«'^»V^'^*»*'i»\*-"«*"' !-«V " I- ^..• *,.' ^.' CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. This book is iip^rxo be takei from th a Heading H.oom. WHE(^ C^^ME WITH. RTTURN AT CMCE to SHELF HET^ BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Hcnrg W, Sage 1891 A^XISflf. 3.l./'^/,q6p: 7673-2 CORNELL UNIVERSITY , LIBRAHV 3 1924 088 473 099 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924088473099 HISTORY OF THE WORLD Volume V THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD A SURVEY OF MAN'S RECORD EDITED BY DR. H. F. HELMOLT WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY BY THE Right Hon. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. COMPLETE IN EIGHT VOLUMES VOLUME V SOUTH EASTERN AND EASTERN EUROPE WITH PLATES AND MAPS NEW YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 1907 Copyright, 196 By Dodd, Mead and Company /lA tJNIVBESITT PRESS • JOHN ■WllSON AND SON • CAMBKIDGE, U. S. A. PREFACE WE feel that a word of apology is due to our subscribers for the delay which has attended the publication of the present volume. The diffi- culties of production have been greater than we anticipated. Our contributors found, in several cases, that it was impossible to give a satisfactory account of the subjects which they had undertaken without making independent researches on an extensive scale. We hope that the delay is justified by the result ; the present volume may fairly claim to be a fuller and more accurate account of Southeastern and Eastern Europe than any which is to be found in the older uni- versal histories. Special attention has been devoted to the origins of the peoples whose history is here narrated. On this side of the subject the volume is particularly indebted to the work of J. Marquart on " East European and East Asiatic Migrations " (Leipsic, 1903), and to that of N. Jorga on the " History of the Eoumanians " (Gotha, 1905, 2 vols.). The last-named work is included in the " Staatenge- schichte " series of Lamprecht. Dr. Armin Tille, the editor of this portion of the series, courteously placed the proofs, as far as the middle of the second volume, at the disposal of Dr. Helmolt. In this, as in previous volumes, we have departed from the practice of similar works by treating with exceptional fulness those peoples and regions which have been generally neglected as unimportant. It is hoped that our volume will be, for this reason, more generally useful than if we had followed the beaten track. Moreover, it is impossible to settle the relative importance of events and move- ments on a 'priori principles. To give only two instances, the question of Bul- garian origins turns out to be of unsuspected interest; and the history of the Bogumiles, as investigated in the following pages, supplies a missing chapter in the history of Slavonic ecclesiastical literature. Our general subject is Eastern Europe, in the wider sense which we have given to the term in our introduction to Volume VII. The subject has been divided into seven sections. The first of these, from the pen of Dr. Rudolf von Scala, forms a continuation of Volume IV, Chapter V, and traces the development of Hellenism from the death of Alexander the Great. Part of this section is devoted to the his- tory of mediaeval Greece, and illustrates more particularly the influence of Byzantium upon her subject provinces. The sections on the Albanians and European Turkey are connected with one another at several points, and may be regarded as supple- vi HISTORY OF THE WORLD l'''-^'^' menting the Hellenic section. Then follow sections on Bohemia and Moravia previously to 1526, and on the southern Slavs. The sixth section deals with the Danubian races, the seventh with the remaining Slav peoples, and deserves a special mention for the originality of the arrangement and the attempt to trace the general course of Slavonic development. All students of Eussian history must be grateful to the work of Schiemann and Bruckner on this subject (in Oncken's " Allgemeine Geschichte "). But in some respects our section adds to the results of these learned specialists ; partly as to the origins of the Eussian Empire, partly as to the century between Ivan IV and Peter the Great. Poland also has received special attention from our contributor, whose work has profited by the expert advice of Dr. Joseph Girgensohn. In this, as in the fourth and sixth sections, the influence of Germany upon Slavonic development has been fully illustrated. For the Albanian and Danubian sections, left incomplete by the premature and lamented death of their respective authors. Dr. Helmolt is partially responsible. He has completed the Albanian section ; in the Danubian section, the author of which died as far back as 1899, he has incorporated the results of the most recent researches. His original intention was to include in this volume a section on the historical importance of the Baltic. This, however, through pressure of space has been carried over to the sixth volume. Prof. Dr. Ludwig Mangold of Budapesth has rendered valuable assistance in settling some crucial questions of Hungarian history; the explanation of the " Golden Bull" of 1222-1351 has been revised by Prof. Dr. A. Luschin von Eben- greuth of Graz ; the modest but highly valuable account of the literature of the gipsies of Central and Southern America, a point hitherto neglected, is due to Consul Ed. Eickert of Hamburg. It is also our pleasant duty to express our acknowledgments to those who have met our wishes as regards the illustration of the volume. We have to thank the authorities of the Moravian provincial archives at Briinn, of the Eoyal Eoumanian Academy at Bucharest, of the Eoyal Public Library and Cabinet of Engravings at Dresden, of the Ducal Library at Gotha, of the town archives at Iglau, of the Eoyal Czartoryski Museum at Cracow, of the Germanic National Museum at Nuremberg, of the National Library at Paris, of the Bohemian Museum at Prague, of the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg, of the Eoyal and Imperial FamHien- fideikommiss Library, of the royal, court, and state archives, and of the court library at Vienna. CONTENTS I. THE GBEEKS AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT Page 1. HEU.BinSH 1 a. The World-wide Position of Hellen- ism 1 b. Lesser Greece up to the Roman Conquest 19 c. The Progress in Culture during the Hellenistic Era 23 d. The Roman Rule (146 b. C.-395 a.d.) . 26 i. Btzanticm 27 a. The Founding of the Byzantine Empire 27 4. The Old Bj'zantine Empire down to Justinian 33 c. Old Byzantium at the Zenith of its Prosperity under Justinian . . 