for immediate operation. Having uncommitted armored vehicles in forward areas causes unnecessary damage to roads and may create traffic hazards for supply vehicles. e. If decisive armor action becomes possible, armor forces are committed in mass, supported closely by artillery and engineers. Objectives are usually critical points on hostile supply routes and withdrawal, the capture of which would isolate the enemy forward position. 333. Defensive and Retrograde Operations The fundamentals of defensive and retrograde operations discussed in chapters 7 and 8 are applicable to the conduct of the defense in mountain warfare. The use of armored vehicles may be limited; however, wherever possible, full advantage is made of tanks in their antitank role and in offensive actions. CHAPTER 12 OTHER OPERATIOf\IS-MISSION TYPE ··, Section, I. 334. Description The operations described in the following sections are normally conducted in conjunction with major operations~attack, defense, or retrograde. These operations evolve as a part of the overall mission of a unit; for example, an airmobile operation conducted in conjunction GENERAL with an attack to seize crossing sites over a river. 335. Scope These mission-type operations are only discussed as they affect armor operations. References are made to other field manuals, where appropriate, for detailed information. Section II. AIRMOBILE OPERATIONS 336. General When provided with aviation units from corps, army, or USAF the armored division has a capability to conduct airmobile operations to assist in the seizure of objectives. This capability increases the speed and flexibility of armor operations. Airmobile operations are not limited to any particular type combat unit. However, mechanized infantry battalions and armored cavalry units of the armored division will participate most frequently in airmobile operations. 337. Airmobile Operations a. The operations of airmobile forces may include (1) Economy of force missions. (2) Raids. (3) Antiairborne and antiguerrilla operations. ( 4) Overobstacle assault operations. ( 5) Assist in the exploitation of the effects of nuclear weapons. (6) Seizure and limited retention of key terrain. (7). Feints and demonstrations. (8) Reconnaissance and security missions designed to block or screen enemy avenues of approach. (9) Counterattack of enemy penetrations. (10) Ship-to-shore operations. b. For planning and conducting airmobile operations, see FM 57-35. Section Ill. LINIKUP OPERATIONS 338. Definition mobile, and infiltration operations; during the relief of an isolated unit; the breakout of an A linkup operation is the convergence of two encircled force; or an attack to join a friendly separate ground units and usually occurs in guerrilla force. See FM 31-21, Special Forces joint airborne, amphibious, shore-to-shore, air- Operations, for a detailed discussion of linkup operations between field army forces and guerrilla forces. 339. Conduct of Linkup Operations The initial phase of a linkup operation is conducted as any other offensive operation. As the linkup forces come closer together, coordination and control are intensified and restrictions are placed on the forces involved. a. Planning. Plans for a linkup are coordinated in advance and must be timely. It is extremely important that the forces involved have an early and continuing exchange of information. b. Command Relationship and Responsibilities. The headquarters directing the linkup operation must establish the command relationships and responsibilities of the forces involved. Both the linkup force and the force with which linkup is to be made can remain under control of the directing headquarters, or either force may be attached to the other. c. Command and Staff Liaison. Liaison is normally established during planning and continues throughout the operation. As the distance closes between the forces, additional liaison personnel are exchanged. Aircraft improve and expedite this exchange. d. Communication. The communication plan includes the channels for radio communication between the two forces. It must prescribe day and night identification procedures, including primary and alternate means. Aircraft can be used to give signals or to otherwise extend communication. Visual signals such as flares or panels may be used during daylight, and flashlights or infrared devices may be employed during darkness. e. Mutual Recognition System. To preclude the possibility of friendly troops exchanging fires, recognition signals must be established. They may be pyrotechnics, armbands, vehicle markings, panels, colored smoke, distinctive light patterns, infrared signals, and passwords. 340. Linkup of a Moving Force with Stationary Force a. General. In an operation where one force is moving to linkup with a stationary force, the following procedures are necessary. b. Coordination of Ground Linkup Points. To insure that the forces join without doing battle against each other, linkup points are selected at which physical contact between the forces will occur. These points must be readily recognizable to both forces. Alternate points are selected in the event enemy activities cause linkup at places other than those planned. The number of linkup points selected depends upon the terrain and the number of routes used by the linkup force. All personnel involved in the linkup force must be thoroughly familiar with procedures for mutual identification and plans for the rapid passage of lines. c. Fire Coordination Line. To prevent losses from fire by friendly forces, the fire coordination line is established to coordinate the fires delivered by both the linkup force and the stationary force. As linkup becomes imminent, one force may deliver fire outside the line only after coordinating with the friendly force. d. Air Defense Artillery Considerations. During linkup operations, particularly with airmobile or airborne units, the rules for engagement become extremely important. It is important that ADA units do not engage friendly aircraft that may be supporting the airborne or airmobile units. e. Actions Following Linkup. When the linkup is made, the linkup force may join the stationary force or may pass through or around and continue the attack. If the linkup force is to continue operations in conjunction with the stationary force, a single commander for the overall force must be designated. Plans for these operations must be made in advance. If linkup is to be made under conditions of nuclear warfare, objectives for the linkup force must provide for dispersion in relation to the stationary force. The linkup force may immediately pass through the perimeter of the stationary forces, be assigned objectives within the perimeter, or be assigned objectives outside the perimeter, depending upon its mission. If the mission and terrain will permit, it is desirable that the linkup force pass around the stationary force and be assigned objectives outside the perimeter of the stationary force. 341. Linkup of Two Moving Forces When two moving forces linkup, normally only suitable control measures such as boundaries, fire coordination lines, and contact points where juncture is to be made are prescribed. When the linkup is accomplished, the units continue on their assigned missions. 342. Logistical Support in Linkup Operations a. Logistical support reinforcements may be greater in linkup operations than those for other offensive actions. Additional considerations for planning logistical support in linkup operations include the distance to the objective area, time the objective area is to be held, planned operations or movement out of the objective area, and the movement of the land tails of units participating in the airborne or airmobile assault. b. The supply requirements for a linkup operation may exceed the transportation capability of the battalion support platoon. The battalion may have to request additional vehicles or supply by air. If additional vehicles are not available, kitchen trucks and company supply trucks may have to be used to transport ammunition and fuels. c. In airborne and airmobile operations, Section IV. 343. General A raid is an attack to accomplish a specific purpose in enemy territory with no intention of gaining or holding terrain. Raids are made normally to capture prisoners; to capture or destroy specific enemy materiel; to obtain information of enemy units, locations, dispositions, strength, intentions, or methods of operation; or to disrupt his plans. Usually, raids are designed for tactical deception, inflicting loss or damage to specific enemy materiel, securing information, or supporting or coordinating with unconventional forces. Raids may be conducted within or beyond supporting distance of the parent unit in either daylight or darkness. When the area to be raided is beyond supporting distance, the raiding party operates as a separate force. The raiding force always withdraws after it accomplishes its mission. Unless planned and conducted carefully, the withdrawal is the most difficult part of the operation. Security is vital because normally the raiding force penetrates the enemy position and is vulnerable to attack from all directions. Raids are planned and executed much priority for supply by air is given to the units assaulting the objective area. Supplies for the linkup forces normally move by land transportation. However, when the objective area is to be defended jointly by the linkup and airborne or airmobile force, supplies for the linkup force may be flown into the objective area and stockpiled. d. Evacuation of equipment and patients may create major problems for the linkup force. If supply routes are open, the normal evacuation procedures apply. When ground routes are insecure, helicopters may be used for evacuation of patients while damaged equipment may be carried forward with the linkup forces until a suitable opportunity for evacuation is available. e. The land tails of airborne or airmobile assault units will normally move with the linkup forces. These elements move with the trains of the headquarters of the linkup force. When moving with a battalion, these elements march with the field trains. RAIDS like other attacks, but surprise and speed of execution are of greater importance (ch 6). Raids may be conducted dismounted, motorized, mechanized, or by air or waterborne means. The tank sweep is suited ideally for raids (para 346-349). See FM 57-35 for raids conducted by airmobile units and FM 17-36 for tactics and techniques that may be used in conducting raids by air cavalry units. 344. Conduct of Raids a. Selection of Raid Objectives. The raid objective may be prescribed by the higher commander, or it may be left to the discretion or the commander of the raiding force. Where possible, the area selected for the raid is lightly defended. The raid objective accomplishes the mission of the raiding force. b. Time of Raid. Before a raid, time should be allowed for reconnaissance, planning, registration of supporting fires, and rehearsals. Preferably, raids are carried out so that the raiding force will arrive at the objective area at dawn or twilight, or other conditions of low visibility, to limit enemy observation and yet give enough light for close combat. c. Route of Advance and Withdrawal for Raid. (1) In daylight raids, covered routes of approach should be used. The raid begins when the raiding force departs the last area or terrain feature held by friendly forces. Under conditions of reduced visibility when surprise through stealth is possible, advance and flank security detachments precede the raiding force. They prevent premature discovery of the raid by the early destruction of enemy security detachments. (2) The withdrawal usually is made over another route. Road intersections and other prominent landmarks are avoided. Security detachments and protective fires are used to keep the routes of withdrawal open. d. Rallying Points for Raids. Rallying points are locations at which units assemble when they have become separated during a raid or Section V. 346. General The tank sweep is an offensive operation designed to deliver a rapid, violent attack against an enemy force to inflict maximum casualties, disrupt control, and destroy equipment. It may be employed to achieve objectives of a reconnaissance in force that are compatible with the conduct of the sweep. 347. Planning the Tank Sweep a. The tank sweep is planned as a mounted assault through enemy-controlled territory. Planning is essentially the same as for any offensive operation except that no attempt is made to seize an objective. The tank sweep passes through the enemy and returns to friendly positions in a single move. b. The tank sweep may be controlled more closely than other offensive operations. The extent of control may vary from a direction of attack to an axis of advance, depending upon the purpose of the sweep and factors · of METT. Control measures are used to preclude have completed their missions and are ready to withdraw. A rallying point is designated near the objective, and a series of rallying points may be prescribed along the routes of advance and withdrawal. A rallying point in an area controlled by friendly forces is usually prescribed to assemble materiel, prisoners, and information gathered in the raid. 345. Logistical Considerations in Raids In planning logistical support of a raiding party, it must be realized that the raiding party may be isolated or required to fight its way back to friendly lines. Factors governing the amount of logistical support accompanying a raiding party include the type and number of vehicles· and weapons, movement distance, length of time the raiding party will operate in enemy territory, and expected enemy resistance. Usually the raiding force carries everything required to sustain itself during the operation. Plans are made to supply a raiding unit, if required, by use of aircraft as the primary means and by ground vehicles as an alternate means. TANK SWEEPS friendly units firing into each other and to coordinate supporting fires. c. The force conducting the tank sweep should be predominately a tank unit. Small mechanized infantry units may be attached for specific tasks, such as guarding and evacuating enemy prisoners or demolishing specific material during the sweep. d. The selection of the area through which the sweep is to be conducted depends upon the purpose of the sweep. ( 1) When the tank sweep is used to extricate a heavily engaged unit, it is planned in an area that enables the attacking force to strike the enemy flank immediately in rear of the line of contact. (2) When the tank sweep is used to achieve certain objectives usually associated with a reconnaissance in force, it is planned in an area that will satisfy the need for information. e. Combat support is provided where necessary. Indirect fires from units already in position are planned in and along the flanks of the area to be swept. If weather conditions permit, smoke may be planned to add to enemy confusion and to assist in concealing the strength of the force conducting the sweep. Engineer tasks that can be accomplished rapidly, such as demolition of roadblocks or the expeditious breaching of a minefield, may require the attachment of engineer forces. Such tasks are planned carefully and coordinated closely to avoid slowing the sweep. 348. Conduct of the Tank Sweep a. The commander of the attacking force employs a formation that permits the rapid delivery of heavy volumes of fire in the direction of the sweep. While the commander is alert to adapt the formation to the situation, he avoids changes that require any part of the force to halt. He adopts as wide a formation as the analysis of the factors of METT indicates to accomplish the following: ( 1) Gain information of the enemy from as wide an area as possible. (2) Inflict casualties and damage on as many enemy units and installations as possible. (3) Insure that the force conducting the sweep has a time-length that permits passage of dangerous areas as rapidly as possible. b. Units keep moving and fire on enemy units and installations as they appear. Enemy Section VI. OPERATIONS IN 350. General a. The attack of a forested area is best suited for an infantry-heavy force. Heavily wooded areas, like builtup areas, restrict mobility, limit visibility and fields of fire, and increase, problems of control. Fighting in forests is characterized by many small unit actions. As a result, attacks in forests require detailed planning and control measures, decentralized control, and thorough briefing of subordinate commanders. Whenever possible, tanks avoid combat in forested areas. They are better employed to bring direct fire on positions located tanks and armored vehicles are taken under fire with appropriate armor defeating ammunition. Light vehicles, CP's, and supplies are destroyed by machinegun and HE fire. Enemy infantry forces and weapons with exposed crews are machinegunned and physically overrun. Enemy forces discovered in march formation or only partially deployed are assaulted immediately. The combination of heavy fire and rapid maneuvering into and through enemy units generates the necessary shock effect to maintain the momentum of the tank sweep. c. If immediate evacuation is impossible, tanks that become damaged or otherwise immobilized are destroyed to avoid their capture. Crews of destroyed vehicles are evacuated. Armored personnel carriers from attached mechanized infantry units may accompany each tank platoon to evacuate crews and casualties from destroyed tanks. d. Supporting fires are primarily preplanned and on call. Fire support units, when not firing, relay their weapons to keep pace with the sweep. 349. The Return to Friendly Positions The return to friendly positions is a critical part of the tank sweep. As the sweeping force closes into friendly positions, close control and coordination are required to identify units, avoid obstacles, and prevent firing on friendly forces. These details are planned before the conduct of the sweep. See paragraphs 211 and 212 for techniques in planning and conducting a withdrawal through friendly positions. FORESTS OR WOODED AREAS on the outer edges and to encircle the defended wooded area. Whenever combat in woods is unavoidable, dismounted infantry are essential for the protection of armored vehicles. The attack in forest is divided into three phases ( 1) Attack and occupation of the near edge. (2) Advance through the forests. (3) Exits from the forests. b. Detailed planning and careful coordination of all the arms and services involved extend down to every member of the tank crews and of the rifle squads supporting them. Com munication and target designation are especially important. It is necessary to plan supporting fires from artillery and infantry weapons as well as from the organic battalion support weapons, and to arrange with the engineers for route clearance or improvements. Tank dozers may be used to advantage. In nuclear warfare, consideration must be given to tree blowdown and fires that may occur in the attack area as a result of friendly nuclear strikes. Similar consideration must be given to enemy nuclear capabilities and the resultant . obstacles to tank movement that could result. 351. Attack of the Near Edge of the Forests a. The attack of a defended area near the edge of the forests is similar to the attack of any organized area. The near edge, or a terrain feature in which the near edge is included, is designated as the objective. When the attack must cover ground entirely exposed to enemy observation and fire, it may be made under the concealment of smoke or darkness. The methods of attack used are the same as in the attack of an organized position. b. When a foothold has been established in ·the forests, the assault echelon consolidates and reorganizes. Distances and intervals between smaller units and supporting weapons are reduced so that contact can be maintained during the advance through the forests. Since the edge of the forest is a good target for hostile artillery and aviation, the consolidation and reorganization must be rapid. 352. Advance Through the Forests a. The actual tactics employed must be designed to overcome the weapons and tactics of the enemy. Tanks move slowly, at short intervals and distances, to improve control and to insure mutual support. In heavily forested Figure 23. Tank-mechanized infantry formation in sparsely forested area. Figure 24. Tank-infantry formation in wooded areas. areas, there are frequent halts for reorganization, supply, and orientation. Consumption of fuel and ammunition is heavy. b. Figure 23 shows a typical formation of a tank platoon advancing with dismounted infantry along a trail in a forested area. The two leading tanks are echeloned to the right and left of the trail. Dismounted infantry accompany each tank. This formation presents a smaller target to the enemy and provides mutual fire support for each tank. The following three tanks proceed along the trail ready to support the leading tanks. The team of combined arms advances together, infantry maintaining close visual contact with the leading tanks; locating targets for the tanks; and providing security for the tanks by destroying infantry type targets. c. Though forested areas often severely limit maneuver, the possibility of flanking action or flanking fire by the tanks is always considered. The more difficult the terrain, the greater the surprise obtained if a tank attack can be launched successfully across it. The infantry must never let the leading tanks advance out of sight. If this happens, the tanks may be knocked out by tank killer teams and antitank guns and the infantry subsequently stopped by machinegun fire. Proper coordination of effort will prevent the enemy from separating tanks and infantry (fig. 24). d. The infantry indicate targets by using tracer ammunition, the external tank interphone, or prearranged signals. e. Supply is a serious problem because of the large quantities of fuel and ammunition consumed and the difficulty of getting supplies forward. Consequently, maintenance and supply personnel must operate immediately behind the attacking elements. It may be necessary to establish an advance supply point at company level. 353. Security Security is of the utmost importance in operations in forested areas where surprise, ambush, sniping, and infiltration tactics are employed constantly. Whenever an attacking tank-infantry element halts, immediate provision must be made for all-round security. When time permits, an all-round defense system is established behind mines, boobytraps, and barbed wire and is covered by: an outer ring of dismounted infantrymen. Logistical elements should be located in the center of the perimeter defense for maximum protection. 