w. ji'iD'i'yv'iti'' I I TS V. / CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924092711203 To the memory of the men of brain and brawn who hewed out of the forests of the New World room for Civilization, and to the men of today who are making the American Lumber Industry an agent of commercial progress at home and abroad, this work is dedicated. History of The Lumber Industry of America By JAMES ELLIOTT DEFEBAUGH (Editor of the American Lumberman) iDolume 1 CHIC AGO THE AMERICAN LUMBERMAN 1906 l> T5 X>3\ V.I Copyright 1906 by The American Lumberman. 13 PREFACE. Industry and commerce have received in the past but incidental recognition from the historian. He has sought to trace the history of peoples in the political movements in which they have been involved. The successful prosecution of war has appeared to him more notable than the continued preservation of peace. The achievements of diplo- mats and warriors have appeared more vital than the successes of men of business. The growing respect engendered abroad by a nation's army and navy has seemed a more attractive theme for discourse than the increase of its trade in the markets of the world. Despite this neglect, commerce always has been a controlling factor in making the world's history. It always has been more important that men should live than that they should live under any particular government or at any particular place. The search for livelihood has guided the migrations of races and been the inciting cause of discov- ery, settlement and conquest. Encouragement, protection and control of trade have been the most frequent subjects of legislation. It has been within recent years only that the world at large has accorded the manufacturer and the merchant a position coordinate with that of the warrior and the statesman. Out of this new appreciation have come histories of particular industrial movements and of numerous branches of industry ; but, notwithstanding the influence of the forests on New World development and the importance of the present lumber industry of the United States, Canada and the Latin countries to the south, no comprehensive history of the lumber industry of America ever has been compiled. The early explorers were in search of gold, but they found trees ; and the earliest exports from the New World to the Old World were products of the forest. Such products have continued for more than four hundred years to be of conspicuous importance. In even the Twentieth Century the value of forest manufactures exported from British America is exceeded only by the value of the combined products of agriculture, grazing and allied pursuits. Some of the Central Amer- ican countries derive the larger share of their incomes from their forest products. iv PREFACE. While a history of the lumber business is justified fully by its im- portance, records are meager and its compilation is, therefore, difficult. In the preparation of this work the sources drawn upon have been so multitudinous as to render impracticable individual acknowledgment or complete reference to authority. Government reports and records of the United States and other American countries have been read dili- gently and every important fact concerning the industry has been ex- tracted; thousands of individuals have been interviewed; the files of the American Lumberman and its predecessors, the Northwestern Lum- berman and The Timberman, which have been the most fertile sources of information, have been carefully examined, and the files of other lumber journals — American, Canadian and English — have yielded their share of information. Grateful acknowledgment is extended by the editor to the many individuals in private and public life who have interested themselves in this work and who have assisted in supplying many of the facts that go to make up this history. The compilation of the matter incorporated in this work has involved the expenditure of a vast amount of labor and a large sum of money ; but, if it shall prove to be of interest and value to lumbermen and students of lumbering and shall supply a miss- ing link in the industrial and commercial history of the world, its aim will have been fully attained and the ambition of its editor and its publishers will have been realized. J. E. Defebaugh. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Discovery and Early Settlement. Pages 1-10. Forests Essential to Human Existence (1) — Wooded Shores oe America Invited Settlement (2) — The First Settler the First Lumberman (2) — Discovery and Early Explorations (3) — Papal Division of Undiscovered Countries (4) — The First Colonies (5) — Belize Timber Rights an Early Sub- ject OF Dispute (6) — Colonization of South America (6) — Dates on Which Important American Cities Were Founded (7) — Forest Conditions Found by the Discoverers of Amer- ica (7) — Forested Areas of Canada and the United States (8) — Forestal Condition of South America (9) — Summary OF Total Area and Forested Area of the Americas (9). CHAPTER II. North American Forest Geography. Pages 11-45. Tree Distribution (11) — Influence Governing Tree Distribu- tion (13) — Conditions Governing Tree Growth (14) — Geo- logical Influences (15) — Influence of Climatic Changes (16) — Present Influences (19) — Forested and Nonforested Areas (22)— Commercial Tree Species of America (25). CHAPTER III. Labrador and Newfoundland. Pages 46-55. History and Physical Features of Labrador (46) — History of Newfoundland (48) — Physical Features of Newfoundland (49) — Tree Species of Newfoundland (50) — Lumber Indus- try of Newfoundland (53) — Crown Land Timber Regula- tions (53). vi TABLE OP CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Canada — Its Commercial Forests. Pages 56-64. Timbered Regions and Tree Species (56) — Hardwood Resources (57) — White Pine (57)— Spruce (58) — Leading Lumber Districts (59)— Water Transportation System (59)— Forest Area by Provinces (61) — Timber Stumpage of Canada (64). CHAPTER V. Canada — Forestry and Forest Reserves. Pages 65-77. Canadian Forestry Association (66) — Forest Fire Legislation (67) — Officers of Canadian Forestry Association (69) — Schools of Forestry (69)— Federal Forest Reserves (71) — Ontario Forest Reserves (75) — Laurentides National Park (76)— List of Forest Reserves (77.) CHAPTER VI. Canada — Production and Trade. Pages 78-90. Forest Products of Canada in 1881 and 1891 (78) — Census of 1901 (79) — Area of Forests and Woodlands (83) — Exports OF Forest Products (84) — Exports to the United States (88)— Wood Pulp Production (88)— Exports to the United Kingdom (88) — Imports of Hardwoods (89). CHAPTER VII. Canada — Cooperage Stock Industry. Pages 91-96. Exports of Staves and Stave Bolts (91) — Early Stave Indus- try (92) — Present Cooperage Stock Manufacture (93) — The Hoop Industry (95). CHAPTER VIII. Quebec — Timber History, Administration. Pages 97-113. Quebec and Ontario One Colony (97) — French Seigniorial Sys- tem (98) — French Timber Cutting System (99) — Early TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii English Regulations (100) — Effect of British Import Dues (101)— Trade Early in the Nineteenth Century (102) — Early Canadian Legislation (104)— First Cullers' Act (105) — Origin of Crown Timber Dues (105) — Licenses to Cut Timber (106)— The First Crown Timber Act (108). CHAPTER IX. Quebec — Present Conditions. Pages 114-123. Area of Forest and Woodland (114) — Northern Quebec (115) — Timber Licenses and Dues (116) — Export Trade of the City of Quebec (116) — Export Trade of Montreal (117) — Shipping Interests (118) — Exports and Stocks on Hand (119) — Character of Quebec Product (122) — Statistics of White Pine Timber (123). CHAPTER X. Quebec Culling. Pages 124-132. Origin of Quebec Inspection (124) — Text of Cullers' Act (125). CHAPTER XI. Quebec— Personnel. Pages 133-153. CHAPTER XII. Ontario — Early History. Pages 154-171. Upper Canada from 1791 to 1867 (154)— Period of Settlement (155) — Thf Pioneer of the Ottawa Valley (155) — Settle- ment OF THE City of Ottawa (157) — Development in Southern Ontario (158)— The First Paper Mill (158) — Crown Timber Regulations (159)— Timber Dues System (160)— Causes of the Rebellion of 1837 (162)— The Mac- kenzie Rebellion of 1837 (164)— Union of 1841 and New Timber Regulations (166)— First Canadian Timber License Legislation (168) — Parliamentary Inquiry of 1854 (169) — Regulations of 1855 (171). viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. Ontario and the United States. Pages 172-178. Reciprocity Treaty (172)— Trade During Reciprocity Period (173) — First Influx of American Lumbermen (173) — Pro- vincial Confederation and Effect on Crown Lands Man- agement (174) — Developments in Georgian Bay District (175)— Export Duties on Logs, etc. (176)— Free Trade Period (177)— The Dingley Bill and Prohibition of Log Export (177)— American- Interests in Georgian Bay Dis- trict (178). CHAPTER XIV. Ontario— Revenues and Resources. Pages 179-189. Timber Dues and Ground Rent (179)— Cut of Sawlogs from 1867 to 1877 (180)— Development in Northwestern Ontario (180)— Revenue from Timber Licenses (181)— Areas Under License from 1869 to 1903 (183)— Timber Cut from Crown Lands from 1868 to 1903 (184)— Record of Timber Sales (184) — Statistics of Production (185) — Production of the Ottawa Valley (186) — Production of Georgian Bay District (187) — Production of Pine (188) — Revenue from Crown Timber Lands from 1869 to 1903 (189). CHAPTER XV. Ontario — Forest Reserves. Pages 190-199. Algonquin National Park (190) — Forest Reserves Act (191) — Temagami Forest Reserve (191) — Provincial Forest Policy (192) — The Eastern R.eserve (194) — The Sibley Reserve (194) — The Mississaga Reserve (195) — Timber Reproduc- tion (195). CHAPTER XVI. Ontario — Toronto Inspection. Pages 200-204. CHAPTER XVII. Ontario — Personnel. Pages 205-218. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER XVIII. New Brunswick — Timber History. Pages 219-225. Settlement and Natural Features (219) — Timbered Area (219) — Tree Species (220)— Miramichi Fire (222)— Early Lum- bering Methods (223). CHAPTER XIX. New Brunswick — Forest Legislation. Pages 226-231. The First Surveyor General (226)— Early Timber Policy (227) — Production and Trade Prior to 1850 (227) — Timber Rev- enues (228) — Timber Land Laws System (229) — Stumpage Dues (231)— Timber Production 1879 to 1903 (231). CHAPTER XX. New Brunswick — Recent Operations. Pages 232-243. Present Lumbering Methods (232) — The St. John District (232) — The Miramichi District (234) — The Restigouche District (235) — Changes in Conditions (236) — Prices of Logs and Lumber (238)— Lumber Statistics (240). CHAPTER XXI. Nova Scotia — Lumber History. Pages 244-250, Settlement and Early Lumbering (244) — Timbered Area and Reproduction (246) — Timber Land Titles (247) — Personnel (249). CHAPTER XXII. Nova Scotia— Exports, Statistics. Pages 251-255. Shipping Facilities (251)— Trade Districts (252)— Leading Exporters (252) — Forest Products (253) — Exports (254). CHAPTER XXIII. Prince Edward Island. Pages 256-257. X TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIV. The District of Ungava. Pages 258-263. The Labrador Peninsula (258)— ^Creation op Ungava (258) — History of the Peninsula (259) — Natural Features (261) —Tree Species (262). CHAPTER XXV. Canada — Its Lumber Industry in 1874. Pages 264-271. Estimate of Timber Resources (264) — Description of Manufac- turing Districts (265)— Prevailing Prices in 1874 (268)— List of Lumber Manufacturers (269)— Lumber Production and Trade of 1874 (271). UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XXVI. United States — Forest Resources. Pages 272-341. Forest Environment of Early Explorers (273)— Divisions of Forest Areas (274)— The Prairies and Their Cause (276) — Rainfall and Forest Growth (277) — The Wooded Area (281) — Original and Present Wooded Area (284) — Timber Conditions of the States (286) — Improved and Unimproved Lands (289) — Underestimates of Standing Timber (292) — Timber Lands Owned by Lumbermen (299) — The Atlantic Forest (301) — Divisions of the Atlantic Forest (302) — Eastern Tree Species (303) — The Northern ■ Coniferous Belt (307) — Original Distribution (310)— Comments of Early Travelers (311) — The Central Hardwood Belt (313) — Observations OF Early Travelers (316) — Michaux on Dis- tribution OF Hardwoods (319) — The Southern Coniferous Belt (324)— The Longleaf Pine (325)— The Shortleaf Pine (328)— The Loblolly Pine (329)— The Southern Cypress (331) — Outlines of the Pacific Forest (331)— Divisions of THE Pacific Forest (332)— List of Commercial Tree Species (335)— Western Forests, by States (337) — Forest Resources OF THE West (340). TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER XXVII. Public Land Policy of the United States in its Relation to Lumbering. Pages 342-394. The Original National Domain (342) — Cessions by the States (843) — Area Added by Purchase and Cession (350) — Acre Cost of Purchases (352)— Cost and Returns of the Public Domain (353) — Present Area of the Public Domain (357) — Administration of the Public Domain (360) — Early Dis- posal of Public Lands (363) — Alexander Hamilton's Report (364) — Claims of the Public Land States (365) — Early Legislation (367) — The Homestead Law (368) — Disposal of Public Lands in Quantity (370) — Public Sale (370) — Pri- vate Entry (371) — Grants to States (371) — Desert Lands (373)— Swamp Lands (374)— Land Grants to Transporta- tion Corporations (375) — State Improvement Selections (378)— Scrip Locations (378)— Indian Lands (380)— The Timber Culture Law (381) — The Desert Land Act (382) — The Stone and Timber Act (383) — The Homestead Laws (383) — The Reclamation Act (390) — Relation of Laws to Lumbermen (392). CHAPTER XXVIII. United States — Forestry and Forest Reserves. Pages 395-436. Early Interest in Forestry (395) — Bequests of F. Andre MiCHAUx (396)— Private Forestry (397)— Forestry Associa- tions (399)— American Forestry Association (400) — State Forestry Work (402)— Minnesota (402)— Wisconsin (403) — Maine (403)— New York (404)— Louisiana (405)— New Hamp- shire (406) — Pennsylvania (406)— Michigan (407) — Iowa (408) — Schools of Forestry (409)— National Forest Reserves (412)— Early Timber Reserve Laws (412)— National Parks (413)— Forest Reserve Legislation (414)— Act of 1891 (415) —Act of 1897 (416)— Acts of 1905 (419)— Forest Reserves in 1905, Name, Location and Area (420)— Description of Forest Reserves (424) — San Francisco Mountains Re- serve (424)— Pikes Peak Reserve (425)— Lewis and Clark xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Reserve (425)— Olympic Reserve (426)— Cascade Range Reserve (427)— The Yosemite Forest (429)— Forest Re- sources OF THE Philippine Islands (430) — Reclamation of Arid Lands (434)— Reclamation Projects (435). CHAPTER XXIX. United States — Tariff Legislation. Pages 437-472. Colonial Tariffs (437) — Tariff Conditions Under Confedera- tion (438) — First Tariff Under the Constitution (441) — Tariffs Prior to 1807 (442)— The Embargo Act (443)— The War of 1812 (443)— High Tariff of 1842 (444)— Reciprocity WITH Canada (444) — The First Morrill Tariff (444) — First Specific Duty on Lumber (445) — Second Morrill Tariff (445) — Conditions Leading to McKinley Tariff (445) — Text of the McKinley Bill (446) — Effect of the McICinley Bill (448) — The Wilson Bill (450) — Effect of Wilson Bill (451) — Demand for Duty on Lumber (453) — Cincinnati Con- vention OF 1896 (453)— The Dingley Bill (456) — Canadian Prohibition of Log Export (458) — Joint High Commission (459) — Summary of Lumber Tariffs (463). CHAPTER XXX. - United States— Lumber Production. Pages 473-526. Colonial Sawmills (473)— Course of Manufacture and Devel- opment (474)— Authority for the Census (475)— Census of 1810 (476)— Census of 1820 (477)— Census of 1840 (489) — Census of 1850 (490)— Census of 1860 (491)— Census of 1870 (492)— Census of 1880 (493)— Census of 1890 (494)— Census OF 1900 (495)— Comparative Census Returns, by States (496) — Number of Establishments, by Censuses and States (501)— Capital Invested, by Censuses and States (502) — Number of Wage-Earners, by Censuses and States (503) — Wages Paid, by Censuses and States (504) — Value of Products, by Censuses and States (505) — Summary of Twelfth Census (506)— Sawmills, Summary by States (509) — Logging Camps, Summary by States (510) — Independent TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii Planing Mills, etc. (512)— Packing Box Industry (513) — Sawed Lumber Products, Twelfth Census (514) — Rough Lumber Products, Twelfth Census (515) — Coniferous Wood Product (516) — Hardwood Product (518) — Miscellaneous Sawed Products (522)— Cooperage Materials (523) — Timber Camp Products (524). CHAPTER XXXL United States — Foreign Trade. Pages 527-559. Exports in Early Days (5277— Exports in First Decade of Nineteenth Century (52*)^Effect of Embargo Act and War of 1812 (530) — Exports to Canada During Reciprocity Period (532) — Exports During Civil War (533) — Exports by Decades (534) — Exports of Furniture (537) — Exports of Forest Products, by Years (539) — Exports of Timber (541) — Exports, Boards, Deals, Planks, etc. (542) — Exports of Shingles, by Countries, 1790 to 1905 (546) — Exports of Wood Manufactures, 1811-1905 (548)4Ji[MPORTS of Forest Products (54l9— Imports by Years, 1824-1905 (551) — Imports, Cabinet Woods, by Countries, 1824-1905 (553)— Imports, Boards, Planks, Deals, etc. (555)— Imports, Shingles (556) — Imports, Wood Pulp (557) — Imports, Logs and Timber (558) — Imports, Cabinet Wares, etc. (559). CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT. Civilized man lives in houses, and as the house that does not con- tain wood in some form is practically unknown the lumber industry accompanies civilized man in all his migrations and progress. It was, in fact, a condition of his migration and advancement until the railroad brought forest and prairie together and made habitable the barren places of the earth. A treeless world might not be unin- habitable, but it is a historical fact that migration, racial progress and growth of population have been guided by the forest distribution of the world — modified, of course, by other conditions, but having that as one of their chief controlling influences. The early history of civilization proves that countries which are now treeless and, therefore, thinly populated were once blessed with for- ests. The history of ancient Persia, Assyria and Canaan would be vastly different from what it is if those countries had been in their early days in the forestal condition they are now; or it might be more cor- rect to say that they would have had no history. The disappearance of the forests led to the disappearance of the people; and, as today they are barren and almost depopulated because of the absence of the for- ests, if the forests had never existed their prominence in the history of civilization would have been withheld from them. • Wherever the cradle of the Aryan peoples may have been, their migrations led them by forest routes to forest countries, and it was not until recent times that the plains attracted them. This is true because shelter and fuel were necessities, which only the forest could furnish. As history goes, the discovery of coal is but of yesterday. Coal was undoubtedly known to the ancients, but it became an article of com- merce not more than eight hundred years ago, and it was not until the discovery of the steam engine in 1705 that coal mining assumed important proportions. Until the Nineteenth Century coal in most countries was either a luxury or was used for industrial purposes, while the fuel of the people was wood. Therefore there was an im- 2 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. mediate dependence upon the forests which relaxed only when transpor- tation — ample enough and cheap enough — linked the forests and the plains together. It was the railway that finally made habitable the treeless portions of the earth. ;i:> Dreamers have wondered what would have been the history of North America if the location of the forests and treeless plains had been reversed — if the discoverers and explorers sighting the shores of the Atlantic and the Pacific had found nothing but prairies, no matter how rich the soil — whether settlement would have awaited the invasion of the railroad. Happily such was not the case, but however inhospita- ble the climate and severe the aspect of the rockbound shores of New England in other respects the trees waved a welcome and promised shelter and warmth. So, whether the early discoverers were English, French, Spanish or Dutch, they found habitable shores and were able to establish their colonies in Florida and Virginia, on the Hudson, on Massachusetts Bay, on the St. Lawrence, on the coast of Nova Scotia, at the mouth of the Mississippi, in Central and South America and later on the Pacific shores. "^ From the coast, migration and settlement drifted inland, following the course of the rivers or striking boldly across the country, but always protected and supported by the forests. Whether we consider the in- dividual pioneer with his family or the congeries of population, the villages and cities, all were in earlier days absolutely dependent upon the forests and endured separation from them only by the aid of com- merce. The first colonies in North America were, for the most part, made up of men of every trade and profession, but their development and the extension of their boundaries must be credited to the pioneers who struck off into the forest, a little removed from their fellows, and there hewed out their homes. These men combined in themselves all of the practical trades. They were hunters and fishermen as well as farmers; they were their own carpenters, blacksmiths, millers, tanners, shoe- makers and weavers, and all of them were emphatically, at the begin- ning of the settlement, directly dependent upon the forest which gave them their material for building and for the simple implements of the time, their fuel and even their food. Yet, in a sense, the forest was their enemy, for they had to clear it away to make room for wheat and corn. The settler on American shores was the first American lumber- man. He was a lumberman by necessity, as he was a carpenter, shoe- DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT. 3 maker and weaver. So the history of the lumber industry — for the lumber trade as a branch of commerce was a later development — is the history of progress, of settlement and of civilization. As population increased and as the centers of population en- larged in importance, there came about a sharp difiEerentiation and a natural apportionment of work; and so the lumber industry, which at the beginning merely supplied the needs of the individual settler in the forest, came to supply the requirements of the young towns and the cities of the continent. This was, however, a small matter, for all along the Atlantic coast, the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and on the banks of every tidal river the trees grew in profusion. Every village could be supplied from its own immediate resources. It was only when the increase in population made the requirements so great that local supplies were exhausted that a lumber industry that looked beyond the immediate neighborhood of its mills for the disposal of its product was either needful or possible. As the first settlers were the first lum- bermen, so the first settlement was the first site of the lumber industry in America. From the date of Columbus' first voyage in 1492, for more than a hundred years the process was discovery and exploration and conquest rather than genuine settlement. By the end of the Fifteenth Century the eastern coast of the three Americas had been roughly outlined. Columbus, the Cabots, Pinzon, Cabral, Cortereal, Vespucci, Balboa and others had cursorily examined the coast all the way from Hudson Strait to the vicinity of Bahia, on the eastern coast of Brazil. The lands discovered were usually claimed for the crowns which the voyagers represented and some of these claims were made good by colonization. The next century was one of combined discovery, exploration, conquest and occupation. By its conclusion the coasts of both oceans had been well outlined and the general character of the countries deter- mined. However, as late as 1600 there had been little genuine coloni- zation, the only successful attempts at occupation being by the Spaniards and Portuguese, and these accomplishments were confined chiefly to the West Indies, Central America, the Isthmus of Panama and isolated portions of South America. Until the Seventeenth Century, North America, which was destined to exceed all the others in population and wealth, remained practically virgin soil. For example, the Gulf of St. Lawrence was entered by Gaspar Cortereal in 1500, and Cartier voyaged up the St. Lawrence as 4 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. far as Montreal in 1535, but it was not until the middle of the century that any attempt at colonization within the present limits of Canada was made and not until 1608 that Quebec was founded. A brief summary of some of the leading dates and names during the period of exploration may be pardoned. Columbus' first voyage, in 1492, resulted merely in the discovery of some of the West Indies, including Cuba, which he thought to be mainland. In 1493, seven weeks after the return of Columbus to Spain, Pope Alexander VI. as- signed the lands discovered and to be discovered west of a certain line to Spain, and east of the same line to Portugal. This line was a great circle passing through the poles, and the following year was defined as passing 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This edict was the basis of the Portuguese claims in the eastern part of South Amer- ica and led to the Portuguese sovereignty over Brazil and its coloniza- tion by that power. It also led to a division of authority in the antip- odes. The second voyage of Columbus, in 1493, resulted in further discoveries in the West Indies, including Jamaica. In 1498, on his third expedition, Columbus discovered Trinidad and coasted along the delta of the Orinoco and thence to the west. He set out on his fourth voyage in May, 1502, and during the following year he studied the coasts between the gulfs of Honduras and Darien. In the meantime other navigators had been at work and other governments than that of Spain became interested. The English were early engaged in western explorations, and in 1497 Henry VII. sent out John Cabot, an Italian navigator, accompanied by Sebastian Cabot, his son, who planted the English flag on an unknown coast supposed to have been that of Labrador. The following year the two sailed as far south as Cape Florida and are supposed to have been the first to see the mainland of America. Nearly thirty years thereafter, in 1526, Sebastian Cabot, in the employ of Spain, began a voyage during which he discovered La Plata River and erected a fort at San Salvador, now Bahia. In the same year that the Cabots began their work of exploration, 1497, Pinzon, Vespucci and others sailed from Cadiz. They are sup- posed to have first touched the coast of Honduras, whence they followed the coasts of Mexico and the United States, rounding Florida, and are believed to have sailed as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1499 Vespucci with others followed the northern coast of South America for a long distance, including the coasts of Venezuela, the Guianas'and part of the DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT. 5 coast of Brazil. In 1500 Pinzon struck the Brazilian coast near the site of Pernambuco and discovered the Amazon. During a period of about three years, beginning with 1500, Gaspar and Miguel Cortereal made voyages in the interest of Portugal to the north coast of North America, but mainly within the region previously explored by the Cabots. Thus early in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century not much more had been done than to arouse the interest of the western coun- tries of Europe in those unknown lands to the west, which were still supposed to be parts of Asia, for it was not until 1513 that Balboa dis- covered the Pacific and not until 1519 that Magellan passed through the straits that bear his name and thus discovered the long sought western passage to the Indies, a passage which had been sought on the north by the Cabots and by numerous explorers at every gulf along the entire eastern coast. Exploration proceeded rapidly thereafter. Ponce de Leon discov- ered Florida in 1512. In 1524 Verrazani explored the coasts of Caro- lina and New Jersey and entered the present harbors of Wilmington, New York and Newport. During 1539, 1540 and 1541 De Soto explored Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and discovered the Mississippi River in the last year. In 1542 and the following year Cabrillo sailed along the Pacific Coast. In 1562 Ribault attempted to plant a Hugue- not colony at Port Royal, Carolina, but it was abortive. Another Hu- guenot colony was attempted on St. Johns River, Florida, in 1564, by Laudonniere. It was destroyed by the Spaniards, but the following year, 1565, Menendez established St. Augustine, Florida. During the three years beginning with 1578 Drake made his famous explorations along the Pacific Coast, reaching as far north as Oregon, though he had been preceded by the Spanish (Cabrillo, 1542). The Spanish had been busy on the southern borders and in 1582 Espejo founded Santa Fe, New Mexico. In 1584 and 1587 Raleigh attempted to plant colonies in Virginia, but it will be seen that until the beginning of the Seven- teenth Century there were but two settlements within the present boundaries of the United States, both made by the Spanish. The exploration of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama proceeded rapidly during the early part of the Sixteenth Century and settlement followed closely on exploration. It should, however, be stated that colonization in its proper meaning was seldom attempted. Military and trading posts were established and maintained and these 6 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. posts gradually grew into colonies with entities of their own. Closely following the taking possession of the Isthmus and Central America occurred the conquest of Mexico, in which Spanish authority was estab- lished by Cortez in 1521, and Mexico became a vice-royalty in 1535. It is, perhaps, worth mentioning that the city of Belize, British Honduras, was a settlement by Wallace, a Scotch buccaneer, and the chief occu- pation of its people was wood-cutting, or the lumber business, and this business was early in the Eighteenth Century a subject of dispute. Taking up in outline a review of the discovery and settlement of South America: The coast of Colombia was one of the earliest portions of America to be visited by the Spanish, but the first settlement was at Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus, in 1508, and by the middle of the century Spanish power was fairly established and flourishing commu- nities had arisen. Venezuela was made a captain-generalcy in 1550. The coast of Brazil was a favorite field of early exploration by the Portuguese and by 1508 the coast had been outlined, for in that year Vincent Pinzon entered the Rio de la Plata. Amerigo Vespucci explored the coast under royal authority and enormous grants were made to persons who were willing to undertake settlement. Each captaincy, as these divi- sions of the territory were called, extended along fifty leagues of coast. But settlement was not attempted until about 1531. The Argentine Republic was first visited by De Solis, in 1516, and in 1535 Mendozo attempted the establishment of Buenos Ayres, but it was not until 1580 that it was successfully accomplished. The history of Uruguay dates from 1512 with the exploration and landing of De Solis, but no settlement was made until the Seventeenth Century. The coast of Peru was first visited in 1527. The conquest of Peru was accomplished in 1533, and the city of Lima was founded in 1535 by Pizarro. The first Spanish invasion of Chili was in 1535 and 1536, at which time the city of Santiago was founded. This brief review of early settlement may well be concluded by a list of some of the leading cities of the Americas and some of the ear- liest settlements, with the accepted dates of their establishment or occupation by Europeans. BRITISH NORTH AMEMCA. CITY. ESTABLISHED. CITY. ESTABLISHED. Quebec: 1608 St. John, New Brtinswick 1739 Montreal 1642 Vancouver, British Columbia 1885 St. John's, Newfoundland 1613 Victoria, British Columbia 1843 Halifax, Nova Scotia 1749 DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT. 7 UNITED STATES. CITY. ESTABLISHED. CITY. ESTABLISHED. Portland, Maine 1632 Jacksonville, Florida 1816 Boston, Massachusetts 1630 St. Augustine, Florida 1565 Plymouth, Massachusetts 1620 Pensacola, Florida 1696 NewYorkCity, New York 1613 Mobile, Alabama 1702 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1681 New Orieans, Louisiana 1718 Baltimore, Maryland 1730 Galveston, Texas 1816 Annapolis, Maryland 1605 Portland, Oregon 1845 Jamestown, Virginia 1607 San Francisco, California 1775 Charleston, South Carolina 1670 San Diego, California 1766 Savannah, Georgia 1733 MEXICO. City of Mexico 1522 Vera Cruz 1519 CENTRAL AMERICA. Guatamala City, Guatamala 1776 Colon, Panama 1849 San Salvador, Salvador 1528 Panama City, Panama 1518 WEST INDIES. Havana, Cuba 1519 Port au Prince, Haiti '.': 1745 Santiago, Cuba 1514 San Juan, Porto Rico 1511 Kingston, Jamaica 1693 SOUTH AMERICA. Bogota, Colombia 1538 Rosario, Argentina 1725 Caracas, Venezuela 1567 Buenos Ayres, Argentina 1535 Georgetown, British Guiana 1580 Quito, Ecuador 1534 Cayenne, French Guiana 1635 Guayaquil, Ecuador 1531 Para, Brazil 1614 Lima, Peru 1535 Bahia, Brazil 1503 La Paz, Bolivia 1548 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1502 Santiago, Chili 1541 Asuncion, Paraguay 1537 Concepcion, Chili 1550 Montevideo, Uruguay 1729 What did the original explorers of the coasts of America discover in respect to the forests? They found a wooded coast from the Strait of Belle Isle, 52 degrees north latitude, to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, 35 degrees south latitude, practically without a break. The for- est fringed the shores for that enormous distance, spanning nearly one- fourth of the earth's circumference and much augmented by the many and great indentations of the shore line. But what lay back of the wooded shores? For the most part a solid forest extended inland, in some places for two thousand miles. Notwithstanding the great areas of arctic muskeg in the north, the barren plains and mountains of the extreme south and the great treeless areas between — the prairies, the pampas, the llanos — and notwithstanding the areas lifted high above the treeline by the Rockies, the Sierras and the Cordilleras, the west- ern continent was one of forests. It is difficult to define the treeless areas and to say exactly what percentage of the area of any one coun- try or state was wooded or treeless, but in an approximate way some general facts may be stated. Canada was and is a forested, or rather a wooded, country. Bota- nists, geographers and students of economics note a difference between forested and wooded areas. The forests yield timber of commercial 8 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. value, but the wooded areas offer a welcome and means of livelihood to the settler. The total area of Canada, excluding Newfoundland and Labrador, is estimated at 3,745,574 square miles. Of this great area 1,351,505 square miles is estimated to be still wooded. It is prob- able that the original wooded area of Canada was about 1,690,000 square miles. All of the arctic territory of Franklin, estimated at 500,000 square miles, and parts of Yukon and Mackenzie and more than half of Keewatia are and were treeless, owing to the influence of their arctic climate. The Labrador Coast and the northern part of Ungava are also largely or wholly treeless. There are also the great prairies of Assin- iboia, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Not considering the areas which are treeless because of their northern latitude, fully ninety percent of Canada was wooded. Newfoundland's coast was forbidding, but its interior was heavily wooded. What is now the United States presented an almost solid and con- tinuous forest from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River and in places still farther west; and then, after an interval of treeless plains, came the mountains with their forest groups and beyond them the wonderful arboreal wealth of the Pacific Coast. The total land surface of the continental United States, excluding Alaska, is 2,972,594 square miles. It is estimated that the present forest area is about 1,000,000 square miles; but, combining the fragmentary records that are to be found and estimating areas from the history of settlement and of agricultural development, as well as by the effect produced by the lumbering indus- try, it can be asserted with confidence that the original forested area of the present United States was at least 1,400,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the entire land area. Alaska has an area of about 591,000 square miles. Its wooded area, some of which is densely covered with large timber, can be safely esti- mated at about 100,000 square miles, while a much greater area is cov- ered with brush. The total area of Mexico is 767,000 square miles, of which about 150,000 square miles are of woodland. The area of Central America is 163,465 square miles, of which about 100,000 square miles is estimated to have been forested. South America has for the most part a climate favorable to tree growth mainly of the tropical sort, due to its peculiar formation. The important mountain system of the continent lies close to the Pacific Coast, and in it many rivers which empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENT. 9 Caribbean Sea have their rise. The eastern trade winds sweep over the continent, depositing moisture as they go, but are finally exhausted by the Andes and the other great mountain systems of the western coast. Thus the abundantly watered interior of the continent north of the Par- aguay River is largely forested. There are exceptions in the llanos of the Orinoco and in some of the tablelands of the west, and Argentina is largely open grass land or barren plains. The total area of South America is estimated at about 7,685,000 square miles. A careful re- view of the conditions in each country leads to the conclusion that of this total area at least 6,000,000 square miles are naturally wooded. The great western ranges lift themselves above the treeline, the extreme southern part of the continent is almost antarctic in its characteristics and there are some naturally treeless plains, but, as noted above, ap- proximately seventy percent of the area is wooded and the vast stretches of forest are of the most luxuriant kind. The growth of vegetation in South America is the most varied and the heaviest to be found in the world. Even in Africa only comparatively small and isolated por- tions compare with it. Summing up the Americas we find the following results in total area and wooded area: Total area, Wooded area, square miles square miles British North America 3,795,308 1,725,000 United States, with Alaska 3,572,040 1,140,000 Mexico 767,000 150,000 Central America 163,465 100,000 South America 7,685,000 6,000,000 "^"'^ 15,982,813 9,115,000 Consequently, of the total area of the New World, more than fifty- five percent was covered with forests, which were most dense on the eastern coast, the one first approached by discoverers and explorers. The forests ranged from the light and easily worked woods of general utility of North America, such as the white and yellow pine, to the heavy and hard woods of the tropics and semitropics, adapted to multitudes of uses according to their qualities of beauty in color and grain and their adaptability to ornamental use, or as dye stufEs. Hence, the lumber industry was practically the first to be established and to form the basis of eastbound commerce across the Atlantic. Before grain, cotton, furs or even tobacco were exported from the Americas, lumber and timber had already established themselves in the favor of the Old World, and many of the explorers who were searching for gold returned with wood. These subjects, both from historical and present statistical stand- 10 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. points, will be treated under the heads of the countries, states or prov- inces concerned. In taking up the more detailed account of the origin and development of the lumber industry it has been deemed best to treat the subject not entirely chronologically but to a certain extent geographically and with regard to its present magnitude and highest development. Thus, beginning with North America, and in that conti- nent governed somewhat by geographical relations, first place is given to the British possessions. If a chronological arrangement had been determined upon, undoubtedly preference would have been given to Central America and the northern part of South America. Again, in North America proper the industry might be supposed to have wit- nessed its first development in connection with the oldest settlements. Such undoubtedly was the fact, but St. Augustine, and Florida as a whole, for hundreds of years played but a minor part in the forestal development of the continent and little or no part in international com- merce. The early English settlers in Virginia were comparatively little concerned about wood. It was on the northeastern coast of the United States and in the Maritime and Laurentian provinces of Canada that the lumber industry early reached a high development and first became an important element in international trade. Geographical considerations and the further fact that within Canada lie the northern boundaries of the tree growths of the continent constrain us to take up first Canada rather than the United States, and the Maritime prov- inces rather than Maine. CHAPTER II. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. Before entering into a minute discussion of the timber resources and the lumber history of Canada, it is well to review briefly the North American continent in its relation to tree distribution, especially with reference to the United States and Canada, which countries are one in their forest characteristics. While there is one prominent tree species which is almost wholly confined to Canada, and a few others whose native habitat is largely within its area, and while about half of the tree species of the continent, belonging to the southern United States, do not appear north of the international boundary, that arbitrary line of demarcation between the two countries cuts across the mountains, the treeless plains, the forested areas and the lines of tree growth ; so that in a discussion of tree distribution the two countries should be treated as one, the differences being determined by soil and climatic conditions which have no relation to political divisions. It should be noted first that the Atlantic Coast, including its islands, is practically all timbered from the Strait of Belle Isle, or certainly from the northern boundary of the main body of Newfoundland, to the Strait of Florida. The treeline follows the Gulf Coast from near the southern point of Florida to about west of Galveston, Texas, so that the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the United States, with small excep- tions, are timbered. As the northern arm of Newfoundland is practically barren, so is the Labrador Coast. Starting from the Strait of Belle Isle, the northern forest limit runs a little inland from the coast, following the boundary between Labrador and Ungava to Ungava Bay; thence bending westerly and southerly it strikes Hudson Bay at about 57 degrees north latitude. The northern limit on the western side of Hudson Bay begins farther north, at about Fort Churchill, and follows an approximately straight line northwestward, passing north of Great Slave Lake, to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, north of the Arctic Circle ; thence it turns to the southwest through Alaska, striking the coast again in the south- western part of that American territory. 11 12 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The Pacific Coast of North America has characteristics quite different from those of the Atlantic Coast, owing to the mountain uplift which closely follows the coast. Instead of a solid and wide body of timber, as is the condition on the Atlantic Coast, there are smaller areas heavily timbered, intersected and separated by mountain areas which are nearly or quite treeless. The presence of the mountains further results in a semiarid condition farther inland. Practically all the way from Cook Inlet, in Alaska, to the Bay of San Francisco, the coast has a continuous fringe of heavy forest growth, widening out as local topography will permit into the great forests which are found in British Columbia, Washington and Oregon. The western mountain and plateau country of the continent is more or less timbered throughout, barren plains being crossed or bounded by forested mountain slopes, or the barren mountains of the North being penetrated by tree-lined valleys. This condition obtains, with variations due principally to latitude, all the way from the Alaskan peninsula to the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Between the widespread and comparatively solid and uniform forests of the East and the broken and varied forests of the West lies the great, almost treeless, interior plain of the continent. The boundaries of this treeless plain may be thus roughly outlined: Starting from Galveston, Texas, the line runs in an approximately northern direction through the eastern part of Texas and the western part of Indian Territory. Thence it turns eastward, crossing the southeastern corner of Kansas, thence across Missouri, thence bending into Illinois and reaching just beyond the Indiana line. Thence in a curve it turns to the north and northwest, striking the Mississippi River in northern Illinois, leaving it in southern Minnesota, and passes north between Red Lake and the Red River of the North. Crossing the international boundary in a northerly direction, it sweeps around Winnipeg to the northwest and strikes about the northwestern corner of Manitoba. Thence northwesterly and westerly it crosses Saskatchewan and north- ern Alberta, and then, turning again to the southwest and south, fol- lows the line of the Rocky Mountains back along the western border of Alberta, across Montana, Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico, to and across the Mexican border. West of the latter part of this line is the broken mountain flora previously described. Within this great interior plain are trees, but few forests, so that in a general way the line described surrounds the great agricultural and NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 13 grazing section of the continent, the rich agricultural regions east of the prairies having been won from the forest through more than a century of settlement and development. TREE SPECIES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. It will be seen from the above that the conformation of the forested area of the United States and Canada (including all the solid, or nearly solid, formations of arboriferous flora) is extremely irregular. It would, however, be expected that when we come to study the con- stituent tree species of the forest they would show a gradual and somewhat regular latitudinal gradation from tropical and sub-tropical species in the South to the most arctic species, bounded on the north by a zone where no vegetation except lichens and mosses can exist. While the above is true in a general way, yet the northern and southern limits of most tree species have little relation to isothermal lines of mean annual temperature, showing that there are potent influences other than temperature to be considered. Botanists classify these as climatic, including amount and distribution of light, heat and moisture ; edaphic or soil influences, including soil formations, earth-moisture, etc., andbiotic, or the influences of other plants, of insects and animals, and of decaying animal and vegetable matter. A more specific sum- mary of the influences governing tree distribution has been prepared by Doctor Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey of Canada,' as follows : 1. Distance or proximity of the sea, or of the areas which were covered by it in recent geological times. 2. Changes which have taken place in the arrangement of land and water while the trees were spreading over the continent. 3. General dryness or moisture of the climate affecting consider- able areas. 4. Extremes of heat and cold. 5. Local heat and moisture from lakes and rivers. 6. General elevation above the sea. 7. Local elevation (with consequent dryness) over level, wet or cold lands. 8. Large local depressions. 9. Diseases and insect pests. 10. Rapid or slow natural means of dispersion. This summary is quite complete, but a better idea of the logical re- 1 " The Geographical Distribution o£ Forest Trees in Canada."— Scottish Geographical Maga- zine, June, 1897, pp. 281-296. 14 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. lationship of these various influences is perhaps conveyed by the fol- lowing analytical diagram, with the explanatory text which follows it : CONDITIONS GOVERNING TREE GROWTH. B M a a NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 15 INFLUENCE OF PAST CONDITIONS UPON THE PRESENT. It would be an error to interpret the foregoing outline as applying solely to influences existing at the present time or even in the immediate past. We must go back thousands of years to find the origin of some of the influences affecting the present distribution of tree species ; while the evolution or development of existing arboriferous flora has been a process extending over an inconceivably longer period. A brief re- view of past geologic conditions is therefore necessary as a foundation to an intelligent discussion of existing forest formations. In the evolution of plant forms upon the earth the trees are com- paratively recent arrivals. It was formerly believed that the coniferas were represented in the luxuriant vegetation of the Carboniferous pe- riod whose remains are our coal deposits ; but it is now known that the fossil remains which had been identified as coniferous wood were really the trunks of huge ferns, nearly as large as our forest growths of to- day, and that the ferns and their allies constituted about seventy-five percent of the vegetation of that period. In the next or Triassic pe- riod appeared the cycads,'* trees closely allied to the coniferae and still plentifully represented in tropical species, though existing in our coun- try only in a few Florida species and in Cycas revoluta and some other common greenhouse plants. These were closely followed by true con- iferae, which had their maximum development in the next or Jurassic period. They are estimated to have constituted at that time sixty per- cent of the earth's vegetation. Among the earliest fossil coniferse are found the Araucarian pines, closely related to those now found in South America, though they have entirely disappeared from North America. A little later appeared Sequoian pines not greatly different from the only two species of that genus now left upon the earth. Se- quoia washingtoniana and Sequoia sempervirens, both restricted to Cali- fornia, though their ancestors have left their impress upon the Triassic rocks of widely distributed areas of the United States. The " bigtrees" and redwoods are therefore forest patriarchs not only in size and indi- vidual longevity but also in ancient ancestry ; they belong to the First Families of the Forest, and were probably represented here six or seven millions of years before the existing mountain chains of the continent were upheaved from the Tertiary plains. If they are now confined to the Pacific Coast, it is probably not because of the Rocky Mountain bar- '"■ Geologists are not agreed as to this order o£ appearance. Professor N. S. Sbaler, of Har- vard University, writing in 1896 (Aspects of the Earth), gave the order as follows : Conifers and yews, followed by palms, cypresses and cycads. 16 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. rier, but because they find there the only congenial habitat remaining to them — conditions of heat and moisture most nearly approaching those which must have prevailed when their ancestors flourished in the old geological summer when the land was flat, when the ocean beds were not deep enough to hold all the waters nor the shores of the continent high enough to resist their partial invasion. Compared with the conif erse in general the greatly diversified hard- wood families are modern arrivals, though the first of them can be traced back as far as the Cretaceous period, next following the Jurassic, three million years or so ago. This is a very brief period as geolo- gists reckon time, yet during that period the hardwoods had their evo- lution, their maximum of development and a rapid decline, so that in nearly all the botanical families the fossil species outnumber those now existing. One of the most important deciduous lumber trees, the yel- low poplar ( Liriodendron iulifiifera), is the sole surviving species of a genus which formerly comprised many species. The same is true of sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), and true in a less extreme measure of many other genera. Including the coniferae also, it may be said that the present forests are a bare remnant of those which have existed on the continent in recent geological times, and that the tree species now represented in North America are very limited compared with those of that past. It is also true that we have here over five hundred tree species as compared with barely a dozen indigenous to the British Isles, and in almost any square mile of typical forest growth in the United States may be found more di£ferent species than in all of Europe."" INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CHANGES. This decline in the number of tree species and in the extent of the forests does not necessarily imply a biological decline ; that is, it does not necessarily imply that the present tree species are in any sense de- generates, as are the ferns of today compared with their giant ancestors of the Carboniferous period. Our present trees are undoubtedly the highest possible development of their present environment, and the changes in the forest have been undoubtedly caused by great climatic changes occurring later than the geologic periods which have been dis- cussed in connection with the evolution of tree forms, and which changes '•> " The reason seems to be that the glacial periods in Europe serve to overwhelm the veee- table lite, and this because when the glacial envelope comes upon the continent and forces Sie army of plants down to the southward, they have no secure field for retreat, as in North America but find their migrations stopped by the great gulf of the Mediterranean. It is lilsely that the wide difference between the richness of the forest life in the Old World and the New is in Dart at lpa«t determined by this cause."— Prof. N. S. Shaler, Aspects of the Earth, 286. icaoi. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 17 will now be considered in connection with their influences upon the present distribution of tree species, with which they have much to do. It is difficult for the average layman, who conceives of the earth as a gradually cooling sphere, to grasp the idea of the great diflEerences in mean temperature which have undoubtedly existed upon its surface at different periods, or to evolve any theory to account for them. Even the geologists, though the facts are indisputably written in their rock records, have as yet agreed upon no hypothesis, and have sought for the cause in an eccentric orbit of the earth around the sun, in abnormal altitudinal elevation of the fields of glacial action and in variations of the earth's atmosphere. The most generally accepted though not firmly established hypothesis takes the last direction and is based upon pos- sible variations in the amount of carbonic acid gas'° in the atmosphere at different periods. According to this hypothesis there have been long periods during which the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere has been eroding moimtain rocks and has been washed down to the sea in the form of bicarbonates of lime and of other rock alkalis, this action con- tinuing until land elevations were reduced to the plain level, when ero- sion would be at its minimum until other mountains had been upheaved for it to act upon. During this rest period the bicarbonates in the expanse of waters would be converted into monocarbonates and the surplus of carbonic acid gas be again restored to the atmosphere in readiness for a second cycle of change. It is known that the present proportion of this gas in our atmosphere, though extremely small, has a definite influence in imprisoning atmospheric heat and preventing the diffusion of the earth's heat into surrounding space ; that a small per- centage of increase in the amount would greatly extend the climatic conditions of the tropical and temperate zones northward, while if the small amount now in our atmosphere were reduced by one-half it would restore the conditions of the Glacial period. Whether or not this interesting theory shall stand the test of further investigation, the fact is known that during the TertiaJ-y ages following the Cretaceous period already mentioned (during which the hardwood trees and other angiosperms appeared) a temperate climate extended in North America very close to the north pole and the territory was covered with vast forests consisting of species not greatly different from those which still survive, together with tropical forms. This con- dition was succeeded, probably so gradually that little or no change 10 In moaem chemical terminologry " carbon dioxide," thonsb the older term still has the wid- est popular use. 18 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. would have been apparent during the average tree lifetime, by the Pleistocene or Glacial epoch of the Quaternary period, at the culmina- tion of which a thick ice sheet covered America as far south as northern Pennsylvania, the Ohio River Valley as far west as the Mississippi River, and then through central Missouri and northward to near the international boundary line and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Trees as well as all other vegetation were swept out of existence in all this field of glacial action, and it is hardly possible that any of their seeds could have survived the thousands of years of glacial winter, while all the more tropical of the species to the southward of the ice field must have been destroyed or driven far toward the equator by the prevailing cold. Then came another geological springtime ; the south- ern limit of the ice field receded and the timber line began gradually creeping after it. The northern tree limits of Canada still conform somewhat to the old parallels of glacial action. It is not strange, therefore, that of the great variety of tree species that flourished on the continent during the warm Tertiary ages only a comparatively few of the hardier ones should have survived ; and some of our modem species have probably originated or evolved from older forms since the glacial age, which is variously estimated as having been from 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. It is believed that the receding glaciers left the Falls of Niagara near where the city of Lewiston now stands, and that they have since then cut the river gorge back to their present location. Another geological influence upon tree distribution may be found in the presence of great barriers which prevent or retard migration. Such wide river valleys as that of the Mississippi undoubtedly have such an influence. Mountain ranges may act in the same manner, and the Rocky Mountains in particular seem to have had a marked influence. There are found in the region west of the Rocky Mountain ranges sixty- two species of coniferae which do not grow at all in other portions of the continent; twenty-seven species indigenous to the eastern portion of the continent do not grow in the Rocky Mountain region, while only two species may be classified as common to both sections. One of these is the common or dwarf juniper, and the other the white spruce, whose far western habitat is chiefly in the Canadian Rockies. On the other hand 185 hardwood species of the eastern United States are not found on the Pacific slope at all, though ninety-three other deciduous species have their exclusive habitat in that region. This preponderance of the East over the West in the variety of hardwoods would appear greater but for NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 19 the exclusion from the above figures of ninety-four species of a tropical character which are found only in the southern Florida lowlands or along the Mexican frontier. But thirteen species of hardwoods may be considered as indigenous on both sides of this barrier line, and some of these show a much wider distribution upon one side than upon the other. Of these thirteen species five are willows ; the other eight are the aspen (Populus tremuloides), one of the most widely distributed of American trees, and the allied species of Populus balsamifera or balm of Gilead; the paper birch (Betula papyrifera), -which, grows on the Pacific Coast no farther south than the vicinity of Seattle, Washington; the live oak (Quercus virginiana), a subtropical species which extends from Mexico north along the Atlantic Coast to Virginia and along the Pacific Coast to southern California; the hackberry (CelHs occidentalis); the elderleaf mountain ash (Pyrus sambuciiolia); the longspine haw (Cra- tcBgus macracantka) , which reaches west only to the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains; and the box elder (Acer negundo)?' It will be seen that few, if any, of the species common on both sides of the Rocky Mountains have any particular commercial importance. This difference in floras is the more remarkable because no such difference exists in any other two areas of the continent having practically the same condi- tions of soil and climate. The reasons for this great differentiation are obscure and must be looked for largely in the geological past. PRESENT INFLUENCES AFFECTING TREE DISTRIBUTION. With what has already been said regarding geological influences the diagram upon page 14 may now be considered as though it related en- tirely to present conditions. The internal conditions have to do only with the ability of the individual species to make the most of its oppor- tunities ; the influences grouped as external embrace all those which are usually given consideration, and these have been divided into gen- eral and local ; the former including those climatic conditions which are prevalent over wide areas and which would tend to the formation of homogeneous forest growth throughout their sphere of influence ; and the latter including the influences at work in more restricted areas and which produce widely varying forest formations under the same general or climatic conditions. General Influences. — The climatic influences are largely the product __ 2 These compilations have as a basis the tree species and raneres of distribution as eiven in the Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States," by Georere B. Sndworth, dendrolo^st o£ the United States Division (now Bureau) of Forestry, 1898. 20 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. of latitude, altitude and prevailing winds. The former are coordinate in the production of mean temperature, and sub- Alpine and Alpine vegetation is of much the same type as subarctic and arctic. Upon the isothermal line connecting localities of the same mean annual tempera- ture may, however, exist wide variations of climate in other respects : In the average extremes of temperature during the winter and summer seasons ; in the frequency, suddenness and severity of temporary ex- treme changes of temperature, succession of freezing and thawing weather; in the amount of precipitation and its character and distribu- tion, whether in gentle rainfall or in prevalent violent storms succeeded by periods of drouth ; in the humidity of the atmosphere, and in the amount of sunlight. These moisture influences are largely controlled by the prevailing winds, and the clouds which these carry of course govern the proportions of sunshiny and of cloudy weather over the area. Local Influences. — All these general conditions are, however, largely modified by local influences, while still other local influences afEect forest growth directly in other ways than through the climate. The proximity of the ocean has a great effect on climate, which is, however, more marked upon an open coast. The lines bounding the northern limits of the arctic tree species in northern Canada show little or no southern deflection as they approach the shores of Hudson Bay, but in the vicinity of the Labrador Coast they do not come out to the ocean at all except upon the comparatively sheltered shore of Ungava Bay, and sweep southward toward Newfoundland at a greater or less distance from the ocean according to the ability of the species to resist its bleak influence. Inland bodies of water have a profound local influence upon the forests immediately lining their shores, acting as storage reservoirs for heat, modifying extremes of temperature and preventing late spring and early autumn frosts in their immediate neighborhood, supplying moist- ure through the atmosphere and for short distances through the soil, and also to some extent doubtless influencing precipitation, though rain- bearing clouds usually discharge their contents at some distance from the locality of their origin. In the widespread benefit of this influence their immediate vicinities share. The topography of the neighboring country also has its influence. There may be neighboring elevations to act as a wind shield if located upon the side from which come the prevailing winds, or if the relative positions of the forest area and of the elevations are reversed they may, if of sufficient height, draw the moisture from the air currents and send NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 21 it back again as streamflow through the forest. The influence of the Rocky Mountains in diverting moisture from the treeless plains lying to the eastward, for the benefit of their wooded western slopes, is a conspicuous illustration of this influence, which may be seen in less degree in many other forest formations. The topographical contour of the forest floor also determines the character of its drainage to a con- siderable extent, though the supply of earth moisture is usually classed with soil influences. Edaphic or Soil Influences. — That different soils have an important influence upon plant growth is generally recognized. These soils have been formed through long ages of rock erosion, and there has been going on also a much more rapid process of soil sifting and transporta- tion by water movement, building up the rich and fine alluvial soil of the valleys with particles washed down from the upper portions of the watersheds. The most obvious distinction in soils is between the clayey and the sandy kinds, not only in their chemical composition but in their relative capacities for mechanically entrapping and holding moisture, and for yielding it up again on demand to the capillary rootlets of growing vegetation. Some tree species are quite limited in their soil adaptability, while others will flourish in almost any character of soil if other conditions are congenial. The character of the original soil has been modified, in both wood- land and prairie, by the deposition of decayed or decaying vegetable humus, usually called "leaf mold," though not the leaves only but every part of every plant in time finds its way back again to Mother Earth and becomes partially predigested food for future plant generations. Such a deposit of vegetable humus of course favors the advent of new species suited to such a soil, though not so well adapted as the primi- tive types to extract their nourishment from the cruder chemical con- stituents of purely rock soils. As this leaf mold is a vegetable product, however, it forms a sort of connecting link between the soil influences and those to be considered in the next paragraph. Biotic Infliiences. — In systematic botany all the influences exerted upon the plant or plant group by other vegetable or animal life or matter are known as biotic, and this somewhat formidable title includes some of the most interesting subjects to be considered in the study of tree growth. It involves the relation of the tree to the tree-society of which it forms a part, and indeed — as has already been explained — to all the trees or other plants which have occupied the ground before it 22 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. and, dying, helped to enrich the soil upon which it feeds. ' When we come to look into these relations we shall find the forces at work are closely allied to those which govern human society. There is the same fight for existence or for supremacy, the same racial clannishness shown in the tendency of certain species to gather into groups, while other tree individuals incline toward solitude rather than companionship. The trees have their helpful as well as their antagonistic relationships also, and contribute somewhat to a common defense, so that different forest formations will be found to differ in their powers of resistance to such common foes as fire and windstorms. Different species also have curious inter-relationships; some are not favored in infancy by the prev- alence of their own kind, but do best under forest cover of alien growth, which they often ungratefully crowd out of existence when they reach their own lusty prime. In short, the student of trees will find individual and racial character as sharply defined as among man- kind, and probably more widely differentiated. The subject is a most inviting one, but it can not be discussed here any farther than it relates to the forest as a whole and to the distribution of species. Forested and Nontorested Areas. — In the contest of different tree spe- cies to occupy the same ground, where the opposing forces are evenly matched the firstcomer, of course, has the advantage. Dense forests now occupy most of the northern half of the continent which was stripped of all vegetation by the glaciers. These forests must have marched up slowly from the south, and upon the frontier of tree prog- ress were the kinds which possessed the greatest facilities for migration by means of seed distribution, in addition to general adaptability to growth in the open. When these began to shade the ground others crept after them which required shade cover for their early growth, and in this way the northward march proceeded, until the different species reached the northernmost limits where they could exist and reproduce — if all the species have reached such limits, it being a question whether they are not still slowly extending northward, the rate of progress of 3 The lichens especially have played an important part in soil formation, as they possess the power to feed upon and decompose rock. This peculiar Qualification was almost a necessity of their existence when they first appeared upon the earth, before the higrher forms of vegetation, for there was then little but rock for them to feed upon ; and ever since they have had a part in rock erosion, toErether with the forces of sunlight, wind, water, frost and the carbonic acid sfas of the at- mosphere. Decaying: vegetable humus is, however, the most profound biotic influence in its reac- tion upon rocks and rock soils, by charging: the waters which pass through it with carbonic acid gas and thereby increasing many fold their solvent action. This corrosive action extends underground as far as these waters penetrate, while the atmosphere corrodes only the surface rocks. A consid- erable portion of the earth elements thus taken into solution are carried down to the sea and feed the entire series of living forms which inhabit it ; so that the forests in this way feed the whales and seals as surely as those animals which inhabit its own domain. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 23 course becoming slower and slower as the northern limit is approached. '°' By a somewhat similar process the timber line is advancing to occupy any favorable open area which may have been created in any way, such as by the abandonment of farm land, or the creation of cut-over or burned-over areas where forest had previously existed. In the two lat- ter instances, however, very rarely is the denudation so complete that there does not remain over all the area the germ of the new forest in seeds, roots and partly live stumps. There is a popular belief that most of the area which is now open prairie was quite recently the site of forests which have been destroyed by fire or other causes. Some prairie land may have been created in this wayj and tree growth upon some of the prairies undoubtedly is prevented by the prevalence of prairie fires ; but it is altogether unfair to the fire fiend to charge all the treeless areas against his account, nor even all but the more obviously desert sections where moisture is lack- ing to support plant life. Very rarely are forest fires sufficiently severe to kill out all tree life, even to the roots in the soil, so that they would not send up fresh sprouts and in time reproduce the forest over the burned area. Wherever forests have stood trees have been blown over by the wind ; and wherever this occurs the upturned roots carry a quan- tity of earth with them, and, decaying, leave a hummock beside the hollow formed by the upheaval of the roots. It takes hundreds of years on level ground for these characteristic irregularities to disappear entirely in the surface level, and wherever they are not to be found it is safe to assume that forests have not existed there within such a period. Still another argument against the fire theory is found in the fact that fires seem to be a regular feature of the usual cycle of forest growth, at least in all forests where coniferous trees predominate. Doctor Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey of Canada, insists upon this point and says that when conditions are ripe for a fire it is often set by lightning instead of by any human agency. After a vivid descrip- tion of a Canadian forest fire* he furnishes the following account of the growth of the new forest, which will in a general way apply to the northern United States as well, except that there forest growth is more SO' Prof. Shaler (Aspects of the Earth, 285) also points out that in the pre-glaoial southward migration the trees could not choose their own rate of progrress before the advancing: ice. " The individual forms, of course, are not free to move, but the succession o£ generations must win their way southward with sufficient speed to keep ahead of the oncoming: ice. If any species failed in this worli it would inevitably be overwhelmed by the g:lacier, and thus disappear from the face of the earth." *"The Geographical Distribution of Forest Trees in Canada," Scottish Geographical Magazine, June, 1897, pp. 281-296. 24 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. rapid than farther north and the successive stages follow each other at somewhat shorter intervals than he gives: The dead trunks of the larger trees generally stand for many years after a fire. In the summer following one of these conflagrations the blackened ground becomes partly covered by a growth of herbaceous plants, berry bushes and shoots from the roots and butts of deciduous trees which have retained some vitality, be- sides numerous small seedling trees. The huckleberry bushes, which, are very common for the first few years, especially on rocky silicious ground, bear abundant crops of fruit. They have sprung from large old roots which are almost every- where present in the thick woods, although their tops are quite inconspicuous and bear few or no berries. In fifteen or twenty years the ground is covered with pop- lars, birches, willows, etc., to the height of about thirty feet. By this time the dead trunks of the old brule have lost most of their branches and the smaller ones have fallen down. If we look under this growth we shall discover many healthy young coniferse overshadowed by the more rapidly growing deciduous trees. At the end of about fifty years the coniferse are everywhere showing their heads in the form of sharp apices, their dark green color contrasting strongly with the lighter shade of the other trees. In the race to get above the deciduous growth they de- velop tall trunks with the branches high up. In one hundred years the poplars are dying and falling down and the canoe birch has attained maturity and soon after shows signs of old age. In the meantime the older coniferse have overtopped the older trees and given a new character to the general appearance of the forest. The younger coniferse of various ages which have been springing up from seed every year, take possession of the ground left by the decay of the first occupants. In about one hundred and fifty years the forest has again become almost entirely coniferous and is ready to be destroyed once more by fire. Such is the rotation of crops of trees which is perpetually going on in these regions. Perhaps one-third of the whole area consists of "second growth" of less than fifty years, one-third of trees from fifty to one hundred years old, while the remaining one-third may be one hundred years old and upward. The above, of course, applies only to those northern forests where the coniferse tend eventually to predominate. Many deciduous forests are not subject to fire except in very dry seasons, or perhaps in the fall after the foliage has fallen; and the mature southern pines are little subject to injury from fire because of their height and the protec- tion of their trunks afforded by a thick bark, while the fire runs close to the ground and finds little to feed upon. Among the biotic influences must be mentioned the activities of living insects, animals, and the animal man. Many forest trees depend upon bees and other insects for flower fertilization, some of them, like basswood and honey locust, being notable honey-producers; others pol- lenize so profusely that the winds can be relied upon to distribute the pollen. The oifice of birds and quadrupeds in carrying edible seeds NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 25 from place to place is well understood. The squirrel is notably dili- gent in this regard and buries his food stores in the earth, where they may grow if he fall a victim to predatory appetite before he himself eats his buried store of food. Some seeds like those of the burdock have organs of attachment by means of which they may secure trans- portation by passing animals, but it is not now recalled that any tree seeds are so strongly specialized in this way. Forest trees have insect enemies as well as insect friends, and some- times there are great invasions of insect pests attacking certain species, such as the pine in the Black Hills region of South Dakota a few years ago, and the larches of Canada about 1896. Last and most potent of the animal agencies is that of man himself ; and it is his relation to the forest that forms the main theme of the present work. COMMERCIAL TREE SPECIES OF AMERICA. George B. Sudworth, accepted in this work as authority on the for- est tree species of the United States,' gives 510 distinct species," not counting hybrids nor species variations, some of the latter of which would rank almost as distinct species. The following table will show the botanical classification : "—Number of— Families. Genera. Species. Gymnospermse (pine and yew families) 2 15 93 Monocofyledones (palm and yucca families) 2 15 15 Dlcotyledones (all bardwood trees) 56 146 408 Totals 60 176 510 Of these sixty families eighteen are represented in the United States only in the southern portion of Florida or along the Mexican boundary, being tropical plants and not characteristic of the flora of the country as a whole. These families include thirty-one genera and forty-two species, and there are sixty-four species in other families which might also be classified as tropical, making a total of 106 tropical species. There are seventeen species which were not originally indigenous to this country but are now found growing here wild, having escaped from cultivation. Of the remaining species (as has already been stated in discussing the influence of the Rocky Mountains as a botanical barrier) , 212 are found only in the eastern and middle United States, 159 are found only on the Pacific slope or in the Rocky Mountains, and sixteen 5 See footnote No. 2, page 19. ° Charles S. Sargent. In his monumental work. " The Sllva of North America," states (pref- ace to Vol. XIII.) that 585 species are treated. Such differences arise chiefly in two ways— first, from some botanists considering as distinct species trees which others consider as mere varieties ; second, from differences of judgment as to whether certain species are trees or shrubs. In addltloo Is the frequent discovery and identification of new species. 26 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. species are common to both geographical divisions. Canada is not known to have any tree species not in Sudworth's list, and her flora comprises only 127 of the 510 species listed by him. THE COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE WOODS. When we come to consider the woods which are of commercial im- portance the list becomes restricted to such an extent that room may be made for it here. Many other woods than those given have local uses or are valuable for other purposes than for lumber, but this list includes practically all the woods which furnish sawlogs, and a few besides, on account of their wide distribution. Sudworth's list is followed through- out in giving the range, except where otherwise stated : Pinus ' strobus. White pine. Its range includes Newfoundland, southern and western Quebec, Ontario (except the far northern portion) , southeastern Man- itoba near Lake Winnipeg, northern and eastern Minnesota, practically all Wisconsin and Michigan, northern Illinois, northeastern Ohio, south along the Allegheny Mountains to northern Georgia, and most of the New England and middle states. Pinus resinosa? Norway or red pine. Northern range almost the same as that of white pine. Southern range (from east to west) through Massachusetts, northern Pennsylvania, northeastern Ohio, central Michigan, northern Wis- consin and northeastern Minnesota. Pinus divaricata. Banksian pine (Canada) or jack pine (United States). Of re- stricted commercial importance, but interesting because the most northern in habitat. Sudworth gives its range as follows: "New Brunswick to New Hampshire and west through Great Lake and Hudson Bay (southern shores) region to Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie River and Rocky Mountains; south into northern Maine, northern New York, northern Indiana and Illinois and central Minnesota." Bell's timber map* agrees with above in the northern boundary, but gives the southern limits as passing through Lake Superior and touching the United States only in the northern point of Minnesota and the northern peninsula of Michigan, which is obviously incorrect. Pinus palustris. Longleaf pine. The well known southern longleaf yellow pine. Atlantic Coast region from near Norfolk, Virginia, to Tampa Bay, Florida; west '" to eastern Texas ; north to northeastern Alabama and northwestern Georgia. ' The Pin-US gfenus. According to Sargfent's Silva there are about seventy species, of which one is in the Philippines, twenty-one in the western United States, thirteen in the eastern United States. Only one species grows in the far north ; four in the St. Lawrence basin and northern New Knsrland ; increased to iive in the middle Atlantic states, and in the lowlands of the South eight spe- cies are found. In Mexico perhaps twelve or fourteen species exist (Vol. XI, p. 2). At least 100 species are believed to have flourished in North America in the Miocene period (Lesq., Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey VII, 72, 83, 1 7, f 25-33). For insects see footnote 40, p. 11 of Vol. XI, Sargent. 8 " Only American representative of a peculiar Old World group of pine trees, of which P. sjil- vestris (Scotch pine) is the best known."— Silva XI, 68. ' See footnote No. 4, page 23. 10 " West to the uplands east of the bottoms of the Mississippi River ;" in Texas to the Trin- ity River and to latitude 32 degrees north, and in Louisiana nearly to the northern boundary.— Silva XI, 152, 153. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 27 Pinus echinata {Pinus mitts, Michx.). Shortleaf pine. The shortleaf yellow pine of the South, though not so closely restricted to the South in its range as is longleaf. Found as far north as Staten Island, New York, and ranges all down the coast to Florida ; west to southern Missouri, eastern Indian Terri- tory and northeastern Texas. '^ Sudworth does not define its northern limits very closely. Sargent '^ states that it is found in Union and Jackson counties, Illinois, forms large, solid forests in northern Arkansas, Kansas and Missouri and reaches its greatest development in western Louisiana, southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. On the Atlantic Coast known commercially as North Car- olina pine. Pinus tceda. Loblolly pine. Oldfield pine. Range from New Jersey to Florida, west to eastern Texas, ^^ and north into southeastern Indian Territory, Arkansas, and southern border of middle and western Tennessee. Intermixed with either the longleaf or the shortleaf pine. An inferior lumber wood, used somewhat for turpentining, " and the characteristic second growth of abandoned fields and other open areas of the South. Is at its best in eastern North Carolina. Pinus lambertiana. The sugar pine of the Pacific Coast, a valuable lumber wood." Found in the mountain regions from Oregon to California, extending back to the head of the McKinzie and Rogue rivers in the former State and in the lat- ter to the Sierra Nevada, Santa Lucia, San Bernardino and Cuyamaca moun- tains. Pinus ponderosa. Bull pine. Known commercially as California white pine and also as western yellow pine.'' Ranges from South Dakota and British Colum- bia on the north to western Texas and Mexico throughout the Pacific and Rocky Mountain region. The most generally distributed tree of large com- mercial importance in the western mountain region. Pinus monticola. Silver pine. Known commercially as the "western white pine" of Idaho and Montana (with admixture of allied local species) . Range from Vancouver Island and southern British Columbia through northern Idaho to northern Montana, having its highest development in these two States; " thence southward through Washington and Oregon to Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. Pinus flexilis. Limber pine. The most valuable lumber wood of central Nevada, 11 Most abundant and attains Its largest size west of the Mississippi River. Sllva XI, 144. 12 Silva XI, 145. 13 " Fifty years ago the low hills in Bastrop County, central Texas, were covered with forests of P. tcBda, which also spread Into the adjacent counties. Extensive lumbering operations were car- ried on here, all the towns of the central and western parts of the State before the building of the Texas railroads being constructed from timber cut In these pineries, which, however, are now ex- hausted as sources of commercial prosperity."— Silva XI, 112, footnote 4. The original large trees of the Pamlico Sound region appear to have been of better quality than either the virgin or second growth of today. The average quality is better west of the Mississippi River, and there it Is often mixed in with the other lumber pines. Silva XI, 114. 1^ " Contains large quantities of resin, but it does not flow rapidly when the trees are boxed, and soon hardens on exposure to the weather, and this species is probably not much worked com- mercially for the production of turpentine."— Silva XI, 114. 1^ Attains its largest size in southwestern Oregon. SUva XI, 29. Is largest of the pines. Sllva XI, 30. Grows 200 to 220 feet high, and six or eight, or occasionally ten or twelve, feet In di- ameter. Silva XI, 27. 1' A polymorphous species tending to break into distinct varieties in different localities. Silva XI, 81. " Principal lumber tree of eastern Washington and Oregon, of western Montana, Idaho and the Black Hills of South Dakota, and of western Texas, New Mexico and Arizona."