37 d. The Oriental Elements of Byzantine Culture 48 e. The Byzantine Province of Syria as Mediator between West and East 52 /. Byzantium as the Centre of Civiliza- tion for East and West in the Old Byzantine Age 55 g. Heroic Struggles and Barbarism under the Military Monarchy (660-717) 64 h. The Renascence of the Empire under the Syrian Dynasty (717-802) . . 66 j. The Settlement of the Image Con- troversy; the Severance of the Greek World from Rome ... 73 i. The Middle Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian Dynasty and the First Comneni (867-1071) ... 80 I. The Pause in the Disintegration dur- ing the Reign of the Comneni (1071-1185) 91 ni. The Decline and Fall of the Empire under the House of Angelus (1185-1204) 97 n. Byzantine Inf.uences on the West and North from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Century 99 0. The Latin Empire (1204-1261) . . 103 p. The Empire of Nicaea 106 Page q. The Neo-Byzantine Empire . ... 107 r. The Spread of Greek Culture to Italy 112 3. New Greece 113 a. The Turks as Heirs of the Byzan- tine Empire (1453-1821) .... 113 b. The Kingdom of Greece (from 1832) 118 II. TURKEY IN EUROPE AND ARMENIA 1. The Beginnings or THE OsMAN Empike 120 a. The Origin and the Destinies of the Osmans to the Year 1360 . . . . 120 6. The Turks in Europe (1360-1450) . 127 2. The Osman Empire at the Zenith of ITS Power (1451-1566) 136 a. The Destruction of the Byzantine Empire 136 b. The Last Twenty-five Years of Mo- hammed II 141 c. Bajazet II and Selim I 147 d. Suleim&n II the Magnificent . . . 149 3. The Decline of the Empire (1566- 1792) 155 a. From Selim II to Murad IV (1566- 1640) 155 b. From Ibrahim I to Mahmud I (1640- 1754) 160 c. From Osman III to the Peace of Jassy (1754-1792) 168 4. The Age op Attempts at Reform (First Half of the Nineteenth Century) 171 a. The Conclusion of the Reign of Selim III 171 6. Mahmud II 172 c. The First Half of the Reign of Abd ul-Mejid (1839-1850) 182 5. The Crimean War and its Results for Turkey (the Third Quarter of the Nineteenth Century) . . 184 6. Abd ul-Hamid II (from 1876) .... 194 7. Armenia 200 a. The Heroic Period 202 6. The Armenian Renascence of the Mechitarists 204 Vlll CONTENTS Page c. The Kelations with Russia .... 207 d. The Struggle of the Gregorians with the United and Protestant Party 209 e. The Armenian Question 212 /. The Revolts and their Suppression . 214 III. THE ALBANIANS 1. The Countey op Albania . . . 219 2. The Population of Albania .... 220 a. The Remnants of a Popular Religion from Heathen Times 221 b. Albanian Literature 222 3. The History of the Albanians . . 222 a. Their Origin 222 b. The History of Albanian Independ- ence to the Time of Skanderbeg 224 c. Albania in the Nineteenth Century . 226 IV. BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND SILESIA PREVIOUS TO THEIR UNION WITH AUSTRIA IN THE YEAR 1562 1. Preliminary Geographical Observa- tion 227 2. The Pre-historic Period 230 3. The Moravian Empire of the House of Moimik 232 4. The Empire op the Premyslids . . 235 a. The Struggles of Early Development (until 1140) 235 6. Vladislav II and his Successors until the Agreement of 1197 .... 239 c. ThePfemyslid Kingdom atthe Height of its Prosperity 243 5. The Luxemburgs 247 a. King Johann 247 6. King Charles IV 249 c. King Wenzel; the Rise of the Hussites 252 d. King Sigismund ; the Hussite Wars 258 6. The Two Hapsb[jrgs, Kings Albrecht AND Ladislaus 261 7. King George Podieerad 263 8. The Polish Jagellons upon the Throne op Bohemia 265 a. King Vladislav (1471-1516) ... 265 6. King Ludwig I (1516-1526) ... 268 V. THE SLOVENIAN AND SERVIAN- CROATIAN RACE 1. The Earliest Information concern- ing the Southern Slavs .... 271 Page 2. Influence op Geography on the His- tory of the Slav 274 3. The Settlements of the Southern Slavs, their Constitution and Religion 276 4. The Position and Political Situation op the Southern Slavs 278 a. The Supremacy of the Avars . . . 279 b. The Appearance of the Croatians and Serbs 280 c. The Immigration of the Bulgarians 281 5. The Conversion of the Slavs to Christianity 283 6. The Early History op the Croatians 287 7. Seevia, Montenegro, and Bosnia until the Turkish Supremacy 288 a. Servia 288 6. Montenegro 295 c. Bosnia 295 8. The Turkish Supremacy 296 9. Croatia, Dalmatia, and Ragusa; the Croatian Military Frontier . . 299 a. Croatia and Dalmatia to the Six- teentli Century 299 b. The Prosperous Period of Eagusa . 301 c. The Croatian Military Frontier . . 303 10. The Liberation op the Southern Slavs from the Turkish Yoke . . 304 a. Austria and Russia as Helpers in Time of Need 305 6. The Work of Liberation in the Nineteenth Century 307 11. The Political Position op Croatia in the Nineteenth Century . . . 309 12. The National Life of the Servian- Croatian Race 310 a. The Literature of the Southern Slavsi 310 b. The lUyrian Movement 3U c. The Southern Slav Idea . . . . . 313 d. The Servian-Croatian Nationality at the Present Day 314 13. The Slovenians . • 315 a. The German Supremacy .... 315 6. The National Side of the Reformation in Carniola 316 c. The Literary Renascence of the Last One Hundred and Fifty Years . 3J7 VI. THE DANUBE PEOPLES 1. The Huns 319 a. Their Beginnings in Asia .... 319 6. The Advance into the Danube District 320 CONTENTS IX c. Attila 320 d. The Downfall of tlie Hun People . 324 2. The Bdloaruns 826 a. The Origiual Home, the Migrntiona aud the Divisions of the Bulgarians 326 6. Old Bulgaria in Europe 328 c. The Turkish Period 348 d. The Beginning of a New Period of Independence 351 3. The Roumanians 353 a. The Origin of the Roumanians . . 353 b. Wallachia 355 c. Moldavia 363 d. Konmania 371 4. The Magyars 374 a. Hungary as the Scene of Pre-Magyar History 374 6. The Early History of the Magyars to the Time of St. Stephan .... 375 c The Hungarians until the Battle of MohScs 380 d. Hungary during the Personal Union with the House of Hapsburg (since 1526) 387 e. The Germans in Hungary .... 397 5. The Gipsies 415 a. Their Names and Origin .... 415 6. Their Migrations and Settlements . 418 c. Gipsy Life in the Danube District . 422 TIL EASTERN EUROPE 1. Geogeaphical and Historical Sue- TET a. The Earliest Information : Herodotus 6. The Geographical Limitations of the Separation of Eastern Europe from the West c. Pointsof Resemblance and Difference between Russia and Poland . . . 425 426 428 431 435 The Peoples of Eastern Europe in THE Early Slavonic Age .... a. The Earliest Indications of Russians and Poles 435 6. The Non-Slavs of Old Russia ... 438 c. The Life of the Ancient Slavs . . . 442 The Founding op the Russian Em- pire (The Dnieper Age) .... 447 a. The Beginnings until Igor .... 