354. Exit The continuation of the attack from the far edge of the forest is conducted like any other attack. Plans are usually made to reorganize the assault echelon before it reaches the far edge, especially when strong enemy resistance is expected after the forests are cleared. Units and supporting weapons are redisposed, and frontages, zones of . action, and the formation of the unit are rearranged as necessary. New objectives are assigned; if possible, they are terrain features whose capture will mask the far edge of the forests from hostile ground observation and direct fire. When practicable, supporting weapons are given general support missions. Artillery and mortar·fires and smoke are planned to assist the exit. Section VII. OPERATIONS AT DEFilES 355. General a. Although . armor units prefer to attack and maneuver on as broad a front as is tactically feasible, there are occasions when deployment may be constricted to negotiate a defile. In these instances, commanders and staffs must be alert to foresee areas where defiles may interfere with operations or constrict maneuver. When defiles are detected, plans must insure that troops are not compressed; traffic is rigidly controlled; areas for dispersion of vehicles, equipment, and personnel are selected; and the passage of the defile is accomplished in minimal time. Every effort must be made to secure the flanks of a defile before attempting to pass the main body through the defile. When provided, ADA units are used to protect the defile from enemy air attack. Air cavalry and organic or attached aircraft are employed to perform reconnaissance and surveillance of critical areas and to transport light elements in the air-landed seizure of such areas. b. The following definitions are necessary to the understanding of this section : (1) A defile is any terrain feature, natural or artificial, that tends to constrict the passage of troops. Examples are mountain passes, gaps through minefields, river-crossing sites, or bridges. (2) A target zone is a generally circular area centered on and encompassing a defile within which personnel would become casualties and equipment would be destroyed or severely damaged by the effects of a selected enemy nuclear weapon. (3) A defile target zone coordinator is an individual designated by the commander to plan and regulate traffic flow through the defile target zone. This individual is normally the 83 when the traffic passing through the defile target zone consists primarily of combat and combat support units and the 84 when the traffic is predominantly combat service support. The defile target zone coordinator exercises absolute control of traffic moving through the target zone. (4) Holding areas are waiting spaces for vehicles located on both the near and far side of the target zone. These areas are far enough from the defile to insure against loss of vehicles and personnel from blast and thermal effects of an expected enemy nuclear weapon directed at the defile site. The areas may be large enough to accommodate battalion-size units but are preferably company-size and should be occupied for a minimal time to avoid creating a lucrative target. (5) Traffic control points are critical loca(3) Designate routes, including alternate tions at which traffic is controlled, routes for movement. either by military police or other per(4) Establish traffic control points. sonnel. Traffic control points operate (5) Select and establish well-dispersedunder direct control of the defile tarholding areas. get zone coordinator. (6) Select and establish equipment parks. (6) Equipment parks are small, well-cam.: (7) Establish and maintain all feasible ouflaged areas located near the defile means of communication among the for the central assembly of vehicles, defile target zone coordinator, the equipment, and material for engitraffic control points, stationed neers' use during the defile operation. wreckers, and the engineers at the points of construction, such as bridge 356. Planning site, mountain pass. a. Control. Control measures are planned in ( 8) Provide the defile target zone cooradvance and employed to insure successful pasdinator with adequate military police sage of a defile. The following control measures traffic control personnel, communicaand techniques are essential : tion equipment and personnel, en gineers and engineer equipment, (1) Establish the limits of the target wreckers, and security units. zone. This is actually a "vulnerability (9) Figure 25 depicts the control meas circle" encompassing a defile within ures described in ( 1) through ( 8) which forces may be subjected to the above. maximum effects of an enemy nuclear strike. b. Conduct of the Passage. (2) Designate defile target zone coordina( 1) Forces must move into, through, and tor. disperse beyond the target zone with ·I I TRAFFIC TRAFFIC TRAFFIC RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY ...•t------DEFILE TARGET ZONE COORDINATOR RESPONSIBILITY TRAFFIC HQ TRAFFIC HQ SCHEMATIC DEFILE AREA (FOR RETURN MOVEMENT> LEGEND #TRAFFIC CONTROL POINT Note. Not to scale. Figure 25. Control measures in defile operations. great speed. Responsibilities for traffic regulation and control must be defined clearly. Engineer support required to prepare the defile site for passage should be accomplished under conditions of reduced visibility or at night, when practicable. The defile target zone coordinator is completely responsible for planning, regulating, and controlling traffic into, through, and beyond the target zone. He establishes priorities for movement, schedule of movement, rates of march, size of march units, and input of traffic into the target zone. Traffic regulation must be enforced rigidly to insure smooth, constant flow and prevent disruption. (2) To assist the defile target coordinator, a traffic control headquarters is established and controls (a) Movement of traffic into holding areas on the near side of the target zone. (b) Movement from holding areas (if used) on the far side of the target zone. (c) Normal movement beyond holding areas on the far side of the target zone. (3) To insure rapid movement of traffic through the target zone, the defile target zone coordinator establishes traffic control points between the holding areas and the perimeter of the target zone, within the target zone, and beyond the target zone up to holding areas on the far side. Wreckers should be stationed at critical points along all routes, preferably near traffic control points, to be immediately available. The engineer must have at his immediate disposal equipment and materiel, located in equipment parks, necessary to reduce obstructions to free-moving traffic. Communication must be maintained among the defile target zone coordinator, wreckers, the traffic control points, the engineer at the defile site, the military police or other traffic control personnel, the traffic headquarters (at division level), and holding areas. c. Alternate Routes. In the planning for a passage of a defile, alternate routes must be designated. Alternate 1·outes should take advantage of concealed approaches to and through the target zone if possible. The negotiation of the defile by combat units should not be dependent exclusively on roads. All routes must be reconnoitered and made suitable for the anticipated volume of traffic. d. Deception. Adequate deception measures must be planned to further the success of the main defile passage operation. Dummy equipment should be placed at selected defile sites to deceive the enemy and cause him to expend nuclear weapons on this site. e. Retrograde Passages. The procedures established for the passage of a defile during the advance are equally applicable to retrograde movements. In fact, plans for a passage of a defile during the offense should encompass plans for a retrograde movement. f. Use of Aircraft. Aircraft may be used for airlifting certain troops, supplies, and equipment over or around the defile to reduce substantially the number of ground elements required to negotiate the target zone. g. Security. Security units should be provided the defile target zone coordinator as a ready force to eliminate enemy countermeasures. Security outside the target zone remains the responsibility of the commander concerned. However, security plans must be coordinated. h. Ground and Air Reconnaissance and Surveillance. In operations at a defile, reconnaissance and area surveillance are of utmost importance. It is imperative that the command be warned of the presence or approach of the enemy at the earliest possible moment and at the longest ranges possible. 357. Brigade-Level Passages Tactical considerations are shown in a and b below. a. Offense. When the brigade must pass through a defile, armored and air cavalry ele ments should precede the main body and reconnoiter the entire surrounding area. If the immediate area is clear, tanks and mechanized infantry are dispatched rapidly through the defile and establish a defense, securing enough maneuver room to permit the main body to emerge from the defile unhampered. If the area is defended, enough space must be seized for the main body to maneuver. b. Defense. The defense of a defile by the brigade may be conducted using several methods: (1) Positioned with flanks refused and protected by the obstacles forming the defile with the bulk of the force held in reserve behind the defile. Section VIII. OPERATIONS 359. General In an inland water crossing, the actual crossing is a means to extend the operation. The approach to the water obstacle is made rapidly on a broad front whenever possible. Mobile assault forces push forward quickly to catch the enemy astride the obstacle and to seize and secure crossing sites where the opposition appears weakest. Crossings of opportunity, such as captured bridges or fords, are the product of rapid offensive action. Once these crossing means are captured, they are checked for the presence of demolitions immediately after the lead elements have crossed. Air defense units should be immediately employed to protect the crossing means from enemy air attack. A crossing, however, is not predicated on the seizure of bridges or fords intact. In any case, assault units cross first to establish a bridgehead on the far bank to protect the crossing of the remainder of the command. Whenever possible, the plans for the crossing of every water obstacle which cannot be bypassed should be prepared well in advance by appropriate command echelons. Prior planning affords a greater opportunity to conduct a crossing with speed, surprise, less vulnerability to nuclear attack, and usually less risk. The material contained in this section may be applied to operations across canals, lakes, and rivers bridgeable by tactical bridging or passable with swimming or fording vehicles. See FM 31-60. For (2) Delaying action, with leading elements well forward of the defile to gain time and space for the main body to pass the defile and deploy for any action required. (3) Mobile defense, with all major elements of the division forward of the defile. 358. Battalion or Task Force Passages The procedures for battalion or task force passages are the same as described for the brigade (para 357). Normally, battalion-size forces can readily bypass a defile if it is other than a mountain pass or a similar type terrain obstacle. AT INLAND WATERWAYS the passage of inland water obstacles unbridgeable by tactical bridging or impassable by swimming or fording vehicles, see paragraphs 401 through 406 and FM 31-12. 360. Types of Crossings The types of crossings discussed in this paragraph are those special operations required when crossings of opportunity fail to materialize. a. The hasty crossing is the crossing of an inland waterway using crossing means at hand or readily available without significant delay when the waterway is reached. It is a preplanned operation which is conducted as a continuation of the operation which is underway (normally an attack). Although the crossing is termed hasty, detailed prior planning assures that fire support and crossing means are available to force commanders on arrival at the water obstacle. A hasty crossing is characterized by minimum loss of momentum at the water line, speed, surprise, minimum concentration of forces, and decentralization of control of specific crossing times for subordinate crossing forces. This type crossing is preferred by armor units. Hasty crossings are feasible when the crossing areas are lightly held by the enemy or are undefended and when mobile task forces are available to advance rapidly to the water line. b. A deliberate crossing is the crossing of a waterway that requires extensive planning and detailed preparations. It is characterized by detailed planning to support a selected course of action, deliberate preparation, the employment of specialized equipment, delay at the water line to mass for breaching enemy defenses, and the clearance of the near shore of enemy. The deliberate crossing is conducted when a unit is moving from a defense of the water obstacle to an offensive posture, a hasty crossing is not feasible, or a hasty crossing is unsuccessful. Overall planning and coordination are performed at corps or higher levels. Tank units that are not involved in the initial assault are normally kept in reserve and pass through the crossing area after the far shore has been neutralized. 361. Nature of a Crossing Operation Inland water crossing operations are different in many ways from other types of ground maneuvers. The primary differences are a. There is a greater requirement for special equipment and specially trained personnel. b. Command and control of units are more difficult because of space, traffic, communication restrictions, and the involvement of units of many arms and services. c. Ability to maneuver and deliver effective supporting fires may be restricted, particularly if amphibious vehicles and close support aircraft are not available or nuclear weapons are not employed. d. Once forces and equipment are committed to the assault, withdrawal or deviation from the plan of action for the initial assault is extremely difficult. e. The operation is more vulnerable to enemy air attack than most other ground maneuvers. 362. Crossing Means All available means are used to cross the maximum number of troops and items of equipment in the shortest possible time. The means organic to armor units are the armored personnel carrier, the armored command and reconnaissance carrier, the armored reconnaissance/airborne assault vehicle, and the 155mm self-propelled howitzer, all of which have a swimming capability; the main battle tank with appropriate kit has a deep fording capability; and aircraft. In addition, supporting engineers may furnish or construct such additional crossing means as rafts, ferries, bridges, mobile assault bridges, and assault boats. Amphibious vehicles and aircraft may supplement the carrying capacity of rafts and bridges by transporting high priority items. 363. Timing of the Crossing The decision to cross in daylight or darkness depends on the need for concealment, state of training of troops, nature of the terrain, characteristics of the water obstacle, enemy disposition and capabilities (use of minefields on far bank, capability to mount air and/or tank attacks) and the need for speed. Specific actions that must be timed carefully to insure the success of the crossing are a. Movement of assaulting troops into attack positions as required. b. Movement of reserve elements into assembly areas. c. Movement of engineer assault crossing craft and bridging equipment into equipment parks. d. Establishment of forward dumps of ammunition, gasoline, and high priority supplies. e. Use of smoke (if required). f. Feints, demonstrations, and other deceptive measures. g. Preparatory fires. h. Artificial illumination (if required). i. Loading and departure of transport aircraft. 364. Desirable Crossing Site Characteristics In the selection of crossing fronts, crossing areas, and crossing sites, both the technical and tactical requirements must be considered and evaluated. The crossing should be planned on a wide front with several attacks at separated localities to deny the defender the capability of massing his fires or his counterattack on more than one of these localities. The following desirable site characteristics are sought in river-crossing operations: a. Assault crossing site should include (1) A shoreline held lightly or undefended by the enemy. (2) Ready access to a good avenue of approach to objectives on the far shore. (3) Dominating ground on near shore for artillery observation and for support by direct fire. ( 4) In nonnuclear war, a bend in the water toward the attacker (reentrant) of such size and configuration that it favors the concentration of the crossing (assaulting) force and denies the enemy effective direct fire on the crossing site. Such configuration assists in denial of the far bank to the enemy by conventional direct and indirect supporting fires. (5) Covered approaches to the river. (6) Existing routes leading to sites capable of handling vehicular traffic or easily constructed access routes from existing road net to the site. (7) Moderate current. (8) Unobstructed water area. (9) Suitable banks requiring m1mmum preparation for entry and exit of amphibious and fording vehicles. (10) Straight stretch of river avoiding sharp bends where current is accelerated (if situation described in ( 4) above is not available). (11) An area suitable for a raft site. (12) Bed composition and water depth that will permit deep waterfording. (13) Landing zones on near and far bank adequate for airmobile operations if required. b. In addition to the above characteristics, the following characteristics are also desired for the type site indicated: ( 1) Amphibious vehicle crossing site. (a) Stream current less than the water speed of the vehicle ( 0 to 1.5 meters per second). (b) Gentle gradient with a firm bottom for entering and leaving the water. (c) Landing places wide enough to allow vehicles to land even though subjected to the lateral force of the stream current. (2) Raft or ferry sites. (a) Short, easily constructed, access and egress roads from existing road net to and from the site. (b) A gentle current near each bank. (c) Streambed free from ledges, rocks, shoals, islands, sandbars, and other obstructions that would prevent or hinder crossings. (d) Banks not so high or steep as to require excessive grading for approach. The water close to the bank should be deep enough to float a loaded raft or ferry without grounding. (e) Cover and concealment on both shores for vehicles or personnel waiting to be loaded or unloaded. (3) Floating bridge. (a) Short, easily constructed approach roads to existing road nets on both shores. (b) Firm stream banks. (c) Moderate stream current generally parallel to the banks (0 to 1.5 meters per second). (d) Stream bottoms in which anchors will hold but not foul. 365. Preliminary Selection of Crossing Areas Unless a quickly repairable or intact bridge is opportunely seized, crossing areas must be reconnoitered and selected. During the advance, it is usually not feasible to determine the exact location of each crossing site. Nevertheless, during planning ·stages, information pertinent to the general crossing areas is collected and analyzed to determine likely crossing sites and to guide further reconnaissance. Available sources of information include a. Maps, charts, and hydrographic information developed at division and higher headquarters. b. Prisoners of war, line crossers, and captured documents. c. Local inhabitants and friendly irregular forces. d. Long range reconnaissance patrols and aerial reconnaissance. e. Terrain studies (both civil and military). 366. Reconnaissance of Crossing Sites (2) Reconnaissance will be performed by organic scout sections of armor units. a. General. In general, the purpose of on-site Because of the complex nature ofreconnaissance is to locate, report, and mark water crossings, it will be normal forsuitable crossing sites. This includes determinengineers to supplement armor uniting the amount and type of enemy resistance; reconnaissance teams. If insufficient.determining information concerning those reconnaissance personnel are presentitems appropriate to the site as enumerated in in the crossing area, additional teamsparagraph 364; accomplishing the marking of should be immediately requested andapproaches and crossing sites with flags, entransported to the area by the fastestgineer tape, ropes, and buoys; and the inspecavailable means. tion of captured bridges and abutments for immediate use and for mines or demolitions. (3) When underwater reconnaissance is necessary to reconnoiter routes forOn-site reconnaissance may be conducted fording armored vehicles, qualified under enemy observation and fire; therefore, speed is essential to avert casualties and to personnel, trained in underwater avoid divulgence of the operational plan to the techniques to include the determi nation of stream bottom characterisenemy. Information obtained by reconnais 1 sance parties is reported to the commander as tics and the recognition and marking , quickly as possible. Based on the information of water obstacles, should be requested if not provided. received, crossing plans are changed as re quired. Final selection of the actual crossing d. Reconnaissance at the Crossing Site. Re sites is based on the desired characteristics of connaissance at the crossing site determines crossing sites as listed in paragraph 364, the the presence or conditions of the following: tactical situation, and the analysis of informa ( 1) Obstacles. Obstacles includetion collected by all reconnaissance means. (a) Vertical banks. b. Reconnaissance Means. A map reconnais (b) Mines and boobytraps at entrancesance reveals only the superficial character of and exit sites. Mines in the channelthe water obstacle. Up-to-date aerial reconnaisattached to submerged and floatingsance and photography, radar observations, obstacles. and infrared imagery provide armor unit commanders with information of shorelines (c) Debris and floating obstacles such and crossing conditions. The photogrammetry as large quantities of logs and method of interpretation of aerial and infrared brush, floating poles with heavy wire attached for fouling propellers photography may reveal soil type in banks, approaches, and streambed; approximate current and suspension systems, and ice which may cause major damage to velocity and depth; possible shallow fording sites and submerged obstacles; and areas the conning towers of deep fording vehicles and may interfere with the where favorable bank gradients are to be track or trim vanes of an amphibi found. Most important to the armor unit com mander, however, is the result of on-site physious vehicle. cal reconnaissance with respect to entrances (2) Current. and exits, stream velocities, streambed condi ( n) The maximum current in whichtions, and depths for vehicle swimming and amphibious vehicles can be operatfording operations. ed safely depends on such factors c. Reconnnissance Personnel. as the choppiness of the water, the ( 1) Personnel conducting on-site reconamount of debris or ice in the water, and the maximum accepta naissance missions will be briefed by intelligence staff members and guided ble drift distance. When the cur rent is greater than 6.5 kilometers by the essential elements of information (EEl) which is a part of the per hour, particular attention must be given to drift distance, balance operation order. 186 of load, entry into the water, and ability of drivers. A simple way to determine the speed of current is to use a floating device over a measured distance. Measure a distance of at least 30 meters along the near bank; designate the upper end as point A and the lower end point B. At point A throw any object that will float, such as a piece of wood or cork, into the fastest part of the current. Determine the time it takes the floating object to move from point A to point B (:fig. 26). Dividing the distance in meters by the time in seconds gives the current speed in meters per second. For example, if it takes 20 seconds for the object to float 30 meters, the speed of the current is 1.5 meters per second. This must then be converted to kilometers per hour by multiplying meters per second by 3.6. At least two tests should be made, the average time being used to determine §lJIRECTION OF-_ ~CURRENT ~--------- ,DIRECTION ~-OF --;::: -=-::-::----____--;0: CRQ?SING ~ PATH OFO:::: FLOAT ~;::::::;::= = Figure 26. Float timing device over a measured distance. the speed of the current in meters per second. (b) A sluggish stream or river may become a torrent in a few hours or even minutes as a result· of sudden heavy rainfall. This is more likely to happen in tropical and arid regions. Currents must be checked at frequent intervals to provide warning of such changes. (c) Currents may vary in different parts of a stream. The current is usually slowest near the shore and fastest in the main channel, slower where the stream widens, and faster where it narrows. (3) Entrances and exits. (a) Gently sloping entrances and exits are desirable for inland water crossing. The most common way to express slope is in percent (:fig. 27). Thus, a 1 percent slope rises or descends 1 unit in a horizontal distance of 100 units; a 10 percent slope rises or descends 10 feet in 100 feet, or 10 meters in 100 meters. The formula for percent slope is- Vertical Distance Horizontal Distance X 100 = Slope in Percent (Note: Distances must be in same units of measure.) (b) Vehicle characteristics must be considered during the reconnaissance to select entrances and exits that may be negotiated. Characteristics of the M113, armored personnel carrier, and the M114, armored command and reconnaissance vehicle, are as follows: 1. For known gradual slopes, the +10 percent _ ~ ~~ ------:=-::z::::±:::~~~ 100FT. HORIZONTAL t------DISTANCE ---- Figure 27. Expression of percent of slope. M113 enters the water slowly (approximately three kilometers per hour). When the slope is steep (over 20 percent), the underwater slope is not known, or the river is bordered by low vertical banks, the M113 makes safe entries up to 18 KMPH. Vertical banks must be approached rapidly enough to permit jumping the vehicle overboard. The water must be deep enough to float the vehicle (to prevent damage to suspension system), and it must be surveyed for obstacles both above and below the water line. For entries where there is doubt as to the configuration of the underwater slope, the rapid entry is safest to prevent possible swamping of the vehicle. When the M113 enters it may go under completely, but it will come up immediately (provided the trim vane is secure and all other conditions for swimming have been checked) whereas slow entry off a similar slppe may cause the vehicle to take too much water through the engine compartment grills. 