— Sllva XI, 81. 1' Sargent Is authority for this statement, confirmed by general knowledge and belief. 28 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. though knotty and considered inferior to other pines found farther north in its range limits. Ranges in the Rocky Mountain region from Montana to west- ern Texas and New Mexico, and in the mountains of northern Arizona, Utah, Nevada and California. Larix laricina (L. americana '' Michx.) . Tamarack. Not largely used for lumber except in shipbuilding and for rowboats, but widely used for posts, poles and ties. Range from Newfoundland and Labrador to northern Pennsylvania, northern Indiana, Illinois, central Minnesota ; next to spruce the most north- ern species, extending from Hudson Bay northwest to Great Bear Lake and the mouth of the Mackenzie River. Larix occidentalis}^ Western larch. A larger species than the eastern tamarack and a valuable lumber tree.^" Range from southern British Columbia south in the Cascade Mountains to the Columbia River and to western Montana; also found in the Blue Mountains of Washington and Oregon. ^^ Picea^"^ mariana^^ {P.nigralAvX.'). Black spruce. A valuable lumber wood, un- distinguished in commerce from the white spruce next described, both being manufactured as "spruce." Range from Newfoundland to Hudson Bay and northwestward to the Mackenzie River ; southward in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and in the eastern mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Both Sargent^* and Bell agree in including in its range the entire Labrador Peninsula except the extreme northern point and the immediate vicinity of the Atlantic Ocean. Upon Bell's timber map of Canada it and white spruce are platted together as having the most northerly limits of any wood, tama- rack coming next ; and Sargent speaks of it as " forming, especially north of the fiftieth degree of latitude, extensive forests on the watersheds of the prin- cipal streams or in cold, wet swamps; then small, stunted, and of little value." Both these spruces are, however, extensively used as pulpwood in much smaller diameters than would be desirable for saw timber. Picea canadensis (P. alba Link.). White spruce. As to commercial uses see re- marks under black spruce above. Northern range same as black spruce according to Sudworth and Bell, though they do not agree on the limits, as see above, except that Sudworth gives it as extending to Alaska and the black ^3 Sargrent prefers L. americana. 19 " When It has grown under the most favorable conditions, on low, moist soil, at elevations of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the sea level, the western larch often arises to the height of 250 feet, with a trunk from six to eight feet in diameter; on poorer soil and exposed mountain slopes it has an average height of about one hundred feet, with a trunk two or three feet in diame- ter. "-Silva XII, 11. 20 Especially for Interior finish. Silva XII, 12. 21 Its home is in the basin, of the upper Columbia River. Silva XII, 12. The great thinness of its bark unfits it to resist fire, and, being a poor seeder, it is becoming reduced in quantity. Silva XII, 13. 22 Piaa. There are sixteen known species, seven in North America, one of these in the Appa- lachian Mountains, two in the Rocky Mountains, one on the northwest coast, one extending to Ber- ing Sea in the far north, and one extending from the east to beyond the Rocky Mountains. The spruces are believed to have inhabited Europe during the Miocene period. — Silva XII, 20. 23 " In the United States it is most common and grows to its largest size in the territory adja- cent to the Great Lakes, where, however, it is nowhere abundant, thriving only in the molstest situations and rarely producing trunks a foot in diameter. It is far less abundant than the red spruce In all the Appalachian region, and everywhere east of the Allegheny Motmtains ... Is a small and comparatively rare tree. . . It is probably rarely used, except in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, for other purposes than the manufacture of paper pulp."— Silva XII, 31. 24 SUva XII, 30. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 29 spruce as extending only to the Mackenzie River. Sargent agrees with Bell on its range including Labrador Peninsula to Ungava Bay. Southern range to northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Mon- tana and British Columbia. Sargent also specifically includes Maine ^' and northeastern Vermont, as Sudworth does by inference. Picea engelmanni. Engelmann spruce. Range, northern Arizona and through the Rocky Mountain region to British Columbia. Sargent says that it is largely manufactured into lumber for the construction of buildings and is also ex- tensively used for fuel and charcoal. The wood is very light and stringy, but not soft. Picea siichensis. Sitka spruce or tideland spruce. Known also commercially as western white spruce. One of the prominent lumber woods of Washington and Oregon. Range in the Pacific Coast region from Alaska'" to northern California. Tsu£-a" canadensis. Hemlock. Important commercially because of its wide dis- tribution and its especial adaptation for the coarser building materials on account of its strength and durability.^' Range from Nova Scotia westward through southern Quebec and Ontario to Minnesota, through Wisconsin, Michigan and southward along the mountains to northern Alabama and Georgia. Tsuga caroliniana. Carolina hemlock. A local southern species closely allied to T. canadensis, formerly considered a variety of the species, occurring in the same forests and farther south than the range of the T. canadensis, and undis- tinguished commercially.^' Range mountains of southwestern Virginia, west- ern North Carolina, and northern Georgia ; very local. Tsuga heterophylla. Western hemlock. Of larger growth^" than the eastern species and a better lumber wood, though not yet very largely used. Range from Alaska^' to Idaho and Montana and southward in the mountains to California. 25 " Occurring very close to the shore, where it Is bathed in the spray of the ocean."— Sllva XII, 38. 28 In Alaslca " occurring at the sea level often to the height of more than a hundred feet, and ascending to elevations of three thousand feet, but decreasing in size as it ascends or leaves the neighborhood of the ocean."— Silva XII, 156. ' It is the principal lumber manufactured in Alaska." — Silva XII, 57. " The greatest of all spruce trees, this Inhabitant of the northwestern coast is sur- passed by few others either in thicl^ness or height of stem."— Silva XII, 57. 2' Ttaga. Seven species, confined to temperate North America, and eastern and southern Asia, In North America two species east and two west. Japan, two species, and the seventh in the Himalaya Mountains. Not greatly subject to insects or fungi in this country. Name Is the common Japanese name of the tree (tsuga) .—Silva XII, 60, 61. 28 The use of the barls for tanning should be mentioned. "It is estimated that in the year 1887 1.200,000 tons of bark of this tree were harvested ; and although a large part of the timber of the trees, cut and stripped of their bark, is allowed to rot on the ground, it is believed that the aver- age annual value of the material of all kinds obtained from the hemlock is not less than $30,000,- 000."— Silva XII, 66, footnote 3. United States census of 1900 reported a product of 473,222 cords valued at $1,945,452 during the year 1899. 29SnvaXII, 69. so " FrcQuently 200 feet in height, with a tall trunk from six to ten feet in diameter."— SUva XII, 73. 31 . , . " where it forms with the tideland spruce the largest part of the great coast forest which extends from the sea level up to elevations of about two thousand feet, sometimes one and sometimes the other predominating."— Silva XII, 74. 30 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Pseudotsuga^^ taxifolia {P. mucronata^^ or P. douglasiiCa.TT.). Douglas spruce. Also known commercially as red fir, Douglas fir and as Oregon pine. The most important lumber wood of the Pacific Coast." Widely distributed ^s in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific Coast in the United States and northward into British Columbia. Has its maximum development in Wash- ington and Oregon and on Vancouver Island. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa?^ Bigcone spruce. Range, southern California (San Bernardino Mountains to the Cuyamaca Mountains) . Abies^'' balsamea. Balsam fir. Given because it is the typical western species, though not used for lumber,^^ being, however, employed to some extent for pulpwood. It belongs in the most arctic group of woods, its northern limits through most of their extent reaching within twenty to thirty miles of those of the spruces ( see Picea mariana ) . It extends south to Pennsylvania, Michigan and Minnesota, and in the eastern mountains as far south as Vir- ginia. An allied species (A. fraseri^') is found only in the Appalachian Mountains. Abies grandis. Lowland fir, white fir. Known also commercially as the silver fir or great silver fir. Coast region from Vancouver Island to California, and from Washington and Oregon to northern Idaho and Montana.*" Manufactured into lumber and used for interior finish, packing cases, cooperage, etc. Abies concolor. White fir. Oregon to southern California, and northern Arizona and New Mexico to Colorado and Utah. This and A. grandis seem to be known together as ' ' white fir " in Oregon, while only A . grandis is known in Montana and Idaho, and only A. concolor in California, where it reaches its greatest development. Sargent thinks the latter may be only a southern va- riety of the former, and says it is occasionally manufactured into lumber and used for packing cases, butter tubs and other local purposes. Abies amabilis. Amabilis or lovely fir. Known also as larch among Oregon lum- bermen, and also in Washington, where it is cut and sold with A. nobilis." ^^Pseudotsuga. Three species, two in America and the third in Japan. Not known to be seriously injured in this country by insects or disease.— Silva XII, 84. 33 Preferred by Sargent. 34 " A tree, when grown under favorable conditions, often 200 feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter, and frequently much taller, with a trunk ten or twelve feet in diameter." "I have not been able to obtain any reliable information concerning the maximum height of the Douglas spruce. Lumbermen on Puget Sound habitually speak of trees from 300 to 350 feet tall, but their statements unsupported by actual measurements must be accepted cautiously." He goes on to say that the tree often towers over forests which average 200 feet in height, so it must at its maximum be a very tall tree.— Silva XII, 88, and footnote 1. For coarse purposes, .railway ties, piles, and for spars and masts is unequaled in strength.— Silva XII, 90. 35 " No other American tree of the first magnitude is so widely distributed, or can now afford so much timber, and the rapidity of its growth and its power of reproduction under favorable condi- tions make it the most valuable inhabitant of the great coniferous forests of the Northwest."— SUva XII, 91. 92. 36 Is " occasionally manufactured into lumber, and largely used for "fuel."— Silva XII, 94. 37 Abies. Twenty-three species. In America two occur east, seven west, and two are found only in Mexico and Guatemala. The rest of the species are found in the mountains (chiefly) of Europe, Asia and Africa. Does not suffer severely in America from insects or fungi. 33 " Except to some extent for box lumber."— Silva XII, 109. 38 "Grows thirty to' forty, and rarely seventy to eighty feet high, with a trunk occasionally two and one-half feet in diameter."— Silva XII, 105. " Occasionally used forilumber in building moun- tain hotels."-Silva XII, 106. *" " Does not grow gregariously."- Silva XII, 118. 41 United States Geological Survey, 1899-1900, Part V, pp. 100-101. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 31 It is ranked seventh among the ten or eleven principal timber trees of Wash- ington, both as to desirable qualities of the wood and as to size, quantity and accessibility of the timber, and constitutes about 3.74 percent of the stand of commercial timber in that State. *^ Sargent says that it reaches its greatest development on the Olympic Mountains of northwestern Washington.*' Range from the Fraser River region in British Columbia southward in the Cascade Mountains to Washington and Oregon. Abies nobilis. Noble fir. Known also commercially as larch. In Washington and Oregon (in company with the nearly related A. amabilis) it constitutes about five percent of the total timber stand.** Found in Washington in the coast mountains in the southwestern part of the State ; in the Olympic Mountains on Soleduck River ; and from Mount Baker southward in the Cascade Moun- tains, to Oregon , as far as headwaters of McKinzie River in Lane County. Abies magnifica.*^ Red fir. Range California (Mount Shasta and along the west- em slopes of Sierra Nevada Mountains) . Sequoia*' washingtoniana (5". gigantea Decaisne, .S. wellingtonia Seeman). Big- tree. A characteristic species, though not much used for lumber, except locally, on account of its large size and consequent diflBculty of manufacture.*' Range in California from latitude 39 degrees north to a little south of latitude 36 degrees north, or from the middle fork of the American River and along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the headwaters of Deer Creek. Sequoia sempervirens .^^ Redwood. Range from the southern borders of Oregon and southward in the coast region, twenty to thirty miles inland, through California to Salmon Creek canyon. Largest bodies are found in Humboldt, Mendocino and Del Norte counties, California. Thuja'^' occidentalis . Arborvitse. Known commercially as white cedar. Not used so much for lumber as for posts, poles and shingles. Sudworth lists forty-six cultivated varieties of this species. Indigenous range from New Brunswick to Lake Winnipeg and south to central Minnesota and Michigan, northern Illi- nois and in the Atlantic Coast region along the mountains to North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Thuja plicata.^" Giant arborvitse. Known commercially as (western, or Washing- ton) red cedar. Forms about five percent of the stand of western timber <2 United States Geological Survey, 1899-1900, Part V, p. 127. «3 Silva XII, 126. 44 " Occasionally manufactured into lumber, it is used under the name of larch for the interior finish of buildings, and for packing cases."— Silva XII, 135. 45 "In California is occasionally manufactured into coarse lumber employed in the construc- tion of cheap btiildings, and for packing cases. "—Silva XII. 139. 46The genus Sequoia was named after Sequoyah (George Guess), the half-breedinventor of the Cherokee alphabet. 47 "The most massive stem, though not the tallest tree, in the world."— Silva X, 146. 48 "The most valuable timber tree of the forests of Pacific North America."— Silva X, 142 See Mulr, " Mountains of California," p. 195. *^Thuja {Thuya Sargent). Four species. One, the type of the genus, in northeastern North America; one in northwestern North America. One in the mountains of central Japan, and the fourth in China. The type is ancient and was widely distributed in the Tertiary ages through both hemispheres. Not injured seriously by insects or fungi. Silva X, 124. S" T. gigantea (NuttaU) preferred by Sargent. 32 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. woods. Range from coast of southern Alaska to northern California; east- ward through British Columbia and northern Washington to northern Idaho and Montana, and along the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. ^^ Libocedrus ^^ decurrens. Incense cedar. Known also commercially as white cedar. Range from Oregon southward on the western slopes of the Cascade Moun- tains through California, Lower California and western Nevada. Taxodium^^ distichum. Bald cypress. Known commercially simply as "cypress," though no true cypress (Cupressus) of commercial value exists in this country. Range in the Atlantic Coast region from southern Delaware to Florida, west- ward along the Gulf Coast to Texas, and northward from the Gulf Coast through Louisiana, Arkansas and eastern Mississippi and Tennessee, south- eastern Missouri, western and northwestern Kentucky, southern Illinois and southwestern Indiana. Reaches its highest development in the bayou district of Louisiana and in similar regions of deep alluvial deposits along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Juniperus ^* virginiana. Red juniper. Known commercially as pencil cedar or as red cedar. Of slight importance because of limited supply, being sparsely distributed over a wide '^ area. Range from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Florida,^' west in Ontario to Dakota, central Nebraska and Kansas, and Indian Territory. J. barbadensis, pencil cedar. Is by Sudworth considered a distinct species. Juglans^'' cinerea. Butternut. Of considerable use for interior finish, furniture, etc. Range from southern New Brunswick to Delaware, and on the Appa- lachian Mountains to Georgia and Alabama; westward through Ontario to Dakota, southeastern Nebraska, southern Missouri, and northeastern Arkansas. Juglans nigra. Black walnut. The most valuable native cabinet wood, but now 51 "The noblest o£ Its race, and one of the most valuable timber trees of northwestern America, T. sigantea is rapidly disappearing: with the spread of forest fires, which, bumins through their thin barls:, soon kill these trees."— Silva X, 130. ^^ Libocedrus. "Eight species of LibocedrTis (which is, perhaps, too closely connected with the Thuya to be considered generically distinct) are now distingruished ; one is widely scattered through the mountain forests of western North America ; two Inhabit western South America, where they are distributed from Chili to Patagonia ; two occur in New Zealand, two in New Caledonia, and one in southwestern China." Species closely analagous to the present North American inhabited Green- land in the Cretaceous period.— Silva X, 134. 53 Taxodium. Two species, one in the United States and one in the Mexican highlands. Not seriously injured by pests or fungi.— Silva X, 150. " ' Dry rot in living timber often diminishes its value and in Louisiana and Mississippi is said to affect at least one-third of all the trees ' (Dickson and Brown, Am. Jour. Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. 15, on ' The Cjfpress Trees of Mississippi and Louisiana ')." —Silva X, 150, footnote 5. Nevertheless its products show great resistance to rot. 5* Gin is flavored with the crushed berries of J. communis. This species might be Included as a characteristic one on account of being one of the very few that may be said to be transcontinental In habit. J. monosperma is much used for fencing and fuel, according to Silva X, 90. Its range is eastern base Rocky Mountains of Colorado (Platte and Arkansas Rivers) and southward into west- em Texas ; southern Utah to central New Mexico and Arizona. 65 " The most widely distributed coniferous tree of North America."— Silva X, 94. 55 " In western Louisiana, Texas, and southern Arkansas, it attains its greatest dimensions on rich alluvial bottom lauds, and in Kansas and eastern central Nebraska grows usually on dry limestone river bluffs, where, before the coming of white men, it often formed groves of considerable extent."— Silva X. 94, 95. " The straightest grained and most easily worked cedar wood is obtained from the swamps near the western coast of the Florida Peninsula, and large factories have been established at Cedar Keys, Florida, and at other points in the southern states, by German manufac- turers, to cut up the wood for pencil making."— Silva X, 95, footnote 3. ^''Juglans. Ten species now known, two in North America generally, and a third in western Texas, Mexico, etc., one or two additional species in Mexico, one in western California. One in the Antilles, and perhaps one or two others in South America. One in Europe, one in northern China, one in Japan. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 33 scarce. Range from southern Ontario to Florida, central Alabama and Mis- sissippi, and westward through southern Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota to Nebraska, Kansas and Texas. Hicoria ^^ alba. Mocker nut, American white hickory. Hicoria minima. Bitternut or swamp hickory. Hicoria ovata. Shagbark. Hicoria glabra . "" Pignut . All four of the above are known indiscriminately as lumber woods under the name of "hickory." All have practically the same range, from Quebec and Ontario to Florida along the Appalachian Mountains, and west to Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas. Populus^" tremuloides. Aspen. The most widely distributed American tree, but of no particular commercial value, though used for pulpwood and to some extent in turnery."' Ranging from Newfoundland through the central Labrador Penin- sula to Hudson Bay, and northwestward to the mouth of the Mackenzie River and to Alaska ; southward to the mountains of Pennsylvania, and to Missouri, southern Nebraska, and generally through the western mountains to New Mexico, lower California and into Mexico. Populus balsamifera. Balm of Gilead. Not of much commercial importance,'^ but one of the few trees which are of transcontinental distribution. In the extent of its northern limits it is exceeded only°^ by American larch and the black and white spruces. Its range includes Newfoundland, nearly all the Labrador Peninsula, and from the western shore of Hudson Bay northwest- ward to the mouth of the Mackenzie River and the Alaska coast, southward 68 "Hicoria is confined to the temperate regflons of eastern North America, distributed from the St. Lawrence to the Mexico higlilands, where one endemic species occurs. Nine species are Iznown, eight of which inhabit the territory of the United States, the headQuarters of the £renus, as represented by the greatest number of species, being in southern Arkansas. Traces of hickory have been found in the Tertiary rocks of Greenland ; paleontologists have described numerous species in the Upper Tertiary formation of Europe, and there are evidences that it once ranged in North America far to the westward of its present home."— Silva VII, 132. 69 " Extremely common in all the northern states ... in Missouri and Arkansas it is, per- haps, the commonest species . . . and it probably attains its largest size in the basin of the lower Ohio River. . . . Commercially is not distinguished from the wood of the shellbark hickory."— SUva VII, 167. ^^ Populus. Temperate and boreal regions in the northern hemisphere. One endemic species in Lower California, two in the Himalayas. "Of the eighteen or nineteen species (f. 5, Many hy- brids occur) which have been distinguished, nine inhabit British Columbia and the United States, where poplars are distributed from within the Arctic Circle to Mexico, and from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to those of the Pacific. In the eastern hemisphere poplars extend north to the Arctic Circle and abound in northern and central Europe and in northern and central Asia, where they are often the most conspicuous feature of the vegetation."— Silva IX, 152. " Populus is the oldest type of dicotyledonous plants yet identified, and its traces, with those of the sequoias, pines and cycads, have been found in the Lower Cretaceous rocks of Greenland. It was common on the midconti- nental plateau of North America during Crateceous times, and in Europe and North America during the Tertiary epoch, and predominated in the Miocene of Europe, the remains of twenty-eight species of that peiiod having been described."— Silva IX, 153. "The most valuable timber trees of the genus being the North American P. delloida (deltoides Sudworth), P. heterophylla and P. trichocarpa." —Silva IX, 155, 156. Range of P. heterophylla is from Connecticut and Long Island southward near the coast to southern Georgia ; westward in the Gulf region to western Louisiana and through Arkansas to southeastern Missouri, western Kentucky, and Tennessee, and southern Illinois and Indiana. 61 "-And sometimes for flooring."— Silva IX, 159. " Valuable as a cover tree for other young seedlings."— Silva IX, 160. 62 " Often 100 feet in height, with a tall trunk six or seven feet in diameter."— Silva IX, 167. "It is made into paper pulp, and in northern Michigan is manufactured into palls, tobacco boxes and small packing cases."— Silva IX, 167. 63Acoording to Dr. Robert Bell. 34 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. to New England and New York, central Michigan and Minnesota, Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, and northern Montana, Idaho, Oregon and Nevada. Populus deltoides {Populus monilifera Alton) . Cottonwood. The generally known Cottonwood of commerce, although a Pacific Coast species C/". trichocarpa'*) is largely used locally for slack cooperage and woodenware. The range of deltoides is from Quebec and Vermont through western New England and New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and the Atlantic Coast states to western Florida, and west to the Rocky Mountains from southern Alberta to northern New Mexico. It is, however, only in the South that it grows large enough and plentiful enough to be prominent as a lumber wood — particularly in the lowlands of the Mississippi Valley from Illinois south. Belula'^ papyri fera."^ Paper birch. Known largely in Canada as canoe birch from the use of its bark in making canoes. Not prominent as a saw timber, though largely used in turnery, in the manufacture of shoe lasts and pegs, spools and other small articles. It and the aspen (Populus tremuloides) g^ow the farthest north of the deciduous woods, the range including the Labrador Peninsula to Ungava Bay, except a narrow strip along the open coast, across to Hudson Bay, and northwest to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, Yukon River and the Alaska coast ; southward to New York and northern Pennsylva- nia, central Michigan and Minnesota, northern Nebraska, Dakota to the Black Hills region, northern Montana, and northwestern Washington, near Seattle. Betula lutea." Yellow birch. Probably the most plentiful lumber birch, though the red or river birch (B. nigra^^) and the sweet birch, next to be described, are also used.°° The yellow birch ranges from Newfoundland along the north- ern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Abbitibbe Lake and Rainy River ; ^^ p. irichocarpa. Black Cottonwood, balsam Cottonwood. "A tree often nearly two hnndt«d feet In height, with a trunk seven or eight feet in diameter."— Silva IX, 175. " In Oregon and Wash- ington, where the demand for the wood has already caused the destruction of most of the old trees, it has been largely made into the staves of sugar barrels, and it is also used in the manufactore of woodenware pails and butter-tubs, although its bitter taste lessens its value for these purposes."— Silva IX, 176. "In western British Columbia, Washington and Oregon it abounds In all the river valleys, and is the largest of the broad-leaved trees."— Ibid. °s Betula. ' ' About twenty-four species may be distinguished. Nine occur in North America ; of these six are trees and three are low shrubs. Six or seven species inhabit Europe, the most im- portant, £. alba, also ranging in several forms through Siberia to Japan. The type is an ancient one; its traces appear in the Cretaceous rocks of the Dakota group formation, and later, during the Tertiary i>eriod, it spread over the central plateau and the northwest coast of North America, and abounded in Europe, where paleontologists have recognized in the Eocene, Pliocene and especially in the Miocene the remains of numerous species, the direct ancestors of those now living."— Silva IX, 46, 47, 48. ^^*'A tree, usually sixty or seventy, or, on the northwest coast, occasionally 120 feet tall, with a trunk from two to three feet in diameter."— Silva IX, 57. " West of the Rocky Motmtains, where It attains its largest size, the canoe birch usually grows singly, and is found only along the banks of streams." " Preferred for making spools."— Silva IX, 59. 87 " A tree occasionally 100 feet high, with a tnmk three or four feet in diameter ; or. In the neighborhood of the coast or toward the southern and the extreme northwestern limits of Its range, much smaller, and often not more than twenty or thirty feet in height."— Silva IX, 53. " One of the largest deciduous-leaved trees of the northern forests of northeastern North America. ... Is exceedingly abundant ; and attains its largest size in the eastern provinces of Canada, and In north- em New England and New York."— Silva IX, 54. ^^ Betula nigra. "Eighty or ninety feet in height, sometimes five feet In diameter."— Silva IX, 61. Used for furniture, woodenware, wooden shoes and in turnery. " It is one of the most Interest- ing trees of this genus. It is the only semiaquatic birch, and its seeds . . . ripen in early sum- mer when the water of swamps is usually at its lowest level, and, falling on the damp, rich soil of their exposed banks, germinate at once and produce plants which obtain a firm foothold and grow to be several inches high before the autumn. . . . Other birches Inhabit cold northern countries or high mountains in warmer regions ; but the river birch flourishes and attains its largest size In the damp, semitropical lowlands of Florida, Louisiana and eastern Texas."— Silva IX, 62-63. "Also 5. topulUolia, which, "while the smallest and least widely distributed of the birch NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 35 southward to northern Minnesota, and through the northern states to eastern Tennessee, North Carolina and Delaware. Beiula tenia.'"' Sweet birch. Known also commercially as black birch or cherry birch, and in Minnesota as river birch. Range much the same northward as the yellow birch ; in the South reaching southern Indiana and Illinois, and along the Allegheny Mountains to central Kentucky, Tennessee and western Florida. Used to some extent for furniture." Ostrya''^virgimana.''^ Hornbeam. Both this and blue beech (Carpinus caroHniana) are largely known as ironwood, and have some use for tool handles, levers and other purposes requiring a very strong, hard wood. Of little commercial im- portance. Range from Quebec and Ontario south to northern Florida and west to eastern Kansas. Fagus''* atropunicea'^ {F. ferruginea Alton).'"' Beech. Range Nova Scotia to Lake Huron and northern Wisconsin ; south to western Florida, and west to south- eastern Missouri and Texas. Castanea'''' dentata.''^ Chestnut. Range from southern Maine to northwestern Ver- mont, southern Ontario and southeastern Michigan ; southward to Delaware and southeastern Indiana, and on the Allegheny Mountains to central Ken- tucky and Tennessee, central Alabama, and Mississippi." Quercus^" alba. The true white oak. Commercially other varieties are known in- trees of eastern North America, is largely used in the manufacture of spools, shoe pees, wood pulp and for the bubs of wheels. It makes excellent fuel."— Silva IX, 56. ">" A tree seventy or eighty feet in height, with a trunk from two to five feet in diameter."— SnvaIX,50. '1 " It is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, and for fuel, and in the Maritime Prov- inces of Canada in ship and boat building."— SQva IX, 50. ^2 Ostrjia. " Pour species now known, two in north central America, one of them being widely- distributed, the other in Arizona, one in southern Europe and western Asia, and the fourth in north- em Japan. In Eocene and Miocene Europe ranging as far north as Greenland."— Silva IX, 32. 73 ■■ Occasionally fifty or sixty feet in height, with a trunk two feet in diameter. . . . Grows to Its largest size in southern Arkansas and the adjacent parts of Texas."— Silva IX, 34, 35. 74 Fagus. Fifteen or sixteen species. One eastern America ; one Europe, western Asia, and China, and Japan: three are endemic to Australia, four are found in New Zealand, five in southern Chill and Tierra del Fnego. The type is ancient.— Silva IX, 22. - 75 " A tree, usually seventy or eighty, or under exceptionally favorable conditions occasion- ally 120 feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter."— Silva IX, 27. "i^ americana, though less common than several oaks, is one of the most widely distributed trees of eastern North America, inhabiting the rich soil of valleys and mountain slopes, where it often forms nearly pure forests of considerable extent, and sometimes at the South the bottom lands of streams and the margins of swamps." " It is in the lower Ohio Valley, the southern Allegheny Mountains, and banks of the lower Mississippi, where, associated with the evergreen magnolia, it grows to great perfec- tion. . . . Largely used in the manufacture of chairs, shoe lasts, plane stocks and the handles of tools."-SavB IX, 28, 29. 7' Sargent prefers F. americana Sweet. 1'> Castanea. Pour species, the type species being C. castanea, which in various forms inhabits Europe, Africa and Asia. The three other species are known to the eastern United States, two of them trees, and the third a shrub. Existed before the Middle Tertiary in northern Greenland and Alaska, in the Miocene of Oregon and the Upper Miocene of Colorado. Existed in Europe In the Cre- taceous period.- Silva IX, 8, 9, 10. 78 *• Occasionally 100 feet high In the forest, with a tall, straight, columnar trunk three or four feet in diameter, or often. when tmcrowded by other trees develops a short trunk which in some ex- ceptional individuals attains a diameter of ten or twelve feet."— Silva IX, 13. " Largely used in the manufacture of cheap furniture and in the interior finish of houses, and for railway ties, fence posts and rails, its durability, owing to the large amount of tannic acid which it contains, being its most valuable quality."— Silva IX, 14. 7° " Except at the north it does not range far beyond the Appalachian hills, upon which In western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee it attains its noblest dimensions."— Silva IX, 14. ^OQuercus. " Nearly three htmdred species [of oaks] have been described. Inhabitants of the temperate regions, they occur also at high altitudes within the tropics, ranging south to the moun- 36 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. discriminately as white oak, among 'them Q. lyrata,^^ common through the South; Q. platanoides^^ {Q. bicolor Willdenow), ranging from Maine and northwestern Quebec to southeastern Iowa and western Missouri, northern Kentucky and Arkansas, and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia; Q. michauxii,^^ from Delaware and southern Indiana southeast; Q. breviloba^* {Q durandii Buckley), Alabama to Texas, and according to Sargent the most valuable white oak of the latter State ; Q. oblongifolia,^^ western Texas, and others.*' The far western species most nearly approach- ing Q. alba are Q. garryana, the most valuable Pacific Coast white oak,^' Vancouver Island and British Columbia southward through Washington and Oregon to California; Q. douglasii,^^ California; Q. arizonica,^^ Arizona and southern New Mexico. Q. alba ranges from southern Maine to southwestern Quebec and through central and southern Ontario, the lower peninsula of tains of Colombia in the New World, and in those of the Indian Archipelago in the Old World, a few degrees south of the Equator, they find their most southern home. The genus has no representative in central and southern Africa, in South America beyond Colombia, or in the islands of the Pacific, in New Guinea or in Australia. The great centers of distribution are the highlands of Central Amer- ica and Mexico, and the Indian Archipelago and Malaysia, whence it ranges to the Philippine Islands and to Asia and Japan. In North America, exclusive of Mexico, fifty species are distinguished. With four exceptions they all under favorable conditions sometimes assume the habit of trees. In both the eastern and extreme western part of the country [United StatesJ Qiurcus is oftentimes the con- spicuous feature of the vegetation. In eastern America at the extreme northern limits is repre- sented by a single species. The number greatly increases south, and in New England ten grow. In the south Atlantic and gulf states the number is increased to nineteen, the greatest aggregation of species, though in the Mississippi Valley the oak trees are more abundant and grow to larger size than in any other part of North America. In the West reaching British Columbia and Washington with but a single species, the number increases southward, five species occurring in southern Ore- gon and thirteen grow in California. The type is an early one."— Silva VIII, 2, 3. Commercially all the oaks that furnish material for the sawmill are roughly divided into two classes — the white oaks and the red oaks. A ready method of distinguishing them is by the leaf. Those classed as white oaks, generally have lobes with rounded extremities, while the lobes of the red oaks terminate in a sharp point or even in a thorny process. 81 " A tree, usually 100 feet in height, with a trunk from two to three feet in diameter."— SUva VIII, 47. *' It is most common and grows to its largest size in the valley of the Red River in Lou- isiana and the adjacent parts of Texas and Arkansas ; and in southern lUlnols, on the swampy bot- tom lands, it is the prevalent species of the forest."— Silva VIII, 48. 82" A tree, usually sixty or seventy, or occasionally 100 feet In height, vrith a trunk two or three or occasionally eight or nine feet in diameter."— Silva VIII, 63. "It usually grows In small groves, rarely forming an important part of the forest, and is probably more abundant and of larger size in western New York and northern Ohio than in any other part of the country." "Commer- cially it is not distinguished from the wood of the Q. alba and Q. macroairpa."—SilvaL VIII, 64. 83 " A tree, often 100 feet in height, with a trunk sometimes free of branches for a distance of forty or fifty feet above the ground, and from three to seven feet in diameter."— Silva VIII, 17. " Q. michauxii is one of the most important timber trees of eastern North America, and the largest and most valuable white oak of the southeastern states."— Silva VIII, 68. Q. lyrata, platanoidts and michauxii are sometimes distinguished from white oak under the name of swamp oak, being differentiated more or less from Q. alba tmder varying conditions of growth. 8* " A tree, sometimes eighty or ninety feet in height, when growing east of the Mississippi River, with a tall, straight trunk frequently from two to three feet in diameter; in Texas much smaller."- Silva VIII, 71. "When grown in Alabama and Mississippi it is said to equal the best white oak, and to be used for the same purposes as that wood. It is especially valued for the pins in cotton gins, and in the manufacture of spools, baskets and wagon hubs."— Silva VIII, 72. 85" Exceedingly difficult to cut and split. It is sometimes used for fuel, but has no other eco- nomic value."— SUva VIII, 88. 88 (0. acuminata should perhaps be mentioned with other eastern white oaks. "A tree, from eighty to 100 or occasionally 160 feet in height, with a tall, straight trunk three or four feet in diame- ter."— Silva VIII, 55. " Probably attains its largest size on the banks of the lower Wabash River and its tributaries in southern Indiana and Illinois."— Silva VIII, 56. " It is largely used in cooper- age and the manufacture of wheels, for fencing and for railway ties."— Silva VIII, 56. 8' " As a timber tree, Q. garryana is the most Important oak of Pacific North America."— Silva VIII, 30. 88 " Of Httle use in construction or the arts, it makes excellent fuel."— Silva VIII, 80. 89 " Extremely difficult to cut and split, it is only used for fuel."— Silva VIII, 90. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 37 Michigan and southern Minnesota to southeastern Nebraska and eastern Kan- sas ; south to northern Florida and Texas.^** Quercus tnacrocarpa. Bur oak or mossycup oak. Often undistinguished commer- cially from white oak, though of superior durability in contact with the soil.^^ Range from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through the St. Lawrence River valley in Ontario to southern Manitoba ; from Massachusetts and Pennsylvania west to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains in Montana, western Ne- braska, central Kansas, and southward into central Tennessee, Indian Terri- tory and Texas. Quercus tninor {Q. obtusiloba Michaus) . Post oak. Sometimes called white oak in Kentucky and Indiana. Range southern Massachusetts and along the New England Coast region to northern Florida, southern Alabama, and Missis- sippi; west to Missouri, eastern Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas. Sargent says ^2 it is "the most common and widely distributed oak of the gulf states west of the Mississippi River, forming the principal growth of the Texas 'cross-bottoms.'" Quercus virginiana^^ {Q. virens Alton). Live oak. A very strong and durable commercial species^* largely used in shipbuilding in the days of wooden ships. From Virginia on islands and near the coast to and through southern Florida, and along the Gulf Coast to western Texas ; also in lower California, and extending into Mexico, Central America and Cuba. Q, agrifolia, ^^ north- so "Rarely in Quebec or northern New England, where it is found mixed with the white pine, it Is abundant and grows to its largest size in Ontario, frequently forming a considerable part of the forest growth."— Silva VIII, 17. "The naost abundant and grows to its greatest height on the western slopes of the Allegheny Mountains in Tennessee and the Carolinas, and on the bottom lands of the lower Ohio basin."— Silva VIII, 18. 91 "This is one of the largest oaks of North America, rising sometimes to a height of 160 or 170 feet, and forming a trunk six or seven feet in diameter and clear of limbs for seventy or eighty feet above the ground."— Silva VIII, 43. "Common in the lowland forests of the Missis- sippi basin and in eastern Texas, growing probably to its largest size in southern Indiana and Illi- nois ; it is the common species of the scattered oak forests or oak openings ' of western Minnesota, where the eastern woodlands are gradually replaced by prairies. . . . It is the most frequent and generally distributed oak of Nebraska. . . . It is the most generally distributed oak of Kansas also."— Silva VIU, 45. "Is one of the most valuable timber trees of North America, its wood being superior in strength even to that of Q. alba, with which it is commercially confounded. It is heavy, strong, hard, tough, close grained and very durable in contact with the soU."— Silva VIII, 45, 02 " A tree rarely 100 feet in height, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter." — Silva VIII, 37. "In the Mississippi basin it is one of the most common oak trees, on dry, gravelly uplands, where it grows to its largest size ; it is the most abundant oak of central Texas, being usually found on limestone hills and sandy plains, and toward the western limits of its range in Texas and the Indian Territory it forms with Q. marilandica {black jack) an open forest belt, to which the name of ' cross bottoms ' was given by the early travelers and settlers." " It is largely used for fuel, fencing and railway ties, and in some states west of the Mississippi River, especially in Texas, in the manu- facture of carriages, for cooperage, and in construction."- Silva VIII, 39. 93" A tree, forty or fifty feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter above Its swollen orbuttressedbase."- SilvaVIII, 99. "On the Atlantic and east Gulf Coast, where it attains its largest size, the live oak grows on rich hummocks," etc.— Silva VIII, 100. 9* "2. virginiana is one of the most valuable timber trees of North America. The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, tough and" close grained, with a satiny surface susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, it is rather difficult to work. . . . Formerly it was largely used in shipbuilding, and is still occasionally employed for this purpose."— Silva VIII, 101. Footnote 2 on this page of Silva gives an interesting account of reservations by Congress of live oak timber in 1799, 1817, 1825, and their partial abandonment in 1879 and 1895, though the Florida reservation was still held at the date of the writing. 95 " This is a low, round topped tree, occasionally eighty or ninety feet in height, with a trunk three or four, or rarely six or seven, feet in diameter."- Silva VIII. 111. " It is very abundant and grows to its largest size in the valleys south of San Francisco Bay. ... In southwestern Cali- fornia it is the largest and most generally distributed oak tree between the moimtains and the sea." " Valued and largely used for fuel, It is little esteemed for other purposes."— Silva VIII, 112. 38 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. ern to Lower California, is known as California live oak, but is of little value except for fuel. Q, chrysolepis'^ is another Pacific Coast variety. Quercus rubra. " Red oak. In the commercial red oaks are also often included Q. texana,^^ Texan oak (formerly classified as a variety of the rubra species), northeastern Iowa and central Illinois south through western Kentucky and Tennessee to Florida, and through southern Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana to western Texas ; °° Q. digitata ""* (.Q. falcata Michaux) , or Spanish oak, from southern New Jersey to central Florida and through the gulf states to eastern Texas, Arkansas, southwestern Missouri to middle Tennessee and Kentucky, and southern Illinois and Indiana ; and other rarer species. Q. rubra ranges from Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick ^'" through Quebec and along the northern shores of Lake Huron; southward to middle Tennessee and Virginia, and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia ; west to eastern Nebraska and central Kansas. Quercus prinus.^"'^ Chestnut oak. Used to some extent for lumber purposes, "" but its chief commercial value lies in its tannin, which is extracted not only from the bark but from the wood itself in the form of cordwood. It is richest in tannin of any of the oaks, a far western variety, the tanbark oak of Cali- fornia (Q. densiflora ) t'^"* also having this as its principal use. The range of Q.prinus is from southern Maine and eastern Massachusetts to Maryland, and in the mountains of northern Georgia and Alabama ; westward from New York to central Kentucky and Tennessee. Q. velutina^"^ is one of three tannic acid oaks given by Sargent. ^^Q.chrysolepis. Live oak, hemlock oak, Sargrent. Canyon live oak, Sudworth. "ThisCaU- fomja live oak is usually not more than forty or fifty feet in height, with a short trunk from three to five feet in diameter."— Silva VIII, 105. " More valuable as a timber tree than the other oaks of central California. . . . Althoug:h difficult to cut and work, it is used in the manufacture of agri- cultural implements and wagrons."— Silva VIII, 107. ""A tree, usually seventy or eighty feet, or occasionally nearly 150 feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter."— Silva VIII, 125. 58 " A tree, occasionally almost two hundred feet in height, with a trunk free from branches for eighty or ninety feet, seven or eight feet in diameter above the much enlarged and strongly but- tressed base."— Silva VIII, 129. 8' "On the low river bottom lands of the Mississippi basin it attains its largest size and Is exceedingly common." " Lumbermen and manufacturers consider it more valuable than the eastern red oak, with which it has always been confounded."— Silva VIII, 130. 100 "A tree, usually seventy or eighty feet tall, with a trunk from two to three feet in diameter."- Silva VIII, 147. " The wood of the upland tree is hard and strong, not durable in con- tact with the ground, cross grained and liable to check badly in drying. . . Sometimes used in construction, and largely as fuel."— Silva VIII, 148-9. 101 " The most boreal of the oak trees of eastern America." " Reaches its largest size in the states north of the Ohio River."-Silva VIII, 127. "12 " A tree, usually sixty to seventy, or occasionally 100 feet in height, with a trunk three or four, or rarely six or seven, feet in diameter."- Silva VIII, 51. "•3 " It Is largely used in fencing, for railway ties and for fuel."— Silva VIII, 52. 104 " The tanbark oak (of California) is usually seventy or eighty, or sometimes nearly 100 feet in height, .and although its trunk generally does not exceed three feet in diameter, individuals with stems double that size occasionally occur."— Silva VIII, 183. " Exceedingly abundant in the humid California coast region north of San Francisco Bay. ... Of little value tor construction, it is largely used as fuel. The bark, which is exceedingly rich in tannin, is largely used for tanning leather, and is preferred for this purpose to that of any other tree in the forests of Pacific North America." 'The only American representative of a peculiar group of Asiatic trees in which are combined the characters of the oak and the chestnut, Q. densijlora is, from the point of view of botanical geography and botanical archaeology, one of the most Interesting inhabitants of the forests of the United States."— Silva VIII, 184. 106 " A tree, often seventy or eighty, and occasionally 150 feet in height, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter."— Silva VIII, 137. " Grows to its largest size in the basin of the lower Ohio NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 39 Ulmus^"' americana.^"'' White elm; also called American elm and water elm. Prom southern Newfoundland to north shores of Lake Superior, and to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, here extending up to the Saskatchewan River ; south to Florida ; west to Dakota, western Nebraska, western Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas. Ulmus racemosa.^"' Cork elm. Known commercially as rock elm. From Quebec through Ontario, and south through northwestern New Hampshire to south- ern Vermont; westward through northern New York, southern Michigan, and Wisconsin, to northeastern Nebraska, southeastern Missouri, and middle Tennessee.'"" Sargent says, "most abundant and attains its largest size In Ontario and the southern peninsula of Michigan." Now becoming scarce through lumbering. "" Magnolia'^^^ tcetida'^'^'^ (M. grandiflora Linnsus). Magnolia, bull bay or big lau- rel. A good cabinet and interior finishing wood, "^ but not widely used as yet except for fuel. Coast region of North Carolina to Florida, and westward in the Gulf Coast region to Texas; through western Louisiana to southern Arkansas. Magnolia acuminata. ^^^ Cucumber tree, mountain magnolia. Uses much the same as the magnolia. From western New York through southern Ontario to southern Illinois, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to southern Ala- bama and northeastern Mississippi; central Kentucky and Tennessee, and Arkansas except in the northwestern part. River. The only species o£ the red oak grroup which reaches the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, where, while not common and never grecrarious, it is generally scattered on dry ridgres through the Maritime pine belt."— Silva VIII, 138. The bark is largely used in tanning (Trimble, ' The Tan- nins,' 31, f. 20, 21)."— Silva VIII, 139. lis uimus, "of which fifteen or sixteen species can be distinguished, is widely distributed throughout the boreal and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with the exception of western North America, where no elm tree is found. Reaching in the New World the mountains of southern Mexico, upon which one species occurs, and in the Old World the subtropical forests of the Sikkim Himalayas, the home of U, lanciiolia . The forests of eastern North America contain five species ; in Europe three species occur. . . . The type is an ancient one, its traces existing in the early Tertiary rocks of Greenland. Before the Glacial period it long inhabited Europe, western Asia and North America, where it abounded on the midcontinental plateau and reached westward to the shores of the Pacific Ocean."— Silva VII, 40, 42. 107 '• A tree sometimes 100 to 120 feet high, with a tall trunk six to eleven feet in diameter."— Silva VII, 43. •08 " A tree eighty to 100 feet in height, with a trunk occasionally three feet in diameter, which diminishes slowly in thickness, and is often free of branches for sixty feet."— Silva VII, 47. " This name (U. racemosa) was used ... in 1800 for a European species of elm, and therefore was not applicable to the American tree, for which the name of (/. thomasi is proposed."- Silva XIV. 102. ^^^ Sargent gives U. seroiina as a distinct species in his appendix XIV, 41, 42, and credits It with the middle Tennessee distribution formerly assigned U. racemosa. 110 "The value of the wood of the rock elm threatens its extinction; the most of the large trees have already been cut in the forests of Canada, New England, New York and Michigan."— Silva VII, 48. Ill "The genus Afa^-Mo/i'a is now confined to eastern North America, southern Mexico, and eastern and southern Asia. Twenty species are luiown. Of these, six are North American, with their center of distribution in the southern Allegheny Mountain region : two are Mexican ; ten are eastern Asiatic ; one is a native of the mountains of Yun-nan, and four are Himalayan."— Silva 1, 1. 112" A noble tree, . . . sixty to eighty feet in height, with a tall, straight trunk sometimes under favorable conditions four to four and a half feet in diameter." " On the rich high rolling hills of the Mississippi bluffs, this tree reaches its highest development."— Silva I, 3. 113 "The wood of M. faetida is harder, heavier, and more valuable than that of the other North American magnolias."- Silva I, 4. •1* " A tall, slender tree, attaining in its native forests a height of sixty to ninety feet, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter." ' It flourishes on the lower slopes of mountains, on the rocky banks of streams, and in narrow valleys, reaching its greatest size and abundance In those about the base of the high mountains of Carolina and Tennessee."— Silva I, 7. 40 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Liriodendron tulipifera. ''° Tulip-tree. Known commercially as yellow poplar, though not a Populus and belonging to the MagnoUaceee family instead of the Salicatea. The only living species of the fossil Liriodendron genus, "° and one of the most valuable "' of American hardwoods, though occurring in a restricted range and nowhere forming compact bodies of timber, the best timber averaging in large tracts only 1,000 to 3,000 feet board measure to the acre, intermixed with oak and other hardwoods. Range from Rhode Island to southwestern Vermont and west to Lake Michigan; south to Florida, southern Alabama, and Mississippi; west of the Mississippi River in south- eastern Missouri and adiacent Arkansas. ^'^ Liquidambar^''-^ styraciflua. ^2" Sweet gum. Known also as red gum, and in the export markets as satin walnut. A valuable lumber wood, though difficult to season properly. Used as a general building, box and veneer lumber and (especially in Europe) as a furniture and interior finishing wood. From Con- necticut to southeastern Missouri and Arkansas ; south to Florida and Tex- as. ^^' Sargent says : " Has its greatest development in the bottom lands of the Mississippi basin. ' ' Platanus occidentalis ^^"^ Sycamore. Sometimes used as a cheap furniture wood, but chiefly for tobacco boxes. ^^' Southeastern New Hampshire and southern Maine to northern Vermont and Lake Ontario ; west to eastern Nebraska and 115 " One of the largest and most beautiful trees of the American forest. The occidental plane and the southern cypress are the only American deciduous trees which grow to a larger size. It sometimes attains, under favorable conditions, a height of 160 to 190 feet, with a straight trunk eight or ten feet in diameter, destitute of branches for eighty or 100 feet from the grotmd. Individ- uals 100 or 150 feet tall, with trunks five or six feet in diameter, are still common."— Silva 1, 19. 116 "The genus Liriodendron, vAVa a single species, is fotmd In eastern North America and western China. It was represented by several species in the Cretaceous age, when the genus was widely distributed in North America and Europe. It continued to exist during the Tertiary period, with a species, hardly different from the one now living, extending over eastern North America, and Europe as far south as Italy, imtil the advent of Glacial ice destroyed It in Etirope, and restricted its range in America to the shores of the GiUf of Mexico."— Silva 1, 17. 117 " One of the most valuable products of the American forest. Canoes made from it were used by the aborigines when this country was first visited by Europeans, and ever since it has been largely manufactured into lumber used in construction, in the interior finish of houses, in boat build- ing, and for shingles, pumps and woodenware."- Silva 1, 18. 118 Though " yellow poplar " has for years been shipped from a wide extent of territory west of the Mississippi River, including points as far south as northern Louisiana, it is claimed by some careful observers in the lumber trade that no true yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) grows west of the Mississippi and that all such shipments have been of Cottonwood (Populus deltoides). How- ever, Sargent and Sudworth agree in the statement that Liriodendron is found west of the Missis- sippi, but so limit Its range that the contention noted above is sustained in the main. 119 Liquidambar is now confined to the eastern United States, to central and southern Mexico. Central America, the Orient, and middle and southeastern China ; although . . . the immediate ancestor of the existing American species inhabited Alaska, Greenland, and the midcontinental plateau of North America. . . . Three species are distinguished in the genus as it is now usually limited: L. styracijiua is American; L. orienialis inhabits a few provinces in southwestern Asia Minor ; and L. fornwsana is fotmd in China and on the Island of Formosa." ** All the species produce hard, straight grained, handsome, dark colored wood and valuable balsamic exudations."— Silva V,7. 120 " A tree, eighty to 140 feet in height, with a straight trunk four or five feet in diameter."— Silva V, 10. 121 " It reappears on the mountains of central and southern Mexico and ranges southward to the highlands of Guatemala."— Silva V, 11. 122 " A tree, occasionally 140 to 170 feet in height, with a tnmk sometimes ten or eleven feet in diameter, above its abruptly enlarged base."— Silva VII, 102. Platanus has six or seven species, three of them In temperate North America. It flourished in late Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, when it inhabited Greenland and arctic America in a form hardly distinguishable from the existing species of eastern North America and Europe. •23 " It is largely used and is the preferred material for the boxes in which tobacco is packed, for ox-yokes, and butcher blocks, and for furniture and the interior finish of houses, where its broad, conspicuous, medullary rays and cheerful color make it valuable."— Silva VII, 103. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 41 Kansas; south to northern Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and Texas. The only other two sycamores are western varieties: P.racemosa, California to Lower California, and P. wrightii, southwestern New Mexico, southern Arizona, and Mexico. Neither are recognized commercial woods. Pyrus^^* americana. Mountain ash. Also called rowan in Canada and elsewhere. Of no commercial importance, but one of the most northern deciduous woods. Range from Newfoundland through the upper central part of the Labrador Peninsula to Hudson Bay, west to Reindeer Lake and northern Manitoba ; south through Quebec and Ontario, Great Lake region, and high elevations in northeastern United States to eastern Tennessee, Virginia and North Car- olina. Prurnis^^^ serotina.^'' Black cherry. Known commercially as cherry, a valuable cabinet wood, now becoming scarce, and widely imitated in stained birch. From Nova Scotia westward through the Canadian provinces to the Kaminis- tiqua River ; south to Florida ; west to North Dakota, eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Indian Territory, and eastern Texas ; western Texas in the moun- tains. ^" Robinia^''^ pseudacacia. Locust, acacia, yellow locust. Gleditsia^^^ triacanthos. Honey-locust, three thorned acacia. Although these two trees do not even belong to the same genus the wood is very similar and has the same commercial uses in both species ; a very strong, hard wood, the Robinia somewhat the heavier, both very durable in contact with the ground ; used to some extent for cabinet woods, turnery, wagon hubs, and locally for construction purposes, but more especially for posts, and now being planted by some railroad companies on an extensive scale (more especially the locust) 124 " The genus Pyrus is widely and erenerally distributed through the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere; from thirty to forty. species may, be distinguished. . . . In North America the genus is represented by seven species, of which five are small trees and two are shrubs of the eastern states,"— Silva IV, 68. This genus includes Pyrus malus, the apple, supposed to be indige- nous in the northwestern Himalayas, and Pyrus communis, the pear tree. 125 " Of the genus Prunus, now extendedlto include the plums, almonds, peaches, apricots and cherries, about 120 species are distinguished. They are generally distributed over the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. . . . The genus is represented in tropical America by nu- merous species. ... It has no representative in . . . the southern countries of South Amer- ica. In North America the genus is spread from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Pacific, and from near the northern limits of tree growth, to southern Mexico. The territory of the United States contains at least twenty-five indigenous species, of which fourteen attain arborescent habit, and one is a large and important forest tree."— SQva IV, 8. 126 "A tree, . . . sometimes attaining a height of 100 feet, with a stout, straight trunk four to five feet in diameter."— Silva IV, 45. " P. serotina is one of the most valuable timber trees of the American forests. . . . The wood of no other North American tree is better colored or more valuable for cabinet making and the fine interior finish of houses, and the great demand for it for these purposes has caused a destruction of the largest and best trees in all parts of the coun- try."-SUva IV, 46-7. '27 Sargent enlarges the range of P. serotina, stating it is distributed along the mountain ranges of southern New Mexico and Arizona and on those of Mexico and the Pacific regions of Cen- tral America, Colombia and Peru.— (Silva IV, 46.) 128" The genus Robinia is North American. Four species inhabit the territory of the United States ; and two, or possibly more, very imperfectly known, occur in Mexico."- Silva III, 37. 129 " Gleditsia is represented in the flora of eastern America by two species, one of which Is the type of the genus."— Silva III, 73. Besides honey-locust and other species Is aauatica, the water locust. It grows " fifty to sixty feet in height, with a short trunk from two to two and a half feet In diameter, usually dividing a few feet from the ground."— Silva 111,79. Water locust Is "found in the coast region of the southern Atlantic states, from South Carolina to Matanzas Inlet in Florida, and In the gulf states from the shores of Tampa Bay to the valley of the Brazos River in Texas ; it spreads northward through western Louisiana and southern Arkansas to middle Kentucky and Tennessee, and to southern Illinois and Indiana."— Silva III, 80. 42 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. in order to provide future railroad tie material. R. pseudacacia ranges in the Appalachian Mountains"" from Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, and is probably also indigenous in parts of Arkansas and Indian Territory ; widely naturalized and escaped from cultivation in many other parts of the country. G. triacanthos ranges from the western slopes of the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania to Georgia and west to Texas through the gulf states ; and from Pennsylvania west through southern Michigan ^^' to eastern Nebraska and Kansas, and Indian Territory ; escaped from cultivation in many other sec- tions; "reaching its greatest development in the bottoms of the lower Ohio River basin" (Sargent). Swieienia"^ mahogani.^^^ Mahogany. Occurs in the United States only on the Florida Keys, and not in commercial size and quantity there, though it some- times reaches a diameter of two feet in that locality. Worthy of mention because of its commercial importance as the most valuable wood of the North American tropics. "* /lex"^ opaca. American holly. Being the only holly of economic value, it is usu- ally known commercially simply as holly. A valuable cabinet and turnery wood, nearly white in color and turning light brown on exposure. Coast re- gion from Massachusetts to Florida, through the gulf states to eastern Texas, and from southern Indiana south in the Mississippi River valley, "reaching its greatest development in the rich bottoms of southern Arkansas and eastern Texas" (Sargent). Acer^^^ saccharum (Acer barbatum^^'' ) . Sugar maple. Called also hard or rock maple. The most valuable ''* commercial species, and usually indicated 130 " It is most common and attains its best development on the western slopes of the moun- tains of West Virginia."— SUva III, 40. 131 " Iq the valleys of the smaller streams of southern Indiana and Illinois G. triacanthos at- tains its greatest size and majesty. Here individuals may still [1893] be found from 120 to 140 feet in height, with tnuiks six feet in diameter and free of branches for sixty or seventy feet." — SUva III, 76. 132 " Swietenia, of which three species are recognized, is tropical American and west-tropical African. .S. mahagoni^ the type of the genus and one of the most valuable timber trees known, is distributed from south Florida, the most northern station of the genus, to Mexico, Central America and Peru. S. humilis^ perhaps a form of the last species, is found on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. S. aneolensis, a large deciduous tree, inhabits the mountain forests of central Quitta in west-tropical Africa."— Silva I, 99. 133 " A tree, with a trunk forty or fifty feet in height and six or eight feet in diameter above the swell of the great buttresses which sometimes expand ten or twelve feet from the trunk, and with massive spreading branches." " Grows in Florida on Key Largo and on Elliott's Key. It is found on the Bahama and West India islands ; it is widely distributed in tropical Mexico and Central America and occurs in Peru."— Silva 1, 100, 101. 134 " xhe wood of other trees sometimes appears in commerce under the name of mahogany . . . Khaya senegalensis, a large tree of west-tropical Africa, supplies the so-called African ma- hoeany."— Silva 1, 101, footnote No. 3. 135 " About 175 species are now recognized, the headquarters of the genus, as represented by the largest number of species, being in Brazil and Guiana, where sixty-seven are known. The mountain regions of western South America contain at least ten species : seven have been distin- guished in southern Mexico and Central America and ten in the West Indies ; while in eastern North America there are thirteen or perhaps fourteen species, of which four are small trees."— Silva I, 103-4. 136 " The genus Acer is represented in all the geographico-botanioal divisions of the northern hemisphere, but extends south of the Equator only to the mountains of Java. ... In North America nine species occur ; five of these belong to the Atlantic and two to the Pacific region : one Is peculiar to the central motmtain ranges and one extends across the continent." — SUva U, 79, 80. 137 Preferred by Sargent. 138 " A noble tree, 100 or 120 feet high, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter, rising sometimes in the forest to the height of sixty or seventy feet without a branch." "A. barbatum is one of the most widely and generally distributed trees of eastern North America." " The wood NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 43 where "maple" is specified. "Bird's-eye" and "curly" maple are acci- dental (not varietal) forms of this species. From southern Newfoundland to Lake of the Woods and Minnesota ; south through the northern states, and on the Allegheny Mountains to northern Georgia and western Florida; west to eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas. Acer sacckarinum {A . dasycarpum EhAavt) . Silver maple. Usually known com- mercially as soft maple, and used to some extent for furniture, flooring, etc., as a cheaper substitute for hard maple, being lighter in weight '^° and of inferior wearing quality. From New Brunswick to western Florida ; west to southern Ontario, and through Michigan to eastern Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory. Widely cultivated elsewhere as a shade tree. Acer negundo (Negundo aceroides Moench) . Box elder. Also known as ash-leaved maple, mountain maple, Manitoba maple. Commercially of somewhat limited use for interior finish, woodenware, cooperage and paper pulp. The most northern of the Acer genus, extending from Vermont,'*" New York, and eastern Pennsylvania "' northwestward to Winnipeg, to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, and to Montana, Utah, western Texas, New Mexico and eastern Arizona ; south in the eastern mountains to Florida. Acer rubrum. Red maple, swamp maple. A species generally distributed through- out the eastern half of the United States, frequenting, especially, the borders of streams and swamps. Its wood is heavy and close grained, but easily worked and not very strong. It is used in the manufacture of furniture, turnery, for woodenware and for gun stocks. From New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario ( latitude 49 degrees) to Florida ; west to Lake of the Woods, eastern Dakota and Nebraska ; Indian Territory and eastern Texas. TV/ia"^ americana. Basswood. Also known as linden, and locally as linn, lind or lein. A commercially important wood of wide distribution, though the genus is not represented at all on the Pacific Coast. Range, New Brunswick to Vir- ginia and along the Allegheny Mountains to Georgia and Alabama; west in Canada to Lakes Superior and Winnipeg, to the Assiniboine River, and in the United States to the eastern Dakotas, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Ter- ritory and eastern Texas."' T. heterophylla, or white basswood, is undistin- of the sugrar maple is more valuable and more generally used than that o£ any other American maple."— Silva II, 97, 98. 139 Sargrent (Silva, volume II, page 98 and page 104) gives the specific gravity of absolutely dry wood of sugar maple as 0.6912, equivalent to a weight of 43.08 pounds a cubic foot, while the specific gravity of soft maple is 0.5269, equivalent to a weight per cubic foot of 32.84 pounds. 140 Doctor Bell speaks of Minnesota as being the general eastern limit of this tree, and his timber map does not show its boundary line east of the point where it strikes the western end of Lake Superior. 1*1 "I am not certain if this tree is native in Pennsylvania. Around Easton it is spread everywhere over fields from the seeds of trees planted along the streets of the city." — T. C. Porter, quoted by Sargent in Silva XIV, 99. 142 " The genus Tilia is widely distributed in the temperate regions of the northern hemi- sphere. ... It is represented in eastern North America by four species, of which one Is Mexican."— Silva I, 49. 143*' X. americana is one of the most common trees in the northern forest. It occupied, before the country was generally cleared, large tracts of the richest land to the exclusion of other trees, or often formed two-thirds of the forest growth. . . . It is less common towards the south- em and western limits of its range than it is near the northern boundary of the United States ; reaching, however, its greatest size on the bottom lands of the streams which flow from the north into the lower Ohio River."- Silva I, 53. 44 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. guished commercially within its range, which is from Pennsylvania through the Allegheny Mountains to western and central Florida and Alabama ; west to southern Indiana and Illinois, Kentucky and middle Tennessee. Cornus florida. Flowering dogwood. Known commercially as boxwood. An extremely hard wood of some use in turnery, and for engraving blocks, shuttle blocks and other limited special purposes. From eastern Massachusetts to central Florida, and west through southern Ontario, southern Michigan, to southwestern Missouri, southeastern Kansas,"* Texas and Mexico. Having its greatest development in the South. Nyssa "' sylvatica. Black gum. Known also as tupelo, but the tupelo g^m of commercial nomenclature is the following species. From Maine to Florida; west to southern Ontario, southern Michigan, southeastern Missouri, and Texas. Nyssa agualica^^' {N. uniflora Wangenheim). Tupelo gum. Also known com- mercially, and particularly in the export trade, as bay poplar. Used for wagon hubs, turnery, cooperage, and coming into use as a cheap furniture and interior finish wood. Coast region from southern Virginia to northern Florida, and through the g^ulf states to Texas ; northward through Arkansas, western Tennessee, and Kentucky, southern and southeastern Missouri to southern Illinois. Diospyros^" virginiana.^^^ Persimmon. Of considerable commercial utility for nearly the same purposes as dogwood (except engravers' blocks) , and prob- ably used in larger quantity than that wood ; "' preferred for shuttle blocks. Range from Connecticut and southern New York to Florida ; from southern Ohio to southern Alabama ; west to southwestern Iowa, southern Missouri and eastern Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas. J^raxinus'^^" americana.^^^ White ash.''^ From Nova Scotia and Newfoundland 144 SUva XIV, 101, is authority for Including: soutlieastem Kansas. 145 •' j^yssa is now confined to tlie eastern United States, wliere three species are distlngrulshed, and to southern Asia, where the g:enus is represented by a sinsrle species." — Silva V, 73. 146 '■ A tree, eighty to 100 feet in heigrht, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter above the greatly enlarged tapering base." — Silva V, 83. "It is an inhabitant of deep swamps inundated during a part of every year, growing in great numbers with the cypress, the liquidambar, the swamp white oak, the water ash, the scarlet maple, the water locust and the Cottonwood. In some parts of the country, especially in the valley of the lower Mississippi River, the tupelo gum is one of the largest and most abundant of the semlaauatic trees. It attains its greatest size in the cypress swamps of western Louisiana and eastern Texas." — Silva V, 84. 147 jyioipyros. About 160 species, abounding principally in tropical Asia and Malaysia. Not represented in western North America. Two species in eastern North America. The ebony of commerce, and some other cabinet woods, is furnished by tropical species of this genus. 148 " A tree, usually thirty to fifty feet in height, with a short trunk rarely more than twelve inches in diameter."— Silva VI, 7. •49 " It is employed in turnery, for shoe lasts, plane stocks, and many small articles of do- mestic use ; for shuttles it is preferred to other American woods." — Silva VI, 9, 150 Fraxinus, Thirty species, nearly half of which inhabit North America. Pound in all parts except the extreme north. The type is an ancient one, and during the Tertiary period inhabited the Arctic Circle, from which it gradually spread southward. Sargent gives F. guadrangulata, or blue beech, as " largely used for flooring, and in carriage building, and probably not often distinguished commercially from that of the other species o£ the northern and middle states."— Silva VI, 36. 151 " A tree sometimes 128 feet in height, with a tall, massive trunk five or six feet in diam- eter, although usually much smaller." — Silva VI, 43. 162 " One of the most valuable timber trees of North America. . . . It is used in immense Quantities In the manufacture of agricultural implements, for the handles of tools, in carriage build- ing, and for oars and furniture, and in the interior finish of buildings."— ^Sllva VI, 44, 45. NORTH AMERICAN FOREST GEOGRAPHY. 45 to Florida ; westward to Ontario and norttiem Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas. Fraxinus ianceolata"^ (F. viridis Michsiux). Green ash. Inferior commercially to white ash, though often substituted. Prom Vermont to northern Florida ; westward to the Saskatchewan River, eastern ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and extending into Utah and northern Arizona, and through eastern Texas. Fraxinus nigra^^* {F. sambucifolia Lamarck). Black ash. A coarser wood than white ash, but nearly as largely used for many purposes.^" From the north- ern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland to Manitoba, and southward to Delaware, Virginia, southern Illinois, central Missouri, and northwestern Arkansas. Catalpa'-^" speciosa.^^'' Hardy catalpa. Well adapted for cabinet work and interior finish, but more largely used for posts, railroad ties and for other purposes which bring it in contact with the soil, on account of its remarkable durabil- ity in such location,''^ it being preeminent among soft and rapidly growing woods in this respect. It has therefore been planted to some extent by rail- road companies to grow for tie and fence post uses. Through southern Illi- nois and Indiana, western Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas ; elsewhere naturalized through cultivation, espe- cially in southeastern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and eastern Texas. Should not be confounded with the common catalpa of dwarf habit widely planted as a shade tree (C. caialpa^^^). 153 Sargent gives this as a variety of f. pennsylvanica. — Silva VI, 50, and footnote No. 4. 154 " A tree, occasionally eighty or ninety feet In height, with a tall trunk rarely exceeding twenty inches In diameter."— Silva VI, 37. 155 ** It is largely used In the Interior finish of houses and cabinet making, and for fences, bar- rel hoops, and in the making of baskets."— Silva VI, 38. ISO Catalpa, " Is now confined to the eastern United States, the West Indies and China." Seven species, two in North America. Not seriously injured by insects or fungal diseases. — Silva VI, 8& 157 " A tree, in the forest occasionally 120 feet in height, with a tail, straight trunk rarely four and one-half feet in diameter ; usually smaller, though often 100 feet high, and when grown in open places rarely more than fifty feet in height, with a short trmik."— Silva VI, 89. 158 " It is largely used for railway ties, fence posts and rails, and occasionally for furniture and the interior finish of houses."— Silva VI, 90. 159 C. calalfa. " A tree, rarely sixty feet in height, with a short trunk sometimes three or four feet In diameter." " It Is used and highly valued for fence posts, rails and other purposes where durable wood is needed."— Silva VI, 86, 87. CHAPTER III. LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. In taking up a discussion of the forest resources and lumber history of British North America it seems wise first to dispose of that com- paratively small territory which did not in 1867 enter the Canadian Confederacy and thus become a part of the Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland remained independent, accountable only to the Imperial government and, therefore, with its jurisdictional dependency, the Lab- rador Coast, will be first considered. LABRADOR. A strip of seacoast 1,100 miles in length and, for the most part, con- sisting of bleak, rocky, forbidding clifiEs opposing themselves to the waters of the Atlantic, comprises the present Labrador, under the juris- diction of Newfoundland. It lies between the parallels of 52 and 61 degrees north latitude (about), and meridians 55 and 65 degrees west longitude from Greenwich, extending from Hudson Strait on the north, in a southeasterly direction to the Strait of Belle Isle on the south, which separates it from Newfoundland. To the southwest is the north- eastern extremity of the Province of Quebec and the territory of Un- gava, both of which formerly formed a part of Labrador. Previous to 1895 Labrador' included all that territory extending from Hudson and James bays and Ontario on the west to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic on the east, the southern boundary being the " Height of Land," but during that year a division was made and the eastern coast strip, comprising about 7,000 square miles, was designated as Labra- dor, and the region to the west as Ungava, which, being a territory of Canada, will be treated under that head, though often referred to as " the Labrador Peninsula," in accordance with still prevailing habits of thought. Hundreds of years before the time of Columbus, Labrador is be- lieved to have been visited by Northmen from Greenland and Iceland. In the year 1000 Leif, son of Eric the Red, started out to find an un- ' Prior to the creation of the district of Ungrava, in 1895, and the limitation o£ the jurisdiction of Labrador to a coast strip, and prior to an order in council on December 18, 1897, by which the boundaries of Ungrava were changed, Labrador had an area estimated at about 420,000 square miles. By the changres referred to, the former area of Labrador was distributed about as follows : Labrador Coast 7,000 square miles, Ungava 355,000 square miles, while the area of Quebec was Increased by about 58,000 square miles. 46 LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 47 known land, which Biarne Heriulfson, sailing from Iceland to Green- land in 986 and being driven by a storm to the south, said he saw. Leif was successful, spent the winter in this new land, explored it and named different regions he visited Helluland, Markland and Vinland. Some investigators believed Helluland to be identical with Newfound- land, while others believe Helluland to have been Labrador or the north coast of Newfoundland, and Markland, Newfoundland. To just what extent these Norse records are to be credited is doubtful. Much of fiction has doubtless been woven in with the truth, as the records were made two hundred years after the voyages. Certain it is that no definite proof has ever been found of the presence of the Northmen on the American continent. Labrador has the honor of being the first of the American continent to be reached by an explorer in modern historical times. Nearly four- teen months before Columbus on his third voyage saw the mainland of the new world he had unknowingly brought to light, and over two years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, on June 24, 1497, John Cabot discovered the western continent by sighting the dreary clifiEs of Labrador. It was probably at about 56 degrees north latitude that he made his discovery. He skirted the coast for many leagues, coming also to the island of Newfoundland. In 1500 Cortereal, a Portuguese navigator, voyaged to Newfound- and and Labrador, and is said to have given its name, which means "laborers' land," to Labrador. This name is accounted for in another way, also : A whaler by the name of Labrador penetrated the country as far as a bay, which, in honor of him, was called Labrador, though it is now known as Bradore Bay. In time the whole coast was given the whaler's name. Gomez, who sailed from Spain in 1525, while searching all along the coast from the sunny shores of Florida and Cuba to the frozen regions of the north in hope of finding a passage to India, came also to Labrador. But the distinction of being the first to make a land- ing on Canadian soil is given to Jacques Cartier, who landed at Esqui- maux Bay, now called Hamilton Inlet, on June 21, 1534. The history of the lumber industry of Labrador can be given in a single word, " nil." Comprising, as this country now does, but a nar- row strip of sea coast, made up of rocky cliffs and fringed by many stony islands, and having its shores washed by the chilling Arctic cur- rent, which gives it an intensely cold and rigorous climate, there is not much chance for the growth of trees. What few there are have a stunted growth and are of practically no commercial value. 48 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. An account of the coast of Labrador was found among some papers of Sir Francis Bernard, governor of the province of Massachusetts Bay at the time it was written. The following is taken from this account : "Captain Henry Atkins sailed from Boston in the ship called the Whale, on a voyage to Davis Strait in 1729. ... As Captain Atkins coasted that main, he found the country full of woods, alder, yew, birch and witch-hazel, a light, fine wood for shipbuilding ; also fine, large pines for ship-masts, of a much finer grain than in New England, and of course tougher and more durable, though of a slower growth; and no question but naval stores may be produced here." If, as the account says, this is a description of the coast of Labra- dor, it is very different from a true representation of that region today, and it seems from present indications that this must be a description of another coast passed by Captain Atkins on his journey north. Practically the only industry of Labrador is its fisheries. During the fishing season thousands of fishermen from Canada, the United States and Newfoundland flock to the Labrador coast. The shore itself is adapted to this pursuit, as it is indented along its entire length by deep fiords and inlets. Cod, herring, salmon and seal are the principal fisheries. NEWFOUNDLAND. Newfoundland with its dependency, Labrador, constitutes one of the oldest colonies of Great Britain. This may be due to the fact that it is the nearest of any point in the western hemisphere to Europe. In size it is the tenth largest island in the world and contains 42,734 square miles, having an area approximating that of the State of New York. It lies at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the At- lantic Ocean, between the parallels of 46 degrees 37 minutes and 51 degrees 89 minutes north latitude, and in longitude west from Green- wich between 52 degrees 35 minutes and 59 degrees 25 minutes. Lying, as it does, so near Labrador, from the southern point of which it is separated, at its northern extremity, by the Strait of Belle Isle, ten miles in width, it is not strange that the dates of its early dis- coveries and explorations are almost identical with those of Labrador. Newfoundland, like Labrador, is supposed to have been visited by the Northmen in the year 1000, and is thought by some to be the Helluland of Leif. In 1497 John Cabot discovered Newfoundland after touching the Labrador coast to the north. In 1500 Gaspar Cortereal, perhaps using Cabot's charts as a guide, struck the coast of Newfoundland at a LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 49 point north of Cape Race, on the southeastern coast. For a number of years after Cortereal's voyage the English continued sending ships to the island, chiefly for the purpose of fisheries. The Portuguese also established fisheries at about the same time. In 1524 Verrazano, in the interest of France, coasted from North Carolina to Newfoundland. In 1525 Gomez, sailing from Spain, reached Cape Race. Jacques Car- tier in May, 1534, touched Cape Bonavista, in latitude 46 degrees north, but, finding the land still covered with snow and the shore ice- bound, he dared not attempt landing. Several unsuccessful attempts at colonization were made by Eng- land, the first being in 1583. Lord Baltimore, who afterward figured in the history of Maryland, was at last successful in planting a colony on the eastern coast about forty miles north of Cape Race in the year 1623. Immigrants came later from Ireland, and colonies prospered, until by 1655 Newfoundland contained a population of about 2,000, dis- tributed in fifteen small settlements along the east coast. These set- tlements were made up of fishermen of different nationalities, the French being especially active and having established several colonies. France desired possession of the whole island, but by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, Newfoundland and its dependencies were declared to be the possessions of Great Britain. Fishing rights were, however, reserved to the French, which rights have been a matter of dispute ever since. Newfoundland has never joined the Canadian Confederacy, and though attempts have been made repeatedly toward that end it still remains an independent colony of Great Britain. The coast of Newfoundland is rugged and rocky, and deeply cut by numerous fiords and bays, which furnish a great number of good har- bors. The coast is practically treeless, but the interior of the island contains valuable forests, especially in the regions of the rivers. The interior is an undulating plateau traversed by ranges of low hills. Near the western coast is the principal mountain range, known as Long Range, which extends nearly the entire length of the island, reaching far into the northwestern part, which is a long peninsula stretching in a northeasterly direction past the Strait of Belle Isle. This peninsula is believed to be barren for the most part and undesirable for settle- ment. Newfoundland contains a remarkably large number of lakes and rivers. Most of the larger rivers have their source in the lakes in the interior, taking their courses through many fertile valleys in all di- 50 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. rections to the ocean. This interior region has not yet been thor- oughly explored, and it was not until later than 1880, when railroad con- struction was begun, that much was known of its physical characteristics. The largest river is the Exploits, which rises in the southwestern part of the island, flows in a northeastern direction, expands near the central part into the Red Indian Lake, and empties into the Bay of Exploits, an inlet from Notre Dame Bay. This river drains an area of between 3,000 and 4,000 square miles, many parts of the valley through which it flows containing forests of fine pine timber. The largest lake of New- foundland is Grand Lake, about fifty-six miles long and five miles broad ; the next in size is Red Indian Lake, nearly thirty-seven miles long and five or six miles in width. While the east coast of Newfoundland is practically treeless the interior is well wooded. The following is a list of the principal trees found on the island, given in order, beginning with the one covering the least area, or, in other words, the one whose northern limit is the farthest south: Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) . — Of very limited area. Found' on the northern and eastern shores of St. George's Bay, which is on the west coast just north of the southwestern point of the island. White elm (Ulmus americana) . — Found on St. George's Bay and on the peninsula stretching to the southwest of the bay, as far as Cape Ray, the extreme southwestern point of Newfoundland. Black ash (Fraxinus nigra or F. sambucitolia). — Grows over the entire Southwestern Peninsula and to the eastward along the southern shore of Newfoundland. Yellow birch (Betula lutea). — Grows in the central and southern part of the island, covering about seventy-five percent of the whole area. White and red pine ( Pinus strobus and P. resinosa). — Occupy about eighty-five percent of the entire area, being found in all parts except the Northern Peninsula and the northeast coast region. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea). — Found in all parts of the island except the northern half of the Northern Peninsula. Paper birch ( Betula papyrifera) , aspen (Populiis tremuloides), balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) , commonly known as balm of Gilead, and larch (Larix laricina or L. americana) , commonly called tamarack, are found in all parts of Newfoundland except the northern part of the Northern Peninsula, the limit of each one extending slightly farther to the north than the preceding one. LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 51 Black spruce and white spruce (Picea mariana or P. nigra, and P. canadensis or P. alba). — Found over the entire island except the north- eastern extremity of the Northern Peninsula. It is only recently that the immense timber resources of the forests of the interior of Newfoundland have been made available, owing to the want of means of communication. The island is but sparsely set- tled, the inhabitants being mainly confined to the neighborhood of the coast, where, until recently, they were engaged almost exclusively in the fisheries. Persons to whose interest it was to keep the inhabitants at the fisheries, represented the interior as a barren waste ; however, the exact opposite has been proved to be the truth. The lumber indus- try has been on a small scale until a few years ago, when it began to develop rapidly owing to the stimulus of railway construction, which opened up some of the best lumbering districts in the interior. The Newfoundland railway, which traverses the entire island from St. John's, on the Southeastern Peninsula, to Port-aux-Basques, in the southwestern extremity, a distance of 548 miles, was opened for traffic over its entire length in 1898. Sections of it had been in operation for some years before that time, which had done a good deal to develop the lumber trade. Newfoundland contains large tracts of pine, besides great areas of spruce suitable for pulpwood, and fir which is as tough as spruce and has been found by exhaustive tests to make almost as good pulp. The utilization of fir greatly increases the quantity of timber available for pulp purposes. The principal lumbering districts are the Gander, Gambo and Exploits valleys, and on the west coast the Humber valley and St. George's Bay district. The "History of Newfoundland," by D. W. Prowse, published in 1895, contains the following reference to the progress of the lumbering industry as the result of railway construction : Although only in operation for one season the northern railway has developed splendid granite quarries and a lumber business which bids fair to be one of the greatest industries of the colony, already consisting of several great mills besides smaller operators and hand loggers whose united turn-out this year [1893] will not be less than 20,000,000 feet of lumber. Botwoodville, owned by the Exploits Lum- ber Company, of London, will cut 6,000,000 feet of lumber ; the Benton mill at Soulis Brook, owned by Mr. Reid, another 6,000,000 ; the Campbell mill at Terra Nova River, 3,000,000; Sterritt's mill at Gander Crossing, Glenwood, about 1,000,- 000. At Gambo there are the five mills of Messrs. John Murphy and Osmond ; at Gander Arm, Philips' mill, with unrivaled facilities for collecting and shipping ; Arthur's mill, and some smaller establishments. The whole cut of timber for the season of 1893 may be safely estimated at 20,000,000 feet, which, at the low average price of $15 a thousand feet, amounts to $300,000. 52 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. American capital is transforming the lumber business of Newfound- land. A corporation, The Timber Estates Company, headed by H. M. Whitney, of Boston, Massachusetts, acquired several of the largest properties in the island and in 1904 operated them on a scale unequaled before. George J. Barker, of Boston, acquired another large grant and developed it extensively, and an American syndicate in 1904 began ne- gotiating for tracts on the west coast for charcoal manufacture as well as lumbering operations. One of the largest operators on the island until he sold to The Tim- ber Estates Company in 1903, was Lewis Miller, a Scotchman, who for a quarter of a century was engaged in lumbering operations in Sweden. Owing to the exhaustion of the supply which he controlled there, he removed his plant to Newfoundland about 1900, erected three large sawmills, built twenty-five miles of branch railway and sidings and con- structed the largest lumber wharf in the colony at Lewisport, on Notre Dame Bay, on the east coast. His output of lumber was handled over fifty to seventy-five miles of the Newfoundland railway to this wharf. The product of his mills was principally spruce, but included a quantity of white pine and tamarack. The largest of these sawmills, located on Red Indian Lake and reached by a branch line, twenty-one miles in length, connecting with the Newfoundland railway, employed over three hundred people day and night. It is estimated that the limits which he owned, provided that they escape devastation by forest fires, will yield a yearly cut of 40,000,000 feet for the next fifty years. Latterly Newfoundland has attracted numerous lumbermen who for- merly operated in Nova Scotia, but who have been compelled to aban- don or limit their business there on account of the depletion of their limits. Another factor which tends to the growth of the industry in this colony is the great advantage which it possesses over the Maritime Provinces of the Dominion in point of nearness to the European mar- kets, the distance being much shorter than that from the most eastern ports of the mainland. The enormous pulpwood resources of the island are attracting much attention from British manufacturers, owing to the increasing difficulty experienced by English newspaper proprietors in securing adequate supplies of paper. Alfred Harmsworth & Bros., publishers of the Daily Mail and other journals in London, have secured from the New- foundland Timber Estates Company, for the sum of $500,000, the pulp concession on 2,000 square miles of timber in the interior, for the estab- lishment of a large pulp and paper-making plant. LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 53 Accurate information as to the extent of the lumbering industry of Newfoundland is afforded by the census of 1901, according to which there were, in the year previous, 195 sawmills, valued at $292,790, for the supply of which 1,616,449 logs were cut, the output being 43,648,- 000 superficial feet of sawn lumber, of the value of $480,555, and 16,- 197,000 shingles. The number of men employed was 1,408 in logging and 2,408 in the mills. A comparison with the corresponding figures of the census of 1891 shows the rapid development of the industry during the decade and in- dicates that in all probability there has been an equal rate of increase during the last few years. In 1890 (census of 1891) the number of sawmills reported was fifty-three, valued at $178,510 ; number of logs cut, 415,600 ; output, 13,682,000 superficial feet of sawn lumber, valued at $299,634, and 6,275,000 shingles ; number of lumberers employed, 625 ; number employed in mills, 807.^ The cut of lumber in 1904 was by far the largest in the lumber history of Newfoundland, being double that of the preceding year, and was divided among the different mills as follows : Newfoundland Tim- ber Estates, Limited, 40,000,000 feet; New Lands Lumber & Pulp Company, 7,000,000; Botwoodville Mills, 10,000,000; Union Lumber Company, 10,000,000; Grand Pond and Deer Lake, 3,000,000; small mills, west coast, 2,500,000; small mills of White Bay, Notre Dame Bay, Bonavista Bay, Trinity Bay, Conception Bay and southwest coast, 3,500,000; total, 76,000,000 feet. Of this amount 35,000,000 feet was exported. Great Britain being the chief market for it, some going to South America, and the remainder used for local demands. As short a time as fifteen years ago, most of the lumber used in Newfound- land was imported from Nova Scotia and other Canadian provinces, while now enough is manufactured within its own boundaries not only to supply the home demand but also to ship millions of feet to foreign countries. CROWN LANDS TIMBER REGULATIONS. Until a comparatively recent date no government dues were exacted from those engaging in lumbering. Subsequently a ground tax of $2 a square mile was imposed with Crown dues of fifty cents a thousand feet on the cut, coupled with the condition that the purchasers of limits 2 These statistics include Labrador (as that territory is under the grovemment of Newfound- land), which at that time comprised what is now the territory of Ungrava as well as the present Labrador, the division not having been made until 1895 ; but the lumber industry in that quarter was and Is even yet very limited In extent. 54 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. must put up a mill and begin manufacturing within one year. In 1903 amendments were adopted making the regulations considerably more stringent. Under the law, as it now stands, timber licenses are issued at a bonus of so much a square mile, the amount being fixed according to location and value, but in no case to be less than $2. In addition, an annual ground rent of $2 a square mile is charged, together with a royalty of fifty cents a thousand feet board measure on all trees cut — except in Labrador, where the royalty is fixed at twenty-five cents a thousand. The licensee is bound to erect a sawmill of a capacity of 1,000 feet a day for every five square miles in his limit, or, as an alter- native, to establish such manufactory of wood goods as may be con- sidered an equivalent. The license may be granted for fifty years or for a longer period if deemed necessary. The licensee is bound to take from every tree cut all the timber fit for use and manufacture the same into sawn lumber or other salable products, to prevent all unnecessary destruction of growing timber and to exercise strict supervision to prevent fires. Licenses to cut timber for pulp and paper manufacture may be granted for ninety-nine years or longer for areas of not less than five or more than one hundred and fifty square miles, at a charge of $5 a mile and subsequent payments of $3 a mile a year. The licensee must spend $20,000 in the erection of buildings and machinery. No holder of either a timber or pulp license is allowed to remove for exportation any unmanufactured logs or timber. Every indication points to a very extensive development of the lumbering and pulp-making industries of Newfoundland in the near future, as, in addition to abundance of the raw material, the island possesses unrivaled water power, cheaper labor than is obtainable else- where in North America and a shorter sea voyage to the principal markets than any rival. The principal danger to be feared is that of the destruction of her forests by fire as the country is opened up. It is estimated that the loss in 1904 from this source amounted to about $20,000,000. Unless some better means of meeting this cause of annual loss be adopted than those now in force, it is certain to prove a serious drawback to the anticipated prosperity of the trade. Forest fires were not unknown in this colony as early as 1818, as the following account of the voyage of H. M. S. Rosamond in that year to Newfoundland and the southern coast of Labrador, given by Edward Chappelle, will show : LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 55 "On the third day after our arrival one of our seamen, while em- ployed in felling timber for the ship's use, was so imprudent as to kindle a fire in the forest, in the hope that, by the smoke, he would probably rid himself and his companions of the innumerable myriads of mosquitoes, which tormented them almost to madness. This scheme succeeded to their utmost wish, and they were rejoicing at their deliv- erance, when, in an instant, the whole country appeared enveloped in fire ! A high wind drove the flames from tree to tree with the rapidity of lightning ; and had it not been for the intervention of the river, the whole of the forest must have been inevitably reduced to ashes. . . . The rapidity with which the flames spread in the forests of these coun- tries has been noticed by many early writers." CHAPTER IV. CANADA— ITS COMMERCIAL FORESTS. Before taking up in detail the provinces and territories constituting the Dominion of Canada, it is well to review briefly the extent and location of the commercial forests of that country and to discuss various matters concerning the lumber interests of the Dominion as a whole. The commercial forests of Canada are divided into two great sec- tions — the eastern and the western. The western, which is included in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific slope, will be reserved for detailed treatment in connection with the history of the lumber industry of the Pacific Coast of the United States, with which it is so closely connected and which have been developed together. These western forests of commercial importance are practically all contained within the Province of British Columbia, the outlying wood- lands and forests east and north of the Province being comparatively unimportant. The coast region of British Columbia, however, including Vancouver and other islands, is wonderfully rich in timber resources, probably being excelled in this respect by no section of similar size in the world'. British Columbia includes nearly all the Pacific Coast species par- ticularly treated in the previous chapter. The leading woods are red fir (Pseudotsuga taxiiolia), giant arborvitae, or red cedar, western hemlock, bull pine ( Pinus ponderosa), Engelmann spruce, tideland spruce, white pine (Pinus monticola), lowland fir (Abies grandis), etc. Between the western and eastern timber regions is the plains country of Alberta, Saskatchewan, etc., which is either open prairie, or a coun- try of scattered groves and trees, or, in the north, a practically continu- ous forest of subarctic species and characteristics. The timbered region of eastern Canada stretches in a continuous body from Manitoba east to the Atlantic, and north to Hudson Bay and the northern treeline described in Chapter II. As has before been remarked, there is no dividing line in tree growth between Canada and the United States corresponding to the international boundary, and in all the territory in which grow the commercial forests of Canada, and especially those suited for lumber purposes, the species represented all 56 CANADA— ITS COMMERCIAL FORESTS. 57 exist south of the boundary line and, conversely, all, or practically all, of the commercial timbers of the northern United States are repre- sented in the flora of Canada. If this timber were equal in its quality to the area it covers and to its quantity, it would constitute one of the greatest forests on the globe ; but as it is, with much of it dwarfed by climate and perhaps to some extent by inhospitable soil, it has an enormous quantity of merchant- able timber. The most valuable part of these forests consists of white pine (Pinus strobus), red or norway pine ( Pinus resinosa) and spruce. Formerly there was an almost solid forest of hardwoods in southern Ontario, in that peninsula bounded by Lake Erie, Lake Huron and Georgian Bay and extending along the northern shores of Lake Ontario, but as these hardwood lands were particularly attractive to the farmer, they have been largely cleared and the result is an agricultural section seldom excelled in its productiveness and beauty. In these early years of the Twentieth Century, therefore, the hardwood resources and pro- duction of the Dominion are comparatively insignificant, though there is a considerable quantity of oak, maple, elm, ash, etc., yet remaining. There is still a sufficient supply to meet most of the domestic require- ments, though for some of the more exacting classes of industries hardwoods are imported from the United States. Canada formerly exported hardwoods in considerable quantities, but the magnitude of that business has been much reduced. The Height of Land, which is the dividing ridge or boundary line between the waters which flow into Hudson Bay or into the Atlan- tic north of the Strait of Belle Isle, and those which by the Great Lakes find their way through the St. Lawrence to the ocean, marks a some- what clearly defined northern boundary of the most valuable soft woods. South of that line are found white and red pine, hemlock, tamarack, spruce, etc., of sizes which fit them for sawmill use. North of that line white and norway pine practically disappear and other species decrease in size as one goes north until, of commercial woods, spruce of diminished size is left standing in a continuous forest, ex- tending to Hudson Bay — that great inland sea, which has been the dream of navigators, but which is not likely ever to assume large com- mercial importance — and to the northern treeline of the continent. The basis of value of the present forests is the white pine, and it is, perhaps, worthy of note that the center of timber value is found in a latitude corresponding somewhat closely to the best growth of white 58 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. pine in the United States, which was in the lower peninsula of Michigan and in Wisconsin. Within the rough triangle bounded by the Ottawa River on the northeast, Georgian Bay and Lake Huron on the west and Lake Erie and Lake Ontario on the south, grow the finest forests of the Dominion. The pines in former years used to reach well down toward Lake Erie, but they have largely been cut away from that sec- tion, as the hardwoods were at a later date. Now this forest of especial value is restricted to the northern portion of this territory, reaching north to Lake Nipissing and the Ottawa River, and beyond. As one goes in any direction from this favored district, the forests change in character and decrease in value. Going east from the Ottawa River the woodsman finds a decrease in the amount of pine and an in- crease in the amount of spruce, until below the City of Quebec the vast bulk of it is of the latter species. Perhaps the best spruce of the Dominion is found between the St. Lawrence River and the United States boundary, but there is also much fine log spruce north of the river, though as one goes north it decreases in size. Going north, northwest and west from the Georgian Bay district white and red pine constitute the bulk of the forests all the way to Manitoba, except through a district north of Lake Superior, where they are replaced largely by banksian or jack pine and other inferior timbers, but nowhere do they show such high quality as in the Georgian Bay and Ottawa River districts. Spruce is the prevailing timber north of the Height of Land and grows in substantially solid forests. It is not, however, in that part of the Dominion, of log size to any great extent, but, nevertheless, con- stitutes a magnificent supply of pulpwood whose quantity can only be guessed at, but which will probably be sufficient to supply the needs of the world for generations. Comparatively little of that territory has been surveyed and much of it is totally unexplored. Even the latest maps of Ontario, issued by the Crown Lands Department of the Prov- ince, represent the course of streams by dotted lines only, indicating that their exact coiurse is a matter of conjecture. While both pine and spruce were found in the original forests of both Ontario and Quebec, Ontario was, emphatically, the pine province and Quebec the spruce province. It is a matter of some dispute as to which of the two has the larger amount of spruce, but there is no question that the Quebec spruce forest is superior in the quality and availability of its spruce supply and particularly in the proportion of it that is of sawlog size. CANADA— ITS COMMERCIAL FORESTS. > 59 The Maritime Provinces were originally heavily timbered, with, per- haps, the most dense forests in Nova Scotia. The present condition of the individual timber resources of the prov- inces will be treated in connection with the lumber history of each of them, and it is enough to say here that the entire area of Canada south of the Height of Land from the Atlantic to Manitoba was originally covered with commercial lumber timber. An outline definition of the leading lumber districts of the Dominion of Canada, is as follows : The Nova Scotia district, of which Halifax is the commercial, though not manufacturing, lumber center ; the St. John River district, in New Brunswick, of which the center is the City of St. John; the Miramichi district, of eastern New Brunswick, of which Chatham is the center; the Chaleur Bay district, of northern New Brunswick and southeastern Quebec, of which Bathurst, Dalhousie and other points are centers; on the St. Lawrence River, the Quebec dis- trict, of which the City of Quebec is the commercial center ; the Ottawa River district, of which Ottawa, with its environs, is the chief manu- facturing center and Montreal the chief center from the standpoint of export trade ; the Georgian Bay district, which includes all the territory draining into Georgian Bay, with many milling points, but its commer- cial interests most definitely centering at Toronto, and what may be called the western Ontario district, lying to the northwest of Lake Superior, having as manufacturing and commercial centers such points as Port Arthur and Pigeon River. The commercial forests of Canada have been and are so located that they have been singularly independent, either from a logging stand- point or for marketing their product, of railroads. Indeed, it was not until the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway that the railroad was to any important extent a primary means of marketing the product of Canadian mills ; and even today its use is practically confined to the western provinces and territories. The great St. Lawrence water sys- tem, reaching from the head of Lake Superior to the Atlantic, with the never-failing streams flowing into it from the north, gives an adequate outlet for the timber and lumber production of Quebec and Ontario, while the Maritime Provinces, with their deeply indented coasts, find marine transportation sufficient. British North America advanced much more rapidly in respect to the exportation of forest products than did the United States. There were two reasons for this : One was that the forests north of the 60 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. United States were, relative to population and domestic requirements, much more important than those of the United States ; and, the second, that the ample system of waterways connecting with the Atlantic natu- rally led Canada to look abroad for its markets, especially as, until within the last fifty years, the market in the United States was almost completely supplied from domestic sources. Indeed, up to the time of the construction of the Champlain Canal, connecting Lake Champlain with the Hudson River, which was completed in 1822, and of the Os- wego Canal, connecting Lake Ontario at Oswego with the Erie Canal at Syracuse, N. Y., completed in 1828, timber grown on the St. Law- rence watershed of New York, Vermont and New Hampshire, largely went to Montreal or Quebec and thence abroad. Not only can the forests of Canada be logged by water, and its mills be located at the mouths of logging streams on deep water, but also the chief markets of the Dominion, in all that territory from the head of Lake Superior to the Atlantic, can be reached by water. Hence it is that Canada, at the time of this publication, was still pursuing methods of logging and of lumber transportation that largely obtained in the United States until twenty-five years ago, when the develop- ment of lumbering operations away from the water courses gradually brought about an increased use of the railroad in that country. British Columbia also is, to a considerable extent, served in its lumber inter- ests by waterways ; but there is a vast extent of rapidly developing country, lying between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains and reaching from the national boundary north to the Peace River, that is dependent upon the railroads for its supply of building material, which must be furnished from the forests of western Ontario or from British Columbia, or to a certain extent from the smaller sized, but still avail- able, timber north of Manitoba. The following table gives the names of the several provinces and territories of the Dominion, the dates of their creation or admission into the confederation, their land area and total area, and the estimated area remaining afforested in 1904. All the columns relating to areas show variations from other tables, differences in forested areas being due to different estimates, while in the other columns the figures are changed ' from time to time as the boundaries of the provinces and ter- ' This list o£ provinces and territories was radically changed by an act of Parliament tak- ing efiEect Sept. 1, 1905. That part of the Northwestern Territories lying west of the 110th meridian west of Greenwich (the fourth principal meridian of the Dominion system of land surveys), east of British Columbia and south of Mackenzie was made the new Province of Alberta, with an area of CANADA— ITS COMMERCIAL FORESTS. 61 ritories are changed or defined, and as the surveys become more accu- rate: AREA OF FORESTS IN CANADA. Date of Orgranization or Creation. Area in Square Miles. Natne. Total Area. Land Area. Forest Area. PROVraCES. Ontario July 1,1867 July 1,1867 July 1,1867 July 1,1867 July 15, 1870 July 20, 1871 July 1,1873 Apr. 12, 1876 May 17, 1882 May 17. 1882 May 17, 1882 May 17, 1882 Oct. 2, 1895 Oct. 2, 1895 Oct. 2, 1895 June 13, 1898 260,862 351,873 21,428 27,985 73,732 372,630 2,184 470,416 88,879 107,618 101,883 251,965 *500,000 562,182 354,961 196,976 220,508 341,756 21,068 27,911 64,327 370,191 2,184 456,997 88,279 103,846 101,521 243,160 •500,000 532,634 349,109 196,327 82,528 225,552 16,958 17,538 25,626 285.554 797 Quebec Manitoba British Columbia Prince Edward Island Districts. Keewatin Assinibola .SasVatphfiwrap, , Alberta '. 696,952 PranMin Yukon 3,745,574 3,618,818 1.351,505 •Estimated. An outline sketch of the Canadian provinces and territories, with the distribution of timber in each, compiled from Canadian official sources, is as follows : DISTRIBUTION OF CANADIAN WOODS BY PROVINCES. Nova Scotia, which embraces 21,068 square miles of land, and New Brunswick, with 27,911 square miles, have large areas of spruce, hem- lock, larch, pine, oak, elm, maple, beech and birch. Lumber makes up about two-thirds of their total exports. Prince Edward Island, lying between the two, is about 150 miles long and much indented by bays. It has an area of 2,184 square miles. Agriculture has progressed in this Province and the remaining timber is chiefly confined to the northern end of the island, where there are small lumbering operations. The woods are the white and the black spruce, larch, elm and oak. Quebec embraces a land area of 341,756 square miles. The forest 253,500 square miles and an estimated population of 250,000. The part lyine between the 110th meridian and Manitoba and south of Mackenzie was made the new Province of Saskatchewan, with 251,100 square miles of area and an estimated population of 250,000. This division, however, left out a strip along the eastern end of Athabaska, exactly one degree of longitude in width, and clipped off the irregular eastern end of the old Province of Saskatchewan, no provision having been (in May, 1905) made for these two excluded areas, though doubtless they were to be added to the governments to the east by later enactment. The eastern boundary line of the new Province of Sas- katchewan is therefore the western boundary line of Manitoba as far as that extends, beginning at about longitude 101 degrees 20 minutes on the international boundary and running due north, with an offset westward on each survey correction line. This holds true in the new extension of the boundary northward from the northwestern comer of Manitoba, until at about latitude 55 degrees 40 minutes these offsets bring the line in coincidence with the 102nd meridian and that becomes the boundary line for the remainder of the distance. The provisional capital of Alberta is Edmonton, and that of Saskatchewan Is Regina. 62 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. lands are of great magnitude and include most of the staple woods common to the eastern and central states. Ontario has a land area of 220,508 square miles and a water area of 40,354 square miles. There are large areas of forest. Manitoba includes 73,732 square miles, of which 64,327 are land. The principal timber is poplar, with some white elm, green ash, box elder and mossycup oak, the latter forming a scrub growth in most parts of the Province. White spruce is also found over a limited area. The trees in the northern part of Manitoba are large enough to be mer- chantable. The Northwestern Territories, which adjoin Manitoba, in many re- spects resemble that Province. They consist of four provincial districts : Assiniboia, with a total area of 88,879 square miles, Saskatchewan, embracing 107,618 square miles, Athabaska, with 251,965 square miles and Alberta with 101,883 square miles. The greater part of the south- ern portion, from the United States boundary for about two hundred miles north, is flat or rolling prairie, a large part being treeless. The Province of British Columbia is heavily timbered and contains 372,630 square miles. The heaviest timber growth is found west of the coast range, and embraces an area of 100 to 150 miles wide and 700 miles long. There is little hardwood of any sort. An interesting review of the lumber resources and situation of Canada was made some years ago by Mr. E. Stewart, Superintendent of Forestry of the Dominion of Canada. It is particularly of value as showing in a graphic way the important place which spruce holds and will continue to hold in the timber resources of the Dominion. While the policy of the Dominion, as expressed in its forest reserves and its method of leasing timber limits, whereby the title to the land is re- tained by the Government and cutting is done under restrictions, will undoubtedly prolong the productive life of the pine forests and perhaps enable them to contribute in perpetuity to the welfare of the nation, it is spruce which, to the greatest extent, will supply the demand for for- est products and under intelligent direction will never be exhausted. Mr. Stewart said in part : "Though we have lost vast quantities of timber by fire, still Canada undoubtedly stands at the head of those countries from which a future supply may be expected. It is true that our virgin white pine can not last very many years longer, but we have other varieties of great value. In British Columbia we have the Douglas fir, the cedar, the western CANADA— ITS COMMERCIAL FORESTS. 63 white pine, and a hemlock very much superior to our eastern hemlock, but above all we have the spruce, the most widely distributed of all our forest trees. If we visit the mills of the Maritime Provinces we find them cutting that timber for export to Europe, and so fast is its natural reproduction in the moist climate of the coast that the same territory can in the ordinary way of lumbering be recut about every twenty years. " Starting west from the Atlantic in Nova Scotia we find the white and black spruce in all the older provinces and in all the districts of our Northwest Territories, while in the interior of British Columbia another variety, the Engelmann spruce, a very useful tree, is found in great abundance, and west of this and extending to the coast, the giant of this species is found in the Menzies or Sitka spruce,'' which almost rivals in size and utility the giant Douglas fir of the same district. " Not only is the range of the different varieties of the spruce bounded only by the Atlantic and Pacific on the east and west, but it also extends over more degrees of latitude than any other of our native trees, reaching practically across the whole country from its southern boundary up to the limit of tree growth, in some places extending be- yond the Arctic Circle. It must not be inferred that the whole of this vast area is covered with merchantable timber, but on the other hand there can be no question that this country possesses an immense quan- tity of spruce timber which probably no other country can equal. A very large portion of it is growing on land which, from its rough char- acter and also from its severe climate, is unsuited for the growth of agricultural products and should be kept permanently for the produc- tion of timber. "in addition to the utility of spruce for lumber it is of all varieties the one best adapted for pulp, an article which is now being applied to such a variety of purposes that the demand for pulpwood is enormously increasing every year, and there seems little question that this industry is only in its infancy and that our northern forest regions with the un- limited water power they possess will in the not distant future be the home of important and lasting industries." It would be interesting to know what the forest area of Canada means as to total present supply of commercial timber and the annual product which, under favorable conditions and intelligent management, 2 The Picea sitchensis, known not only as above, but also as the tideland spruce. This Is the Bpnice whose manufacture has been most actively prosecuted on Grays Harbor, Washington, a tidal bay on the PaclBc Coast o£ the State. 64 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. might be expected for the future. Unfortunately, no estimate has been made, nor is likely soon to be made, as to these points that is more than guesswork. According to the next preceding table, the forest area of Canada, not including Newfoundland and the Labrador Coast, is 1,351,505 square miles, equivalent to about 865,000,000 acres. Such an area, reasonably well covered with forest, has, in any event, enormous possibilities. If it should be admitted that it will average only 1,000 feet an acre of sawmill timber, the total quantity would be 865,000,000,000 feet. If the long period of 100 years were allowed for cutting this quantity for re- production, we would have an annual production of 8,650,000,000 feet, or about one-quarter the present output of lumber and timber of the United States and a quantity about fifty percent greater than the out- put of Canadian mills and of hewn timber in its various forms. But if the period of cutting should be limited to fifty years, as, under intelli- gent forestry management it could be, the product would be increased to 17,300,000,000 feet annually without deterioration or diminution of the stand. If the estimate should be 2,000 feet of sawmill timber to the acre, the maximum product on the basis of fifty years' cutting would be nearly 35,000,000,000 feet annually, or more than is now pro- duced by the United States. Looking at the matter in another way, ignoring the territories, if there be taken the reported forested areas of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia, there would be found a total area of forests of 654,553 square miles, or 418,914,000 acres. An estimate of 2,500 feet per acre of commercial timber would give a total of 1,047,285,000,000 feet, which, on the basis of 100 years' cutting, is equivalent to the product of 10,472,850,000 feet annually, or, on the basis of fifty years' cutting, would provide over 20,000,000,000 feet annually. These speculations are extremely general, but they serve the pur- pose of pointing out the fact that Canada is enormously rich in timber resources and that the possibilities of long continued production are almost incalculable. To the estimates of sawmill timber should, of course, be added that timber which is of value in the shape of cord- wood, poles, railroad ties, pulpwood and for miscellaneous uses, local or general. CHAPTER V. CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. As will be seen in later chapters, forest management has almost from the beginning of European occupation attracted the attention of the law-making authorities of what is now the Dominion of Canada. Royal authority was exercised to preserve to the uses of the Crown certain classes of timber and to introduce, in a partial and inadequate way, something like forest management. But so vast were the timber re- sources of Canada that until comparatively recent years very little pub- lic interest was taken in the subject of forest preservation. The earlier efforts of Canadian authorities toward a rational protection of their for- est assets are recounted in the chapters devoted to the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and in those chapters relating to other provinces these forestry matters find their proper place ; but in 1900 was estab- lished the Canadian Forestry Association, which since that time has by its educational work among the people and by cooperation with the Government done so much to promote these interests of the Dominion that the organization is deserving of especial attention. The primeval forests of Canada have been noted for their extent and richness ever since the first explorations were made ; and this nat- ural endowment of public wealth has been the source of a large and constant revenue to the Crown and to the Provincial governments, greatly lightening taxation, and in some sections almost obviating the necessity of taxation of any other form. The total value of the export of forest products for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, was $36,- 724,445, while the census of 1901 placed the total value of forest products for the preceding year at $51,000,000. The annual revenue received from the forests of Quebec and Ontario runs well up toward $1,250,000. In 1893 the revenue from this source in New Brunswick totaled $196,500, while in British Columbia an estimate made in 1905 for the year not then completed placed this revenue at $250,000. Thus it will be seen that timber and timber products are of the highest im- portance not only to the individual operators, but to the welfare of the Dominion as a whole and to the Central and Provincial governments as well. Yet, as in other new countries favored by a heavy natural forest 65 66 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. growth, the Canadians, for a long time, considered their timber supply practically inexhaustible. One of the most important dates in connection with the Canadian movement for intelligent forest control is 1882, in which year was or- ganized, at Montreal, the American Forest Congress. At this forestry congress was present a large number of prominent representatives of lumber interests of Canada as well as of the United States. Many of them had prepared papers which they read and which led to discussions that attracted a large measure of public attention. In itself this congress did not accomplish much for the cause of for- estry, but it opened the way for a quickening of interest in the subject and helped to make further progress less difficult. Until that time, and indeed later, forestry had to contend with the idea that the forests were inexhaustible and, further, had to defend itself against a wide- spread charge of faddism. The majority of people totally discredited the idea that the supply of timber would ever be inadequate to the de- mand, and of those who considered that such a condition was a possi- bility, there were but few who were not content to let the future take care of itself, believing that if the time ever should come when lumber would be difficult to obtain because the supply of timber had been un- duly diminished, that day was so far away from them and their needs that they were not called upon to take any action to prevent its coming. Operating lumbermen also were to a certain extent offended and alienated from the cause by the radical utterances by most of the few persistent champions of forest preservation. Yet, in the light of later events, it is seen that these radicals, who successively pleaded with, threatened and abused those who did not agree with them, were doing the work of agitation which history has proved to be the forerunner of almost every reform. They stimulated the people to think along for- estry lines, so that when facts in their support came to the surface they could be and were assigned to their logical place. And so annually the cause of forestry gained ground, until early in 1900 was organized the Canadian Forestry Association. To Mr. E. Stewart, Dominion Superintendent of Forestry, more than to any other one man, is due the credit for the formation of the Canadian Forestry Association, for it was he who, on February 15, 1900, called the meeting at which the organization was recommended and as a result of which the organization actually was effected on March 8, 1900, in the City of Ottawa. The following officers were duly elected : CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 67 Honorary president, His Excellency, the Governor General; president, Hon. Sir Henri Joly de Lotbinifere; vice president, William Little; secretary, E. Stewart; assistant secretary and treasurer, R. H. Camp- bell. Board of directors : Hiram Robinson, Thomas Southworth, Pro- fessor John Macoun, Doctor William Saunders, Hon. G. W. Allan, E. W. Rathbun. Of the above the president, Hon. Sir Henri Joly de Lotbini^re, was Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia; E. Stewart, Dominion Su- perintendent of Forestry ; Hiram Robinson, president of the Hawkes- bury Lumber Company and president of the Canadian Forestry Asso- ciation in 1903 ; Thomas Southworth, director of Forestry for the Province of Ontario ; Professor John Macoun, of the Dominion Geolog- ical Survey, and E. W. Rathbun, member of the Ontario Forestry Commission. The objects sought to be obtained by the association, as set forth in a statement signed by R. H. Campbell, of the Department of the Inte- rior, were as follows : "The preservation of the forests for their influence on climate, fer- tility and water supply ; the exploration of the public domain and the reservation for timber production of lands unsuited for agriculture ; the promotion of judicious methods in dealing with forests and woodlands ; reafforestation where advisable ; tree planting on the plains and on the streets and highways ; the collection and dissemination of information bearing on the forestry problem in general." From the beginning the Canadian Forestry Association has been closely in touch with the Dominion and Provincial governments and especially with the Dominion Forestry Branch. The association might almost be said to be a department of the Government, so strong has been its influence upon governmental policies and legislation. The organization of the American Forest Congress has been spoken of. Following the congress there was distinct advancement, both in the understanding of the necessities of the case and in the advocacy of remedial measures applicable to admitted evils. The history of the forest had shown that fire was an enemy even more disastrous than the operations of lumbermen and the destruction wrought by settlers, wasteful as both had been, and every system of forestry has of necessity incorporated provisions for protection against this very serious menace. Beginning with Ontario, in 1885, all the Canadian provinces, except British Columbia and Prince Edward 68 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Island, have adopted laws regarding this hazard and have established special fire ranging service. Experience has demonstrated this system to be efiEective in proportion to the thoroughness with which it has been operated. Before the installation of these fire warden measures hardly a summer passed that the air of the cities in eastern Canada was not fouled by smoke from vast forest fires, which destroyed an almost incalculable amount of valuable timber ; but since this system has been followed fires have been comparatively infrequent and isolated. It is not claimed by anyone that perfection has been reached in guarding the forests from their greatest enemy, but certainly enough has been ac- complished to make the position taken by those advocating this method of protection, unassailable. Ontario, which expends the greatest amount upon this service, spent in 1903 only $31,237 in this manner, while the revenue derived from the Ontario woods in the same year was $2,307,356. Thus, less than one and one-half percent of the forest revenue was expended for protecting the entire source of that revenue, which certainly is a low rate of insurance. The growing recognition of the desirability of extending the Cana- dian forests resulted in the adoption, in the '80's, of the Tree Culture Claim Act. In 1889 experimental farms were established throughout the western country and experiments in tree growing began. From 1889 also dates the inauguration of the Dominion Forestry Branch which gave an added impetus to the forestry movement. In all of these directions the Canadian Forestry Association has been helpful and influential. It has supplemented the work of public investigators, has upheld the hands of administrators and not only stimulated the Dominion and Provincial authorities, but inspired the people themselves to a quicker and more intelligent interest in the work. Since the organization of the association the protective force employed against fire has been increased and improved methods of management have been put in force. Rangers have been detailed in many sections where previously there were none. The forest reserves have been enlarged and increased in number. Through the medium of the agricultural college a plan has been put into operation in Ontario for aiding farmers to set out wood lots, the work of the experimental farms has been aided and all over the Dominion an interest has been aroused which has resulted in demonstrated benefits. While the association does not claim that all these things have been done solely through its efEorts, it should have part of the credit for CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 69 them, inasmuch as it has lent its active support to each and every movement for the furtherance of practical forestry work. The meet- ings of the associations are held early in each year in the leading cities of the Dominion. The officers for 1905 are as follows : Patron, His Excellency, The Governor General ; honorary president, Aubrey White, Toronto, Ontario; president, E. G. Joly de Lotbinifere, Quebec, Quebec; vice president, E. Stewart, Ottawa, Ontario; secretary- treasurer, R. H. Campbell, Ottawa, Ontario. Vice presidents for the provinces: Rev. A. E. Burke, Alberton, Prince Edward Island; Hon. J. W. Longley, Halifax, Nova Scotia; His Honor, J. B. Snowball, Chatham, New Brunswick; Hon. S. N. Parent, Quebec, Quebec; Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Mani- toba; His Honor, A. E. Forget, Regina, Assiniboia; William Pearce, Calgary, Alberta; F. D. Wilson, Fort Vermilion, Athabaska; Hon. H. Bostock, Monte Creek, British Columbia; Hon. J. H. Agnew, Winni- peg, Manitoba ; Hon. Nelson Monteith, Ontario. Board of directors : J. R. Booth, Ottawa, Ontario ; Hiram Robinson, Ottawa, Ontario; Monseigneur Lafiamme, Quebec, Quebec; William Saunders, LL.D., Ottawa, Ontario; Thomas Southworth, Toronto, On- tario; H. M. Price, Quebec, Quebec; Doctor Robert Bell, Ottawa, Ontario. Education in forestry has not in Canada, as yet, taken the form of distinctive forestry schools, but, nevertheless, a good deal is being done along that line. Queen's University, at Kingston, Ontario, has of recent years supported a series of lectures on forestry, while the Mount Allison University, of Sackville, has had a course of lectures on forestry incorporated into its curriculum. The project of establishing schools of forestry has been under consideration by the University of Toronto and Queen's University. Perhaps the most practical work has been done by the Ontario Agricultural College, at Guelph, Ontario. Since about 1884 forestry has been taught in that school, there being open a special course in connection with the fourth year. This is a degree course, authorizing the graduates to entitle themselves foresters. The importance of schools devoted especially to forestry was recognized by the Canadian Forestry Association at its 1904 meeting, when the fol- lowing resolution was adopted: "Resolved, That the Ontario government be, and is hereby, requested to make a proper grant for the operation of a school or schools of for- estry." 70 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Perhaps the most practical work has been done in connection with experimental farms and stations. At Guelph, in 1904, was begun nur- sery work by growing deciduous varieties of trees from the seed. At Ottawa, Ontario, is an experimental farm and arboretum under the auspices of the Dominion government. The first planting of forest trees at this experimental farm was made in 1887. About twenty-one acres have been devoted to the planting of forest trees in belts and clumps and sixty-five acres additional have been used for the arboretum and the botanical gardens. The Federal government has charge of the forests on Dominion lands proper. These embrace the Province of Manitoba, the Northwest Ter- ritories and also that part of British Columbia known as the railway belt, consisting of a stretch of country forty miles wide — twenty miles on each side of the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway — contain- ing altogether about 20,000 square miles. It is estimated that the area of forest lands thus under the Dominion control, not including Indian reserves and the old provinces, is 742,578 square miles, while that under the control of the Provincial governments is 506,220 square miles. The Dominion Department of Agriculture has a well arranged series of experimental farms, a feature of each of which is the study of tree growth. The central farm is at Ottawa, Ontario. The branches are at Nappan, Nova Scotia ; Brandon, Manitoba ; Indian Head, Assiniboia, and Agassiz, British Columbia. The most important experiments in some respects have been made at Indian Head. A shelter belt 100 feet wide has been planted along the western and northern boundaries of the farm, extending nearly two miles, while blocks of trees of from two to five acres each have been established. This experiment demonstrated the value of tree planting as a protection to crops and fruit trees and also as to what can be done in the way of growing trees on the open prairie in a comparatively dry climate. Furthermore, from the experi- ment farms are distributed tree seeds, seedlings and cuttings. The work of distribution to settlers was begun from Indian Head in 1899 and that is the headquarters for general distribution to settlers in the Northwest Territories, while the experimental farm at Brandon supplies those in Manitoba. The distributions up to 1904 to settlers in the northwest have been, from Ottawa, 600,000 seedlings and cuttings ; from Indian Head, 290,000, and from Brandon, 610,000. The Province of Ontario and the Dominion have each established a forestry office as a branch of the public service. The Dominion office CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 71 was started in 1899. The officers consist of the superintendent, assist- ant superintendent, inspector, several supervisors of tree planting and a number of forest fire rangers. Any land owner desiring to avail him- self of the cooperation of the Government applies to its forestry branch. The land of the applicant is visited by one of the supervisors the fol- lowing summer, when a plan of the proposed plantation is made. The next season seedling trees are sent by express from the government nurseries free of charge. The settler enters into an agreement to set aside a certain portion of the land as a permanent tree plantation ; to prepare his soil carefully according to the directions of the supervisor ; to plant the trees on their arrival and to cultivate them and keep the ground clean until the trees are of sufficient size no longer to need such attention. As stated above, seedling trees have been grown on the various government farms, but in 1904 the policy was inaugurated of centralizing the work, and 160 acres of land were obtained for a forest nursery station near Indian Head and buildings were being erected and preparations were made by which the supply for the whole northwest country would be grown at that place and distributed from thence. CANADIAN FOREST RESERVES. Notwithstanding the original immense forest wealth of Canada and the fact that that wealth still remains untouched in many sections, the saw and the ax have so well fulfilled their destructive mission — and that practically within so short a period as a century — that the Canadian government has recognized the necessity of setting apart national parks and forest reserves for the purpose of conserving its forestal wealth. The denuding of the forests is not only not harmful but is abso- lutely economic in those sections where the soil is suitable for agricul- ture and where settlement is desirable; but there are large tracts in Canada, particularly in Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia, that are totally unfit for agriculture, and upon these tracts the timber will repro- duce itself if given the opportunity. Therefore by restricting lumbering and permitting the young trees to attain full growth, an almost per- petual supply of timber may be insured. To this end Ontario and Quebec have established provincial reserves, and the Federal govern- ment has established national parks and reserves in Manitoba, in the Northwest Territories and in what is known as the forty-mile belt along the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway in British Columbia. This belt was ceded by the Province of British Columbia to the Federal government of Canada as a contribution toward the building of the 72 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Canadian Pacific railway. With the exception of that in these provinces and territories and the Indian reserves all the timber in Canada belongs to the several provinces in which it is located. The Federal reserves in British Columbia are Long Lake Timber Reserve, Yoho Park and Glacier Forest Park. Long Lake Timber Reserve occupies the central part (considering the east and west direc- tion only) or dry belt of British Columbia, being eight miles southwest of the town of Kamloops, which is situated on the Canadian Pacific railway and the Thompson River. The mountains included in this reserve form a watershed for the numerous small streams which irri- gate the farming lands of the surrounding valleys. This reserve con- tains a good growth of Douglas fir and black pine. It was set apart by order of the Minister of the Interior August 15, 1902, and has an area of 76,800 acres. Yoho Park is the natural continuation of the Rocky Mountains Na- tional Park, in the Northwest Territories, but being on the British Co- lumbia side of the interprovincial boundary, that is, on the western slope of the Rockies, it has a distinctive name. Its area is 530,240 acres. It was set apart December 14, 1901, by order in council. Glacier Forest Park, a small reservation of 18,720 acres, set apart by order in council October 11, 1888, is located in the Selkirk Moun- tains, British Columbia, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific rail- way. Glacier station, a favorite resting place of tourists, is located on this reserve. The Federal reserves in the Northwest Territories are as follows: Rocky Mountains Park, Foothills Timber Reserve, Waterton Lakes Forest Park, Cooking Lake Timber Reserve, Moose Mountain Timber Reserve and Beaver Hills Timber Reserve. Rocky Mountains Park is situated along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, north of the Foothills Reserve, the south- ern end being about 120 miles north of the international boundary. This park is in the shape of a triangle, each side of which is about 100 miles in length, with the town of Banff, a well known mountain resort on the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway, in the center. The Bow River runs through the middle of the triangle. When first set apart by special act of the Dominion Parliament in 1887 this park was only twenty-six miles long and ten miles wide ; but it was extended by act of 1902 and now contains approximately 2,880,000 acres. Together with Yoho Park, on the western slope of the mountains in British Co- CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 73 lumbia, this reservation forms one of the most magnificent forest parks in the world, the combined area being 3,410,240 acres, or over 5,328 square miles. The Foothills Timber Reserve, containing 2,350,000 acres, set apart by the Minister of the Interior February 21, 1899, embraces the foot- hills on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, in the southwest corner of Alberta, between the international boundary and Rocky Mountains Park. It stretches northward, from the South Kootenay Pass on the boundary, about 140 miles. The use of this reserve as a watershed is of much more importance than its use for the production of timber. A foot or projection of 34,000 acres on the southern end of the Foot- hills Reserve is formed by the Waterton Lakes Forest Park, which was set apart May 30, 1895, as a tourist park, previous to the setting apart of the Foothills Reserve. It forms a square, one side of which is the international boundary. Twenty miles southeast of Edmonton, northern Alberta, is the Cook- ing Lake Timber Reserve, having an area of 109,000 acres, and having been set apart June 6, 1899, by the Minister of the Interior. Still following an eastward course. Moose Mountain Timber Re- serve is the next in order. This is a small reservation in southeastern Assiniboia, about fifty miles due north of the town of Portal, which is on the "Soo" railroad at the point where it crosses the international boundary. Moose Mountain Reserve has an area of 103,000 acres, set apart under the same authority as the Foothills Timber Reserve. In northeast Assiniboia, twenty miles west of the town of Yorkton on the northwestern branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, and about forty-five miles north of Indian Head on the main line of the Canadian Pacific, is the Beaver Hills Timber Reserve, which was set apart Au- gust 20, 1901. Its acreage is 170,000. The Province of Manitoba possesses six timber reserves, namely. Turtle Mountain, Spruce Woods, Riding Mountain, Duck Mountain, Lake Manitoba and Porcupine Mountain. Turtle Mountain Timber Reserve lies in the southwestern part of the Province, extending about twenty miles along the international boundary, at a distance of twelve miles north of the town of Bottineau, North Dakota, and fifteen miles southeast of Deloraine, Manitoba. It was set apart as a reserve July 13, 1895. Its area is 75,000 acres. In the central part of the Province, lying for about twenty-five miles 74 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. along the south side of the Canadian Pacific main line, between the city of Brandon and the town of McGregor, is the Spruce Woods Timbei Reserve, of 190,000 acres. It was set apart January 8, 1898, under the same authority as the Foothills Timber Reserve. Riding Mountain Reserve is of irregular shape and extends about ninety miles from northwest to southeast, lying southwest of Lake Dauphin and in the fork formed by the main lines of the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern railways. It has an area of 1,215,000 acres, and was set apart July 13, 1895. Directly north of the Riding Mountain Reserve, west of Lake Win- nipegosis and lying parallel with the Swan River branch of the Canadian Northern railway, is the Duck Mountain Timber Reserve. It has a length of fifty miles from north to south and contains 840,000 acres. On February 5, 1902, it was set apart as a reserve. A small reserve of 159,460 acres on the west side of Lake Manitoba is known as Lake Manitoba Timber Reserve. It is situated a couple of miles due west of the Hudson Bay Company's post, Manitoba House, at the narrows of Lake Manitoba, and a few miles northeast of the vil- lage of Laurier, which is the nearest railway station and is located on the Canadian Northern railway. Porcupine Mountain Timber Reserve occupies the extreme north- western angle of the Province of Manitoba, forming a parallelogram, the adjacent sides of which are about forty and sixty miles, between Lake Winnipegosis and the northwest corner of the Province. On August 24, 1900, it was reserved from settlement only, timber licenses being permitted to be granted. Included within this reserve are 1,382,- 400 acres. The national parks above described have been set apart on the lines of the United States national parks for the purpose of preserving the natural beauties intact, no cutting of timber being permitted. The re- serves on the watersheds, as Long Lake Timber Reserve, the Foothills Timber Reserve and Waterton Lakes Forest Park, and some of the oth- ers to a lesser extent, have been set apart in order to preserve the forest- floor so that the water falling on the mountains may be fed gradually to the rivers below to give them a regular water supply as far as possi- ble the year around. The remaining reserves have been set apart with two objects : First, to keep settlers out of broken and other lands un- suitable for farming, and, second, to preserve a supply of timber for the settlers who will occupy the adjacent prairie lands. CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 75 With these objects in view and partly owing to the short time since they have been set apart, no commercial lumbering has been allowed in them and consequently no regulations therefor made. The only existing regulations are those permitting settlers to secure licenses to cut a limited supply of timber for fuel and building purposes. Some of these reserves have been more or less burned and worked over, and the object of the reservation and the employment of fire rangers is to give the timber a chance to start growing again. Outside of these reservations the Federal government of Canada has large areas of timber in Manitoba, the Territories and British Columbia, which are leased to lumbermen on the usual plan of a bonus and ground rent. The ground rent is $5 a square mile for a year ex- cept for lands west of Yale, British Columbia, where the ground rent is five cents an acre. The Crown dues are, on sawed lumber, 50 cents a thousand feet board measure; railway ties, IJ^ cents each; shingle bolts, 25 cents a cord, and five percent on the sales of all other prod- ucts of the berth. The Provincial governments of Ontario and Quebec have also set apart parks and reserves for the preservation of their forests, the regu- lations regarding which are made by the Provincial governments. Sibley Reserve is in the northwestern part of Ontario, on the north shore of Lake Superior, and includes Thunder Cape and a portion of the township of Sibley. It contains about 45,000 acres, and was set apart in 1900 by "order in council. Situated in the district north of Lake Nipissing, Ontario, is Algon- quin Park, on the height of land between the Ottawa River and its tributaries and the Georgian Bay waters. This park, having an area of 1,109,383 acres, was created by special Act of Legislature in 1893. It is not, in the strictest sense, a forest reserve, as it was primarily de- signed for a game preserve and much of its area is under license ; but as no settlement is permitted within its limits it largely partakes of the character of a forest reserve. Permission is given to fish in this park, but hunters are absolutely forbidden, the rules in this respect being so strict that no man is even permitted to carry a gun in the park. At the time when this park was set aside game within its area was very scarce, but now it is fast becoming filled with fur-bearing and game animals. One of Ontario's reserves more recently set aside is Mississaga Re- serve, created in 1904. It lies to the north of Lake Huron and com- prises an area of 3,000 square miles, or 1,920,000 acres. The policy of 76 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the Government in regard to the administration of this and Temagami Reserve is that timber shall be disposed of by the thousand on the stump and cut under supervision of oificials of the Government. Temagami Reserve, containing 1,408,000 acres, was set apart Jan- uary 11, 1901. Within its boundaries is a beautiful lake of the same name. Most of this reserve is still covered with virgin pine of great value. On December 16, 1903, an addition of 3,700 square miles was made to the north and west, giving the reserve a total of 5,900 square miles, or 3,776,000 acres. North of the City of Kingston, Ontario, is the Eastern Forest Re- serve, which was formed under the Forest Reserve Act in 1899 and which contains 80,000 acres. This area was lumbered over and after- ward burned, but now has a heavy growth of young pine. The Laurentides National Park, of Quebec, was created by Act of Legislature January 12, 1895, and contains 2,650 square miles, or 1,696,000 acres, lying to the north of the City of Quebec. Its northern boundary is the 48th parallel; its eastern, the St. Urbain road; its southern and southeastern, the rear line of the Seigniory of Beaupr^ and ranges XI and XII of Stoneham and Tewkesbury ; its western, the Fief Hubert and an imaginary line running to a point west of Grand Lake Batiscan, thence skirting the Quebec & Lake St. John railway a few miles east thereof to the intersection of the 48th parallel. This park was formed for the purposes of protecting the forests, fish and game; of maintaining the water supply, and of encouraging the study and culture of forest trees. Over a dozen large rivers rise in this park, and it has been described as being "peppered" with lakes, the waters of which are teeming with fish. A large portion of the timber of this reservation is under license, some of the limits being operated at pres- ent. Game is found here in abundance, and hunting is permitted in certain sections, also fishing, both under regulations. On April 10, 1902, the legislative assembly of New Brunswick passed an act authorizing the setting aside of "a tract of land in some portion of the Province covered with forest, not exceeding 900 square miles in extent," to be known as the Provincial Park of New Bruns- wick. However, no action has as yet been taken establishing this for- est reservation. The following table contains a complete list of both Dominion and Provincial reserves, whether timber reserves proper or parks, with their respective areas, as they existed at the beginning of 1905 : CANADA— FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 77 SUMMARY OF CANADIAN FOREST RESERVATION. UNDER FEDERAL GOVERJ^^MENT. Long Lake Timber Reserve 76,800 YohoPark 530,240 Glacier Forest Park 18,720 Total, British Columbia 625,760 Rocky Mountains Park 2,880,000 Foothills Timber Reserve 2,350,000 Waterton Lakes Forest Park 34,000 Cooking Lake Timber Reserve 109,000 Moose Mountain Timber Reserve 103,000 Beaver Hills Timber Reserve 170,000 Total, Northwestern Territories 5,646,000 Turtle Mountain Timber Reserve 75,000 Spruce Woods Timber Reserve 190,000 Riding Mountain Reserve 1,215,000 Duck Mountain Timber Reserve 840,000 Lake Manitoba Timber Reserve 159,460 Porcupine Mountain Timber Reserve 1,382,400 Total, Manitoba 3,861,860 UNDER PROVINCIAI, GOVERNMENT. Sibley Reserve 45,000 Algonquin Park 1,109,383 Mississaga Reserve 1,920,000 Temagami Reserve 3,776,000 Eastern Forest Reserve 80,000 Total, Ontario 6,930,383 Laurentides National Park, Quebec Province 1,696,000 Grand Total 18,760,003 ADDENDUM. Since this chapter was prepared a new forest reserve has been set apart by the eovemment of the Province of Ontario in the western part of that Province, called the Nipigon Forest Reserve. It is thus described : " Commencing at the southeast angle of the Township of Ledger, east of the Nipigon River in the district of Thunder Bay, thence due east astronomically twenty-two miles, thence due north astronomically ninety-eight miles, thence due west astronomically seventy-three miles, thence due south astronomically ninety-eight miles, thence due east astronomically to the southwest angle of the Township of Purdom, thence due east astronomically along the south boun- dary of the Township of Purdom, and along the south boundary of the Township of Ledger, a distance of fifty-one miles In all, to the place of beginning, containing by admeasurement seven thousand one hundred and fifty-four square miles." According to this description the southern boundary of the reserve is eight miles north of Nipigon station, on the Canadian Pacific railway, and Lake Nipigon is included in its area. There are the usual exceptions of lands already patented, Indian reserves, etc. The total area of the reserve, including water, is 4,578,560 acres, making a total reserved area In Ontario of 11,508,943 acres, including the exceptions and the water area contained in the Nipigon Reserve, and increasing the total acreage of forest reserves in Canada to 23,338,563 acres. The land in this new reserve is not especially adapted to agriculture, vrith the exception of a few tracts situated in the river valleys of the western part of the reserve, but is of value as a timber preserve. Spruce, tamarack, jack pine and birch are the principal trees. Large areas have been devastated by fire, but are being covered by a second growth, which will, in time, be valuable not only as pulpwood but as material for railway ties, which will doubtless be in de- mand in this section in the near future. On the Ombabika River, which, roughly speaking, bisects the northeastern angle of the reserve, there is still good timber, the pulpwood being estimated at 1,484,000 acres. In the vicinity of this river are to be found birch, spruce, poplar, jack pine, balsam and tamarack. Numerous rivers flow into Lake Nipigon, which occupies the central part of the reserve, and will furnish power for manufacturing purposes when needed. So also, in larger measure, will the Nipigon River, which has a fall of about 250 feet within the reserve. Large game is not plentiful in the reserve, owing to the hunting of the Indians and also to the fact that much of the country has been swept by fire. Small fur-bearing animals, such as the mink, beaver, otter, marten, muskrat and fox, are found in abundance. Also,a reserve, containing about 2,500 square miles, has been set aside by the Province of Quebec in the Gasp£ Peninsula. CHAPTER VI. CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. The figures on record for the Dominion of Canada regarding lumber production differ somewhat from those of the provinces added together because the Federal Parliament itself controls the timber in the several territories which have not yet reached provincehood, and also controls some of the timber in the provinces, such as that on Indian reserves. Besides, the provincial statistics take account of the timber cut on Crown lands only, that is, lands belonging to the province, while the Federal statistics take in the timber cut on private lands as well. The following tables of production are made up from the most reliable sources obtainable. Owing to the better equipment for taking the census in later years, the later the census the more correct it is likely to be. Thus in some cases what looks like a reduction may really be a more exact census. This must be true in some cases, since Canada's exports were never so large as now, nor was her internal development ever before progressing at such a rapid rate, and yet pro- duction in some lines appears lessened. The world's demand for for- est products is increasing with the increase of population, and on a per capita basis as well, and Canada is one of the great available sources of supply. FOREST PRODUCTS OP CANADA FOR THE YEARS STATED. 1881. 1891. cubic feet. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 19,326,250 2,602,500 5,672,900 4,653,500 4,415,000 3,192,000 50,157,800 $ 3,961,881 426,810 1,954,420 558,420 604,769 733,740 12,218,440 9,200,000 1,406,500 1,900,000 3,665,000 2,508,300 2,965,000 21,650,000 $ 2,649,600 276,237 Oak 798,000 513,100 417,255 Elm 791,655 7,421,620 Logs, feet b. m. Pine 2,232,440,700 2,602,558,400 18,529,258 13,012.792 1,499,052,800 3,353.857,700 12,741,950 20,123,134 78 CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 79 FOREST PRODUCTS OP CANADA FOR THE YEARS STATBD—Contmued. Miscellaneous. 1881. Quantity. Value. 1891. Quantity. Value. Spars and masts (pieces) . . . Staves (M.) , Lathwood (cords) Tanbarl£ (cords) Firewood (cords) Fence posts (cubic feet) Railway ties (number) Telegraph poles (number). Pulpwood (cords) Shingles (M.) 192,241 41,881 98,311 400,418 10,993,234 $ 173,017 300,128 491,598 1,801,881 22,865,926 323,140 92,260 293,412 329,810 10,555,164 85,089.765 32,054,721 3,938,610 261,155 939,736 $ 274,669 434,868 1,467,060 1,494,145 22,693,602 . 2,836,325 2,136,982 333,882 783,465 1,973,866 The following tables show the kind, amount and value of the forest products according to the census of 1901. The figures given first are for the whole of Canada, and are followed by those for the separate provinces. Newfoundland and Labrador are not included in the statis- tics for Canada as they are separate and distinct politically from the Dominion. ^ FOREST PRODtrCTS OF CANADA — CENSUS OF 1901. Number of sawmills, 2,075 ; value of products, $50,805,084. Capital invested, $55,605,666; number of wage earners, 51,549; wages for labor, $11,113,666. SQUARE, WANBY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Ash 416,308 $44,583 Birch 1,203,564 151,281 Elm 1,354,765 147,143 Maple 346,433 37,014 Oak 110,219 19,570 Pine 2,381,310 458,218 All other timber 5,914,314 622,503 Total 11,726,913 $1,480,312 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 82,241,000 $ 658,881 Hickory 1,650,000 19,702 Hemlock 200,778,000 1,126,214 Oak 10,421,000 153,917 Pine 1,533,681,000 15,377,157 Spruce 1,040,676,000 7,345,819 All other logs 787,516,000 5,111,709 Total 3,656,963,000 $29,793,399 Pulpwood (cords) 660,034 2,168,509 Miscellaneous products 19,808,978 Grandtotalof values $53,251,198 1 According to the census of 1901, Newfoundland contained 195 sawmills, valued at $292,790; logs cut, 1,616,449 ; lumber sawn, 43,648,000 feet, the value of which was $480,555, and 16,197,000 shingles. 80 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ONTARIO. Number of sawmills, 847; value of products, $25,672,424. SSTJARB, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Ash 231,494 $24,662 Birch 78,986 8,554 Elm 1,259,174 136,787 Maple 194,304 21,554 Oak 76,025 13,022 Pine 1,044,439 219,219 All other timber 906,236 94,868 Total 3,790,658 $518,666 LOGS FOR LCMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 79,105,000 $ 629,670 Hickory 1,445,000 17,304 Hemlock 84,175,000 482,447 Oak 8,842,000 126,901 Pine 984,352,000 10,116,667 Spruce 8,709,000 71,221 All other logs 167,994,000 1,320,558 Total 1,334,622,000 $12,764,768 Pulpwood (cords) 108,335 304,837 Miscellaneous products 8,068,464 Grand total of values $21,656,735 QUEBEC. Number of sawmills, 622; value of products, $10,391,638. SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Ash 175,547 $19,028 Birch 556,484 74,115 Elm 82,655 9,061 Maple 80,273 8,585 Oak 10,263 2,122 Pine 1,132,957 212,859 All other timber 3.482,710 353,420 Total 5,520,889 $679,190 LOGS FOR LXmBBR. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 2,474,000 $ 25,679 Hickory 151,000 1,999 Hemlock 38,121,000 274,218 Oak 595,000 10,080 Pine 445,036,000 4,587,548 Spruce 599,447,000 4,502,102 All other logs 206,031,000 1,445,018 Total 1,291,855,000 $10,846,644 Pulpwood (cords) " 526,865 1,777,775 Miscellaneous products 7,443,882 Grand total of values $20,747,491 CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 81 NEW BRUNSWICK. Number of sawmills, 236 ; value of products, $7,041,848. SQUARE, WAISTEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Ash 1,998 Birch 153,214 Elm 1,160 Maple 4,722 Oak 200 Pine 60,009 AH other timber 99,472 Total 320,775 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Elm 491,000 Hickory 35,000 Hemlock 26,696,000 Oak 25.000 Pine 19,166,000 Sprace 182,759,000 All other logs 61,721,000 Total 290,893,000 Pulpwood (cords) 14,486 Miscellaneous products Grand total of values Value. $ 209 17,010 116 476 28 6,722 9,923 $34,484 Value. $ 1,560 184 107,571 232 125,213 1,099,302 333,632 $1,667,694 37,577 1,295,860 $3,035,615 NOVA SCOTIA. Number of sawmills, 228 ; value of products, $2,940,107. SQUARE, WANKY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Ash 3,502 Birch 382,126 Elm 410 Maple 46,439 Oak 22,261 Pine 98,577 All other timber 356,371 Total 909,686 Value. $ 373 47,783 38 4,124 4,164 12,923 39,697 $109,102 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 25,000 $ 233 Hickory 16,000 166 Hemlock 48,877,000 237,814 Oak 881,000 15,207 Pine 18,955,000 144,907 Spruce 198,892,000 1,272,653 Allotherlogrs 26,784,000 168,956 Total 294,430,000 $1,839,936 Pulpwood (cords) 18,348 48,320 Miscellaneous products 1,460,490 Grand total of values $3,457,848 82 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. BRITISH COLUMBIA. Number of sawmills, 75 ; value of products, $3,985,177. SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Elm 11,000 $ 1,100 Oak 890 89 Pine 35,482 4,990 All other timber 827,105 101,591 Total 874,477 $107,770 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 45,000 $ 450 Hemlock 2,490,000 20,750 Hue 63,256,000 373,731 Spruce 23,676,000 153,405 Another logs 285,997,000 1,478,315. Total 375,464,000 $2,026,651 Miscellaneous products 499,736 Grand total of values $2,634,157 MANITOBA. Number of sawmills, 37 ; value of products, $490,628. SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Oak 400 $ 120 Pine 6,068 820 All other timber 29,458 3,159 Total 35,926 $4,099 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 96,000 $ 1,241 Oak 73,000 1,459 Pine 7,000 78 Spruce 10,417,000 84,987 AllotherlOffS 28,488,000 277,665 Total 39,081,000 $365,430 Miscellaneous products 580,522 Grand total of values $950,051 THE TERRITORIES. Number of sawmills, 18; value of products, $247,428. SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Oak 180 $ 25 Pine 1,899 445 AH other timber 168,429 15,174 Total 170,508 $15,644 CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 83 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Pine 2,880,000 $28,636 Spruce 13,728,000 137,299 Another logs 8,126,000 67,202 Total 24,734,000 $233,137 Miscellaneous products 235,482 Grand total of values $484,263 PRINCE EDWARB ISLAND. Number of sawmills, 12; value of products, $35,834. SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Quantity. Cubic feet. Value. Ash 3,767 $ 311 Birch 32.754 3,819 Elm 366 41 Maple 29,695 2,275 Pine 1,879 240 All other timber 44,533 4,671 Total 112,994 $11,357 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 5,000 $ 48 Hickory 3,000 49 Hemlock 419,000 3.414 Oak 5,000 38 Pine 29,000 377 Spruce 3,048,000 24,850 All other logs 2,375,000 20,363 Total 5,884,000 $49,139 Miscellaneous products 224,542 Grand total of values $285,038 An idea of the importance of the forest wealth of Canada as a source of revenue (the census of 1901 being taken as a basis for the estima- tion) may be obtained by the following quotation from Mr. E. Stewart, Superintendent of Forestry, in his report upon the forestry work in Canada : It will be seen from the census of 1901 that an estimate is made of the area of forests and woodlands for each of the provinces and also for the Territories. That of Manitoba and the Territories is placed at 722,578 square miles. Add to this 20,000 square miles of Dominion territory in the railway belt in British Columbia, and we have 742,578 square miles as the total on Dominion lands. Probably about one-fifth of this contains merchantable timber, or say 150,000 square miles, or 96,000,000 acres. After thus reducing the area, and remembering that in addition to the timber suitable for lumber, a large part of it is covered with spruce valua- ble for pulpwood, it can scarcely be considered an extravagant estimate to place the merchantable timber, including pulpwood, at 2,000 feet board measure per acre, or in all 192,000,000,000 feet. We have thus arrived at a very rough approx- imation of the quantity of timber now fit for use on the lands owned and controlled by the Dominion. 84 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. At the lowest the value of such timber standing in the tree may be put at $1 per thousand feet board measure ; that would amount to $192,000,000. This rep- resents only what might be collected by the Government as a royalty, and forms but a small part of its value to the country as a whole. Much of the timber is growing on land unsuitable for agriculture, but where water power is abundant and with the power thus at hand this country should be without a rival in the man- ufacture of all articles in which timber forms the chief ingredient. It may be said that a very large percentage of this timber is not at present available, and that consequently its value is overestimated, but when we consider the great appreciation in the value of timber limits within the last ten or twenty years and the scarcity ~of the world's supply for the future it is almost certain that the enhanced value that will be obtained in the future for what is now inaccessible will more than pay compound interest on the present estimated value. The above estimate takes no account of the younger growth. In considering the potentialities of our forest areas their capability of affording a continuous crop should be kept clearly in view. Even under the discouraging conditions prevail- ing in our lumber regions after logging operations have ceased, it will be found in most cases that another crop, either of the original or other varieties, is fast spring- ing up, and in my calculation of the value of a timbered territory, which is to re- main permanently in forest, this growing crop should be taken into account. Without going too minutely into this phase of the subject, I am of the opinion that if we confine our cutting of sawlogs to all trees above 12 inches at the butt and pulpwood to, say, 7 inches, the annual increment of growth fit for use will be not less than 140 feet board measure to the acre, or an annual growth increment equaling 13,440,000,000 feet, which at the above rate of $1 per thousand stumpage, would give a perpetual annual return equal to $13,440,000. EXPORTS. The next table, pertaining to exports, is taken from trade and navi- gation returns, and shows the ups and downs through which the Cana- dian lumber trade has passed. The figures are given from 1868 only, the year after confederation was formed, to 1903, but, going back a little before that time, it may be said that during the American Civil War there were high prices and a strong demand for Canadian lumber, which had free entry into the United States. About this time a large quantity of the finest white pine still stood on the southwestern penin- sula of Ontario and between Kingston and Toronto. Masts, spars and square timber were sent to England and sawn lumber to the United States. About 1870 the trade in Ontario and Quebec became more re- stricted and centered in the Ottawa Valley, the Trent River and the districts southeast of Georgian Bay. In 1873 the total exports of forest products from Canada were $29,397,534. This was the crest of the wave and a period of world-wide depression set in which lasted until 1879. In 1878 the timber exports stood at $19,820,768 and in 1879 CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 85 reached the low water mark of $13,562,277. This was at a time when men's hearts failed them ; big houses went to the wall and everybody wondered and feared for what might come next. That, however, was the nadir of the panic and by 1881 the timber exports had risen to $25,- 374,336 where they stood off and on for ten progressive, prosperous years. The granting of free entry into the United States markets in 1894 did not much change things until 1897 when, owing to the duty being restored, $15,435,759 worth of lumber was rushed in to avoid the higher duty. Progress since then has been steady, with the heaviest year on record in 1903. VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM CANADA OP FOREST PRODUCTS FOR THE YEARS MENTIONED. Products of the forest. other manu- factures of wood not in- cluded in preceding columns. Total of wood products to all countries. Year. Raw. Manufactured or partially manufactured. 1886 $5,550,694 7,035,159 8,592,550 6,005,560 2,922.272 7,679,233 4,909,400 5,406,345 6,022,173 6,023,211 4,495,786 4,989,004 4,469,489 5,299,552 $12,711,476 15,317,052 19,994,266 14,122,504 10,339,187 17,280,779 16,125,211 18,875,670 21,153,513 25,235,518 25,167,879 25,020,853 27,649,940 31,086,463 $ 551,958 835,116 810,718 401,352 300,818 414,324 637,591 1,024,448 1,555,108 1,652,317 3,127,242 2,962,688 3,189,843 4,473,952 $18,814,118 23,187,327 1871 1873 29,397,534 1876 20,529,416 1879 13,562,277 1881 25,374,336 1886 21,672,202 25,306,463 1891 1896 28,730,794 1897 32,911,046 1900 32,790,910 1901 32 972 545 1902 35 309,272 1903 40 859 967 The value of exports of the products of Canadian forests from 1879 to 1903 was as follows: Lumber, $467,088,774; square timber, $73,- 299,685; logs, $22,233,758; shingles, $15,443,878; pulpwood, $10,002,- 346; sleepers, $6,966,198; shooks, $4,216,298; firewood, $6,544,347; bark, $5,388,839; ashes, $3,140,636, and all others, $13,274,914. Total, $627,599,673. In connection with the above table we may note the relation that exports of forest products bear to the total exports of Canada. During the twenty-five years ended with 1903 the total value of exports of do- mestic products, not including coin and bullion, was $2,737,658,211. The exports of forest products, therefore, were 23 percent of the total. While exports of forest products have shown a satisfactory increase as the years have gone on, the development of the country in agriculture, 86 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. mining and general manufactures has rendered them of less relative importance. The following table shows the percentage of exports of forest products to total domestic exports : EXPORTS OP FOREST PRODUCTS, TOTAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS AND PERCENT- AGE OP PORMER TO LATTER, IN YEARS NAMED. Year. Exports of forest products. Total of all domestic exports. Percent of forest products. 