447 b. The Old Russian Empire at its Zenith 450 c. The Fall of the United Nation of South Russians 459 Page Russia from tiik Middle op the Elisventh to tiih Beginning of the FOURTKENTII f'lCNTURY 461 o. The Ago of the Petty Princes to the Year 1240 461 b. The Subjugation of Russia by the Tartars 405 Poland from the Tenth Century to THE Year 1376 469 (I. The Bnginnings of Poland (to the Year 1138) 469 b. The Consequences of the Introduction of the Law of Seniority into Poland 476 c. The External Relations and Domes- tic Affairs of Poland tu 1320 . . 481 d. The United Kingdom of the Last Piasts (1320-1370) 485 e. The Personal Union between Poland and Hungary 488 Christianity and Paganism in the Baltic Provinces and in Lithuania down to 1386 489 a. The Ethnology of the Southern Regions of the Baltic 489 6. The Teutonic Order and Lithuania to 1386 492 Poland from the End of the Four- teenth TO the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century 497 a. The Union of Lithuania with Poland 497 b. The Internal Developm^tjjf-Eoland- — - „ and its Relation"toXithuania . . 504 Russia from 1260 to her Admission among the Great Powers (The Volga Age) 513 a. Moscow from Daniel Alexandrovitch to Wasilij 11(1263-1463) .... 513 6. The Unification of Russia under Ivan III to Ivan IV (1462-1584) . . . 515 c. The End of the House of Rurik . . 524 d. The Rise of the Romanovs .... 526 RisB ANB-ftnx-crF" [9. The Risb anb-F-all ui' TUK' I*mrEE^-oir "^ \-/ Poland 527 a. The Final Direction of the Polish Policy in 1515 527 6. The Last Two Jagellons .... 531 c. Poland as an Elective Monarchy to the Year 1648 542 10. The Cossacks 551 a. The Beginnings of the Cossacks as Guards on the Tartar Frontier . .551 b. The Prosperity of the Cossacks in the Polish Period 553 CONTENTS Page c. Bogdan Chmelnicki ; The Subjnission to Moscow 558 d. The Russian Age of the Cossacks . 561 11. The Last Centukt of the Polish Empire 563 o. Poland from John 11 Casimir to John III Sobieski ; The Liberum Veto . 563 b. The Age of the Saxon Electors . . 566 c. The End of Polish Independence . . 569 12. RirssiA AS A European Power . . . 570 a. The Struggle between Progress and Reaction down to 1680 .... 570 Page b. Peter the Great 574 c. The Last Three Quarters of the Eigh- teenth Century 582 d. Progress and Reaction in the Nine- teenth Century 591 e. The Military and Political Successes of Russia after 1680 596 J". Retrospect and Prospect 607 INDEX 615 ILLUSTRATIONS COLOURED PLATES Page The Sarcophagus of Alexander in the Museum at Constantinople 24 A Cavalry Skirmish between Bulgarians and Russians in the Tenth Century . . 334 The Coronation of Alexander 1 of Poland at Cracow in the Year 1501 .... 612 WOOD ENGRAVINGS AND ETCHINGS The Ruins of Mistra in Laconia 104 Constantinople shortly before and shortly after its Capture by the Turks . . . 136 Six Osman Sultans 148 Six Influential Dignitaries of Turkey in the Nineteenth Century 188 The Founders of the Young Turkish Movement 192 Bohemian, Moravian, and Silesian Princes at the Close of the Middle Ages . . 248 The Burning of John Huss by the Council of Constance, on July 6, 1415 . . . 256 The Beginning of St. Luke's Gospel in Glagolitic Characters with Cyrillic Mar- ginal Glosses ■ 286 Serbo-Bosnian Civilization 298 Princes of Wallachia and Moldavia 356 The Founders of the Kingdom of Roumania 372 King Louis I of Hungary confirms, on December 11, 1351, the Golden Bull of Freedom (no longer existing in the original) of King Andreas of the Year 1222, and introduces the Right of Aviticitas, which remained in Force till 1848 380 An Encampment of the First Gipsies in Central Europe 418 Russian Crowns and Armour 466 Ivan III and IV; the White Russian Federation with the Emperor Max . . . 518 The Polish Embassy which visited Rome in 1633. Etching by Stefano della Bella 548 COLOURED MAPS Maps illustrating the History of European Turkey 166 Distribution of the Armenians 202 Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro 350 Map illustrating the History of Poland and Western Russia 564 Map illustrating the History of the Russian Empire 574 HISTORY OF THE WORLD I THE GREEKS AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT Bv PROF. DR. RUDOLF VON SCALA 1. HELLENISM A. The World-wide Position of Hellenism (a) HdUnism, before Alexander the Great THE dialects of the Greek races were influenced by long intercourse with the adjoining peoples of Illyria, Asia Minor, and Thraco-Phrygia. Hellenism also, which, in the course of expansion, often settled on a soil already peopled, must have had the peculiarities of its culture considerably modified in those cases. The undeviating and broad path along which the Greek religion moved from Fetichism to a religion of ethical content, as shown by the Eleusinian mysteries with their lesson of maternal love, had been a true national Greek path. But not merely are the traces of the influence of neighbouring nations distinctly recognisable in the different countries ; the substratum of the indigenous population shows through, however much it may have been depressed, so that we cannot speak of a fusion of races in the strictest sense. Just as the Catholic Church received and Christianised the old heathen cults, so the deities of the older strata of the population were taken over by the Greeks together with the seats of their worship; for example, the earth-deities and nature-deities of the inhabitants of Asia Minor, the orgiastic cults of the Thracians, and, later, Semitic and Egyptian deities. The service of the Ephesian goddess, with its exclusive priesthood and attendant eunuchs, strikes us as foreign and non-Greek, in the same way that the goddess Ehea in Crete belongs to the aborigines of Asia Minor. The great nature-goddess Ma, the mother of aU life, at whose feet the beasts of the forest lie, while lions draw her chariot, is worshipped where the sun is nearest, on the lofty mountain tops which his fiery rays first kiss. When autumn with a master's brush gave fresh beauty to the dying foliage on tree and shrub, the Phrygians mourned for their great divinity in bitter grief ; but when in springtide nature, so long dead, was revived with mysterious growth and burgeoning, the youth of the nation sallied forth with dance and barbaric music to celebrate in the awakening of spring the resurrection of the god Sabazius. The Greeks adopted the analogous cult of the Thracian Dionysus VOL. v-i 2 HISTORY OF THE WORLD [chapter i (cf. Vol. IV, p. 83). The music which is so closely associated with the ritual of these cults may possibly have found its way among the Greeks. WhQe Greek music was acquainted with a minor scale, which