2. The M113 can leave the water or banks with average traction up a slope of 30 percent. Under better tractive conditions, higher slopes are negotiable. The number of vehicles that can go up the 30 percent bank at the same location depends on vegetation, gravel content of soil, and whether track pads have been removed. 3. The M114 can make safe entries up to 32 kilometers per hour. A rapid entry is the safest way to enter deep water when the bank slopes steeply below the water line. This vehicle normally does not submerge completely when entering the water, although water may splash over all of it. The best entry speed is about 12 kilometers per hour. 4. The M114 leaves the water in the same manner as the M113; however, it will not negotiate as steep a slope as the M113. It does not have as an efficient angle of approach. 5. Vehicle maximum grade capabilities are found in TM 9-500; however, the composition and condition of the soil at the entrances and exits may reduce these capabilities. (4) Determining landing point on the far bank for armored amphibious vehicles. (a) For stream flow velocities less than three kilometers per hour, the swimming vehicles may go straight across. For water flow velocities exceeding three kilometers per hour and less than six kilometers per hour, the vehicle will drift down stream with the current. (b) When the speed of the current and the water speed of the vehicle are the same, the vehicle drifts downstream one meter for each meter it moves forward. When the speed of the current is twice that of the vehicle, the carrier moves two meters downstream for each meter it moves forward. (c) A simple formula for estimating the landing point on the far bank is- STREAM VELOCITY (KMPH) --------------X DISTANCE ACROSS THE WATER (METERS) = WATER SPEED OF VEHICLE (KMPH) DISTANCE OF DOWNSTREAM DRIFT (METERS) For example, in theory a vehicle traveling at six kilometers per hour in a stream that has a current speed of six kilometers per hour and is 100 meters across will land 100 meters downstream from the point where it entered the water. Since there is an unknown component of the vehicle speed moving the vehicle, the landing point will be more than 100 meters downstream (fig. 28). This formula gives a rough estimate of the landing point. An additional distance downstream will always be required because of the downstream component of the vehicle's speed (in addition to stream speed), consequently, the only satisfactory means to determine the exact landing point is a trial crossing. (d) Maximum water speeds of vehicles are found in appropriate operator and technical manuals. FAR BANK E 0 0 - ~ c( a.: DIRECTION OF CURRENT "" .,.... .... CURRENT (6 KMPH) 0 ::1: .... 0 i (5) Streambed and depth. For fording operations, the depth of the water obstacle and the bottom conditions must be determined. Field expedients are used for determining depths since there are no mechanical devices organic to armor units. These include measured poles, weighted measured ropes, and similar devices. Depth readings should be taken every nine feet. Bottom conditions are determined by getting into the water and checking the stability and composition of the bed. If the water is shallow, this can be accomplished by wading across the obstacle. In deeper water, underwater reconnaissance personnel or other means will have to be used to determine bottom conditions. e. Underwater Reconnaissance. (1) If underwater reconnaissance personnel are provided, they are utilized to ~SMALL ANGLE IN DIRECTION OF CURRENT ENTRANCE (NEAR BANK) (BOW OF APC HEADED AT SMALL ANGLE DOWNSTREAM) Figure 28. Downstream drift in a stream crossing. select, reconnoiter, mark, and assist ficial light may be used to reconin the improvement of fording sites noiter the bottom. Searchlights and for deep fording operations. Underflares can be used in addition to wawater reconnaissance teams are terproof lights used by the swimmers. usually formed and may include orIn absolute darkness, or when the ganic personnel and those from supwater is murky, reconnaissance is porting engineer units. Subsequent much slower since swimmers must paragraphs provide guidance for the swim to the bottom, feeling their way employment of underwater reconnaisacross. sance personnel when they are pro( 5) The length of time that underwatervided. reconnaissance personnel can remain (2) When the water obstacle is narrow, in the water will depend on the curunderwater reconnaissance personnel rent, water temperature, and equipmay enter from the near bank and ment. When conducting a reconnaisconduct their reconnaissance by swimsance in any current, the swimmer ming to the far bank. When the will expend more energy, tire more distance between banks will not pereasily, and use his air supply quicker mit this, M114's Ml13's will enter the than when working in calm water. In water when an entrance has been sewater temperatures between 70 and lected and drop teams off at regular 85° F, divers can work comfortably intervals. Vehicles will remain in the in their underwear but will chill in water during reconnaissance and pick one to two hours while resting in up swimmers when the operation is water. In temperatures above 85° F, completed unless the area is under enthe diver will overheat and the maxiemy fire. If the area is under heavy mum temperature that can be enfire, divers will swim to the friendly dured, even at rest, is 96° F. Protecshore or, if on the far side of a wide tion is usually needed when the water obstacle, they will signal when ready temperature is below 70° F, and in to be picked up. To reduce the possicold water, sense of touch and ability bility of injury, swimmers are reto use the hands are affected. Air mounted over the front slope with the tanks vary in size. The size used and vehicle tracks locked. the working conditions will govern how long a person can operate on a (3) To assist the underwater reconnais set of air tanks. Extra tanks shouldsance team in maintaining direction, be readily available to the underwaterweighted ropes can be placed across reconnaissance teams; and when tanks the bottom of the water obstacle. are emptied, they should be immediBuoys or other floating obstacles are ately recharged. Recharging equipattached to these ropes to indicate the ment should be located so as to bearea of responsibility of each team. responsive to team requirements. Where the current is in excess of about 1.3 meters per second, under 367. Conduct of Inland Water Crossings water reconnaissance personnel will have difficulty maintaining a position a. General. During the movement to the along the line selected. Another water obstacle, the armor unit commander deweighted rope, parallel to the direcploys his force with the necessary means readitional rope, is placed upstream with ly available for the anticipated crossing. He lines connecting these ropes to assist advances on a broad front as rapidly as possithe swimmer. ble in an attempt to seize bridges intact before ( 4) During periods of good visibility and the enemy can destroy them. This is the most when the water is clear, bottom condieconomical means of crossing a water obstacle tions can be easily determined. Arti-and should be attempted whenever possible. 190 The advance guard will clear the near bank of defending or delaying enemy elements. Additionally, as a part of the advance guard, armor reconnaissance personnel and, when available, engineer reconnaissance personnel will immediately commence reconnaissance of the crossing area. Air cavalry units may be used in conjunction with surface operations to great advantage. Simultaneously, air landed units on the far shore may neutralize enemy defenses. Supporting engineers and river crossing equipment (to include AVLB's) as well as supporting fires should be so located in the column to provide rapid response to assist in bridge repair or crossings. Often, a partly demolished bridge can be repaired quickly by supporting engineers or by the emplacement of A VLB's across demolished spans. b. Conduct of Physical Reconnaissance. ( 1) The physical reconnaissance and selection of crossing sites begin as soon as the near bank has been secured. Air cavalry, artillery and tank fires, and smoke are employed to prevent the enemy on the far bank from firing on friendly troops in the crossing area. (2) If the situation permits and there are sufficient personnel, entrance, underwater, and exit reconnaissance are conducted simultaneously. Reconnaissance teams report applicable items shown in paragraphs 364 and 366. In addition, an estimate of work required to improve the water obstacle banks is reported. Water obstacle banks can often be improved by use of pioneer tools, bulldozers, combat engineer vehicles, and tank dozers. Small underwater. obstacles can also be removed by tank dozers or combat engineer vehicles. Corduroying (laying logs) can improve entrances and exits. When engineer reconnaissance personnel have determined that they cannot remove or destroy obstacles or minefields, or if the banks require improvement, supporting engineer personnel may be airlifted into the area to assist them. If supporting personnel are not immediately available, it may be necessary to change the order of crossing or select a different crossing site. (3) Based on the information obtained from reconnaissance, the officer in charge selects entrances, lanes, and exits and has them marked in accordance with the unit SOP. Entrances and exits can be marked with flags, engineer tape, poles, or luminous markers. Crossing lanes can be marked with any floating object that is moored and easily identifiable. These include buoys, plastic inflatable markers, painted canteens, and wooden blocks. c. Precrossing Considerations. While reconnaissance is being conducted, the crossing units prepare equipment for crossing. The armor unit commander selects an assembly area where equipment is checked before entering the water. This area should afford protection from observation from the far bank. Where deep fording is possible, consideration must be given to routes from this area to the crossing site for tanks that have the underwater fording kit installed. These routes must be free of obstacles that will restrict movement or damage fording kits. The commander must determine the position of the gun tube during deep fording. This will be based on the urgency of delivering fire upon emerging from the water. When the gun tube is to the rear, there is less chance of damage by collision and the driver can more easily escape through the turret and conning tower in the event the tank is completely immobilized under water. d. Movement to the Water. The movement to the water obstacle is so timed that the crossing unit does not pause on the friendly side but moves directly into the water. The total elapsed time between approach to the water obstacle and the crossing must be held to a minimum to insure success. Once started, the crossing is completed as rapidly as possible. e. Formation and Priority of Crossing. (1) The mission, number of entrances and exits, and the number of vehicles to cross are the most important factors in determining the formation and priority for crossings. When the water is shallow and has no obstacles, and when the banks permit, tanks will ford in a line formation. When deep fording is feasible, tanks will cross in platoon column formationwhere possible, one platoon to a crossing site. (2) Crossing of amphibious vehicles should be accomplished in waves, preferably formed by platoon, each in line formation; echelon formation should be used where there is a current. In an echelon formation, the vehicles move out in successive order starting with the vehicle farthest downstream proceeding to the vehicle farthest upstream. This formation insures that upstream vehicles do not drift into downstream vehicles. When tanks and amphibious vehicles cross simultaneously, extreme caution must be taken to prevent collision. To avoid I X ,----. FLOATING BRIDGE SITE X I collision, amphibious vehicles should cross downstream from tanks (fig. 29). (3) If the commander has been unable to place troops on the far bank during the reconnaissance phase, it may be necessary to move M114's and Ml13's to the far bank while the tanks provide direct fire support. Vehicular mounted weapons can be fired while swimming. If the Ml14's and Ml13's cannot exit because of steep banks, personnel can exit from the top hatch while the vehicle is held close to the bank. If conditions require that the driver operate the vehicle with his hatch closed, one man will remain with the vehicle to assist the driver in returning to the near shore. Dismounted personnel then continue the reconnaissance and improvement of exits. Additional personnel and equip- I X I AS SAUL CROSSING SITE (AMPH VEH) I I NOTE: SYMBOLS MAY BE USED IN COMBINATION TO DENOTE TYPE CROSSING SITE; SUCH AS • FOR AN ASSAULT CROSSING, A RAFT AND FLOATING BRIDGE SITE, OR ~&~ FOR AN ASSAULT CROSSING AND RAFT SITE. Figure 29. Schematic of a brigade in a river crossing. ment may be ferried by M113's to secure and expand the bridgehead. Air cavalry units and other aviation and airmobile units are utilized to assist in securing and expanding the bridgehead and ferrying personnel and equipment. When fording is not possible and when the necessary tactical amphibious vehicles of the unit cross the obstacle and the far shore is cleared of enemy small arms fire, bridges or rafts are erected and the remammg personnel and vehicles cross. Priority is given to tanks. Air defense weapons are moved across early in the operation to protect the expanding bridgehead from air attack. (4) Ferrying operations and amphibious vehicles that have to recross the water obstacle by swimming, as in the case of ambulances, messenger vehicles, and supply vehicles, will require entrances and exits for one-way passage. This will avoid traffic congestion and confusion created by oncoming vehicles at the original crossing sites. For traffic procedures that govern traffic of amphibious vehicles while waterborne, see paragraph 370. (5) Forces securing the near bank should be relieved as soon as possible and join their unit. (6) In nuclear warfare, overconcentration of troops in the bridgehead area must be avoided to avoid presenting a lu~rative target. f. Fire Support. Maximum fire support is brought to bear against known and suspected enemy positions on the far shore. Smoke is often employed, particularly on the flanks, to screen the reconnaissance and crossing. When tanks support by direct fire, arrangements must be made for control of fires. Extra ammunition must be made available to units to insure that they have a complete load when they cross. To increase and to extend the range of the firepower in the bridgehead, amphibious self-propelled mortars and artillery are crossed as soon as possible. g. Expansion and Exploitation of a Bridgehead. ( 1) When units reach the far shore, the supporting fires should either be lifted or shifted to deeper targets. (2) Any bridgehead must be quickly expanded and secured to protect the crossing site and permit assembly of forces in the bridgehead area. The initial security and expansion of the bridgehead will be accomplished by units that have the capability of crossing rapidly with little or no preparation. Armored cavalry, air cavalry, airmobile forces, and mechanized infantry units have this capability. When planning crossing operations, commanders must consider the placement of these units in the formation. (3) The tactical situation will decide how far the units on the far shore will advance. Units must be prepared for enemy counterattacks or to continue the mission on order. h. Limited visibility. ( 1) To achieve surprise or deception, it may be desirable to conduct crossings under blackout conditions. Such crossings differ from daylight crossings in that more stringent control and coordination are required to prevent overconcentration of vehicles at entrances and exits and to prevent accidents while crossing. The amount of natural light and availability of night vision devices must be considered when planning a blackout crossing. (2) During crossings at night or periods of limited visibility, entrances and exits must be marked by lights or other means that permit detection by the driver or vehicle commander. Reference points on the far shore must be readily identifiable or illuminated in some manner to assist in maintaining direction. Illumination aids may be vehicle lights, tank-mounted searchlights, flashlights, aiming post night lights, chemiluminescent compounds, and weapons fires. The devices used will depend on the equipment available and the tactical situation. As an additional navigational aid, lighted or illuminated floating markers may be used to mark lanes. These markers may be locally fabricated or may be those described in FM 55-15. Aids used during night crossings must not affect the vision of the driver or vehicle commander. i. Attachments. Armor units take advantage of their speed, mobility, and amphibious and deep fording capabilities to seize bridges intact or to force hasty crossings against light or poorly organized defenses, with or without the assistance of mechanized infantry and engineers. When attached, mechanized infantry and engineers closely follow the leading tanks. Engineers remove or neutralize any demolitions or mines found on bridges, on abutments or approaches, or at the crossing sites; and the mechanized infantry assist in seizing and defending the bridges or sites. Organic personnel, augmented by engineers when required, conduct the crossing reconnaissance. When a crossing site must be improved before tanks can cross, mechanized infantry may have toestablish a bridgehead on the far bank to protect crossing operations. j. Capabilities of Supporting Engineers. (1) Engineers can support the crossing operation by ( a) Improving entrances and exits. (b) Removing mines and obstacles. (c) Conducting or assisting in underwater reconnaissance. (d) Providing assault boats, rafts, ferries, and bridging. (2) In crossing operations, additional engineer support may be furnished by corps and army engineer units. This applies particularly in deliberate crossing operations. ( 3) The mobile assault bridge can be employed rapidly and will provide rafts or a floating bridge as required. (4) Bridging equipment may be fabricated in the rear area and delivered by aircraft to the work parties at the shoreline. k. Crossings During Cold Weather. (1) Crossings during cold weather, especially under freezing conditions, are hazardous and time consuming. Conning towers, antennas, and waterproofing equipment are vulnerable to damage by heavy drifting ice; also bilge pumps and linkage systems may freeze. Rescue and recovery operations are more difficult. Safety of underwater reconnaissance personnel, when provided, receives additional attention during these crossings. (2) When ice thickness permits crossings of tanks and heavy vehicles, the river or lake is not an obstacle. However, a reconnaissance is necessary to determine that the ice will support vehicles that are to cross. The banks may require improvement to permit entrance and exit. Ice may be reinforced by adding timber treads or other load distributing devices. Data on carrying capacity of ice and intervals and distances between vehicles are found in TM's 21-306 and 5-349. Entrances, exits, and lanes are marked in accordance with unit SOP. (3) When ice conditions do not permit crossing by vehicles and there are no bridges or rafts available, clearing the ice may be quicker and more economical than reinforcing it. Personnel are placed on the far bank, by walking across the ice if thickness permits or by air vehicle, to secure the area and to reconnoiter and prepare exit sites. Reconnaissance personnel on the near bank select and prepare entrances and determine where to place explosives to clear lanes through the ice. When more than one lane is to be cleared the distances between lanes ' must be sufficient to prevent the ice between lanes from drifting and closing other lanes or damaging vehicles. After blasting, M114's and M113's will move into the water to clear the lanes of loose and drifting ice. Amphibious vehicles should not be used to break ice as swamping may occur. (4) Warming tents must be provided for personnel, and if possible, for the waterproofing equipment. The equipment is more manageable when handled in a warming tent. ( 5) During the crossing, ruts will develop at entrances and exits and may require bulldozing. Consideration must be given to placing tank mounted dozers and combat engineer vehicles in the formation so that they will be available for this task. Upon exiting, waterproofing equipment and kits must be immediately removed to prevent their freezing in place and seriously hampering the operation of the vehicle. Ice will form on optical de~ vices if they are not immediately cleaned. Steering linkage and engine compartments must be checked to insure that controls do not freeze. l. Recovery. ( 1) During all water crossing operations that involve swimming or fording of vehicles, maintenance personnel and equipment should be located near the crossing site to assist in the recovery of stalled or sunken vehicles. This applies especially during crossings in cold weather. If a tank is completely immobilized and flooded while deep water fording, the crew will evacuate immediately. M113's and Mll4's can be used to pick up crews which have abandoned immobilized vehicles. The controls of the stalled tank will be placed in neutral before the driver evacuates. Recovery operations begin as soon as the tactical situation permits. When provided, underwater reconnaissance personnel may be used to attach cables to the stalled tank after which it is pulled or winched from the water. In all fording operations, preparation of fording vehicles for possible recovery is essential. (2) When available and the situation permits, engineer personnel in boats may be used during crossings to recover personnel and assist in the recovery of vehicles. Helicopters also may be used to recover personnel. (3) If a swimming vehicle misses the landing area, the driver will attempt to bring it to shore as quickly as possible. If the vehicle cannot be landed, it should be evacuated. Helicopters can evacuate personnel while the vehicle is moving: Care must be exercised when using Mll3's or M114's as recovery vehicles. Control of the recovery vehicle is difficult and serious injuries or accidents may occur. It may be safer for personnel to get into the water before being picked up. Personnel should evacuate a vehicle from the upstream side to prevent the vehicle from drifting into them. m. Control. To assist in the control of units during a crossing, crossing control officers are designated. They assist the commander in maintaining an uninterrupted, orderly movement into the water. Congestion must be avoided at entrances and exits. Should an exit become blocked or unusable, vehicles in the water will form a circle and continue to swim if stream velocity and water traffic conditions permit. Tanks will halt with engines running and brakes set. Each crossing unit will maintain contact with the crossing control officer. · n. Use of Radar. Radars placed on the near bank may determine the progress of friendly units on the far bank. During periods of limited visibility, or when smoke is used by friendly forces engaged in a crossing, radar may be used to detect enemy troop activity on the far bank including withdrawal, reinforcement, or shifting of units. 