1868 $18,814,118 23,187,327 29,397,534 20,529,416 13,562,277 25,374,336 21,672,202 25,306,463 28,730,794 32,911,046 32,790,910 32,972,545 35,309,272 40,859,967 $57,567,888 74,173,613 89,789,922 80,966,435 71,491,255 98,290,823 85,251,314 98,417,296 121,013,852 137,950,253 191,894,723 196,487,632 211,640,286 225,849,724 34 4 1871 32 6 1873 32 7 1876 ; 25 3 1879 18.9 1881 25 8 1886 25 4 1891 25.7 1896 23.7 1897 24.0 1900 17.0 1901 16.7 1902 16.6 1903 18.0 The following tables, also taken from trade and navigation returns, show the quantities and values of the forest products exported from Canada during the years mentioned : QUANTITIES OP FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTED PROM CANADA. 1896 1900 1903 Bark for tanningr, cords Basswood, feet Hickory, feet Firewood, cords Knees and futtocks, pieces. Logrs, cedar, for shingle bolts, cds Logs, elm, feet Logs, hemlock, feet Logs, oak, feet Logs, pine, feet Logs, spruce, feet Logs, all other, feet Lumber- Deals, pine, St. hd Deals, spruce and other, stand Deal ends, St. hd Lath, pieces Paling, pieces Pickets, pieces Planks and boards, ft. . . Joists, feet Scantling, feet Shingles, pieces Sleepers and ry. ties, pieces. Stave bolts, cords Timber, square— ash, tons. Timber sq.— birch, tons — Timber, square— elm, tons. Timber, sq.— maple, tons. . . Timber, square — oak, tons. Timber, sq.— red pine, tons. Timber, sq.— white pine, tons Timber, sq.— all other, tons. 80,602 622,000 279,000 149,078 16,510 855 23,500,000 5,233,000 795,000 279,707,000 17,930,000 13,821,000 65,654 219,724 16,614 349,906,000 2,567,000 4,661,000 1,134,231,000 2,215,000 20,328,000 388,586,000 891,254 31,403 5,897 16,808 10,478 273 25,338 6,849 109,312 4,938 37,133 936,000 865,000 118,720 14,126 600 18,961,000 4,761,000 298,000 157,449,000 15,182,000 8,576,000 84,194 223,432 17,911 422,306,000 1,633,000 8,114,000 818,529,000 1,782,000 43,847,000 465,731,000 1,287,661 13,635 4,509 26,969 14,289 26 27,706 8,845 91,280 4,107 26,493 1,209,000 16,000 • 79,972 85,742 700 8,483,000 1,121,000 120,000 186,049,000 5,526,000 9,342,000 78,223 292,748 22,223 384,971,000 2,855,000 1,779,000 514,609,000 673,000 81,011,000 565,769,000 701,810 9,077 2,685 16,137 12,717 195 26,465 6,611 86,661 1,084 16,124 84,897 16.769 67,208 28,698 5,602 10,127,000 1,824,000 225,000 50,366,000 9,711,000 16,156,000 71,754 307,637 19,765 345,973,000 5,066,000 4,266,000 842,454,000 5,000 26,397,000 609,209,000 1,297,003 8,793 11,495 24,750 10,554 480 13,670 5,841 73,108 8,292 43,873 21,867 6,978,000 6,806,000 145,000 15,242,000 8,275,000 89,312,000 66,191 242,636 15,273 420,147,000 849,000 59,976,000 934,082,000 236,000 37,931,000 781,160,000 868,800 5,034 3,065 10,597 13,117 266 15,310 2,280 47,686 3,997 48,858 22,514 21,032 1,731,000 4,930,000 119,000 11,705,000 7,142,000 26,176,000 87,318 261,806 17,208 474,437,000 381,000 7,705,000 954,241,000 1,100,000 43,298,000 798,277,000 970,097 2,081 2,098 19,663 14,033 146 16,340 10,857 58,632 3,812 •Included In lumber. CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 87 VALUE OF FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTED FROM CANADA. Ashes, pot and pearl Bark tor tanning Basswood Hickory Firewood Knees and f uttocks Total Logrs, cedar, for shingle bolts Logs, elm Logs, hemlock Logs, oak Logs, pine Logs, spruce Logs, all other Total, logs Lumber — Battens Deals, pine Deals, spruce and other. Deal ends Lath Palings Pickets Flanks and boards Joists Scantling Staves Other lumber Total lumber Masts and spars Piling Poles, hop, hoop, telegraph and other Posts, cedar, tamarack and other Shingles Sleepers and railroad ties. . . Stave bolts Shocks Total Timber, square — ash Timber, square— birch Timber, square— elm Timber, square— maple Timber, square — oak Timber, square — red pine Timber, square — white pine. Timber, square — all other Total, timber Wood, blocks and other for pulp Other articles of the forest. . Grand total 1894 $ 109,764 148,078 20,648 7,364 287,036 11,673 $584,563 900 152,221 19,769 16,397 2,469,354 107,282 106,229 $2,862,152 5,152 2,751,069 6,567,631 484,824 498,755 20,262 83,154 7,947,001 17,052 170,886 641,077 415,665 $18,551,518 7,138 61,815 71,789 65,717 754,743 131,765 86,296 105,239 $1,284,502 70,543 127,691 140,367 3,828 570,675 74,458 1,668,835 34,245 $2,590,542 893,260 85,911 $26,352,448 1896 110,092 177,010 35,963 9,573 222,389 9,816 $6M,843 3,458 124,988 18,607 6,627 1,423,989 86,075 71,036 $1,734,779 85,267 3,037,791 5,579,746 620,646 492,224 10,378 25,793 8,513,419 14,747 387,707 701,983 653,001 $19,972,702 7,800 67,765 50,503 60,949 899,541 213,622 34,672 125,610 $1,460,452 51,391 221,715 187,278 295 583,951 108,026 1,618,042 60,719 2,721,417 627,865 87,628 $27,166,686 112,305 106,067 87,044 437 140,897 14,175 $409,915 500 63,784 4,030 2,517 1,616,671 33,885 89,430 $1,800,817 20,350 8,814,947 7,918,866 641,043 343,378 14,851 18,062 5,611,537 6,229 241,044 401,083 243,672 $19,273,652 2,448 135,154 86,126 23,374 994,306 101,191 20,811 117,434 $1,430,844 28,617 142,665 176,346 2,098 606,724 69,687 1,636,067 28,882 $2,579,986 912,041 104,384 $26,511,639 $ 138,255 61,899 117,751 19,991 $337,896 18,222 74,721 7,738 3,430 494,311 68,078 117,182 $778,832 27,811 8,276,516 8,287,960 564,869 479,891 22,272 30,443 9,611,278 49 235,615 649,816 660,741 $23,746,761 3,605 93,346 1,131,506 221,906 20,673 251,357 $1,796,068 89,486 228,424 160,715 5,882 280,298 63,295 1,184,962 50,734 $2,013,746 902,772 187,803 $28,763,668 $ 133,798 100,361 91,607 18,640 $344,206 54,245 32,604 2,733 175,684 63,665 237,019 $566,840 116,944 8,164,652 7,451,148 472,015 746,016 7,429 87,207 12,668,991 2,848 866,117 801,047 336,975 $25,620,288 7,965 208,479 103,825 82,666 1,525,386 182,198 11,671 870,405 $2,442,485 43,934 104,867 248,253 3,000 856,952 80,894 923,795 66,884 $1,767,579 1,315,038 63,930 $32,119,366 1904 66.905 71,961 12,680 $161,546 30, 69, 269, ,619 ,392 535 ,308 ,110 ,771 $419,e 39,287 2,975,614 7,920,444 407,089 ['835,939 12,707,912 [524,838 207,490 886,706 $26,005,818 7,333 91,715 85,463 24,890 1,7U,258 188,831 3,996 343,461 $2,406,946 10,635 109,275 160.036 226,759 33,386 1,580,606 61,658 $2,132,264 1,788,049 86,811 $32,990,067 * Included in lumber. 88 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The preceding table shows the change by which less quantities of what may be called the raw products of the forests are exported, and larger quantities of the products of mills and factories. The effect of the prohibition of the exportation of logs cut from Crown lands in the east- ern provinces is displayed in the figures on pine logs, while the won- derful growth in the pulpwood business is also potent in its effect on the reports. The exportation of wood from Canada into the United States is increasing rapidly. The value of these exports during recent years was: During the fiscal year ending June SO, 1898 $ 9,840,524 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899 10,511,019 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900 14,087,088 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901 13,176,717 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902 16,682,183 During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903 18,823,878 This shows an increase in 1903 over that of 1898 of $8,983,354, even surpassing the export for the same period to Great Britain by $30,001; and this in the face of the American duty. This certainly indicates the great market for wood material that the United States alone will afford Canada in the future. During the year 1902 the pulp output of Canada decreased by 24,613 tons. There were thirty-five mills engaged in the industry, the output of which was 240,989 tons, of which 155,210 tons were mechanical pulps, 76,735 sulphite, and 9,044 soda. The value of the pulp in 1902 was $4,383,182, of which there was exported $2,511,644, as follows : To Great Britain, $976,192; United States, $1,598,139, and other countries $17,333. The mills were operated chiefly by water power. The following shows the exportation of wood goods from British North America to the United Kingdom during the years named : Sawn and planed Timber. lumber. Year. Loads. Loads. 1895 124,936 1,167,947 1896 151,102 1,456,179 1897 157,432 1,979,155 1898 108,554 1,644,830 1899 114,794 1,751,453 1900 113,843 1,688,033 1901 90,042 1,517,194 1902 78,917 1,639,668 1903 66,559 1,507,530 Notwithstanding the enormous wealth of Canada in forest resources and the heavy exports of forest products, the Dominion does, never- theless, find it convenient to import no small amount of material, most of which comes from the United States. The following table shows the importations of wood and wood products for 1904 : CANADA— PRODUCTION AND TRADE. 89 IMPORTS INTO CANADA, BY COUNTRIES, 1904, FREE OF DUTY. Articles. Great Britain. United States. All coun- tries. Corkwood , . .. $ 4,250 110 $ 54,419 45,776 27,610 29,376 4,007 2,612 178,603 24,071 202,887 395,984 456,479 126,894 1,492,536 302,370 57.770 97,479 324,864 2,658,006 58,779 22,141 146,566 112,631 $ 78,357 45,886 27,610 29,376 Billets, hickory 4,007 Spokes, sawn to shape 2,612 Spokes, rous:h turned . . 178,603 3 24,074 202,887 396,348 Lumber- 457,419 ii,494 41 5 138,388 Oak 1,492,577 Pitch pine 302,375 57,770 Ash 97,479 419 155 326,760 2,663,571 Lath 59,691 22,141 staves 146,580 112,631 $16,477 $6,821,860 $6,877,142 It will be noted in the above that the importations have been of hardwoods, in the form of lumber, timber and partially manufactured materials and of miscellaneous lumber not clearly specified. The importations of hardwoods are due to the partial denudation of the hardwood districts of the Dominion spoken of previously. Many of the hardwood importations are of materials for manufacture. In addition, considerable quantities of ordinary building lumber are im- ported, owing to the fact that for some sections the American sawmills furnish a convenient and economical supply. Such has been the case in Manitoba and the Canadian Northwest, which have drawn heavily upon United States mills, especially upon those in Minnesota and, in recent years to some extent, upon those in the far northwestern states, for the construction of houses, barns and business buildings in the de- velopment of that comparatively new country. In the older provinces it has been found desirable to import from the United States such items as pitch pine, used where a wood of strength is desired, and house fin- ish, such as flooring. Therefore, while the exports of Canada are much heavier than its imports, it has imported material from the United States to the value of $6,820,000. This heavy importation is made possible by the fact that the products of the forest are on the Canadian 90 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. free list ; but in recent years, and especially in 1904, an agitation began for an imposition of duty upon sawed lumber, with particular reference to supplying the needs of Manitoba and the Canadian Northwest from Canadian mills in western Ontario and in British Columbia, to the ex- clusion of the mills of Minnesota and of Washington and other far western states. CHAPTER VII. CANADA— COOPERAGE STOCK INDUSTRY. Almost since the beginning of timber and lumber exportations from Canada the manufacture of cooperage stock or material therefor has been one of the leading of the minor forest industries. Easily accessi- ble to waterways, all the way from Quebec to Lake Huron were orig- inally immense quantities of timber suitable for this purpose. The oaks, and other woods used in the manufacture of cooperage stock, which grew in Canada compared very favorably with those of the United States, and, as intimated above, they were for the most part more accessible, though for scores of years the industry in the United States has been growing to magnificent proportions, feeding upon the resources reached not only by river, but by railroads. The Canadian cooperage stock industry, however, antedated that of the United States and was maintained in large proportions until the cutting away of tim- ber compelled a reduction in its magnitude. The more recent history of the Canadian industry is indicated to some extent in the figures of production contained in the preceding chapter, but a more reliable measure of its importance and fluctuations is found in the export statistics, out of which the following brief table has been compiled. The maximum of exportations, and presumably of manufacture likewise, was reached about the middle of the last decade, since when there has been an almost uniform decline, until, in 1904, the total exports of staves, heading and stave bolts were valued at only $211,485. EXPORTS OP STAVES AND STAVE BOLTS FROM CANADA. Year. staves and heading. Value. Stave Bolts. Cords. Value. 1881 $300,128 434,868 641,077 638,272 701,983 699,381 401,083 527,131 549,816 438,973 301,047 284,462 207.490 1891 1894 31,403 24,167 13,635 13,827 9,077 5,328 8,793 3,223 5,034 2,081 $86,296 64,802 34,672 38,634 20,811 12,372 20,673 7,217 11,671 5,337 3.995 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 91 92 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The cooperage stock industry of Canada is not of sufficient impor- tance to demand much space in this work, but a few pages may well be devoted to a review of the industry from historical and technical stand- points, prepared by a man who is one of the leading exporters of this class of material either in Canada or in the United States. His review of this subject' occupies the remainder of this chapter: A great many years ago, when the principal exports from Canada to the old country consisted of furs and timber, some enterprising French- man (or possibly Scotchman), who had come from the motherland, being employed in the manufacture of barrels and casks, conceived the idea of getting out staves and heading in Canada for export to Great Britain. In those days the forests contained a great deal of fine white oak all the way from Quebec to Windsor, but more especially in the western peninsula, and those trees were cut down, squared up with a broad-ax and shipped to England, the consequence being that only the finest trees were used and only part of them, namely, the part that could be put into square timber. This square timber was floated down to Montreal, loaded on vessels there for the old country, where it was used for the manufacture of lumber, and, I presume, staves also. This enterprising Frenchman or Scotchman no doubt saw the terrible waste which occurred by only using certain parts of the trees, and also saw the trees which were passed as not fit for square timber, but which would make excellent staves and undoubtedly this was the commencement of the cooperage industry in Canada. Staves were taken out for the wine casks of France and Spain, and the whisky casks of Great Britain and Ireland, and before long " Can- ada butts " and " Quebec pipe staves " became standard grades in Great Britain and on the Continent. At that time all of the sugar used in England came from the West Indies and was shipped in hogsheads, and the West Indies hogshead staves were also manufactured in Canada, shipped to England, where they were made into shooks and sent over to the West Indies to be filled with sugar, molasses and rum. As the oak got scarcer in the east, the hewers and stave makers drifted west, until Chatham, Ontario, became one of the great centers of the stave industry. The old residents here have told the writer that years ago McGregor 1 James Innes in the Canada Lumberman, January, 1905. CANADA— COOPERAGE STOCK INDUSTRY. 93 Cteek and Thames River, which converge at Chatham, would have its waters covered for miles every spring with square oak, walnut timber, Canada butts, Quebec pipe staves and West India hogshead staves, and the smaller and shorter pieces of oak, utilized for barrel keg staves and heading. These were loaded on vessels in the Thames River, sent down to Montreal, and in some cases sent direct to England from Chatham. This, of course, was entirely tight barrel stock, as in those days no slack barrel stock was exported from Canada, as being all made by hand it was too expensive to send over to the old country, which at that time was almost entirely supplied with norway fir staves and beech staves made from the timber growing in England, Ireland and Scot- land. Mr. Neil Watson, of Mull, Ontario, now a manufacturer of slack barrel stock, hauled staves from Harwick township to Buckhorn Beach for years and sold his pipe staves, 60x5x2, at $25 per thousand, and West India staves, 44x4^x1, at $5 to $8 per 1,200 for shipment to England. Tight barrel stock in Canada is now almost a thing of the past, the oak having been almost exhausted, and what staves are made here now are used entirely for local consumption, either being made in the old way, which I will describe, or being sawed on a drum saw. The method of manufacture in the early days, in fact it is still in use, was to cut the trees up into bolt lengths, according to the quality of the tree, whether suitable for long or short staves or heading, then to split these bolts with afrowknife, and in some cases, such as " Can- ada butts," dress them with a draw knife and ship them in the rough, sometimes taking the sap off, but other times shipping them with the sap on. Now most of the oak staves are sawn on a drum saw, which does away with a great deal of waste, on account of the slips on the part of the workman with the frow, and also enables the manufacturers to use tougher oak and timber which would not split freely with a frow, in fact, work up everything very close. The bucker, for bucking staves, never got much of a foothold in Canada, as the timber was practically exhausted here before buck staves were salable on foreign markets. Oak heading, instead of being split now, is sawed, and while in the old days the head used to be split, finished off with a draw knife, marked off with a compass and sawed out by hand, the bevel also being put on with a draw knife, the heading is now sawed on a swing saw, piled in the yard to dry, put through a kiln when partially seasoned, run through 94 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. a planer and turned up with a rounding machine, which puts on the bevel and turns the head at the same time. As already stated, the manufacture of tight barrel stock in Canada from oak is now almost a thing of the past, and does not figure very much in the export trade of Canada. We will now turn to the manufacture of slack barrel stock. Years ago when the manufacturing industries in Canada were in their infancy and the consumption of barrels was a very minor matter, coopers made their staves and heading for flour and other slack barrels in the same manner as they used to make their tight barrel stock, in fact the same as a great many tight barrel staves and heading are still made in the United States. The cooper would get his bolts in the winter, haul them to his cooper shop, split out his staves with his frow, and in the winter make the staves with a draw knife, jointing them on a planer jointer, in some cases even putting on the joint with his draw knife. At that time slack barrel staves were made almost entirely from red oak and basswood, the cooper making his staves during the winter months in his shop, seasoning them inside his barn or cooper shop, and making up his bar- rels as required, and after the staves were seasoned selling them from seventy-five cents to $1 each. Coopering at that time was simply a side issue, the cooper being also a farmer, carpenter, or some other tradesman, and making all kinds of barrels and casks from a flour bar- rel to a water tank. Years rolled on, the red oak forests of Canada became a thing of the past — what oak was left would bring very much higher prices for lumber or bending purposes, sawn timbers, etc., than it would bring for staves, and the same applied to the States of New York, Ohio and Indiana, which at that time were large stave producers. Some Yankee genius (sad to say, unknown), possibly a man who thought there was a great waste of energy in making staves by hand, got his brains to work and invented the modern stave knife for cutting slack barrel staves from steamed bolts. The machine as at first invented is practically the same as is in use at the present time, the only improvements that have been made being that the machine is made twice as heavy as formerly, so as to be rigid and do away with the cutting of thin staves, and a balance wheel was put on so as to make the strokes more regular, and the speed increased from fifty revolutions per minute, which was the orig- inal cut of the machine, to 150 or 160 revolutions per minute, which is the speed at which the modern stave knives are run. CANADA— COOPERAGE STOCK INDUSTRY. 95 When this machine was first in use the staves were made entirely from red oak and basswood, the bolts being split out with a frow or ax, brought to the mill in this way and cut into staves. Immense elm forests then attracted the attention of some of the stave manufacturers and they experimented with making elm staves. It is not a great many years ago, only since I came to this country, that red oak staves were the principal kind used on the Minneapolis market, now elm is almost entirely used, in fact red oak staves are not liked on account of being so hard to work. For a great many years nothing but split bolts were used, until some manufacturer, with a sawmill attached, conceived the idea of saw- ing his bolts, but until fifteen years ago staves made from sawn bolts commanded a lower price than staves from split bolts, as the coopers were of the opinion that staves could not be made straight grained unless the bolts were split, and it took a great many years to remove this erroneous idea. Now there is hardly a mill in the country making staves from anything but sawed bolts, and elm is the principal timber used, in fact is considered always desirable to any timber at the present time, although birch, beech, maple and southern woods are now crowd- ing elm by degrees off the market, on account of the high price of elm stumpage. We will now turn to the hoop industry. Until about twenty years ago all of the barrels were hooped with what is known as half-round hoops. The cooper cut these hoops in the winter, hauled them to his cooper shop, and spent the long winter months when not making staves in making hoops for his summer trade. Then the racked hoop made from black ash came into vogue, this being the precursor of the modern patent cut elm hoop. For a great many years the hoops were made either racked or split from elm, and finished with a draw knife, tintil the idea was conceived of cutting the hoops the same as staves from elm plank, and this hoop was found, when it was perfected, to be superior in every way to the racked or bark hoop. It is still the prin- cipal hoop on the market, although on account of the scarcity of elm a great many wire hoops are being used to supplement the elm hoops on the barrels. The iron hoop alone does not give sufficient rigidity to a barrel, and if not supplemented with the patent hoop, the barrels when stored on the bulges would collapse without the assistance of the elm hoop. Heading, which formerly used to be made in the same way as 96 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. staves, split from bolts, dressed off with a draw knife, in fact the same as tight barrel heading, are now sawed on a swing saw, kiln dried and turned on a turning machine, at the rate of 3,000 sets per day to one machine, whereas formerly it was a very good cooper who would turn out twenty-five heads in a day. While the tight barrel cooperage industry of Canada has declined, the slack barrel industry has leaped up until it is one of the most im- portant industries in Canada, millions of dollars being invested in stave, hoop and heading mills all over the country from Nova Scotia to On- tario, and barrels being used for almost every conceivable purpose, as they are the handiest, strongest and best package that has yet been invented by man. There is no doubt but there is timber in parts of Canada which are yet undeveloped to continue this industry for a number of years, and no doubt before the supply is exhausted methods of reforestry will be inaugurated by the Canadian government the same as are in vogue in Norway and Sweden. It is one of the greatest industries we have in Canada and should be fostered so as to continue in perpetuity. CHAPTER VIII. QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY AND ADMINISTRATION. Though the lumber industry in the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario in the Dominion of Canada is, so to speak, a double tree, growing from one root, it may be well to consider them separately, passing lightly over that part in each which more fully describes the other. The his- tory of the industry could not be otherwise than interwoven in these two Provinces because from the beginning of things ' until 1791, whether under French or British rule, they constituted one colony, and from 1841 to 1867 they were again united in the Union of Upper and Lower Canada. In the latter year these two Provinces, so different in lan- guage, religion, thought and habits, were the basis of that confederation which bound all the scattered colonies of Great Britain in North America ( excepting Newfoundland ) into an independent auxiliary na- tion, with complete self-government, with national responsibilities, and national aspirations ; as Kipling sings Daughter am I in my mother's house, But mistress am I in my own. That confederation would have been impossible but for the mutual forbearance — the give-and-take — between these two great Provinces which now, after a generation of expansion in greater Canada, still contain about seven-tenths of the total population of the country, a forbearance whereby the solid, Protestant, English-speaking Ontarian and the dashing. Catholic, French-speaking Quebecer have, as in a marriage contract, agreed to take each other for better or for worse, for all time ; and, having made up their minds to it, find each other not such bad partners after all — in fact, preferable to any other of whom they know. Moving across the stage of Canada's history, crowded with com- 1 In 1534 Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, visited different coasts around the Gulf, and took possession of the country in the name of "the most Christian king," Francis I., King of France. In the same year Cartier was appointed Captain General of Canada, which title he held for six years. In 1535 he explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence, landed at Quebec and sailed as far as the Indian village of Hochelaga, now Montreal, which he visited. After unsuccessful at- tempts at colonization by the French under Cartier, Roberval, La Roche and others, the first permanent settlement was effected at Port Royal under the direction of Champlain, in 1605. The City of Quebec was founded in 1608 by twenty-eight settlers, including Champlain. Montreal was founded by Champlain in 1611, the site being chosen by him as a favorable place for a new settle- ment higher up the river than Quebec. 97 98 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. manding figures, there is none more picturesque than that of the lumberman, beginning with the cavalier seigniors of New France, continuing with the haughty admiralty officers of old England, with their retainers singing French-Canadian boat songs, or fighting and praying as became good Glengarry covenanters, on through the stirring times of the rebellion of 1837 to the present time when, in the midst of a world of timber dues and percentages, the successful lumberman still builds his palace in the wilderness and becomes known as the King of the Gatineau or the Prince of Petawawa. Nothing comes out more clearly in the early history of colonization in Canada than that the tree was considered man's enemy, and only valuable as a barricade against other enemies, climatic or human. The idea of those who colonized New France was to reproduce the conditions of lord and vassal, which they thought to be eternal but were only accidental and were passing away in the old France even while they were vainly striving to reproduce them in the new. By this system the land was divided into large blocks, as large as a modern township, or small county, and each block given to a scion of a noble house who colonized his tract with tenants or retainers. These, in return for occupancy of the land, not only paid rents but performed many personal services, while the seignior on his part was invested with many privileges ; among others, that of hunting over the retainer's land and of administering justice. The place which timber occupied in this system may be best seen by examining one of the old seigniorial grants made in 1683 by the governor and indendant of Quebec, which embodies the usual condi- tions. No excuse is made in presenting it because it is a land grant, for from the beginning to the present time land and timber regulations have gone hand in hand : We, in virtue of the power intrusted to us by His Majesty [the King of France] and in consideration of the different settlements which the said Sieur de la Valliere and the Sieur de la Poterie, his father, have long since made in this country, and in order to aflEord him the means of augmenting them, have to the said Sieur de la Valliere given, granted, and conceded the above described tract of land, to have and to hold, the same himself, his heirs and assigns forever, under the title of fief, seignory, high, middle and low justice and also the right of hunting and fishing throughout the extent of the said tract of land ; subject to the condition of fealty and homage which the said Sieur de la Valliere, his heirs and assigns shall be held to perform at the Castle of St. Louis in Quebec, of which he shall hold under the customary rights and dues agreeably to the Custom of Paris; and also that he shall keep house and home and cause the same to be kept by his tenants on the QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 99 concessions which he may grant them ; that the said Sieur de la Valliere shall pre- serve and cause to be preserved by his tenants, within the said tract of land the oak timber fit for the building of vessels ; and that he shall give immediate notice to the King or to Us of the mines, ores and minerals, if any be found therein ; that he shall leave and cause to be left all necessary roadways and passages ; that he shall cause the said land to be cleared and inhabited, and furnished with buildings and cattle, within two years from this date, in default whereof the present conces- sion shall be null and void. This extract shows that the only interest the Crown took in the matter was the securing of an ample supply of oak for building ships for the royal navy. Later grants reserved timber for spars and masts, doubtless pine timber. From time to time, as war vessels were built or repaired at Quebec, permits were issued to parties to cut the oak timber reserved as above and regulations were made for rafting it to Quebec. Again, when new districts were opened in which oak timber was reported to be abundant, regulations were issued forbidding any- one cutting it until it had been examined and suitable trees had been marked for the navy. The penalty for violation of this regulation was confiscation of the timber and a fine of ten livres for each tree. These first reservations caused trouble between the cultivator and his over-lord or the Government, as similar arrangements have done ever since in every part of the continent. If oak trees were numerous the tenant had either to destroy them or fail to fulfill his obligations to clear the land in a given time. The usual way of cutting the Gordian knot appears to have been to burn the timber ; but after suits by seign- iors against settlers who made the trees into boards for their own use, it was ordained by the governor that the tenant should be unmolested where the timber was cut in the actual extension of his clearing ; but where the trees were cut for timber without the intention of clearing the land the party should be fined. When the land became a little more cleared, trespass by settlers upon adjoining lands to cut suitable sticks or easily reached timber became more common and was punished by confiscation of the trucks and horses used to transport the wood and by a fine of fifty livres. In the district about Quebec City, one-half the fine and confiscation went to the proprietor of the land and the other half to the Hotel Dieu (hospital) of Quebec City. At first the Crown reservation of timber was solely for naval pur- poses, and timber taken for military purposes, such as the building of casemates, was paid for by the Crown; but later the reservation was 100 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. extended to include all timber the King might require. While the right of the King was thus defined, the rights of the seignior were undeter- mined and continued to be exercised conformably to Old World custom, with more or less exactness, according to the strength of mind of the seignior and the power of resistance of his retainers. These seigniorial rights lasted long after British occupation and were extinguished only by compensation, by the Seigniorial Tenures Act, of 1854. The court which heard the claims decided that the seignior had no right to timber for firewood for his own use, or to merchantable timber or timber for churches; as to whether he had the right to timber for manor house and mills, the court was divided. So that in the closing years of the French regime the Crown reserved the timber it required for its own use, and prohibited trespass, while the seignior reserved what timber he could for himself by the exercise of his will power over the tenant. With the beginning of British occupation, in 1763, the policy of reserving timber for naval and military purposes inaugurated by the King of France was continued by the King of England, and somewhat extended. The first governor under the new regime, John Murray, was instructed to make townships containing about 20,000 acres, and in each township he was to reserve land for the erection of fortifications and barracks, where necessary, and more particularly for the growth and production of naval timber. He was further instructed to make reserves about Lake Champlain and between that lake and the St. Lawrence, because it had been represented to the King that the timber there was suitable for masting and other purposes of the royal navy and because it was conveniently situated for water carriage. He was to prevent waste and punish any persons cutting the timber and to report whether it would be advisable to prevent any sawmills being erected in the colony without license from the governor or the commander-in-chief. The modern school of forestry experts is inclined to regret that these instructions as to reservations in each township and permanent pine reserves on lands suited to pine were not carried out, the reason being that other urgent matters occupied the governor's attention and subse- quent exploration showed the so-called illimitable extent of the pine forests. In 1775 Guy Carleton, captain general and governor in chief, received like instructions, and in 1789 fuller regulations for the conduct of the land office were made, preserving the timber to the Crown, confining grants to individuals to lands suited to agriculture, and preventing QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 101 individuals from monopolizing such spots as contained mines, minerals, fossils and water powers, or spots fit and useful for ports and harbors and works of defense. These were to be reserved to the Crown. If these regulations had only been carried out, how much would pos- terity have been saved! The seignior, with his plumed hat, his ruffles, his sword and turned-down top boots, as the sculptor represents him on the public squares of Montreal, had disappeared and his place was taken by a less artistic but more active individual, the royal admiralty con- tractor. Licenses to cut timber were granted by the British govern- ment to contractors for the royal dockyards, and these, in addition to getting out timber to complete their own contracts, took advantage of the opportunity to do a general business in supplying the British mar- kets. The timber was still considered of such small value, above the cost of transport, that these were apparently not felt to be serious abuses by the colonists of that day. EFFECT OF BRITISH IMPORT DUTIES. A new era dawned for the Canadian timber industry with the close of the Napoleonic wars. In 1787, by a consolidation of the duties on timber coming into Britain, the rate was fixed at six shillings and eight pence per "load" of fifty cubic feet upon foreign timber imported in British ships, with an addition of two pence in case the shipment was made in a foreign ship. With the increased taxation necessary to carry on the wars to checkmate Napoleon's ambitious schemes, the duties rose steadily until, in 1813, they were £3 4s 6d a load, with 3s 2d addi- tional when imported in a ship flying a foreign flag. The decline in the duties began again in 1821 when they were fixed at £2 16s a load, with 2s 9d additional for importation in a foreign vessel. Then for the first time a duty of 10s a load was imposed upon colonial timber, which had been theretofore free. However, as the colonies still enjoyed a prefer- ence of 45s a load, that did not stop the progress the colonial timber trade was making. This was shown by a report presented to a British parliamentary committee in 1833, to which was submitted the whole question of timber duties. This report shows that the earlier duties levied were not sufficiently large to overcome the prejudice which existed in favor of Baltic timber. The first noticeable change was in 1803, when the imports from British North America reached 12,133 loads, compared with 5,143 loads the previous year. How small was the colonial trade is shown by the fact that the importations of European timber amounted to 280,550 102 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. loads. In 1807 the colonies supplied 26,651 loads as against 213,636 from Europe, and in 1809, for the first time, the colonial product ex- ceeded that from Europe, the figures being 90,829, and 54,260 loads respectively. The War of 1812 had a depressing effect upon colonial trade and Baltic timber again took the lead until 1816, when the colonies supplied twice the quantity sent by Europe. This was a period of expansion in Britain, so that the total trade as well as that with Canada shows great growth. In the five years from 1819 to 1823 the average annual import into Great Britain was 452,158 loads, of which 166,600 came from Europe and 385,556 from the colonies. The succeeding five years showed still further growth to a total yearly average of 602,793 loads, of which 410,903 came from the colonies, although in 1821 the duties on foreign timber were reduced and a duty of ten shillings a load im- posed on colonial timber. This is the first place where we hear of the United States. In 1819 duties were imposed by Canada upon goods coming from the United States, but flour, oak, pine and fir timber for export were allowed to come in free. The meaning of this was that a good deal of timber was brought in from the United States and reshipped from Quebec to the British market in order to obtain advantage of the preferential tariff in favor of the colonies. The extent of this trade attracted the attention of the British authorities, who had no intention that United States pro- ducers should avail themselves of a preference intended to help the colonies. In 1820 an official inquiry was instituted by the British House of Commons which showed that the timber imported into Lower Canada from Lake Champlain from 1800 to 1820 included 10,997,580 feet of red and white pine, 3,935,443 feet of oak timber, 34,573,853 feet of pine plank and 9,213,827 feet of pine boards. As a result of this condition, by an imperial act duties were imposed upon lumber brought in from the United States as follows : £ s d per M Shingfles under 12 inches 7 " Shingles over 12 inches 14 " Redoakstaves 11 •• " White oak staves or headings 15 '* " White or yellow pine (1 inch) 1 1 per M feet Pitch pine lumber 11 •• •< " Other kinds of wood and lumber 18 " " " Wood hoops 5 SperM. This growth in the use of the colonial product was made in the face of a very strong prejudice in favor of the Baltic product. The select QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 103 committee of the House of Lords which heard evidence on the subject in 1820 was furnished with evidence on the part of timber experts as to the inferiority of timber from British America which today not only excites wonder and ridicule, but which demonstrates what an important bearing sentiment has upon trade. One timber merchant and builder examined by the committee said the timber of the Baltic in general was of quality very superior to that imported from America, which latter was inferior in quality, softer, not so durable, and very liable to dry rot. Its use was not allowed by any professional man under the Gov- ernment, nor in the best buildings in London. Speculators alone used it and that because the price was lower. Two planks of American tim- ber laid upon one another would show evidence of dry rot in twelve months, while Christiania deals in like situation for ten years would not show the like appearance. There was something in American timber, he thought, which favored dry rot unless there was air on all sides. In spite of this prejudice ^ the lower duty caused colonial timber to be extensively used and once given a fair trial the prejudice gradually disappeared. Fifteen years after the investigation just recorded an- other was held by a House of Commons committee, in 1835, which showed the change in opinion. One of the witnesses here gave as a rea- son for the former prejudice against colonial timber that while low grades were brought in by "seeking" ships, the high duty on Baltic timber kept all but the best grades of that timber out, so that the Brit- ish builder was acquainted with the better grades only. A Liverpool ship owner and timber merchant said that, if duties were equal, he could get from three pence to four pence a foot more for a particular description of colonial timber than he could for any Baltic. With this change of opinion there had gone another, by which red pine, formerly preferred to white, was dropped to second place, where it has ever since remained. A Manchester builder declared that white pine in bricks and mortar was less liable to decay than red pine or Baltic. Canadian timber, which thus got a foothold through a preferential tariff, continued to hold its own in the years when the preference was gradually reduced and finally abolished altogether in the adoption of 2 This prejudice still persists. As late as 1893 John Nisbet, in his work entitled " British For- est Trees and Their Sylvacultural Characteristics and Treatment," in speaking: of Weymouth, or white pine (Pinus strobus), said : " In production of timber it is second in rate of growth only to the poplar, but its timber, known as American whitepine, is neither so durable nor so remunerative that its production is likely to become as inviting as would undoubtedly be the case if it could command an easy and good market. As, according to Gayer, it is the lightest of all our acclimatised exotics, its cultivation may be recommendable wherever there is any fair demand for timber for packing cases or similar requirements." 104 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. free trade. Nevertheless, while the trade grew, there is no doubt that Canada felt the withdrawal of the preference not only upon lumber but upon all her products severely, and it was this, more than anything else, that caused the feeling of despondency and doubt which preceded confederation, a depression from which it required all the genius of Sir John Macdonald and the cooperation of his associates to arouse the people with the vision of a self-contained country stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1850 the timber exports from Canada (Quebec and Ontario) amounted to £971,375 and in 1857 the value had grown to £2,044,178. This had been accompanied by a growth in exports to the United States. In 1867, the year when confederation went into force, exports to Britain were $6,889,783 and to the United States $6,831,252. CANADIAN LEGISLATION AND LATER HISTORY. In the preceding pages has been recounted the effect of the laws of parliaments outside of Canada upon the timber trade. Now it will be advisable to consider the effect of the laws and regulations made in the country itself. The first enactment of a Canadian legislature was passed in Lower Canada in 1805 to prevent accidents in navigating the rapids of the St. Lawrence, which, owing to the increasing shipments by that river to Montreal, had become frequent. The act provided for the appointment of an inspector and measurers of scows and rafts between Chateauguay and Montreal and for the regulation of pilots. These officials, who were to reside in the parish of Chateauguay, were from time to time to take the depth of water of the rapids and determine what water scows and rafts might draw in order to pass the rapids in safety. They were, upon application, to measure the draft of each scow and raft and to cause the former to be lightened to the draft determined as the limit of safety. Pilots were to be licensed yearly by the justices of the peace for Montreal, upon recommendation of the inspector, for which license a fee of two shillings and sixpence was charged. The pilots' fees for taking rafts and scows through the rapids were : Scows, 30 shillings ; rafts consisting of two cribs, 12 shillings and 6 pence. After October 1 to the end of navigation these were increased by one-fifth. Fines up to forty shillings were imposed upon measurers or pilots neglecting their duty and upon unlicensed persons acting as pilots. A pilot who, without the consent of the owner, left a raft or scow stranded in the rapids was fined the loss of his fees and 20 shillings. The pilot QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 105 was allowed 5 shillings a day while he remained with the wreck and assisted in saving the property and in clearing the rapids of the obstruc- tion. The fees for measurements were : Scows, 6 shillings ; crib and rafts 2 shillings and 6 pence, and rafts of firewood 1 shilling 6 pence. These fees, by an act of 1808, were applied to the improvement of the rapids. In the same year an even more important measure afiEecting the in- dustry was passed. This provided that no lumber should be exported until it had been culled, measured and certified as to quality. The gov- ernor was authorized to appoint master cullers at Quebec and Montreal who were to ascertain the quality and dimensions of the articles sub- mitted to them and to give a true and faithful account of those found merchantable, which was to be final and conclusive between buyer and seller. The act laid down the standards for square oak and pine, planks, board, etc. It was reenacted in 1811 and 1819 and made more stringent in its provisions. At the same time in all these acts there were most contradictory clauses. In some the shipment of unstamped timber (as having passed the culler) was prohibited, while in others it was stated that second or inferior grade lumber might be exported. The cullers were apparently governed by the contract between the buyer and seller, and the rigid definitions of what constituted merchantable tim- ber were only to apply where no specific agreement between the parties existed. After being put beyond question upon a voluntary basis in 1829, it was finally allowed to expire by lapse of time, in 1834. There was no further legislation on this point until after Quebec and Ontario were united in 1841 (Ontario having been created a separate province, called Upper Canada, in 1791). In 1842 an act was passed, further amended by an act of 1845, which got over the previous diffi- culties by creating three grades for timber and deals. As in Ontario, the Crown first began to collect timber dues in 1826, and the regulations in this respect followed thosfe of Ontario until the union of the two Provinces. As a rule, however, Ontario, by reason of greater facility in getting lumber to market, has charged dues a little higher than her sister province. As in Ontario, from the first the Crown adopted the plan of not selling timber lands but of granting a license to cut timber upon Crown lands within a certain specified time, at the end of which the land returned to the Crown either to be granted to the settler for agricultural purposes or to be held until the timber grew again. The way in which these wise provisions were evaded for many years was this: 106 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Since the timber cost money and the land was free or sold at a very low price on easy terms to the settler, men who never intended to farm the land, or to settle farmers upon it, got areas large or small granted to them and, having stripped them of their timber, allowed them to go back into the hands of the Government. Where they had made a small first payment they either let that go as a fine or endeavored to sell out to a bona fide settler. Quebec, or Lower Canada, passed through the same period of waste- ful granting away of Crown lands as did Upper Canada, and this period culminated in a like rebellion in 1837 and the granting of responsible government, when the two Provinces were united in 1841. The two Provinces then for over a quarter of a century, until 1867, enjoyed laws common in nearly every respect. The timber question was one of the first taken up and the regulations made at the first session of the united parliament laid the foundation of all subsequent progress in forestry. The orders in council of 1842 limited the period for which the license was granted, and introduced the plan of putting the berths up at auction where there was more than one applicant. The rule had been that the applicant simply paid the dues ; and there had been much Crown land covered with timber in regard to which lumbermen did not clash or compete. Now, however, the easily reached limits began to grow scarcer and the applicant who offered the highest "bonus" or lump sum for the limit, in addition to the dues, was awarded it. In all these cases the timber only was sold, the land being reserved on the general principle that it would be taken up by the settler after the timber was taken oflE. The ignoring of the fact that much of the land was not fit for settlement was the chief fault in these regulations, because the idea of the time limit seems to have been handled chiefly in such a way as to insure that the operator would at once proceed to work his limit. The consequence has been that where the land is not fit for settlement some firms that got their licenses in the early days have continued holding and cutting over limits for many years, whereas, had the lease terminated absolutely on a certain date, the berths would have gone back into the hands of the Government, which, after allowing them to rest for a few years, might have resold them for a greatly increased bonus. As it is the Government secures only the ground rent of about $3 a mile per annum and the dues on the timber cut. Later regulations have been more definite and the worked limits are now year by year falling back into the possession of the Crown. QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 107 Further regulations made in 1846 restricted the size of the limits to five miles frontage along the stream and five miles inland, or half way to the next river. The licensee bound himself to cut 1,000 feet a mile yearly on his limit. The season of 1845 was a prosperous one in the trade, and 27,702,- 000 feet were brought to Quebec and 24,223,000 feet exported. This good trade caused an over-production in the next year, and as the Brit- ish trade fell off there was a serious depression. This was accentuated by the provision that the operators must cut 1,000 feet a mile each sea- son on their limits regardless of the conditions of the trade. The inevitable parliamentary committee of inquiry appeared in 1848, before which W. W. Dawson, a leading By town (Ottawa City) lumber- man, stated that in 1847, including the quantity in stock and that brought to market, there was a total supply of 44,927,000 feet to meet a demand for 19,060,000 feet. The next year the supply was 39,447,- 000 feet and the demand 17,402,000 feet. He attributed the decreased demand to the commercial depression in Europe and the unprecedent- edly large supply thrown upon the European market from the Province of New Brunswick. As to the over-supply he gave three reasons : The regulations requiring the manufacturing of a large quantity per mile ; the threatened subdivision of limits, and the difficulties regarding boundaries. The threatened reduction or subdivision of limits in three years to the size of five by five miles caused operators to endeavor to clear off their big limits before being compelled to hand them back to the Gov- ernment. The lumbermen accused the Government of inaction in re- gard to their boundaries, and in consequence, in order to defend their limits, they had resort to physical force. This meant that the oper- ator trebled or quadrupled his men to be superior in numbers to his opponent, and, as the men were on the ground, this meant the trebling or quadrupling of the output. The chief remedy suggested by the lumbermen to the committee was that, instead of endeavoring to prevent the holding of limits for speculation by compelling the cutting of a certain amount of timber a year, an annual ground rent of two shillings six pence a square mile should be levied, which should be doubled in case of nonoccupation, and the doubling continued every year the limit remained unoccupied. They also suggested that the dues be collected upon actual measure- ment instead of upon a count of sticks. For instance, red pine was 108 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. figured on an arbitrary average of thirty-eight feet a stick, whereas the sticks ran from twenty-six to sixty feet, and a spar or mast worth £10 paid only the same duty as a small stick available for building. The committee reported recommending such action, and as a result the first Crown timber act was passed in 1849. This cleared up many points in dispute. Under the regulations accompanying the act the size of berths permitted was doubled; that is, ten miles along the river by five miles deep, or fifty square miles, but only half that size was per- mitted in surveyed townships. The dues imposed were : White pine, square timber, J^d a foot; red pine, square timber, Id; basswood and cedar, J^d; oak, IJ^d; elm, birch and ash, Id; cordwood, hard, 8d a cord; soft, 4d ; red pine logs, twelve feet long, 7d a log ; white pine logs twelve feet long, 5d; spruce, 2}4d. Each stick was to be computed as containing cubic feet as follows : White pine, 70 cubic feet ; red pine, 38 ; oak, elm, ash, birch, cedar and basswood, 34. Statements under oath were to be made of the kinds and quantities of timber cut. The ground rent plan was not adopted, but the minimum quantity to be cut on each mile was reduced to 500 feet a year. There was one clause which gave rise to a great deal of trouble in after years. This provided that squatters were liable to the penalties for cutting timber without license, but the dues on timber cut on land purchased but not all paid for were to be collected by the Government as part payment for the land. The arbitrary regulation as to the quan- tity in each stick was made elastic by providing that the operator could have the timber counted or measured as he chose. The regulations also gave the limit holder a preferential claim above all others to a renewal of his license, and thus gave greater permanence to the lumbering business. In the regulations of 1851 a ground rent of two shillings six pence a mile was introduced, which rent doubled and increased annually in that proportion, when the limit was not worked. It was provided also that, where expenses of surveys made it advisable, licenses might be disposed of at an upset price fixed by the Commissioner of Crown Lands; and, in case of competition, awarded to the highest bidder. Owing to the representations of mill owners and municipalities in west- ern Ontario, chiefly about London, the dues were doubled when the logs were destined for export. This was to protect manufacturers against the practice by American citizens of procuring lands at a low rate for the purpose of cutting timber to be manufactured in the United States. QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 109 The good effect of these new regulations was at once seen. The revenue had been £22,270 in 1848; £24,198 in 1849; £24,728 in 1850 and £30,318 in 1851. In 1852, the first year the new regulations went into force, the receipts rose to £53,013, of which £7,656 was for ground rent, and this in spite of the fact that dues on red pine had been cut in two. Up to this time red pine bore a penny a foot, while white pine bore only a half-penny ; but, owing to the decline in the British prefer- ence for red pine, it had gone down in price and white pine had gone up. This seems to have been a case where prejudice backed by higher import duty gave red pine a fictitious value for years. A memorial of manufacturers showed that the price of red pine decreased from one shilling in 1844 to eight pence in 1851. The duty was accordingly re- duced to one-half pence a foot. The ups and downs of the trade are shown in the returns of timber measured by the supervisor of cullers at Quebec during 1845-52 : White pine Red pine Year. (feet). (feet). 1845 19,141,982 4,444,515 1846 24,662,815 5.183,307 1847 12,074,708 6,516,922 1848 7,132,127 4,223,952 1849 11,924,198 3,797,584 1850 14,388,593 2,121,316 1851 15,487,180 3,189,657 1852 26,364,464 1,857,333 From 1841 to 1867 Quebec and Ontario constituted one province, and the regulations, with some exceptions to meet local needs, were the same in both sections. These are set out at considerable length in the chapters on Ontario and need not be repeated here. In general it may be said that the plan of selling the rights to cut timber under license, allowing the land to remain in the possession of the Crown was developed, the bonuses paid at the auctions held growing larger and the dues and ground rent heavier as the timber increased in value. The original export trade of Canada in timber looked wholly to Europe as its market, and of this trade Quebec City was the center. This trade appears to have reached its zenith about 1864 when 1,350 square rigged ships entered the St. Lawrence to load lumber, and when 20,032,520 cubic feet of white pine timber was shipped. The wasteful- ness of the square timber trade, the decline of wooden ship building and the rise of the new export trade with the United States all operated against Quebec's preeminence, and the trade declined, much of it going to Montreal. Of late years, however, new railways, the bringing in of spruce as a valuable wood, and above all the ambition and energy of the citizens of the old capital of Canada, have set it on the up grade 110 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. again. Since 1867, when Quebec became a province in the Dominion and separated from Ontario, the provincial revenue derived from the forests has steadily increased, with slight fluctuations showing the effects of world-wide depression or prosperity. The following table, by fiscal years ending June 30 of each year named, shows the amounts collected from Crown lands, as timber dues, ground rent, timber limits sales, etc. : Year. Interest, trespass penalties and fire tax. Ground rent. Timber limits sales. Transfer fees. Timber dues. Total. 1868 $ 3,404.66 2,823.27 7,208.37 3,122.68 4.102.44 3,186.67 32,906.06 15,380.21 11,025.65 10,686.72 10,915.20 8,684.01 12,065.94 7,611.48 12,069.09 17,006.21 13,363.26 9,449.77 13,047.63 12,427.56 7,597.91 7,293.81 12,380.96 11,185.81 12,641.42 19,293.97 11,171.82 15,713.15 14,858.21 11,317.41 15,045.53 21,708.96 13,947.61 14,958.50 8,406.94 14,895.70 16,988.03 $ 22,401.03 55,055.06 64,089.20 63,297.43 86,783.01 90,950.84 97,220.37 90,565.04 96,881.82 94,588.07 85,385.12 87,558.04 96,157.86 94,633.90 111,113.78 94,424.68 83,399.92 99,884.86 100,548.76 90,684.83 141,549.88 124,314.09 147,208.72 125,141.77 132,984.95 152,664.67 147,660.59 147,203.51 143,485.73 155,572.54 148,935.18 166,338.50 170,508.71 178,250.71 163,983.00 187,206.25 176,226.41 $ 3,928.50 74,894.97 22,518.37 62,437.34 56,191.81 68,941.18 31,385.93 3,259.50 572.00 $165,381.77 198,977.82 267,468.08 272,833.12 292,989.42 346,361.27 361,080.51 408,169.12 274,530.64 269,685.24 248,612.84 217,664.04 231,437.89 303,950.25 514,252.57 567,815.97 562,836.93 350,070.28 411,220.32 475,617.40 447,200.87 707,357.20 626,753.66 498,370.30 474,900.79 642,952.63 644,516.69 597,672.60 705,260.31 607,865.33 713,435.86 569,710.18 585,505.89 633,230.12 669,292.41 667,631.96 715,134.02 $ 195,115.96 1869 ■* l,584.b6' 4,790.00 4,686.00 9,242.66 5.384.00 15,361.00 3,764.07 16,658.82 6,410.00 526.00 3,219.75 4,548.88 4,239.70 3,441.48 910.75 2,565.25 3,646.09 3,418.28 2,315.03 1,719.25 2,062.31 2,516.25 3,470.53 4,989.04 2,008.12 2,378.25 4,239.47 3.522.50 3,561.25 7,508.50 2,819.25 4,435.00 11,871.74 20,076.00 6,575.06 331,751.12 1870 362,868.02 1871 406,480.57 1872 444,752.68 1873 518,682.62 1874 527,976.87 1875 532,734.87 1876 386,774.18 1877 391,618.85 1878 351,323.16 1879 448.00 314,880.09 1880 . . 342,881.44 1881 132,774.25 26,921.25 2,055.00 246.27 68,145.61 112.00 470.00 543,518.76 1882 668.596.39 1883 684,743.34 1884 660,757.13 1885 530,115.77 1886 528,574.80 1887 582,618.07 1888 598,663.69 1889 118,253.65 17,646.04 9.023.12 958,938.00 1890 806,051.69 1891 646,237.25 1892 623,997.69 1893 68,822.10 18,549.70 9,388.05 83,255.20 4,025.75 30,110.48 129,023.34 339,748.06 403,197.72 201,483.39 352,004.58 252,554,01 888,722.41 1894 823,906.92 1895 772,355.56 1896 951,098,92 1897 782,303.53 1898 911,088.30 1899 894,289.48 1900 1,112,529.52 1901 1,234,072.05 1902 1,055,037.48 1903 1,241,814.49 1904 1,167,477.53 As to the quantities of timber cut in Quebec, this is not easy to ascertain, since different methods have been adopted at different times and the products of private lands are not included, except in the decen- nial census. This is particularly the case with pulpwood, which has become an article of great importance in the last few years. The following tables are of timber cut on Crown lands : SAWLOGS. Red and wblte pine Year. (feet b. m.). 1867 151,837,800 1870 221,854,400 1880 246,930,800 1890 304,508,200 1895 207,195,800 1901 107,206,880 Spruce and bard- wood (feet b. m.). 29,389,800 29,301,800 95,764,400 188,517.400 270,156,800 319,866,256 QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. Ill SQUARE TIMBER. Red and white pine Year. (cubic feet). 1867 4,892,699 1870 3,983,458 1880 1,596,243 1890 3,]45,687 1895 1,443,942 1901 635,621 Small tamarack, spruce and pine Year. (lineal feet). 1867 1870 1880 582,949 1890 422,041 1895 620,209 Birch, elm and hardwood (cubic feet). 71,916 33,199 144,617 2,955.799 40.785 129,004 Knees, shlneles, ties, pickets, etc. (pieces). 6,308,000 9,713,000 209,202,000 216,959,000 340,431,000 A review of the area of Crown lands in Quebec under license to cut timber and the quantity of sawlogs produced from such lands is inter- esting as showing the changes in areas so held, the gradual decline in the pine trade, due to the diminishing supply of pine timber, and the rapid growth in recent years of the spruce industry. Such a table, cov- ering the twenty-five years ended with 1903, has been compiled ' from the reports of the Commissioner of Crown Lands. It is as follows: PRODUCTION OF PINE AND SPRUCE SAWLOGS FROM CROWN LANDS OF QUEBEC. Year. Area under license (square miles). White pine sawlogs (pieces). Spruce sawlogs (pieces). Small pine sawlogs (pieces). 1879 42,631 47,185 46,278 48,494 43,489 41,260 45,249 46.078 42.440 41.584 41.569 44.201 45.190 42.965 46.006 44.384 46,397 42,728 46,155 46,863 45,889 51,194 48,818 62,952 62,730 1.032,880 1,179,045 1,791,873 2,418,958 2,611,986 2,642,658 1,703,874 2,187,098 2,386,614 2,295.012 2.959.675 2.802,073 2,137.938 2,297,814 3,212,956 2,441,434 2,063,951 1,535,978 2.151.949 2.008.866 1.483.041 1.768.231 1,879,793 2,479,197 1,786,263 797,440 655,857 1,208,184 1,308,315 1,418,635 1,311,382 723,679 1,038,957 1,344,477 959,703 1,407,141 1,324,872 2,613,907 2,522,781 2,740,496 2,759.594 3.281.590 4.317.945 4.594.830 5,992,214 5,431,789 5,505,070 6,136,799 7,186.041 5.858,143 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 152,469 648,654 1894 1895 961,688 1,496,874 1,650 827 1896 1897 1898 1,048 327 1899 883.576 989,314 1,520,497 406,488 1,307,942 1900 1901 1902 1903 53,259,157 72,439,841 11 066 656 3 The Canada Lumberman, January, 1905, page 61. 112 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. It is only within the last few years that pulpwood has become of consequence, but in 1903 the Government reported a total of 259,231 cords cut on Crown lands. There were also in that year 94,079 lineal feet of poles, 780,960 railway ties, 9,174 pickets, 2,424,500 shingles, 426 rails, 23J4 cords of hemlock bark and 11,710 cords of white birch spool wood. The most important point at the present time is the outlook for the future. It may be said that, whereas ten years ago very pessimistic views were entertained as to the quantity of timber left standing in Quebec, today the views are much more hopeful. There are two rea- sons for this: First, the development of the use of other woods, particularly of spruce ; and, second, the realization that if fire is kept out and the fake settlers stopped, the forests will reproduce themselves much more rapidly than formerly supposed. Besides, people ar6 realiz- ing that much of Quebec is unsuited for agriculture, whereas these districts are eminently suited for the perpetual growth of timber. The Government and the lumbermen are cooperating in the preservation of the forests by a system of fire ranging and by leaving the young timber to attain its full growth. Senator Edwards, of Ottawa and Rockland, one of the largest limit holders in Quebec, in speaking recently on this subject said that his candid opinion was that Quebec possesses today the best asset in America. Ontario has timber larger and of better quality, but Quebec has the young and growing timber. The pine in sight, Mr. Edwards was inclined to think, might last, with care, fifty years, but if fires (which have destroyed ten times as much as the ax) are kept out and settlement prohibited on the small areas of good land occurring in the forest regions, the trade might be continued indefinitely. As Quebec is the largest eastern province and also the greatest for- ested province in the Dominion, with a land area of 341,756 square miles, and reaches back into the unexplored north, it is likely that it will continue to be the great source of timber production in Canada. During the spring of 1904 a commission reported to the Quebec government against indiscriminate settlement, with the result that the Government and the lumbermen are nearer together and working more in harmony than ever before. The commission favored an increase in the numbers and joint control of the fire rangers ; and, seeing that a million dollars a year of the provincial revenue comes out of forests, the legislators can be relied upon to be anxious to preserve the goose which lays this golden egg. QUEBEC— TIMBER HISTORY, ADMINISTRATION. 113 Both Quebec and Ontario have been fortunate in the supply of right kind of labor for this trade. The cheerful, fun-loving, hardy French- Canadian takes to lumbering like a duck to water. His skill in han- dling the ax, in driving, in walking on floating logs and in jam-breaking, have a world wide celebrity ; while the songs with which he lightens his labors with the oar or on snowshoes are a national inheritance and pride. Curiously enough from the other side of the great river, from the Ontario shore, have gone with him the men of a supposedly anti- thetical race, the canny, dour Scots of Glengarry County, men who knew no language but Gallic and no law but the strong hand. Al- though they have fought for their masters over disputed lines and fought for themselves out of sheer prowess so as to make " The Man from Glengarry " one of the most picturesque of modem novels, yet these deeds of daring have served only to unite the two sides of the Ottawa in firmer bonds of respect and admiration. CHAPTER IX. QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. According to an estimate published in 1895 by the Dominion statis- tician, there were then in Quebec 116,521 ' square miles of forest and woodland. This, however, included a considerable area unfit for lumbering and covered with a small growth of little merchantable value. That portion of the Province extending north of the Ottawa River to the Height of Land, and the districts watered by the Saguenay, the St. Maurice and their tributaries were originally covered with forests of great value, with pine their most important component, though now much depleted by fire and by lumbering operations — especially in the Saguenay and Lake St. John districts. North and east of this region there are considerable areas of spruce suitable for pulpwood. South of the St. Lawrence from the Gaspe Peninsula to the boundary only small and scattered pine forests remain. Spruce is the dominant tree, but owing to the demand for pulpwood the supply is rapidly diminishing. Much hemlock is cut for tan bark, and maple, birch, cedar and tamarack are largely cut throughout the Province. Much of the present area of Quebec is still largely unexplored. The territory embraced within the provincial lines prior to 1895 has been largely surveyed but the additions made as a result of the legis- lation which then took place included territory that previously had been designated as a part of Labrador. The present northern boundary of the Province, beginning at the west, follows the East Main River, which empties into the James Bay, a branch of Hudson Bay, nearly one hundred miles north of its southern extremity. From the head- waters of the East Main River at Lake Patamish, just south of the fifty-third degree of north latitude, it runs due east until it strikes the Hamilton River, which at that point runs almost due north. The Hamilton River is followed thence throughout its entire course and through Rigolet Bay to about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the Atlan- tic, from which the boundary sweeps in a long curve a little east of J The total area of the Province o£ Quebec, according to the "Statistical Year Book of Canada,'* is now 351,873 square miles, of which 341,756 square miles are land. The above esti- mate of wooded area does not agree with that given on page 61 — 225,552 square miles — the latter end later estimate applying to the increased area of the Province since 1896, though the remarlss as to quality apply with even more force to the larger area. 114 QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. 115 south to the Strait of Belle Isle, striking: it a short distance west of the fifty-seventh degree of west longitude. Exploration of the country north of the Height of Land and of the eastern part, except along the shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has been confined to the principal rivers and lakes, many of which have not yet been defined as to their entire length or exact boundaries. An enormous field for lumbering operations has been opened up of late years in the region made accessible to shipping ports by the Quebec & Lake St. John railway. In 1904 between twenty-five and thirty saw- mills were in operation in this territory. Of a total of 19,200,000 acres in the Lake St. John district less than 500,000 are under cultivation or cleared, and the remainder is all wooded. Of the timber about seventy- five percent is spruce, and the remainder is made up of balsam, fir, white birch, cypress and a little pine. Fire has ravaged the forests in some places, but the effects of fires of thirty years ago are hardly visi- ble, as there is a fine second growth. The pulpwood supply in this district is very extensive. An official estimate places the first cut of pulpwood at one hundred million cords, which would give over sixty-five million tons of pulp. The water power of the principal outlet of the lake and of several large rivers by which it is fed is calculated at over 650,000-horse power. Pulp mills have been established at Chicoutimi and Jonquies on the Saguenay, at Shawenegan on the St. Maurice and at other points. TIMBER LICENSES AND DUES. The timber lands of Quebec are leased by the Provincial government to operators, the right to cut being disposed of by public auction, sub- ject to the payment of dues on the cut in addition to a yearly ground rent. By far the larger portion of the lands under license to cut timber in the Province of Quebec is found between the Quebec & Lake St. John railway on the east and the Ottawa and the provincial boundary on the west, and between the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers on the south and the forty-eighth degree of north latitude on the north. With the exception of a strip of country north of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers from the City of Quebec to just above the City of Ottawa and some unlicensed territory in the north, this immense tract of country, 350 miles long by an average of 125 miles wide, is all under license. South and north of Lake St. John and the Saguenay River are also large bodies of land under license, and smaller and scattering tracts are found all along the north shore of the St. Lawrence to its mouth 116 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. opposite the west end of the Island of Anticosti. The land under timber license extends almost unbroken all along the provincial boun- dary from New Hampshire to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but the St. Lawrence River shore is open, as is the country surrounding Quebec and Montreal. In 1903 there were 64,979 square miles under license, the receipts from which form a considerable portion of the revenue of the Province. During the year ended June 30, 1904, $252,554 was realized from sales of limits, $715,134 from dues, $176,226 from ground rents and $23,563 from fire tax, transfer fees and other sources, making a total of $1,167,477. The dues payable on timber are as follows: Square and waney timber, per cubic foot, oak and walnut 4 cents, all others 2 cents ; saw- logs, boom and dimension timber, per 1,000 feet b. m., white pine $1.30, red pine 80 cents, spruce, hemlock, balsam, cypress, cedar, white birch and poplar 65 cents; pulpwood, 65 cents a cord, with a rebate of 25 cents if manufactured in Canada. The following is the cut upon which government dues were paid during the year ended June 30, 1903 : Square timber, hardwood, 150,- 919 cubic feet; square pine, 950,451 cubic feet; spruce, hemlock, etc., sawlogs and boom timber, 377,219,740 feet b. m.; white pine sawlogs and boom timber, 175,072,927 feet b. m.; red pine sawlogs and boom timber, 33,101,822 feet b. m.; white pine sawlogs eleven inches and un- der, 69,286,889 feet b. m.; poles, 94,079 lineal feet; pulpwood, 259,231 cords; fire-wood, 1,612^ cords; railway ties, 780,960; pickets, 9,174; shingles, 2,424,500 ; rails, 426 ; hemlock bark, 23^ cords ; lath wood, 31 cords; white birch for spool wood, 11,710 cords, and posts, 1,255. THE EXPORT TRADE. As has been indicated, the City of Quebec was, until comparatively recent years, the center of the timber and lumber export trade, but Montreal now holds that position. This change has been largely coin- cident with the growth of the trade in sawn lumber and the decline in square timber shipments. The first timber shipped from Canada to Europe was exported under the French regime in 1667. The export to England began in the early days of the Nineteenth Century when the continental ports were closed against British trade by Napoleon. The trade grew rapidly, and when at its height as many as 1,350 square- rigged ships entered the port of Quebec yearly to load timber. It reached its climax about 1864, in which year 20,032,520 cubic feet of QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. 117 square timber were exported, and since then it has gradually declined. Formerly, shipments of pine deals were extensively made from Quebec. In 1880 5,823,263 standards were shipped, but the bulk of this trade has now gone to Montreal. The palmy days of Quebec City as a timber port were also charac- terized by much activity in shipbuilding, forty or fifty ships sometimes being built in a year. At one time the timber trade at this port gave employment to 5,000 or 6,000 laborers. The timber coves there ex- tended for a distance of ten miles on both sides of the river. Now hardly a mile on the Quebec side is so occupied, with but two or three coves across the river. The lumber export trade of Montreal dates back about forty years. It was commenced by Dobell, Beckett & Co. and has increased from year to year until Montreal has become the transshipping port for all the pine product of the Ottawa Valley that is sent over seas. Dur- ing the season of navigation the deals are conveyed in barges, carrying an average of one hundred and forty-five standards each, down the Ot- tawa River and the Lachine Canal and transferred directly to the steamer. The forest product, at one time shipped in the form of square timber, is now manufactured into deals and boards, and Mont- real has become the leading port of export, as the tendency of modern shipping operations is for vessels to load at the head of navigation. Montreal is practically a free port for shipping, and it is frequently the case that freights are obtainable there on lower terms than in Quebec. In 1879 the lumber shipments from Montreal amounted to 10,499,951 feet ; in 1877, to 32,920,390 feet ; in 1888, to 117,329,721 feet ; in 1895, to 175,372,976 feet; in 1898, to 335,429,190 feet; in 1900, to 239,686,145 feet, and in 1904, to 153,989,912 feet. The decrease shown of late years in these figures is due not to decline in the export business, but to the route which it takes. Mont- real is a summer port only, as all the St. Lawrence ports are handi- capped by ice during the winter and early summer so that insurance rates are usually higher from the St. Lawrence than from ports on the open Atlantic. This has led to a considerable shipment of lumber and other forest products in bond to Portland, Boston and New York, Port- land being especially favored because it is a ternlinus of the Grand Trunk railway ; while open Canadian ports, like Halifax, take some of the business which otherwise would go by vessel from the St. Law- rence. Much progress, however, has been made in the improvement of 118 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. navigation on the St. Lawrence up to Montreal, the channel admitting vessels drawing thirty feet of water, and while the ice will always form a hindrance to winter business, the liberal policy of the Canadian government and the great improvements that have been made on the St. Lawrence are fast increasing the popularity of that route, so that it is not improbable that shipments of forest products from Montreal, and perhaps from Quebec, will in the future be larger than in the recent past. The St. Lawrence is a tidal river as far as Three Rivers, about mid- way between Quebec and Montreal. In the original state of the river vessels drawing eleven to twelve feet of water could under careful pilotage reach the latter city. Dredging at bars and over shallow stretches so improved the channel that, as stated above, vessels draw- ing thirty feet of water can now dock at Montreal. Until a few years ago, however, navigation of the river was rather difficult, and was at- tempted by vessels of heavy draft only by day. A thorough system of buoys and channel lights has now made passage unimpeded during the season of navigation. In 1868 the relative values of shipments of forest products were : Quebec, $6,659,686 ; Montreal, $631,239. In 1903, the value of forest products shipped from Quebec was $4,022,346, and of those from Mont- real, $5,121,472. The trade of the former port has revived somewhat of late years under the stimulus of railway connection with the Lake St. John district, and other enterprises, but it is hardly likely to regain its supremacy. The shipments of forest products from Montreal for the fiscal year 1903 included pine deals, $3,147,150; spruce and other deals, $684,070; planks and boards, $650,008 and pulpwood, $131,152. Those from Quebec City in the same year comprised pine deals, $122,960 ; spruce and other deals, $1,270,325; planks and boards, $68,539; pine (white, square) $1,297,427; oak (square), $411,313; red pine, $212,634, and elm, $296,496. SHIPPING INTERESTS. It is of interest to note the decrease in the number of sailing vessels clearing at Quebec, as the traffic is now almost entirely carried on by steamer. The following table shows the lumber laden sailing vessels cleared at the port of Quebec for sea between the opening and close of navigation in the years 1874 to 1904, inclusive, with their tonnage : QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. 119 SAILING VBSSBLS CLEARED FROM THE PORT OP QUEBEC. Year. Vessels. Tons. 1874 854 636,672 1875 642 478,441 1876 786 624,110 1877 796 670,627 1878 476 399,833 1879 433 364,628 1880 634 555,451 1881 459 380,186 1882 426 359,925 1883 487 416,169 1884 366 291,398 1885 369 294,789 1886 325 250,635 1887 271 206,172 1888 227 195,928 1889 275 240,892 1890 250 238,162 1891 205 182,615 1892 244 225,008 1893 177 146,970 1894 136 115,639 1895 86 70,960 1896 103 82,622 1897 147 90,381 1898 121 70,588 1899 80 50,242 1900 99 43,036 1901 69 37,171 1902 93 33,534 1903 53 25.141 1904 46 19,126 The extent to which steam tonnage has replaced sail, is shown by the fact that in 1902 the number of steamers entering the port of Que- bec for part or entire cargoes was 186 of an aggregate of 607,097 tons ; in 1903, 185 of 538,672 tons, and in 1904, 165 of 506,702 tons. The premier position of Montreal as a St. Lawrence port, due to its being the head of navigation for ocean-going vessels, is shown by the following table which gives the number and tonnage of sea-going ves- sels entered at that port for the years named : Year. Ships. Tonnage. 1901 707 1,438,081 1902 728 1,530,023 1903 797 1,991,272 1904 796 1,856,697 Quebec is to be reached by sailing vessels, while Montreal is, for all practical purposes, available only to steam — and this is the age of steam navigation. EXPORTS AND STOCKS. The most recent available figures concerning exports from Quebec are those for the year 1904, and these show a decrease in exports from River St. Lawrence points to Great Britain in comparison with the year 1903. The total exportations amounted to 302,932,776 feet, a de- crease of 142,408,833 feet from the figures of 445,341,609 feet recorded in 1903. Quebec is a heavy manufacturer of spruce clapboards, and 120 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. there was a decided reduction of export of this material, due to the stagnant condition of the spruce market. The principal article of shipment from Montreal is pine in the form of deals and boards, while other St. Lawrence ports ship principally spruce deals and square and waney timber. Exports for trans-Atlantic markets during 1903 and 1904, by ports and shippers, were as follows: FROM MONTREAL. 1903 1904 Shippers. Feet b. m. Feet b. m. Watson& Todd 51,801,668 38,028,601 W. & J. Sharpies 41,845,282 23,016,516 R.COX& Co 24,162,470 21,207,452 Dobell, Beckett & Co 35,594,600 18,387,510 J. BurstaU&Co 22,105,969 13,040,437 McArthur Export Co., Ltd 15,412,412 8,929,166 Cox,Lang&Co 8,941,100 8,697,827 Charlemagrue& Lac Ouareau Lumber Co.,Ltd. 10,289,247 5,067,412 McLaurin Bros 7,478,000 4,600,000 E. H.Lemay 1,815,000 1,916,000 RaUways, smaU shippers, etc 11,442,596 11,098,991 Total 230,888,344 153,989.912 Decrease in 1904 76,898,432 Other St. Lawrence ports, including the City of Quebec, make the following showing for 1904 : FROM QUEBEC. Shippers. Feet. H. R. Goodday& Co 20,075,000 Dobell, Beckett & Co 13,872,800 W. &. J. Sharpies 11,703,600 McArthur Export Co., Ltd 7,370,664 Harold Kennedy 7,047,352 J. BurstaU&Co 5,913,305 Kins Bros., Ltd 1.499,400 TotaH904 67,482,121 Total 1903 109,688,817 FROM THREE RIVERS AND PIERREVILLB. Shippers. Feet. Dobell, Beckett & Co 18,406,600 W. & J. Sharpies 6,600,700 Total 1904 25,007,300 Total 1903 44,601,070 FROM OTHER PORTS. Shippers. Feet. Price Bros. & Co 46,653,833 DobeU, Beckett & Co 4,870,400 King Bros., Ltd 4,929,210 Total in 1904 56,453,443 Total in 1903 60,163,378 Total trans-Atlantic shipments 1903 445,341,609 Total trans- Atlantic shipments 1904 302,932,776 Decrease in 1904 ; 142,408,833 While white pine and spruce make up the great body of the export of lumber from the Province of Quebec, other woods, including hard- woods, still figure in an important way in the trade of the Province. To show the volume of this business and the conditions surrounding it at the latest date available for this work, we give the following quota- QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. 121 tions from an annual trade circular, issued by J. Bell Forsyth & Co., of Quebec, bearing date of January 9, 1905 : White Pine. — The stock of waney pine shows considerable increase in recent years, while that of square pine is the lightest on record. The continued advance in price of both waney and square pine has at last told on the export. As the manufacture this winter will not exceed half the past season's supply, and as makers seem unable to reduce their prices without actual loss, it seems evident present values must be maintained or manufacture cease. Supply. Export. Stock. iQO/i f Square 240,176) i aoi r^q / 347,067 Square l**"* t Waney 2,256,352 J 1.4ai,B4d | 1,268,937 Waney lono /Square 419,6001 oiaiQci / 413,469 Square 1**°^ t Waney 1,865,560/ AiSl.abl y 406,038Waney Red Pine. — The smallness of both supply and stock shows the approach of the end of business in this wood as square timber. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 15,920 12,598 55,561 1903 57,360 84,292 53,225 Spruce Deals. — The export from Quebec and the lower St. Lawrence has been restricted by absence of demand and the inadequate prices obtainable. The cost of production has materially increased owing to advanced cost of labor, enhanced value of limits, and other causes. The demand in the United States for spruce boards being good at fair prices, the tendency is for Canadian mills to send their production very largely in that direction. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 3,927,270 3,319,121 822,575 1903 4,919,710 5,060,053 157,213 Pine Deals. — The ruling prices in the United Kingdom, especially in the third and fourth qualities, have materially declined instead of meeting the ten percent advance paid by shippers for past season's production. Ottawa mill owners can readily obtain from United States markets iigures at least equivalent to those paid for deals. It is clear that export business can not continue under present con- ditions. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 110,358 97,310 15,518 1903 41,890 49,730 2,570 Sawn Lunger. — The demand from the United States has been good at fair prices, and in spruce the Canadian mills have cut boards for that market in prefer- ence to deals for export in many instances. Oak. — The exports show a marked decrease, and the wintering stock a cor- responding increase. The manufacture of this wood has entirely stopped, and will not be resumed until justified by demand, as western oak can not be profitably delivered at Quebec at present current prices. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 328,360 201,767 665,670 1903 926,680 651,969 491,851 Elm. — The supply continues to diminish and price to advance, which will probably be the case year by year till the wood becomes too expensive for export or can not be obtained at all. The stock of rock elm is very small, the figures largely representing soft elm. 122 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 263,800 310,546 322,778 1903 417,800 477,217 419,659 Ash. — Will not be made this winter, as demand seems to have disappeared. The stock is ample for probable requirements. Supply. Kxport. Stock. 1904 14,640 26,192 25,145 1903 57.200 59,441 47,035 Birch. — The export of this wood continues to diminish from Quebec owing to reduced supply, the most accessible wood having been cut away, and the less ac- cessible requiring prices that are not yet obtainable to induce manufacture. Supply. Export. Stock. 1904 125,920 127,882 1,027 1903 196,240 201,521 11 Through the courtesy of Messrs. Walcot, Limited, of London, we are able to present herewith a comparison of the square and waney supply (equivalent to production), exports and stocks of Quebec each year from 1850 to 1904, inclusive. There has been a marked change in the character of the forest exports sent by Quebec to the mother country. In the early years shipments of boards from Quebec to England were almost unknown, the entire export being in the shape of logs, which were sawed into planks and boards by English sawmills or part sawed to meet the needs of the purchasers. In 1861 a distinction became necessary, the history of the development being thus stated : ^ Previous to 1861 the timber shipped was square and of large average, beautifully hewn by the lumbermen in Canada; but board pine — that is, short logs of large girth — were sent down the drives with the other timber, and soon found their way into the market. Being cut from the lower part of the tree accounted for the waney character of the logs, but the quality of the timber was excellent. The loss in girthing them for conversion was considerable, but this was allowed for in the price to the importer. The decline in the quantity of square and waney pine made for the Quebec market is altogether due to the increase of the deal and board trade, and to some extent to the scarcity of suitable trees to manufacture into timber. A large proportion of the trees are still suitable to make into deal logs, but would not be sufficiently large to be made into waney board pine. This is exemplified by the small- ness of the square pine that is now brought down from Ottawa. In former days square pine used to be made 70 and 80 and even 100 feet cube average ; in the present day it is with difficulty that 40 feet average cube is procurable in square pine, and waney board pine is decreasing in girth annually. Formerly 20-inch and over average cube was easily 2 In the Timber Trades Journal, of London, England. QUEBEC— PRESENT CONDITIONS. 123 procurable ; today 17-inch is as large as most of the manufacturers will undertake, and they frequently fall below this average on delivery of the timber at Quebec. These changes are graphically portrayed in the following table : PROVINCE OF QUEBEC— STATISTICS OF SQUARE AND WANEY WHITE PINE TIMBER. IN CUBIC FEET. 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1S65. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1S79. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1S87. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1S97. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. Square. 14,398,000 15,418,000 27,631,000 17.487,000 19,648,000 13,575,000 18,000,000 19.618,000 14,328,000 16,531,000 18,564,000 15,731,000 21,628,000 21,617,000 23.737,000 17,620,000 14,386,000 16,740,000 10.029,000 14.055,000 12,616,000 17,367,000 11,151,000 10,443,000 7,364.000 9,246,000 15,994,000 14,850,000 7,917,000 2,511,000 4,244,000 6,029,000 8,053,000 7,412,000 3,707,000 2,802.000 3,033,000 1,169.000 1,791,000 4,224,000 5,083,000 1,072,000 2,380,000 1,121,000 838,000 274,000 316,000 833.000 1,062,000 592,000 571.000 585,000 384,000 420,000 240,000 Waney. 6,735.000 748,000 186,000 736,000 1,247,000 2,245.000 2,799,000 2,158,000 1,973,000 1,504,000 3,418,000 4,450,000 3,966,000 1,829.000 1,644,000 3,249,000 3,630,000 1,847,000 1,600,000 2,236,000 3,065,000 3.127 000 3,787,000 2,200,000 2,877,000 3,077,000 2,060,000 2,029.000 3,771,000 3,695,000 1,731,000 2,740,000 3,117,000 2,289,000 3,086,000 2,871,000 4,311,000 1,903,000 1,793,000 1,505,000 1,447,000 1,830.000 1,865,000 2,256,000 Total. 14,398,000 15,418,000 27.631,000 17,487,000 19,648,000 13,575,000 18,000,000 19,618,000 14,328,000 16,531,000 18,564,000 22,466,000 22,376,000 21,803,020 24,472,000 18,867,000 16,631,000 19,539,000 12,187,000 16,028,000 14,120,000 20,785,000 15,601,000 14,409,000 9,193,000 10,890,000 19,243,000 18.480,000 9,764,000 4,111.000 6,480,000 9,094,000 11,180,000 11,190,000 5,907,000 5,697,000 6,110,000 3,229.000 3,820,000 7,995,000 8,778,000 2,803,000 5,120,000 4,238,000 3,127,000 3,360,000 3,187,000 5,144,000 2,965,000 2,385,000 2.076,000 2.032,000 2,214,000 2,285,000 2,496,000 I Square and waney. 13,040,000 15,941,000 15,691,000 17,399,000 19,612,000 10,843,000 13,993.000 19,246,000 13,388,000 14,822,000 18,253,000 19,448,000 15,493,000 23,147,000 20,032.000 19,008,000 15,541,000 14,774,000 15,279,000 14,673,000 14,142,000 14,673,000 15,515,000 10,580,000 13,514,000 10,099,000 13,883,000 14,898,000 8,194,000 5,300,000 11,553,000 9,102,000 7,912,000 10,427,000 6,048,000 6,758,000 4,526,000 5,127,000 6,020,000 6,873,000 5,498,000 4,715,000 5,300,000 4,092,000 3,469,000 2,838,000 4,252,000 3,773,000 3,015,000 3,085,000 2,755,000 2,317,000 2,445,000 2,182,000 1,492,000 Square. 5,046,000 2,366,000 12,711,000 9,846,000 7,537.000 9,513,000 11,776,000 U,2S9,000 11,290,000 32,284,000 11,390,000 7,971,000 15,355,000 13,998,000 17.600,000 12,427,000 10,875,000 13,001,000 7.648,000 9,263,000 8,877,000 14,001,000 11,065,000 12,794,000 8,211,000 8.716,000 12,167,000 13,804,000 15,114,000 12,140,000 6,197,000 4,526,000 6,532,000 7,781,000 7,502,000 6,651,000 6,573,000 4,295,000 2,580,000 3,147,000 4,800,000 2,944,000 2,835.000 2,134,000 1,657,000 1,091,000 537,000 483,000 1,354,000 1,148,000 805,000 590,000 396,000 413,000 347.000 Waney. 6,347,000 3,950,000 1,224,000 331,000 348,000 763,000 1,905,000 1,715,000 1,607,000 620,000 1,739,000 3,618,000 4,655,000 4,053,000 2,684,000 2,502,000 2,634,000 3,180,000 2,218,000 797,000 1,520,000 3,355,000 2,759,000 2,399,000 2,588,000 3,267,000 2,450,000 1,227,000 1,914,000 3,528,000 2,049,000 1,618,000 1,628,000 1,611,000 2,255,000 1,474,000 2,288,000 2,452,000 1,014,000 506,000 361,000 261,000 406,000 1,269,000 Total. 5,046,000 2,366,000 12,711.000 9.846,000 7,537,000 9.513,000 11,776,000 11,259,000 11,290,000 12,284,000 11,390,000 14,318,000 19,305,000 15.222,000 17,931,000 12,775,000 U,638,000 14,906,000 9,363,000 10,870,000 9,479,000 15,740,000 14,683,000 17,450,000 12,264,000 U,400,000 14,669,000 16,438,000 18,294,000 14,358,000 6,994,000 6,046,000 9,887,000 10,540,000 9,901,000 9,239,000 9,840,000 6,745,000 3,807,000 5,061,000 8,328,000 4,993,000 4,453,000 3,762,000 3,268,000 3,346,000 2,011,000 2,771,000 3,806,000 2,162,000 1,301,000 951,000 657,000 819,000 1,616,000 CHAPTER X. QUEBEC— QUEBEC CULLING. From an early period in the development of industry and commerce in Canada the timber trade has been an important element in the activ- ities of the people. There was a demand in Great Britain and other European maritime countries for ship timber and timber for other structural purposes, which material was sent abroad in the squared form. There was also a call for spars or masts, bowsprits, booms and yards, and there was an extensive manufacture of boards, deals, planks, lath, staves, etc. Much of the cooperage stock went to the West Indies to supply the demand for sugar, tobacco and other packages. The forest products handled were white pine, red or norway pine, elm for ship timber, oak for the same purpose, squares of ash, basswood, butternut and birch. All of the woods mentioned were shipped to foreign ports in the form of square timber largely, much of it being resawed after it reached destination. There were also hickory handspikes, ash oars, "lathwood," as lath were called in the culling rules, and other forms. " Deals " were, as they are now, an important item in Canadian mill output. The word "deal" is synonymous with the word "cant," as applied to lumber — that is, a piece sawed to dimensions suitable for re- sawing. The standard Quebec or English deal was twelve feet long, eleven inches wide and two and one-half inches thick. A " standard hundred" of deals was one hundred of these pieces. Deals were a favorite form of lumber production, and much of the good white pine and norway pine of Canada was cut into deals. The Quebec market in the early days, down to 1840 or 1850, was not only the gateway for the foreign distribution of forest products of all Canada, but also that market drew much from the Lake Champlain region of Vermont and New York, and all portions of the last named State which had access to the navigable waters of the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario. The rich pine of northern Vermont to a large extent went down the Sorel River to the St. Lawrence River and thence to Quebec. The forests of northern New York were extensively drawn upon for elm timber, which was hauled for twenty to forty miles by ox teams, in the winter, to the St. Lawrence, and on that stream was rafted 124 QUEBEC— QUEBEC CULLING. 125 to Quebec. This elm timber business was carried westward until in recent years a supply has been drawn from as far west as Wisconsin. Pine deals have also been furnished the Quebec market from all the old white pine states of the United States, though, of course, in later years the Dominion has been about the only source of supply. The export trade has always been so important a factor in the Ca- nadian lumber industry, and the production of lumber has been to so large an extent from Crown lands, that the industry has been peculiarly subject to official regulation. One of the important phases of these regulations has been that relating to qualities of lumber and the up- building of a system by which relations between buyer and seller, pro- ducer, exporter and importer might be oflScially established. Thus has arisen the system of measurement and inspection known as Quebec culling. It is, perhaps, the most widely used of any system of lumber inspection in the world and, perhaps, of the widest reputation. It seems well, therefore, to give space for the more important provisions of this measure which has back of it the authority of the Dominion of Canada. Survey, or inspection, is called "culling" in the Quebec market. Authority for the enforcement of the culling rules was derived from an act' of the Dominion Parliament, entitled " An Act Respecting the Cull- ing and Measuring of Lumber in the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec." The application of this act is thus defined in section 3 : " The provi- sions of this act apply only to the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec and do not apply to any place below the eastern end of the Island of Or- leans." The important portions of this act are as follows : Square timber shall be measured only in some one of the three modes follow- ing, that is to say: — First.— Measured off, in the raft or otherwise, giving the full cubic contents without any allowance or deduction ; Second. — Measured in shipping order — which shall mean sound, fairly made timber — gum seams closed at the butt and sound knots not to be considered un- soundness — lengths under the merchantable standard hereinafter mentioned and not less than twelve feet long to be received, if, in the opinion of the culler, the same is fit for shipment ; Third. — Culled and measured in a merchantable state, in accordance with the rules, standards and limitations hereinafter described. In measuring timber, the culler employed for that purpose shall measure not only the girth of each piece of timber, but shall also measure, personally, with the aid of one competent assistant, the length of each piece of timber, in all cases 1 Chap. 103—49 Vict. 126 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. where such measurement is practicable with the aid of only one assistant ; and in the event of any case arising in which, in the opinion of the supervisor, or of any deputy, such measurement cannot be effected with the aid of one assistant only, such culler may employ an additional competent assistant for that purpose, who, as well as the assistant first above mentioned, shall be approved of by the super- visor or deputy. Every culler shall be provided with such measuring rods, tapes and other measuring instruments as are prescribed by departmental regulations, all of which shall be in accordance with the standard measures of Canada, and shall bear the verification marks of the Department of Inland Revenue : Every culler shall also be provided with such scribing knives and such stamps as are necessary for marking the articles culled by him with the initials of his name, and with the capital letters distinguishing the quality, as follows: — M. Which shall denote what is merchantable ; U. Which shall denote what is sound and of merchantable quality, but un- der merchantable size ; S. Which shall denote what is of second quality; T. Which shall denote what is of third quality ; R. Which shall denote what is rejected and unmerchantable : Such marks shall be indented or stamped on the end of each article of lumber culled in terms of the merchantable standard hereinafter prescribed, except as to West India and barrel staves, boards, deals, lathwood and handspikes. Every culler shall check and examine the entry of his measurements and of culling and counting on the books of the supervisor, and sign such entry and cal- culations on the said books. A copy of every agreement as to the adoption of any of the modes of meas- urement or culling mentioned in this Act, signed by the seller and buyer, shall be lodged in the office of the supervisor, or deputy supervisor, at the same time that a requisition is made to him for a culler to measure or cull any lumber, for the guidance of the supervisor, or deputy supervisor, and culler, in the performance of their duty, — and such requisition shall state the river and section of the Province wherefrom such lumber is produced ; but the owner of any lumber, or his agent, may cause it to be measured, culled or counted before any sale, in which case the specification of such lumber shall set forth the mode in which the measurement, culling or counting has been performed. QUALITIES OF LUMBER. In all cases the supervisor, deputy supervisor and cullers, respectively shall, in ascertaining and certifying the merchantable size and quality of lumber submitted to their culling, be governed by the descriptions, rules, standards and limitations following, that is to say:— White Oa^.— Square white oak timber, first quality, shall be free from rot, rotten knots affecting the surrounding wood, open rings and grub or large worm holes, but small worm holes and shakes shall be allowed according to the judg- ment of the culler; Second quality shall be oak not coming within the definition of first quality, and which, in the judgment of the culler, is not culls; Rock £■/»/.— Square hard grey or rock elm shall be free from rot, open rings QUEBEC— QUEBEC CULLING. 127 and rotten knots affecting the surrounding wood, but staalces and slivers shall be allowed according to the judgment of the culler ; White or Yellow /¥««.— Square white or yellow pine timber shall be free from rot, rotten knots affecting the surrounding wood, worm holes, open shakes and open rings, but sound knots shall be allowed according to the judgment of the culler ; Red Pine. — Square red pine timber shall be free from rot, rotten knots affect- ing the surrounding wood, worm holes, shakes and splits, but sound knots shall be allowed according to the judgment of the culler ; Ash, Basswood and Butternut. — Square ash, basswood and butternut shall be of the same quality as white or yellow pine square timber ; Birch. — Square birch shall be free from rot, rotten knots, splits and shakes, and shall be allowed two inches wane ; Masts, Bowsprits and Red Pine Spars. — Masts, bowsprits and red pine spars shall be sound, free from bad knots, rents and shakes, and the heart shall be visi- ble in spots at or near the partners ; Hickory Handspikes. — Hickory handspikes shall be six feet long, and three and a half inches square at the smaller end ; Ash Oars. — Ash oars shall be three inches square on the loin, and five inches broad on the blade, the blade shall be one-third of the length of the oar, and such oars shall be cleft straight on all sides, and free from large knots, splits and shakes; Lathwood. — Lathwood shall be cut in lengths of from three to six feet, and measured by the cord of eight feet in length by four feet in height; and, to be merchantable, shall be free from rot, shall split freely, and each billet may contain to the extent of three or four open case knots, provided they run in line or nearly so, and it shall not have more than one twist ; Pine or Fir Boards. — Pine or fir boards shall not be less than ten feet in length, one inch in thickness and seven inches in breadth, equally broad from end to end, edged with a saw, or neatly trimmed by a straight line, and shall be free from rot, bad knots, rents and shakes, and of equal thickness on both edges from end to end; the color alone of any board shall not be a sufiBcient cause for its rejection, if it is in other respects sound and merchantable, and of the dimensions required by this Act ; White or Yellow Pine Deals. — White or yellow pine deals, to be merchantable, shall be free from rot, rotten knots, grub-worm holes, open case knots, shakes and splits (a slight sun crack excepted) , and sound knots and hard black knots shall be allowed as follows : If they do not exceed three in number, and do not exceed on the average one inch and a quarter diameter ; if they exceed three and are not more than six in number, and do not exceed, on the average, three-quarters of an inch in diameter ; such proportion of knots shall be allowed for a deal eleven inches in width and twelve feet in length, and deals of greater or less dimension shall be allowed for in proportion, according to the judgment of the culler; wane equal to half an inch on one edge, if running the whole length of the deal, shall be allowed, and if not exceeding half the length of such deal, three-quarters of an inch wane shall be allowed; the deals shall be free from black or dead sap, with a slight ex- ception, in the discretion of the culler ; Red Pine Deals. — Red pine deals, to be merchantable, shall be free from rot, rotten knots, grub-worm holes, open case knots and splits; several small sound 128 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. knots shall be allowed, according to the judgment of the culler ; heart shake shall be allowed, if it does not run far into the deal or form a split through at the ends; they shall be free, or nearly so, from black or dead sap, but sound sap on the comers or on a portion of one face of a deal shall be allowed, according to the judgment of the culler ; Spruce Deals. — Spruce deals, to be merchantable, shall be free from rot, rotten knots, grub-worm holes; open case knots, splits and shakes, — a heart shake not ex- ceeding one-fourth of an inch to half an inch in depth excepted ; several small sound knots and hard black knots shall be allowed, according to the judgment of the culler, and in the exercise of such judgment he shall keep in view the peculiar nature of the. wood, and govern his judglnent accordingly; wane equal to half an inch on one edge, if running the whole length of the deal, shall be allowed, and if not exceeding one-quarter the length of such deal, three-quarters of an inch shall be allowed ; White or Yellow Pine, Second Quality Deals. — White or yellow pine second quality deals shall be free from rot, rotten knots and splits, with slight exceptions, at the discretion of the culler, and sound knots and hard black knots shall be allowed as follows : If they do not exceed six in number and, upon the average, one inch and a half diameter ; if they exceed six and are not more than twelve in number, and do not exceed, upon the average, one inch and a quarter in diameter, — but small knots under half an inch diameter shall not be counted or considered ; such proportion of knots shall be allowed for a deal eleven inches in width and twelve feet in length, and deals of greater or less dimensions shall be allowed for in proportion, according to the judgment of the culler ; heart shakes and sun cracks not exceeding three-fourths of an inch to one inch in depth shall be allowed, as also worm holes, according to the judgment of the culler ; wane of half an inch to one inch shall be allowed according to the quality of the deal in other respects, accord- ing to the judgment of the culler ; deals rejected as not coming within the standard of merchantable or second quality shall be classed as culls,— except that the culler may, if requested by buyer and seller, select and classify, as third quality, the best of the deals so rejected; Spruce and Red Pine, Second Quality Deals. — Spruce and red pine second qual- ity deals, shall be deals not coming within the definition of merchantable, and which, in the opinion and judgment of the culler, are not culls, and shall be classed as second quality ; and the culler, if required by seller and buyer, may select and classify as third quality the best of the deals unfit to be seconds ; Quebec Standard Hundred of Deals. — The Quebec standard hundred of deals shall be one hundred pieces twelve feet long, eleven inches broad, and two and a half inches thick ; and deals of all other dimensions shall be computed according to the said standard ; deals of all qualities shall be not less than eight feet long, seven inches broad and two and a half inches thick ; deal ends shall be not less than six feet long and shall be computed according to the Quebec standard ; Merchantable Deals. — All merchantable deals shall be well sawn and squared at the end with a saw, and the color alone shall be no objection to their being mer- chantable ; To be Stamped.— AW deals when culled shall, in all cases, be stamped with the initials of the culler, and the capital letter denoting their quality as such ; QUEBEC— QUEBEC CULLING. 129 Marking of Spruce and Other Deals.— S-prvice deals, if not sawn at the ends prior to or at the time of culling, shall be marked with the capital letter, denoting their respective qualities, with red chalk, in large bold letters; and to prevent mistakes in piling, all other deals shall be marked with bold strokes in red chalk as follows: — Merchantable shall be marked, I ; Second quality shall be marked, II ; Third quality (if made) shall be marked. III ; Rejected or culls shall be marked, X; STANDARD OR MEASUREMENT STAVES. Standard or measurement staves shall be of the dimensions set forth in the words and figures following :— 5% feet long, 5 inches broad, and from 1 to 3 Inches thick. 4,% do. i^i do. Sa do. 4 do. 2K do. S do. HEAD STAVES. Head staves, five and a half feet long, and four and a half inches broad, shall be received as if of merchantable dimensions ; STANDARD MILLE. The standard mille shall be twelve hundred pieces of five and a half feet long, five inches broad, and one and a half inches thick; and standard or measurement staves of other dimensions shall be reduced to the said standard by the tables of calculation now used ; WEST INDIA OR PUNCHEON STAVES. West India or puncheon staves shall be three and a half feet long, four inches broad, and three-fourths of an inch thick ; QUALITIES REQUISITE IN ALL STAVES. All staves shall be straight grained timber, properly split, with straight edges, free from the grub or large worm holes, knots, veins, shakes and splinters; and small worm holes which do not exceed three in number, shall be allowed according to the judgment of the culler, provided there are no veins running from or con- nected therewith, and the culler shall measure the length, breadth and thickness of standard staves at the shortest, narrowest and thinnest parts ; and the thickness of West India and barrel staves exceeding the standard breadth shall be measured at such standard breadth, to wit : Four and three and a half inches respectively, provided the thinnest edge is not less than half an inch ; DIMENSIONS OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER. The dimensions of merchantable timber shall be as set forth in the following words and figures : — Oak. — Oak shall be at least twenty feet in length and ten inches square in the middle ; Elm. — Elm shall be at least twenty feet in length and ten inches square in the middle ; White Pine.— '^hite pine shall be at least twenty feet in length and twelve inches square in the middle, and fifteen feet and upwards in length, if it is sixteen inches square and upwards in the middle ; Red Pine.— Red pine shall be at least twenty-five feet in length and ten inches 130 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. square in the middle, and twenty feet and upwards in length, if it is twelve inches square and upwards in the middle ; Ask, Basswood and BtUternut.—As'ii, basswood and butternut shall be at least fifteen feet in length and twelve inches square in the middle, and at least twelve feet in length, if it is fifteen inches square and upwards in the middle ; Birch. — Birch shall be at least six feet in length and twelve inches square in the middle ; TAPER OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER. Taper of merchantable timber: — Oak, 3 inches, under 30 feet, and in proportion for any greater length. Elm, 2 do. for 30 do. do. do. do. White pine, \% do. for 20 do. do. do. do. Red pine, 2 do. for 25 do. do. do. do. Ash, basswood and butternut, IM inches, under 20 feet, and in proportion for any greater length. Bends or twists not to exceed one in number ; HOLLOW ALLOWED. Hollow allowed on merchantable timber : — Oak, 3 inches for every 20 feet in length, and in proportion for any greater length ; Elm, 3 inches for every 20 feet in length, and in proportion for any greater length ; White pine, 2% inches for every 20 feet in length, and in proportion for any greater length ; Red pine, 3 inches for every 20 feet in length, and in proportion for any greater length ; Ash, basswood and butternut, 2% inches for every 20 feet in length, and in proportion for any greater length ; DIMENSIONS OF MASTS, BOWSPRITS AND RED PINE SPARS. White pine masts of 23 inches and upwards at the partners, shall be 3 feet in length to an inch in diameter ; 22 inches do. 3 feet do. do. and 2 feet extreme length ; 21 do. do. 3 feet do. do. and 3 feet do. 20 do. and under 3 feet do. do. and 4 feet do. Hollow or bend not to exceed six inches for seventy feet, and in proportion for any greater length ; Bowsprits shall be two feet in length for every inch in diameter at the partners, adding two feet for extreme length ; Red pine spars shall be three feet to the inch in diameter at the partners, and nine feet extreme length ; hollow not to exceed seven inches for sixty feet, and in proportion for any greater length. REWORKING. Whenever it appears that timber, masts, spars, boards, planks, deals, staves, oars or any other description of lumber, are not properly hewn, squared, butted or edged, but are merchantable in other respects and sold as such, the supervisor, deputy and culler, respectively, shall order or cause the same to be properly dressed and chopped, at the expense of the seller or the buyer, as the case may be, previ- QUEBEC— QUEBEC CULLING. 131 ously to their being respectively received and certified to be merchantable ; and such dressing and chopping shall be done under the direction of the culler in charge of the measuring or culling. SURVBY IN CASK OF DISPUTE. If any dispute arises between the first buyer or seller, or the person making the requisition, and the culler employed to cull or measure any article of lumber, with regard to the dimensions or quality thereof, the supervisor or deputy shall, as soon as possible, upon a written complaint thereof being made, demanding a sur- vey, cause a board of survey to be held for examining the quality and dimensions of such lumber ; and such board shall take into consideration the position of such lumber when measured or culled, and all other circumstances and considerations connected therewith, in reporting thereon ; and such board shall consist of three persons, — one to be appointed by the culler whose decision is disputed, one by the person complaining, and one by the supervisor or deputy, — and their determination shall be final and conclusive ; and if the opinion and act of the culler is confirmed, the reasonable costs and charges of re-examination shall be paid by the person complaining, but if otherwise, by the culler : WHEN SURVEY MUST BE DEMANDED. Such survey shall be demanded when the culling or measuring is completed, or within two lawful days after the person demanding the survey has been furnished with the specification thereof ; and such right of survey shall cease on and after the fifteenth day of November in each year : APPOINTMENT OF CULLER. The supervisor or deputy, for the more expeditious settlement of disputes, may, with the consent and at the request of buyer, seller and culler concerned, name one culler to act as surveyor ; and if the culler so named is not objected to by any of the persons interested, he shall act in the capacity of a board of survey, and his determination shall be final and conclusive. COLLECTION OF FEES AND CHARGES. The fees and charges fixed by the Governor in Council shall be charged and collected by the supervisor and deputy supervisor, as the fees and charges for cul- ling, measuring or counting off each description of lumber, and for making out specifications, and shall include all charges and expenses against such lumber, except in cases where extra labor for canting, dressing, butting, chopping and pil- ing is necessary and required : BY WHOM AND WHEN PAYABLE. One-half of such fees and charges shall be paid by the buyer, and the other half by the seller; but the whole of such fees and charges shall, in all cases, be paid to the supervisor or deputy, on the delivery of the specification or on the pres- entation of an account thereof, by the person, or by the persons jointly or sever- ally, who filed a requisition or order for such measuring, counting or culling, whether such person or persons are buyers, sellers, owners, or possessors of such lumber. CULLING NOT COMPULSORY IN CERTAIN CASES. Nothing in this Act shall make it compulsory to have any article of lumber measured, culled or assorted, under this Act, if such lumber is shipped for exporta- tion by sea for account, in good faith, of the actual and bona fide producer or 132 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. , manufacturer thereof ; but all other lumber shipped for exportation by sea, shall be either measured, culled or counted, at the option of the persons interested, by a licensed culler, under the control and superintendence of the supervisor or deputy ; and the owner or shipper of such lumber, or the proprietor or lessee of the premises from which such lumber is so unlawfully shipped, shall incur a penalty equal to the market value of any article of lumber so unlawfully shipped. CHAPTER XL QUEBEC— PERSONNEL, Previous chapters have dealt with physical features, with forests, with history of development and administration and with statistics, but no history can be complete without reference to the men who have done the things recorded. It has not seemed necessary or advisable to make the personal element prominent in a work of this character, but in order to link the past with the present and to indicate the forces which are still carrying ahead the lumber development of the Province of Quebec the following brief sketches of individuals, firms or companies that once were or are now prominent in the industry are presented. Some of them were pioneers ; some of them are occupying a growing place either in lumber manufacture or in lumber commerce ; but all are deemed worthy of mention in a work of this character. THE MONTMORENCY MILLS. Early in the Nineteenth Century the English government sent sev- eral practical men to Canada to procure timber for shipbuilding. One of these men was Peter Patterson, who, later, in connection with Henry Usburne in the year 1811, purchased the site of the famous Montmorency sawmills, at the foot of the Falls of Montmorency, near the City of Quebec. Subsequently Mr. Patterson conducted the business on his own account for a period of forty years, when he died. He was suc- ceeded by the late George Benson Hall, who conducted six mills at the same place until his death in 1876, after which the mills were operated by Andrew Thomson, Patterson Hall and George Benson Hall, under the firm name of G. B. Hall & Co., until 1884, when Patterson Hall and H. M. Price, under the name of Hall & Price, leased the mills and con- tinued them until 1892, when they were shut down. In 1894 the build- ings were bought by Mr. Price and pulled down by him. The Mont- morency Cotton Works now occupy the site. H. M. PRICE. H. M. Price, after the Montmorency mills were closed, bought the Whitton, East Broughton and Lyster mills, which he continued to op- erate until about twenty-four years ago, when he sold out to his man- ager, D. H. Pennington, an old Montmorency man who has since built 133 134 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. another mill in the same neighborhood, all now being operated to their full capacity. Mr. Price, though still in the deal business, is largely engaged in the production of pulpwood, and is president of the Pulpwood Association of Quebec Province. HAMILTON BROS. George Hamilton, one of the earliest in the trade, bought the Hawkesbury mill property, on the Ottawa River, in 1811, and at his death the business — a general deal and lumber business — was carried on by his three sons, Robert, George and the Hon. John Hamilton. The business became one of the most extensive on the Ottawa River, and the whole of the mill's cut was brought to the Quebec market for exportation to Great Britain. Some years before the firm retired from business, John, the son of the late Robert Hamilton, became a partner. He is still living in Quebec and is chancellor of the University of Bishop's College, Lennoxville, Quebec, where he graduated with the degrees of master of arts and doctor of civil law. HENRY ATKINSON. In the early part of the Nineteenth Century, Sir John Caldwell, the Receiver General of Lower Canada, opened two lumbering establish- ments — one on the Etchemin River and the other on the St. Nicholas. For the double purpose of bringing down logs and for an additional supply of water for his mills, at the foot of the St. Nicholas Falls he con- structed a canal about five miles long from a tributary of the Chaudiere to the St. Nicholas River. In 1821 Charles King, father of the mem- bers of the present firm of King Bros., Limited, came over from England and took charge of the St. Nicholas establishment for Sir John, and at about the same time John Thomson, father of Andrew Thomson, now president of the Union Bank of Canada, came from Boness, Scotland, and took charge of the Etchemin establishment. After the return of Sir John Caldwell to England, the St. Nicholas mill fell into the hands of the late William Gerrard Ross, and the Etchemin mill into the hands of the late Henry Atkinson, uncle of the present proprietor, Henry At- kinson, who still conducts that valuable property. JOHN BREAKEY. The St. Nicholas mill, like the Montmorency mills, has long been dismantled, the tendency at present being to take the mill to the logs instead of, as in the past, bringing the logs to the mill. Following up this practice, Charles King, in partnership with H. D. Breakey, father of the present owner of this property, John Breakey, built in 1846 the QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 135 existing mills on the Chaudiere River, several miles south of the St. Lawrence River (at a point about six miles from Quebec City), whence the deals were started down to the Chaudiere Basin on the St. Lawrence for shipment. Subsequently the property became that of Henry King and John King, and upon the death of the former, Mr. Breakey suc- ceeded to the ownership, which he still maintains. This mill is one of the largest if not the largest spruce deal mill in the Province of Quebec. THE THOMSONS. Some time after John Thomson, before referred to, left Etchemin, he took two of his sons into partnership with him — Andrew and John Thomson — under the firm name of Thomson & Co., and they purchased the Buckingham mill property in conjunction with the Hamilton broth- ers, and conducted on a large scale a pine deal business. These deals were taken down to Quebec in moulinettes and piled or shipped from the river at the New Liverpool cove. When the partnership between the Hamiltons and the Thomsons was dissolved, the Thomsons bought Victoria cove, on the north side of the St. Lawrence, where they car- ried on business until they retired over a quarter century ago. KING BROS., LIMITED. King Bros., Limited, with headquarters at Quebec City, are ex- tensive manufacturers of spruce and pine, and have been in the trade for many years, the firm having been established in 1829 by the late Charles King, who erected his first mill at St. Antoine de Tilly in the Province of Quebec. At present there are two partners in the firm — Edmund Alexander King and Charles King, with W. S. Thomas as vice president and general manager of the business. King Bros, are noted for their careful and reliable selection of shipments, and their opera- tions have been carried on over a large area and in various localities of the Province of Quebec. The late James King, who was a partner up to the time of his death about ten years ago, was a member of the Provincial Legislature for Megantic for several years, and was well known to the trade both at home and abroad. W. & J. SHARPLES. W. & J. Sharpies (Hon. John Sharpies) is one of the oldest firms in the Quebec square timber trade, having been established in 1830 by William Sharpies, of Liverpool. The business was after- ward taken over by his son, Henry Sharpies, about 1840. Richard Wainright and Charles Sharpies, and afterward the late Hon. John Sharpies, next conducted the business and subsequently the latter's sons. 136 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. only one of whom remains in the timber export trade, the Hon. John Sharpies, who is the sole proprietor of the business carried on under the style of W. & J. Sharpies. He was born in Quebec in 1847. He entered the firm in 1871, and under his management the business has been greatly extended. The firm ships about 2,000,000 cubic feet of square and waney timber of all kinds during the season of navigation, and about 50,000,000 feet board measure of pine deals and sidings. The firm possesses two coves at Quebec — the Sillery cove, which is devoted to the shipment of square and waney timber, and Bridgewater cove, where there are large piling grounds for deals and lumber. The name of Sharpies has been prominently before the public in connection with the timber and lumber export trade of Canada for nearly three-quarters of a century. The development of the business of this concern from comparatively small beginnings has been some- thing phenomenal. The establishment transacts the greater part of its trade with the United Kingdom, but business relations are maintained also with certain commercial centers in continental Europe. There are branch offices at Montreal and Ottawa, and the firm has agencies in Glasgow, London and Liverpool. The Hon. John Sharpies is a member of the Legislative Council of the Province of Quebec, to which he was nominated in 1893, and of the Quebec Board of Harbor Commissioners ; vice president of the Union Bank of Canada and of the Quebec Auditorium; a director of the Quebec Bridge Company ; president of The Chronicle Newspaper Com- pany ; mayor of the suburban town of Sillery, and was, until he resigned recently, vice president of the Great Northern railway of Canada. J. BURSTALL & CO. J. Burstall & Co. is one of the oldest Quebec firms engaged in the export of wood goods from Canada, having been established in the City of Quebec by the late Henry Burstall, in the year 1832, nearly three- quarters of a century ago. He came from Hull, England, and was shortly afterward joined by his brother Edward. The business was . carried on for many years under the style of H. & E. Burstall. On the retirement of Henry Burstall in 1856, it was changed to E. Burstall & Co. In 1857 John Burstall, a nephew of the brothers, was admitted as a partner, and when a few years afterward Edward Burstall retired, it was again changed to J. Burstall & Co., and has so remained ever since. QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 137 About the year 1863 Stanley Smith, of Liverpool, joined the firm and continued as a partner for ten or twelve years, when he retired. W. H. Robinson then became a member, as representing Harrison, Robinson & Co., of Liverpool. Mr. Robinson died in 1876, and the fol- lowing year F. Billingsly, for many years in the employ of the firm, was admitted into partnership, along with H. T. Walcot. The latter remained in the firm fourteen years, and the former until his death in 1903. John Burstall, who had been head of the firm for about thirty- five years, died in England in 1896. The business is now conducted by John F. Burstall, his son. The firm has a branch office in Mont- real and another in London, England. It has for more than a half century done a large annual export trade, and before the development of the steam carrying trade, for a long period of years, exported annu- ally to Great Britain from 120 to 200 cargoes of timber and deals. NICHOLAS FLOOD. One of the oldest living operators in the timber and deal trade of the Province of Quebec is Nicholas Flood, a resident of the Ancient Capital, who, in the successive capacities of culler and manufacturer, has been identified with this industry for more than a half century. Mr. Flood was born in Wexford, Ireland, and immigrated to Canada with his parents at the age of eight years. A year later, at the tender age of nine, he began his apprenticeship as a culler's assistant at Walker's cove, Quebec. His tmusually active career covers the most prosperous period of the Quebec export timber trade. For many years he received for the owners at Cape Rouge cove, at Quebec, from 7,000,- 000 to 13,000,000 feet of board pine each season, and about twelve years ago succeeded to the management, which office he still holds. PRICE BROS. & CO., LIMITED. Price Bros. & Co., Limited, of Quebec, are the largest lumber operators in spruce in the Province of Quebec, having sawmills in all the principal lumbering districts east of the Ottawa, and are also the largest individual limit holders in Canada. The company has a paid up capital of $2,000,000. The total appraised value of the assets of the company is $4,500,000. The value of the freehold lands, seigniories and timber limits alone is in excess of $3,000,000. These lands sched- ule over 100,000 acres. The limits operated under license schedule over 6,000 square miles. The timber consists principally of spruce, bal- sam, cedar, birch and a small amount of pine, poplar and hemlock. The 138 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. predominating wood is spruce, a large part of the limits being included in the great spruce belt of Canada. The timber is located in a district where the rapidity of growth is probably greater than anywhere else in North America, so that a tract may be gone over again in fifteen or twenty years. The company has mills at the following places, all in the Province of Quebec: Batiscan, St. Thomas, Cape St. Ignace, Rimouski, Matane, Salmon Lake, Metabetchouan, Chicoutimi, L'Anse au Cheval and St. Catherine's Bay. In addition to the sawmills, the company owns one of the largest pulp mills in Canada, located at Rimouski. The founder of this business, the late William Price, in 1840 estab- lished the mills at Chicoutimi, St. Alexis, L'Anse St. Jean and St. Etienne, on the Saguenay, and at Metis, Matane, St. Thomas, Batiscan and other places, leaving an immense business to his sons, the last of whom, Hon. E. J. Price, died about six years ago, at which time his nephew, William Price, succeeded to the business, which, during the latter part of 1904, was converted into a limited stock company, with Mr. Price as president. On the far famed Saguenay the company has four mills, from which it ships its well known spruce deals. This remarkable river is naviga- ble for ships of the deepest draft for sixty miles. On account of the swift current, a powerful tug is provided for the convenience of ships coming up to load, there being no possible anchorage on the river except at the mills. The Chicoutimi mill is situated in the town of that name at the head of navigation. The mill at Grand Bay (or Ha-Ha Bay) is driven by water power. The other mills on the Sag- uenay, as already stated, are situated at L'Anse St. Jean and St. Etienne. The total capacity of these mills is 20,000 standards per season. The Metis steam mill is about two hundred miles below Que- bec, on the south shore ; the Matane mill, about two hundred and thirty miles ; these and the Salmon Lake mill, on the Matapedia River, have a capacity of about four thousand standards each. A few years ago a new steam mill was built at Trois Pistoles, about one hundred and thirty miles below Quebec, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence. The ca- pacity of the mill is from 2,000 to 3,000 standards. The mill at Cape St. Ignace (steam power) and the mill at Trois Saumons have a joint capacity of about two thousand standards. The shipments of the company are chiefly to Great Britain, the Continent, South America and Australia, and its agents in the United Kingdom are Price & Pierce, of London. QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 139 William Price takes an active interest in all commercial matters relating to the development of Canada. He has been president of the Quebec Board of Trade, is honorary commodore of the Quebec Yacht Club, vice president of the Quebec Steamship Company and was a can- didate in the Conservative interest for the county of Rimouski in the general elections for the Dominion of Canada in 1904. William Price succeeded his uncle, the Hon. E. J. Price, as presi- dent of the A. Gravel Lumber Company, Limited, which has a large modern mill on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River, a few miles from Quebec City. It manufactures all kinds of lumber, including spruce, birch, etc., and box boards for the English market and all kinds of joinery for local consumption. Agencies are maintained in Boston, New York and London. G. B. SYMES & CO. The well known firm of G. B. Symes & Co. was established in Quebec about the year 1840, and was composed of George Burns Symes and D. D. Young, both of whom were English born. They were shippers of all kinds of timber and lumber, and operated largely in the shipping interests of the port. Upon the death of Mr. Symes, A. F. A. Knight, the firm's bookkeeper, became a partner with Mr. Young under the name of D. D. Young & Co. This firm was succeeded, upon the retirement of Mr. Young, by A. F. A. Knight & Co., which firm went out of business over a quarter century ago. THE BENSONS. The name of Benson has long been familiar in connection with the timber and shipping interests of the port of Quebec. W. J. C. Benson, came to Canada from London, England, about sixty years ago, and began a business career which, though brief, was extraordinarily active. He was one of the largest if not the largest shipper in the port for five years, when he died at the early age of thirty-three years. He shipped from 100 to 110 cargoes each season during this period. He built several ships at New Liverpool cove, Quebec, which property he owned, in the palmy days of the wooden ship industry. His cargoes of wood goods embraced square pine, deals, staves and lathwood. At the time of his death, about 1850, Joseph Roberts, who had been Mr. Benson's agent both in Quebec and in England, entered into partnership with Thomas Benson (a brother of the former) and R. H. Smith, under the firm name of Benson & Co. The new enterprise was very successful, and the firm's cargoes reached the extraordinary number of 140 in a 140 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. single season. The business continued until the retirement of Thomas Benson, when the two remaining partners continued the business under the name of Roberts, Smith & Co., their operations being extensive for upward of twelve years, when Mr. Roberts retired and returned to England in 1880. At this time E. Harper Wade (now manager of The McArthur Export Company, of Quebec) became a partner with Mr. Smith under the style of Smith, Wade & Co. Mr. Smith retired after six years, and H. T. Walcot (now representing The McArthur Export Company in London, England) joined Mr. Wade under the old firm name, and the business was continued until 1890, at which time it was wound up. DUNN & CO. The business of Dunn & Co. was established over a half century ago by the late Timothy Dunn, who was the doyen of the timber trade of the port of Quebec. Stuart H. Dunn, his oldest son, is now the sole proprietor of the firm. This concern draws its supplies of timber from Ohio and West Virginia, and is agent for certain hardwood lum- bermen of the United States whose makes are of standard excellence and in good repute abroad. Dunn & Co. are probably more largely interest- ed in the oak timber trade than any other firm in the City of Quebec. The late Timothy Dunn was born at St. Ursule, Quebec Province, in 1816. In 1841 he entered the Quebec oifice of the great timber firm of Calvin, Cook & Counter, and later became the head of the firm of Dunn, Calvin & Co. Afterward, in conjunction with the late Thomas Benson, he transacted business under the name of T. H. Dunn & Co., and in 1860 formed a new partnership with the late William Home, the firm being Dunn & Home. The firm was succeeded by his two sons, the late Logic H. Dunn and Stuart H. Dunn, under the present name of Dunn & Co. HENRY FRY & CO. A notable firm closely associated with the commercial life of the port of Quebec for over a half century is that of Henry Fry & Co. The firm was established by Henry Fry in 1854, as timber merchant and ship owner. The founder having been joined by his brother in 1861, both continued to carry on this business on an extensive scale. In 1877 it happened, however, that, owing to ill health, Mr. Fry was prevented from taking an active part in the operations of the firm, and from that date until 1882 the management and direction of the business was in the hands of E. C. Fry. In the year last mentioned it was deemed QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 141 advisable for the senior partner to retire for a much needed and well earned rest, and, in consequence, the firm was dissolved. At about this time Robert Stanley, who had been associated with the business since 1862, was admitted as a partner, and, with E. C. Fry, has since suc- cessfully conducted the present business of general commission mer- chants. E. C. Fry was appointed a member of the Transportation Commission created by the Canadian government in 1903. THE WILSONS. Matthew Isaac Wilson and his brother, Charles William Wilson, formed a partnership under the firm name of Wilson Bros. & Co., on March 7, 1854. This partnership was formed in Liverpool, and a busi- ness in timber, deals, staves and general cargoes was conducted in both Liverpool and Quebec, with C. W. Wilson in charge of the Canadian branch. The firm acquired Dalhousie and Glenburnie coves in Quebec, and built several ships. About a year afterward the partnership was dissolved, when C. W. Wilson continued as agent in Canada for his brother in Liverpool until 1866, when the former went into the business on his own account, retaining the coves mentioned, building ships and carrying on a general export business, the cargoes embracing largely timber, deals, staves, etc. The Wilsons have loaded as many as 140 cargoes in a single season. J. P. Bickell, who was a clerk in the firm's ofi&ces, became a partner with M. I. Wilson and represented the busi- ness as selling agent in England. The business of C. W. Wilson in Quebec was wound up in 1885, and that of the Liverpool house in 1895. The brothers were among the best known merchants and shipbuilders in the history of these important industries. W. H. Wilson, oldest son of C. W. Wilson, in the year in which his father retired formed a part- nership with John S. Murphy as J. S. Murphy & Co., which continued up to 1895, when the senior partner died, and W. H. Wilson, with his brother Fred, formed a partnership in a commission and agency busi- ness, which is still in existence, having headquarters in Quebec City. DOBELL, BECKETT & CO. Among the notable firms that have long held a prominent place in the Canadian timber export trade, that of Dobell, Beckett & Co. is most familiar. The Quebec house was founded nearly a half century ago by the late Hon. R. R. Dobell and the late Thomas Beckett. The firm has branch oflS.ces at Montreal and Ottawa and representatives in Great Britain. Its annual shipments from the ports of Quebec and Montreal amount to, in timber and lumber, hundreds of millions of 142 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. feet. The Quebec establishment is one of the leading commercial in- heritances of the port. The late Hon. R. R. Dobell was senior member and active head of the enterprise, and to his personal activity and commercial ability the firm in a large measure owes its prominence, stability and wide spread reputation. In the partnership were, in more recent years, T. Steven- son, Lorenzo Evans and W. Molson Dobell. Since the death of the two principals a few years ago, the Canadian business has been carried on by L. Evans, W. M. Dobell and R. W. Beckett, and the London, Eng- land, business by Mr. Stevenson. Hon. R. R. Dobell represented Quebec West in the Canadian House of Commons for several years, and was also a minister of the Federal government. His absorption in the duties of state as well as those of membership of the Quebec Harbor Commission and Board of Trade, latterly placed the firm's business, to a large extent, in the hands of his associate partners in Quebec. The firm possesses some fine cove property at Sillery, where, dur- ing the season of navigation, much activity prevails in connection with the dressing and loading of timber. SIR HENRI JOLY DE LOTBINI^RE. The seigniory of Lotbini^re, in the Province of Quebec, is one of the oldest in Canada, having been in the possession of the de Lotbi- nihve family since the year 1673. The seigniory is situated on the right bank of the St. Lawrence River, about forty miles west of the City of Quebec, and embraces an area of 87,000 acres of forest. It is the ambition of the de Lotbiniferes to work this forest in a scientific and conservative manner so as to secure its perpetuity for many years to come. Their contention is that any one holding freehold or patented timber lands should work them simply for the revenue and not with the idea of converting them, with as short delay as possible, into cash; that no better investment can be found at the present time than timber lands, particularly when easy of access and exploitation ; that a timber limit if properly managed should have no finality; that conservative felling will ensure the perpetuity of a forest, be it large or small ; that a strict attention to a rational felling diameter and careful supervision against the lumberman's greatest enemy, fire, constitute the two essen- tial features necessary to perpetuate the existence of a forest. Henri Gustavus Joly de Lotbiaifere built a mill and began operations on the property in the year 1830, taking large quantities of pine and QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 143 spruce deals to the Quebec market. His son, Sir Henri Joly de Lotbi- nifere, continues the business with the assistance of his son, E. G. Joly de Lotbinifere. Sir Henri Joly de Lotbinifere, present head of this house, and one of the most distinguished public men of Canada, is widely known as a zealous and practical advocate of forestry. Sir Henri was bom in France in 1829 of Huguenot ancestry, and came to Canada when a young man. He was admitted to practice at the Quebec bar in 1855, and was returned as a Liberal to the Canadian Assembly in 1861 for the county of Lotbini^re. He took a prominent part in the agitation pre- ceding the confederation of the provinces, to which measure he was strongly opposed. For a number of years he was a member of the Quebec Legislature, and in 1878 became Premier of that Province but was defeated the following year. After a protracted retirement from public life, he reentered the field in 1896, and was elected to the House of Commons as a supporter of Sir Wilfrid Laurier. He was made Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia in 1900, which position he now holds. Sir Henri has written and spoken frequently in connection with for- estry, horticulture and kindred topics, displaying a knowledge largely based upon practical experience and personal research, and has taken an active part in connection with organizations for the promotion of these objects. E. G. JOLY DE LDTBINI^RE. The active connection of E. G. Joly de Lotbini^re, son of the above, with the lumber industry covers a period of barely ten years. Prior to that time he practiced law at Quebec. When, in 1896, his father accepted a seat in the Laurier cabinet, he gave up law and de- voted himself to the management of the seigniory of Lotbinifere. He has also taken an active interest in the work of the Canadian Forestry Association for several years past, and has the honor of representing the association as president for the current year (1905). He was bom November 12, 1859. His mother's name was Margaretta Gower. He was married in 1885 to Lucy Geils Campbell, eldest daughter of the late W. D. Campbell, N. P., of Quebec. He maintains the traditions of his family in the management of the family property, the seigniory of Lotbinifere, and in his public capacity suggests regarding Crown land forests that a rigid enforcement of the existing rules and regulations, the setting aside of extended areas as 144 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. perpetual forest reserves and a vigorous fire protection service should ensure for posterity the advantages which are yet happily enjoyed in the Province of Quebec. D. R. M*LEOD. D. R. McLeod has been in business as a broker between manufac- turers and shippers of timber for nearly a half century. He was at one time a shipper and is still largely interested in the trade at Quebec. WILLIAM POWER, M. P. Canada allows no adventitious circumstance of birth or fortune to be a bar to the progress of her deserving sons. A notable example of this is the career of William Power. He was born in 1849 at St. Colomb de Sillery, a suburb of Quebec City, and was educated at the parochial school of his native parish and at the Quebec Commercial School. When but a lad he entered the offices of W. & J. Sharpies, the well known lumber merchants. Here he displayed such business ability that at the age of seventeen he was promoted to a more important po- sition in the company's employ, and is now, as he has been for several years, manager of the Sharpies business. Mr. Power has been identi- fied with the timber trade of Quebec for nearly forty years. He is a practical lumberman, having spent several years in the pine forests of Canada and of Michigan, supervising the work there carried on by the Sharpies employees. He visits the timber markets of Great Britain each year in the interest of his firm. It would hardly be expected that a man who has shown so many ex- cellent business qualities would be allowed to remain altogether in the comparatively quiet sphere of a business life, and so, not only has he been for many years a member of the parish Municipal Council of Sil- lery, but, on the death of Hon. R. R. Dobell, member of Parliament for the city district of Quebec West and a prominent timber merchant, Mr. Power was elected as his successor. He has since been reelected by his constituency at the general elections for the Dominion Par- liament in 1903. Mr. Power is associated with Mr. Sharpies and Harcourt Smith in an important business known as the River Quelle Pulp & Lum- ber Company, which owns two mills on the River Quelle, on the line of the Intercolonial railway below Quebec City. E. HARPER WADB. Edward Harper Wade, who arranged the formation, a few years ago, of the McArthur Export Company, Limited, in the City of Quebec, and QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 145 now holds the position of general manager of this concern, is a native of Liverpool, England. In 1862 he entered the offices of Sharpies & Co., in his native city of Liverpool. In 1870 he was transferred to Quebec, Canada, and remained with the Sharpies firm in that city until the end of 1877, visiting England each winter and taking an active part in the timber business as a salesman. He then accepted a similar posi- tion with Roberts, Smith & Co., of Quebec, and remained with them until the retirement of Joseph Roberts, in the year 1880, when he was taken into partnership by R. H. Smith, of the same city, and for six years carried on business under the style of Smith, Wade & Co. On Mr. Smith's retiring, H. T. Walcot, who had been a partner in the busi- ness of J. Burstall & Co., joined the firm. Subsequently, in 1890, Mr. Walcot became agent in England of the McArthur Bros. Co., Limited, and Mr. Wade the manager of the Quebec and Montreal business of the same concern. CARBRAY, ROUTH & CO. Carbray, Routh & Co., of Quebec and Montreal, have been engaged in the business of general commission and shipping for nearly forty years. They are also selling agents for several important sawmills, and have done a large business with Great Britain, France, Portugal, Australia and South America. Mr. Carbray is a prominent man in pub- lic life, and for many years represented the business division of the City of Quebec in the Parliament of the Province of Quebec. He is also consul for Portugal at Quebec, while Mr. Routh fills the same position as Portuguese representative in Montreal. THE EDSON FITCH COMPANY. Edson Fitch & Co. was established at Montmorency, a few miles east of the City of Quebec, in 1867. In 1869 the plant and works were moved to Etchemin, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River about four miles west of Quebec, where the establishment has steadily grown in importance. Mr. Edson Fitch is an American and has in- vested the industry with a spirit of enterprise so characteristic of his nationality. In 1886 Edson Fitch & Co. was converted into The Edson Fitch Company, and has so continued ever since. The specialty of the works is the manufacture of match splints, shocks and match blocks. Enough splints and blocks are manufactured daily to produce 80,000,- 000 matches, and in the manufacture of splints and cases about 20,- 000,000 feet of lumber are used a year. The company maintains business relations with the United Kingdom, the West Indies and South America. 146 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. BENNETT & CO. Bennett & Co., manufacturers' agents, have been in business in the City of Quebec for over thirty years. The two partners are sons of the late Benson Bennett, who was well known as the largest mill owner and manufacturer of pine and spruce deals in Quebec. Among the various mills for which Bennett & Co. have acted as agents are those of Sir Henri Joly de Lotbinifere, in the seigniory of Lotbinifere, and the Hon. J. K. Ward, of Montreal, for both of whom they have been agents for many years. HAROLD KENNEDY. Harold Kennedy, who has been established in the port of Quebec for nearly a quarter of a century, is identified with the timber export trade. He is the owner of Indian cove, one of the best properties of the kind in the port, which was occupied at one time by the Gilmour Company. Mr. Kennedy came to Quebec from his native city of Liver- pool to represent Taylor, Pierce & Co., of that place, who were the successors of James Bland & Co. He is a manufacturer and shipper of pine and spruce deals and pine and birch timber, and an owner of large limits in the Province of Quebec. He has for his Montreal agents McLean, Kennedy & Co. As ship owners' agent he acts for the fol- lowing well known lines of steamers : Head Line, Belfast and Dublin ; Moss Line, Liverpool; Malay & Mclntyre, Greenock and Glasgow; Holme Line, of Maryport, and represents many owners of tramp steam- ers trading with the St. Lawrence. Mr. Kennedy is a member of the Quebec Harbor Commission, president of the McArthur Export Com- pany, Limited, and vice president of the Quebec- Jacques Cartier Elec- tric Company. He was appointed by the Federal government in 1903 as a member of the Dominion Transportation Commission, but, owing to business engagements, was obliged to decline the honor. H. R. GOODDAY & CO. Nearly twenty years ago H. G. Goodday, of London, England, en- gaged in the lumber export business with E. W. Benson. The firm of Goodday, Benson & Co. was dissolved in 1894, when H. R. Goodday, a son of the senior member of the firm, continued the business under the firm name of H. R. Goodday & Co. In 1899 he entered into part- nership with H. C. Foy, who is a son of the head of the well known firm of Foy, Morgan & Co., of London, England, under the style of H. R. Goodday & Co. The specialty of this firm is spruce deals, getting its supplies from Canadian forests. It also handles hardwoods and QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 147 other lumber. Its trade is principally in the United Kingdom and the chief centers of business on the Continent. Foy, Morgan & Co., London, England, are the iirm's agents in London and on the Con- tinent. J. BELL FORSYTH. J. Bell Forsyth is a name well known in Canada from the publication for so many years of the annual statistics of the timber and lumber trade of Quebec by the late firm of J. Bell Forsyth & Co., who were for many years engaged in the commission business in lumber. The annual statement is still continued under the old name, but Mr. Forsyth is now the collector of customs for the port. ALEXANDER BAPTIST. About half way between Quebec and Montreal, at Three Rivers, are the well known mills of Alexander Baptist, who, on account of the extensive limits he has owned, has been styled the " Lumber King of the St. Maurice." His father was one of the pioneers of the trade. His usual cut is about 300,000 logs per season of pine and spruce, most of the product reaching the English market. THOMAS MALONE. Thomas Malone, of Three Rivers, Quebec, has been prominent for over a quarter of a century in the lumber trade of Quebec Province, though his operations have extended over a much wider field. Born in Quebec City in 1856, he began active operations, before reaching his majority, as a shipper of deals to the British market. Under his ener- getic management the business rapidly developed until he handled a large proportion of the output of the Ottawa Valley going to Quebec. Between the years 1876 and 1880 he operated in Michigan and Wiscon- sin, shipping direct to Britain. In 1884 he removed from Quebec to Three Rivers, in the neighborhood of which place he owns extensive limits in addition to conducting a lumber agency. Mr. Malone has bought and sold timber limits on a large scale, and has done much to develop the trade of Three Rivers. THE WARREN CURTIS MILL. At Three Rivers is also the Warren Curtis mill, which has a capacity of 100,000 feet per day of ten hours. The logs are principally spruce, and number about 200,000 per year. ST. MAURICE LUMBER COMPANY. One of the leading institutions of the St. Maurice River district is the St. Maurice Lumber Company, of Three Rivers. Its ownership is 148 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. largely American, and it operates the pulpwood part of its business in connection with pulp and paper mills at Glens Falls, New York. It owns extensive limits on the St. Maurice River. A large sawmill at Three Rivers produces pine and spruce deals for the English market and inch lumber for the United States, while during the working season about 100,000 feet of spruce timber is cut into pulpwood daily for ship- ment by the Richelieu Canal and Lake Champlain for the Glens Falls plant. THE LAURENTIDE'S PULP MILL. On the St. Maurice River is situated the Laurentide's pulp mill at Grand Mere, manufacturing about one hundred tons a day. Three hun- dred thousand spruce logs are cut yearly. THE TOURVILLE LUMBER MILLS COMPANY. A little higher up the St. Lawrence than Three Rivers, the river widens out and is called Lake St. Peter, near the shores of which the Tourville Lumber Mills Company has three mills — one on the north shore at Louiseville and two on the south shore at Pierreville and Nicolet. The office of the company is at Montreal. THE CHARLEMAGNE & LAC OUAREAU COMPANY. The limits of the Charlemagne & Lac Ouareau Company's mills are situated in the counties of Joliette, Montcalm and Berthier, in the Prov- ince of Quebec, and are composed largely of spruce, pine, birch, hem- lock and ash. The output of the mill is about 30,000,000 feet, the bulk of which is shipped to Great Britain and the United States. The prin- cipal mill is located at Charlemagne, about twelve miles below Montreal, at the junction of the L'Assomption, Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. It is operated by steam and has a capacity of about 2,000 logs per day. The president of the company is Robert Reford, of Montreal, senior member of the firm of Robert Reford & Co. HON. JAMES LITTLE. The Hon. James Little, of Montreal, one of the pioneer lumbermen of Canada, died in October, 1883, being over eighty years of age, and held in the highest esteem not only in his own country but in the United States as well. He was born near Londonderry, Ireland, emigrating to Canada in 1823, at the age of nineteen years. He passed through Montreal and went to Niagara, Ontario, then the wholesale market for that part of Canada. Toronto at that time, was known as the village of York, and Hamilton was not in existence. In 1833 Mr. Little married and moved QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 149 to the township of Seneca, on the Grand River, Ontario. The place where he settled is now the town of Caledonia, which is surrounded by a country that is cleared and settled, but at the time of his first resi- dence there the entire section was an unbroken forest wilderness, the home of the Indians. Upon the building of the first dam in the river, Mr. Little began a lumber manufacturing business, which he carried on upon a large scale for over a quarter of a century. His operations extended over almost the entire peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and at one time numbered twelve different concerns. Later he operated in the counties of Brant, Wentworth, Norfolk and Elgin, and in the Georgian Bay district, Ontario, and finally in the St. Maurice River district, Que- bec, after 1873 making Montreal his home. He was among the first to send lumber to the United States, Albany being his chief market. Mr. Little was a public spirited and farseeing man, being often in advance of his fellows. This frequently caused opposition to his views, but he continued to fight for them until his object was gained. This was especially true of his labors in the interest of forestry. Seeing the rapidity with which commercial woods were being cut away with but small return to the country for their loss, and having a thorough knowl- edge of the subject, he became an earnest and persistent writer on the subject of forest protection at a time when the popular belief was that there was no need of any such protection. His efforts were at last re- warded. The American Forestry Congress, in recognition of his services, accorded him a vote of thanks ; the first forestry association of Canada, that of Ontario, made him its honorary president, and the Government showed its recognition by establishing "Arbor Day." The United States, as well as his own country, honored James Little for his valuable work for forest protection. Since the death of James Little his work has been successfully con- tinued by his son, William Little, of Montreal, who seems to hold by natural heritage the same views as did his father. Following in his father's footsteps, William Little has for many years been a foremost advocate of forestry preservation, and has devoted much time and attention to the study of the relations of Canada with the United States. J. K. WARD. A fine type of the pioneer lumberman is J. K. Ward, of Montreal, Quebec, a Manx by birth. He migrated to the United States, and leased and operated a sawmill at Troy, New York. He bought a saw- 150 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. mill and stumpage on Maskinonge River, in Quebec in 1853, largely increasing his operations as time went by. In 1863 he located at Three Rivers, Quebec, and operated a mill, which he subsequently sold to an American concern. He then leased a larger area of timber land from the Province of Quebec on the Rouge River, and built an extensive sawmill on the Lachine Canal. He operated this mill, which had an annual cut of approximately 15,000,000 feet, until 1900, when he sold the property to a company headed by his oldest son. THE MACLARENS. The MacLaren family, of Buckingham, Quebec, noted for its exten- sive and widely scattered lumbering interests, traces its connection with the industry back to the early days of the pioneers of the Ottawa Valley. David MacLaren, a Scotchman, migrated to Canada in 1824, and took up land in the township of Torbolton, Carleton County, Ontario. He was a man of strong, energetic character and earnest religious con- victions. James MacLaren, his eldest son, was six years of age when the family emigrated. On attaining the age of eighteen he engaged in lumbering, and in 1842 conducted a general store at Peche on the Gatineau River, Quebec. He subsequently built a small sawmill, and in 1853, in partnership with J. M. Currier, leased an extensive sawmill at the mouth of the Gatineau. He rapidly enlarged his enterprises and in 1864 purchased mills and timber limits on the Riviere du Lievre, Quebec. He built an immense sawmill of the modern type at Bucking- ham, Quebec, on the Ottawa River, at the mouth of the Lievre, about fifteen miles below Ottawa, where, for over a quarter of a century, he engaged in the manufacture of lumber on a large scale. He subse- quently operated on the North Nation River, on the Upper Ottawa and in Michigan, being at one time the most extensive operator in America. He died in 1892. David MacLaren, of Ottawa, eldest son of James MacLaren, was born in 1848. In 1874 he became manager of the Gatineau and Ottawa branches of his father's business, which at times employed over one thousand men. The business was subsequently incorporated as the James MacLaren Company, Limited, David MacLaren becoming one of the directors, a position he still holds. He is interested in many other large corporations. Albert MacLaren, son of James MacLaren, born in 1870, is president and managing director of the company, which now operates two exten- sive sawmills with planing mills, etc., at Buckingham, having an output QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 151 of from 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 feet of lumber annually, and employ- ing from 1,200 to 1,500 men in the winter and 400 during the summer months. The company has 2,600 square miles of timber limits in Quebec Province, and owns a pulp mill which began operations in 1902 and produces seventy tons of wood pulp daily. Alexander MacLaren, another son of James MacLaren, born in 1860, has been an active participant in the affairs of the James Mac- Laren Company, but is, perhaps, more prominently connected with other enterprises. He is president of the North Pacific Lumber Com- pany, Limited, organized in 1890, with mills at Bamet, British Colum- bia, having 90,000 acres of cedar and fir limits. Over 25,000,000 feet of sawn lumber is shipped annually from this mill, which also manufac- tures about 30,000,000 shingles a year. Alexander MacLaren is a director of the Keewatin Power Company, Limited, and is concerned in other industrial undertakings. John MacLaren, son of James MacLaren, died May 29, 1903, at Kamloops, British Columbia, from injuries sustained by being thrown from a horse. As a young man he was associated with his father in the lumber business. He spent several years at New Westminster, British Columbia, and for a time lived at Windsor, Ontario. He owned a large sawmill at East Templeton, Quebec. At the time of his death he was about fifty years of age. EZRA B. EDDY. Ezra Butler Eddy, of Ottawa, was born near Bristol, Vermont, Au- gust 22, 1827. He engaged in the business of match manufacturing in Burlington, Vermont, in 1851, and three years later established himself at Hull, Quebec, where he erected extensive mills and workshops. He obtained large timber limits and began the manufacture of lumber, en- gaging also in subsidiary industries, on a large scale, availing himself of the splendid water power of the Ottawa River. In 1856 he added to his enterprise the manufacture of woodenware, and in 1892 erected a paper mill. In the meantime the business had been turned into a joint stock company under the name of The E. B. Eddy Company, of which organization Mr. Eddy is president. The establishment is one of the largest of its kind in the world, the output of the match factory being 50,000,000 matches daily. The total number of employees is over 2,000. Mr. Eddy has been mayor of Hull and represented Ottawa County for a term in the Quebec Legislature. 152 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. HON. GEORGE BRYSON. Hon. George Bryson, who died at Fort Coulonge, January 14, 1900, was one of the pioneer lumbermen of the Province of Quebec. He was born in Paisley, Scotland, December 13, 1813, and came to Canada in 1821, when eight years of age. During the early part of his life he worked on a farm in the summer and in the winter season he got out cordwood under contract. He was one of the first to engage in lum- bering in his district, and at twenty-two years of age, in company with his brother-in-law, the late Hiram Colton, of Litchfield, Pontiac County, Quebec, he began lumbering operations on the Coulonge River above Ragged Chute, Quebec. He took many rafts of square timber to Que- bec, and was a well known figure in the commercial as well as the po- litical life of Canada for more than a half century. Mr. Bryson was a promoter of the Pontiac & Pacific Junction rail- way, a member of the Upper Ottawa Improvement Company for sev- eral years and was one of the founders and a director of the Bank of Ottawa. The town of Bryson, formerly known as Havelock, was renamed after the Bryson family. In politics he was a Liberal, and his parliamentary career began in 1857, when he was elected to represent Pontiac County in the old Canadian Assembly. He was called to the Legislative Council of Quebec in 1867, and occupied a seat there for twenty years, when he retired in favor of his second son, George Bry- son, Junior. EUGENE ETI^NNE TACHE. Eugene Etifenne Tach6, Deputy Minister of Lands and Forests, Province of Quebec, is the eleventh child of Sir E. P. Tach6 and was born at St. Thomas de Montmagny October 25, 1836. He was edu- cated at the Seminary of Quebec and at the Upper Canada College, Toronto. He is a civil engineer and land surveyor for the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario. In 1862 he received the brevet of captain in the Chasseurs Canadiens, of Quebec. He was also a member for several years of the Civil Service Rifle Corps, at Ottawa. On September 20, 1869, Mr. Tach6 was appointed Deputy Minister of Crown Lands, for the Province of Quebec. The department has been known for several years past as that of Lands, Forests and Fisheries, but quite recently it has assumed the title of Lands and Forests simply, the other branch having been added to another department of the government service. As a land surveyor Mr. Tach^ has had wide experience, among other important works, having been engaged in the location of the QUEBEC— PERSONNEL. 153 Ottawa Canal. The maps of the Province which have been drawn by him are models of exactitude and clearness. The plans of the leg- islative buildings and the courthouse, as well as other notable civic and military edifices in the City of Quebec, were made by him, and in these he has shown great taste and originality. Mr. Tach6 has given loyal and active service to the Province for thirty-six years. He has worked conscientiously and assiduously and has shown himself to be a thorough master of all the intricate details of the most important department of the government service. He is the author of the beautiful aind patriotic device, "Je me souviens," which accompanies the arms of the Province of Quebec. His Majesty, King Edward, recognizing the official merit of Mr. Tach^, has created him a Companion of the Imperial Service Order. He has been married twice — on the first occasion to Olympe Elea- nore, daughter of Louis Albert Bender, who died in 1878 ; and subse- quently to Maria Clara, daughter of the Hon. E. L. A. C. J. Duchesnay. CHAPTER XII. ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. As the early history of the Ontario lumber trade goes back to the time when this great section of Canada formed a part of Quebec, any time selected for its beginning, save that time when the pioneers of New France began to sell timber to their neighbors, must be purely arbitrary. This is true for two other reasons also : First, because the great avenue of the lumber trade, the Ottawa River, is the boundary line between the two Provinces ; and, second, because Upper and Lower Canada, after being separated in 1791, were again united under one legislature from 1840-1 to 1867. While the public records were in a measure kept separate they operated under the same laws, while the capital city changed every four years from Toronto to the fortress of Quebec. Some things which equally afiEected the trade in Ontario have been described in dealing with Quebec and are only touched on here, while other things, which it has been deemed advisable to treat in con- nection with this Province, were matters of momentous importance to the lumbermen of Quebec. However, for the purpose of this descrip- tion of the lumber trade, Ontario history may be considered to begin with the setting apart of Upper Canada as a separate province in 1791. This was the period when the only persons authorized to cut timber in the King's forests in Canada were the contractors for the royal navy, who, under their licenses, managed to cut a good deal for the general market without returning any revenue to the Crown. As a part of Quebec, Ontario had part and lot in the regulations regarding the run- ning of the rapids in the St. Lawrence and the preferential duties granted by Great Britain. The lumber industry was one of the first mechanical activities established in Ontario, and dates back to the early days of the settle- ment of the country shortly after the American Revolution. At that time the entire country now embraced within the limits of the Province was densely wooded. In the southern portion, where the first settle- ments were made, the hardwood varieties predominated, largely inter- spersed in some localities with the white pine and other coniferous trees. In the more northerly sections, however, and especially in the 154 ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 155 Ottawa Valley, the pine, hitherto the main factor in the forest wealth of Canada, and its kindred species grew in profusion and at an early date became a valuable and much appreciated source of revenue to the pioneers, who depended largely on the means realized from the timber export trade to procure the supplies they required. Incidental to the work of clearing the land, the settlers in many localities where small sawmills were established were enabled to pro- cure supplies of lumber for local consumption, but the Ottawa Valley, with the means of transportation furnished by the Ottawa and St. Law- rence rivers, early attained that preeminence as a source of the export trade on a large scale which it has since maintained. In treating of this phase of the subject it is difficult to confine this account strictly to the trade of Ontario, as the industry in the early days developed simultaneously upon both sides of the river, some of the largest mills drawing their supplies from Ontario being located on the Quebec side. The watershed of the Ottawa embraces a region of about 80,000 square miles, much of it good agricultural land, and producing origin- ally some of the finest pine timber in the world. Two hundred and fifty miles to the northwest of the City of Ottawa the river expands into a long and narrow sheet of water known as Lake Temiscamingue, which presents sixty miles of unbroken navigation and receives numer- ous important tributaries — including the Blanche, the Montreal and the Quinze rivers. Navigation on the Ottawa is interrupted by numerous rapids and falls, the most notable being the grand falls of the Chau- diere, immediately above Ottawa City, which furnish the power for many extensive mills and factories. The territory drained by the nu- merous tributaries of the Ottawa before its confluence with the St. Law- rence includes some of the richest and most valuable timber yet remaining unexploited. THE PIONEER OF THE OTTAWA VALLEY. The pioneer in the timber trade of the Ottawa Valley was Philemon Wright, an adventurous American, whose descendants have occupied prominent positions in the Ottawa district. Mr. Wright was a citizen of Wobum, Massachusetts, and the first man to appreciate the natural wealth and advantages of the Ottawa Valley as a field for colonization. His first visit was made in 1796. In the following year he returned and, in the face of many hardships and difiSculties, explored the coun- try on both sides of the river as far as the Chaudiere Falls. He was 156 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. particularly impressed with the value of the timber (" sufficient," as he afterward reported, "to load a thousand vessels") and with the possi- bilities of the Chaudiere Falls, or the Asticou, as the Indians called them. This cataract, or Chaudiere (caldron) as the French-Canadian lumbermen christened it, is situated at the place where the mighty Ot- tawa, contracted from the width of over a mile to a few hundred feet, pours itself over rocks thirty feet high, into a boiling, steaming pot with force sufficient to drive all the busy wheels of a great modem city. This fall represents the point where, for four hundred miles in the course of the Ottawa, the shores of the Provinces of Ontario and Que- bec approach most nearly to each other. Mr. Wright left Woburn February 2, 1800, with five families, and had in his train fourteen horses, eight oxen and seven sleighs. His destination was what was then a wilderness inhabited by a few Indians only. He settled opposite the present City of Ottawa, having obtained an extensive grant of land from the Government. Mr. Wright, like the patriarch, had the whole land before him and could choose either the right hand or the left. He chose the Quebec side and founded the city of Hull, doubtless without dreaming that on the high, rocky cliff on the other shore would within a century be seen the Gothic spires and tur- rets of the "Washington of the North," the capital of a country stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The first tree was felled on the site of his homestead March 7 of the same year. In 1807 Mr. Wright took the first raft of square timber down the Ottawa to Quebec. The few settlers declared such an undertaking to be impossible on account of the obstructions in the river, but Mr. Wright was determined to make the attempt and, in the face of gigan- tic difficulties, accomplished the trip. It required thirty-six days, as the venturesome pioneer and his assistants were unacquainted with the river and had to proceed with great caution. He continued, during subsequent years, floating to Quebec white oak and the finest qualities of pine. The squared oak was withed up by the ends with lighter ma- terial to keep it afloat, or loaded on white pine cribs. It took both time and patience to get acquainted with the dangerous parts of the river and, until improvements were made, many cases of drowning occurred. He built his first sawmill and grist mill in 1808. These were burned and were rebuilt with his characteristic pluck in sixty days. Square timber was hastened to market as rapidly as possible, the mills being ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 157 rebuilt with the proceeds. The business grew and flourished and Mr. Wright eventually derived a large income from it. He built the first timber " slide," on the Hull side of the river, in 1829. Mr. Wright was elected the first member of the Canadian Parliament to represent Ot- tawa in 1830. He died in 1839, and his name has been perpetuated in Wright County, Quebec. His son, Alonzo Wright, was for many years a striking figure in the Canadian Parliament, in and out of which he was known, from the tributary of the Ottawa which his family and himself bad done so much to develop, as " The King of the Gatineau." The City of Ottawa, the present center of the lumber business, remained in a state of nature for some time after Philemon Wright had formed the nucleus of a settlement on the opposite shore of the river. In 1826 it was covered with bush and had only one house on the pres- ent site of the Upper Town. The first impetus to settlement was given by the construction of the Rideau Canal, projected mainly as a military work, under the superifitendence of Colonel By. This work was com- pleted in 1831, and in the succeeding year the village of Bytown, as it was then named in honor of Colonel By, had about one hundred and fifty houses. Thereafter it grew rapidly and Hull became practically a suburb. Meanwhile lumbering operations had been extensively pushed in the district and manufacturing developed to a greater extent than elsewhere in the Province. About 1815 a Mr. Story built a sawmill on the Ottawa ; and it is stated that when the man in charge "gigged" back the car- riage for a fresh cut he would sit down on the log and eat his dinner, which would be about finished when the cut was done. It is no wonder that heart failure and nervous prostration were then unknown. Robert Gourley, prominent as an author and a political agitator, in his "Statis- tical Account of Upper Canada," published in 1818, mentions that sawmills of the best construction were in operation on an island in the Ottawa River opposite the higher part of Hawkesbury Township, on a scale superior to that of any other in the Province. "The business seemed to be carried on with great spirit, about fourscore people being employed in the works on the island." They were first owned by Mr. Mears, of Hawkesbury, but, at the time he wrote, they were the prop- erty of Mr. Hamilton, from Ireland. Statistics compiled from the assessment rolls of the Province of Upper Canada give nine sawmills as the number existing in the Ottawa district in 1823, the total number in the eleven districts into which the 158 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Province was then divided being 363. The great majority of these, however, were run merely to supply local requirements. The town of Pembroke, about one hundred and twenty miles up the river from Ottawa, was founded in 1828 by Colonel Peter White, a native of Edinburgh, Scotland, who was for many years one of the principal timber merchants of the Ottawa Valley. His sons have been actively engaged in the lumber business, and by their enterprise have done much to build up their native town. The town of Deseronto, on the Bay of Quints, near the eastern end of Lake Ontario, was founded by Hugo B. Rathbun, of Auburn, New York. In 1854 Mr. Rathbun engaged in the manufacture of lumber at Mill Point, now Deseronto, Ontario. Later his son, Edward Wilkes Rathbun, was taken into partnership and was given the complete charge of the Deseronto business. About 1868 the Rathbun lumber yards were established at Oswego, New York, and sawmills were built later at Gravenhurst, Lindsay, Campbellford, Fenelon Falls, Tweed, Mani- toulin Island and Bancroft. The Rathbuns owned two railroads, one from Deseronto to Tweed, a distance of thirty miles, and another con- necting Gananoque with the Grand Trunk railroad. They also owned a line of steamers operating on the Bay of Quints. They manufactured one million railroad ties a year and also owned the cement works near Napanee, gas works, sash and blind factories, match splint factory, chemical works, ship yards, locomotive works and car shops. The firm also operated four lumber yards in Canada and the United States. Edward Wilkes Rathbun died in November, 1903, and was succeeded by his son, E. W. Rathbun. Henry Franklin Bronson of Bolton, New York, came to Ottawa (then Bytown) in 1853 and built on Victoria Island, in the Ottawa River, the first sawmill which shipped lumber from the Ottawa River to the American market. The venture prospered and grew, and many fortunes were made in the trade. THE FIRST PAPER MILL IN ONTARIO. V. H. Hickox, of Niagara Falls, tells of the first paper mill in Ontario. He says: It was in the summer of 1841 that my father and another paper maker, whose name was Samuel Prine, engaged to go to Toronto and start the first paper mill in Upper Canada. They left Niagara Palls in June of that year. This mill was located about three miles from the city, up the River Don, a beautiful clear stream of water, well supplied with trout and other kinds of fish in abundance. The country round about was a vast wilderness of heavy timber, mostly pine, with here and there a little clearing with log cabin homes of the early pioneers. ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 159 Eastwood and Skinner, brothers-in-law, two enterprising Englishmen, built the first mill and received a cash premium from the Canadian government. In connection with the paper mill there was a grist mill, a brewery and distillery, owned by the Helliwell Brothers. The place was named Don Mills. My father made a sojourn of seven years, during which time he started a second paper mill on the Don River, two miles above the first mill. We moved to Hamburg, west of Buffalo, about 1848. In the year 1851, Albert H. Porter sold the paper mill on Bath Island and my father, by this change, secured his old posi- tion as superintendent of the upper Don paper mills. Then he moved back to Toronto in 1851, where he remained for many years, respected as the man who made the first sheet of paper in the Upper Province of Canada. CROWN TIMBER REGULATIONS. During the earlier years of the lumber industry there were prac- tically no restrictions on the cutting of timber upon the public domain and no thought on the part of the Government of deriving a revenue from the forest resources. When the British took possession of the country in 1763 elaborate instructions were furnished to Governor James Murray as to his administration. The British government was solicitous for the preservation of large areas of forest land as a source of supply of timber for naval construction, and the Governor was ordered to set aside in every township "proper quantities of land" for fortifications, barracks and other military or naval services, and more particularly for the growth and production of naval timber, "if there are any woodlands fit for that purpose." The policy which the British government laid down for the forma- tion of Crown timber reserves in Quebec for the preservation of timber for the royal navy was reaffirmed when Upper Canada was set apart as a separate province. The Duke of Richmond, governor-in-chief of the Province of Upper Canada, in 1818 received elaborate instructions that no land should be allotted to settlers until the district had been sur- veyed and those parts containing masting or other timber fit for the use of the royal navy reserved. Difficulties intervened and these regula- tions, wise in many respects, were never carried out. These instructions, though subsequently repeated, were never ob- served, possibly because the governors had many more urgent matters to engage their attention and no doubt regarded the reservation of forests as altogether superfluous in a country where the timber, until a much later period, seemed inexhaustible. It was not until 1826 that the earliest steps were taken to secure revenue from the forests on the Crown lands. Previous to this the only persons authorized to cut timber on the public lands were the con- 160 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tractors for the royal navy or those holding licenses for them. In the early years of the Nineteenth Century licenses to cut timber in the Canadian forests were granted by the Imperial government to contract- ors for the royal dock yards, who, in addition to filling their contracts, took advantage of the privilege granted them for that purpose to do a general business in supplying the British markets. Their mode of operation was to issue licenses to merchants and lumbermen in Canada who were then legally authorized to cut timber as their agents. While these favored firms had a legal monopoly of cutting timber on the public lands, for which they paid nothing to the revenue, a number of unlicensed lumbermen pursued the business actively without asking the leave of anyone. It was found impossible to suppress this practice so long as those who desired to engage in the industry were debarred from doing so in a legitimate manner. The unfairness of the system led to its abolition. ESTABLISHMENT OF TIMBER DUES SYSTEM. In 1826 the contractors' monopoly was abrogated and for the first time was inaugurated a system under which the cutting of timber on the ungranted lands of the Ottawa region was extended to anyone de- siring to embark in the business, on payment of a fixed scale of rates. This was announced May 3, 1826, by a proclamation of Sir Peregrine Maitland, lieutenant governor of Upper Canada. The dues fixed in this proclamation were: Upon oak timber £6 5s a thousand, or 1/4 d a foot; red pine £4 3s 4d a thousand, or Id a foot; yellow (white) pine, £2 Is 8d a thousand, or J^d a foot; sawed, 2d a log; staves, £4 Is 8d a thou- sand "to be paid in lawful money of our Province of Upper Canada." For the purpose of preventing too small timbers being cut, double the amount of duty was charged upon all which did not square more than eight inches. The money was Canadian currency, one pound sterling of which was equal to $4. In the case of some of the mills in operation at this early date in the Ottawa Valley, much of the supply apparently came from lands which had been granted by the Crown, for the exploitation of which no license ,was necessary. Philemon Wright, for instance, is stated to have ob- tained land grants amounting to 13,000 acres. The first collector of timber dues on the Ottawa River was Robert Shireff, a pioneer lumberman whose son, Charles ShirefiE, acted con- jointly with him without receiving any formal appointment. The system was modified somewhat in 1827 when Peter Robinson was ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 161 appointed surveyor general of woods and forests for Upper Canada. It was provided that licenses to cut specified quantities of the various kinds of merchantable timber ofiE a given territory were to be sold by auction, with upset prices fixed at considerably less than the previously adopted scale. The expenses of the surveyor general's office were very modest. He was allowed £25 per annum for office rent, a like sum for a messenger, and £10 for fuel. Pay of clerks and assistants "as may be necessary and as the governor may deem reasonable" was allowed, but with a special proviso that the whole of such expenses was not to exceed one-sixth of the revenue derived from licenses. Robinson was instructed to survey the forests in the Province and state what parts it was advisable to keep for the use of the King and what might be sold. The generous instructions showed how little idea the British government had of the size of a province over 260,000 square miles in area, or only about 5,000 square miles less than the great State of Texas, and which, after three-quarters of a century of development, still has large areas unexplored and which will probably not be surveyed until a century from the time Peter Robinson started out. Such timber as was not required for the navy and which was deemed expedient to cut was to be put up for sale after due notice in the York (Toronto) Gazette. Each license was not to exceed 2,000 cubic feet and the upset prices were, per thousand feet : Oak, £3 3s 4d ; ash, elm or beech, £2 10s; red pine, £3; white pine, £1 10s; staves, and handspikes, £1. The timber was to be cut within nine months and paid for within fifteen months from date of license. Measurers were ap- pointed in each district to certify to the amount of lumber cut. The attempt to regulate the price of licenses by competition was not at that time successful as, owing to the laxity of administration which then prevailed and the recklessness with which the public lands were granted in large areas to men of influence and to political favorites, lumbermen found it considerably more profitable to obtain the fee simple of timbered land, either directly from the Government or by purchase from the first holders of the title, than to pay timber dues. Hence the receipts for some years were small. In 1827 the first returns from timber licenses in Upper Canada were received, the amount being $360. The following year the revenue from this source was $3,134, and in 1829, $2,287. It may be noted incidentally that about this time Canadians began to reckon in dollars and cents, instead of in pounds, shillings and pence. 162 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. though for some time thereafter both systems were used. In fact, there are old farmers in the back townships who to this day calculate in "York shillings." CONDITIONS PRECEDENT TO THE REBELLION OF 1837. The loose and careless business methods characteristic of the system of collecting timber dues, as well as other branches of administration in the years preceding Mackenzie's Rebellion, resulted in a loss of many thousands of pounds to the revenue owing to business complications in , which the Shireffs became involved. When, under Lord Durham's ad- ministration in 1838, after the suppression of the rebellion, an exhaustive investigation was made into the abuses which provoked it, it was offi- cially stated that the gross amount received by the Province of Upper Canada for timber dues, from the establishment of the system up to January 30, 1838, a period of about ten and a half years, was £58,085 4s lid. Under the system in vogue at this period the licenses designated the quantity to be cut and the applicant was required to deposit .in advance 25 percent of the amount of dues called for by the regulations on that quantity. A frequent practice, however, was to exceed greatly the cut stipulated for, as in this way the cash deposit required was pro- portionately reduced. A bond was given to cover the balance of the estimated dues. A license granted to James Wadsworth, of Hull, in 1836 gave him the right to cut 40,000 feet of red pine timber on the south side of the Bonnechere River on the following terms: "Sum payable for this license £41 13s 4d currency, being 25 percent on £166 13s 4d, the value of 40,000 feet at Id. For the balance of £125, a bond has been granted payable 1st November, 1837." The descriptions of the limits in these old licenses were often rather vague and indefinite. That in the above mentioned document reads as follows: "The limits granted in the foregoing license are Butted and Bounded as follows, viz.: Commencing one Mile below Enoes' or the Indian Doctor's Landing and to extend up on the south side of the river ten miles more or less to its source or so far as it is capable of floating down timber and to run back five miles, more or less, half way to the waters of the Madawaska River on the course south 21 degrees west." Another license granted to John Supple, of Hull, in 1838 permits him to cut 25,000 cubic feet of red pine on the north side of the Inlet ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 163 of Lake Dore, the rate and terms of payment being the same as in the previous case. His limits were described as " Commencing at the head of Lake Dore to extend three miles up the inlet of the said Lake to be measured on the course S. 82 degrees W. and to run back four miles more or less to the limits granted on Indian River on the course North 8 degrees W." It is not surprising that, owing to the want of precision in the defini- tion of limits, disputes often arose between limit holders. These difiS- culties often resulted in resort to physical force, in which the operator who happened to have the largest number of men on the ground gen- erally came off triumphant. In fact, the frequency with which this rough-and-ready means for the settlement of controversies between rival lumbermen was resorted to became one of the causes of overpro- duction, as the limit holders, finding it advisable to have a large force of men on the spot should it become necessary, in diplomatic phrase, to "rectify their frontiers" and prevent their neighbors from constru- ing the " more or less " qualifications in their licenses too liberally, in- creased the output considerably beyond the requirements of the market. It may be noted that until the union of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840, the disposal of timber, as well as of lands and other natural resources, was entirely in the hands of the Crown, that is to say, the administration of the day, without any responsibility to the legislature as to the expenditure of the revenue derived from them. The manner in which this privilege was abused for the benefit of the official classes and their friends was one of the grievances which caused the outbreak in 1837. The plan which was actually adopted and the system which grew up was for lumbermen to apply in the autumn for a license stating the quantity that they wanted to cut and paying 25 percent of the dues in advance. As they were not required to confine themselves strictly to the quantity specified they advanced as little money as possible. The timber was cut the next winter and rafted to Quebec City, to which point the collector proceeded and received the dues. In fact, the practice grew up of taking the notes of Quebec lum- ber shippers instead of the bonds originally given by the lumbermen, so that the timber was across the ocean and sold in London before the dues were actually paid. For many years this worked no harm; but later, when bad seasons came and several firms failed, the revenue suffered a loss of several thousand pounds. This free and easy handling of revenues and treatment of instruc- 164 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tions from Westminster was not the worst thing about the administra- tion of this period. Great Britain had lost half the continent and was not inclined to lose the other half in the same way ; but London was a long way from Quebec and Toronto, and the officials who came out to administer the afiEairs of the country were disposed to make hay while the sun shone and trust to the distance preventing the news filtering back to London. The people in the colony of Massachusetts rebelled because taxes were imposed without their consent; but the English settlers in Ontario and the French-Canadians in Quebec took up arms in 1837 because their great natural resources were alienated and given to friends and favorites with a lavish hand. The governor and the majority of his counsel were appointed; and, by methods familiar to all poli- ticians in all ages, they practically secured all the jobs for their rela- tives and retainers. The administration was known, both in Lower and Upper Canada, as the "Family Compact," which had become a synonym for jobbery and corruption. MACKENZIE REBELLION AND ITS RESULTS. In Canada, or any other colony, the difficulty would be speedily gotten rid of today by the legislature refusing to vote supplies, and the administration unable to carry on the government or pay its officials, would resign ; but in 1837 the revenue which the administration received was sufficient to pay the running expenses of the government. There was a rebellion in both Upper and Lower Canada, in which all the nationalities represented in Canada joined. In Lower Canada it was led by a French-Canadian, Papineau, with English and Irish lieutenants; while in Upper Canada it was led by an irrepressible Scotchman, William Lyon Mackenzie. The United Empire Loyalists, who had left their fat farms and prosperous businesses in the United States rather than exchange King George for George Washington, were among those who most keenly opposed the Family Compact, and many took up arms, not against the King, but against corrupt ministers who thwarted his will. The rebels had a good cause, but the fates were against them. They rose on December 4, 1837, and trusted to gain possession of York (Toronto), and also of the Quebec centers of population, before the loyalists could be supported by reenforcements from the garrisons in Lower Canada. But, owing to one of the most remarkably open win- ters on record, ships were able to navigate Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence in midwinter and the rebels were crushed, beaten, the leaders forced to flee to the United States, and some who were caught were hanged by the victorious Family Compact. ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 165 It is said that success is the only justification for rebellion; but this rebellion was justified, though abortive, and the leaders returned from the United States and from their hiding places in the back woods to be elected to the highest positions within the gift of their countrymen. The reason for this was that the attention of the British government was called to the fact that the state of things in the colony was so desperate and so unjust that men were willing to risk their lives to wipe it out. Lord Durham was sent out to inquire into the whole matter, and as a result of that inquiry he released the prisoners still lying in the jails when he arrived, removed the governors, recalled the fugitives and forever put an end to the Family Compact by giving the people full, responsible local government. The report of Lord Durham shows that the main abuse from which the country suffered was the granting of wild lands in large tracts to persons who had no intention of improving them, but of simply holding them for a rise in value. The effect of this practice upon the lumber trade was important. Much of this land, granted so far in excess of actual needs of settle- ment, was covered with valuable timber, and lumbermen speedily saw that it was cheaper to get hold of the land with all that was on it than to pay the prices charged for the timber licenses. This encouraged im- proved methods of lumbering. The repeated instructions of the Im- perial government to set aside permanent timber reserves and to confine settlement to lands adopted to agriculture were unregarded, and much of the area granted was capable of producing nothing but timber to advantage. Lands could be bought for from 1 to 4 shillings an acre, while the timber dues on an average tract were 6s 8d an acre. Promi- nent men in the government of Canada urged that, as there was now but little pine left in the United States except in Maine and Carolina, prices should be higher for timber berths in Canada ; and they gave as a reason why they were not the presence of the large areas of wild lands open to purchase. The deputy postmaster general of British North America, T. A. Stayner, in giving evidence before a commission said that in 1835 and 1836 speculators came over from Maine and New York and purchased about a million acres of land said to be wooded with pine or spruce. The Americans estimated these lands as worth from $2 to $6 an acre. Charles Shireff, who has been previously spoken of as the collector of dues at Ottawa, mentions a party of Americans who purchased thou- 166 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. sands of acres in the township of Onslow for ten shillings an acre, which price could not bear any proportion to the value of the timber. Many similar cases had occurred, he told the investigating committee, and the temptation to do it was very great because the purchasers were not required to pay the full amount of the purchase price, but only a first installment of varying size, say a fifth or a fourth, and the only penalty for the nonpayment of the remaining installment was the resumption of the land, about which, since the lumberman had stripped off the timber, he was naturally very indifferent. Mr. Shireff urged that the Government should not sell lands unfit for settlement but merely the timber on them. Though this warning was stated and reiterated by every one interested in the permanent de- velopment of the lumber industry, it was many years before it was acted upon. It was acted upon at length, however, and now in Ontario the question is not as to the principle but as to how large a block of arable land in a forest belt should be to make it worth while for the Government to throw it open for settlement. According to an official statement made at the investigation just referred to, the timber dues collected for a period of ten and a half years, from 1827 to 1838, amounted to £58,085 4s lid; this was exclu- sive of losses through loose methods of collecting dues and defalcation of upward of £9,000. UNION OF 1841 AND NEW TIMBER REGULATIONS. The result of the rebellion and all these commissions and reports was the union in 1841 of Upper and Lower Canada with a government responsible to the people through their elected representatives. One of the first things which the new legislature took up was the administration of the timber lands. The collector at Bytown (Ottawa) was instructed to issue licenses in the usual form, but for a limited period, to relicense limits not properly worked and, where there were two or more applicants for the same berth, to put it up at auction for a bonus over the dues. The quantity of timber which the licensees were bound to take out was 5,000 feet a mile of river front and no limit was to exceed ten miles of frontage. This was the first time that the auc- tion principle, now generally adopted, was recognized in Canada. The receipts from timber in Upper Canada for the year 1839 were £8,244; and for the next thirteen months £18,881, a difference possibly due to the "house cleaning" before turning affairs over to the new government. Under the new regime the timber receipts for Upper and Lower Canada were in 1842, £37,572 ; in 1843, £46,301 ; in 1844, £28,828. ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 167 The representatives of the people did not seem to recognize the necessity of preserving timber. Most of them appeared to think the tree their enemy, and the impression that the forest area was unlimited rendered them careless. The idea of reforestry and harvesting a periodic crop was not then born in America. A motion to discuss a resolution to prevent the cutting of timber (apparently absolutely) off public lands received short shrift in 1846, but its exact nature and object can not be learned from the journals. In 1842 new regulations as to the granting of licenses were adopted and the principle of competition between lumbermen in cases where there was more than one applicant for the same limit was put into effect. Willful trespass by limit holders upon public property not in- cluded in their limits, which had been frequent under the former condi- tions, was declared punishable by the cancellation of the license and the seizure of timber so taken, and limit holders were obliged to cut 5,000 feet per square mile off their holdings in each year. In the earlier days of the export trade with Britain the shippers had to encounter a strong prejudice on the part of the consumer against Canadian pine, which was erroneously supposed to be particularly sub- ject to dry rot and altogether of a quality inferior to that of the Baltic pine. The cause of this prejudice and the change of opinion that finally came about are fully treated in the first chapter on Quebec and, there- fore, need not be repeated here. Another noticeable change in the demand of the British market which occurred somewhat later was the increased appreciation of white pine as compared with red. Red pine, by reason of its similarity to the product of the forests of northern Europe, ever since the introduc- tion of Canadian timber had been more highly esteemed. At an early day the dues on red pine had been fixed at one penny a foot, while white pine paid only one-half penny. So marked was the falling off in the British demand for the former that in 1852 the corporations of By- town and the municipal council of Carleton County petitioned the Gov- ernment for the reduction of the red pine duties to the same amount as those payable on white pine. Such valid reasons were advanced in favor of the change that the Government decided to make the reduction. The year 1845 was an exceedingly prosperous one for the lumber trade, owing largely to the heavy demand in the English market at very remunerative prices. The temporarily favorable conditions resulted in considerable overproduction, which, coupled with a falling off in re- 168 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. quirements abroad during 1846 and succeeding years, created a serious depression in the industry. The regulations of the Crown lands depart- ment had contributed not a little to stimulate production to an undue degree by requiring the taking out of a large quantity of timber on every limit, regardless of the requirements of the market or the conven- ience of the operator, under penalty of forfeiture of the limit. More stringent regulations were adopted in 1846, when the limit was reduced to five miles in length along the river by five in depth, or half way to the next river. The then holders of licenses were allowed to hold them for two years longer, but after that time the limits must be subdivided to these sizes. New and renewed berths were to be put up at auction. The parties were to bind themselves to take out 1,000 feet a square mile a year and were to pay one-fourth of the dues upon this forthwith and bonds were to be given for the remaining three- fourths. In 1849 the Legislative Assembly appointed a select committee to inquire into and report on the state of the lumber trade, the evidence taken before which indicated some important features of the license system in which reform was necessary. The committee reported that the regulation requiring the cutting of a certain amount of timber on each limit, together with the uncertain tenure of limits, tended to cause overproduction. They recommended the abolition of the deposit sys- tem and the substitution of ground rents. FIRST CANADIAN TIMBER LICENSE LEGISLATION. The immediate outcome was the adoption during the same year of the first Canadian legislative enactment on the subject of timber licenses, which, with the regulations issued in accordance with its pro- visions, practically forms the point of departure from which the present system has been evolved. The characteristic and valuable feature of this legislation was that, by practically giving the license holder a pref- erential claim to renewal of his license so long as he complied with its conditions, and securing him against encroachment by rivals, it im- parted greater stability and permanence to the industry and lessened the temptation to reckless overproduction and wasteful methods. The modern lumbering system as contrasted with the old fashioned method of conducting the industry may be said to have commenced during the '50's and its development was aided by the changes in the law and regulations above noted and by further advances in the same direction introduced in 1851. In that year ground rent on limits was ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 169 imposed, the principle being generally favored by practical lumbermen as the most efiEective means of preventing the monopolization of un- worked limits. The ground rent was fixed at fifty cents a square mile in addition to the dues and it was provided that this should be doubled for every year during which the limits remained unworked. While the general principle of granting limits to the first applicant, giving the preference to the previous occupant in case he had complied with the regulations, was left undisturbed, a modification was introduced by the provision that upon rivers where the cost of surveys rendered it advisa- ble, limits might be disposed of at an upset price fixed by the Govern- ment, and awarded to the highest bidder in case of competition, an important move in the direction of the auction system as it now exists. All sawlogs cut for exportation were made liable to double rates of duty. This latter clause was the result of an agitation which had sprung up even at that early day against the shipment abroad of logs in an unmanufactured state. During the continuance of the union, Ontario participated in the same laws and regulations as Quebec. These gradually grew more stringent during the first ten years and in 1851 had reached the begin- ning of the system at present in use in both Provinces. AN INQUIRY AS TO TIMBER REGULATIONS. In 1854 a committee was appointed to review the whole question of timber regulations. One of the snags which it endeavored to uproot was the cutting of timber by bogus settlers. The settler was required to pay down only one-tenth of the purchase price, and these bogus set- tlers, after having cut and sold the merchantable timber refused to pay the other nine installments. One solution offered was that the land should be sold only for cash, while another was that timber dues should be applied to the purchase of the land. This plan was open to serious objections in that the price of the land was not equal to the dues, and the squatter or settler it was desirable to get at, was never, at the critical time, where the Government could put its finger on him. The adoption of reciprocity between the United States and Canada in 1854, which secured free exchange in natural products, including lumber, gave an impetus to the sawn lumber trade, and the trade in square timber declined. This condition was discussed by the commit- tee of 1854, and led leading men to urge the Government to speed the parting guest by reducing the dues on sawn lumber as compared with hewn. They did this on the ground that square timber caused a great 170 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. waste, only the best sticks being used and only a portion of them. Large parts of the tree that could be worked up in taking out sawlogs were left to decay in the bush and to increase the danger of forest fires. It was estimated that three-fourths more of the tree was used for saw- logs than for square timber, and returns to the Government (owing to the greater number of feet produced) would be three times as much in the former case as in the latter. No difference appears to have been made and the square timber trade declined through natural causes. The difference between the Canadian and the United States methods of holding land was dealt with by the committee. The exposition of American methods before the committee went to convince it that, what- ever the fault in Canadian methods of handling timber lands, they were to be preferred to those in vogue in the United States. The gentleman who explained to the committee the American system was Jonathan R. White, of Michigan. He said the United States wild forest lands were thrown open by proclamation and sold to the highest bidder at an upset price of $1.25 an acre. Lands not sold were open for sale at the upset price, and there was no limit to the amount any man could hold. Mr. White thought the system a very good one, getting the land rapidly under taxation and saving the timber, which under stumpage system was always more or less wasted. The fact that the land was of little value agriculturally was all the more reason for getting rid of it. The Canadian witnesses took issue with Mr. White, claiming the result of the introduction of that system into Canada would be to place the best timber lands in the hands of capitalists or companies who would exact toll on those who went in actually to work the land or cut the timber. The dues on two trees of very ordinary size, seventy-five feet, at /4d a foot, would amount to $1.50, or more than the price of $1.25 an acre at which the land was sold in the United States. But an acre of well tim- bered land produced five times that amount of dues. This was con- sidering the pine only, and the other woods and the land would still remain to the Government and these would always be worth something. The wisdom of the Canadian view has been proved, because it keeps the unarable lands in the hands of the Government to license and reli- cense at ever increasing prices to the lumbermen, and to be reforested without let or hindrance, now that the country and trade is reaching the stage where this method is practicable. Even at the time of the com- mittee of 1854 the idea of an annual crop of timber from a permanent forest was put forward. Fire prevention was discussed also and the ONTARIO— EARLY HISTORY. 171 lumbermen held then as they do today that the best way to prevent fires was to prevent squatting in forests, and to confine settlements wholly to agricultural. It was pointed out that scattered settlement on odd bits of land in the midst of pine forests was of no permanent value to the settlers, and by reason of starting fires was ruinous to the lumber- men. Attention was also called to the fact that in Ontario the arable and pine land lay in belts in such relation to each other that the devel- opment of timber provided a good market for the farmers and thus helped the development of the agricultural portions. The regulations of 1855 chiefly afl&rmed the right of the Government to make any changes it desired in ground rent and the conditions of license, in other words, the license conveyed no vested rights. The growing nature of the industry is shown in receipts for ground rents, timber dues and slide dues. These were: 1856, $262,872; 1857, $289,- 839; 1858, $232,624; 1859, $316,656. In the regulations of 1860 further steps were taken to stop the squatters, the most effective being a plan of survey to determine what districts should be thrown open to set- tlement. To prevent the shipping of lumber cut by trespassers on Crown lands to the United States, all vessels previous to obtaining a clearance were obliged to furnish the collector of customs with evidence that the dues had been paid. It was pointed out that the industry was one of the most important in the country. In seven years, ended De- cember 31, 1863, the exports from Upper and Lower Canada amounted to $73,004,312, while the value of agricultural products exported in those years amounted to only $49,951,961. March 17, 1866, the reciproc- ity treaty with the United States expired and on June 27 Canada put export duties on sawlogs and shingle bolts of $1 a thousand and $1 a cord. CHAPTER XIII, ONTARIO AND THE UNITED STATES. The great expansion which characterized the Ontario lumber trade beginning about the middle of the Nineteenth Century was due mainly to the increasing demands of the United States for Canadian lumber. Active lumbering operations were still being carried on in the central and eastern states, and the industry was just beginning in the Sagi- naw Valley and other points in the West. The adoption of the reci- procity treaty in 1854, securing the free exchange of natural products between the United States and Canada, including " timber and lumber of all kinds, round, hewed and sawed, manufactured in whole or in part," stimulated considerably the growing demand for the forest prod- ucts of Canada. In proportion as the market for sawn lumber developed, the cutting of square timber, long the leading branch of the industry, declined in importance and became less essential to the prosperity of the lumbering interest. From being the principal factor in the export trade it speedily fell to a subordinate position, as its disadvantages, especially in the matter of its wastefulness and the greater danger of forest fires from the amount of litter its prosecution left in the woods, began to attract attention. The extension of the market and the rapidly changing con- ditions of the trade were attended by some fluctuations and vicissitudes, and inflations and depressions naturally followed because of the abun- dance of the supply of raw material available. The price of waney and square white pine would sometimes fall in the Quebec market as low as ten cents a cubic foot and suddenly rise to twenty-five cents, and the va- riations of the Albany market, then an important center of the trade were extensive, and imparted a speculative character to the business. The American Civil War, and the lavish expenditures which resulted, created a great demand for Canadian lumber at high prices, though the trade received a setback in 1866 by the abrogation of the reciprocity treaty. This led to the reimposition by Ontario of export duties on unmanufactured logs. A few figures may be given to show the altered character of the trade during the decade immediately preceding this event, and the 172 ONTARIO AND THE UNITED STATES. 173 growing importance to Canadian lumbermen of the American, as com- pared with the British, market. The total exports of forest products from Old Canada (the present Provinces of Ontario and Quebec) to Great Britain for the three-year period 1854-6, at about the time of the adoption of the reciprocity treaty, amounted in value to $18,288,702, while the aggregate shipments to the United States were valued at $8,894,218. The total shipments of lumber and timber for the fiscal year 1867 amounted to $13,948,648. The proportions consigned to Great Britain and the United States were nearly equal, being valued at $6,889,783 and $6,831,252 respec- tively. The increase in the American export trade was almost entirely in sawn lumber. While "planks and boards" were exported to the United States in 1854 to the value of $1,866,712, the same item figures in the returns for 1867 to the amount of $5,048,367. The development of this feature of the trade, while to a certain extent fostered by the favorable conditions of the reciprocity treaty, was in the main due to the rapid growth of population in the eastern states, coincident with a gradual diminution of their home sources of supply, rendering it neces- sary for them to look abroad for their requirements. It was during this period that many of the firms now prominent in connection with the lumbering and allied industries of the Ottawa Valley first established themselves. John R. Booth, one of the oldest and best known representatives of the trade, began business in 1858. Like those of most of the more extensive employers, his interests embrace a num- ber of subsidiary interests, including a large pulp mill and railroad opera- tions on a large scale. E. B. Eddy, head of the E. B. Eddy Company, be- gan the manufacture of matches in 1854. In addition to this branch of the business and extensive lumbering operations, the company is en- gaged in the manufacture of woodenware and paper. The firm of Bron- sons & Weston dates back to 1853,. and was one of the first to establish a sawmill on a large scale at the Chaudiere. Other firms which flourished about this period or somewhat later, some of which are still extant or have been reorganized as incorporated companies, are A. H. Baldwin, established in 1853; Perley & Puttee, who commenced business at the Chaudiere in 1857; Gilmour & Co., who had extensive mills at Chelsea on the south bank of the Gatineau; Wright, Batson & Currier, and Hamilton & Co., proprietors of the large Hawkesbury mills near the Grenville Rapids, sixty miles from Ottawa down the Ottawa River. 174 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. In 1867 the confederation of the British North American provinces was accomplished, the old union between Upper and Lower Canada being dissolved. The former became the Province of Ontario and the latter the Province of Quebec. By the terms of the British North America Act, under which the Dominion of Canada was constituted, the control of public lands and forests was relegated to the several prov- inces. By that time considerable headway had been made in the under- standing of how best to handle timber lands, but in the agitation over the question of union and in the multiplicity of large political issues which Canadians had to deal with in building up this confederation and opening transportation systems from ocean to ocean, the question of forestry was largely lost sight of for the time. MANAGEMENT OF CROWN LANDS. With confederation accomplished and with the knowledge that Crown lands would be henceforth one of the principal sources of pro- vincial revenue (the customs, excise, etc., having gone to the Federal Parliament as a basis of its revenue), the leaders in Ontario turned their attention to the forests, and Honorable Stephen Richards, first Commissioner of Crown Lands for Ontario, rather patted himself on the back on his first reporting to the legislature that a bonus of $519 a square mile, the largest price ever paid, had just been received at a tim- ber sale for an eighteen-mile berth. Contrasted with the price of $31,500 a mile paid in the sale of December, 1903, this seems insignifi- cant, but it showed that the people were beginning to realize the value of this great asset. His first report, covering the year 1868, showed that the revenue from timber dues, ground rents and bonuses amounted to $190,237. The change resulted in increased stringency in the man- agement of the public domain. New regulations were issued, the dues being raised 50 percent of the previous rates and a uniform rate of ground rent fixed. For some years the volume of exportation steadily increased, and the timber revenue went up by leaps and bounds. In 1868 the dues and ground rents amounted to $190,237 ; and in 1869, owing to the 50 percent increase in the dues, increased business and more careful super- vision, they went up to $508,561. New regulations were adopted in 1869 which increased the ground rent to $2 a square mile, and the dues to the following : Black walnut and oak, per cubic foot, 3 cents ; elm, ash, tamarack, and maple, 2 cents ; red pine and white pine, birch, bass- wood, cedar, buttonwood, cottonwood and all boom timber, l}i cents; ONTARIO AND THE UNITED STATES. 175 all other woods, 1 cent; red pine, white pine, basswood, buttonwood and Cottonwood sawlogs, per standard of 200 feet board measure, 15 cents ; walnut, oak and maple sawlogs, 25 cents ; hemlock, spruce and other woods, 10 cents; pipe staves, per thousand, $7; hemlock tan- bark, per cord, 30 cents. The duties were to be collected upon exact measurement; but, where this could not be obtained, each stick was to be estimated as containing the following cubic feet: White pine, 70; red pine, 38 ; oak, 50 ; elm, 45, and all other woods, 34. In 1870 the Dominion Parliament passed an act compelling lumber- men to mark their timber to be floated down stream and provided for a registry of such marks ; and in 1873 the throwing of sawdust, slabs, edgings, bark, or refuse into any part of a navigable stream was pro- hibited. About 1870 the industry was mainly centered in the Ottawa Valley and on the upper waters of the Trent River and waters tributary to the Georgian Bay. Production in the latter region had before that time been limited to a few mills, the output of which was principally con- sumed in the locality. But, with the advance of settlement, the ship- ment of lumber from this now important source of production began to increase as the country was opened up. The beginning of lumbering operations in the Georgian Bay district on a comprehensive scale practically dates from the year 1872, when an extensive sale of timber limits, covering 5,301 square miles on the north shore of Lake Huron, was held, from which the Government realized $602,665 in bonuses and ground rents. The territory included in this sale was largely unfit for agricultural settlement, and, large areas being uninhabited, the timber was exposed to depredations, as every facility existed for its being towed across the frontier. Among the principal purchasers of limits at this sale were Mc Arthur Bros., Toronto ; Rathbun & Son, of Mill Point, now Deseronto ; Cook Bros., Toronto ; James Eagan, Ottawa ; Henry Kirk, Toronto ; Geo. Green, Brampton; Isaac Cockburn, Toronto; W. H. Gibbs, Oshawa, and Hugh Macdonald, Toronto, some of which names are well known in the busi- ness world today. This period of prosperity reached its climax in 1873, and was the time of the rise of the great lumbering industry of Michigan, Wiscon- sin and Minnesota, which production reached a volume far surpassing the Canadian output and forming the most considerable source of sup- ply for the great West. The yield of sawn pine lumber of these great 176 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. pine-producing states reached the figure of 3,999,780,000 feet in 1873. Falling ofiE during the protracted period of worldwide depression which followed, it increased again in 1880 and developed by leaps and bounds with the increased demand caused by immigration and settlement in the western states, until the high-water mark was reached in 1892 with the enormous total for that year of 8,594,222,802 feet.' From that time the output declined, owing partly to the exhaustion of sources of timber supply and partly to the exploitation of the southern forests and the substitution of other construction materials for pine. RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES. The change in the lumbering situation in the neighboring states had an important bearing upon the trade in Canada. With the depletion of the pine forests in Michigan the dependence of the American consumer upon Canada for a portion of the lumber supply increased. It became the interest of the American manufacturer to secure this supply as far as possible in the form of raw material to be worked up in the Ameri- can sawmills in those localities where the domestic forests no longer remained within access. It was equally the interest of the Canadians to export their forest product in as highly manufactured a form as pos- sible. A committee was appointed by the Federal house in the session of 1874 to look into the question of the export duty on sawlogs, etc., im- posed in 1868. It reported that, reduced to an ad valorem rate, it averaged : On stave bolts, 40 percent ; oak logs, 30 percent ; pine logs, 20 percent; spruce logs, 25 percent, and shingle bolts, 25 percent. The committee reported that, while this enabled sawmill owners to buy cheaper logs, it hurt the settler and timber owner and at the same time did not result in the establishment of more mills. The duty on oak logs and stave bolts was abolished in 1875. Things remained in this state until 1886, when the export duty on shingle bolts was fixed at $1.50 a cord; on spruce logs, $1 a thousand feet, and on pine logs, $2. In November of the same year, by order in council, the export duty on sawlogs was increased from $2 to $3 a thousand feet; but July 5, 1889, in view of a probable understanding with the United States in regard to duties on Canadian manufactured lumber, the old rate was restored. The negotiations carried on while the McKinley bill was under consideration were successful, and in October, 1890, Sir •Report o£ the Northwestern Lumberman, of Chicago, Illinois, itemized by mills. It is prob- able that unreported products . either of isolated mills omitted from the list, or of small lots produced by mills chiefly engragred in the cutting of hardwoods, would have brouglit the total well up toward 9,000,000,000 feet. ONTARIO AND THE UNITED STATES. 177 John Macdonald, after negotiating with the United States Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, removed the export duty on spruce and pine logs in consideration of the United States Congress reducing the im- port duty on sawn lumber from $2 to $1 a thousand. When the Democrats came into power the duty on sawn lumber was removed under the Wilson bill and free trade on logs and lumber be- tween Canada and the United States followed. While this was satisfac- tory to Canadian lumbermen, market conditions were such that it did them very little good, and lumber exports were less in 1892 than in 1889. The depression of 1893 was accompanied by low prices of lum- ber which lasted until 1898 and low prices in the United States were attributed to Canadian competition. As the outcome of this feeling, when the Dingley bill was passed in 1897 the old duty of $2 on lumber was restored. Large quantities of sawlogs were being exported to feed Michigan mills and the Michigan men, being naturally anxious to keep up the supply, adopted the expedient of a clause in the Dingley bill providing that if any country or dependency imposed an export duty the amount of such duty would be added to the import duty. This, if successful, would have transferred the bulk of the Georgian Bay trade to Michi- gan, because, if that state could get free logs while sawn lumber was charged a stiff duty, nothing could be sawn on the Georgian Bay for the United States market; and, if an export duty was imposed by Canada, then the duty on sawn lumber entering the United States would be prohibitory. The authors of the measure overlooked the fact that the Ontario government does not sell land and timber in fee sim- ple as is done in the United States, but only sells a license to cut tim- ber over a given area subject to the payment of Crown dues, retaining the ownership of the land. The Georgian Bay lumbermen applied to the Dominion Parliament for an export duty, but the Government, fearing the imposition of retaliatory duties on sawn lumber by the United States, declined to act. The lumbermen then sought relief from the Ontario Provincial legisla- ture. In the session of 1898 the legislature passed an act requiring that all logs cut on government land be manufactured in the Province. Since this was not a duty but the regulation of a landholder respecting its own property, the United States could not impose a retaliatory duty; but the Michigan holders of Ontario timber limits claimed that it was a breach of contract, in that by payment of the bonus they acquired the 178 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. limit and the right to cut pine thereon and to dispose of it as they saw fit. The Government replied that the licenses were for one year only, and that to obtain a renewal of the license the next year they must submit to such regulations as the Government saw fit to impose. The Dominion Parliament refused to interfere and the courts decided in favor of the Provincial government. The effect of this has been to cause the removal of a large number of American lumbermen to Ontario to do a sawmill business there, and it seems to be taken for granted that the ex- portation of sawlogs from the Province will never again be permitted. IMPORTANCE OF GEORGIAN BAY DISTRICT. Michigan lumbermen are largely interested in lumbering operations and timber properties in the Georgian Bay district of Ontario. About 1890 lumbermen in the Saginaw district began making investments in Canadian pine, and increasingly large quantities of Canadian logs were rafted to eastern Michigan mills— 80,000,000 feet in 1891, 300,000,000 in 1894 and 238,843,024 in 1898. In April, 1898, the act of the Ontario Legislature requiring logs cut on Crown lands in Canada to be manu- factured in that country became effective and this was the death blow to the log rafting industry. At once Michigan men who had made in- vestments in Canadian timber began preparations to manufacture their product in Canada, and now Holland & Graves, Eddy Bros, & Co., S. O. Fisher, The Moulthrop Lumber Company, The William Peter Es- tate, McArthur Bros. Company, McEwen & Dolson, Huron Lumber Company, Saginaw Lumber & Salt Company, Cleveland-Sarnia Saw- mills Company, Loveland & Stone, George L. Burtis and a number of other concerns — with a few exceptions all hailing from Michigan — are operating in the Georgian Bay district. The lumber industry in this district is the most important in Ontario, as, with the single exception of the Ottawa River district, which em- braces a portion of Quebec Province and should not, therefore, be con- sidered here, this district produces by far the largest amount of lumber of any portion of the Province. The condition of the lumber market of the United States is a great factor in determining prices in the Cana- dian lumber market. Shipments by water from the Georgian Bay ports have increased materially since the abolition of tolls on the Canadian canals. Birch and ash are manufactured and exported quite extensively to the United States. Hemlock, oak, elm and red pine are all used locally. Pickets, pine, cedar shingles, staves and lath are exported. CHAPTER XIV. ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. In 1871 there was an extensive sale of limits in Muskoka and Parry Sound districts, fronting on Georgian Bay. The dues at this sale were double those of the previous one, white pine and red pine being two and one-half cents a foot, or thirty cents a standard. The area disposed of was 487 miles, and the price was $117,672. A still more extensive sale was the one which took place in 1872, when 5,301 miles on the north shore of Lake Huron was disposed of for $602,665. More than three- fifths of this area had previously been under license, but, with the ex- ception of thirty square miles, all had been allowed to lapse. Legislation was enacted gradually settling the settlers' rights and then came the great river and stream bill suit. This occurred in 1881, when the Ontario government passed an act permitting lumbermen on the upper reaches of streams to use slides and other improvements lower down upon the payment of reasonable dues. Peter MacLaren, the great Ottawa lumberman, who had made improvements on the Mississippi River in Lanark County, claimed the right to prohibit the lumber of the limit holders above him passing through his improve- ments. The Dominion government took the side of Mr. MacLaren and disallowed the Ontario act, but the case was finally determined in favor of Ontario, and since then lumbermen have had full right to use improvements upon paying tolls fixed by law. In 1887 standing timber had so increased in value that the dues on sawlogs were increased to $1 a thousand and upon square timber to two cents a foot. The ground rent was increased from $2 to $3 a mile. Under these regulations extensive sales were made on the Muskoka and Petawawa rivers. A new principle was introduced in 1892 when the lumbermen were restricted to the cutting of red pine and white pine, leaving spruce, cedar, hemlock, basswood and other woods to be dis- posed of otherwise by the Government. It was under these regulations that extensive sales were made in the districts of Nipissing, Algoma, Thunder Bay and Rainy River. The dues were increased to $1.25 a thousand feet on sawlogs and $25 a thousand cubic feet on square tim- bers. Notwithstanding this, higher prices were realized than ever 179 180 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. before. The mileage sold was 633, for which $2,315,000 was realized, an average of $3,657.18 a square mile. The fluctuating state of the trade was shown in a return made to the Ontario Legislature in 1878 of the sawlogs, square and waney timber cut each year from 1868 to 1877 : SAWLOGS, SQUARB AND WANEY TIMBBR CUT IN ONTARIO, FEET BOARD MEASURE. 1868 177,390,000 1873 589,178,742 1869 375,620,200 1874 406,185,320 1870 300,900,850 1875 396,681,522 1871 358,096,400 1876 296,729,327 1872 669,569,542 1877 270,260,979 The Commissioner of Crown Lands figured that the waste of mate- rial in the shipping of square timber instead of sawlogs in the above meant a loss of revenue of $3,577,500, or $357,750 a year, and he urged changing over from square timber to sawlogs. While for many years the cry has been heard that Ontario is at the end of her timber resources, this is not the view taken by cer- tain well informed men. The late John Bertram, of Toronto, who was one of the best informed practical lumbermen and foresters in Canada, stated in an article published shortly before his death that, while there was a much increased demand for home consumption both in Ontario and in the prairie country in western Canada, he did not look for an increase in the quantity sawed in Ontario or Quebec because, " while there is a large quantity of pine and spruce still available, the forests are beginning to show signs of exhaustion, and it is a fortunate circum- stance that many lumbermen are showing interest in the question of reafEorestation. The Ontario government has shown wisdom in its sys- tem of fire ranging and in setting apart forest reserves in the territory not fit for cultivation. This will prolong the business indefinitely." The most noteworthy feature of the lumber industry of recent years has been its rapid development in the northwestern portion of the Province. This has been stimulated by the growing demand for the output in Winnipeg and other parts of Manitoba, which look to the mills of Rat Portage, Rainy River, Fort Frances and other centers in the Rainy River district as their nearest source of supply. The con- tinued migration to the West and the growth of Winnipeg have given a remarkable stimulus to the production of lumber in this portion of Ontario. The income derived from timber forms a considerable portion of the revenue of the Province which, owing mainly to the large receipts from this source, is in the fortunate position of being entirely free from debt ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. 181 and able to meet all the expenses of administration, in addition to spending a great deal of money in public services, such as elsewhere are sustained wholly by the municipalities, without resorting to direct taxation. In 1903 the total revenue collected from timber was $2,307,- 356, the amount being exceptionally large, however, owing to the hold- ing of an extensive timber sale, at which high prices were realized. The increase in the value of this source of national wealth of late years was indicated by the result of this sale, at which about eight hun- dred and twenty-six square miles was disposed of. Notwithstanding that the timber dues were raised to $2 a thousand feet board measure on logs, and to $50 a thousand cubic feet on square timber, and the ground rent increased from $3 to $5 a square mile, the amount realized as bonuses was $3,687,337, or an average of $4,464 a mile. The high- est price paid per mile was $31,500. The new record this sale estab- lished as to the great and increasing value of the pine-bearing lands of Ontario has contributed much to educate public opinion as to the need of forest preservation and to strengthen the hands of the Government in its policy in that regard. The total area now covered by timber licenses in Ontario is 17,033 square miles, of which 9,231 are in the western timber district and 6,687 in the Ottawa district. The total production of sawlogs in 1903 was 679,966,835 feet board measure, of which 549,488,617 came from the western district as against 104,576,242 from the Ottawa district. In pine boom and dimension timber the total output was 39,834,442 feet, the West leading in about the same proportion. As the entire forest area of the Province is estimated at 102,000 square miles,' it will be seen that the territory now under license forms but a comparatively small proportion of the timber resources yet avail- able. It is customary in taking stock of the available assets in the way of pine timber, to ignore the territory already disposed of and under license, but some of this territory has been under license for over forty years, is still being operated and is contributing yearly to the provincial treasury, and, so long as this territory escapes the havoc of forest fires and is free from the settler's plow, so long will it continue a source of public revenue. As to the available white pine supply in the Province outside the present licensed area, no attempt at a careful estimate has yet been 1 An estimate later than that given on page 61. 182 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. made. E. J. Davis, Commissioner of Crown Lands for Ontario, speak- ing in the legislature February 18, 1904, gave an estimate prepared by his department. In this he estimated the amount of white pine still standing in Ontario at 10,000,000,000 feet, which would suffice for twenty sales such as that of December 9, 1903, when limits were sold for about $3,500,000 in bonuses. This 10,000,000,000 feet should realize, he said, in bonuses $75,000,000. The dues had been increased previous to the last sale from $1.25 to $2 a thousand feet, and the dues on this pine would produce at least $20,000,000. The surveys of the north country had shown that there were at least 300,000,000 cords of pulpwood standing, which, with dues of twenty-five cents a cord (the present dues are forty cents) would produce $75,000,000 for the provin- cial treasury. There was in sight at least $200,000,000 of revenue, which at $2,000,000 a year would last the Province for one hundred years. The average revenue in recent years from the forests, he pointed out, was between $1,250,000 and $1,500,000 a year, of which $800,000 was dues. This was assuming that the forest was all used up as time went along; but he then explained what the Province was doing to keep up a perpetual supply. Passing over the small timber preserves where the Government, to allow the timber to grow again, has taken back into possession lands cut over or' partly cut over under licenses, he described the reserves made in the virgin forest which had been ren- dered accessible by the building of the new government railway from North Bay to Lake Temagami and northward. The original Tema- gami Reserve around the lake of that name consisted of 2,200 square miles. This had been increased to 5,900 square miles and, when he spoke, it had just been decided to set apart 3,000 square miles in Algoma district to be known as the Mississaga Reserve. The old plan of license by which the lumbermen handed back the land to the Govern- ment when they had cut off the timber was probably the best that could be devised where the land was arable, for the Government could then grant it or sell it to the settlers ; but in these reserves where the land is unsuited to agriculture another plan would have to be devised, which would probably take the form of a government forester marking the trees to be cut, which would then be sold by auction, the lumbermen agreeing to cut and carry away the timber in such a way as to reduce fire risk and give undeveloped trees a chance to grow. From the cut- ting of continually recurring crops of ripe timber on these reserves he anticipated a revenue of several million dollars a year to the treasury, and further reserves are to be made from time to time. ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. 183 In a speech delivered March 12, 1901, in the Ontario Legislature, Hon. William A. Charlton (who has since assumed office as commis- sioner of public works) stated that the average yearly cut, including logs, boom and square timber, from 1867 until that date amounted to 549,141,408 feet. The largest cut of any one year was that of 1896, amounting to 952,000,000 feet. He estimated the total quantity of pine timber on lands then under license at 8,000,000,000 feet, and the quantity not under license at that time at 26,000,000,000, making in all 34,000,- 000,000 feet of pine timber then standing. He considered that, without reference to regrowth or reforestry, the supply was sufficient to last one hundred and fifty years. The story of the westward movement of the trade is told in the re- port of square miles under license, although it is to be remarked that an immense area in the Ottawa district remains under license, showing that much of this district will permanently remain under timber. Ottawa Central Western district. district. district. 7,678 1,889 2,015 7,678 1.889 2,016 7,633 1,849 2,523 7,512 1,981 3,041 7,542 1,809 3,007 7,396 2,038 5,111 7,388 1,999 6,872 7,406 2.022 7,621 7,342 1.344 6,295 7,356 1,806 6,970 7,242 1,862 6,937 7,202 1,203 7,679 7.228 1,456 7,256 7,194 1,875 6,538 7,204 1,961 8,823 6,989 1,638 8,259 6,730 1,748 8,362 6,503 1,537 9,174 6,778 1,907 9,801 6,698 1,324 7,828 6,305 1,751 8,878 6,547 1,489 9,190 4,777 1,500 7,278 7,316 1,474 7,030 5,051 1,435 6,401 6,758 1,696 8,790 7,811 1,524 8,192 6,589 1,509 9,753 4,289 1,422 8,011 7,272 1,429 7,699 6,985 972 7,062 5,358 1,386 8,913 6,154 975 9,603 6,292 949 10,950 5,957 975 10,476 6,637 1,165 9,231 Total. 1868. 1869 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877 1878 1879 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. 1895, 1896, 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 11,582 11,583 12,005 12,534 12,358 14,545 16,259 17,049 14,981 16,132 16,041 16,084 15,940 15,607 17,988 16,886 16,840 17,214 18,486 15,850 16,934 17,226 13,555 15,820 12,887 17,244 17,527 17,851 13,722 16.400 15,019 15,657 16,732 18,191 17,408 17,033 The following table shows the quantities of the chief varieties of timber cut from Ontario Crown lands in the years indicated : 184 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. SAWLOGS; SQUARE TIMBER. Boom and dimension timber, pieces. Railway ties, pieces. Pulp- Date. White pine, pieces. Other, pieces. White pine, cubic feet. Other, cubic feet. wood, cords. 1868 885.076 1.875.974 1.430,666 1,656.359 2,854,047 2,481,405 2,068,480 2,019,123 1,959,942 1,493,866 1,576,550 2.265.333 2.886.096 3,967.592 4.473.607 3,961.187 3,019,993 3,916,857 4,357,577 4,650,258 6.364,650 6,820,308 5,032.230 4.718.469 6.424.475 7.291.439 7.573.447 9.586,546 10,865,461 5.381.511 7.416,228 6,521,922 9,308,328 8,688.312 9,084,886 10.609.924 2.219 2.149 4,599 9,421 15,450 7,403 16,495 7,611 8,530 4,288 3,667 9,017 33,722 30,128 20,339 17,525 43.084 44.354 56.537 30.845 36.684 44.801 43.331 85,309 110.415 142.109 131.691 231.072 306.327 167.567 167.313 323.946 768.946 928.780 905.603 1.251.215 5,277.786 9.973,965 6,718,001 10,172,307 6,328,647 6,977,470 5,795,723 5,671,491 8,551,049 8,668,249 4,303.791 1,870.653 3.253.036 4.847.114 5,696.349 5.960.982 6.378.505 3,164.866 4.909.976 2.013.178 2.923.332 4.659.755 3.226.164 1.557.075 3.841.853 1.867.340 1.173.576 873.304 1,128.666 1.977,400 1,459,631 1,723,274 1.919.230 1.755.881 1.468,756 806,777 788.535 2,386,915 1,460,548 1,335,763 631,735 1,280,191 2,496.309 1,089.833 1,148,581 857,068 969,601 628.211 957.239 1.481.683 1.089.515 390.728 405,645 23,427 190,459 461,203 433,256 400,114 166,465 22.839 17,466 40,983 1.478 3,767 15.064 30.362 45,569 19,861 37,006 53,820 36,285 22,686 25,772 33,291 57,985 89,179 110,061 106,728 101,844 139.240 128,545 147,288 228.524 159,932 148,863 206.769 250.394 130.429 116.581 201.902 218.799 150.505 154.731 221.230 291.663 287.136 272.140 345.329 309.081 9.953 34.846 66,537 96,126 23,206 77,515 467 7,916 23,439 10,416 18,205 97,431 90,258 201,161 140,144 715,429 1,015.393 971.266 776,142 761,346 579,201 672,410 975,841 628,898 1,130,405 569,362 907,862 708,451 278,955 1,152,213 453,855 1.143.374 1.449.427 2.575.255 2,150.573 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 864 1892 7,544 1893 1894 3,717 10,793 1895 31,115 1896 35,037 1897 28,809 342.299 135.843 524.387 719.107 1.022.483 482.523 46,388 1898 1899 16,448 29,838 1900 1901 1902 65,051 47,738 29,703 1903 61,027 The following is a list of Ontario timber sales from 1868 to the present time, showing the quantity sold and the price a mile. Sales are not held every year but only when it is deemed expedient. The table shows the constantly increasing value of timber. Date. Square miles sold. Total price realized. Dues. Ground rent. Hishest price per mile. Average price per mile. December 23, 1868 July 6. 1869 38 98 12 487 5,031 375 1,379 1,012 459 376 633 1595f 360 399H 826 $ 14.446.50 25.564.50 7.680.00 117.672.00 592,601.50 75,739.00 733.675.00 318,645.00 1,312.312.50 346.256.25 2.315.000.00 265.162.50 723,550.00 732.787.50 3.687.337.00 $0.50 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 $2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 $ 519.00 418.00 640.00 500.00 1.000.00 500.00 2.300.00 1.250.00 6.300.00 2.625.00 17,500.00 6.600.00 8.500.00 4,700.00 31,500.00 $ 380.17 260.86 February 15. 1870 November 23. 1871 October 15, 1872 640.00 241.62 117.79 June 6, 1877 201.97 December 6, 1881 October 22, 1885* December 15, 1887 October 1, 1890t 532.03 314.86 2.859.06 920.89 October 13, 1892 3.657.18 Augfust 18,1897 1,665.07 December 20, 1899 September 17, 1901 December 9, 1903 2,009.86 1.835.41 4.464.08 • Scattered, broken and forfeited berths. t Berths in Rainy River District. ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. 185 The total amount of revenue received from timber by the Govern- ment of Ontario from 1868, the year following confederation, to the end of 1902 was $29,583,386. The prices realized in 1908 were the highest ever received by the Government from the sale of timber lands and emphasized the fact that the state of the lumber market will permit the payment of a much higher price for stumpage and that a corresponding increase in the revenue would result. It may be said, however, that the timber sold at this particular time was of exceptional value and was located on lands tributary to the Ottawa River, which affords an easy method of getting the timber to market. During the last few years the Ontario timber limits have been acquired rapidly and this also has served to stimulate business and prices. Under the mode of procedure the Provincial government now fol- lows the Commissioner of Crown Lands makes an occasional explora- tion and estimates the ungranted limits so as to guide him in the fixing of reserve bids, which are not announced, however. The lands to be disposed of are then cut up into small limits and advertised in the public press for sale. Subsequently the limits are sold at public auction to the highest bidder, if the price is above the reserve bid. The bonus bid pays for the license to cut the timber upon a stated limit, subject to such annual rents and stumpage dues as may be fixed by the Govern- ment. The purchasers of berths in the Nipissing and Algoma districts are entitled to cut red pine and white pine only, except such timber as may be required to make roads. The Rainy River berths include red pine, white pine, spruce, cedar, tamarack and poplar. The timber cut from all berths must be manufactured in Canada. According to the Canadian census figures of 1901 the lumber and timber production of Ontario was as follows : SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER, IN CUBIC FEET. Amount. Value. Ash 231,494 $24,662 Birch 78,986 8,554 Elm 1,259,174 136,787 Maple 194,304 21,554 Oak 76,025 13,022 Pine 1,044,439 219,219 All other woods 906,236 94,868 Total 3,790,658 $518,666 These figures serve to show not only the total magnitude of such production in the Province, but also the relative value of these manu- factured products of the forests of Ontario. While the census has ar- 186 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ranged the woods alphabetically, it will be discerned that Ontario pine leads all of the other woods in value and, indeed, nearly approaches their combined valuation. The census of 1901 gives also the following detailed figures relating to Ontario log production : LOGS FOR LUMBER, IN FBET BOARD MEASURE. Amount. Value. Elm 79,105,000 $629,670 Hickory 1,445,000 17,304 Hemlock.. 84.175.000 482.447 Oak 8,842.000 126.901 Pine 984.352,000 10.116.667 Spruce 8.709.000 71.221 AUotherlogs 167.994,000 1,320,558 Total 1,334,622,000 $12,764,768 Pulpwood, cords 108,335 304,837 Miscellaneous products 8,068,464 Grand total oC values $21,656,735 The same census shows 847 sawmills in operation in the Province, the total production of which in the census year was valued at $25,- 672,424. The following statement is from data collected by The Canada Lumberman. It covers both the Ontario and Quebec sides of the Ottawa River: PRODUCTION OP SAWMILLS IN THE OTTAWA VALLEY, IN FEET BOARD MEASURE. 1902. 1903. 1904. J R Booth, Ottawa, Ont 125.000,000 85.000.000 70.000.000 50.000.000 50,000,000 40,000,000 40,000,000 40,000,000 13,000,000 14,000,000 21,000,000 25,000,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 27,000,000 5,000,000 115.000.000 95.000.000 70.000.000 50.000.000 33.000.000 32.000,000 28,000,000 15,000,000 8,000,000 12,000,000 18,000.000 25.000.000 3.000.000 4.000.000 27.000.000 5.000,000 12,000,000 5,000,000 5.000.000 562.000.000 115.000.000 95.000.000 60.000.000 50.000.000 35.000,000 27,000,000 30,000,000 20,000,000 7,000,000 15,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 3,000.000 5.000,000 20,000,000 5,300,000 15,000,000 W. C. Edwards & Co., Rockland, Que., and McLachlin Brothers, Amprior, Ont Hawkesbury Lumber Co.. Hawkesbury, Ont... Gillies Bros.. Braeside, Ont Gilmour & Hugrhson. Hull, Que Gilmour & Co., Trenton, Ont Pembroke Lumber Company, Pembroke, Ont.. James MacLaren Co., Buckingham, Que J. R. & J. Gillies, Arnprior, Ont A. & P. White. Pembroke. Ont McLaren & McLaurin. East Templeton, Que. . . Rideau Lumber Company, Ottawa. Ont 25,000,000 3 500 000 Davidson & Thackray, Fort Coulonge, Que Total 613,000,000 565.800.000 The following figures show in round numbers the production of the Georgian Bay region in 1903 and 1904. There is a decrease in the latter year notwithstanding the fact that it embraces the cut of two or three mills not included in the 1903 statement. Of the cut indicated about ninety percent was pine and the rest hemlock and other woods : ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. 187 1903. 1904. Midland 64,000,000 60,000,000 Parry Sound 57,000,000 50,000,000 Bynglnlet 42,000,000 52,000,000 Samia 36,000,000 45,000,000 Little Current 46,000,000 37,000,000 Victoria Harbor 50,000,000 46,000,000 Waubaushene 30,000,000 32,000.000 BlindRiver 51,000,000 43,000,000 Spragge 27,000,000 27.000,000 Sandwich 26,000,000 21,000,000 Gravenhurst 25,000,000 25,000,000 Cutler 37,000,000 28,000,000 Penetanguishene 40,000,000 17,000,000 SpanishRiver 16,000,000 23,000,000 CoUingwood 16,000,000 16,000,000 Thessalon 16,000,000 25,000,000 John Island 17,000,000 17,000,000 Cache Bay 19,000,000 19,000,000 Huntsville 15,000,000 12,000,000 Bracebridge 14,000,000 14,000,000 Severn 5,000,000 5,000,000 CaUander 10,000,000 8,500,000 Powassan 2,000,000 4,000,000 Bobcaygeon 4,000,000 3,000,000 Warren 15,000.000 1,500,000 Collinslnlet 5,000,000 5,000,000 Other points 36,000,000 40,000,000 Total 721,000,000 676,000,000 The principal firms operating in the Georgian Bay district are the following, the table giving the location of their sawmills and their out- put for 1904: Saginaw Lumber & Salt Co., Sandwich 21,000,000 Cleveland-Samia Sawmills Co., Samia 27,500,000 Samia Bay Company, Samia 16,000,000 Charlton Sawmill Co., CoUingwood 13,784,000 Eddy Bros. & Co., BlindRiver 28,000,000 Dolsen& McBwan 16,000,000 Monlthrop Lumber Co., John Island 17,000,000 Playfair & Co., Midland 21,000,000 Smith Bros., South River 16,000,000 Chew Bros., Midland 14,000,000 Estate William Peter, Parry Sound 18,000,000 Parry Sound Lumber Company, Parry Sound 17,000,000 Conger Luinber Company, Parry Sound 13,000,000 G.G. Gladman, ParrySound 6,000,000 Loveland & Stone, Cutler 33,000,000 Ontario Lumber Co., French River 8,000,000 Victoria Harbor Lumber Co., Victoria Harbor 46,000,000 John Bertram, Collinslnlet 5,000,000 Georgian Bay Lumber Co., Waubaushene 28,000,000 C. F. Beck & Co., Penetanguishene 11,000,000 W. & A. McArthur Co., Limited, Little Current 25,000,000 Conlon Bros., LitUe Current 7,000,000 GeorgeL. Burtis, Thessalon 17,541.929 N. &A. Dyment, Little Current 8,000,000 Huron Lumber Co., Spanish River 16,000,000 Nipissing Lumber Co., Spanish River 7,000,000 Holland & Graves, Byng Inlet 40,000,000 Total 495,825,929 In the above list will be found many names of historical interest in a consideration of the lumber industry of Ontario. There also appear the names of numerous American operators, who crossed Lake Huron when the exhaustion of their Michigan pine either threatened or act- ually occurred. 188 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, The total production of pine logs and timber in the Province of Ontario from 1879 to 1903 inclusive is recorded in the following table : PRODUCTION OF PINE LOGS AND TIMBER IN ONTARIO. Year. Pine sawlogs. Ft. b. m. Fine boom timber. Ft. b. m. White pine sq. timber. Ft. b. m. Total. Ft. b. m. 1879 322,807,200 377,786,200 493,735,000 518,757,400 443,366,200 357,924,600 469,601,400 534,903,800 567.803,200 699,581,000 725,727,633 519,215,801 451,207,505 606,190,122 718,215,271 613,081,760 800.565,355 904,379,710 477,716,448 544,457,139 498.607,068 643,510,766 598.433,958 615,831.433 679.966.835 10.084,000 11,711,600 19.388.600 22,967.200 19,563.000 17.901,800 29,922,200 29,457.000 31,216,800 41,177,000 32,000,237 33,337,798 37,844.115 42,297,750 24,276,520 17.701.630 32.170.013 34,373.465 25,640,239 26,084,737 29.361.695 34.724,488 32,755,638 38,539,856 39,834.442 29.986.368 50,523,300 75.945,564 81,430,908 76,221.168 81,409,812 38,259,516 61,205,220 29,692,680 40,279,056 60.718.308 40,711,548 18.958,968 46.310,828 22.899.876 14,682,912 10,479.648 13,543,992 23,728,800 17,515,572 20,679,288 23,030,760 21,070,572 17,070,572 9,681.324 362,877.568 440.021,100 589.069.164 623,355.508 539,150.368 457.236,212 537,783,116 625,566,620 628,712,680 781,037,056 818,446,178 593,265,147 508,010,588 694,799,700 765,391,667 644.866.302 843.215,016 952,297,167 527.529,985 587,612.950 548,648,051 701,266,014 652,260,168 671.776,361 729,482,601 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1902 Total 14,183,372.804 714.331.823 926,036.560 15,823,677,287 In 1900 a survey and exploration of northern Ontario was undertaken by ten exploration parties. The southern base of the exploration was the Canadian Pacific railway and the northern base the boundary of the Province, The area of the whole Province is about 167,000,000 acres, of which about 23,000,000 acres is included in the old and settled part, while the area explored embraces about 60,000,000 acres. From the summary of results obtained by the exploration, the following is ex- tracted : "The area is largely covered with extensive forests of spruce, jack pine and poplar. In the district of Nipissing north of the Canadian Pacific railway line, there is estimated to be at least 20,000,000 cords of pulpwood ; in the district of Algoma, 100,000,000 cords ; in the district of Thunder Bay, 150,000,000 cords, and in the district of Rainy River, 18,000,000 cords, a grand total of 288,000,000 cords. The pine region does not seem to extend much beyond the Height of Land, but on this side in the country around Lakes Temagami and Lady Evelyn and to the north, an area of red and white pine of fine quality was explored and estimated to contain about 3,000,000,000 feet board measure. There are also numerous smaller areas, both timber and land, which ONTARIO— REVENUES AND RESOURCES. 189 are not included in these figures, but which will be available when the development of the country takes place." As has been said, the revenue from forests has ranged about one and a quarter millions of dollars a year in recent years. How it has grown since confederation in 1867 is shown in the following figures. It will be noticed, also, how the western district (Georgian Bay and Lake Superior), which produced only about one-eighth of the revenue in 1868, in 1902 produced about five-sixths of the total. ONTARIO REVENUE FROM BONUSES, TIMBER LICENSES AND GROUND RENTS IN THE YEARS INDICATED. Year. Ottawa district. Central district. Western district. Total. 1868 $117,006 247,303 264,842 219,644 306,612 202,814 280,128 194,248 262.056 203,282 130,004 150,257 226,224 269,990 242,176 250,919 196,709 187,114 242.781 258.738 213,560 380,111 283,328 256,708 246,701 178,856 246,222 266,765 165,548 393,003 291,068 186,163 101,322 221,721 178,413 193,535 $ 84,078 104,388 87,784 65.288 162,739 63,278 105.563 54.976 72.811 62.118 62.785 63.291 100.334 88.424 115,364 110.393 71.399 80.716 82.699 94.029 111.531 158.306 92.193 72.178 93.352 65.679 86.660 19.261 84.990 64.589 60.197 111.362 68.281 40.487 88.811 33.049 $ 33.123 83.709 73,273 165,470 96,790 87,717 102,695 40,069 103,122 161,155 92,025 118,464 174,882 159,946 125,199 144,234 196,428 333,507 390,323 638,078 973,047 540.180 540,633 693,723 1,834,537 1,512,469 647,614 567,152 561,882 869,547 629,920 795,322 1,075,499 1,217.638 1,064.126 2.080.771 $ 234,209 1869 435,397 1870 425,901 1871 453,430 1872 *1,191,436 1873 * 643 ,724 1874 503,004 1875 289,294 1876 437,122 1877 426,556 1878 284,816 1879 332,014 1880 501,442 1881 ♦839,716 1882 * 894,052 1883 505,547 1884 464,529 1885 604,338 1886 715,804 1887 990,855 1888 1,316,139 1889 1,078,598 1890 916,155 1891 1,022,619 1892 2,174,591 1893 1,757,005 1894 980,497 1895 853,179 1896 812,424 1897 1,327,140 1898 981,186 1899 1,092,848 1900 1,276,376 1901 1,479,847 1902 1,331,352 1903 2,307,356 ♦These totals were increased by sales held after the detailed statement of revenue by districts was made up. CHAPTER XV. ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. At the outset the business of lumbering was regarded as an essen- tially transitory feature of the process of clearing and settling the coun- try. In the older portions of Canada the greater part of the land de- nuded of its timber was suitable for agricultural settlement, and needed for farms by the incoming population. It was regarded as desirable to have the country cleared as quickly as possible for the plow. As lum- bering operations were pushed farther back, a large territory was reached where most of the land was broken and sterile and not suited for farming, but where much of it was covered with valuable pine timber. If the policy which was followed in clearing the agricultural lands of the southern part of the Province had been pursued in the newer territory, large areas, when stripped by the ax and the bush fires usually attendant on lumbering operations under old time methods, would have been practically worthless, their only value consisting of their timber- producing capacity. The increase in the value of timber induced more conservative methods of cutting and led to the adoption of the system of fire ranging by which the danger of destruction of standing timber by bush fires has been greatly lessened. The large lumber operators realize that, instead of making a thorough clearance of their limits within the shortest pos- sible time, it is often more profitable to treat the forest as a farm, reap- ing a periodical crop, with as little injury as possible to its reproductive capacity. As large tracts of country in New Ontario were opened up for settle- ment and travel by the building of railroads, the question of what action to pursue regarding the large areas of valuable pine land, which if unprotected would be liable to destruction by bush fires, became one of increasing urgency. An advance in the direction of establishing forest reserves from which settlers would be excluded was made in 1893 by the setting aside of the Algonquin National Park in the Nipissing District. This terri- tory being under license, however, is not, strictly speaking, a forest reserve, though it serves some of the purposes of such. In June, 1897, 190 ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. 