contained the same notes ascending and descending, and therefore was without a dominant note, the Phrygo-Lydian music, which now became prevalent, was a major mode, corre- sponding roughly to the major keys of the Gaelic folk songs. ^ The Phrygian musician Olympus was regarded as a personification of this influence; and, generally speaking, the memory of the Greek debt to Asia Minor was preserved with remarkable fidelity in the nomenclature and the ideas of history. The ApoUo cult, which had become entirely Greek, rested in many points on the worship of the Lycian sun-god ; Apollo, Artemis, and Leto were, even in Hellenistic times, national gods of Lycia; the Lycian singers of Delos, such as ^ Olen, continued to live in the memory of the Greeks. The mysteries of the Samothracian Cabiri, Semitic in name and Asiatic in nature, had great attraction for the Greeks. The Phoenician Astarte of Paphos in Cyprus was borrowed by the Greeks ; so, too, the goddess of Eryx in Sicily ; and not infrequently we find in Greek temples a female deity of Greek name but foreign origin, such as the armed Aphrodite in the temples of Cythera and Sparta, and the Athena of Lindus. So also Agrigentum adopted not only the bull-god of the Semites (the bull of Phalaris), but also the Semitic custom of honouring the god with human sacri- fices. And even where the old seat of worship did not lie within the new Greek territory, Greeks zealously fostered the ancient cults, as the Cyrenaeans, for example, the cult of the ram-horned Ammon. By the substratum of foreign language and the facile absorption of foreign cults the barriers of Greek civiliza- tion were weakened. Community of religion between two nations increases the influence which they exert one on the other. A civilization on a higher plane transmits its forms to others ; thus from the archetype of Phoenician script, as invented in Syria or Arabia, and preserved comparatively unaltered in the inscription of the Moabite king Mesa (Vol. Ill, p. 122), not merely the Sidonian- Phoenician and old Aramaic, but also the old Greek alphabets were derived, and the Semitic forms of trade and commerce, as fixed by the Babylonians (ibid. p. 40), the system of weights and measures and coinage (Vol. IV, p. 56), were transmitted to the Greeks. The Egyptian art of casting in iron stimulated Rhoecus, whose name is found in Naucratis, and subsequent Greek sculptors; while the colouring of the Greco-Cyprian artistic products was suggested by that of the Assyrian reliefs. The Assyrian metal-worker and the Lydian carpet-weaver gave hints to the Greek potter. The splendid system of mensuration which the Egyptian priests evolved for the benefit of the Egyptian agriculturists raised geometry to a level which opened new paths to Thales and Pythagoras. In this way the original form of Greek civilization has received important admixtures of foreign culture. The blending was facilitated by political inclusion in Oriental empires, by close neighbourship, which ended now in wars, now in peaceful relations of trade and intercourse, and by long years of peaceful associ- ation in the same communities ; in short, by the fact that a large percentage of the Greeks lived under foreign rule, by the side of foreigners and with foreigners. The Greek towns of Cyprus obeyed an Assyrian lord ; Greek princes appeared at the court of King Assarhaddon and Assurbanipal ; the towns of Asia Minor and Cyrene stood under Persian kings ; Greek towns in Sicily recognised Carthaginian 'aH'^^Atr-""-] HISTORY OF THE WORLD 3 supremacy. Greek troops had measured swords with the tribes of Asia Minor ; with Egyptians, Assyrians, Libyans, C'iirlhaginians, Ibeiians, Celts, Ligurians, Etruscans, with Italian tribes and lUyriiuis, Thracians, Scythians, and rcrsiaus. Greek mercenaries served in the seventh and sixth centuries in liabylonia, as a poem of Alca'us shows us, and on board tlie Euphrates tieet of Sennacherib; and also in Egypt, as the celebrated inscriptions written by mercenaiies at Abu Simbel show us. (ireek States concluded treaties with the kings of L}dia, with King Amasis of Egypt, with the C!artiiagiuians, the Persian kings and Thracian princes, and with Italian tribes. On the peaceful paths of commerce the horizon of the Greeks extendetl to the northern coasts of Europe and the high lands of Central Asia. The rha?uician markets were sujiplied by the Ionian towns* with slaves and minei-al ores; tiie products of Miletus passed through S\liaris to Etruria; Ill}Tian tribes, as far north as Istria, received Greek merchandise; and the town of Epidamnus had a special official to transact business with the Illyrians. Greek art exercised "by reflex action" a strong influence on Phce- nician art, whose terra-cotta figures in particular show a Greek character, — Ionian curls, the archaic smile, and the Greek folds of the robe. Types like the Silenus type were simply adopted by the Phoenicians. Croesus provided the pillars for the temple at Ephesus ; Greeks wrought the magnificent presents which the Lydian kings Alyattes and Croesus offered to the temple of the Branchidse at Didyma, such as the silver bowl on a base of iron which the Ionian Glaucus made for Alyattes. The bowl of King Croesus, which held six hundred amphora, can hardly be regarded as a present to Delphi from that ruler; the probable history being that it was plundered from the temple of the Branchidae and deposited in Delphi. But Ionian artists resided at Sardis. Mixed marriages between Lydians and Greeks were the order of the day; King Alyattes took an Ionian woman to wife, and a daughter of Alyattes was given in marriage to Melas of Ephesus. The poet Alcman, who developed Lydian music, was a native of the Lydian capital. Such facts explain the immense influence of Lydia on the lonians. Xenophanes of Colophon blamed his countrymen for parading in Lydian luxury, with purple robes and gold ornaments in their care- fully dressed hair. Hence the Lydian name of the garment which feU to the feet {0aaadpa, signifying, perhaps, originally the second part of the ceremonial dress worn in honour of the god Bassareus — the fox-skin) passed into the Greek language (just as the Lydian KVTraaai'i, perhaps also cothurnus). A Lydian historian wrote his work in Greek. Etruscans, Latins, Umbrians, Oscans, and Sabellians must have resided at Cumae in Lower Italy, and- they introduced the Greek alphabet into their native districts. The fame of the Cumajan Apollo as a god of healing induced Eome to receive the god on the occasion of a severe pestilence, and to give a lasting recog- nition to the Sibylline books. Owing to a disastrous