368. Employment of Tanks in Inland Water Crossing a. General. In se1zmg a bridgehead and crossing a water obstacle, tanks participate usually as part of a combined arms team. The team advances with speed and violence, attempting to seize bridges intact and make a rapid crossing. The lack of bridges will not prevent tanks and attached infantry from making a crossing. With the inherent swim capability of Mll3's and the deep fording capability of tanks, armor and mechanized infantry units need not wait for bridges or rafts to be constructed to cross water obstacles where suitable streambed, depth, current, and entry and exit conditions are available. As opposed to the bridging method for crossing, the swimming and fording methods have definite advantages of less time to prepare for the crossing and considerably less accompanying equipment to install or erect. b. Movement to the Water Obstacle. The commander will determine the number of crossing sites required once a crossing area has been selected. The advance guard should be far enough in front of the main body so that it can report to the commander in sufficient time for him to determine whether the main body will be able to cross without stopping or if preparations are required which will necessitate moving into a precrossing assembly area. c. Reconnaissance. When the tactical situation permits or as soon as the near bank is secure, entrance and water reconnaissance begin. The number ·of crossing sites desired or the difficulty of the area may require attachment of additional personnel to augment the underwater reconnaissance capability of the unit that is designated to secure the near bank and conduct the reconnaissance. Personnel are placed on the far bank as soon as possible to secure it and conduct the exit reconnaissance. Tank elements of the advance guard support the operation by direct fire. Entrances, lanes, and exits are marked in accordance with the unit SOP. d. Crossing. ( 1) When reconnaissance has determined that tanks can cross the water without preparation, units will not halt but will move into and across the water, secure the bridgehead, and be prepared to continue the mission. (2) When deep water fording preparations are required, the units will move into a preparation assembly area. Once preparations have been completed, units move from the area to the crossing site without stopping. The crossing is completed as quickly as possible. Fording equipment that will hamper operations of vehicles is re moved immediately. The first units crossing will jettison conning towers and continue their mission. This equipment will be recovered, disassembled, and stored in the bridgehead by designated supporting personnel and returned to the unit on the first available transportation. Subsequent units will remove and disassemble fording equipment and secure it to the vehicles. Once the bridgehead is secured, units that supported the operation by direct fire begin preparations for crossing and cross as soon as possible. The assault unit then continues its mission. Forces left to secure the bridgehead area must be relieved as soon as possible and join their units. e. Fire Support. All available fire support is used against known and suspected enemy positions on the far shore. Fires are lifted or shifted as the bridgehead is expanded. This includes direct fires provided by tanks. When tanks are employed in a direct fire role, they must be supplied with ammunition in excess of their normal load so that when they cross the water obstacle they will have a full load of ammunition. Supporting artillery and mortars that are capable of being airlifted or swimming displace to the far bank as soon as the bridgehead has been expanded and the crossing unit is capable of continuing the mission. Air defense artillery units will support the crossing operation by protecting the crossing site from air attack and by providing continuous air defense to the expanding bridgehead. ADA units attached to armor units must be prepared to continue the attack beyond the bridgehead when ordered. f. Other Support. Air cavalry units will support the crossing operation by placing personnel on the far shore to reconnoiter and secure crossing sites. They will also provide fire support against positions on the far shore or against deeper targets that can affect the crossing. During the securing and expansion of the bridgehead, they extend the reconnaissance means of the ground unit and take under fire enemy units forming for a counterattack. 369. Employment of Armored Cavalry in Inland Water Crossing a. Armored cavalry units are well suited for inland water crossing operations since all organic combat vehicles are capable of swimming or fording, and the units have an organic air capability of rapidly placing ground troops on the far bank. However, to assist the swimming and fording capabilities of these units, underwater reconnaissance personnel should be made available. b. Once a crossing area has been selected, the commander will determine the number of crossing sites. Leading units in the approach to the water obstacle determine enemy strength and dispositions and locate crossing sites. The initial objective is to eliminate enemy emplacements which are defending the near bank. When available, underwater reconnaissance personnel will be part of the force used in the approach to the water obstacle. c. Against lightly or poorly defended water obstacles, rifle squads and air cavalry units will move across the obstacle and secure the far shore. Air cavalry units will first concentrate on the enemy on the far shore and then shift to deeper targets which might affect the bridgehead. Tanks and AR/AA V's will support the reconnaissance and bridgehead operations by direct fire. If tanks require fording kits, installation will be accomplished in an area that affords protection from observation on the far bank. Routes from this area to the crossing sites must be free of obstacles that will damage the fording kits. Organic and supporting artillery will support the operations by indirect fire engaging targets on the far shore and shifting to deeper targets as the bridgehead is secured and expanded. Artillery positions are located as far forward as possible to exploit the range of the weapons; however, they must not interfere with the movement of units conducting the crossing. Direct support artillery will begin to displace to the far bank as soon as the assault units have eliminated resistance in the bridgehead and have occupied positions that will deny the enemy direct fire on the crossing area. Displacement will be by echelon to insure continuous support. The size of the supporting unit and number of crossing sites will determine the size unit that will displace. Once crossed, direct support artillery will occupy positions that provide the assault force with maximum fire support for continuing the mission. d. When the water obstacle is not defended and is capable of being crossed with little or no site or vehicular preparation, the formation need not be changed and the unit can move rapidly into the water, cross the obstacle, and continue the mission without loss of momentum. Armored cavalry units with organic or attached main battle tank units leading the formation need not halt at a water obstacle that requires installation of kits before fording. Armored cavalry troops should pass through the tank units, cross the water obstacle, secure the bridgehead and continue the forward movement while tanks are preparing for deep water fording. If, after crossing, enemy resistance prevents the armored cavalry units from advancing, the cavalry elements secure the bridgehead and wait for the tank units to complete their crossing, move forward, reduce the resistance, and continue the advance. While waiting-for the tanks to complete their crossing, every effort must be made to destroy the enemy and continue the advance. This includes using organic and supporting mortar and artillery fires and air cavalry units. 370. Waterborne Driving Procedures for Armored Amphibious Vehicles a. When armored amphibious vehicles have to be driven slowly into the water (less than 8 KMPH) because of obstacles, the driver must be prepared to accelerate the engine rapidly if the front end of the vehicle should suddenly enter deep water. b. When exiting from the water, the vehicle should start up the bank at a constant speed never allowing excessive track slippage. Once traction is lost, the tracks will dig in and the vehicle will stall or the vehicle will slide in the water. c. All swimming vehicles should avoid obstacles in the water where possible. When encountering an obstruction, the engine speed should be reduced quickly and both steering brakes applied. The driver should back off the obstacle rather than attempt to cross over it. When clear; the vehicle is allowed to drift below the obstacle, forward power is applied, and the vehicle continues to cross. d. To minimize the danger of capsizing when a vehicle encounters an obstacle broadside while drifting, the driver should turn the nose of the vehicle slightly in the direction that the water flows (fig. 28). This will cause the vehicle to slide by such obstacles or strike the obstacle with the front of the vehicle. e. When it is evident that an Mll3 or Mll4 is sinking, all hatches should be opened and the crew should move to the top of the vehicle. The driver should attempt to complete the crossing since a vehicle underway may complete the crossing or be close enough to the bank to easily recover. The crew should abandon the vehicle prior to its sinking since the vehicle does not provide an air pocket to breathe in after it sinks. Escape by an entire rifle squad from an Mll3 under these conditions is unlikely. Section. IX. OPERATIONS 371. Attack Against Fortified Positions· a. General. The attack of a fortified area is made by a combined-arms assault force · consisting of tanks, mechanized infantry, field artillery, engineers, air cavalry, and tactical air when available. Special items of equipment and ammunition may be required. FM 31-50 covers in detail the attack of fortifications. b. Planning of Attack. (1) Reconnaissance of fortified positions. A thorough estimate of the situation and detailed plans and orders are essential in an attack against a fortified position. The estimate is based on an extensive reconnaissance. The reconnaissance starts with a preliminary map and airphoto study, after which all commanders make extensive personal reconnaissance. Observation posts, patrols, interrogation of civilians, tactical air, and army aircraft are used to gain information. The reconnaissance seeks information on ( a) Location of fortifications, such as pillboxes. (b) Location of obstacles, such as minefields, wire, and trenches. f. To avoid collisions, the . following procedures will govern amphibious vehicles while waterborne. ( 1) When two vehicles approach each other head on, each should turn to the right and pass the other vehicle on its left side. The turn should be started soon enough for each driver to be sure of what the other intends to do. ( 2) When one vehicle overtakes another (this is not normal, but may happen when one vehicle is having trouble), it may pass the slower vehicle on either side, provided there is ample space. However, the vehicle being overtaken has the right of way. The passing vehicle should cross the wake of the overtaken vehicle at any angle of at least 45 degrees and should be sure to provide ample passing space. IN FORTIFIED POSITIONS (c) Details of fortifications-embrasures, thickness of concrete and steel, entrances and exits, and underground organization. (d) Location and type of enemy weapons. (e) Defiladed approaches to the position. (f) Positions from which direct-fire support can be furnished to the assaulting force. (2) Organization of the assault teams. The assault teams are normally built around mechanized rifle platoons with tanks supporting each team. The assault team is divided normally into one or two flank groups as needed, an assault group, and a support group. Each group may have tanks in support. Each man and each vehicle on the team is given a special mission to perform. The teams must be allowed as much time as possible for rehearsals and reconnaissance. Normally, each team is assigned only one pillbox, bunker, or similar fortification at a time. (3) Employment of tanks against fortifications. The tanks normally provide direct-fire support to the assault teams. They fire at embrasure openings and attempt to destroy the fortification. Tanks usually follow other elements of the team but must be close enough to give direct support at all times. Tanks not attached to an assault team may give additional fire support from hull-defilade positions. ( 4) Employment of flamethrowers against fortifications. Both portable and mechanized flamethrowers may be used in the assault teams. The flamethrower is an effective weapon for the lastminute, close-in protection of men placing breaching charges and for mopping up the fortification after it has been breached. (5) Use of smoke against fortifications. Smoke may be used to screen the entire front, to cover the movement of troops into position, to screen one or both flanks of a gap created by unequal advance of units, to screen an area outside of the immediate action, or to obscure observation posts and fortifications that cannot be neutralized by other weapons. Though the attack may be made during darkness, smoke may be valuable to counter the possible enemy use .of illuminating flares and shells. The use of smoke must be coordinated to insure that it will not interfere with the need for direct fire on fortifications and for ground observation by the assault teams. If conditions are at all favorable, every effort should be made to observe fortifications that can support those being attacked. (6) Orders for attack on fortifications. Orders for an attack on a fortified position normally are issued in great detail. The attack on each bunker and defensive work . is planned individually and is coordinated with attacks on adjacent fortifications. The order includes detailed instructions to each assault team, including positions, routes to be followed, time to open fire, types of fire to be used, areas in which teams may fire, and the general conduct and action of each team. (7) Use of tank dozers and combat engineer vehicles (CEV's). In the initial phase of the attack, the tank dozer or CEV may be used to assist in reducing obstacles. As soon as the assault team closes on the fortification, the tank dozers or CEV's are moved forward to be available to cover the openings of the fortification with dirt. This is an effective way of immobilizing any enemy troops who refuse to surrender. ( 8) Artillery assault fire. When the usual direct-fire means and supporting fires cannot neutralize an enemy fortification, self-propelled medium or heavy artillery may be used in an assault fire role. (9) Use of nuclear weapons. Extensively fortified areas present a difficult target for destruction by nuclear weapons. By careful selection of weapons and height of burst, however, severe damage can be created to permit exploitation by armor units without causing an unacceptable hazard from radioactive fallout. c. Conduct of the Attack of Fortifications. (1) The attack usually starts with intense artillery fire and with the laying of a smoke screen if conditions are favorable. Air bombardment of the fortifications is also desirable. While the artillery is firing, routes are cleared of antipersonnel mines by use of grapnels or other means. Demolition snakes may be used to clear antitank mines. When paths have been cleared, the assault teams move forward as rapidly as possible (fig. 30) under the cover of supporting fires. (2) The flank groups direct their fire at any open emplacement on the flanks of the fortification. The tanks and machineguns of all groups fire at embrasures to keep them closed. If the .J"1t OJ wARTY AND MORTAR ~~ \ +" -t'lit .,." +" lr+lit A-B ctn n:tn lfjJ lt1J rrn lUJ ,.........~ \\1\ \\J\ Figure 30. Assault of the objective. fortification is protected by wire, a ground not covered by fire from the path through the wire must be made embrasures. The tank guns cease fire by wire-cutting parties, by tanks, or on signal of the assault team comby bangalore torpedoes. If possible, mander ; and the machineguns, both the assault group advances over tank and ground, cease fire when masked. Fire from the antitank rockets and flamethrowers, directed against embrasures, may be used by the assault group to assist in covering the advance of a demolition party at close range. Upon breaching the fortification, the assault group rushes the emplacement and, with hand grenades and portable flamethrowers, overcomes all enemy resistance. Flank and support groups move up and cover the reorganization of the team. (3) During the mopup stage, tanks are prepared to fire on probable avenues of enemy counterattacks. Tanks that have been supporting the attack by fire are moved forward to assist. Fresh teams are moved forward quickly to continue the attack without delay, and the process of deepening and widening the breach is continued. 372. Defense of a Fortified Position Tanks are normally a part of the reserve for employment in counterattacks. However, when numerous armor approaches exist, tanks may be attached to forward defense units to cover critical avenues of approach from defilade positions. See FM 31-50 for details of the defense of fortified positions. Section. X. OPERATIONS IN BUILT-UP AREAS 373. General Armor units normally bypass built-up areas because combat operations are characterized by house-to-house fighting, restricted observation and fields of fire, restricted maneuver space for armored vehicles, and extreme difficulty of control and coordination. As a result, combat in such areas consists of a series of small, predominantly mechanized infantryheavy actions (FM 31-50). 374. Tactical Considerations Basic tactical doctrine and fundamentals for operations in built-up areas are essentially the same as those prescribed in previous chapters, in FM 31-50, and in FM 100-5. The nature of the environment reduces the speed with which armor units normally conduct operations. Planning must be in great detail and troops must be briefed carefully. The following factors must be considered in establishing the tactical procedures and techniques for this type of operation. a. Characteristics of City Fighting Favorable to the Defender. (1) A well-organized and determined force located in the confines of a built-up area can hold off a superior attacking force for long periods of time. Strongly constructed cities give the defender a decided advantage over the attacker in that each building or group of buildings is a potential strongpoint. By additional construction, use of barricades, boobytrapping of areas in the buildings, and other means available to the defender, the buildings selected for defense become potential fortresses. (2) The defender can select positions that maintain observation and fires on the approaches into the city. (3) The defender has a choice of buildings to defend. These buildings also provide cover and concealment. The attacker must determine which buildings are being defended and which are not. Adequate underground cover is usually available to the defender. and gives him some protection against air and artillery bombardment. ( 4) Streets and alleys allow movement and constitute ready-made fire lanes and killing zones. Streets and alleys can be blocked easily by mines, boobytraps, barricades, and other obstacles. The attacking troops, by the nature of the area through which the attack must be conducted, will find their movement restricted and canalized. ( 5) The attacker will be limited in the employment of indirect-fire weapons because of restricted observation in the area and the nearness of his own troops to enemy targets. Employment of direct-fire weapons is subjected to limited fields of fire. b. Characteristics of City Fighting Favorable to the Attacker. (1) The attacker has the advantage of maneuver in isolating the city to be seized. Once the isolation of the city has been completed, the attacker is in a position either to press the attack on the city or to contain it and force the defender eventually to capitulate. (2) Once the city has been isolated, the attacker may select his point of entry into the city. The attack may be conducted from any direction(s). (3) The attacker may be able to bypass strongly defended buildings in the city by going under them, using cellars, sewers, subways, or other underground passages. Other strongly held defensive positions may be bypassed by attacking over the roofs of the buildings. c. Building Arrangement in Built-up Areas. The construction patterns or building arrangements of a typical city are classified usually into three different categories. ( 1) On the outskirts or suburbs are found normally isolated houses or small groups of houses surrounded by small plots of land, gardens, farms, fields, or vacant lots. When this part of the city is attacked, the houses should be treated as inferior pillboxes or individual emplacements, and the plan of attack may be no different from that used in an attack over normal terrain where an occasional fortification is encountered. (2) The second type of building arrangement is usually found in the residential district. This is an intermediate area where buildings are closely spaced, detached, or semidetached and are usually flanked by streets on one side and by gardens or grassy plots on the other. The general layout may or may not follow some geometrical pattern. The type of attack to be used in this area will depend upon the density of the buildings. A modified form of street-fighting will probably be used, but basic techniques will remain the same. (3) The center of the built-up area is usually the business section and will almost always consist of buildings of block-type construction, with little or no spac·e between buildings, except for an occasional park, street, or .. alley. This type of construction will require fighting from building to building and block to block. This is the part of the built-up area where basic differences in techniques are required. 375. Plan of Attack Plans for the attack and seizure of a well-defended city must be based on a detailed study of the city as well as the enemy dispositions in and around it. As in any other attack, planning must provide for a plan of maneuver and a plan of fire support. The attacking force may be composed of a mechanized infantry-heavy direct-assault force and a tank-heavy enveloping force (fig. 31). Both forces are supported by coordinated fires. .The enveloping force has the mission of preventing the escape of the enemy, preventing reinforcements from entering the city, providing direct-fire support for the direct-assault force, and protecting the directassault force from counterattack. The directassault force has the mission of clearing the city of enemy resistance and linking up with the enveloping force. The attack is planned normally in three phases: in the first phase the city is isolated ; in the second phase, a foothold is gained on the near edge of the city; and in the third phase, the area is systematically reduced. 