191 a royal commission was appointed, consisting of E. W. Rathbun, of Deseronto; John Bertram, Toronto ; J. B. Mc Williams, Peterboro ; Alex. Kirkwood, chief clerk of the lands branch of the Crown lands depart- ment, and Thomas Southworth, clerk of forestry, to investigate and report on the subject of restoring and preserving the growth of white pine and other timber trees upon lands not adapted to agricultural pur- poses or to settlement. The two first named gentlemen were practical and experienced lumbermen. After a personal investigation extending over considerable tracts of country they presented a report, the most important feature of which was a recommendation that the Government take the power to withdraw from sale or settlement and set aside to be kept in permanent forest reserves such areas of territory as are gener- ally unsuitable for settlement and yet valuable for growing timber. In accordance with this recommendation the Ontario Legislature in 1898 conferred the requisite authority upon the administration by the Forest Reserves Act. The first action taken in pursuance of this policy was the creation of the Eastern Forest Reserve, consisting of 80,000 acres in the counties of Frontenac and Addington, in 1899. The follow- ing year the Sibley Reserve, comprising about 45,000 acres on the north shore of Lake Superior, was set apart. A more important step was taken in 1901 when the Temagami Forest Reserve was constituted, comprising an area of 2,200 square miles around Lake Temagami in the Nipissing district. This contains one of the most valuable of the pine forests in Ontario, the quantity of standing timber being roughly estimated at from 3,000,000,000 to 5,000,000,000 feet. This reserve was subsequently enlarged by the addition of territory to the north and west, bringing its area up to a total of 5,900 square miles. The Missis- saga Reserve in the Algoma district was added to the list in 1904. It comprises about 3,000 square miles of virgin timber. It is altogether probable that as settlement advances in New Ontario, only the fringe of which has so far been touched by civilization, further areas will be set apart as forest reserves, wherever timber covered tracts of importance are found to exist on non-agricultural lands. Of recent years, the forestry work of the Province of Ontario has been under the management of Thomas Southworth, spoken of above, with the title of Director of Forestry. His extensive studies and practi- cal experience have qualified him to speak with particular authority of all the phases of this general subject of forest preservation and its financial aspects. For this reason we reproduce in this chapter an arti- 192 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. cle prepared by him at a recent date.' This article to a certain extent is a reproduction of what has been said elsewhere, but it so clearly explains and logically summarizes the whole subject that it is repro- duced, as follows: The Province of Ontario is one o£ the greatest business corporations in the world. Whether viewed in the light of an inheritor having a vast estate to dispose of, or as all this and a trading company as well, Ontario is an extensive corpora- tion doing business in a very large way. Its shareholders are the individual people of the Province, and handsome divi- dends are yearly paid to them in the form of the support of public services, charity and education, that would otherwise be paid for out of their private pockets in the form of taxes. I presume it may be stated that the working capital of the Province is, through the right to levy taxes, only limited by the ability of the citizens to pay, as is the case with other similar corporations having more and richer shareholders, but it is proposed to refer only to the estate or inheritance common to us all in our land and water areas, and what they contain or produce. This includes land, forests, min- erals, game, fish and water powers, all of which supply an income that could be increased if desired. Unlike many corporations or trading companies, however, the Province realizes that there are ways in which the " greatest good to the greatest number" of the shareholders in this enterprise may be reached other than in the direct payment of cash dividends, and it has been deemed for the general good that the forest should be worked as the chief producer of cash dividends. Therefore for the purpose of this article we will eliminate any consideration of any of the provincial assets other than that of the Crown forest. The forest wealth of the Province has until recently been classed under two divisions : That still remaining the property of the Crown partly sold under license to lumbermen and partly without any claim at all ; and that part held by settlers to whom lands had been allotted or sold by the Crown. In the development of the timber trade in Ontario the idea gradually evolved was to dispose of the merchantable timber, principally pine, for cash revenue, before handing over the land on which it grew to individuals to be converted into farms. Having this idea in view, the business was not regarded as one of our per- manent industries. The lumberman was considered as but the forerunner of the farmer, and no attempt was made for many years to do any more than harvest the standing crop of pine and other coniferous trees to the best advantage. No idea of taking oflE another crop than the original one was thought of. For many years this process worked well. As lumbermen established camps, and cut over their limits, the shantyman often become a farmer, squatting upon a tract of good land as he found it in the limit, and he was soon followed by his friends. This process has settled many townships in the Province, and where the land included in the limit was good for farming, no better plan could probably be devised. The hard- woods and enough pine for building purposes were left on the land for the settler, 1 Published In The Canada Lumberman January 19, 1905. ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. 193 and from the money received from the largest pine, roads were built for the settler and the whole people of the Province shared in the dividends. As the lumberman pushed farther north in search of pine, however, the char- acter of the country changed. Large areas were placed under license to lumber- men in which the land was unsuited for farming. The settler still followed the lumberman and tried to make farms where nature had provided that forests only could be profitably grown, finding out only after their capital and the best years of their lives had been spent, that they had made a mistake. While these men have been wasting their efforts dragging out a bare existence, the Province has lost large sums in cash that might have been derived from these same areas had they been left to produce a second crop of pine timber. In addition to the encroachments of settlers upon the forest area, fire proved a prominent factor in emphasizing the ephemeral character of the lumber industry ; large tracts were burned over, until it began to be recognized as the natural thing that fire followed the lumberman. The success of the fire ranging system adopted in 1885 showed that this danger could be largely removed. This partial immunity from forest fires led our legislators to consider the possi- bility of giving the forest industries a more permanent character, and in 1895, when I was appointed to the forestry work under the Government, I was directed by the then Commissioner of Crown Lands, the Hon. A. S. Hardy, to submit a report on the best method of reaSorestating these burned areas with pine ; to ascertain the comparative cost of planting and of sowing tree seeds, with plan of operation. Estimates of the cost of seedling trees for replanting were secured, and in the process of investigating the burned over areas to ascertain the probable cost of get- ting them in condition to replant or sow, I concluded and so reported that neither was necessary except in a few places. The cost of replanting or even of seeding successfully would be so great per acre that the directors of the corporation, the Legislature, would never vote the money necessary to accomplish the work over so large an area; and they would be right, for it is very likely that the initial expense compounded even at three percent, for the number of years necessary for .the plantation to reach a merchantable age, plus the annual expenditure for protection and care, would exceed the amount realized from the crop even at the enhanced prices likely to be obtained at that time. It may be said that even so, for the sake of the incidental or indirect benefits in the way of climatic effect and water supply the investment would be worth while, but it was found that planting was not at all necessary, that practically all the investment required was time and freedom from settlement or fire. On burned over territory a new forest was growing, and in nearly every case, where pine was present in the previous crop, pine was growing again, not at first perhaps ; the first crop after the fire was usually birch, poplar or other trees that seed yearly and whose seeds carry immense distances, but nearly always pine followed where the fire had left any parent pine trees within a wide radius, and would be found grow- ing up under the shade and protection of the broad leaved trees, under the exact conditions required to make good timber. This condition of affairs simplified the problem of reafforestation on Ontario Crown lands, and in my report to the Government in 1896 I recommended that areas found unsuited for general farming should be permanently withdrawn from settlement and placed in forest reserves. 194 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. In the following year the Government appointed a royal commission to report on the same subject. This commission included among its members two of the ablest lumbermen in Canada, the late E. W. Rathbun and the late John Bertram, and this commission indorsed this recommendation as follows : ' ' A large portion of the central division of the Province is more profitable from the standpoint of public revenue as forest land than under cultivation for farm crops, and as in addition to this it contains the headwaters of all our principal streams, all that part of this division found upon examination to be not well adapt- ed for farming should be added to the permanent Crown forest reserves." In 1898 the legislature passed an act entitled "An Act to Establish Forest Re- serves," the first specific action by legislation toward the creation of a permanent Crown forest. This act was submitted to the legislature by Hon. J. M. Gibson, then Commissioner of Crown Lands, and was passed without a dissenting voice. The passage of the forest reserves act, and the creation of reserves thereunder, is the formal announcement of the Government policy of gradually separating the non-agricultural from the agricultural lands, and is the first organized and definite attempt to create a permanent forest estate to be owned in perpetuity by the Crown and operated for timber crops. Under the act there have so far been created four forest reserves, amounting in all to 5,821,000 acres. These include the Eastern Forest Reserve of 80,000 acres; the Sibley Forest Reserve of 45,000 acres; the Temagami Forest Reserve of 3,776,000 acres, and the Mississaga Reserve of 1,920,- 000 acres. There should be added to this Algonquin Park, created in 1893 mainly as a game preserve, with an acreage of 1,101,000 acres, ^ making a total of permanent forest reserves of 6,922,000 acres. These reserves are of difEerent character. The two former, the Eastern Re- serve in Frontenac County and the Sibley Reserve, which takes in the township of Sibley including Thunder Cape on the north shore of Lake Superior, have been lumbered, and in most cases burned over, and now contain a very thrifty growth of white pine and other trees. It will be some time before they are ready again for lumbering operations, but the growth is very rapid and the time when they may be again operated for pine and other timbers will be much less than would be im- agined in the absence of definite information and measurements of the rate of growth of this young timber. The Temagami Reserve lies in the district of Nipissing and contains 5,900 square miles or 3,776,000 acres. This reserve besides including some of the most picturesque and beautiful lakes in the world, of which Temagami and Lady Eveljm might be mentioned, contains a very large quantity of pine timber now ready to be cut. About forty years ago the band of Indians living in the territory, alarmed at the incursions of the lumbermen who were operating on Lake Temiscamingue and at the suggestion, it is said, of a Hudson Bay officer equally interested with them in the preservation of this country as a hunting ground, started a fire that swept over a good many hundreds of square miles, including the northern part of Tema- gami, Lady Evelyn, Anima, Nipissing and other lakes. Over this burned territory there is now a thrifty growth of poplar, birch, as well as pine and other coniferous ^ The area of Algonquin Park Is placed at 1,109,383 acres In other carefully compiled statistics on Ontario, which are at hand. ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. 195 trees, the pine making growth at the rate of one inch in diameter in about two and a half to three years. Of the timber now sufficiently large to cut or what would be estimated by a lumberman in buying the territory for lumbering, I believe there is about five thousand millions, or five billions of feet board measure, exclusive of spruce, tamarack and hardwoods. The Mississaga Reserve is included in the territory drained by the Winnebago and Mississaga rivers in the district of Algoma, and lies between the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway and the Sault Ste. Marie branch of the same line. It comprises a territory of 3,000 square miles, or 1,920,000 acres, and is estimated to contain over three thousand millions of feet of merchantable white pine besides other timbers. In giving these figures of areas of forest reserves, it must be borne in mind that the Government has only recently entered upon this policy, and it requires time to properly investigate the difEerent areas before having them come under the provisions of the forest reserves act. By the act a reserve can be created by order in council, but if on further investigation it was found desirable to open this land for agricultural purposes, a subsequent act of the legislature would be necessary in order to take it out of the reserves. In a general way, however, we are aware that there is a very large territory in the Province of Ontario peculiarly suitable for per- manent forests. So far as the question of future timber supplies and the consequent effect on climate and industrial conditions are concerned the Province of Ontario is in a peculiarly fortunate condition. The southern part of the Province which extends almost into the middle of the United States is a very rich agricultural section, now entirely settled up, and the home of a prosperous agricultural community. North of this agricultural belt, stretching across the Province from east to west, lies the watershed separating the streams flowing south into the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence from those flowing north into our great Canadian sea. This height of land or watershed is not a mountainous ridge, but a more or less level tableland, rugged and rough in character, for the most part quite unsuited for agriculture, but the natural home of the white and red pine, spruce and other coniferous trees. True, in this belt there are occasional valleys of good land. In the Temiscamingtie district for instance, there are nearly a million acres of rich alluvial clay soil. There is also a good agricultural section in the Rainy River Valley and another one at Wabigoon on the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway. But generally speaking, that is the character of this immense watershed stretching hundreds of miles across the Province from east to west. North of this territory again, on the slope running to Hudson Bay, lies another agricultural district, estimated to contain over sixteen millions of acres of first class farming land, but covered at present with a very valuable growth of spruce and other timber. In estimating the annual dividends possible or likely to be derived from this forest asset, a good many things have to be taken into account. While the reserves so far created are pine-bearing, not all of the territory suitable for reserves contains pine at present though it may be made to do so. Some of this territory is rocky and has been so severely burned over, notably on the north shore of Lake Superior, as to have no soil left, and we need to figure on long periods of time before those 196 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. small areas will become productive. There must also be eliminated the water areas, and fire must be counted on as a contingency. The present forest reserve area includes distinctly pine-bearing lands, and for purposes of computation over the whole area, I will take this area 6,922,000 acres as a basis. In a country where we have no large artificial plantations that have reached maturity from the seed, it is diflScult to form definite conclusions as to the annual growth of timber, but from measurements obtained by the Washington Bureau of Forestry over many parts of the northern or pine-bearing states, they have adopted nearly sixty cubic feet as the normal annual growth under ordinary forest conditions on an acre of forest land. This includes the whole of all sorts of trees, not pine alone. This in board measure would be 720 feet per acre per year. In our pine-bearing land, particularly in the reserves referred to, white pine is not the only tree, but it is the dominant tree, and a large proportion of this annual growth will be of that variety of timber. Pinchot and Graves, in their exhaustive study of the white pine in Pennsyl- vania, estimate that a pine tree ten inches in diameter will yield 84 percent of mer- chantable timber, and in a tree twenty-six inches diameter only seven percent is waste. Under continuous operations, 10 percent would be a fair allowance for waste in all kinds of timber, but there should also be eliminated much solid tim- ber not now merchantable. With allowance also for water areas and spots not well seeded, I do not think 300 feet board measure per acre an unreasonable estimate for the annual growth of pine on an acre of land in the areas. That it is not un- reasonable is shown from yields on lands that have been cut over. There are numerous instances where 50,000 feet of pine per acre have been cut, and this where only the merchantable trees were removed, leaving many others on the way to a merchantable size, while our estimate is for the total annual growth. An ordinary forest well seeded to pine would produce this 50,000 feet in about one hundred years or at the rate of 500 feet per year. One other deduction must be made, however, for fire, for while we have greatly lessened the damage from this source, it must be counted on, and we will reduce this estimate 50 percent or 150 feet board measure an acre a year for the pine timber only. This estimate applied to our present reserves would give an annual production of 1,038,300,000 feet. As to the value of this timber, much depends on its location and ease of access to market. On the basis of the recent timber sale, $7 per thousand feet would be a fair average as applied to the reserves in question. This would return annually $7,268,100. This sum appears large, but it must be borne in mind that the terri- tory now being operated each year, probably not so large as this, returns $1,000,000 to the treasury, and at $1.25 instead of $7 per thousand feet. It would, perhaps, be unfair to apply the prices realized at the recent sale to the whole of this area, but to reduce it to $5, a very modest estimate, the annual incre- ment in pine would reach a value of $5,191,500, and besides the other timbers growing on the reserves, spruce, cedar, birch, larch, maple, etc., have a commer- cial value that is rapidly increasing. One hundred and fifty thousand feet board measure at $5 per thousand would be worth 75 cents as the annual rental value of this land. It may at first sight ap- pear high, but the Prussian Crown forests under a most expensive semimilitary ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. 197 sjrstem of management, including the cost of maintaining several forestry schools and colleges, yield a net income over all expenses of about $1.45 an acre a year over the whole territory good and bad. I am well aware of the difference in con- ditions as to markets, etc. , but surely if the Germans can obtain a net revenue of $1.45, we can, in time at least, under proper management, realize half that sum as our gross revenue. I might also add that the Crown forests of Saxony yield about $4.50 an acre a year, net. A recent concrete instance of the growth of pine under somewhat adverse cir- cumstances is shown by the result of a small plantation of pine trees on the sand plains of Nebraska. This plantation covers .52 of an acre on the ranch of Bruner Bros., in Holt County, Nebraska. It is rectang^ular in form, measuring 70x192 feet, and is located in sand hills bordering a dry valley. The trees on this plantation were set out in the spring of 1891 as three-year-old seedlings averaging about eight inches in height. Furrows were turned two feet apart, and the trees were planted two feet apart in the furrows. Since planting, the trees have received no cultiva- tion whatever, but they have been protected from fire and stock. The altitude of the location is 2,200 feet. This sand is what is ordinarily called blow sand and covered some of the small seedlings. Last year the Bureau of Forestry at Washington had these trees counted and measured, when it was found that the total volume of wood in the plantation was 586.02 cubic feet, with a total annual growth of 50.6 cubic feet. This, con- verted into board measure, would be over 600 feet a year on a fraction over half an acre, or 1,200 feet an acre a year. It is true these trees were planted at regular intervals, and would therefore have a better chance for growth than trees reproduced by nature with her wasteful methods, but it must also be remembered that the soil was very bad and of such a nature as had been considered hitherto quite incapable of growing trees at all. Hence it will be seen that my estimate of 150 feet board measure an acre a year in our peculiar pine-bearing country is a very moderate estimate. Appl3fing this estimate to say 40,000,000 acres of permanent reserves, which I hope to live to see, we have a yearly growth of 6,000,000,000 feet, which at $5 per thousand would represent a value of $30,000,000. This is not a rosy picture, but a very conservative estimate, and if the timber other than pine is considered, it will be found low. And now, having definitely adopted the policy of separating agricultural from non-agricultural lands, placing large areas of non-agricultural lands in reserves to form a permanent Crown forest to be operated in perpetuity for timber supplies and the payment of cash dividends, the problem is presented of how to work these reserves to the best advantage. In this various problems present themselves. The first, of course, is the great one of .fire protection, but this I am happy to say we are within reasonable distance of having solved. Of course in the forest, as in the city, the prevention of fires entirely is an impossibility, and in the forest there is the added difificulty not often found in well regulated cities, that a fire once under headway cannot be checked by any human agency at present known. At the same time the system of patrol adopted some years ago is proving very effective, and our losses from fires for the past few years have been inconsiderable. 198 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Among the most serious problems confronting the Government in the perma- nent timber policy, is the reproduction of the right kind of species from a commer- cial point of view. This Province is the habitat of probably the most valuable timber tree in the world, the Weymouth or white pine, the tree that has been so great a factor in the prosperity of the Province. There are peculiar features connected with its reproduction that have to be carefully considered in any perma- nent forestry operations. In the first place, I have noticed that where a forest has been operated for pine for a number of years, and where no fire has taken place, there seem to be no seedling pines coming up. True, there are pine trees still growing to take the place of the mature trees removed, but they are trees that were suppressed and stunted in their growth at the time of the previous lumbering operations, and that took on new growth after the pressure in the forest was relieved, but I cannot find that in a forest of this sort there is any new crop coming on, that is to say, trees that have seeded since the cutting of the original crop. Why this is so is not quite clear to me, but I imagine the reason will be found in the fact that the ground and the conditions of shade are not suitable for the proper germination and g^rowth of the pine seeds. On the other hand, where there has been a forest fire, after lumbering opera- tions, we nearly always find a growth of young pine coming up, at any rate if any old or seed trees have been left in the vicinity of the fire. Assuming this condition of affairs to be general, that young pine will not come up as a second crop except under suitable conditions, it will readily be seen that if in operating an old forest, nothing but the pine trees are taken out, the result must eventually be that the character of the forest will have changed from a pine forest to one of another description, and necessarily of a less valuable character. If it is pine mixed with spruce, if the pine is removed and the spruce only allowed to reproduce, it will naturally become a spruce forest, or a hardwood forest as the case may be. Hence it is obvious that in operating an old or virgin forest with a view of reproduction of the most valuable sorts of trees, a scientific knowledge of the growth and method of reproduction of these trees will be necessary in order to have the cutting properly executed. This must be done also with a view to the financial part of the operation, because whether in private forestry or government forestry, it must necessarily be largely a commercial proposition, and the cost of operating must be considered in its relation to the ultimate profit. This is one of the problems confronting us. There are others of a more or less technical nature, and for their solution scientifically trained men will, in my opin- ion, be necessary. That we have many men engaged in the lumbering business who are highly skilled men indeed in the operation of removing the present stand- ing crop of timber as expeditiously and economically as possible, is true, but their training is not extended to the problem of removing this timber with any regard to a future crop. While we need scientifically trained men for this purpose, men with a knowl- edge of botany, plant pathology and general sylviculture, as these men would have to be employed partly by the Government, partly by lumbermen, it would be nec- essary that in addition to these things they should also be expert lumbermen, and ONTARIO— FOREST RESERVES. 199 have a thorough knowledge of logging, driving to market, sawing, culling lumber, etc., so that in addition to the training they could receive in the schools, their edu- cation would be utterly incomplete without the other training in the bush and in the sawmill, as well as in the lumber yard. For the proper management of our permanent forests, well trained men will be needed and it will require the joint training of the college, the bush and the saw- mill to produce them. It is difficult to estimate the far-reaching consequences of this policy in securing a permanent source of future supply against the time when the present demand for lumber and other forest products will have enormously increased and many now productive areas, if worked in the ordinary way, will have become depleted. The intention of the Government of the Province is that these reserves shall be operated in accordance with forestry principles, removing only the mature timber from time to time with as little injury as possible to the young growth and the reproductive character of the forest in order that the supply may be perpetually maintained. CHAPTER XVI. ONTARIO— TORONTO INSPECTION. The following rules and regulations for the inspection of pine and hardwood lumber were adopted by the lumber section of the Board of Trade of the City of Toronto, Ontario, in 1890. Though now obsolete, they are of historical interest. PINE LUMBER. INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSPECTION. Inspectors of lumber must measure and inspect each piece as they find it, of full length and width. Imperfections are not to be measured out. All lumber must be put into the grade its defects call for, regardless of meas- urement. All lumber over 1 inch in thickness must be measured full, with the % or % added on each piece (no fraction in width allowed) . In inspection the inspector is instructed to use his best judgment, based upon the rules laid down for his guidance. The standard knot is to be considered as not exceeding IX inches in diameter. Splits are a greater or lesser defect in lumber, and must be considered accord- ingly. All lumber must be cut plump in thickness and be well manufactured, and all lumber imperfectly manufactured shall be classed as culls. GRADES. The following shall be the grades of lumber sanctioned by the Council of the Board of Trade for the Lumber Section of the Board of Trade of the City of Toronto : Clear Lumber.— Clear lumber shall be perfect in all respects and free from wane, rot, shake or check, not less than 12 feet long, 8 inches wide and 1 inch thick. A piece 12 inches wide will admit of imperfections to the extent of one standard knot or its equivalent in sap. In lumber over 12 inches wide the inspec- tor must use his best judgment in accordance with the instructions above given. Picks. — Pickings must not be less than 12 feet long, 8 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness, well manufactured and free from wane, rot, shake or check. A piece 8 inches wide will admit of one standard knot, or imperfections in sap to the same extent. A piece 12 inches wide will admit of two standard knots, or imperfections in sap to the same extent. For lumber wider than 12 inches, of this grade, inspect- ors will carry out the instructions as given regarding wide, clear lumber. No. 1 Cutting Up. — No. 1 cutting up shall not be less than 12 feet long, 7 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness. Clear pieces 10 feet long and the required width are included in this grade ; this must be free from wane, rot, shake or check. 200 ONTARIO— TORONTO INSPECTION. 201 Pieces from 7 to 9 inches wide will admit of imperfections to the extent of two standard knots or their equivalent in sap. Pieces from 10 to 12 inches wide will admit of three standard knots or imperfections equivalent to them in sap, and wider for lumber of this grade inspectors will follow instructions as given in two previous g^rades. Inspectors are informed that this grade of lumber is expected to cut out two-thirds clear in profitable lengths to the consumer. No. 2 Cutting Up.— No. 2 cutting up shall not be less than 10 feet long, 6 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness, and shall cut at least one-half clear in ac- cordance with the instructions as given above regarding No. 1 cutting up lumber. fine Dressing: — This grade of lumber shall be generally of a sound character, and shall be free from wane, rot, shake or check, not less than 10 feet long, 7 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness. A piece 7 inches wide will admit of one or more knots which can be covered with a ten-cent piece if they are sound. A piece wider than 7 inches will admit of one or more knots of the same size according to the judgment of the inspector in regard to the width. Common Dressing.— Common dressing shall not be less than 10 feet long, 7 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness, and shall be free from wane, rot or check, and shall be generally of a sound character, and will admit of standard knots that will not unfit it for dressing purposes. Common. — Common shall be free from rot and unsound knots, and well manu- factured, not less than 10 feet long, 7 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness. Strips.— CXeax strips shall be from 4 to 6 inches wide, not less than 12 feet long, and 1 inch in thickness, and shall have one perfectly clear face, free from all imperfections ; bright sap will be permitted on the reverse side. Sap Strips. — Sap strips for fine dressing shall be from 4 to 6 inches wide, not less than 12 feet long and 1 inch in thickness, and will admit of one knot which can be covered by a 10-cent piece in a piece 4 inches wide, and two knots of like size in a piece 6 inches wide. All strips free from other imperfections and having bright sap on two sides would be admitted into this grade. Common Dressing Strips. — Common dressing strips shall be from 4 to 6 inches wide, not less than 10 feet long, and 1 inch in thickness, and shall be well manu- factured and generally of a sound character ; will admit of knots which are sound and not coarse, and which will not unfit it for ordinary dressing purposes. Common Strips. — Common strips shall be from 4 to 6 inches in width, not less than 10 feet long and 1 inch in thickness, free from rot and wane and to be of a coarse, sound character. No. 1 Culls. — This grade shall consist of lumber above the grade of No. 2 culls and shall admit of coarse knots and stain and be free from rot. It shall also admit of pieces imperfectly manufactured below 1 inch in thickness and perfectly sound, and not rendered worthless through improper manufacture. No. 2 Culls. — No. 2 culls shall be lumber that will work one-half sound. No. 1 Lath. — No. 1 lath shall be 4 feet long, and shall be when cut \)^, IJi and \% inches in width, cut out of good, sound, live timber, free from wane, rot or knots, well manufactured and trimmed square at the ends. No. 2 Lath. — No. 2 lath shall be of the same width and length as No. 1 lath, and shall admit of a small portion of wane, and also will admit of lath sap stained, and will admit of small, sound knots; must otherwise be well manufactured. 202 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. No. XXX Shingles.— "^o. XXX shingles, packed in 4 bunches to the 1,000, of 250 each, free from all rot, shake, sap, knots, pin holes, bastards, or defects of any nature. A shingle 4 inches being the standard, 16-inch shingles should be 5 shingles to 2 inches thickness at butt, with tV inch points, and 18-inch shingles, 5 to 2% inches thickness at butt, and ^g at points, to be well manufactured and well pointed. No. XX 6-Inch Clear Butts.— 'Ho. XX 6-inch clear butts must be perfect for at least 6 inches from butts, and the defects from this hereon to be of water-tight character, and same regulation regarding thickness as XXX shingles. No. 1. — No. 1 to be of a grade not specially up to, so as to be considered in, either of above grades, and to be sold by special agreement. All Other Shingles. — All other shingles are culls, and their value is to be a matter of arrangement, if they have any market value. HARDWOOD LUMBER. INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSPECTION. It is impossible to make rules that will govern every piece of lumber, there being no two pieces of lumber exactly alike. It is therefore expected that the in- spector shall be a person of experience, and use his best judgment, based upon the general rules given, making no allowance for the purpose of raising or lowering the grades of a piece. The inspector must not favor either the buyer or seller, but take lumber as he finds it, and pass each piece into the grade to which it belongs. Inspectors should examine all lumber on the poorest side, except flooring. All lumber must be measured in even lengths, excepting stock that is cut to order for special purposes, when it shall be measured for the full contents. Bark or waney pieces shall be measured inside the bark or wane. All tapering pieces will be measured one-third the length of the piece from the small end. All badly cut lumber shall be classed as cull, or placed one grade below what it would be if properly manufactured. All lumber shall be sawed thick enough to meet the required thickness when seasoned. Lumber sawed for newels, columns, balusters, axles, or other specific purposes, must be inspected with a view of the intended use of the piece, and the adaptability for that purpose, as in most cases it cannot be utilized for other purposes. Heart pieces are excluded from all grades above cull. Worm holes are considered one of the most serious defects. Gum spots in cherry is a defect, and, if excessive, will lower the piece one or two grades. Warped, twisted, stained and stick-rotten lumber shall either be classed as cull, or mill cull and refuse. The standard lengths of whitewood to be 12, 14 and 16 feet, admitting 10 per- cent of 10 feet lengths; walnut and cherry, 10, 12, 14 and 16 feet lengths, admit- ting 10 percent of 8 feet ; 8 feet to be admitted as No. 1 must be 12 inches wide and upwards; to grade as No. 2, 8 inches wide and upwards. A standard knot must not exceed 1% inches in diameter, and must be sound. Log run shall be the unpicked run of the log, mill cull out. Lumber sold on grade, and without special contract will be measured according to these rules. The inspector will be required to keep a correct copy of all measurements, and give duplicate of same to both buyer and seller if required. ONTARIO— TORONTO INSPECTION. 203 In all grades mentioned as combined in No. 1 and No. 2, all pieces less than 8 inches shall be considered as seconds. BLACK WALNUT. Combined grade of firsts and seconds, rejects and shipping culls. No. 1. — No. 1, from 8 to 10 inches, shall be clear of all defects; 10 to 16 inches wide may have \% inches bright sap, or one standard knot ; 16 inches wide and upwards may have 2 inches bright sap, or two standard knots showing on one side only. Seconds. — Seconds, 6 inches wide and upwards, must be clear of all defects at 7 inches ; at 10 inches will admit of \yz inches sap or two standard knots ; 10 to 16 inches wide will admit of 2 inches sap, or two standard knots ; 16 inches wide and upwards may have 3 inches sap, or three standard knots ; 12 inches wide and up- wards will admit of a split, if straight, J^ the length of the piece, provided the piece be equal to No. 1 in other respects. Not over 10 percent of seconds will be taken with splits of the above character. Rejects. — Rejects, 5 inches wide and upwards ; at 7 inches may have 1 inch sap, or one standard knot ; 7 to 12 inches wide may have 2 inches sap, or two sound knots ; 12 to 18 inches wide may have 4 inches sap, or four sound knots ; above 18 inches may have 5 inches bright, sound sap. Shipping Cull. — Shipping cull will include all lumber not equal to the above that will average and work two-thirds its width and length. CHERRY AND BUTTERNUT Will be graded and inspected according to the rules gfiven for black walnut, with the exception of gum specks in cherry. (See instructions.) WHITEWOOD, COTTONWOOD OR BALM OF GILEAD Will include the combined grade of first and seconds — No. 1 common, No. 2 com- mon, or shipping cull. The combined grade of firsts and seconds shall not be less than 65 percent of No. 1. No. 1. — No. 1 shall be 10 inches wide and upwards, and clear of all defects at 12 inches ; 12 to 15 inches may have \yi. inches bright sap, or one standard knot showing on one side only ; 15 to 18 inches may have 2 inches sap ; 18 inches and upwards may have 3 inches sap, or two standard knots showing on one side only. Seconds. — Seconds, 8 inches wide and upwards, clear of all defects at 9 inches; at 10 inches wide, may have one standard knot or a split not over 12 inches long; 15 to 18 inches wide may have two standard knots, or 3 inches bright sap ; 18 to 22 inches may have three standard knots or 4 inches bright, sound sap. No. 1 Common. — No. 1 common shall be 6 inches wide and upwards, bright, sound and clear sap, not a defect in this grade; 8 to 12 inches wide, may have three standard knots ; 12 to 16 inches wide, four standard knots ; 16 to 24 inches, five standard knots, or may have straight heart cracks not showing over one- quarter the length of the piece, if it has no other defect excepting bright sap. No. 2 Common or Shipping Cull. — No. 2 common or shipping cull will include lumber with more defects than the No. 1 common. Pieces will be received where two-thirds of the piece will be available for use for rough manufacturing purposes ; stained sap or other defects will be received in this grade ; dozed and rotten sap, and other lumber, than as above named, will be classed as mill cull or refuse, and have no standard value. 204 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. BASSWOOD Shall be inspected the same way as whitewood, cottonwood or balm of Gilead, with the exception that seconds will take lumber 6 inches wide and up. ASH AND OAK Shall be graded as firsts and seconds, and shall be 6 inches and over in width. Boards or Plank. — Boards or plank 8 inches wide will admit of one standard knot or one defect ; 10 inches and over wide will admit of two or more defects, according to the width of the piece ; bright sap is not considered a defect. Culls. — Culls include all width, lengths and sizes, except such stock as will not work one-half without waste. Other than the above are classed as mill culls and have no value in this market. CHBSTNTIT Shall be 6 inches and over in width, and clear up to 8 inches. Pieces 9 inches wide may have three standard knots ; over 12 inches wide, four standard knots. This grade must be absolutely free from worm or pin holes. Culls shall constitute all lumber below the above grade that will cut one-half without waste. SYCAMORE Shall be Inspected the same way as oak and ash. HICKORY Shall be inspected the same as oak and ash. ROCK AND SOFT ELM Shall be 6 inches and up wide, and up to 10 inches shall be perfect. Beyond that width shall take the inspection given to oak and ash. HARD AND SOFT MAPLE Shall be inspected for firsts and seconds in the same manner as oak and ash. Clear Maple Flooring:— Clear maple flooring shall have at least one clear face, and two edges also clear. Common Maple Flooring. — Common maple flooring shall be of the same gen- eral character as clear ; may have one or two small sound knots of not more than % of an inch in diameter, or a small wane on one edge, which will not injure it for working its full size without waste. BIRCH Shall have the same inspection as hard and soft maple, with the exception that sap is considered a defect more than in maple. CHAPTER XVII. ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. In the preceding chapters which treat of the lumber history of the Province of Ontario, are many references to individuals; but the sequential character of most of the narrative, which relates to timber and lumber rather than to individuals, did not permit of specific refer- ence to many persons who were prominent in the lumber industry and the operations of many of whom should have a place in any history of the lumber industry in Canada. This chapter, therefore, is devoted to a brief definition of the place of certain individuals, firms and com- panies in the lumber development of Ontario during the last hundred years. By no means all who should be included are mentioned and to those an apology is perhaps due, but the list includes those regarding whom data were immediately available. As in the chapter devoted to the personnel of the Quebec industry, there is a certain co-mingling of interests. The Ottawa Valley includes sections of both Ontario and Quebec, the river forming, as it does, the boundary line between the two provinces. Some Ottawa lumbermen have had their chief holdings in Quebec waters, while some residing and having mills on the Quebec side of the river have had timber hold- ings in Ontario. From some standpoints the history of the Ottawa Valley, without regard to provincial lines, would have been more desira- ble ; but the plan of the work made most desirable the present arrange- ment, which in this particular connection seems somewhat arbitrary. For one who would secure a comprehensive view of the Ottawa Valley as a whole it will be necessary to read the history of both provinces and the account of the personnel of each. THE WHITE FAMILY. The town of Pembroke, about one hundred and twenty miles up the river from Ottawa, was founded in 1828 by Col. Peter White, a native of Edinburgh, Scotland, who was for many years one of the principal timber merchants of the Ottawa Valley. His sons have been actively engaged in the lumber business and by their enterprise have done much to build up their native town. Hon. Peter White, bom at Pembroke August 30, 1838, after receiving a business training from an Ottawa 205 206 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. mercantile firm, entered into partnership with his brother, Andrew T. White, now deceased, as A. & P. White, and for many years carried on an extensive lumber business which is still continued under the firm name. Mr. White is known best, perhaps, as an active politician. He was elected to Parliament in the Conservative interest for North Ren- frew in 1874 and, with the exception of a brief interval, represented the constituency steadily until 1896. He was chosen Speaker of the House in 1891 and held that position during a parliamentary term, until 1896, in which year he was defeated in the general election. He carried the constituency again in 1904. Mr. White is a member of the Privy Coun- cil of Canada, to which he was called in 1897. He is a director of the Pembroke Lumber Company and is prominently identified with many local commercial enterprises. His brother and business partner, An- drew T. White, was also in public life and for some time represented North Renfrew in the Ontario Legislature. WILLIAM MOHR. William Mohr, a prominent figure in the early lumber trade of the Ottawa Valley, died at his home in the township of Fitzroy, near Ren- frew, Ontario, in May, 1903, in the ninetieth year of his age. His operations were confined to the square timber trade. He took many rafts to Quebec, his transactions sometimes reaching 750,000 cubic feet in a season. He operated on the Quyon, Bonnechere, Petawawa, Du Moine and Madawaska rivers, where year after year he regularly made his trips to the shanties. BOYD CALDWELL & CO. The late Boyd Caldwell, of Lanark, Ontario, came to Canada from his native place in Renfrewshire, Scotland, in 1821 with his parents, when only three years of age. For about fifty years he was engaged in the export timber business, but in 1867 became more extensively concerned in the manufacture of woolen goods. Boyd Caldwell died in 1888. The firm of Boyd Caldwell & Co., of which he was the founder, is still extant, having recently been incorporated, with his son, Thomas Boyd Caldwell, as president. In addition to its extensive woolen mills the company operates a large planing and sawmill. GILMOUR & CO. Allan Gilmour, a member of a family that in the early days was ex- tensively engaged in the square timber trade and is today prominently represented in lumber manufacturing, was bom in Lanarkshire, Scot- land, August 23, 1816. In his early youth he went to Montreal, where ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 207 he entered the employ of William Ritchie & Co., wholesale merchants. In 1840 he and his cousins, James, John and David Gilmour, assumed the business. Shortly afterward they engaged in the production of square timber for the Quebec market, and in 1853 Allan Gilmour took up his residence in Ottawa, which became the headquarters of Gilmour & Co. The firm acquired large sawmills on the Gatineau, Blanche and North Nation rivers, tributaries of the Ottawa, as well as steam mills at Trenton, on the Bay of Quints. Allan Gilmour retired from business in 1873 and died in 1895. THE COOKS. George J. Cook, of the Cook & Bro. Lumber Company, was a brother of Herman H. Cook and was born August 22, 1824, in Williamsburg Township, Dundas County, Ontario. He was all his life actively en- gaged in the lumber business. His first operations, early in the '40's, were on the Nation River, from which they were transferred to Belle- ville and subsequently farther west. He was one of the first lumber- men to take out board pine in the country lying between Toronto and Barrie. The later operations of the company under his management have been in the Algoma district, where it owns extensive limits. Mr. Cook died August 21, 1902, and was succeeded as president of the com- pany by his nephew, George W. Cook. H. H. Cook is a son of George Cook. He built a mill at Midland, Ontario, in 1872, and during the next ten years built six others in vari- ous localities. Mr. Cook is at the head of the Ontario Lumber Com- pany, of Toronto, and owns extensive limits on the French and Ver- million rivers. THOMAS COLE. The death of Thomas Cole, of Westboro, Ontario, in 1904, removed one of the pioneer lumbermen of the Ottawa Valley. Mr. Cole was bom in Devonshire, England, in 1820. He went to Canada when still young, and was attracted to the lumber business, first locating at Papi- neauville, Quebec, taking out square timber. Some years later he became a partner of the late James MacLaren, of Buckingham, Quebec, J. C. Edwards and Daniel Cameron in a firm which acquired the Gil- mour timber and sawmill interests on the Nation River. The firm did business at the North Nation mills until 1878, when, through the death of Mr. Cameron, the firm wound up its affairs. Mr. Cole left a wife, four sons and five daughters. 208 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. THE M'LACHLIN FAMILY, The founder of the large lumbering business now carried on by McLachlin Bros, at Arnprior, Renfrew County, Ontario, was Daniel McLachlin, one of the pioneer lumbermen of the Ottawa Valley, who established it over sixty years ago. He was an important factor in the public and commercial life of his day and represented his constituency in the Canadian Parliament. In 1853 Daniel McLachlin purchased the water powers at the mouth of the Madawaska River and the land on which the town of Arnprior now stands, and in 1857 moved up from Ottawa to Arnprior with his family. In 1866 he erected the first sawmill in that place to saw lumber for the American market. In 1869 he retired from business, leaving the work to be carried on by his three sons, Hugh, Frederick and Claude, under the style of McLachlin Bros. He died in 1872. During the last quarter of a century McLachlin Bros, have cut an average of 60,000,000 feet per annum. The firm has operated for years on the Madawaska, Bonnechere, Petawawa, Kippewa and Black rivers and other tributaries of the Ottawa River, at present furnishing employ- ment to about a thousand men. Claude McLachlin died in New York April 19, 1903. He was the youngest son of Daniel McLachlin and was born at Ottawa in 1854. THE CHARLTON BROTHERS. Among the Canadian lumbermen who during the last generation or so have risen to prominence in public life, John Charlton, of Lynedoch, Norfolk County, Ontario, is easily foremost. Mr. Charlton, though an American by birth, is of British parentage. He was bom in New York State, February 3, 1829, and went with his family to Canada in 1849. He established himself at Lynedoch and engaged extensively in lum- bering operations. Always keenly interested in social and political questions and a strong Liberal of the old school by conviction, he took an active part in politics and in 1872 was elected to the House of Commons for North Norfolk, a seat which he retained throughout all political vicissitudes until the last general election in 1904, when his failing health compelled his retirement from politics. Though a keen partisan, he held decided views of his own on many questions. He is the author of a measure usually known as the "Charlton Act for the Protection of Girls," and devoted much attention to the advocacy of commercial reciprocity be- tween Canada and the United States. He was appointed by the British ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 209 government a member of the Joint High Commission which met at Quebec in 1898 to arrange disputes and remove obstacles to trade be- tween the two countries. A volume of Mr. Charlton's speeches and addresses on various topics has been published. Hon. William Charlton, brother of John Charlton, is a native of Cattaraugus County, New York. His earlier years were spent in Iowa, but in 1861 he made his home at Lynedoch, Ontario, and engaged in lumbering and mercantile business. He attained a leading position in the locality and took a prominent part in politics on the Liberal side. He was elected to the Provincial Legislature of Ontario, for South Nor- folk, in 1891 and reelected in several following contests. His thorough knowledge of the lumbering industry and the conditions prevailing in the backwoods contributed greatly to his usefulness as a legislator. In 1902 he was chosen Speaker of the House, occupying the position until the defeat of his party in the general elections of 1904. Mr. Charlton j is a member of the firm of Pitts & Charlton, of Toronto. WILLIAM MACKEY. William Mackey was a prominent figure for over a half century in the lumbering trade of the Ottawa Valley. He came to Ottawa, then Bytown, from his native country of Ireland in 1842 and secured employ- ment in the construction of the first government slide built at the Chaudiere, and was subsequently engaged in improvement work and lumbering on the Upper Ottawa under Hon. James Skead. In 1850 he went into business on his own account and about this time formed a partnership with Neil Robertson which lasted for twenty years and was terminated by Mr. Robertson's death. Their early operations were conducted in the Madawaska country at a time when the square timber trade was at its height. They made money rapidly until the depression set in. In addition to the square timber operations they had a sawmill on a limit at Amable du Ford. When they experienced some reverses Mr. Robertson wished to withdraw from milling operations and to give up his share in the limit as an unprofitable venture. Mr. Mackey's faith in the future of the industry, however, was unshaken, and he relieved his partner of any obligation as to this feature of their business and secured the entire control of the Amable du Ford limit. After the market recovered he took from the limit annually large quantities of timber and eventually disposed of it for $65,000. Mr. Mackey retired from active business in 1902 and sold out his limits and other lumbering property to J. R. Booth for $655,000. He died a few months afterward. 210 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. H. L. LOVERING. H. L. Lovering, of Coldwater, Ontario, of English birth, began lumbering in October, 1850, on the present site of Port Severn, at the mouth of the Severn River. In 1852 he located at the head of Lake Superior and cut the first board manufactured on the site of the present cities of Duluth and Superior. In 1857, having returned to Ontario, he associated himself with A. R. Christie, of Port Severn. Since 1870 he has been with the Georgian Bay Lumber Company. JOHN R. BOOTH. John R. Booth, of Ottawa, Ontario, went there in 1852 and leased a small mill. He now owns about 4,250 square miles of timber limits — sufficient timber land to make a strip a mile wide reaching across Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In one of his mills 600,000 feet of lumber is produced daily and between 1,500 and 1,600 men are given employment directly or indirectly. Mr. Booth built the Canada Atlantic and the Ottawa, Arnprior & Parry Sound railways, with 400 miles of main line and 100 miles of sid- ing. He also founded a line of steamers, built car shops and created other extensive interests. In 1904 he erected a pulp mill at the Chau- diere. Mr. Booth has also a distributing yard and planing mill at Bur- lington, Vermont. ALEXANDER ERASER. Alexander Fraser, of Ottawa, one of the leaders of the square tim- ber trade, was the son of Hugh Fraser, a Highlander who served in the War of 1812 and afterward settled at a point near Ottawa, where Alexander was born in 1830. He embarked in the lumbering industry and in 1853 took out his first raft of square timber on Black River. His career was successful from the start, and his operations rapidly in- creased until during the '70's he had frequently a dozen or so rafts simultaneously on the way to market. He was known from the head- waters of the Ottawa to Quebec. He was a man of great energy and determination of character, was possessed of a keen foresight and sound business judgment and often by tacit consent was accorded a leading part in the management of large enterprises in which he was interested. He was one of the founders of the Bank of Ottawa, the Lachine Rapids Hydraulic Company and the Ottawa Trust & Deposit Company and was also heavily interested in the Upper Ottawa Improve- ment Company and the Keewatin Lumber Company. Mr. Fraser sustained great reverses from time to time, but his ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 211 strong financial standing enabled him to bear them easily. In 1895, upon his retirement from active business, his sons, J. B. and W. H. A. Fraser, organized the Eraser Lumber Company. Mr. Eraser died June 1, 1903, aged seventy -three years. HON. ERSKINE H. BRONSON. Hon. Erskine Henry Bronson, of Ottawa, was born at Bolton, New York, in 1844. His father, Henry Franklin Bronson, moved to Ottawa, then Bytown, in 1853, and built on Victoria Island, in the Ottawa River, the first sawmill which shipped lumber from Ottawa to the American market. The venture prospered and grew and many fortunes were made in the trade. At the age of twenty-one the younger Bronson entered his father's business, familiarizing himself with all of its de- tails. In 1867 he was given an interest in the business, which was afterward incorporated as the Bronson- Weston Lumber Company. The cut for twenty years averaged 50,000,000 feet of lumber annually and one season it amounted to 85,000,000. The mill went out of opera- tion in 1898, but the company still owns large areas of timber lands. Mr. Bronson is president of several industrial companies. He repre- sented Ottawa in the Provincial Legislature of Ontario between 1886 and 1898, and for some years was a member of the Liberal adminis- tration. ROBERT STEWART. Robert Stewart, of Guelph, Ontario, located there in 1855, and is now the owner of one of the largest plants in Ontario manufacturing sash, doors and trim. THE M 'ARTHUR BROS. CO., LIMITED. This concern was composed originally of John, Alexander and Peter McArthur, of whom only the latter survives. For nearly a half century they conducted a manufacturing business in board pine, in western Canada and Michigan. Their head office was in Toronto, with branches in Montreal and Quebec. They held valuable timber limits in various parts of Canada, and still have important interests in [this respect, as well as others in gold, silver, lead and copper, both in Canada and in the United States. The firm still manufactures timber for the Quebec market, its product being handled by The McArthur Export Company, in Quebec City. Its specialty, board pine, has been always recognized as superior and is well known in all consuming countries. The eldest brother of the family, Archibald McArthur, with his sons, is engaged, in a limited way, in the manufacture of mixed varieties of 212 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. square timber for the Quebec market, at Lancaster, Glengarry County, Ontario, where the Canadian branch of the family originated. Under the name of The McArthur Bros. Co., Limited, Peter McArthur conducts a large enterprise in lumber in Detroit, Michigan. THE RATHBUN COMPANY. Edward Wilkes Rathbun, late president of the Rathbun Company, of Deseronto, Ontario, was bom in 1842 at Auburn, New York. Dur- ing his youth his father, Hugo B. Rathbun, left the United States to engage in the lumbering industry in eastern Ontario. He started a small sawmill at Mill Point, now the town of Deseronto, on the Bay of Quints. E. W. Rathbun, after having received a first-class business training in New York, joined his father. The industry, soon attained large pro- portions and expanded in many directions. In 1884 it was incorporated as the Rathbun Company, with E. W. Rathbun as president. The com- pany established sawmill plants at Gravenhurst, Lindsay, Campbellford, Tweed, Bancroft, Fenelon Falls and Manitoulin Island. Other branches of industry were added and operated from time to time as auxiliaries, either by the Rathbun Company or other corporations closely aflSliated with it and controlled by Mr. Rathbun. These included a sash and door factory doing a very large export trade, charcoal kilns to utilize the by- products of lumbering, cement works, etc. The Rathbun Company is also in the lumber and coal carrying trade, owns a dry dock and ship yard and has extensive car shops. The stockholders are proprietors of the Bay of Quint6 railway, eighty-four miles in length. These and other diversified industries aid each other and have built up a flourish- ing industrial community. The company owns about 350,000 acres of government timber limits in addition to 60,000 acres of timbered land in fee simple. Mr. Rathbun was a firm believer in the necessity of conserving the forest as a permanent source of supply, and the extensive limits under his control were worked on economical principles with a view to avoid- ing waste and preserving the younger growth of trees with an eye to future requirements. He had made a close study of the question, and was appointed a member of the Ontario Forestry Commission in 1897, in which capacity he brought his practical experience as a lumberman to bear upon the problems submitted. The report of this body had an im- portant influence upon the policy since pursued by the Government. Mr. Rathbun, who died November 24, 1903, was a many-sided man ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 213 of tireless energy and liberal culture, and took a keen, practical interest in all public questions. THE HURDMAN FAMILY. Robert Hurdman, of Ottawa, was the youngest and surviving mem- ber of the original Hurdman family, consisting of five brothers, William, Charles, John, George and Robert, who were prominently identified for a half century with the lumber trade of the Ottawa Valley. Their father was Charles Hurdman, who emigrated from Ireland in 1818, and settled in Hull Township. Robert Hurdman was born in 1830, and in connection with his brothers operated extensively in the square timber trade on the Peta- wawa River, Ontario, their first operations being in 1866. In 1872 limits were purchased in the Kippewa district, and in 1879 they began to get out logs on contract for the mill owners, in the same year form- ing the partnership of Sherman, Lord & Hurdman. The firm operated the old Crannell mill in the Chaudiere district, the logs being cut by the Hurdmans on their limits. A limit was also purchased that year in the Coulonge district. Several changes and reorganizations in the person- nel and style of the partnership subsequently took place. In 1886 the name was R. Hurdman & Co., Mr. Hurdman acting as manager of the mills. The concern afterward embraced other interests and in 1891 be- came the Buell, Orr, Hurdman Company. Mr. Hurdman, however, had large lumbering interests outside of the company's operations and dealt extensively in timber limits, accumulating considerable wealth. He entered into partnership with the Shepard & Morse Lumber Com- pany, of Boston, to operate his limit in the Kippewa district. After the dissolution of this partnership he purchased limits from the Bronson Company, at Deep River, which he sold to Eraser & Co. A few years ago Mr. Hurdman bought from R. H. Flock & Co. the limits at Ross Lake in the Kippewa district which he operated with the help of his son until the time of his death. He died May 4, 1904, aged seventy- four years. HON. WILLIAM C. EDWARDS. Hon. William C. Edwards, of Ottawa, is the son of William Ed- wards, who came from England to Canada in 1820 and settled in Clar- ence Township, Russell County, Ontario, where Senator Edwards was born May 7, 1844. He established in 1868 the firm of W. C. Edwards & Co., the transactions of which have been large and successful. In addition to his lumber interests Mr. Edwards devotes a good deal of 214 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. attention to stock raising and agriculture. Entering the political field as a Liberal, he was elected to the House of Commons in 1887, and in 1903 was appointed a member of the Senate. ROBERT LAIDLAW. Robert Laidlaw, of Toronto, has always been identified with the lumber industry, and in 1871, in partnership with Thomas Shortreed, purchased some timber in Barrie Township, Simcoe County, Ontario, where he operated until the timber was exhausted. In 1886 Mr. Laid- law established wholesale and retail yards at Samia, Ontario, and Buf- falo, New York. He is also a member of the R. T. Jones Lumber Company of North Tonawanda, New York. GILLIES BROTHERS. The business of Gillies Bros. Company, Limited, was founded in 1873, by James, William, John and David Gillies, sons of the late John Gillies, who at one time carried on extensive lumbering operations at Carleton Place, Ontario, in partnership with Peter MacLaren. The Gillies brothers bought a sawmill plant at Braeside, Ontario, which has been enlarged and improved until at the present time they manufacture about 40,000,000 feet of lumber yearly, in addition to their output of shingles, lath, etc., giving employment to about a thousand men in the mills and the bush. They hold about one thousand miles of timber limits, partly in Ontario and partly in Quebec, on the Coulonge, Peta- wawa and Montreal rivers and Lake Temiscamingue. For the last thirty-five years the greater portion of their output has found a market in the United States. James Gillies is president of the company and is also head of the John Gillies Estate Company, manufacturer of gaso- line launches and sawmill machinery at Carleton Place. GEORGE M'CORMACK. George McCormack, of Orillia, Ontario, was born October 12, 1850, at Lochaber, Ottawa County, Quebec, of Irish and Scotch descent. Having in his youth acquired a thorough knowledge of the lumber trade in the Ottawa Valley, he transferred his operations to the then little known region of Parry Sound, which offered a promising field. He displayed much foresight and energy, and his trade rapidly ex- tended. For many years he was in partnership with the late Angus McLeod under the name of McCormack & McLeod until the death of the latter in 1903. In addition to his operations in northwestern Onta- rio, Mr. McCormack has large interests in the lumber trade of British Columbia. He is a Conservative in politics and takes an active part in ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 215 public life. He entered the House of Commons in 1896 as representa- tive of the Muskoka and Parry Sound district and was a member dur- ing two terms. GEORGE H. PERLEY. George H. Perley, of Ottawa, is the son of William G. Perley, one of the pioneer lumbermen of the Ottawa Valley. His native place is Lebanon, New Hampshire, and the date of his birth September 12, 1857. His business career began with his admission to the firm of Perley & Pattee, of which his father was the senior partner. At present he is head of the firm of G. H. Perley & Co., vice president of the Hull Lumber Company, and is also actively concerned in other industrial undertakings. Mr. Perley is a public-spirited citizen and has taken an active part in charitable enterprises. He was chairman of the relief fund which dis- tributed nearly a million dollars to the sufferers of the Ottawa fire in 1900. In politics he is a Conservative and on three occasions was nomi- nated as candidate of that party for the House of Commons, being re- turned in 1904 as member for Argenteuil, Quebec. JOHN B. MILLER. John B. Miller, of Toronto, president of the Parry Sound Lumber Company, is a native of Athens, Leeds County, Ontario, and was born July 26, 1862. His father was John Clausin Miller, at one time Super- intendent of Woods and Forests for Ontario, and subsequently a lumber operator. At an early age Mr. Miller was associated in the business with his father, upon the death of whom in 1884 he succeeded to the presidency of the Parry Sound Lumber Company, which does a very extensive business. He is also largely interested in manufacturing, being joint owner of the Poison Iron Works, of Toronto, and is a promi- nent figure in the commercial life of the city. In February, 1905, he was elected president of the Lumbermen's Association of Ontario. JOHN BERTRAM. On November 28, 1904, Canada lost one of its foremost citizens in the person of John Bertram, who died from an operation for appendi- citis at his home in Toronto. He was a man of splendid business ability and sterling integrity; Though prominent in many other spheres of activity he was, perhaps, more closely identified with the lumber in- dustry than with any other. He was a Scotchman by birth, and arrived in Canada in 1860 when twenty-three years of age, settling at Peterboro, Ontario, where he engaged in the hardware trade. He moved to 216 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Toronto in 1878, embarking in the wholesale branch of the business. About this time he began extensive lumbering operations in connection with the Collins Inlet Lumber Company, of which he was president, having large limits on the Georgian Bay with sawmills at Collins Inlet. He was eminently successful as an operator, and was a noted advo- cate of forest preservation. His own operations were conducted on economical principles with an eye to the future productiveness of his limits, and utilized to the best possible advantage not only the pine but the hardwood growth. Owing to his practical knowledge of forest con- ditions, of which he had made a life study, in 1897 he was appointed a member of the Ontario Forestry Commission to report on the subject of restoring and preserving the growth of white pine and other timber trees upon lands in the Province which are not adapted to agricultural purposes or to settlement. The valuable report of this commission practically inaugurated a new era in forest administration. Its recom- mendations were adopted by the Government, and a large area of land was added to the forest reserves. He was an active and valued mem- ber of the Canadian Forestry Association and the author of several masterly papers on forestry subjects. Mr. Bertram was largely interested in the Bertram Engine Works Company, of Toronto, of which he became president in 1900. His last field of public usefulness was as chairman of the Dominion Transpor- tation Commission. He was appointed to that office October 27, 1903. Under his leadership the commission had collected much valuable in- formation, when ill health terminated his tenure of office. A widow and a family of seven survive him. NATHANIEL DYMENT. A lumber operator since the time of his youth is Nathaniel Dyment, of Barrie, Ontario. His first operations were in Ancaster and Beverly townships, Wentworth County, and subsequently he built a number of mills on the Great Western railway. In 1886 the firm of Mickle, Dyment & Son was organized, with mills at Gravenhurst, Severn Bridge and Thessalon, Ontario, with an annual output of 35,000,000 feet. ELIHU STEWART. Elihu Stewart, Superintendent of Forestry for Canada, was born in Sombra, Lambton County, Ontario, November 17, 1844. He was ad- mitted as a Dominion land surveyor in 1872, and was extensively engaged in Crown surveys both in Ontario and the Northwest Terri- tories. He resided for some time in the town of CoUingwood and took ONTARIO— PERSONNEL. 217 an active part in municipal and political afiEairs. He was elected mayor of the town in 1896, and during the same year unsuccessfully contested North Simcoe in the interest of the Liberal party. In 1899 he was appointed Superintendent of Forestry, owing to his wide knowledge of the requirements of the Northwest, where extensive operations in tree planting have since been carried on under his direc- tion with the best results. Since the work has been undertaken its scope has been greatly increased. During the years 1901-1904 upward of 3,200,000 trees, distributed by the Government, have been planted by the farmers in the prairie country. Over half of these trees were set out in 1904. AUBREY WHITE. Aubrey White, Assistant Minister of Lands and Mines for Ontario, was bom at Lisonally House, Tyrone County, Ireland, March 19, 1845, and received his education in that country. He came to Canada in 1862, and for some years was engaged in the lumber business in the Muskoka district. In 1876 he entered the service of the Government as a forest ranger and some years later was appointed clerk of the Woods and Forests Branch. Recommendations made by him to the Provincial government resulted in the adoption of the fire-ranging system, which was established in 1885, and, having subsequently been greatly ex- tended, has done much to check the ravages of forest fires. In 1887 Mr. White was advanced to the post which he now holds in what was then known as the Department of Crown Lands. During successive administrations he has taken a prominent part in the shaping and carrying out of their timber policies and the e£Eecting of such changes in the regulations as were rendered necessary by the development of the Province. Mr. White is a leading Free Mason and a prominent mem- ber of the Canadian Forestry Association. THOMAS SOUTHWORTH. Thomas Southworth, director of Forestry and Colonization for Ontario, was born in Leeds County, Ontario, in 1855, of American parentage, and is a direct descendant of one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower. He was for many years engaged in journalism as editor and manager of the Brockville Recorder. In 1895 he was ap- pointed Clerk of Forestry. Previous to his appointment the duties of the position had been merely of an educational and advisory character, but, owing to the growing urgency of the question, the scope of the office was greatly enlarged and it was put upon a practical basis in con- 218 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. nection with administrative work. To the investigations undertaken by Mr. Southworth, and the data and suggestions presented by the Bureau to the Government, the establishment of the system of extensive forest reserves in the wooded regions of New Ontario is mainly due. Mr. Southworth was a member of the Royal Commission which in 1897 reported on the subject in favor of the setting apart of forest reserves. Latterly he has been entrusted with the direction of colonization move- ments in the newer parts of the Province. CHAPTER XVIII. NEW BRUNSWICK— TIMBER HISTORY. Although the landing of DeMonts, the French pioneer, in the pres- ent harbor of St. John, New Brunswick, June 24, 1604, is annually cele- brated in the Canadian Province, the progressive history of New Bruns- wick dates from the time of the influx of loyalists from the United States in 1783. They were known as the United Empire Loyalists ; and, so great was their love for their King and royal traditions, they left the United States after the successful issue of the Revolution again to find a home under British rule on the American continent. On their arrival at St. John they found a country covered with pine, spruce, fir and hardwoods, and almost unscarred by the ax. They found the River St. John and other streams penetrating, with their tributaries, this magnificent timber. The River St. John, it is true, rises in Maine, but the greater part of its channel lies within the present Province of New Brunswick. Another portion of the stream forms the boundary between the New America to which the loyalists had come and the old new America which they had left. They recognized the importance and value of the St. John as a waterway, and even to this day it brings to the City of St. John large numbers of logs from both Maine and New Brunswick. The Province of New Brunswick embraces 27,985 square miles. The principal timber territory is traversed by the Tobique and smaller streams which empty into the St. John, the Miramichi, the Nepisiguit and the Restigouche. These are the principal log-floating streams in New Brunswick. The Province contains 17,910,400 acres, of which about 7,500,000 acres remain in the hands of the Crown and may be considered timber lands. Of these about six million acres are under license to lumber operators and many have been denuded of the more valuable and larger timber, though still capable of being profitably operated. The remainder of the Crown lands, about 1,500,000 acres not under license, is in the interior of the Province and is almost in its pristine condition. In addition to the timber on the public lands, there is much valuable timber on lands held by private owners. In particular the 1,647,772 acres granted to the New Brunswick railway as a bonus 219 220 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. includes some of the finest timber land in the Province, stretching from the southwest Miramichi waters across the Tobique Valley to the head waters of the Restigouche. It is leased by the company to lumber operators and yields a large annual cut. Alexander Gibson, one of the largest operators, owns 200,000 acres of forest land and other indi- viduals hold the fee simple of extensive tracts, so that the total area of forest land is at least ten million acres. Some authorities put the figure considerably higher; Lieutenant Governor Jabez B. Snowball, an expert in the lumber trade, estimates the total forest area at about twelve million acres, but as this apparently includes large tracts which have been stripped of timber by fire and by the ax, the former esti- mate probably includes all the land at present available for lumber- ing operations. Spruce is the predominant tree and, although wherever operations have been carried on the heavier spruce is pretty well cleared off, there is still an abundance of ordinary sized trees. The merchantable pine is nearly exhausted, but in many localities a flourishing young growth is springing up which, if protected against fire, will form a valuable future source of supply. Along the north shore there is a belt of hardwood comprising oak, beech and maple. Of the total forest area 60 percent is estimated to be spruce land, 10 percent pine, 5 percent hemlock, 5 percent cedar and 20 percent hardwoods, which latter consist princi- pally of birch, beech, ash and maple. The original timber growth of the Province was white pine and red pine principally, but the proportion of these woods has been much re- duced by cutting. Spruce is now the principal article of local manufac- ture and foreign export and owing to its availability and rapid growth it enjoys a favor equal to, if not greater, than that of pine. White spruce and black spruce predominate and smaller quantities of red spruce, hemlock, balsam, fir and white cedar are also present. Among the hardwoods are the red, yellow and white birches, the hard and soft maples, ash, white, red or black, beech and American elm, generally distributed, and butternut and basswood in the southern part of the Province. Red birch and yellow birch form the greatest hardwood wealth and much white birch is cut for spool stock. New Brunswick has from the earliest days been a great lumbering section, the industry being favored by the geographical position of the Province and its physical conformation, which presents special facilities for the shipping and marketing of its forest product. It is surrounded NEW BRUNSWICK— TIMBER HISTORY. 221 on the southeast and partly on the north by water, giving a seaboard of 545 miles. There are two great river systems, the St. John and the Miramichi, with another important one, the Restigouche, and numerous smaller rivers which, with lakes, intersect the Province in every direc- tion, affording abundant facilities for floating timber from the interior to the coast. In addition to these natural highways New Brunswick claims to have a larger railway mileage in proportion to population than any other country. As early as 1778 the magnificent timber on the St. John River at- tracted British enterprise and capital. In 1781 Jonathan Leavitt launched at St. John the pioneer vessel of the fleet of New Brunswick built ships which subsequently sailed from that port. The territory was at that time a portion of the Province of Nova Scotia. It was set apart as a separate province in 1785. Up to that time it was but sparsely settled, the population being composed mainly of a few Acadians and some straggling settlers from New England at- tracted by the profits promised by the timber or the fish trade. But the population was being increased by an influx of United Empire Loyalists who had taken the side of Britain during the Revolutionary War and felt compelled in consequence to seek homes outside of the United States. European immigrants also came in large numbers, the princi- pal attraction being the opportunities afforded by the growing timber industry, which was greatly increased by the demands of the British navy. The ships which left New Brunswick with cargoes of timber returned laden with immigrants, many of whom passed on to the United States. Those who remained in the Province and took up land, how- ever, were greatly aided financially by the market afforded for their produce by the lumberman and the timber merchant. W. O. Raymond, LL. D., writing in the Si. John Telegraph on "Early History of New Brunswick Families," says concerning the first sawmill in New Brunswick: " The reference to a mill, built by the brothers Louis and Mathieu d'Amours in the neighborhood of Fort Nashwaak, may serve to explain the statement of Villebon in 1696, that he had caused planks for madriers, or gun platforms, to be made near the fort. This mill at any rate antedates by the best part of a century the mill built by Simonds & White at St. John in 1767 and that built by Colonel Beamsley Glasier's millwrights at the Nashwaak in 1768. Doubtless it was a very primitive affair, but it sawed lumber, and was in its modest way the pioneer of 222 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the greatest manufacturing industry of New Brunswick at the present day." In 1790 there were two sawmills of a primitive design in St. John. In 1822 a steam engine and boiler were imported from Birmingham and the first steam sawmill was started, the first output being shipped the same year to Cork, Ireland. Thereafter the number of sawmills in- creased rapidly and the item of sawn lumber began to assume a promi- nent position in the table of exports. The noted Miramichi forest fire occurred in 1825. It had been a summer almost without rain and, when autumn came, the woods were as dry as tinder. Fires from numerous causes originated in many places in the forest and columns of smoke enshrouded the earth in the darkness of twilight. The danger did not become great, however, so long as the air was still. On the night of October 7, 1825, a strong wind arose and fanned the flames into fury. A local historian has thus described it : At eight o'clock the wind increased to a swift hurricane from the west and soon afterwards a loud and appalling roar was heard, with explosions and a crack- ling like that of discharges of musketry. The air was filled with pieces of burning wood and cinders, which were driven along by the gale, igniting everything upon which they fell. The roaring grew louder and sheets of flame seemed to pierce the sky. The people ran hither and thither, some gave up in despair, some took refuge in the river, domestic and wild animals mingled in the general rush for safety. In the space of a single hour the fire swept over the district north of the river, destroying everything in its path. The sweep of the fire in northern New Brunswick extended for one hundred miles and covered an area of 6,000 square miles. The crowning catastrophe came when the conflagration swept away within an hour Newcastle, Douglastown and other villages on the northern side of the Miramichi River. Of five hundred buildings only twenty-five remained, and the ships in the harbor were burned. The fire was not confined to this district. It devastated the whole country from the Bartibogue to the Nashwaak, a distance of more than one hundred miles, and crossed the upper Tobique Mountains one hun- dred miles distant in another direction. The total area laid waste was about six thousand square miles and the loss of timber at the low esti- mate then placed upon it was reckoned at £500,000. The effects pf this disastrous fire were seriously felt by the trade for many years afterward. EARLY LUMBERING METHODS. The following description of the methods of lumber manufacture employed at an early period, taken from the " Account of the Province NEW BRUNSWICK— TIMBER HISTORY. 223 of New Brunswick by Thomas Baillie, Esq.," in 1832, will be of inter- est. Mr. Baillie was surveyor general. The work was written mainly for the benefit of future immigrants. Mills for sawing lumber are our principal and largest branches of industry. The proper dimensions of the building are sixty feet long, forty feet broad and about twenty feet in height to the roof. The usual expense of the whole undertak- ing, including the dam, is seldom less than £1,000, provided the river be large. In this country, wood and water being so abundant, steam and iron are not likely to prove profitable when the former materials can be used. Labor is so exceedingly high that mills are constructed in a very simple manner, substituting great power for complicated machinery, and no fault could possibly be found with such an economical arrangement, provided the power remained at its usual maximum. But during the summer months and in the depth of winter the water, which is generally so abundant, becomes so much reduced in quantity and the machinery is then in want of sufficient power to continue in operation. The simplicity of the machinery and its being made of wood admit, in the scarcity of millwrights, of the repairs being at any time effected by the millers themselves, at which they are exceedingly expert. The difficulty attending iron machinery in the event of accidents would be irreparable, for, considering the remote situations of mills, an engineer could not possibly be obtained in sufficient time to prevent delay. Sawmills are worked with undershot water wheels, carrying a crank to which is applied a connecting rod giving motion to the saw. One saw in a frame is uni- versally considered more advantageous than gangs, owing to the acceleration of the motion. The part of the machinery which causes the log to advance to the saw and to carry it back is equally simple and prodigal of water. . . . The sawmills manufacture boards one inch thick from the white pine, the spruce and the hemlock for the consumption of the Province, and the former article also for the West Indies. Heretofore they have been principally employed in the sawing of deals from the white and red pine and a few from spruce for the British market, but the latter trade has sustained so severe a shock from the low state of the home market that the mills would have gone to decay had not the West Indies at one period held out some inducement to manufacture boards. The raw material is obtained from the Crown lands under a license for which a duty of two shillings and six pence for every thousand superficial feet of one inch in thickness is paid to the Crown. The writer proceeds to show how the sawmills have always been the pioneers of settlement and gives the rate of wages prevailing at that period as follows : For first-class millmen, £6 per month ; second class, £4 10s; laborers, £3 to £4 10s. Men in the woods received £4 per month with board. "With charges so heavy as these," concludes Thomas Baillie, Esq., " it is perfectly impossible for our mill owners to compete with the Americans." Nevertheless, as the figures previously quoted show, the trade continued to flourish as the depression in the British market passed away and the demand from that quarter again became active. 224 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Shipbuilding formed at this time an important industry. In the earlier days many of the vessels built in the Province were defective, being built by contract for from £4 to £7 per ton. In 1840 an eflEort was made with some success to improve the standard by a rigid system of inspection. For many years the abundance and good quality of tim- ber gave New Brunswick a notable advantage in shipbuilding. In the early days of the Nineteenth Century many people were dis- posed to regard the lumbering industry somewhat unfavorably, as an obstacle to the agricultural development of the country and as a fre- quent cause of demoralization to the men engaged in it. Complaints of this sort are frequently met with in the descriptive works of the writers of the period. Joseph Bouchette, surveyor general of Lower Canada, in a work dealing with the British American colonies, pub- lished in 1832, in speaking of the northern region of the Province, says: " The quantities of timber that have been felled, squared and taken from this part of the country are enormous and yet no one industry pre- sents so few symptoms of improvement. The pursuit of lumbering (perhaps a necessary evil in colonizing a wilderness) seems indeed of a demoralizing tendency, sometimes depriving its followers of the in- clination and even capability for consistent and steady industry." Another writer, J. McGregor, in his " Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Maritime Colonies of British America," published in 1828, gives a very vivid description of the hardships and discomforts of a lumberer's life and the primitive camp arrangements then in vogue: They commence by clearing away a few of the surrounding trees and building a camp of round logs, the walls of which are seldom more than four or five feet high, the roof covered with birch bark or boards. A pit is dug under the camp to preserve anything liable to injury from the frost. The fire is either at the middle or at one end, the smoke goes out through the roof, hay, straw or fir branches are spread across the whole breadth of the habitation, on which they all lie down together at night to sleep with their feet next the fire. When the fire gets low he who first awakes or feels himself cold, springs up and throws on five or six billets and in this way they manage to have a large fire all night. One person is hired as cook, whose duty it is to have breakfast ready before daylight, at which all the party arise, when each man takes his "morning," or the indispensable dram of raw rum, before breakfast. The meal consists of bread, or occasionally potatoes, with boiled beef, pork or fish and tea sweetened with molasses. Dinner is usually the same, with pea soup instead of tea, and the supper resembles the breakfast. These men are enormous eaters and they also drink great quantities of rum, which they scarcely ever dilute. NEW BRUNSWICK— TIMBER HISTORY. 