failure of the crops the Greek deities Demeter, Dionysus and Core made their entry into Rome and were accorded a temple, which was embellished by the Greek artists Damophilus and Gorgasus. The priestesses for the secret festivals of Demeter came from Cam- pania ; the introduction of the god Hermes and the founding of his temple (which was connected with a com exchange) were associated with the import of corn from Lower Italy and Sicily ; similarly the worship of Neptune, ruler of the sea, was due to the oversea trade with Greece. The philosophy of P}thagoras attracted 4 HISTORY OF THE WORLD [chaj^ter i members of southern Italian tribes into its mystic circle. Greek legislature influ- enced the slow development of the Italian constitutions, but especially the crim- inal law of Eome. The struggle for written law was transferred from Greece to Italy, and political catch-words probably followed the same road. Greek art influ- enced Italian tribes and towns; Etruscan, like Lycian, artists must have studied in Greece, and Greek poems were translated into Etruscan. Persia and Greece began at an early period to exchange, the products of their civilizations. The palaces of the Persian kings were adorned not merely with the spoils of their victories over the Greeks, such as the brazen ram's-homs found at Susa in 1901 (which the Greeks cast from captured arms and had ofl'ered to Apollo of Didyma), and the statue of the god which Canachus of Sicyon had sculptured. The palaces at Susa must have been built and decorated by Greek artists. The name of one of these alone, Telephanes of Phocaea, who worked at the court of Darius, has come down to us; but their traces are visible in the whole style of Persian architecture, in the harmonious agreement between the interior and the faqade, in the great audience-chambers and halls of columns (apaddna), in the fluted piUars and their bases. In sculpture and painting the bold treatment of the dress and hak which, in spite of all similarity, is sharply differentiated from the Assyrian style, the drawing of the eye, the repre- sentation of the step, are all thoroughly Greek. Together with Greek artists, who must have been nearly akin to those of ^Egina, numerous Greek works of art (Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Apollo) reached Persia, and in their turn served as models. The lesser products of Persian art are equally Greek. The splendid amphora, of which two handles have found a resting-place in the Louvre and the Berlin Antiquarium, is, with its Ionic acanthus leaves and Persian winged ibexes, as completely Greek as the golden bowl of Theodores of Samos, as the golden vine with the emerald-green grapes which shaded the throne of the Achsemenidse, or the golden plane-tree, masterpieces which Autigonus Monophthalmos ordered to be melted down. Numerous gems were made by Greeks for Persians, in Oriental setting but with Greek designs. Thus on a cylinder of chalcedony, found at Kertch, Darius is represented chastising the rebel Gaumata, the latter in Grecian garb. Another gem exliibits a scene of ritual, a Persian queen entering the presence of a deity; her cloak is drawn as a veil over the back of her head in the Greek fashion. Hunting scenes, with Persian cuneiform inscriptions, point to Greek workmanship in the fidelity to nature with which the deer and trees are delineated. Indeed, the political disruption of the Greeks is strikingly expressed to us on one such Persian gem : a noble Persian holds two naked Greek prisoners fastened by a rope, and the guard of the prisoners appears as a Greek in full armour. In other spheres, also, Greek culture was employed by the Persians. The Greek physician Democedes of Croton practised at the court of Darius, the first of a series of physicians in ordinary at the Persian court, and was Sent on a journey of exploration. A Carian explorer, Scylax of Caryanda, used the Greek language to describe his travels, undertaken by the order of Darius, which included the courses of the Cabul Pdver and the Indus down to the sea. Finally, this intimate intercourse increased the awe with which the Persian kings regarded the Greek gods. A strong proof of this is afforded by the well-known decree of Darius to J*.'.?r?.-?^.7 -''"•] HISTORY OF THE WORLD 5 the goveruor (ladatas, ex press ing his royal dissatisfaction that taxes had heen imposed upon the otficials of the shrine of the I'.ranchidu'. Tliicc Iniudred talents of incense were offered to the Delian Apollo, ami the most ooinpleLn immunity was assured to all his subjects. Thus the every -day intercourse of (Ireeoe and I'ersia presents a quite ditlerent picture from that afforded by the I'ersian wais of traditional history. Phrygian art also was stimulated by tireece. Fai;ades in the style of the Greek temples took tiie place on the tombs of the native Phrygian fai;ades with their Egyptian pylons and lions like those of Caria and Myceuic The tombs of Ayazinu show us the increasing elfect of Greek influence, until finally the facade on a tomb at CUierdek-Kaiasi bears all the characteristics of a Dorian temple. But the ti reeks did not live merely amongst foreigners and near foreigners; the Greek community included members who spoke alien tongues. The Greeks thus lived toith foreigners on the closest terms of intercourse. Scattereil over the wide expanse of the Jfediterrauean, on the desert which fringes the highlands of Barca, on the fertile banks of the Rhone, on the slopes of Etna, in the hill country of Epirus, on the coasts of the Black Sea, and in the valley of the Nile the strangest types of city-state developed and adapted them- selves to the country without faltering in their loyalty to their common home. Prehistoric strata were preserved on completely Greek soil, as in Lemnos and Crete, down to the age of writing (witness the so-called Tyrrhene inscription from Lemnos and Eteocretan inscriptions from Praises). Tlie language of every-day life at Ephesus was permeated with Lydian, while the vernacular of Tarentum showed Italian elements ; the town of Perinthus had a Thracian tribal division (Phyle) ; Bithynians of Thrace served the Byzantines as bondsmen, and Siculi were the serfs of SjTacusan landholders. The petty townships of the peninsula of Athos were inhabited by a Thracian population, which was, however, so far Grecised that it employed Greek as the colloquial language; while in towns of what is now Southern France Iberian and Greek quarters existed, and from this region was dif- fused through the Greek world that influence of Northern, and especially Celtic, civilization which we are accustomed to term the La