376. Conduct of the Attack a. Phase I. Phase I is the isolation of the city and the seizure of terrain features that dominate the approaches into it. The attacker secures positions outside the built-up area from which to support the entrance into the city itself. The tactics and techniques for this phase of the operation do not differ from those employed in an attack against other well-organized enemy positions. b. Phase II." Phase II is an advance of the attacking forces to the edge of the built-up ENEMY MOBILE MECHANIZED RESERVE Figure 91. Coordinated attack against a town. area and seizure of a foothold. It should insure the elimination of the defender's ground observation and direct fires on the approaches into the built-up area. The attacker uses the foothold area to reorganize, decentralize control, and displace weapons to firing positions from which the continuation of the attack can be supported. The initial penetration is made on a narrow front with tanks leading. All available supporting fires are concentrated at the point selected for entry. Assaulting forces can expect to encounter barricades, antitank mines and obstacles, and effective antitank fire. The probabilities of"'success are increased if the assault is launched from an unexpected direction and preferably in the early morning just before first light, during other periods of limited visibility, or under the cover of smoke. To achieve the penetration on a narrow front, a column formation is employed normally in the initial assault. The use of a column formation does not mean that all elements of the assaulting force should be in column. Several column formations may be employed by a commander conducting the assault. For example, a battalion task force may use a column with each of its company teams in line, wedge, or echelon. These formations tend to shorten the length of the task force column reducing the time necessary to move into the built-up area. Regardless of the formation employed, the leading elements of the assaulting force should use a formation that facilitates the delivery of maximum fire on the point of penetration. Engineers, . mechanized flamethrowers, and mine-detection or mine-detonating tanks or vehicles (if available) should be included in the assaulting force. Artillery airbursts are placed over the point selected for entry to prevent the enemy from manning crew-served or individual antitank weapons. The mechanized infantry remain mounted and are carried as close to the objective as possible. In the attack of a strongly defended area, the mechanized infantry will have to dismount to assist in the assault of the outer defense and to provide close-in protection for the tanks. Designated fire teams or squads may be assigned to work with a particular tank. Direct communication between the rifle squad or fire team leader and tank commander is maintained by visual signals and external interphone. When operating dismounted, the mechanized infantry should remain to the rear of their assigned tanks to avoid masking their fires and to protect themselves from fires directed at the tanks. When it is necessary for the dismounted mechanized infantry to maneuver to engage or destroy resistance holding up the advance, the tanks support by fire, moving forward as soon as possible. The armored personnel carriers follow as closely as the situation permits behind the advance of the tanks and dismounted mechanized infantry. When possible, the fires of the armored personnel carriers' machineguns augment the other fires of the assault or cover critical areas on the flanks of the assaulting force. When the buildings on the periphery of a town are fortified heavily, the techniques for the attack of a fortified area may have to be employed (para 371). c. Phase III. Phase III varies from a systematic block by block, house to house reduction of the built-up area to a rapid advance through the town with clearance of specific critical areas and strategic buildings. Phase III begins without pause after the completion of phase II. Clearance and seizure techniques are dependent upon the mission, size of the town, construction and building arrangement, and enemy dispositions and strength. Factors governing the selection and conduct of the techniques are (1) When the built-up area is exceedingly large and heavily fortified, or when the mission requires a complete clearance of enemy forces, a methodical house by house, block by block clearance operation is performed. The area is divided into company team zones of responsibility. Each subordinate unit must clear its zone completely, leaving no enemy in its rear. The procedure of street fighting is conducted in the same manner as described in FM 31-50. (2) When the built-up area is small or defended lightly, the attacking force should attempt to drive through or into the town as rapidly as possible. Tanks lead the column, closely followed and supported by mechanized infantry. Except when an advance is made on a wide street, it will rarely be possible to effectively employ more than three tanks at the head of the column. The leading tanks are followed by the other two tanks of the tank platoon. The automatic weapons of the tanks and the vehicular machineguns of the carriers are fired continuously and are concentrated on the windows and rooftops of buildings. The mechanized infantry remain mounted in their carriers until forced to dismount to protect the tanks from individual or longer range antitank weapons. The mechanized infantry may dismount to assist in the re'moval of obstacles or barricades that have halted the advance of the tanks. When required to dismount to secure the tanks from fire being received from buildings, a rifle squad moves along each side of the street, keeping ap proximately abreast of the lead tanks. Depending upon the resistance being encountered, the squad may challenge every doorway or ground floor win dow by throwing in hand grenades and spraying the interior with small arms fire. Selected men in each squad should be assigned the mission of lo cating and engaging targets in the upper floor windows and rooftops of the building on the opposite side of the street. The leading tanks mean while continue to fire at suspected en emy locations farther down the street. When resistance is heavy, each alley or side street presents an excellent fire lane for enemy high-velocity tank or antitank fire and should be crossed with caution. The mechanized in fantry observe down alleys and side streets before the tanks cross and em place light machineguns on each corner covering or firing in both di rections. When a serious antitank threat to the column's flank exists, one or two tanks and a rifle squad with its carrier from the lead com pany team may be dropped off at each intersection along the route. If these 'forces are to remain in position until the entire force has passed, the fol lowing company team assumes the lead in the advance when the original lead company team has been depleted; otherwise the following company teams may relieve these forces, per mitting them to continue the advance ,with their company team. 377. Control Measures The conduct of combat in built-up areas requires specific control measures with which all troops must be familiar. Such measures include a. Boundaries. In order to provide easy and definite identification in denser portions of block-type areas, boundaries are placed along one side of the street with the street inclusive to one unit. In areas of semidetached construction where observation and movement are less restrictive, the boundaries may be placed in the alleys or within the blocks so that both sides of the street are included in one unit zone. b. Objectives. Objectives are specific and limited. The assignment as objectives of major street intersections, principal buildings, or other readily identifiable physical features improves control. The numbering of the buildings along the route of attack simplifies the assignment of objectives and reporting. When assigning a street as an objective, always designate the near side as the objective. If the far side of the street is assigned, it will be necessary to hold buildings on both sides of the street to secure the objective. Units promptly report their seizure of objectives and continue the attack on order of the next higher commander. c. Frontages, Formations, and Zones of Action. (1) Attacking battalions will normally be assigned relatively narrow zones of action. The frontages assigned will be dependent on enemy strength, size of the buildings, and resistance anticipated. Normally, a battalion task force will be assigned a frontage of from three to six blocks which in turn will permit the assignment of a frontage to the attacking company teams of one to two blocks. Frontages assigned subordinate units must be commensurate with their capabilities. (2) Formations, although influenced by frontages and zone of action, must provide for reserves. These forces should be well forward to add momentum to the attack, exploit success, repel counterattacks, and protect the flanks and rear against enemy action. d. Phase Lines. Phase lines may be employed to further control by regulating the advance of attacking forces and delineating where, in the visualization of the commander, the command is expected to pass from one phase of the assault to another. Since phase lines are less restrictive than objectives, they provide for the rapid exploitation of success without halting. Principal streets, rivers, trolley lines, and railroad lines are appropriate for use as phase lines. e. Checkpoints and Contact Points. Street corners, buildings, railway crossings, bridges, or any easily identifiable feature may be designated as check or contact points. These points, respectively, improve the reporting of locations and serve as specific points where the commander desires units to make physical contact. 378. Mission of Mechanized Infantry in Street Fighting a. Location of targets for engagement by tank weapons. b. Neutralization and destruction of enemy antitank weapons. c. Assault and reduction of positions and clearance of buildings under the covering fire of tanks. d. Protection of tanks against individual antitank measures. e. Security and defense of the area once cleared. 379. Mission of Tanks in Street Fighting a. Neutralization of enemy positions by machinegun fire to allow the mechanized infantry to close with and destroy the enemy. b. Destruction of enemy strongpoints by appropriate tank fire. c. Destruction of barricades across streets. d. Forcing of entry for infantry into buildings when doorways are blocked by debris, obstacles, or enemy fire. e. Taking under fire any other targets indicated by the mechanized infantry (fig. 32). f. Establishment of roadblocks and barricades. 380. Employmen.t of Attached and Supporting Units a. Tanks. (1) Streets and alleys constitute readymade fire lanes and fixing zones. V ehicular traffic is greatly restricted and canalized and is subject to ambush and close-range fire. Tanks are at a further disadvantage because Figure 32. Tanks take under fire ,targets indicated by dismounted mechanized infantry. their main guns cannot be depressed or elevated enough to fire into the basements or upper floors of !buildings at close range. (2) When a platoon of tanks forms part of a company team, two tanks advance with the leading mechani~ed infantry. The remaining tanks support by overhead and flank main gun and machinegun fire. At least a squad of mechanized infantry should r'emain with these tanks to furnish local security. (3) Tanks employ high explosive ammunition against street barricades. Steeples, tall chimneys, and other structures likely to contain enemy artillery observers are destroyed promptly. Crewmembers must be alert to detect pillboxes built into houses along the street. Tanks should not halt or move slowly close to build ings not held by friendly troops since enemy troops may drop explosives or flammables on them. All bridges and overpasses should be checked for mines and for weight-carrying capacity. Boobytraps of all varieties should be expected. Tanks should not move singly, and specific riflemen should be charged with protection of specific tanks. (4) Moving tanks keep fairly close to buildings on either side of the street held by friendly troops, covering the opposite side and firing at anything suspicious (fig. 33). All tank crewmembers are alert to detect signals from the infantry in the houses to each flank. Tank commanders keep their personal weapons and hand grenades ready for close-in defense. b. Artillery. The artillery is employed under centralized control in its normal role of close support. During phase III, the effectiveness of artillery fires will be reduced because of re- Figure 89. Movement of tanks. stricted observation and proximity of friendly and enemy troops. The artillery employed during this phase should be capable of firing highangle fire so that it will clear the taller buildings. Time fire and proximity-fuze fire may be used effectively against enemy on rooftops and behind barricades. The 155mm and 8-inch selfpropelled howitzers may be used effectively as direct-fire weapons in support of the attacking troops but are vulnerable to enemy antitank fire. c. Mortars. 4.2-inch mortars and 81mm mortars are usually employed in general support of their parent unit. Mortars firing high explosive shells with point detonating fuzes are useful against rooftop targets. Use of delay fuze settings will permit projectiles to penetrate roofs and destroy the enemy inside buildings. These weapons may be used to provide smoke screens to cover the advance of assault elements across streets, parks, yards, and other open areas as well as being used in their normal role. d. Engineers. Attached or supporting engineers should be well forward and will frequently operate under the control of the attacking battalion task force. When used as part of an assault team, they are attached to the team. The normal mission of the engineers is to remove mines, clear barricades and debris, and execute demolitions. e. Nuclear Weapons. Nuclear weapons are not likely to be used in conjunction with a ground attack on a built-up area, except possi bly on a large city. The progress of the ground attack would be seriously hampered by the effects of a nuclear explosion. 381. Communication Although radio communication during phase III may be affected adversely by conditions peculiar to the built-up area, radio is still the primary means of communication. Wire communication will assume greater importa:t;tce than in other types of operations. Foot messengers will frequently be the most reliable means of communication. Visual and pyrotechnic signals may be used by smaller units to indicate the need for fire, the shifting and lifting of fires, and to announce the seizure of a building or group of buildings. Armored personnel carriers may be used to provide mobile, protected communication centers. 382. Logistics a. Evacuation of Wounded. Evacuation of wounded from rooftops and upper stories of buildings may require additional litter bearers and the use of special evacuation equipment. Plans should include marking buildings that contain wounded personnel. b. Supply of Ammunition. Large quantities of ammunition are consumed in this type of operation. Therefore, ammunition supply points should be well forward, and mobile supply points may be required down to team level. Consideration should be given to the use of armored personnel carriers to resupply the assault echelons. Section XI. AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS 383. General a. Amphibious doctrine is set forth in FM 5-144, FM 31-11, FM 31-12, FM 31-13, and pertinent Department of the Navy publications. For explanation of Navy and special terms used in amphibious warfare, see AR 320-5. Detailed guidance on embarkation and ship loading is contained in FM 60-30. General guidelines for planning communications in amphibious operations are contained in FM 24-1. b. An amphibious operation consists of an attack launched from the sea by naval and landing forces on a hostile shore. It includes the following phases: planning, embarkation, rehearsal, movement, and assault. It is a joint operation when the assigned forces are composed of elements of more than one service. 384. Armor Units in Amphibious Operations a. The tank battalion of the infantry division participates in the assault in support of the division mission. The armored or mechanized division, because of its heavy vehicles and equipment, is not normally used in the ussault phase of an amphibious assault. However, in certain situations the early landing of armor units (brigade, regiment, or smaller) may be desirable for early linkup with airborne or air mobile forces or to seize key terrain dominating the landing area. Once ashore, the tactical employment of armor units is as in land warfare. b. In large-scale amphibious operations, a beachhead may be secured by infantry; then an armored division or a brigade may be landed to add its firepower, mobility, and shock effect in further operations. c. A mechanized infantry battalion, less carriers, may be used in the assault landing. Its employment is similar to that of a battalion landing team of an infantry division. When a landing is supported by engineer amphibious units equipped with vehicles of the LVT family, the mechanized infantry can continue their mission utilizing these armored vehicles until their organic carriers can join them. These vehicles, the landing vehicle tracked personnel (LVTP), a personnel and cargo transport; the landing vehicle tracked (LVTC), a command communication vehicle; the landing vehicle tracked engineer (LVTE), a combat engineer vehicle; and the landing vehicle tracked recovery (LVTR) can be effectively organized to form a mechanized (LVT) task force. If possible, tanks should be landed in landing crafts, medium (LCM's) in the early scheduled waves to provide fire support for this type of task force (FM 5-144). d. Cavalry units may be employed on reconnaissance and security missions before, during, or after the assault landing. Air cavalry units are capable of performing reconnaissance and security missions prior to, during, and after the assault landing. Armored cavalry unit operations are usually conducted during and after assault landings. These operations usually consist of maintaining contact between widely separated landing forces or to seize lightly defended objectives. 385. Planning a. Planning for the employment of armor units in amphibious operations is conducted and coordinated concurrently, with other elements of the amphibious task force. Planning begins on receipt of the initiating directive and continues for the duration of the operation. Basic factors influencing planning for tank employment are (1) Mission and concept of operations of the landing force. (2) Enemy disposition and capabilities, with particular attention to antitank defenses and enemy armor. (3) Terrain, weather, and hydrography of the landing area. ( 4) Troops, tanks, and ships and landing craft available. b. These factors must be considered throughout the planning cycle. Following the commander's concept and the issuance of his planning guidance, a decision is made as to armor employment. The armor unit commander then becomes a special staff officer of the unit to which he is assigned. c. The directive from higher echelon for an amphibious operation, intelligence, and information of available shipping are the basic tools with which to start planning for the employment of armor units. The continuous receipt of intelligence and timely requests for additional intelligence pertinent to tank employment are essential to planning. 386. Preparation of Tentative Plan a. The armor adviser participates in the preparation of the tentative plans at division and higher landing force headquarters. Information is exchanged between this officer and other staff officers. Specifically, the armor adviser considers the detailed employment of armor units and makes recommendations on the following: ( 1) Total number and type of armor units to be employed. (2) Task organization. (3) Missions and objectives. (4) Command relationships, by phases if appropriate. ( 5) Place and manner of landing. ( 6) Time of landings. (7) Coordination with naval gunfire, air, artillery, infantry, and engineers. (8) Antitank protection. (9) Special measures to be taken for communication, supply, and maintenance. (10) Requirements for special vehicles, such as mechanized flamethrowers. ( 11) Requirements for assault shipping and landing craft to support the tentative a morale factor in early stages of the b. Upon completion of the tentative plan by higher headquarters, staffs of the armor units enter into the planning. Based on the plans of the higher headquarters, these units begin preparation of their own operation and administrative plans. At the same time, the armor adviser assists supported units in preparing the supported unit's plans. Close coordination is required with the air defense elements. Attainment of air superiority is a requirement for the successful conduct of amphibious operations. 387. Organization for Combat a. Tank battalions may be employed under division control or attached to a brigade. In either event, they may be employed as a unit, may attach one or more tank companies to infantry battalions, or be employed as the nucleus of a tank-heavy task force. b. Requirements of concentration of means and separation of tactical units on the one hand and centralization or distribution of support elements on the other must be resolved by the landing force commander. They are specified in his plans for organization for combat and reviewed continuously during the operation. c. Attachments may be in effect before embarkation or upon landing, depending on the landing plan. 388. Landing Plans ct. The landing plan must support the scheme of maneuver of the landing force ashore. Basic considerations of the amphibious assault with regard to use of armor units are the following: ( 1) Armor units are required ashore early to assist the infantry in rapidly seizing initial objectives or to perform reconnaissance and security missions. (2) They are a valuable weapon in protecting the landing forces from early attack by enemy mechanized forces. (3) If landed early, they tend to reduce casualties among the infantry and are a morale factor in early stages of the amphibious assault. ( 4) Armor units should be landed early when the mission demands tanks as a part of a mechanized task force. (5) They must be landed without excessive vehicular losses. b. Methods of timing the landing of armor units or vehicles are ( 1) They may be landed in a scheduled wave. This method is suitable when it is practicable or desirable to land tanks or armored cavalry early. (2) The on-call method is used when conditions ashore are unsatisfactory for the landing of vehicles and the beach must be prepared for landing. c. The method selected should best suit the situation and be the most efficient ship-to-shore movement. Armor units may be organized by either of two methods for the landing (1) Units may be attached. to a brigade or battalion landing team for the landing and assault of the beach. (2) Units may remain under command of the armor unit commander until they have landed. Attachments to accomplish task organization may become effective upon landing or as stated in orders. 389. Embarkation Plans a. The need for large-capacity landing craft and ships and the time required in loading and unloading tanks demand detailed planning for the embarkation and subsequent landing. The type and number of tank-landing craft and landing ships required are determined by the anticipated tactical employment of ~he unit. The selection of tank shipping and landing craft, therefore, is governed by several factors, including the scheme of maneuver, characteristics of the beaches, and presence or absence of offshore obstacles. When possible, tactical considerations govern the planned use of shipping. However, the shipping available will seldom support the desired tactical plan without adjustment. b. When shipping assignments have been made, tentative ship loading plans (forms) are prepared by unit embarkation officers and are submitted to the commanding officer of the ship for approval. When approved, they constitute the final loading plans and govern the loading of the ship. Changes are made only with approval of the commanding officer of the ship and the commanding officer of troops concerned. Disagreements are referred to the next higher level of command for resolution. c. Detailed information of embarkation planning is contained in FM 60-30. 390. Administrative and Logistics Plans a. The logistics plan for armor units in an amphibious operation is based on each unit's tactical plari and the logistics plans of higher echelons. There is no steadfast rule by which planners can decide the supplies units will carry and the supplies that higher echelons will provide. Decisions as to the equipment and supplies each echelon will carry are issued in directives from higher headquarters. The directives are based on the overall plans for the operation and previous usage factors. Examples of planning considerations that must be studied carefully to determine the means of logistic support for armor units are (1) Duration of the operation. (2) Shipping available. (3) Type of operation. ( 4) Estimated date of arrival of supply shipping. (5) Method and means of unloading. (6) Size of the objective. · b. During the planning phase, decisions are made that permit the S4 to procure supplies and equipment required for the training period, embarkation phase, and initial phases of the actual operation. c. Fuel, ammunition, rations, repair parts, and special supplies and equipment are obtained. This includes waterproofing equipment, cold weather equipment and clothing, special type munitions, and tank accessories or attach ments. Units carry repair parts based on replenishment rates. It is important that minimum supplies to fill basic requirements be carried. d. Regardless of the landing plan, plans must provide for placement of supplies where they will be available when required. Floating dumps and beach dumps are methods of providing supplies. Liaison with appropriate logistic agencies afloat and ashore should be effected early to insure availability of supplies ashore. 391. Shipping The type of shipping to which armor units are assigned affects their availability for landing to support the tactical plan. Shipping suitable for landing tanks consists of two general categories, landing ships and landing craft. Each type of landing ship has several classes of construction, and ships differ in their capabilities, cargo, and troop capacity. Final embarkation loading plans can be developed only after a study of the characteristics of the ships being used. The characteristics are provided in ships' characteristics pamphlets and amplified through direct liaison with ships' officers. 392. Preparation for Embarkation a. Loading and embarkation plans for units are prepared before the arrival of assault shipping at the embarkation point. Armor unit embarkation officers prepare these plans in conjunction with embarkation officers and Navy commanders concerned. Vehicle crews and maintenance men should always be embarked with their vehicles. b. The commanding officer of troops and the ship's representative arrange other details of embarkation which may include- ( 1) Assignment of personnel to billets and working parties. (2) Stowage of fuel, lubricants, and maintenance material so that appropriate items are available for servicing vehicles and weapons while embarked. (3) Organization of security details and messing procedures aboard ship. ( 4) Use of ship's equipment and personnel to assist in servicing equipment en route. ( 5) Provisions for en route training as may be feasible. c. The unit commander and his subordinates supervise and control preparation, marking, and protection of the unit supplies and equipment. Before arrival of assault shipping in the embarkation area, all supplies and equipment are prepared for loading. A final inspection is made to insure that tanks and other vehicles and equipment are ready for combat. Tanks are always prepared for deepwater fording before embarkation. 393. Embarkation In the embarkation of armor units, it is important to retain, so far as possible, the integrity of the unit as organized for combat. The landing ship, docks (LSD's) and landing ship, tanks (LST's)-because of their greater capacity-generally assist in the maintenance of unit integrity. To expedite the loading operation, personnel must be familiar with different methods of ship loading. 394. Movement to the Objective Area a. Security regulations usually preclude detailed briefing of all personnel before embarkation. Therefore, they are informed of details of the operation during movement to the objective area. All personnel must understand their duties and be thoroughly familiar with the overall plan. Each commander or leader should know the relationship of his mission to the plan of the units in the amphibious troops. Briefings for personnel should emphasize the following: ( 1) Mission. (2) Scheme of maneuver. (3) Details of the beach assault. ( 4) Procedure for the ship-to-shore movement. ( 5) Location and methods of communication with command posts, liaison personnel, and the naval control organization. ( 6) Condition of the beaches, nature of obstacles, beach exits, terrain inland, and terrain trafficability. (7) Plans for breaching beach obstacles. ( 8) Tentative location of initial assembly areas and instructions for waterproofing. (9) Plans for location of maintenance and supply facilities ashore. (10) Enemy situation, with particular attention to antitank defense. b. Intelligence information received during movement to the objective area should be disseminated to all personnel. This information is obtained from air observers, submarine periscope photographs, and reports of underwater demolition teams and reconnaissance units. Provision must be made for disseminatingper tinent information to each separately embarked unit. c. The commanding officer of the troops and embarkation team commander are responsible for shipboard routine and training. d. Vehicles should be loaded so that they are accessible for servicing during the voyage. Daily servicing and final preparation ·for combat must be planned, scheduled, and performed including ( 1) Prestarting checks. (2) Daily running of engines for approximately ten minutes. (3) Checking batteries. (4) Checking controls and linkage to insure free movement. (5) Final application of waterproof sealing compound on D-day minus one. (6) Constant preventive maintenance on communication equipment. (7) Constant preventive maintenance on armament. e. Vehicles must be well secured aboard ship. Tank landing ships are equipped with securing chains. During extremely heavy seas, chains alone may not prevent heavy vehicles from slipping on the ship's steel decks. Therefore, heavy shoring timber is placed on deck between the vehicles and flush with the tracks. Shoring is used in conjunction with securing chains. Dunnage must be placed under vehicles having steel tracks. In heavy seas, a continuous watch is maintained to insure that securing chains and shoring remain in place. f. All removable vehicular weapons are test fired during the voyage. Fire control equipment should also be tested. g. The following precautions are observed during the voyage: ( 1) Engines are not run or fueled without permission of the ship's commanding officer. (2) Vehicles in LST's are neither started nor fueled below decks unless enough blowers are operating. (3) Vehicles are fueled one at a time. ( 4) Fire extinguishers are kept on hand and fire precautions observed when fueling. ( 5) Tank shift levers are in park position while the ship is underway. (6) Personnel move cautiously between vehicles when the ship is underway, particularly in rough seas. (7) Tarpaulins used to cover tanks are checked continuously to insure that the vehicles are protected from salt spray. (8) Radio transmitters are not tested until radio silence is lifted. h. Final preparations for unloading and operations ashore are started in sufficient time before landing to allow personnel to ( 1) Top off oil and fuel tanks. (2) Secure oil and water cans to be carried on vehicles. ( 3) Check and place vehicular maintenance equipment in vehicles. ( 4) Check turret fire control mechanisms. ( 5) Install final waterproof sealing. (6) Mount and check weapons and boresight where practical. (7) Check oil reservoir, power traverse, and elevation systems. (8) Test radio equipment-after radio silence is lifted. 395. Ship-to-Shore Movement a. The ship-to-shore movement of armor units is influenced by the landing craft and landing ships to be used. In turn, the ship and craft requirements are based on the mission, scheme of maneuver, beach.characteristics, and offshore obstacles. These factors determine in part the method of landing. One other important consideration is whether or not the beach is defended. b. Against defended beaches it is necessary to conduct a waterborne deployment of combat units. However, the threat of nuclear attack precludes massing large quantities of shipping, troops, and equipment. Therefore, assault troops are landed from dispersed shipping in controlled waves of small craft and amphibian vehicles over widely separated beaches with long intervals between waves. To reduce casualties during such landings, vehicles are landed from less vulnerable small craft such ' as a landing craft, utility (LCU) and a landing craft, medium (LCM). Effort should be made to land tanks early so that they may expedite the infantry's passage of the beach and seizure of initial objectives. ( 1) When shipping availability permits, units to be landed on defended beaches should be preloaded in LCU's or LCM's and launched from LSD's in the unloading area. Once debarked, the landing craft will assemble and proceed as a group to the line of departure. Here they will either deploy and cross in scheduled waves, or layoff in a designated area awaiting the order to land in on-call waves. Landing craft must be disembarked to reach the line of departure or landing beach at the time designated in the assault schedule. Upon crossing the line of departure, they continue directly to the beach. (2) Because of the shallow draft of the LCU and LCM, vehicles should make a relatively dry landing. However, if they must emerge from the ramp into uncertain waters, they should have guides-individuals, markers, buoys, or LVT's-to insure that they reach shore without striking mines or other obstacles or being drowned out in underwater potholes. Once ashore, armor units join the infantry units to which attached, and assault and execute the beach passage, seizing at least enough ground to protect the beach from aimed small arms fire. Armored cavalry units proceed to accomplish assigned missions. c. When assured that the landing beaches are lightly defended, and that terrain and hydrography conditions permit, tanks and armored personnel carriers or landing vehicles, tracked, personnel (LVTP) are embarked on LST's for debarkation directly onto the beach. The armor assault landing team should be loaded aboard the LST with the vehicles positioned to land tanks first. When the LST's beach, tanks debark and proceed immediately to points of egress from the beach. d. Task organization and loading may provide for contingency landing plans. When pre paring for landing on a beach where the probability of defense is low, tanks should be embarked to permit an assault landing against the defended beach, while still possessing a subsequent exploitation potential. This may be accomplished when the armor unit is sufficiently large, by placing some of the tank units aboard LSD's preloaded with LCU's or LCM's, while the remainder of the armor unit is aboard LST's. The enemy situation in the landing area will decide the mission and units that will land first. If the beach is undefended they may all land at the same time. 396. Time and Place of Landing a. In an amphibious operation tanks are needed as soon as the initial wave of assault troops land; therefore, they should be landed at the earliest possible time. Against a beach undefended by antitank weapons and obstacles, tanks may be landed in advance of, or with, the infantry; however, a beach strongly defended by antitank weapons and obstacles prevents the early landing of tanks. b. The scheme of maneuver is designed to accomplish the mission in the most expedient manner. Therefore, a place and time of landing for armor units should be selected that will support the scheme of maneuver. c. The type and number of ships and crafts available to transport tanks may determine where the unit must land and will determine the rate of buildup of tank strength ashore. d. The beach gradient, offshore reefs or sandbars, navigability of the approach lanes, and the waters surrounding the objective area influence the choice of the landing site. A beach should be selected where the soil is trafficable and the gradient not too steep. It should have routes of egress ample to sustain the momentum of the attack, and so located that they support the scheme of maneuver. The landing of tanks will be delayed where offshore reefs bar passage of tank-laden craft, the gradient is poor for beaching, soil trafficability is poor, or where it is necessary to emplace cause ways. e. Beach minefields and obstacles must be breached or overcome before the main tank landings is losses are to be minimized and the momentum of the attack sustained. Obstacles offshore, on the beach, or inland from the place of landing, whether natural or manmade, should be avoided. If avoidance is impossible, a site should be selected where they can be breached most easily. f. Tanks in tank landing craft present a profitable target for well-placed antiboat weapons. These weapons may influence the place of landing or cause delay, as they must be avoided or neutralized. g. In. the selecting of a landing site for tanks, trafficability inland from the beach must be considered. The terrain inland should provide ample maneuver area, a suitable road net, and cover and concealment. h. The enemy disposition, particularly the strength, location, capabilities of his armored formations, and antitank defenses are important in the selection of a place and time to land. Enemy antitank defenses should be avoided. 397. Obstacle Clearance and Breaching a. Beach and underw;ater mines and obstacles must be cleared rapidly to permit landing and effective employment of tanks. Clearance of underwater obstacles seaward of the highwater mark is accomplished by Navy underwater demolition teams, usually during the preassault phase. Mines and obstacles inland from the highwater mark are cleared by the landing force. Time seldom permits removal of all mines and obstacles. Only certain routes across the beaches will be cleared for passage early in the landing. It is often necessary to alter the prescribed landing formation and submit to a degree of canalization during the beach passage. To reduce lateral movement necessary to reach the cleared lanes after the units have reached the beach, information received from armor unit officers on the beach must be relayed immediately to commanders of LST's and appropriate control vessels, so that the units can be beached as close as practicable to the lanes cleared by the shore party. The lanes selected should be located so as to insure (1) Sufficient breadth to accommodate the width of the tank. (2) Sufficient number to permit rapid egress from the beaches. (3) Access to a road net or area that is trafficable. ( 4) They correspond to the planned landing points of the units. (5) Minimum of lateral movement after unitshave landed. ( 6) Landing points leading to cleared lanes are identifiable from seaward. b. Because these lanes are of primary importance to armor units, armor personnel and equipment should assist in their clearing. Armor reconnaissance personnel are integrated with engineers into teams. They assist in demolition and removal, selection and marking of the lanes, and the guidance of vehicles through the lanes. Other supporting equipment are the tank-mounted dozer, landing vehicle, tracked, engineer (LVTE), or combat engineer vehicle for obstacle removal, and the gun tanks for obstacle destruction and team protection. When landed with the breaching teams, the tanks can serve as logistics vehicles, carrying bulky items ashore. Organization of mine and obstacle breaching teams is based on an analysis of the specific obstacles to be encountered. c. Breaching teams should be organized to land with the leading scheduled waves, often with the first wave of assault troops. Each team clears at least 1 vehicle lane 18 to 24 feet wide. The scope of breaching teams' mission must be delineated distinctly during planning and provide for the return of its components to parent control as early as possible. Armor unit commanders must insure that the dissolution of the teams includes disposition of the breaching equipment. 398. Guidin.g Vehicles Ashore a. Landing conditions may require units to cross reefs, tidal fiats, or other areas covered by shallow water. Vehicles must be guided around obstacles that might cause them to hang up or engines to drown out. An amphibian tractor may be employed to guide vehicles ashore after debarkation. If this method is used, guide vehicles must be designated well in advance of the landing to allow for briefing and communication planning. b. A crewman may dismount and guide by wading ahead of the vehicle. This method is slow, especially if the water is deep or the bot tom is rough. Guides are vulnerable to hostile fire. This method is satisfactory for short distances only: c. Reconnaissance personnel may mark lanes to the beach. However, marking devices such as buoys are moved or destroyed easily by enemy action or by natural causes. 399. Passage of the Beach a. To avoid congestion and tank losses at the waterline and on the beach, passage of a defended beach area is planned and coordinated carefully and conducted aggressively. Liaison, reconnaissance, and breaching teams must perform their tasks quickly and thoroughly if armor units are to provide timely and effective support of the beach assault. Landing sites that support the scheme of maneuver are selected and lanes through them cleared and recognizably marked. The location of lanes, targets, missions assigned by supported infantry, and other pertinent information are transmitted promptly to the attached tank unit commander during the ship-to-shore movement. As the tanks emerge from their landing craft, they are met by guides and directed through the cleared lanes to the points from which they support the attack. Tank units may support the beach assault in the following manner: ( 1) Gun tanks lay down a blanket of small arms fire with machineguns while engaging hard targets with their main guns. (2) Dozer tanks or combat engineer vehicles cover apertures and entrances to emplacements, assist in preparing antitank ditch crossings, and aid in mine breaching operations inland. They assist in the immediate improvement of the newly seized beaches if the tactical situation ashore permits. (3) Mechanized flamethrowers reduce enemy positions not susceptible to other weapons available ashore during the early period of the landing and assault. b. Against undefended beaches, mass landings can be made by integrated assault teams transported in vehicles. Teams will debark from the landing ships directly onto the beach and attack inland. c. During the ship-to-shore movement, armor unit commanders receive information by radio from their reconnaissance and liaison personnel ashore. The information includes the condition of the beaches, progress of beach clearance efforts, recommendation of the best beaches for vehicles to land on, and other pertinent information. After landing, vehicles are met at the edge of the water, and commanders are informed of the best routes across the beach. They are then led through the cleared lanes by guides. The cleared lanes are marked to be clearly visible from within the tank, usually by strips of tape placed along the edge of each lane. d. If intelligence is complete and indications are that mines will not be encountered on the beach, and hydrographic conditions are favorable, tank units may be landed as the first wave. They should land from 2 to 5 minutes ahead of the initial wave of infantry. The landing and the initial wave of troop-carrying craft or vehicles must be timed precisely to obtain maximum effect from shock and firepower, and to provide infantry support early in the assault. If heavy enemy resistance at the waterline is expected, the tank units landing in the initial wave will land usually in a line formation to bring the maximum firepower to bear on the hostile defenses. 400. Rehearsals and Training a. Rehearsal. The rehearsal is that part of the amphibious operation in which one or more exercises are conducted by the participating forces under conditions approximating those anticipated for the actual operation. Rehearsals are conducted in accordance with a plan which approximates the plan for the specific operation. Units that participate in the rehearsals will depend on the tactical plan. Responsibi!Jity for the preparation of rehearsal plans is' same as for the preparation of the actual operation plan. Rehearsal plans should be issued separately. b. Training. Amphibious training for Army units is outlined in FM 31-12. This training is normally supported by Naval amphibious training command and may be conducted at the armor unit's base station by landing force training units. Section XII. SHORE-TO-SHORE MOVEMENTS 401. General This section provides general guidance for armor commanders and staff officers in the execution of shore-to-shore movements by armor units. FM 31-12 provides general guidance for commanders, staff officers, and other interested personnel for the planning and execution of shore-to-shore operations and movements. AR 320-5 defines shore-to-shore operations and shore-to-shore movements. a. Shore-to-shore movements include some of the techniques of amphibious operations and inland waterway operations, and involve procedures and considerations related to each of them. Shore-to-shore movements, although similar to, are not amphibious operations because they do not involve embarkation in Naval ships; however, both operations involve assault landings on a hostile shore. The shore-to-shore movement is conducted normally by Army forces alone, employing primarily Army trans portation of the waterborne movement of the force. b. As is the case with amphibious operations, armor units may be employed in several types of shore-to-shore movements: (1) Attack. (2) Withdrawal. (3) Raid. ( 4) Deceptive operation (demonstration or feint). ( 5) Reconnaissance. c. Shore-to-shore movements may be conducted across large lakes, inland seas, along coast lines, across bays, or against offshore islands. 402. Considerations a. The participation of armor units with their vehicles in shore-to-shore movements will be dependent on the types and load-carrying characteristics of the assault craft available for the operation. b. The extent of participation by armor units in the assault is limited by the number of landing craft available since the assault elements must be contained in a single lift. c. The relatively heavy requirements for logistical support of armor units must be considered in light of landing craft available for this support on the far shore. Aircraft may be required to augment surface craft. 403. Planning Guidance a. The general considerations in planning for employment of armor units in a shore-toshore movement are the same as those in planning an amphibious operation and the near shore actions in a deliberate river crossing. b. The control of the waterborne movement in a shore-to-shore movement is an Army function; in amphibious operations, it is a Navy function. This responsibility will usually rest with the engineer amphibious units (brigade, group, or battalion) as augmented by transportation corps units under the direction of the overall tactical commander responsible for the operation. c. Critical factors such as terrain, weather, and hydrography of the far shore must be emphasized when planning the employment of armor units in the assault landing. d. The armor commander must include all aspects of the deliberate river-crossing operation in determining his concept of armor employment. He must plan for the assembly of armor units and their means of waterborne transportation on the near shore. The arrival of armor units in the embarkation area on the near shore must be phased so that those units participating in the assault of the far shore arrive first and are loaded first. Unnecessary massing of units in the embarkation area must be avoided. e. Armored cavalry units, less their tracked vehicles, and mechanized infantry units, less their personnel carriers, may participate in shore-to-shore movements when landing craft are not available for their vehicles. In this event, the shore-to-shore movement will be conducted as infantry in an amphibious operation or deliberate river crossing with vehicles either shuttled across after the assault or moved around the shore for a linkup. 404. Preliminary Planning a. An armor commander begins to plan for a shore-to-shore movement in response to directive from a higher echelon or as an operational requirement in his own command. b. The availability of landing craft capable of lifting vehicles will determine armor's participation; therefore, the first step in planning is to determine the numbers of landing craft that will be available. c. During preliminary planning the armor commander must determine (1) The overall concept of the operation. (2) Any Navy or Air Force support in the form of ships, landing craft, or aircraft that may be available. (3) The objective area. ( 4) The amphibious area and specific embarkation points suitable for armor units on the near shore. (5) The terrain and hydrography of the objective area. ( 6) The task organization for support of the assault landing and subsequent operations in the objective area. d. Dependent on the determinations made (b and c above), the armor commander recommends (1) Embarkation points on the near shore and landing points on the far shore for armor units. (2) Task organization of armor units in support of operations on the far shore. 