Tfeue culture (Vol. I, p. 173). The language, writing, and products of Greece were disseminated through purely Celtic regions. To this intercourse are due those imitations of Greek gods and letters on Celtic coins, which were prevalent from the mouth of the Seine to Bohemia, and on the commercial highway as far as the Lower Rhine and Northern Italy. In Egypt the Greek enclaves, the Greek mercenaries of Daphne (Tell Defennet), and the Greek manufacturing and commercial town of Naucratis carried on a brisk trade with the Egyptians, in accordance with whose customs scarabsei were made and engraved, and with whose neighbourly assistance a whole cycle of Greco- Egyptian myths was formed. It was then that the pretty legend of the treasure- house of Rhampsinitus (VoL III, p. 674) originated, which throughout is not originally Egyptian, but an imitation of the legend of Trophonius and Agamedes, who built the treasury of King Augeias of Elis. The priests then adopted the legend of Proteus and the Egyptian king, who tore Helena away from Paris in order to restore her to her husband. This arrest of Paris in Egypt looks much like a frivolous travesty of the Greek legend. The festival of Perseus was cele- brated at Chemmis with gymnastic contests in imitation of the Greek games ; in 6 HISTORY OF THE WORLD [Chapter i fact, the entire cycle of Delian myths is transplanted to Egypt, and a floating island was discovered there also. This mutual exchange of mtellectual wealth between Greeks and Egyptians may account for the introduction of the bands and the annulets of the Doric columns which encircle the floreated Egyptian capitals. Pharaoh Necho, after the victory over King Josiah of Judah at Megiddo, dedi- cated his coat of mail to ApoUo of Branchidaj, and the earliest dated Greek inscriptions of 590-589 (mentioned on page 2) relate to an expedition of King Psammetichus II against Ethiopia, in which Greek mercenaries were engaged (cf. Vol. Ill, p. 684) ; they are engraved on the leg of a colossal Eamses in the splendid rock-temple of Abu Simbel far up in Nubia. Amasis the PhUhellene contributed to the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi, dedicated in the temple of Lindus a linen breastplate, in which every thread was woven out of three hundred and sixty strands corresponding to the days of the year ui the old calendar, and sent presents to Sparta. In his reign the settle- ments of the Greeks were transferred from the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Mem- phis and further, a place in the Delta ; subsequently Naucratis (Vol. Ill, p. 686) was assigned to them, which was completely disconnected from the Egyptian State and received absolute self-government. The Greeks, faithful to their language, manners, and customs, erected there a central shrine, the Hellenion, for all their Egyptian colonies, which thenceforward multiplied more rapidly and extended far into the desert. The Samians had founded a factory in the great oasis of Uah el-Khargeh (seven days' journey from Thebes). We hear of the brother of the poetess Sappho as a wine-merchant in Naucratis; Alcseus, the poet, stayed in Egypt, while his brother distinguished himself in the service of Nebuchadnezzar. The foremost men of Greece either actually visited Egypt, or, according to the legend, drew wisdom from these newly opened sources. Solon and .Pythagoras undoubtedly stayed in Egypt. At this period the terms for coarse linen (ipwa-acav and Tj/jnTo/Siov) and fine linen (aivBcIip), and linen tunics ornamented with fringes (KuXda-ipK), found their way from Egyptian into Greek. There were three strata of population in Epirus, Acarnania, and ^tolia: a Greek (^olian or Thessalian), an IHyrian, and a Corinthian (or Northwest Greek) imposed one on the other, and these tribes were usually regarded by the Greeks as mixed nationalities. In fact, , the strong Thraco-IlljTian strain among the Macedonians enabled the more exclusive spirits of old Greece to stigmatise the Macedonians as barbarians (Vol. IV, p. 297). The numerous Carian names among the families of Halicamassus show how strongly the original population was represented, while the naming of Milesians after the goddess Hecate illustrates the power of the Carian cult. The intimate union of races is proved by the fact that the fathers of Thales (Hexamyes) and of Bias (Teutamos), the uncle of Herodotus (Panyassis) undoubtedly, and his father (Lyxas) probably, bear Carian names, such as occur also in Samos (Cheramnes) and in Cos. A similar mixture of blood occurs in Greco-Libyan and Greco- Thracian districts; Hegesypyle, wife of Miltiades, was a Thracian princess; Thucydides was descended from her father Olorus, and the two Dions and the historian Arrian had Thracian blood in their veins. In the aristocratic and agricultural State of Lycia Greek settlers filled the rSle of a commercial and money-makmg middle class and disseminated knowledge of the arts for which their native land was famous. Dynasts of Lyci a cia ^e^MfS.tS'^'"] HISTORY OF THE WORLD 7 struck coins which represent them with the Persian tiara, but bear on the Te\('ise the figure of the goddess Athena. Monuments were erected to the princes, which extol them in the LvLian and Greek languages, and an Attic epigiam on the Columna Xanthia praises the sou of Harpagus, because withtlie help of AUicim, the destroyer of towns, lie laid low many citadels, and dedicated to Zeus more trophies than any mortal. Greeks and Dynasts together drew up in bilingual agreements the regulations for festivals, a.s is shown by the iuscription of Isinda. The coins of the towns of ]\h\llos, Issos, and other places on the Cilician coast bear Greek inscriptions by the side of those in jVramaic. The Greek towns of the kingdom of the Bosphorus, such as Panticapaeum (near the modern Kertch), founded by the Milesians, which climbs llie hills in terraces, not only accepted the Phrygian Mother, but, since So}thians also lived in the same political community, had in great measure adopted Scythian manners. Thus they covered their lower limbs with the trousers and high boots of the barbarian. Masterpieces of Greek art, like the silver vase of Kertch, originated in these towns ; nevertheless an Oriental influence became more and more prominent, in the huge sepulcliral mounds which they raised, in the decoration of their inbes with gold leaf, in the use of the Persian mitre and the golden diadem as the royal head-dress (cf. Vol. IV, p. 77 et seq.). Olbia also enjoyed brisk commerce with the Scythians, and was subject to Scythian influence (cf. Vol. IV, p. 273). A flour- ishing inland trade was conducted along