405. Conduct of the Assault The assault on the far shore is conducted in the same manner as in an amphibious operation with subsequent operation ashore being as in normal land warfare. 406. Training a. Preliminary training for shore-to-shore assaults can be conducted as an adjunct to amphibious and deliberate river-crossing training. Advance training must be conducted in a waterborne training area and include training with the type landing craft that can normally in shore-to-shore movements will reduce the be expected to be used for a shore-to-shore supplementary shore-based and ship-based movement. training required for participation in an am b. The attainment of a high state of training phibious attack. Section XIII. INTERNAL 407. General a. Internal defense operations are conducted by a host country or its allies directly against armed insurgents, their underground organization, support system, external sanctuary, or outside supporting power. The ultimate objective in combating armed insurgency is to eliminate the causes behind the insurgency and to prevent its recurrence. Tactical operations by armor units against insurgent forces may be conducted over vast areas. The operational plans must anticipate the difficulties of control and combat service support. Most important will be the complete integration of armor into the overall operation being conducted in a particular area, for example, region, province, and district. This may entail support of U.S. or host country tactical units in tactical operations, support of receiving state police agencies in internal security operations, assisting host country forces in military civic action, or conducting these operations independently as part of the overall clear, hold, and consolidation operation in a particular area. b. The concepts, tactics, techniques, and procedures for the tactical employment of armor units contained in this field manual basically apply to internal defense operations. However, they must be adjusted to fit the particular operational environment. The organization and characteristics of the insurgent battlefield does not resemble that found in limited or general war situations. The area between insurgent forces or their principal sources of supply do not usually present lucrative military targets. Insurgent supply installations are small, dispersed, and difficult to locate and destroy. Caches, insurgent safe areas, and sympathetic or dominated populations may be so universally dispersed that insurgent units are not dependent on a few critical logistical bases. Under these conditions, a turning movement, for example, launched by friendly forces intended to cause the insurgent force to react DEFENSE OPERATIONS to protect a base, may produce movement in entirely different directions than those anticipated. Having developed multiple base areas, insurgent forces may move in any direction to an offensive maneuver and still not sacrifice its logistical support capabilities. Insurgent tactical forces will not normally be committed to limited and general battlefield arrangements until a defeat of friendly force is a certainty and their defeat will affect the entire internal defense effort. c. The insurgent tactical forces' missions are aimed at subversion and the overthrow of an established government. The rear area guerrilla in a limited or general war environment is mainly concerned with the harassment of friendly forces. Operations of armor units in internal defense may include the following major areas of activity: (1) Tactical operations against insurgent irregular, paramilitary, and armed forces which are employing guerrilla warfare. This type of warfare is conducted predominantly by irregular and paramilitary organizations in phases II and III of insurgency. Guerrilla warfare constitutes sustained combat operations which are conducted and supported within hostile territory and utilize tactics characterized by surprise, brief violent action, and elusiveness. These operations may also be supported, in varying degrees, by an external source. Communist led insurgent movements employing guerrilla warfare are not merely uncoordinated, hostile bands of poorly equipped insurgents. Rather, in the modern sense, guerrilla warfare -is a well developed form of war where the guerrilla, when conditions are favorable, can fight a conventional type battle using regular formations supported by heavy weapons. (2) Military civic actions. Military civic actions are the use of U.&. and host country (HC) armed and paramilitary forces on projects useful to the local population at all levels in such fields as education, training, public works, agriculture, transportation, communications, health, sanitation, and others. These actions contribute to the economic and social development of the host country. They also serve to improve the standing of the armed and paramilitary forces with the population. These operations include extending projects of the United States Agency for Internal Development (USAID), United States Information Service (USIS), and other U.S. civilian programs in host countries. (3) Internal security operations. These operations include supporting host country police and other essentially civilian organizations in their responsibilities to maintain a state of lawfulness; the prevention of action against HC resources, industries, and institutions; and the protection of life and property in the event of a domestic emergency by the employment of all measures, in peace or war, other than military defense. They also include taking actions to control human and material resources and to deny insurgent access to those resources. ( 4) Advisory assistance. This assistance consists of furnishing specialized mobile training teams (MTT) for training regular or paramilitary forces in branch or branch immaterial subjects. These operations include extending USAID, USIS, and other U.S. civilian programs in host countries. (5) Psychological operations. These operations include extending host country civilian-military information and psychological operations programs. (6) Intelligence operations. Intelligence operations not only include normal combat intelligence but also extend into the civil-military sociological, economic, political, psychological operations, and other intelligence activities of a host country. d. FM 100-5, FM 100-20, FM 31-16, and FM 31-22 contain the basic doctrine for operations against insurgent tactical forces to include military civic action, internal security operations, advisory assistance, and psychological and intelligence operations. To prevent duplication, the discussion in this section applies only to doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures as they affect armor units in tactical internal defense operations. Where brigade, battalion, and company are discussed in this section, it is equally applicable to the armored cavalry regiment, squadron, and troop unless otherwise specified. 408. Planning Internal Defense Operations a. Tactical operations against insurgent forces conducting guerrilla warfare are planned according to these basic considerations: (1) The majority of guerrilla operations consist of small unit actions. However, when conditions are favorable to the insurgent tactical force (insurgency intensified to late phase II and phase III levels), they may conduct tactical operations of battalion and regimental size to seize and hold, temporarily, objectives using coordinated fire and maneuver to retain the initiative. (2) Tactical operations are generally offensive in nature and continuous once initiated. (3) Tactical· operations are designed to minimize the strength of tactical insurgent forces and to exploit their weakness. (4) The close relationship between the population and the tactical insurgent force may demand enforcement of stringent internal security operations such as (a) Securing key installations such as airfields, water and food supplies, hospitals, host country government installations, and defended village complexes, thereby releasing host (3) Terrain and weather. country troops for other require( 4) Resources available to the insurgent ments. force. (b) Operating mobile and static check( 5) Extent of the insurgency as a whole points to assist in controlling popuand specifically the insurgent forcelations and movement of materiel operation. and supplies along authorized (6) Size and composition of forces availaroutes. Personnel must be trained ble for tactical operations against inin detailed search procedures, and surgent forces. their activities must be closely co ordinated with local officials. (7) Communication facilities available to (c) Controlling civil disturbances which allow effective control of tactical operations against insurgent forces. must be accomplished with utmost caution and discretion to prohibit c. Armor units may be involved in combined undue injury or loss of life to the operations with host country forces; therefore, populace. commanders must be prepared to cope with (d) Securing routes of communication, problems of force interrelationships, communications, coordinated intelligence operations, convoy escort duty, and other conand proper psychological approach to the counstabulary-type missions. terpart force in conducting combined opera (e) Mounting armor patrols between tions. These problems, which in limited andvillages and hamlets to make the general war have been handled customarily bypresence of internal defense .forces commanders of higher headquarters, may befelt, to have positive psychological come problems of subordinate unit comeffects on the population, and to manders. Maximum use should be made ofdiscourage contact between villages liaison personnel from host country forces toand insurgent tactical forces. assist U.S. forces in all types of operations in (f) Operating along the host country volving contact with host country civilians.border to assist host country forces d. Armor units contain equipment and perin interdicting, denying, or keepsonnel with specialized skills that may be useding under surveillance adjacent to improve the environment of the populacepower(s) supporting the insur through military civic action. Such projects gents, and to prevent the use of an may include the use of armored vehicles toadjacent country as a sanctuary. clear trees during local construction programs,Border operations will utilize arand communications to augment or providemor units in terrain where their emergency communications systems for civilmobility and communications capa use in remote areas. An important aspect ofbilities can be employed to kdvanmilitary civic action is the discriminate movetage. ment of armored vehicles to avoid destroying b. The following specific factors are consid-crops, irrigation systems, or damaging other ered in the commander's estimate: ' items or facilities that affect the well being of the local people. For armor to accomplish its (1) Motivation and loyalties of segments of the population, identification of mission, a certain amount of damage is inevitahostile and friendly elements, vulble; however, with thoughtful care and a comelements mon sense approach, the local population will nerability of friendly to usually accept these damages. See FM 31-22 coercion by terror tactics, and suscep tibility to insurgent and friendly for examples of military civic actions and FM propaganda. 41-10 for additional civic action doctrine. (2) Existing policies and directives ree. Commanders must consider carefully the garding status and treatment of popapplication of weapons fires so that civilians ulation and insurgent force members. and property are not unnecessarily destroyed, 220 thereby alienating the population. Minimum combat power must be used to accomplish the mission as contrasted to limited and general war employment of massed firepower, mobility, and shock effect against enemy forces. 409. Missions There are two general categories of operations which will be conducted in an insurgency operational environment-strike operations and clear, hold, and consolidation operations. a. Strike operations, usually conducted in remote or contested areas, variously called search and clear, search and destroy, and others, are primarily tactical operations. Other activities, such as psychological operations, military civic action, advisory assistance, and internal security operations, are minimized during the period of the strike. Because strike operations are of relatively short duration, one day to several weeks, these latter activities are pursued only to the extent that they can assist the force while it is in the strike area. Strike operations are conducted primarily to find, fix, and destroy insurgent tactical forces, and they also may be used to harass insurgent forces. Generally, they are conducted against located insurgent tactical forces and bases or in areas suspected of containing these. Additionally, they serve to keep the insurgent forces on-themove and off balance. The operation entails no intent to remain permanently in the area of operations. Ground or water means of entry may be used. Airmobile or air drop means are most adaptable in some areas to this type of operation. Usually a combination of means is required. Strike operations are comprised of raids, 1econnaissance in force, coordinated attacks, relief operations, or combinations of these. b. Clear, hold, and consolidation operations, strategic hamlet operations, province rehabilitation, and others, are, in essence, the application of all aspects of the HC national internal development program to specific regions, prov inces, districts, or other political subdivisions. The internal development operation restores HC governmental control to the population and the area. It provides an environment within which the normal economic, political, social, and civic activities of the population may be pursued. It is improved through the implemen tation of civilian national economic, political, social, psychological, and civic development programs supported by military resources. Units committed to these operations support the overall effort by the application of their re sources in the following methods. ( 1) In the offensive phase, tactical offensive operations of the strike variety are stressed, other activities being subordinated to the tactical mission. (2) In the defensive phase, tactical defensive operations, to include extensive patrolling and defense of the area, will be the primary missions. During this phase, advisory assistance in training HC paramilitary and irregular forces for tactical defensive, internal security, or other civilian activities are initiated. Intelligence and psychological operations and military civic action programs are conducted concurrently. (3) In the consolidation phase, defensive phase activities are continued, and planning for supporting subsequent internal development operations is stressed. c. In the conduct of these two types of operations (strike operations and clear, hold, and consolidation operations), the six operational modes or activities (i.e., tactical operations against insurgent tactical forces, military civic action, internal security operations, advisory assistance, psychological operations, and intelligence operations) may be conducted to varying degrees. The following specific tactical missions, which fall under one of the above six operational modes or activities, may be accomplished by armor units. Tank units usually will require attachment of infantry or mechanized infantry for these specific missions. These. missions are accomplished primarily through offensive operations. No attempt is made to designate missions most suitable for armor units since suitable missions in one geographic area may be unsuitable in another. ( 1) Search and seizure of areas. (2) Search and clearance of areas. (3) Reaction force (reserve). (4) Installation and community security. because of their extensive means of communication, mobility, flexibility of (5) Security of surface lines of communiorganization and equipment; and thecation. insurgent's usual lack of armor. Air ( 6) Reconnaissance. cavalry units greatly extend the (7) Surveillance. range and capabilities of ground units (8) Apprehension of insurgent force memin conduct of operations against inbers. surgent forces in difficult terrain. (9) Harassing and elimination of insur(5) Aviation units are a principal means gent tactical forces. for collection of information concerning insurgent forces. In particular, (10) Convoy escort. aerial surveillance units can rapidly( 11) Border control. identify suspect areas, which can then be reconnoitered, if required, by 41 0. Combined Arms Forces ground elements. Aircraft can be used a. General. for movement of troops and supplies. (1) Operations against insurgent forces b. Compositions of Combined Arms Forces.may have to be conducted in any geo ( 1) Composition of combined arms forcesgraphical area in the world. Therewill vary with the geographic area infore, armored units must be area which they must operate. Since insuroriented to cope with the varying tergent forces usually operate in terrainrain conditions and special techniques which best reduces the ground mobilirequired to combat insurgent forces. ty of vehicles, tank units will normal The particular environment in which ly operate with infantry-heavy teamsoperations are being conducted will or task forces. However, in areas thatdictate the most effective armor force permit mounted operations by into employ against insurgent forces. fantry in armored personnel carriers,Generally, these operations make tank-heavy teams or task forcesmaximum use of highly mobile, comshould be employed to take advantagebined-arms task forces or teams that of the tank's firepower, mobility, procan find, fix, fight, and destroy elusive tection, and shock effect. Tanksenemy forces. In addition, armored should be employed in the greatestvehicles provide protected communipossible number in each situation andcation, mobile checkpoints, protected environment. supply and evacuation, protected artillery, and convoy escort. (2) Armored cavalry units have combined arms capabilities inherent in organi (2) Airmobile forces may be used to adzation and are well suited for employvantage to deploy rapidly ground ment without attachments in internalforces for attack of located insurgent defense operations. tactical forces, to permit encircling movements that might not be possible (3) As part of a combined arms force, air by ground forces, to cut off routes of cavalry units are used in internal de escape, and to relieve besieged friendfense operations as separate maneu ly forces. ver units and to support ground tacti (3) Psychologically, the introduction of cal units, including airmobile operatanks and other armored vehicles is tions. demoralizing to insurgent forces. ( 4) Artillery, engineers, medical, psy ( 4) Armored cavalry units are particuchological warfare, military intellilarly suited for sustained operations gence, signal, military police, and civagainst tactical insurgent forces to il affairs units are included in include internal security operations combined arms forces as required. 222 411. Employment of Tanks, Armored assault, when prisoners must be seWheeled Vehicles, and Armored Percured, and when the area must besonnel Carriers searched for hidden enemy. This task a. Tanks. Terrain and limited road nets in is most efficiently accomplished by most internal defense environments may often carriers and dismounted riflemen restrict the large-scale employment of tanks. working as a team. The movement of tanks will normally be limit(2) When terrain obstacles preclude closed to roads, trails, beaches, grass or brush coving with insurgent forces. In this sitered fields, hills, plantations, and water areas uation, a dismounted attack is immewith hard bottoms and water level permitting. diately launched. If possible, theLight armored vehicles, however, such as the carriers' weapons are used to fix thearmored reconnaissance/airborne assault vehienemy by fire while the dismountedcle, possess low ground pressure, are amphibielements maneuver to close with theous, and can greatly extend the areas of operainsurgent force.tion for armored units. Careful selection of (3) When the unit is unavoidably haltedroutes and axes of advance is necessary. In fain an unsecured area. OP's, LP's, pavorable terrain, tanks can be of great value trols, and local security are providedwhen used as offensive or blocking forces operby dismounted riflemen.ating as a part of a combined arms team withmechanized infantry or infantry units. Tanks (4) When missions are assigned, such as encirclement and search of a village. should be used in every operation where possiThese type missions require the use ofble. Frequent use will lead to development of dismounted elements. However, thespecial techniques which will permit their sucspeed and protection of the carriercessful employment. should be used whenever possible. In b. Armored Wheeled Vehicles. Armored the search of a village, for example,wheeled vehicles may be used by units assigned encirclement may be accomplished missions of route security and convoy escort. mounted with the dismounted searchThese vehicles possess limited cross-country following.mobility but are well suited for road operationsby virtue of their speed, durability, cruising 412. Combat Operations by Ground Armorrange, firepower, and communications capabiliUnitsties. Normally units equipped with armored a. General. Employment of armor units inwheeled vehicles must be provided motorized internal defense operations may take manyinfantry and engineer support to be effective. forms depending upon the mission assigned, c. Armored Personnel Carriers. Use of ar upon enemy actions and reactions to friendlymored personnel carriers, where possible, will operations, and upon terrain and weather confrequently result in achieving a significant ditions prevalent in the area of operations. The ground mobility advantage over insurgency operations, tactics, and techniques discussedforces. If the insurgency forces have limited may be employed in varying degrees by armorantiarmor capabilities, the armored personnel units in both strike and clear, hold, and consolcarrier is considered to be a fighting vehicle idation operations. when used against insurgency forces in the (1) Organization for combat. Combined open. Only after the maximum possible casualarms teams are basically formed byties have been inflicted on the enemy should cross-attachment between infantryriflemen be dismounted from the carriers. Preand armor units. Other elements such mature dismounting from armored personnel as artillery, engineers, and signalcarriers may cause unnecessary casualties and units are included as necessary. Eachthe loss of the carriers' speed, armor protecteam or task force should be comtion, and shock effect. Riflemen are usually dis posed of complementing elementsmounted as follows: which best fit the task at hand. For (1) When securing an objective after an example, a team whose assigned mis 223 sion will include an assault of an area impassable to armor vehicles should be provided with elements of mounted infantry in sufficient strength for a dismounted attack. Conversely, where the mission is to cover areas of good trafficability against enemy forces likely to be engaged in the open, a team which is preponderantly armor equipped is appropriate. Except in special situations, platoons within teams are not further broken down for interplatoon cross-attachment. However, when required, the armored cavalry troop may be subdivided into mortar, scout, tank or infantry platoons. (2) Combat formations. Where terrain permits, conventional formations should be used, such as column for maximum control, echelon to guard a vulnerable flank, line for maximum firepower to the front, or wedge for a combination of control and firepower. In certain situations, terrain restrictions must be overcome to maintain required formations. For example, where the enemy occupies a prepared defensive position, every effort must be made to engage him with several tanks or carriers simultaneously, despite terrain obstacles