the Dniester, Bug, and Narew, and the connections of the traders extended to the mouths of the Vistula ; on the caravau road to Central Asia, which even at the present day possesses importance, and sug- gests the line of the future trans-continental railroad (Vol. II, p. 224), there lay in the middle of forest-country a town built of wood and surrounded with palisades, in which Hellenic farmers and trappers settled. They borrowed largely from the language of the adjoining tribes, and, far from their homes in the northern forests, worshipped their own deities, especially Dionysus. A Greek cup foimd on the Obwa, representing the dispute between Ulysses and Ajax, and a statue of Hygeia found at Perm, show that Greek trade flourished even in those parts. ' - The Greek people thus grew to maturity in constant intercourse with every nation of the civilized world. The ancient bonds of union, the national games, which united the Greeks of the most various regions, and the common religious centres soon made the whole nation share alike in the lessons which had been learned on the fringes of the Greek world. It was only when all intellectual im- portation had become unnecessary that exclusiveness became a feature of the city- state, and it was in the age of Pericles that Athens iirst regarded mixed marriages with non-Athenian women as invalid. The lands which formed the core of Greece became self-centred ; but on the outer verge of Greece the national tendency was to expand and proselytise. An immense influence was disseminated from the western Greek world, which under the rule of the two Dionysi embraced the Eastern Siculi ; the splendid coins of Euainetos of Syracuse were copied bj' the Semites in Segesta, IMotye, and Panor- mus, as well as by the satraps of the Persian Empire, Phamabazus and Tarcamus, while Greek gods and Greek art passed into the western Semitic world. Greeks helped subsequently to fight the war of liberation in Egj'pt, and yet supplied the Persians on the other hand with mercenaries and generals. Greeks served at the Persian court as body-physicians and wrote Persian history, priding themselves, 8 HISTORY OF THE WORLD [chapter i with very dubious right, on their knowledge of official records. Greeks like Mem- non of Rhodes would have been the best supports of the Persian Enipire if the iealousy and distrust of the Persian nobles had not crippled them ; and Greek mer- cenaries were the leading troops of the Persian Empire from the expedition ot Cyrus down to the last desperate battle of Darius Codomannus. Thus the GreeK nation, even in the decisive battle under Alexander, supplied the best warriors and the best brams on either side, and at the same time scattered with slavish hands the rich stores of Hellenic culture over all the inhabited world. (h) The World-wide Fosition of the Greek Nation under Alexander the Great. — The founding of Alexander's empire (Vol. IV, p. 299) brought to the East an expansion of Greek culture ; it promoted an exchange of commodities between East and West, and a mixture of barbarian and Greek nationalities, such as the ancient world had never seen before. Iberian tribes in Spam, Celtic clans in Southern France, Etruscan towns, Italian arts and crafts, Egyptian military systems and Egyptian legends, Lycian sepulchral architecture and Carian monuments, the work of Scythian goldsmiths and Persian palaces had already long been subject to Greek iofluence, so that the Greeks won their place in the history of the world far more as citizens of the Mediterranean sphere than by their domestic struggles. But now the old colonising activity of the Greeks, which had been relaxed for two cen- turies, was renewed over the whole expanse of a broad empire whose political life was Greek, whose government was Persian, whose rulers and army were Greek. The founding of Alexandria and revival of Babylon had created great cities in the East, which, from the height of their intellectual and material civilization, were destined to become the centres of the new empire. The whole stream of their wealth flowed westward ; the long stored-up treasures of the Achsemenids once more circulated in the markets; the observations and calculations of Chaldaean astronomers, which went back thousands of years, became available to the Greeks. Pytheas, and after him Hipparchus, used Babylonian measures in calculating the distance of the stars. The political and religious traditions of Babylon, which had already brought the Assyrian monarchs under their spell and made a coronation in Babylon appear the necessary condition of a legitimate title, played a foremost part in the world-sovereignty of Alexander, and fitted in marvellously well with his schemes for investing his empire with a religious character. The building of the temple to Marduk Esaggil played in Alexander's plan a part njot less important than the construction of harbours and dockyards. Hellenism could now regard these conquered countries as a real intellectual possession. The reports of the general staff, which contained an exact survey of the conquered country, were deposited in the imperial archives at Babylon. Spe- cial officials (Bematists, or step-measurers) were responsible for the measurement of the distances. Trustworthy figures were forthcoming, instead of the estimates based on the caravan trade with eastern countries, against the inaccuracy of which Aristotle so vigorously protested. The course of the Indus and Ganges and the island of Taprobane (Ceylon) became known. The reports of Nearchus the Cretan effected a scientific conquest of the coast between the Indus and Euphrates. In December, 323, this explorer, the leading member of the scientific staff of Alex- ander, entered the Persian Gulf with a fleet for which the Himalayas had supplied the timber. To his pen is doubtless due that wonderful account of the tidal-plants a'if.lrMfoJfr^'"-] HISTORY OF THE WORLD (the mangroves with their supporting mots whicli grow on the shore and Bj)rea(l far out into the sen) whicli is extant in Tlioojihriustus. AU'XiindcM' had intru.sled to Heraclides llio exploration of the Ciisjuan Sea and itw connection with tlie ocean, — his death prevented the cxeeution of the plan, — and tluec times organ- ised attempts to circumnavigate Arabia; but Archias of Pella, Androsthenes (jf Thasos, and Hieron of Scihu were all equall}- unable to i)as8 the surf-beaten Cape Musandam. To the second of tliese naval explnri'rs we owe the masterly descrip- tion of the isle of liidni'in, Tylos, with its liowering gardens and cool fountains, an which Androsthenes stayed from l>eiember, 324, to January, 323. Here