which tend to force a column formation and thus piecemeal engagement. In the face of an organized enemy position, a column formation is permissible only after fire superiority has been established, either by elements of the attacking team or by other units or fire support means. ( 3) Prior reconnaissance. Although the armored personnel carrier, and the carrier, command and reconnaissance to a lesser degree, can operate effectively in most insurgency areas, their mobility is restricted by certain terrain obstacles, such as canals or streams with banks too steep for the vehicle to negotiate, jungle, forest, or mountains. Movement of the main battle tank is normally even more re stricted. The limiting effect of these obstacles can be significantly reduced by a careful selection of routes based on accurate information. This knowledge will permit crossing of each barrier at the most practical point. (a) In most situations, a map reconnaissance serves as the starting point from which plans for direct reconnaissance of the terrain are developed. However, maps that are based upon even the most recent survey data may not provide the details needed to select the most advantageous points for passage of obstacles. Thus, movements (especially cross-country) should not be based on map information alone. Requests for aerial photo coverage should be made where considerations of time and security permit. (b) Air cavalry or other observation aircraft are the primary means for reconnaissance prior to an opera tion. These flights should be made by the unit commander, when possible, or an observer and a pilot with experience in supporting armor units. Persons unfamiliar with the capabilities of armored vehicles and without some experience in judging trafficability from the air cannot provide the required information. These reconnaissance flights may disclose the planned action unless they are tailored to fit the existing patterns of aircraft activity. Unusual air activity over an area alerts the enemy and may cause him to leave the area temporarily. This disadvantage can be overcome if reconnaissance flights are made sufficiently in advance of the operation to permit the enemy to return to the area and drop their alert status. In areas of little aircraft activity, the required information should be obtained by other means, such as records of previous operations or use of local guides. When security is of paramount imfeature or the destruction of an enportance, aerial reconnaissance emy installation, then firm objectivesshould not be used or, if essential, are assigned. However, the normal inshould be disguised by an appropriternal defense operation seeks toate cover plan. defeat the insurgent rather than to (c) Prior reconnaissance on the ground occupy a specific terrain feature.is usually limited to the route of ap (5) SecurUy against antia·rmor means. proach to the area of operations. In Insurgent tactical forces will haveorder to achieve surprise, the apweapons which can disable or destroyproach march often covers a long armored vehicles. Although the capadistance over secondary roads. The bility may be limited, normal antiarrequirement for accurate timing of mor security measures should be takthe march makes a route reconnais en. The threat to armor units is twosance of some type essential. The fold-first, antiarmor weapons may physical risks of ground travel be already positioned in an area ofmust be weighed against the deoperations, or, second, the insurgenttailed information required, and oftactical force may be given enough ten aerial observation must suffice. time to bring the weapons into theThese risks, combined with the area of operations. These two possi. difficult terrain and the requirebilities are minimized by exploitingment for surprise, usually make a the mobility of the unit. An armorground reconnaissance impractical. unit should not be habitually em (d) During each operation, detailed ployed using the same pattern ofrecords should be kept of pertinent operations or routes in a particularterrain information. In internal dearea. Its mobility should be used tofense operations, many areas are gain surprise by frequent movementfought over several times. Recorded in previously occupied areas and byinformation can reduce or elimipenetration of new areas in which thenate the need for future aerial or insurgent tactical forces are unpreground reconnaissance with its risk pared for armor attack. of disclosing the planned operation. Care must be taken to avoid use of b. Area Organ-ization. identical routes each time the same (1) An armor unit engaged in supportingarea is attacked, otherwise the ena clear, hold, and consolidation operaemy can concentrate his antiarmor tion may be assigned a specific area weapons to best advantage. of operation. Whenever military con (e) The knowledge required of vehicle siderations permit, this area encomcapabilities and limitations and the passes a political subdivision. Such anexperience necessary for accurate assignment is toestimates of trafficability support (a) Make maximum use of existing civthe habitual assignment of air cavil administrative agencies. alry to ground armor units during internal defense operations. (b) Make maximum use of existing po (4) ContTol measuns. Within an area of lice and paramilitary forces. operation, phase lines, boundaries, (2) However, it must be realized that poand axes of advance may be used in litical subdivisions will seldom prothe normal manner. Assignmen,t of vide optimum military areas of operaobjectives must be qualified to allow tion. In some cases, such as in strikeimmediate reorientation of the armor operations, area boundaries may bemaneuver element to counter unfore dictated by military considerations;seen enemy threats. If the mission of however, as soon as possible, boundathe operation is seizure of a terrain ries should be readjusted to insure 225 unity of command of areas. Rarely will clear, hold, and consolidation operational boundaries not conform to political boundaries. (3) The brigade is normally assigned a specific area of responsibility. The brigade commander assigns specific areas of responsibility (sectors) to subordinate battalions, and these commanders normally do the same (subsectors) to subordinate com panies. The company commander does not normally assign specific areas to his platoons, but rather assigns tasks or missions to accomplish the com pany missions. Within the assigned sector or subsectors, commanders at all echelons down to and including company level will normally establish one or more combat bases from which to conduct offensive operations, and static security posts as needed to seLEGEND: cure troops, installations, and lines of communication. However, this does ~~-•us not imply that these combat bases are fixed installations since they should be moved frequently to minimize insurFigure 31,.. Schematic armored caval1·y regimental area of operations. gent planning time for attacks and to keep insurgent forces off balance. Each armor unit assigned an area of its subordinate units. Consequently, responsibility will normally maintain one subsector in its area is not occua reaction force (reserve) of appropied initially. This subsector will be priate strength at its base to be used placed under surveillance and pain local reaction to any contact made trolled under squadron control until it with insurgentforces. can be assigned to a subordinate unit for clearance. (4) The size of the area assigned to a unit depends on the mission, the terrain, (6) To indicate the flexibility possible in the nature of the insurgent force, and the organization of an area of operathe troops available. The size of the tions, figure 35 shows a schematic ar mor brigade area of operations. Be area assigned to a unit may be too large to be cleared concurrently by cause of the existing terrain and the subordinate units. In this case, enemy situation, the company teams the commander must establish a have been assigned areas which are priority for the clearance of the secnot contiguous in all cases. The gaps tors or subsectors, and assign areas between the companies are kept under of responsibility to the subordinate surveillance utilizing Army aircraft and forces such as the scout platoon units accordingly. or civilian paramilitary patrol units. (5) Figure 34 shows a schematic armored cavalry regimental area of operations. (7) In any case, the subsector assigned a Note that one squadron has more area company or troop should be no larger than the unit can clear or control than can be cleared concurrently by 226 an area small enough for it to operateentirely from one combat base. It ismore normal for the battalion orsquadron to assign specific areas ofresponsibility to subordinate companies or troops and require that theyestablish combat bases in their respective areas. Depending on the sizeof the unit's subsector, one or morecombat bases may be established.Whenever possible, the entire company or troop operates from one baseto facilitate security and control. (2) A combat base is the contact point forall tactical operations against insurgent forces in the area of the unitconcerned. It will include the essentialcommand, control, and administrativeelements of the unit. It may also include certain support elements fromhigher units. r=l ",.......... (3) The combat base is located to facilitate future tactical operations in theFigure 35. Schematic armor brigade area and for security. Whenever posarea of operations. sible, combat bases are established on without large groups of the enemy highly defensible terrain. The majorcircumventing its forces and regroupity of the unit will conduct operations ing elsewhere in the subsector. Conaway from the combat base, leaving stant movement of forces will usually only the local force or the reaction permit the enlargement of the area force to secure the base depending on due to the "spoiling" effect movement plans for employing the reactionhas on insurgenfactivities. force. (8) A company or troop normally retains (4) The size of the base will vary witha platoon (+) as a local reaction the size of the friendly units occupyforce. Likewise, a battalion or squading it, the defensibility of the terrain,ron normally retains a reaction force and the probability of insurgent atof at least one company or troop. The tack. In any case, the combat base isbrigade normally retains a very as small as practicable to facilitate itsstrong reaction force of battalion security.( +) size to counter and destroy large (5) A combat base is organized with enconsolidations of insurgent forces in circling positions prepared fromthe area. In difficult terrain, the reacwhich it can be defended against intion forces should have the capability of operating as an airmobile force. surgent attack. Protective obstaclesare prepared to support the defensive c. Mobile Combat Bases. positions. Outposts and listening posts (1) Units conducting tactical operations are established well forward of theagainst insurgent · forces establish defensive positions and occupied at allcombat bases from which to operate. times. All possible avenues of apHowever, it is not normal for a batproach leading into the area aretalion or a higher unit to be assigned mined. 227 (6) The provision of troop facilities is a quently within the area of responsi bility to prevent the insurgent forceconsideration in the organization of a combat base. Whenever possible, temfrom receiving detailed information porary overhead shelter is provided. about their location and disposition. An adequate water supply should be This capability must take priority when in conflict with needs listed in within the base. Some means of phys ical recreation such as volleyball or (6) and (7) above. wrestling must be provided. A good (9) When the insurgent force has reached base will assist in maintaining high the state of development where its morale in the unit. operations approach those of conven (7) The highest standards of discipline tional forces, the use of widely sepa rabd bases will normally be tactically and sanitation must be maintained in the combat base. Normally, a comunsound. mander will seldom see his men durd. Static Security Posts (fig. 36). ing operations against guerrilla (1) A static security post is any orga forces, except for the brief periods nized security system for the protec they are in the combat base. Most of tion of fixed critical military or civil the time, members of the unit will be installations, or critical points along operating on patrols, raids, ambushes, lines of communication such as termi outposts, or other operations. nals, tunnels, bridges, and road or (8) Combat bases must be completely morailway junctions. Although armor units secure areas through the use ofbile. These bases must be moved fre- REMOVABLE 1'7(7nf~.-..----~WIRE -~VILLAGE EVACUATED • • HILL SUMMIT AND FORWARD SLOPES CLEARED AND MINED Figure 36. Typical static security post (guarding bridge). 228 their mobility, a static security post may be required to adequately secure the assigned area of operations against insurgent attack. The size of the post depends on the mission, the size and characteristics of the hostile force, the attitude of the civil populace, and the importance of the area being secured. It may vary from a two-man bridge guard to a reinforced company securing a key communication center or civilian ·community. Static security posts in remote areas will necessarily be larger than those nearer supporting forces. (2) The organization of a static security post will vary with its size, mission, and distance from reinforcing units. In any case, the outpost is organized for the security of both the installation and the security force. Reliable communications must be established between static security posts and the parent unit base. The parent unit must be prepared to counterattack with its reserves or reaction force to assist the outpost. (3) Static security posts are organized and prepared for all-round defense. Adequate guards and patrols must be used to prevent surprise. Precautions are necessary to prevent guards being surprised and overpowered before they can give an alarm. Concealed approaches to the security posts are mined. Areas from which short-range fire can be placed on the position are cleared and mined. Areas of poor visibility are improved or covered with automatic weapons. The immediate area of the outpost is dug-in and reinforced with earth and sandbags. Personnel are provided auxiliary exits and covered routes from their shelters to the combat positions. Buildings used for shelter should be selected with care. Generally, wooden or other lightweight constructions are avoided. If they must be used, the walls should be reinforced for protection against small arms fire. If the post consists of more than one position, consideration is given to the use of connecting trenches. Supplies are stored in dispersed and protected caches. Adequate security must be provided for communication installations and equipment. Combat efficiency is maintained by training and periodic alert drills. ( 4) Indigenous personnel, other than paramilitary personnel, are not allowed to enter the defensive positions, and those living in the immediate vicinity are screened and evacuated, if necessary. Friendly civilians may be helpful in warning of the approach of insurgent forces. ( 5) All consideration possible is given to troop comfort during the organization and preparation of the security post. At best, morale will suffer among troops who must operate for prolonged periods of time in small groups away from their parent organization. (6) If a static security post is far removed from other organic units and there is a possibility of isolation of the post by insurgent action, sufficient sustaining supplies are prestocked within the post. A static security post should never have to depend solely on the local populace for supplies. (7) The defense of an installation should be varied· often to counter information the enemy may have received concerning the disposition and routine operations of the security force. This may be accomplished by varying (a) Patrol and sentinel routes. (b). Fixed posts and listening post locations. (c) Schedule of changing guard. (d) Password. (e) Positions of tanks, scout vehicles, mortars, and automatic weapons. e. MO'Vement to Contact. In order to achieve surprise, armor units normally enter an area of operations from an approach march origi nating outside the area of operation: This practice makes accurate timing of the attack difficult and places responsibility on the unit commander for an accurate estimate of the time required for the approach march. Maximum prior reconnaissance and ample time allowances for unforeseeable delays are necessary in planning. Where limited reconnaissance or terrain difficulties make an accurate time questionable, it may be necessary to base the maneuver of other elements, such as airmobile forces, on the actual arrival time of the armor unit. The mobility, speed, and communications of armor units assist materially in attaining the necessary punctuality, but the commander must provide the leadership, foresigth, and planning required. f. Encinlement. The encirclement is the best method of fixing insurgent forces in position. It must be accomplished with great speed, with sufficient forces to close the area completely, and-especially when small forces are being used-with utmost secrecy. Surprise is essential ; the least warning is enough to scatter the insurgent forces. Normally only when a major supply base is threatened will insurgents defend an area. Even then, if it becomes apparent they are outnumbered, they will attempt to infiltrate or attack to break out and escape. Since nearly all insurgent groups are based in nearly inaccessible areas, most encirclements are accomplished by infantry that can march into the area or be airlifted. Even airlifted troops may not prove too successful since the noise of the helicopters serves to warn the enemy. Therefore, the following pertains to operations conducted in open areas or areas where some roads or trails permit vehicular movement. (1) Tank units reinforced with infantry and armored cavalry units possess the mobility and speed to accomplish an encirclement. Vehicular noise may preclude surprise. This may necessitate dismounting part of the troops some distance away, moving the vehicles into predesignated positions on order after the dismounted troops are in position. (2) The majority of operations of this nature, conducted by armored units, will usually require a force large enough to encircle and destroy the insurgent tactical force. The initial encirclement will have to be large enough to insure that the entire insurgent force is contained within the boundaries. This usually requires a high proportion of infantry in the armored unit. The limited road nets usually found in an insurgency environment normally preclude parallel movement on roads of mounted units. This requires elements to follow one another and thereby seriously hampers effort at surprise. However, with detailed planning and reconnaissance, multiple columns can be used in cross-country movements. (3) Since air cavalry and airmobile troops are capable of fast movement, can suddenly appear and interdict an area with accurate automatic weapons fire, and can land riflemen to flush insurgents out into killing zones, they are particularly suited for encirclement operations. If the foliage is not too dense, air cavalry can observe, pursue, and kill fleeing individuals. The noise of approaching helicopters is an unavoidable complication and partially detracts from the advantage of speed and surprise. ( 4) Encircling movements are executed rapidly. Defensive positions are occupied simultaneously in order to block escape and prevent evasion. If simultaneous occupation of these positions is not possible, escape routes most likely to be used are covered first. Initial occupation is the most critical period of the operation. If large insurgent formations realize, during this period, that they are being encircled, they can be expected to react immediately to probe for gaps or attack weak points to force a gap. (a) Units occupying the positions along the encirclement provide strong combat patrols well to their front so early warning of attempted breakouts may be received and es cape routes ambushed. If strong combat patrols cannot be employed, the minimum security required is an outpost line with multiple listening posts. Mobile reserves are positioned for immediate movement to counter any threat of a breakout and to reinforce difficult areas, such as deep ravines, caves, or tunnels. (b) Indirect fire support can serve to cloak an impending encirclement by gaining and maintaining the insurgent's attention through interdiction and harassing fires while encircling units move into position. Control and coordination of fires should be planned in detail to support the encirclement after it is discovered. (c) Following the initial encirclement, the capture or destruction of the insurgent tactical force is conducted methodically and thoroughly by use of fire and maneuver in simultaneous, controlled contractions of the encirclement. As the line of encirclement is progressively contracted, units may be removed from the line and added to the reserve. Against small insurgent tactical forces, the entire encircled area may be cleared by progressive contraction ; however, against larger insurgent armed forces, it is probable that, at some point, some action other than further contraction will be required (fig. 37). 1. One technique consists of driving a wedge through the insurgent force to divide it, permitting the destruction of. insurgent tactical forces in each subarea. This technique also may be used in conjunction with contraction of the line of encirclement (fig. 38). 2. Another technique, employed after some degree of contraction, is to employ a holding force on one or more sides of the perimeter while part of the line of encirclement forces the insurgent tactical A. ENCIRCLEMENT COMPLETED B. MOVEMENT TO FIRST PHASE LINE ,-----, , ' f 6 ~ \~I ,_ ~ ~------"' C. MOVEMENT TO SECOND PHASE LINE C ) FRIENDLY FORCES ($ 5) INSURGENT FORCES ___ _. .:'---...., PREVIOUS POSITIONS Figure 37. Tightening of the encirclement. forces against the holding force by offensive action. Either element may accomplish the actual destruction, but it usually will be accomplished by the attacking element (fig. 39). This technique is most effective when the holding force is located on, or immediately in the rear of, a natural terrain obstacle (fig. 40). 3. Another technique is the use of blocking or ambush forces to encircle an area approximately 1,000 meters square. After the A. ENCIRCLEMENT COMPLETE cUD B. FIRST BISECTION C. SECOND BISECTION C ) FRIENDLY FORCES (f" :::J) INSURGENT FORCES Figure 38. Pragmenting the encirclement. positions are established, the area is subjected to intense saturation-type indirect fire and aerial attack. As the tactical insurgent forces try to exit the area, they are either destroyed or captured. This type operation requires accurate information of the location of insurgent forces to preclude casualties to civilians (fig. 41). g. Attack and Pursu'it. The primary role of armor units in operations against insurgent 232 I I I I • I I AREA OF OFFENSE I • I I I I I I I I I I I : I I I I I 1 I ... I 1 > ... "' ..."' "' J RESERVE LEGEND: ~BLOCKING OR AMBUSH POSITIONS ~OFFENSIVE ELEMENTS Pigure 39. Use of a blocking force and an offensive force. tactical forces is to attack and pursue. To accomplish these missions, the commander must be prepared to meet two situations-first, contact with tactical insurgent forces who are in the open and attempting to break contact; second, encounter with prepared defensive positions from which the insurgent intends to conduct a sustained defense. (1) Enemy in the open. In this situation the attack and pursuit phases of the operation may merge. If the tactical insurgent force is attempting to refuse contact, he must be pursued before he can be attacked. The essential requirement is to establish contact in order to fix the enemy and halt his flight. For this reason, armored personnel carriers may be used as fighting vehicles, and riflemen not dismounted until required for mopping up. Unit integrity is desirable but not A. ENCIRCLEMENT COMPLETE TERRAIN OBSTACLE B. OFFENSIVE ACTION INITIATED C. FINAL CRUSHING ACTION TERRAIN OBSTACLE C ) FRIENDLY FORCES