the dis- covery was made that plants sleep, and we are given a beautiful description of the way in which the ficus-leaves of the Indian tamarind fold up for the night. The cotton plantations, which recalled so vividly the vines of Hellas, were carefully studied. Thus we possess m this account, extant in Theophrastus, a brilliant com- mentary on the difference of the methods by which this expedition of Alexander opened up the conquered territories from those, for instance, of the Arabian con- querors, who saw barely anything on this marvellous island. W^e do not know who of Alexander's staff supplied the observations on the banyan which were made about 326, during the halt at the confluence of the Hydaspes and Acesines, nor who so accurately mapped out the species of the trees on the Northwestern Hima- layas, nor who discovered, from the case of the citron-tree, the existence of sexual differences in the vegetable kingdom. However easy it was to exaggerate in the description of the gigantic Indian fig-trees, where the Bematists fixed the circum- ference of the foliage at fourteen hundred and fifty yards (considerably less than that of the still existing giant trees of Nerbuda), and however diflicult it was to explain the aerial roots which spring from the older branches and become support- ing roots, we are everywhere astonished at the way in which these phenomena were surveyed with open eyes and intelligent appreciation. Nothing has been presers'ed for us of the reports of Gorgos, a mining expert, who explored, probably at Alexander's command, the gold and silver mines as well as the salt-mines in the Indian kingdom of Sopeithes, and the treatise on harbours by Cleon of Syracuse is lost. But the comprehensiveness of the survey by which the new world was opened up is clearly shown us from such broken fragments of the keenest intellec- tual activity. The intellectual conquest of the East thus was achieved by the keen Western faculty for scientific observation. But the nuptials of the Orient and Occident which were celebrated at the wedding festival in Susa (Vol. IV, p. 128) remained a slave-marriage, in which the East was the lord and master. The admission of the Persians and other races into the great frame of the Macedonian army signified, it is true, a further victory of Western organisation ; but the contemplated admission of Persian troops into the Macedonian phalanx would have broken it up. And yet Alexander thought that the political organisation of Hellenism, the world-empire, was only possible by a fusion of races. By the transplantation of nations from Asia to Europe, and from Europe to Asia, it was proposed to gain for the world-monarchy, with its halo of religious sanctity, the support of those dis- connected masses who were united with the ruling dynasty alone, but had no coherence among themselves. At a distance the Hellenic Polis, the city-state, seemed the suitable representative of a new culture ; at home, however, the old constitutional life might become dangerous, so that all recollections of the 10 HISTORY OF THE WORLD [chapter i Corinthian League (Vol. IV, p. 299) were suppressed, and decrees were published by Alexander which counseUed the return of the eziled, but prohibited the com- bined meetings of Achtean and Arcadian towns. Garrisons were placed in the towns, tyrants were favoured or condemned, so that Oriental despotism seemed to have won the day over all Western developments. In the East the association of Alexander's sovereignty with the substrata underlying the Persian imperial organisation was unmistakable. We see how fully Alexander used the religious convictions of the Egyptians and Babylonians, and perhaps even the political traditions of the latter, for his own ends, and how he restored to the city of Sardis and the Lydians the old Lydian rights. Court etiquette and official institutions were, on the other hand, largely borrowed by Alexander from the Persian Empire. His father Philip had taken the first step in this direction by imitating a Persian custom, the military education of noble youths at court. It was not the study of Herodotus' history and Xenophon's " Anabasis," but the presence of Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, that led to these views. The custom at the Persian court of kissing the ground ; the harem, the Persian state-robe, the Persian criminal code (as in the case of Bessus), were adopted ; and the eunuchs were taken over with the Persian court oificials. The Vezir^ was called in Greek, since ^schylus' "Persians," CMliarch, a name which was now officially borne by Hephsestion. Chares of Mytilene was nominated chief chamberlain (eLaayyeXkev'i), and the head scribe took a prominent position. The official protocols and royal diaries were kept up in the new Macedonian world- empire after the old Persian style. These royal diaries of Alexander form the core of the tradition on which our knowledge of the era of Alexander ought to rest, but owing to the later literature of romance they are not always recognisable beneath the mass of legends. A considerable fragment, which comprises the last days of Alexander, has been preserved for us in tolerable completeness. The Persian sys- tem of roads and the Persian imperial post were maintained ; and the basis of the imperial administration was the old division into satrapies. But the powers of the governors were and they were kept in close connection with the centre of the empire. The command of the army and the administration of the finance were detached from the office of satrap ; the rights of coining money and keeping mer- cenaries were altogether abolished. The last year of Alexander's life was typical of the world-wide position of the Greco-Macedonian kingdom. Embassies from the sources of the Blue Nile and from the steppes of Southern Eussia, from Ethiopia and the Scythian country, from Iberians, Celts, Bruttians, Lucanians, and Etruscans, and above all from Eome and Carthage, came in that year to Alexander's court. Arabia was to be circumnavigated, and a scheme initiated to regulate the irrigation of the Euphrates' region by lowering the weirs, repairing the canals, and building dykes. The coast and the islands of the Persian Gulf were to be colonised (cf. Vol. IV, p. 129). It was intended also to rear temples on the most ancient holy sites of Greece (Delos, Dodona, Delphi), as well as at home at Dion, Amphipolis, and Cyrrhus. The old hereditary culture of the East and the energy of the West seemed to be welded together, an d Greek had become the language of the civilized provinces of Western 1 In Ktesias iCfaptrvs, in Hesychius