225 After describing the rafting of timber down stream in the spring, and its attendant hardships, the writer goes on to say : No course of life can undermine the constitution more than that of a lumberer or raftsman. The winter snow and frost, although severe, are nothing to endure in comparison with the extreme cold of the snow water of the freshets in which the lumberer is day after day wet up to the middle and often immersed from head to foot. To stimulate the organs in order to sustain the cold these men swallow im- moderate quantities of ardent spirits and habits of drunkenness are the usual con- sequence. Their moral character with few exceptions, is dishonest and worthless. Premature old age and shortness of days form the inevitable fate of a lumberer. After settling and delivering up their rafts, they pass some weeks in indulgence, drinking, smoking and dashing oflf in a long coat, flashy waistcoat and trousers, Wellington or Hessian boots, a handkerchief of many colors round the neck, a watch with a long chain and numberless brass seals and an umbrella. The picture is a strong one, and that there were exceptions to the rule of profligacy and that the sad fate of the lumberer was not inevita- ble, the author a little further on admits in giving instances of young men who, by saving their earnings in lumbering on the Miramichi, were enabled to purchase farms, or became principals in the lumber business. CHAPTER XIX. NEW BRUNSWICK — FOREST LEGISLATION. As in the other provinces of Canada, so it was in New Brunswick— the home Government early sought to regulate the timber wealth. England always thought much of her naval greatness and sought to assure in her North American colonies a sufficient supply of white pine for masting for her ships. Thomas Baillie was appointed surveyor general in 1824, receiving the following explicit instructions : Whereas we have been graciously pleased to give instructions unto our right trusty and right entirely well-beloved cousin and counsellor, George, Earl of Dal- housie. Captain General and Govemor-in-Chie£ in and for our Province of New Brunswick in America, for the regulation of his conduct in granting lands to our loyal refugees, who have taken refuge in that Province, and others who may become settlers therein, and amongst other things to signify our will and pleasure that no grant whatever be made of lands within our said Province until our Surveyor-Gen- eral of the Woods, or his Deputy lawfully appointed shall have viewed and marked out such districts within our said Province as reservations to Us, our Heirs and Successors, as shall be found to contain any considerable growth of masting, or other timber fitting for the use of our Royal Navy ; and that our Surveyor-General of Lands in our said Province shall not certify any plots of lands ordered and sur- veyed for any person or persons whatsoever, in order that grants may be made out for the same until it shall appear unto him by a certificate under the band of our Surveyor-General of the Woods, or his Deputy, that the land so to be granted is not part of or included within any district marked out as a reservation for Us, our Heirs and Successors, as aforesaid for the purpose before mentioned. It is therefore our will and pleasure that and you are hereby authorised and empowered to give license in writing to any of our subjects in our Province of New Brunswick, to cut down such white pine and other trees growing upon the waste land which you shall judge to be not proper for the use of our Royal Navy. INVESTIGATION OF 1833. In 1827 the sale of limits by auction instead of by fixed fees was instituted, any purchase to be limited to a maximum of 1,200 acres to one person. Subsequent regulations in 1829 ordered a survey before sale and sought to prevent unnecessary waste in the cutting of timber. The receipts from timber limits in 1831 were £10,820. Joseph Cunard had been granted in 1831 a reservation for ten years on the Nepisiguit River above the falls on condition that he would improve the waterfall and secure a license to cut one thousand tons of timber per annum. 226 NEW BRUNSWICK— FOREST LEGISLATION. 227 This arrangement created criticism and, together with other complaints, brought about an investigation of timber administration, and a commit- tee of the legislative assembly was appointed in 1833 to make an inves- tigation. At this investigation it appeared that it was the custom to receive from April of one year to May 1 of the following year applica- tions for timber berths from all persons indiscriminately, so long as they were accompanied by a fee of forty-five shillings. On the latter date the applicants were notified whether their applications had been accepted or rejected. If there were two or more applicants for one piece of land all were rejected but one and the lucky man was given three months in which to pay the dues, amounting to Is per ton for white pine and Is 8d for red pine. In addition there was a tax of 3d per ton for expenses of survey. Mill reserves might be obtained by the same method, but in 1883 a new regulation made it necessary to secure these mill sites by public auction. In 1837 the home Government assigned to the Provincial govern- ment the regulation of Crown lands and the enjoyment of revenues therefrom. New regulations were adopted providing for five-year li- censes and dues of 2s on white pine and 2s 6d on red pine. The average cut of New Brunswick for the years 1835, 1836 and 1837 was- 116,600 tons of timber (16,820,000 feet of lumber) and the dues were £16,416. The average annual export of pine and birch timber during the same period was 249,926 tons, of masts and spars 619 and of deals 73,250,423 feet. The following table showing the growth of the industry is given in Dr. Abraham Gesner's work on New Brunswick, published in London in 1847: Persons Year. Sawmills, Values. employed. 1831 229 £320,000 3,798 1836 320 420,000 4,200 1840 574 740,000 7,400 1845 640 900.000 8,400 The shipments from St. John in 1822 were: Pine timber, 79,122 tons; birch timber, 7,520 tons; masts and spars, 2,147; poles, 383; lath- wood, 10,047 cords; boards, planks and deals, 8,277,000 feet; staves, 2,392,000 pieces; slyngles, 2,842,000 pieces; shooks, 268 bunches. In 1832 the exports from St. John of deals, boards and scantling had in- creased to 22,000,000 feet ; in 1842, to 43,000,000 feet, and in 1852, to 186,314,000 feet. Then came reverses followed by a period of depression which lasted several years, but in 1872 the shipments under this head stood at 236,639.000 feet. 228 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. During the early '40' s the trade in sawn lumber, which had been rapidly increasing while that in square timber had been falling ofiE, be- gan to take the lead in volume and importance. In 1835 the square timber trade was far in advance, the values of the exports of forest products for that year being: Square timber, £291,817; boards, £13,437; deals, £104,150; staves, £12,969. For 1839 the retufns of exports from the port of St. John giving quantities as well as values (in returns from other ports quantities are not specified) were as follows : Square timber, 255,647 tons, value £277,998; boards, 6,622,000 feet, £16,641; deals, 75,969,000 feet, £189,252; staves, 1,858,000, £8,318. Six years later the sawn lumber exports considerably exceeded the shipments of square timber, the following being the returns for 1845 from St. John: Square timber, 244,846 tons, £275,451 ; boards, 10,537,000 feet, £26,342; deals, 127,860,000 feet, £319,650; staves, 1,008,000, £4,536; total, £625,979. The values above given, it may be noted, are in sterling money, the pound sterling being a trifle under $5. The "pound" of the old Canadian or Halifax currency is equivalent to $4 and in these old records it is not always clear which is meant. The contributions of the lumber industry to the public revenue were comparatively insignificant until the middle of the century. The re- ceipts of the Provincial government on account of timber in 1849 were £1,821, omitting fractional currency; in 1850, £2,304; in 1851, £1,851 and in 1852, £5,256 (probably Halifax currency). In 1853 an attempt was made to put the industry on a more conservative basis and to give limit holders a guarantee of permanency of occupation. Previous to that time it appears to have been the practice to submit all the holdings to public competition every year, with the obvious result of encouraging production, each licensee being anxious only to realize as much as pos- sible from a limit that might pass into other hands in a few months. Accordingly the upset price of mileage was advanced from 10 shillings ($2) to 20 shillings ($4) per square mile with a proviso for renewal for three years in case as much as $10 per mile were paid. The report for that year of Surveyor General R. D. Wilmot refers as follows to the change : Great complaints having been made by those engaged in the lumber trade that the practice of annually putting up all the timber berths to public competition bore injuriously as well on the trade as on the revenue, the expense incurred in building camps, erecting dams, cutting roads and other matters incident to the business being so great that they would prefer paying an increased rate of mileage if they could thereby secure the right of renewal for a longer period than one year. The NEW BRUNSWICK— FOREST LEGISLATION. 229 Government, in order to meet in some degree the views of the lumbering interest, determined to offer the timber berths at auction at the upset price of 20 shillings per square mile, giving the purchaser who bid it off at 50 shillings or more per mile the right of renewal for three years at the rate it was bid off. Ninety-seven persons, holding 962% square miles, are accordingly entitled to the privilege of renewal under this regulation. The receipts from timber that year increased to £8,668. In 1844 an export duty was laid on logs. In 1867, when New Bnms- wick entered the Canadian confederation, the export duty was abolished, a special allowance of $150,000 annually being made by the Dominion government to the Province to compensate it for the loss of revenue. In 1867 the receipts from timber were $80,882.68, the sum of $56,415.58 being contributed by export duty. Another important change was made in 1874 when the duties were based on the cut of lumber and licenses were made renewable for two years. TERM OF LEASES INCREASED. In 1883 the Government concluded that it was time to call a halt in the policy of alienating large tracts of public lands unfitted for cultiva- tion, sales in fee simple and extensive railway grants having considera- bly lessened the area capable of producing a revenue from its timber product. It adopted the principle of retaining possession of all the purely timber land remaining, and since then only small and isolated lots of such land, which, by reason of local conditions, could not be advantageously administered by the department, have been sold out- right. In the same year it was decided to increase the length of the term for which timber limits could be leased to ten years, with the result that the public revenue again showed a large increase. The leases issued for ten years expiring in 1893, the Government in 1892 appointed a royal commission to make a full inquiry into the con- dition of the lumber trade and into the best policy to be adopted in administering the timber lands. The commission was so strongly im- pressed with the desirability of giving the lumberman a permanent tenure of his holding that it recommended the leasing of the lands in perpetuity. This, however, was going farther than public opinion was prepared to sanction, but the Government proposed by way of compro- mise — a way most governments have — to grant leases for twenty-five years reserving the right to increase the mileage rate and fix rates of stumpage. The result was that a decision was reached to grant licenses renewable from year to year for twenty-five years, making it possible for a license issued in 1893 to be renewed until August 1, 1918. Under 230 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the present plan the licenses are sold at public auction at $20 per square mile, with an additional charge of $8 for renewal. The dues on pine and spruce were fixed at $1 a thousand feet and in 1904 increased to $1.25. Ten thousand feet of lumber must be cut each year on each limit. In 1883 the amount realized from sales was $38,462 for 3,117 square miles. Ten years later under the new long-lease system the lands were sold at public auction for twenty-five years, the amount received for premiums and leases in 1893 being $89,830. There were then issued 1,387 leases at an average price of $17.25 a mile, and since then the number has steadily increased until practically all the available Crown lands of the Province have been brought under lease. In 1899 1,170 square miles were leased at an average of $21 a square mile. The policy of long leases has resulted in material benefit to the lumbermen and contributed not a little to the prosperity of the trade. The receipts of the Provincial government for 1903 from sales and renewals of tim- ber licenses were $46,898 and from stumpage dues $122,630, making a total of $169,528. The first act for the preservation of forests from fire was passed in 1885. By its provisions fires must not be started between May 1 and December 1 except for clearing land, for cooking and for other neces- sary purposes. The penalty for failing to take the necessary precau- tions in the selection of the places for these fires and in their extin- guishment after they have served their purposes includes a fine varying for $20 to $200. Railway locomotives must be equipped with spark arrestors and section men must be given instructions to watch for and extinguish fires caused by railway trains. In 1897 further legislation to protect the forests from fires was secured when statutory authority was obtained for the appointment of forest rangers. The year 1903 was a notable one for unusually severe forest fires. It was estimated that during that year two hundred million feet of timber was destroyed by fire. The conflagration wiped out an entire village besides destroying many other buildings. Some important changes in the mileage and stumpage rates and con- ditions under which licenses are issued took effect in 1904, all being in the direction of greater stringency. Under the regulations now in force the upset mileage on limits is $20 a square mile, and the mileage payable yearly on renewals is $8 a square mile. Licenses are to be for not more than ten nor less than two square miles and the licensee may NEW BRUNSWICK— FOREST LEGISLATION. 231 be required to cut ten thousand superficial feet a square mile. The holder of timber limits is not permitted to manufacture a log measur- ing less than eighteen feet in length and ten inches in diameter at the small end. The stumpage dues are as follows : Spruce, pine, fir or hackmatack saw top, per 1,000 feet $1.25 Hardwood timber up to average of 14 Inches square, per ton 1.10 Above 14 inches additional per inch, per ton 10 Hardwood logrs, per 1,000 superficial feet 80 Pine timber up to 14 inches square, per ton 1.25 Additional per inch, per ton 25 Hackmatack and spruce timber, per ton 65 Cedar logs, per 1.000 superficial feet 1.25 Hemlock, per 1,000 superficial feet 60 White birch logs, for spool wood, per 1,000 feet 80 The following statement, taken from the surveyor general's reports, shows the quantities and kinds of timber cut from Crown lands during the fiscal years ended October 31, 1902 and 1903 respectively: 1902. 1903. Spruce and pine sawlogs, superficial feet.. . . 86,531,693 90,857,515 Hemlock logs, superficial feet 2,388,567 2,627,694 Cedar logs, superficial feet 15,357,249 16,041,955 Hardwood logs, superficial feet 2,936,007 3,869,712 Hardwood timber, tons 54Vi 215 Fir logs, superficial feet 2,764,411 4,219,593 This statement, it should be borne in mind, covers only the cut upon public lands under license and takes no account of the very large quan- tity taken from forest lands belonging to private owners. PRODUCTION OF TIMBER IN NEW BRUNSWICK. (Compiled from the reports of the Crown lands department.) Year. Spruce and pine logs (superficial feet). Hemlock logs (superficial feet). Cedar logs (superficial feet). 1879 88,856,803 117,534,482 135,159,742 149,348,548 144,943,725 87,294,775 60,417,896 76,887,027 64,300,098 68,382,300 79,287,013 95,539,612 66,355,301 79,495,134 86,809,334 56,804.581 81,289,061 76,985,459 102,841,781 80,858,347 80,739,731 91,979,461 83,449,123 86,531,693 96,857,515 2,238,946,542 92,750 106.271 425.080 598.315 14,579,860 21,237,385 372,532 4,881,750 3,567,445 13,054,434 17,594,206 12,139,048 12,777,830 1,526,554 7,015,471 60,106 15,815,314 32,785,743 2,246,104 3,726,756 851,100 5,826,785 1,907,816 2,388,576 2,627,694 159,204,925 38,323 1880 79 824 1881 1882 172,255 804 525 1883 1884 1 143 882 1885. . 1 144 695 1886. 1,520,781 1,525,076 1887 1888 2,964,564 1889 4,063 549 1890 4.716 201 1891 5 029 723 1892 12 034 758 1893 13,950,428 1894 5,635,475 1895 9,677,642 1896 14,279,880 1897 11,239 208 1898 7 669,293 1899 11.318 188 1900 14,417,895 1901 11,187,791 1902 15,357,249 1903 16,041,955 Total 166,013,160 CHAPTER XX. NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. Notwithstanding the extent to which lumbering has been carried on, the supply of spruce will last for an indefinite period under the con- servative methods of cutting, as the spruce is a tree of rapid growth and will attain merchantable proportions in thirty years. On the public lands no tree is permitted to be cut that will not make a log of ten inches diameter at the top, eighteen feet up, although many private owners allow the cutting of small spruce for pulpwood. Many of the large limit holders follow a system of rotation. The land is laid off in strips of one and one-quarter or one and one-half miles wide and from five to ten miles in length. One strip is cut over each year and all the merchantable trees taken. The next year the ad- joining strip is worked, and so on until the larger of the young growth of the first strip is available. The tracts nearest the great rivers have been most thoroughly worked and each year the operations are more distant from the point of shipment. The portable or small rotary mill is much used on small tracts of private land, and the annual product is considerable in the aggregate, but does not figure in the provincial returns. While the large mills are most numerous near the river mouth, still there are many scattered through the interior with facilities for shipping their product by rail or floating it down the rivers to the coast. While spruce is the great article of export there is a large cut of cedar for shingles for the United States and local markets. A good deal of hemlock is also sent to the United States as boards and there is a growing trade with Britain in birch for spool wood. The pulp indus- try is undergoing a great development and new sources of supply, tapped by railways in districts from which the large timber has been taken, provide raw material for the pulp mills. THE ST. JOHN DISTRICT. St. John is the center of the lumber manufacturing and shipping trade. As the River St. John is over four hundred and fifty miles in length and has numerous tributaries, it drains an immense territory not only in New Brunswick but in the adjoining State of Maine and in the 232 NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 233 ProArince of Quebec, so that a large portion of the logs manufactured in the St. John mills come from outside the Province. The manufactur- ers as a rule do not operate in the woods, but contract at so much a thousand feet for the cutting, rafting and driving of the logs to their mills. There are three log driving companies — the Madawaska, St. John River and Fredricton boom companies and also a company on the Tobique, the chief tributary of the St. John in New Brunswick. Driv- ing is always an uncertain feature, as the Grand Falls, 225 miles from the mouth of the St. John, have a descent of seventy-four feet, below which is a narrow and deep gorge through which logs must pass. Logs are often hung up for the season or damaged by a jam in the gorge. The leading shippers from St. John are W. M. Mackay, who ex- ports about one hundred million feet annually, George McKean and the A. Gibson Railway & Manufacturing Company. W. Alexander Gibson, of the latter company, has been engaged in the lumber trade for about a half century. He commenced life as a poor boy and advanced step by step until he became manager of the finest mill in the Province. About 1864 he acquired the lumbering establishment of Rankine, Fer- guson & Co. on the Nashwaak River about two miles from Fredricton and undertook a series of improvements, establishing a number of other industries such as cotton mills, tanneries, etc. The village erected by these activities is called Marysville. He subsequently ex- tended his lumbering operations to the Miramichi district and built the ■ Northwestern railway, opening up large tracts of timber lands in that region. In 1871 the firm of Randolph & Baker erected a large mill two miles from the mouth of the St. John, which mill is one of the best sawing dimension lumber for the British market. The firm's plant has an annual capacity of twenty million feet of long lumber, and it also ships quantities of lath to the United States. Frederick Moore, of Woodstock, New Brunswick, was born in Can- terbury, York County, New Brtmswick, in 1839. Between the years 1862 and 1884 he was one of the heaviest operators in Aroostook County, Maine, cutting from 5,000,000 to 15,000,000 feet of spruce an- nually for the St. John, New Brunswick, market. In 1884 he built a sawmill, with a planing mill, on the Maduxnakeag River, a branch of the St. John River, for cutting logs from the Aroostook region. He occupies a prominent position in the New Brunswick trade. 234 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, In 1904 a total of 183 vessels cleared from St. John with lumber, a slight increase over the 171 lumber clearances in 1903. In 1904 cargoes embraced 463,585 tons, or 172,995,507 superficial feet, while the cargoes of 1903 included 411,546 tons, or 174,360,562 superficial feet. The ship- ments were to Liverpool, London, Glasgow, Belfast, Dublin and ports in Spain, Australia and other countries. In 1904 the shipments of birch were 3,567 tons, compared with 4,498 tons in 1903. Pine timber ship- ments were fifteen tons, a marked decrease from the forty-eight tons shipped in 1903. Shipments from the thirteen other ports in New Bruns- wick in 1904 brought the total amount of deals and other lumber shipped from the Province up to 641,711 tons, or 358,851,893 superficial feet. St. John's export trade in forest products is larger than that of any other port in Canada, except Montreal, amounting in value during the fiscal year 1903 to $4,298,308, including the following items : Pine deals, $10,801 ; spruce and other deals, $2,496,467 ; planks and boards, $624,- 943 ; shingles, $339,699. THE MIRAMICHI DISTRICT. The Miramichi district has witnessed changes similar to those which have characterized the development of the industry in the region tribu- tary to the St. John. It had formerly its pine timber and lumber period and extensive shipbuilding operations. The trade of the pres- ent day is mainly in spruce deals, with some business in spool wood and a growing demand for pulpwood. There are two branches of the Miramichi, which unite about twenty miles from the bay into which it flows and have a tributary area of many thousand square miles. The streams extend far westward toward Maine. The great bulk of the cut is spruce, only about five percent being pine, with some hardwood, cedar and hemlock. Practically all timber lands tributary to the Mira- michi and Crown lands are owned by the New Brunswick Railway Company. Under the regulations in force for cutting there is a chance for the spruce to reproduce itself and, while the average size of logs shows a decrease, there is no absolute clearing of the forest. The more desirable tracts are becoming less accessible yearly. The railway company looks carefully after its timber interests and has a staff of scalers and foresters, charging a rate of $1.50 per 1,000 feet to opera- tors. The log cut on the Miramichi for the season of 1902-3 was 125,000,- 000 feet, as compared with 123,000,000 feet for the previous season. Miramichi ranks next to St. John among the lumber shipping ports of NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 235 the Province, the trans-Atlantic shipments for 1903 being 102,944,276 feet and for 1902, 123,000,000 feet. The spool wood industry has attained its greatest development on the Miramichi, where 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 feet of birch are taken out annually for this purpose. Clark, Skillings & Co., of Glasgow, have three mills cutting about 2,500,000 feet each year. THE RESTIGOUCHE DISTRICT. In the Restigouche district there is still much virgin forest, spruce and cedar predominating. Some pine and a good deal of birch, maple and beech are also found. Nowhere else in the Province is cedar so plen- tiful and the export trade in shingles is large. The Restigouche River, two hundred miles in length, forms a part of the boundary between New Brunswick and Quebec, receiving tributaries from both Provinces, so that much of the cut of the Restigouche comes from Quebec lands. The shipping ports for this district are Dalhousie and Campbellton, the trans-Atlantic exports of lumber for 1903 from these points being re- spectively 20,910,884 and 18,075,362 feet. These figures, however, are considerably swollen by the amount of lumber manufactured in the Province of Quebec and forwarded by rail for shipment abroad. The total trans-Atlantic shipments of lumber from New Brunswick ports amounted to 452,000,000 feet in 1902 and 391,000,000 in 1903. Hon. Jabez B. Snowball, lieutenant governor of New Brunswick, has been prominently identified with the Miramichi lumber industry for over thirty-five years. He was born in England, reared in Newfound- land and made his success in New Brunswick. He did the latter Prov- ince valuable service in promoting and building a railway. His first mills were on the Miramichi River, and at Chatham he built a mill with a daily capacity of 170,000 feet, the largest on the river. In 1900 the interests of Mr. Snowball were converted into a joint stock company, which is known as the J. B. Snowball Company, Limited, and is com- posed of members of his family. The company cuts between 30,000,- 000 and 40,000,000 feet of lumber each year and owns nearly six hun- dred miles of timber limits on Crown lands, held on the twenty-five year system. It owns six tug boats on the Miramichi River, employs nine hundred men in the busy season and has extensive commercial interests. Mr. Snowball was the chief factor in the organization of the first electric street and domestic lighting service and also the first public telephone service in New Brunswick. His interest in forestry matters has been marked, and he has been of much service in further- ing a better organization of the lumber industry. 236 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Hon. John Percival Burchill, of South Nelson, New Brunswick, is a member of a family which for the last sixty years has been engaged in the lumber business in New Brunswick. He was born in 1855 on the Miramichi River, and in the year 1875 took charge of the outside opera- tions of his father's business. In 1881 he entered into partnership with his father and brothers under the firm name of George Burchill & Sons. They own over 150 square miles of timber limits in the Province. Mr. Burchill has taken a conspicuous part in public life. He was elected as a Liberal to the New Brunswick Legislature in 1882, and has served two terms as Speaker of that body. James Murchie, of Milltown, New Brunswick, was born at St. Stephen, that Province, August 13, 1813, of Scotch parentage. He began life as a farmer and cut timber in a small way to sell to mill owners as an additional source of income. Gradually his transactions increased until in 1859 he engaged in the manufacture of lumber, taking his sons into partnership. James Murchie & Sons, in addition to their establishments at Benton, Deer Lake, Fredricton and Edmundston, New Brunswick, operated extensively in the adjoining State of Maine. They acquired large areas of timber lands and a strong financial posi- tion, although they suffered severe losses from fire. Mr. Murchie filled many leading positions, including the presidency of the New Brunswick & Canadian Railroad Company and the Frontier Steamboat Company. He died, at the age of eighty-six. May 29, 1900. The late William Richards, who was one of the most extensive lumber operators on the Miramichi River, New Brunswick, was born in Cardigan, York County, that Province. He died at his home in Boies- town, New Brunswick, June 1, 1903, after more than a year's illness, aged sixty-eight years. CHANGES OF A QUARTER CENTURY. Great changes have taken place in the conditions pertaining to the New Brunswick industry and trade within twenty-five years. One of the more notable of these changes is the effect of repeated timber cut- tings on the size of the logs. The sawyer of the late '70's would have been astonished had he been asked to saw out a specification from such logs as are now being used. Half a dozen log surveys (spruce) chosen from a file at random and dated April and May, 1881, show nine pieces to the thousand feet; a like number, dated April, 1904, shows that seventeen pieces were required to make up the same quantity. Each winter, as it came, found the logging crews penetrating farther NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 237 and farther into the forests that bordered the main streams and estuaries of the St. John River, the Miramichi and the Restigouche. Most of the ground has been cut over several times, and in nearly all cases long before the new growth has attained a size at all comparable with the original growth. What the ultimate result of this decline in quality will be is hard to decide. On the St. John River, where the industry is the oldest, the results are beginning to be apparent in a slow but sure curtailment of the annual output. In other sections of the Province the limits have not been worked for a long period and the timber is therefore better. One vital effect that is certain to follow the scarcity of large timber will be the lack of new blood and new capital in the industry. The virgin forests of newly settled countries are sure to attract those who have the desire and means to devote themselves to the manufacture of lum- ber. The demands of the pulp manufacturers for material in the shape of undersized logs have had, during the last few years, and will have in time to come, a tendency to still further reduce the average size of available timber throughout the lower counties of New Brunswick, and all other sections in the vicinity of pulp mills. Heretofore, trees that were not large enough to be manufactured into lumber were allowed to stand until they had attained the necessary dimensions ; nowadays, in numerous instances, they are cut for pulpwood, the anxiety to realize upon them quickly being, of course, the chief inducement. Another marked change in New Brunswick lumber conditions has resulted from the diminution of the annual output of pine. Until about 1888 pine was the staple forest product, American mills manufacturing little else. Year by year the quantity of pine logs cut has decreased, until in 1904 1,000,000 feet would easily cover the total manufacture on the St. John River. The logs secured in late years are small and of an inferior grade, compared with those of the last century. In the early '80's, when provincial logs were worth from $9 to $12 a thousand feet on the St. John, considerable variation was the rule, owing to the cor- responding variation in the size and quality of the logs. They would probably be a great deal higher today were they obtainable. It is scarcely worth while to make any comparison with the present prices, as they are seldom on the market in lots of importance. As pine gradually became scarcer, spruce came more into demand and also more valuable year by year, in spite of the gradual degenera- tion in size. This increase in value is due chiefly to three facts : The 238 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. logs are harder to get; wages and supplies are more costly, and stump- age rates of the material have increased. From 1880 to 1885 spruce logs that could not be duplicated in the provinces today at any price brought from $7 to $8.50 a thousand feet at the mill ; from these figures the price crept slowly upward until it reached $12.50, which price was touched in 1904. During the twenty-five years immediately preceding 1905, the market price of spruce lumber in the United Kingdom had been creeping up slowly but surely. In the year 1879 prices were extremely low, several large lots having been disposed of at figures that left from $5.75 to $6 a thousand for merchantable lumber. Of course, it would not be reasonable to use these figures as a criterion, for the year mentioned was one of light demand, forced shipments and the consequent lower prices mentioned above. For several years following, the trade showed a marked improvement both in prices and demand. A fair average price for the early '80's would have been $8.50 a thousand for merchantable spruce deals. From that time until the year 1900 prices rose gradually, interrupted, of course, by many periods of temporary depression, due to the presence of unfavor- able conditions; but always, when the reaction set in, gaining more than had been lost. The end of the century found the figures in the vicinity of $11.50 for merchantable. Then followed three prosperous years. The demand during that period was extremely brisk and the shipments from the provinces were larger than they had ever been before, conditions being so favorable that in many cases the Amer- ican logs (which are worth $2 more a thousand, because their product, when they are manufactured by an American citizen, is allowed to go into the United States free of duty) were sawed into English size and shipped to the United Kingdom. The high water mark in prices was touched in 1903 when merchanta- ble deals were sold in large quantities at figures that ranged from $13.25 a thousand to $13.75 f. o. b. steamer at New Brunswick ports. Early in 1904 the English market took a decided slump. Prices fell suddenly and emphatically until on September 1 purchases could have been made as low as $11.50 a thousand, with lumber plentiful. The general decrease in the size of logs being sawed has had a marked effect upon the quantity of wide deals turned out, and the result is that the difEerence in the percentage of the wide lumber in the specifications is apparent and quite important in figuring the value of lumber. NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 239 In recent years it has been the general impression that the average quality of lumber produced is much lower than that manufactured twenty-five years previous. This is owing to the fact that the larger growth was certain to be cleaner and to have fewer knots and twists. Of course, in making a comparison of prices prevalent in recent years with those of former times, this depreciation in size and quality is an important element. Twenty-five years prior to 1905 consignments to the markets of the United States from New Brunswick consisted chiefly of pine, the greater part of which was made up of one-inch boards. In later years, for reasons mentioned in an earlier paragraph, shipments of pine are few and light. With spruce it is exactly the reverse. In the late '70's and early '80's the shipments of spruce from the Maritime Provinces to the United States were not of great importance ; recently spruce is the staple. The spruce trade with the United States has also changed in this, that the smaller sizes have been much less in demand during the last few years, whereas formerly the demand was principally for plank and scantling. Recently it has run chiefly to three-inch stock. On the whole the variation in price has not been so great as in the case of the English markets, although sudden fluctuations are more frequent. It is estimated that the output of spruce lumber in New Brunswick in 1904 was 80,000,000 superficial feet. The estimated out- put for 1905 was 95,000,000 feet. The output in cedar shingles in 1904 was about 260,000,000 pieces, as compared \vith 255,000,000 in 1903. The market prices of spruce lumber at Campbellton in 1904 were : $18 a thousand for 10-inch and 12-inch dimension, $14 for 9-inch and under, $16 for 10-inch and 12-inch random lengths 10 feet and upward in length, and $12 a thousand for 2x3, 2x4, 2x5, 2x6, 2x7, 3x4, 10 feet and upward in length; $11 for all other randoms 9 inches and under in size 10 feet and up in length; $11 for 5-inch and upward widths merchanta- ble boards ; $18 to $26 for matched boards ; $9 for spruce boards ; $11 for bundled furring; $8 for pickets, and $2 for lath. Spruce clapboards, extra, $42 ; clear spruce clapboards, $40 ; second clear, $38 ; extra No. 1, $32; No. 1, $21; No. 2, $12. The market prices of cedar shingles at Campbellton were : Extras, $2.60; clear, $2.10; second clear, $1.60, and extra No. 1, $1.10. LUMBER STATISTICS. According to the Canadian census of 1901, the number of sawmills 240 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. in the Province of New Brunswick was 236 and the value of the prod- uct $7,041,848. As the census, however, includes only industries em- ploying five or more hands, some of the smaller mills are not enumer- ated. The value of forest products in the rough is given as follows : Square, waney or flat timber, $34,484; logs for lumber, $1,667,694; pulpwood, $37,577; miscellaneous, $1,295,860; total, $3,035,615. The following are the quantities and values of the items under the two former heads : SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Cubic feet. Value. Ash 1,998 $209 Birch 153,214 17,010 Elm 11,160 116 Maple '4,722 476 Oak 200 28 Pine 60,009 6,722 All other timber 99,472 9,923 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet b. m. Value. Elm 491,000 $1,560 Hickory 35,000 184 Hemlock 26,696,000 107,571 Oak 25,000 232 Pine 19,166,000 125,213 Spmoe 182,759,000 1,099,302 All other logs ; 61,721,000 333,632 Wood tor ptUp (cords) 14,486 37,577 The forests of New Brunswick always have been her greatest source of wealth, and lumbering has been her greatest industry. Her first important exports were lumber products and to this day the forests furnish employment for a large proportion of her people and a splen- did revenue to her internal government. The volume of the product shows a wonderful persistence, and it seems likely that, with the prac- tice of conservative forestry methods and the large area illy adapted to agriculture, the forests will forever remain the chief resource of the Province. Complete figures of logical arrangement are difficult to procure, but the following tables give the most important facts as to the trade his- tory of the Province, and many enlightening details. LUMBER AND TIMBER SHIPMENTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Shipments from Miramichi for thirteen years, from 1892 to 1904 in- clusive, in feet, were : 1892 95,000,000 1893 83,000,000 1894 96,000,000 1895 82,000,000 1896 106,000,000 1897 102.000,000 1898 113,000,000 1899 129,000,000 1900 122,000,000 1901 129,000,000 1902 123,000,000 1903 102,944,276 1904 94,500,000 NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 241 The shipments during 1902 from various New Brunswick ports were as follows : Port. Shippers. Cargoes. 11 99 8 37 3 30 2 16 4 21 2 5 4 7 4 13 2 14 1 2 2 3 Tons. Board measure. *Mlramlchl.... Dalhousle Campbellton.. Batharst Sackville Hopewell Harvey Shedlac Rlchibucto.... Buctoache Hillsborousfh.. St. John 114,200 28,224 22,824 18.703 36,687 9,193 9,736 6,846 6,239 932 1,561 122,017,741 26,344,112 24,142,117 20,874,278 16,526,150 13,754,451 9,816,040 6,855,637 6,571,351 897,172 1,898,038 200,662,534 *In addition to the above, Miramicbi exported 29 tons of birch and 1,159,065 £eet of box shocks in 1902. SHIPMENTS FROM NEW BRUNSWICK BY PORTS, 1903 AND 1904. 1903. 1904. Port. Superficial Superficial feet. feet. St. John 174,360,56? 172,995,507 Dalhousle 20,910,384 22,097,965 Campbellton 18,075,362 23,077,883 Bathurst 20,770,642 16,273,355 Chatham 71,670,117 57,294,488 Newcastle 34.123,256 37,255,841 Rlchibucto 4,735,614 2,784,477 Buctouche 897,418 754,580 Sackville 8,545,560 6,205,370 Shedlac 2,391,141 2,801,271 HopewellCape 26,834,162 5,138,666 Hnisboroueh 1,912,237 4,515,571 Harvey 3,135,250 6,331,152 Dorchester 1,355,767 Total 388,361.705 358,881,893 Decrease In 1904, 29,479,812 feet. DISTRIBUTION OF ST. JOHN. NEW BRUNSWICK, SHIPMENTS FOR THE YEARS 1903 AND 1904. 1903. 1904. Port. Superficial Superficial feet. feet. Liverpool 37,515,600 32,629,698 Bristol Channel 30,337,578 32,869,095 Barrow 5,234,805 4,770,241 London 8,208,164 12,541,993 Manchester 24,820,185 30,523,660 River Mersey 1,748,944 Glasgow 19,295,791 17,443,413 Greenock 863,056 1,105,481 Limerick 4,578,164 594,058 Belfast 14,181,266 6,008,899 Slleo 394,177 484,991 Dublin 3,930,494 Bantry 805,644 751,983 Londonderry 2,785,292 1,537,018 Drogheda 736,798 Australia 1,638,263 10,678,148 Spain 1,657,775 596,672 OUierports 16,365,364 19,725.399 Total 174,360,562 172,997,547 Decrease in 1904, 1,363,015 feet. 242 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. SHIPPERS FROM PORT OF ST. JOHN. Shippers. 1903. 1904. W. M. Mackay .• 98,972,137 61,638,915 A. Gibson Ry. & Mfg. Co 25.619.521 33,858,471 Geo. McKean 29,665,471 42,335,455 Other shippers 20.103,433 35,162,807 Total 174,360,562 172,995,618 SHIPPERS FROM PORTS OP MIRAMICHI IN 1904. Shippers, Superficial feet. F. E. Neale 39,000,000 Snowball Co 20,000,000 ■W.M. Mackay 11,000,000 D.J.Richie Co 11,000,000 E. Hutchison 8.000.000 G.Burchill & Sons 4.000.000 Damery & McDonald 1.500.000 Total 94.500.000 SHIPMENTS FROM ST. JOHN. NEW BRUNSWICK. TO TRANS-ATLANTIC PORTS PROM NOVEMBER 30, 1901, TO NOVEMBER 30. 1902. Lumber. board measure. Tons timber. To Lumber, board measure. Tons timber. To Pine. Birch. Pine. Birch. 46.642.866 2,005,242 34,754,366 5,118,365 3,426,060 20.139,606 14,324,589 3.471.095 1.850,879 2,637,118 3,633,104 3,466.251 15.896.385 669.332 10,293.428 755.216 54 2,076 125 Brought forward. 169.083,902 3.518.190 1.866.856 3.626.546 11.595.324 1,872.574 506.043 454.060 801.035 856.501 598,378 554,684 842,368 96,572 1,197,306 3,192.195 54 2,201 Londonderry Belfast Dublin Cardiff Cork Youghall Bantry Bilboa Ayr Sutton Bridge Dock. . Melbourne (Australia) Total Carried forward. 169.083.902 54 2,201 200.662.534 54 2.201 LUMBER SHIPMENTS FROM ST. JOHN TO TRANS-ATLANTIC PORTS FOR THIRTEEN YEARS. Year. Total feet board measure. Timber (tons). Birch. Pine. 1892. 146.529.309 156.653.334 153,473.076 126.449.706 167,249,707 244.399.066 184.954.343 184.192.435 236.459.838 176.295.257 200,662,534 174,360,562 172.995,507 10,200 5,294 5,015 8,374 9,892 9.454 6.636 5.859 5.851 6.206 2,201 4,498 3.567 1893 1894 1895. 324 1896 128 1897 92 1898 95 1899 131 1900 71 1901 50 1902 . . . 54 1903 48 1904 15 NEW BRUNSWICK— RECENT OPERATIONS. 243 TOTAL TRANS-ATLANTIC SHIPMENTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK, 1901 COMPARED WITH 1902. 1901. 1902. Prom Lumber, board measure. Tons timber. Lumber, board measure. Tons timber. St John 176,295,257 128,827,450 25,478,403 4,774.000 18.966,980 19.661.270 3.943,143 4.566.278 16.361,944 6.256 61 200.662,534 123,176,806 1,898,038 13,754,451 9,816,040 6,855,637 26.344.112 24.142.117 7.468.528 16.526.150 20.874,278 2,255 Mlramichl 29 Harvey, J Shediac SackvUle Bathurst Total 398,874.725 6,317 451,518,691 2,284 The trans-Atlantic shipments from the Province of New Brunswick for thirteen years were : Feet board measure. 1892 325,000,000 1893 312,000,000 1894 326.000.000 1895 291.000,000 1896 386,000,000 1897 494,000,000 1898 412,000,000 Feet board measure. 1899 426,000,000 190o"" ■ 489,000.000 1901 399.000.000 1902" ■ 452,000.000 1903 388.361.705 1904 358,881,893 The United States Consulate at St. John has compiled the following Statement of values of shipments to the United States for 1903 and 1904 : CANADIAN PRODUCT. 1903. 1904. Lumber $197,821 $104,803 Lath 187,295 211,296 Shingles 53,021 31,552 Total $438,137 $347,651 AMERICAN PRODUCT. 1903. 1904. Lumber $435,664 $^8,071 Lath 57.668 52,400 Shineles 100,382 36,602 Total $593,714 $537,073 In addition, there were shipped to countries other than the United States approximately 358,000,000 feet of lumber from the Province of New Brunswick in 1904, an approximate decrease of 30,000,000 feet from shipments of 1903. There was a decrease of 5,000,000 feet in Liverpool consignments, but an increase of 6,000,000 feet in lumber consigned to Manchester. CHAPTER XXI. NOVA SCOTIA— LUMBER HISTORY. Nova Scotia was the first settled of any of the Canadian provinces, a colony being established at Annapolis, then Port Royal, as early as 1605. At that time and for long afterward it was noted for the density of its forests ; and, in fact, it was over two hundred years before roads were cut through it for any distance into the interior, the settlements being confined to the coast and the land accessible by the rivers. One hundred years ago the country was heavily timbered with spruce, pine, hemlock, fir, poplar, hackmatack and various hardwoods — white birch, yellow birch, red birch, maple, beech and oak. The lumbering industry was actively pursued in Nova Scotia at a time when the sister Province of New Brunswick, then included within her limits, was an unpeopled wilderness. A return of the sev- eral townships of Nova Scotia January 1, 1761, reported among the industries then extant thirty-one sawmills with an aggregate output of 1,271,000 feet of lumber. The first exports were to the United States on a very limited scale, and at a later date a large trade in lumber was built up with the West Indies, under the stimulus of which the industry rapidly developed. The demand for shipbuilding purposes was another factor in encouraging the production of timber. Joseph Bouchette in his descriptive work, " The British Dominions in North America," published in 1832, writes as follows regarding con- ditions in the trade during the early part of the century : " There are sawmills in every district of the Province, and even as far back as 1785 there were ninety of them in the country. The num- ber has been vastly increased since that period. The quantity of lum- ber prepared and exported is momentous, and it is considered as good here as in any other part of America. Shipbuilding is carried on to a great extent in every part of the Province. In the ship yards of the peninsula alone there were built in the year 1826 131 vessels containing 15,535 tons, and in 1828, ninety-four vessels containing 6,560 tons. The average quantity of shipbuilding is not less than 10,000 tons per an- num, principally sloops, schooners and vessels for the fishery." Dr. Abraham Gesner, writing of the "Industrial Resources of Nova 244 NOVA SCOTIA— LUMBER HISTORY. 245 Scotia," in 1849, deplores the tendency of the timber trade to divert the attention of the settlers from agriculture, asserting that, owing to the inducements it held out, thousands of farms had been abandoned or neglected. " In drawing away great numbers of the active part of the population to the backwoods," he writes, "agriculture has languished and the general prosperity of the country has been retarded." During those palmy days of the trade every river and log driving stream was followed to its source and the timber cut away after the reckless and improvident fashion of that time. Until, indeed, a com- paratively recent period the operators in the Province have in the main followed the policy of making a thorough clearance of all merchantable timber in sight. In this respect they did not differ much from opera- tors elsewhere and, under the conditions then prevailing, had every in- ducement to realize the resources of their holdings as rapidly as possi- ble, owing to the frequency and extent of forest fires, which usually follow lumbering operations and the progress of settlement, destroying what the ax spares. Later there was a law covering forest protection, but until recently there had been no enforcement of the act. The destruction of the forests was accelerated by the system of land grants and the readiness of the Provincial government to part, for a very trifling consideration, with the fee simple of large areas of the public domain, the policy in the early history of the country being to get it settled at any cost. Grants were made of large areas to private individuals, and a large number was issued to soldiers to take up wild land. These extensive holdings, secured by the early settlers, usually ran back from the river front near which the farms were located, includ- ing a large area of timbered land on the higher ground to the rear, the lots frequently having a depth of several miles. As the timber remain- ing increased in value it was utilized by small portable sawmills mov- ing from one place to another wherever a cut of a few thousand feet could be secured. Outside of these individual holdings was a large tract of timber in the interior divided by a watershed running east and west. Here, as in other localities, extensive grants have been made from time to time to large operators, railway companies, etc., until nearly the whole of the timber land has passed out of the hands of the Government. Nova Scotia offers an excellent field for forestry operations, as the producing farm lands lie in the valleys, while the foothills and the interior are nonagricultural in character and will always be more 246 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. valuable for the production of timber than for any other purpose. For- ests naturally reproduce themselves more rapidly in Nova Scotia than in almost any other section of the country, due to natural conditions favorable to tree growth. Owing to the length of time the country has been settled and to the destructive and improvident methods of lumbering pursued, the timber resources, once so great, have been largely exhausted. Cape Breton Island, which forms a portion of the Province, has practically no spruce timber that would make deal stock, though it has considerable hard- wood. In the remainder of the Province the area of good timber land is estimated at about 2,700,000 acres. In an oificial statement of some years ago, the average stumpage of the timber lands was estimated at about 2,000 superficial feet an acre of merchantable spruce, 1,500 feet of hemlock and 500 feet of hardwood. This would make about 5,400,- 000,000 feet of spruce, 4,050,000,000 feet of hemlock and 1,350,000,000 feet of hardwood; but as cutting has been going on steadily in the meantime, it is safe to make a considerable deduction from these figures. This computation was made as an average over the whole territory, as some lands yield only spruce, some hemlock and others hardwood, while in some sections all are to some extent intermingled. When cutting first began it was almost entirely confined to the white pine, which has now practically disappeared with the exception of some tracts in western Nova Scotia and a scattered young growth which, if preserved, may become valuable some day. Spruce is the mainstay of the Province. The old growth of spruce is confined to the holdings of large operators and scattered tracts in the remoter sections. The average timber is straight and of good size and height, usually produc- ing three or more logs to each tree. The new growth of the Province is largely spruce and will grow to cutting size in thirty to forty years. The pulp mills are taking much of the small spruce, and in addition there is a large export to South America of spruce one inch by two inches up, and two inches by three inches up, for which the small trees are cut. Conservative operators cut down trees twelve to thirteen inches at the butt, or larger, leaving the others standing. With proper care in sawing the very young trees and bushes, they are able to go over these lands every seven to ten years for a new crop, making the yield practically perpetual. Although there is a supply of extra good spruce for pulpwood, this industry had not been developed until recently ; now, however, pulp operators are seeking timber areas in the NOVA SCOTIA— LUMBER HISTORY. 247 Province, owing to reasonable prices for lands, large bodies of timber to be secured and favorable water conditions for power to operate and develop mills. Until a recent period, hemlock had not been largely manufactured and little use had been made of the bark. There are now large tracts of hemlock that command attention and, with the advancing prices of bark, they will be a valuable asset to the lumberman. Fir has been largely killed by insects, but is used to some extent for cooperage. There is practically no cedar. The hardwood as a rule grows mixed and, except in a few localities, pays only to cut as it runs. Birch of the white and yellow varieties, maple and beech are abundant. Oak is scattered, the principal growth being in Queens, Ltmenburg and Shel- bume counties. There is a scattered growth of poplar of small size, which is cut for pulp and staves. There is practically no elm, and but little ash. Until the present time hardwoods have not been cut for ex- port, except for the English market in moderate quantity. But there has been and still is a large annual cut used for firewood, both locally and for export to the United States, and hardwood is also extensively used for shipbuilding. In the eastern end of the Province there are ex- tensive tracts of birch in Guysborough County, and in the western country hardwood is distributed all through the green wood, much of it being old growth of good proportion. The extension of the railways will make these hardwoods more accessible and will probably lead to a large cutting within a short time. As the policy of Nova Scotia until recently has been to sell the public lands in fee simple, making no distinction between timber pro- ducing and agricultural lands, there are no government dues payable on the cut of timber and no returns made to the Provincial government regarding the annual output. An important change was made in the law in 1899 by which it was provided that, instead of granting the lands as theretofore, the Government may issue leases, for the purpose of cutting and removing timber only for the period of twenty years at not less than forty cents an acre for the term, subject to renewal. It was furthermore provided that in case of more than one application for the same tract the lease may be put up to competition and go to the highest bidder. The lessee is entitled to take all timber of not less than ten inches diameter. Leases may be made at fifty cents an acre for the same term permitting the cutting of timber not less than five inches in diameter, and the Government is empowered to lease on other 248 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. terms where the land is of inferior quality and the lessee is prepared to expend money in the erection of pulp mills, etc. The Government is also authorized to repurchase at not more than twenty-five cents an acre land previously granted for lumbering purposes. This legislation unfortunately comes too late to have much efEect in preserving the government timber resources of the Province, as the area of valuable timber lands remaining under the control of the Gov- ernment is inconsiderable. In 1903 only 1,464,726 acres of land of any description remained ungranted, of which only five percent was tim- bered, most of it being a poor description of wild land. The receipts from Crown lands in Nova Scotia in 1904, left an actual surplus of $13,235.65 after expenses of $10,645.51 had been paid. This $10,000 item includes, as usual, all the cost of surveys, although under a recent act this cost has to be borne by the applicant. The sum received from these new sources has been placed in the treasury of the department. During 1904 no very large leases were issued, there being none of over 10,000 acres, and nearly all of them were issued to per- sons actually engaged in the lumber business. The timber of Nova Scotia is now owned by private individuals and corporations. It is estimated that about one-half the wooded lands is in the possession of large holders. The other half is owned by settlers and consists of small holdings of under a thousand acres. The larger holdings are being added to, and their position has been much strengthened during the last two or three years. The owners also con- trol valuable water privileges and shipping facilities. The lands are situated on rivers where there is an opportunity to drive logs to the mills, and, in many cases, to tide water, where they are manufactured and shipped. There is excellent water power all over the Province, suffi- cient for lumbering and pulp and paper mills. A logging railway is now under construction near Bridgewater to be operated by the Davison Lumber Company, Limited. Many of the rivers furnish water power for electric light, so that manufacturing is no longer confined to the hours of daylight. As has been mentioned already, there was a law in Nova Scotia re- garding the protection of forests from fire, but it was not enforced. The lumbermen's association of western Nova Scotia, with the help of the boards of trade, has succeeded in having this law amended so that it can be enforced, and, consequently, there has been decided improve- ment in this regard. It is now believed that it is possible to prevent NOVA SCOTIA— LUMBER HISTORY. 249 large forest fires in the future. If this is done there is no doubt but that the growth of wood in Nova Scotia is going to increase the available timber within a short time. The amended law provides for a chief fire ranger in each county who has the privilege of appointing under him other rangers to assist him in his duties. These rangers are periodically to go over their timber district and put out all fires that may occur, and the chief ranger makes a report of each year's work to the Government. This special work is paid by government salary to the head official, and the municipality pays for the work done. The holders of timber lands in each county owning 1,000 acres and over each are taxed one-fourth cent an acre. This is a special tax levied for the purpose of controlling forest fires, and is paid into the municipality. It is probable that in ordinary seasons this special tax will cover the cost of protection. Any balance left over goes to the credit of the funds ; but, in case this tax is not sufficient, the municipality is to pay any deficit that may occur. The act regarding forest fires has been en- forced in the municipalities of Annapolis, Digby, Clare, Yarmouth, Shelburne, Queens, Lunenburg, Colchester and Pictou, where chief rangers have been appointed. SOME NOTEWORTHY LUMBERMEN. Among lumbermen of Nova Scotia worthy of especial mention is E. D. Davison. He was the founder of the firm of E. D. Davison & Sons, Bridgewater, Nova Scotia, and died in the summer of 1902, in his fifty-seventh year. He was one of the most extensive operators in the Province of Nova Scotia, and is said to have built in 1845 the first steam sawmill erected in the Province. The firm held 200,000 acres of timber lands on branches of the Lahave, Medway and Nictau rivers, where its operations were principally carried on. Mr. Davison spent his lifetime in the trade and was regarded as one of the best authorities in Nova Scotia on all matters connected with lumber and forestry. He took a keen interest in public affairs and was mayor of Bridgewater and representative of Lunenburg County in the Nova Scotia Legisla- ture. In 1903, the business, then known as E. D. Davison & Sons, Limited, was purchased by J. M. Hastings and associates, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Lewis Miller, a large owner of lumber mills in Scotland and Sweden, finding that his forests in the latter country were becoming exhausted, turned his attention toward British America in 1900. He purchased ex- tensive forests near the center of Newfoundland and at Glenwood and 250 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, Red Indian Lake in that colony he built large mills. Upon the receipt of a tempting offer from an American syndicate in 1903, he sold out his Newfoundland interests. In October of the same year he trans- ferred his operations to Nova Scotia, where he purchased the properties of the Dominion Lumber Company, comprising a mill at Ingram Docks, twenty-five miles from Halifax, and 80,000 acres of timber lands. He began operations in June, 1904, and manufactures extensively for the British market. Mr. Miller was born in 1848 at Crieff, Perthshire, Scotland. The St. Croix Lumber Company, of Hartville, Nova Scotia, was incorporated in December, 1903. The concern began operations by purchasing the mills and limits of T. G. McMuUen, of Hartville. The limits comprise 30,000 acres of first class timber lands, heavily covered with pine, spruce, hemlock and birch. David McPherson, the president of the company, was born in Shelburne County, Nova Scotia, in 1834, of Scotch parents. On attaining the age of manhood he went to Hali- fax and began work as a shipbuilder, soon building up a large trade in the construction of wooden ships, which he owns and runs to this day. At the age of thirty-five he became interested in public affairs, and was shortly afterward elected to the city council of Halifax. Since then he has twice been elected mayor — 1892-8. In 1898 he entered the Provin- cial House and soon distinguished himself, being appointed a member of the Cabinet of Nova Scotia in 1900. CHAPTER XXII. NOVA SCOTIA— EXPORTS, STATISTICS. Nova Scotia has excellent shipping facilities. No part of the coun- try is over sixty miles from tide water, and numerous navigable rivers flow into the Atlantic, Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. Three railway systems, namely, the Intercolonial, the Dominion Atlan- tic and the Halifax & Southwestern, are in operation and the rails extend the whole length of the Province. The shipping points of the railways are Sydney, Pictou, Pugwash, Windsor, Kingsport, Annapolis, Wey- mouth, Yarmouth, Tusket, Bridgewater, Lunenburg and Halifax, from which lumber is exported ; and, besides these places, there are many ports and harbors on the coast available for good sized vessels and from which lumber is shipped. The bays and harbors indenting the shore are very numerous, making the coast line about one thousand miles in extent. The harbors on the Atlantic Coast have a good depth of water and very little tide. The shipping ports on the Bay of Fundy have strong tides, the rise and fall being from twenty-five to forty feet. In many of these places vessels load lying aground, or in the stream, where they can lie afloat, from barges and lighters. At Ship Harbour, Halifax County, there is thirty feet of water at the mills ; at Liscomb, twenty-two feet ; at Sheet Harbour, twenty-eight feet; at St. Mary's River, seventeen feet, and at Bridgewater and Ltmenburg, seventeen feet. There is no better harbor in Canada than Halifax, from which the annual export of lumber is over 60,000,000 feet — more than that from all the other ports of the Province combined. Particular stress is laid upon the shipping conditions of Nova Scotia for the reason that the Province depends entirely upon the export trade. The home consumption is so light that it need not be taken into con- sideration. Thus the small population or previously slow growth of the Province, slow compared with that of other countries, has not had the effect of conserving the timber. On the contrary, the continued activity of the export trade of the last fifty years has reached the stage where the annual cut of the Province has caught up with the yearly growth. Nova Scotia has the following markets for its products : The United 251 252 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. States, England, Ireland, Scotland, France, West Indies, Cuba, Argen- tine Republic, Brazil, British Guiana and Trinidad. Water transporta- tion from points in western Nova Scotia ranges from 300 to 500 miles to New York, Boston and Philadelphia. There are two grand divisions to be made in considering the lumber exports of Nova Scotia, brought about by trade conditions : The eastern end of the Province ships almost entirely to the English deal market, and the western end to South America, the West Indies and the United States. The cut for the English market is three-inch deals, and that for the West, boards, plank, rails and scantling. The deals are carried largely by liners or tramp steamers, while the western part of the Province engages a large fleet of sailing vessels from 150 to 1,000 tons register, a favorable size for the West Indies being a vessel of from 300,000 to 400,000 capacity, and for South America, a vessel of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 capacity. Summing up. Nova Scotia may be said to possess the following specialties that are peculiarly conducive to the carrying on of the lum- ber industry: It has the nearest spruce timber for shipment to the European market ; it has a monopoly of the West Indian trade for cheap lumber ; it has a natural reproduction of woods that can not be excelled for rapidity of growth and quality, owing to favorable rainfalls and climatic conditions; its lumber fleet is largely owned in the Province; the shipping facilities are excellent and inexpensive, and the principal ports of shipment are open all the year around. Among the leading exporters of Nova Scotia are : Dickie & McGrath, Tusket; Parker, Eakins Company, Limited, Yarmouth; Rhodes, Curry & Co., Limited, Amherst; Alfred Dickie, Lower Stewiacke; Davison Lumber Company, Limited, Bridgewater; the Nova Scotia Lumber Company, Walton; Charles T. White, Apple River, and Clarke Bros., Bear River. The average annual output of the latter firm is about 8,000,000 feet. Alfred Dickie is an extensive operator having mills at Ship Harbour, Lower Stewiacke and other points and owning 40,000 acres of timber land, the standing timber on which is estimated at 40,- 000,000 feet. The following figures will give an idea of the extent of the lumber operations in Nova Scotia and of the export : Total area of the Prov- ince, 21,428 square miles, or 13,713,920 acres; estimated timber and wood land, 7,500,000 acres ; estimated export from western Nova Scotia, 110,000,000 superficial feet ; estimated export from eastern Nova Scotia, NOVA SCOTIA— EXPORTS, STATISTICS. 253 including Halifax shipments, 135,000,000 superficial feet ; total export, 245,000,000 feet per annum. The total value of the shipments of forest products from Halifax for the fiscal year 1903 was $1,048,160, which included spruce and other deals, $746,591 ; planks and boards, $115,282, and scantling, $34,797. The Canadian census of 1901 gives the number of sawmills in Nova Scotia employing five hands or more as 228, the value of the product being $2,940,107. The quantities and values of forest products were as follows : SQUARE, WANEY OR FLAT TIMBER. Ash Birch Quantity, cubic feet. 3,502 382,126 Value. $ 373 47,783 Elm 410 38 Maple Oak 46,439 , 22,261 4.124 4,164 Pine 98,577 12,923 An other timber . . a.lR 371 39,697 Total Elm 909,686 LOGS FOR LUMBER. Feet board measure. 25.000 $109,102 Value. $ 233 Hickory 16,000 166 48.877,000 237.814 Oak 881,000 15.207 Pine 18,955,000 144,907 Spruce 198,892,000 26,784,000 1.272.653 168.956 Total 294,430,000 $1,839,936 18,348 48.320 Miscellaneous prodi lots.. of va SHD Ship 1.460,490 !«3.457.R48 TRANS-ATLANTIC Ports, Halifax, includinff •MENTS Harbour FROM NOVA SCOTIA, SEASON 1902. Superficial feet deals, scantling. Tons ends, boards, etc. timber. , MusQuodobit 97,101,000 1.807 18,714,051 Parrsborough 15,870,255 11,260,816 Yarmouth 6,621,000 4.133,346 153.700,468 Total 1,807 SHIPMENTS OF DEALS, ETC., FROM NOVA SCOTIA TO TRANS-ATLANTIC PORTS. Year. Feet. 1892 87,861,398 1893 109,252,930 1894 106,327,250 1895 109,324.393 1896 123.116,389 1897 185.362,562 Year. Feet. 1898 148.239,804 1899 128.009.504 1900 146.294.110 1901 182,000,336 1902 153,700,468 264 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. NOVA SCOTIA EXPORTS IN 1904. Districts. Manufacturers and Exporters. Available supply, acreage. Annual export, superficial feet. Annapolis Royal.. . . Bear River 1 Digby ; Weymouth 1 St. Mary's Bay / ' Yarmouth Tusket Port Medway •Bridgrewater Lunenburg Shelbume • } Liverpool St. Margaret's Bay Wolfville T Hantsport 1 Windsor f Kingsport J Halifax Musauodoblt Ship Harbour Sheet Harbour 1 . Mosers River J ' Liscombe St. Mary's River... Stewiacke River... Pictou and Pug- 1 . wash i Parrsborough and I E. Minas Basin I Pickels & Mills, Annapolis Royal, Clarke Bros., Bear River, G. D. Campbell & Co., Weymouth... Parker, Eakins Company, Ltd., Yar- mouth, Dickie & McGrath, Tusket, .Blackadar & Co., Meteghan, ' Davison Lumber Company, Ltd., : Bridgewater. United Lumber Company, Ltd., Jordan River, McKay Bros., Clyde River , John Millard, Liverpool, Louis Miller, St. Margaret's Bay Wolfville, I G. W. Henderson, Halifax, 1 J J S. P. Benjamin & Co., 1 ( " (See Special Report) Musquodobit Lumber Co Alf Dickie, Stewiacke Dominion Lumber Co., Sheet Harbour.. Alf Dickie, Stewiacke Alf Dickie, Stewiacke Alf Dickie, Stewiacke... J Primrose Bros., Pictou, I 1 T. G. McMullen, Truro, S "" INenville Lumber Co., Parrsborough. Rhodes, Curry & Co., Ltd., Amherst, Chas. T. White, Apple River, Nova Scotia Lumber Co., Walton, St. Croix Lumber Co., St. Croix, Total. 400.000 200,000 750,000 1,000,000 350,000 200,000 250,000 2,335,000 150,000 140,000 300.000 125.000 150,000 300,000 500,000 350,000 7,500,000 20,000,000 12,000,000 25,000,000 23,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 7,000,000 63,000,000 35,000,000 20,000,000 15,000,000 240,000,000 ♦Note.— Bridgewater exports will be Increased to 50,000,000 feet in 1905. It is evident that, with the limited acreage and the fact that the original forest has practically all disappeared, no material increase of the product is to be expected ; but, conversely, with a climate espe- cially favorable to tree growth, and a considerable area not adapted to agriculture, that lumbering will be always a chief industry. EXPORTS OF LUMBER FROM HALIFAX, JANUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 1, 1904. Superficial feet. W.Malcolm McKay 22,300,000 Alfred Dickie 12,200,000 I. H. Mathers 10,000,000 G.W.Henderson 1,300,000 Smith Tyrer & Co 4.000,000 T.G. McMullen 2,000,000 Estimate for December 1,000,000 52,800,000 United States 10,200,000 Exports for 1904 63.000.000 Exports for 1903 65,000,000 United States Lath United States United States Lath Lath Lnmber 1,500,000 3,000,000 200.000 8,500,000 9,000,000 12,000,000 10,200,000 NOVA SCOTIA— EXPORTS, STATISTICS. 255 The following table shows the amount of the different kinds of lumber shipped by five of the leading firms of Halifax, from January 1 to December 1, 1904: Superficial feet. Kind of lamber. To Europe. To United States. Total. 35,757,564 7,202,030 1,221,749 5,612,927 » 68,273 5,548,346 3,962,153 873,861 41,305,910 11,164,183 Pine 2,095,610 5,612,927 Timber r2",b29,00'6 Lath 12,029,000 * This amonnt Is in cubic feet. CHAPTER XXIII. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. Nine miles ofE the coast of New Brunswick at its nearest point, lies Prince Edward Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. At one time it was covered with a considerable forest growth. It was visited in 1534 by Jacques Cartier on his first voyage to the new world. In the " Relation Originale," a description of Cartier's voyage, is found the following concerning Prince Edward Island: "That day we coasted along the said land nine or ten leagues, trying to find some harbor, which we could not ; for, as I have said before, it is a land low and shallow. We went ashore in four places to see the trees, largely of the very finest and sweet smelling, and found that there were cedars, pines, white elms, ashes, willows and many other to us unknown. The lands where there are no woods are very beautiful." Despite Cartier's failure to find a good harbor, the present capital city of Charlottetown is located on one of the most excellent harbors of the Dominion. Georgetown, in King's County, situated at the junc- ture of the Cardigan, Montague and Brudenell rivers, was formerly called the " Port of Three Rivers," and was the center of the timber trade. While the island once possessed forests of considerable area, these have been largely removed by forest fires, lumbermen and shipbuilders. At one time the island was quite generally covered with timber, but now all that remain are small growths of balsam, fir and spruce and even smaller quantities of pine, larch, maple, poplar, beech, birch and cedar. The total area of the island is about 2,184 square miles, of which 797 square miles remain in forest woodlands. Of this latter area at least forty percent is timber of merchantable size. In 1903 a forestry commission was created by an act of the legisla- ture. The Province receives no revenue from forest lands, but hopes to do valuable service in reafforesting denuded areas and conserving the remaining timber. According to the census of 1901, relating to lumber products, there were in the census year eight establishments of that character in Prince Edward Island with an invested capital of $223,500. These gave em- 256 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 257 ployment to ninety-five wage-earners and paid out $30,772 annually in wages. The cost of materials employed was $49,406 and the value of the annual product, $118,150. The following affords a comparison con- cerning the lumber industry for a period of ten years : MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES PARED EMPLOYING FIVE HANDS AND FOR 1891 AND 1901. OVER, COM- 1891. 1901. Establish- ments, number. Value of output. Establish- ments, number. Value o£ output. 9 3 $48,025 48.200 12 8 $ 35,834 Lumber products.......... 118,150 CHAPTER XXIV. THE DISTRICT OF UNGAVA. Historic association still gives the title of Labrador to the entirety of the great peninsula which forms the northeastern extremity of the North American continent ; but, in its political significance, the name has applied since 1809 only to the narrow strip of coast along its eastern edge which drains into the Atlantic. The Labrador Peninsula has been described as two and one-third times as large as the Province of Ontario, 65 percent of the size of all that part of the United States lying east of the Mississippi River, or nearly five times the area of Great Britain. It extends from the fifty- fifth meridian to the seventy-ninth meridian and from the forty-ninth parallel to the sixty-third parallel. It is contained within a nearly con- tinuous water boundary — the Saguenay, Chamouchouan, Waswanipi and Nottaway rivers at the south, James and Hudson bays on the west, Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay on the north, the Atlantic Ocean on the northeast and the St. Lawrence River on the southeast. From Cape Wolstenholme, at the entrance to Hudson Bay, to the mouth of the Seguenay River the distance is 1,040 miles "as the crow flies;" from Belle Isle on the east to the mouth of the Nottaway River on the west the distance is more than one thousand miles. Roughly described, the peninsula froms a triangle one thousand miles long on each side. Of the 560,000 square miles embraced in the Labrador Peninsula, the greater part lies within the district of Ungava, a Canadian territory created October 2, 1895. At the time of its organization on the date mentioned Ungava included a much larger area than that with which it is now credited. It embraced all of the Labrador Peninsula north of the Height of Land, exclusive of that part of the Labrador Coast which is a part of the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. Quebec, the province to the southward, which is itself largely a part of the Labrador Peninsula, later had its boundaries extended so that it acquired all that part of Ungava lying south of the East Main River on the west and the Hamil- ton River on the east. By this order in council Quebec secured a strip of territory which is 250 miles in width at its western end and includes the regions of the Rupert and Nottaway rivers and Lake Mistassini, 258 THE DISTRICT OF UNGAVA. 259 embracing important timbered areas. The following is the present area of Ungava: Land, 349,109 square miles; water, 5,852 square miles; total, 354,961 square miles. This great Labrador Peninsula, the largest peninsula in the world, is of historical importance, for it was the scene of the discovery of America by white men. There is little doubt that its coast was touched by Norsemen as early as 1000. June 24, 1497, a year previous to the first continental discovery by Christopher Columbus (an Italian sailing under the Spanish flag) Giovanni Cabot, or Cabotto, a Genoese in the employ of the English, visited the eastern coast of North America; and in the following year Sebastian Cabot, his son, discovered Hudson strait. In 1500 Gaspar Cortereal, a little known Portuguese, landed and gave the name of Labrador, or "laborers' land," to the peninsula. In 1576 Martin Frobisher visited the region and in 1585-6-7 John Davis explored arctic Canada, including the vicinity of Labrador. To the westward, in Hudson Bay, occurred in 1611 one of the most tragic of the many tragic events linked with the story of the New World. Henry Hudson, the explorer, upon determining to winter in the region in order that he might continue his search for a northwest passage the following spring, was cast adrift in Hudson Bay with his seven-year-old son and seven seamen and died a miserable but unknown death. The exploitation of the timber of Ungava has never been seriously attempted, beneficent natural conditions of climate serving to keep in reserve these timbered areas until the demolition of the forests farther south shall render the utilization of more northern forests necessary. The southwestern portion of that part of the peninsula contained within Ungava was early, however, the scene of extensive trading by the Hud- son Bay Company, which had posts at the mouth of the Rupert River, at Great Whale River and Little Whale River and on Lake Mistassini and at other points in the interior. This company was incorporated in 1670 and was headed by Prince Rupert, a cousin of Charles II., of England. It had the exclusive trading rights on Hudson Bay. Two employees of the Quebec fur-trading monopoly, Groseillers and Radis- son, conceived the idea of exploiting the Hudson Bay region. They failed successively to interest their own employers, a coterie of Boston merchants and the French court and finally had recourse to London, where the Hudson Bay Company was organized. It was capitalized at £10,500 and Prince Rupert and his seventeen associates received a char- ter May 2, 1670. This was granted to "The Governor and Company 260 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. of Merchants-Adventurers trading into Hudson's Bay" and gave the company the exclusive right to trade in the bay and on the coasts, power to expel trespassers on these rights and the privilege of building forts and fitting out privateers and armed ships for the purpose of making war on any non-Christian people. From the time of its occupation until the present the company has been a potent factor in the history of Canada, no less in Ungava than elsewhere. In the district it gave the name to Rupert's River and established Rupert's House at the river's mouth early in its corporate existence. It established in the interior of Ungava in later years Mechiskun House, Waswanapi House and Mistassini House and, on the west coast of Ungava, posts at Great Whale River, Little Whale River and elsewhere. While the early operations of the company were carried on with profit, they were never so large, in the earlier years, as to render these profits exceptionally heavy. In 1676 it handled £19,000 worth of furs, giving in exchange to the Indians £650 worth of goods. In 1748 the amount of business had increased to only £30,000 from which had to be deducted £17,000 for operating expenses and £5,000 for goods for the Indians. At that time the business required the employment of four ships and numerous garrisons. A French claim to the territory em- broiled the Hudson Bay Company in difficulties from 1682 until 1713. In 1682 and 1686 the French captured several of the company's forts. These troubles were ended by the treaty of Utrecht in 1718 and thence- forward the company enjoyed prosperity. It was not until 1763 that the operations attained any great magnitude, however, and then they were vastly increased by the opening of all the Hudson Bay country by the session of French Canada. The Declaration of Rights, which guaranteed free and open trade to all British subjects, produced the first serious competition which the company was forced to encounter. In 1782 the Northwest Fur & Trad- ing Company was organized in Montreal. It invaded the old com- pany's territory and the competition eventually became actual warfare. In 1821 these evils were cured by a union of the companies. The later history of the great enterprise concerns more particularly its westward progress. It will be observed by this history of the operations of the Hudson Bay Company that a great fur trade was early developed in Ungava. The forests remained untouched, and in a consideration of the forestal THE DISTRICT OF UNGAVA. 261 wealth of Canada the southern part of Ungava should be considered among its resources. Along the southern border exist important areas of hardwoods and from these forests the growth gradually lessens until the barren shores of Hudson Strait are reached. The interior of Ungava is a plateau of less than 2,500 feet elevation and broken by a network of lakes and rivers which make water trans- portation in any direction possible. A portage of two or three miles will generally serve to move a canoe from one river to the waters of another. The plateau rises precipitously from the Atlantic Ocean at the east but slopes gradually to James Bay at the west. The longer rivers are, therefore, in the western part of the peninsula. The chief rivers of Ungava are the Koksoak and Leaf rivers, emptying into Ungava Bay, the Hamilton and Northwest rivers, flowing into Lake Melville, and the Great Whale and Mistassibi rivers, flowing into Hud- son and James bays. Grand Falls on the Hamilton River has a drop of 302 feet and a volume of 60,000 cubic feet a second. The important lakes of Ungava are Mishikamau, Kaniapiskau, North Seal, Clearwater, Apiskigamish, Nichikun, Manuan and Payne. The district of Ungava possesses a considerable forest area which will be of commercial importance when the provinces shall have been denuded. In the consideration of this forest ground, however, the northwestern projection of the peninsula may well be eliminated, as the forest is of no value. Even as far south as Richmond Gulf the region takes on the characteristics of the Labrador Coast, the hills rising abruptly 500 to 1,000 feet. These hills are barren on top, small trees growing only in the lower gullies and about the edge of the water. Clearwater Lake, to which reference has already been made, is in the same locality. It is thirty-five miles long from northwest to southeast and eighteen miles across at the widest point. The bare and rocky hills are clothed only with lichens and arctic shrubs. The trees about the lake are very small black spruce or larch. At North Seal Lake the trees are even smaller and the barren areas more extensive. The chief forest areas occupy the valleys of the streams flowing into James Bay at the westward and the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of St. Lawrence at the eastward. This wealth has, unfortunately, been much lessened by forest fires which have, within the last quarter cen- tury, destroyed one-half of the timber of the interior. In some places this destruction has been so complete that two hundred years will be required to restore the soil to its old fertility. These fires are attrib- 262 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. uted generally to Indians. A. P. Low, of the Geological Survey of Canada, whose explorations of unknown Ungava have been highly valuable, says that the fires occur annually and often burn during the entire summer. In 1894 he wrote: "These fires are due to various causes but many of them can be traced to the Indians, who start them either through their carelessness or intentionally." However, settlers, tourists and hunters are equally culpable. Many of the fires may be traced to their lack of care in building camp fires in places carpeted with gummy leaves and resinous twigs. On the upper canoe routes notices printed in English, French and Indian have been posted at every portage. These appear to have had some effect. Despite the destructiveness of forest fires and the barrenness of the northern part of Ungava, the district contains a large amount of excel- lent timber, particularly adaptable to pulp manufacture. Ungava forests embrace spruce, larch, balsam fir, scrub pine, poplar and birch, distrib- uted according to the altitude, latitude, distance from the sea and character of the soil. Black spruce (Picea nigra) constitutes 90 percent of the forest growth of Ungava and extends northward to Ungava Bay and Hamilton Inlet and westward to the sparse growth of Richmond Gulf, although in the northwest it does not exist in merchantable quantities. In the southern part of Ungava black spruce grows in thickets, which habit prevents it from obtaining any considerable size. Farther north the trees are more distributed and of larger girth. White spruce (Picea alba) is found in smaller quantities throughout the peninsula wherever there is well drained soil. Black larch (Larix americana ), or tamarack, ranks second to black spruce in the extent of its growth. It also extends the farthest north of any of the Ungava trees, growing to a considerable height in regions so arctic that the spruce is stunted to a mere shrub. It is the largest of the trees found in the interior and makes the cold swamps its par- ticular habitat. The European larch saw fly has been working north- ward in recent years and doing some damage to the tamarack growth. The balsam fir (Abies balsamea) seldom grows farther north than the fifty-sixth parallel and is found in considerable quantities on the east shore of James Bay and eastward to Hamilton Inlet. It is particu- larly abundant on the lower Rupert River, where it grows in company with the white spruce, aspen and canoe birch. Banksian pine (Pinus banksiana ) variously known as the gray pine. THE DISTRICT OF UNGAVA. 263 scrub pine, jack pine, Labrador pine and "cypress," has attained con- siderable growth on the burned-over area south of the Whale River and it is found in the swampy regions southward in the vicinity of James Bay. The aspen (Populus tremuloides ) grows south of the fifty-fourth par- allel and is assisting to restore the burned-over areas. It conserves the soil on steep slopes and aflEords shelter to the seedlings of coniferae. The balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera ) grows as far north as Clearwater Lake and is partial to the clay soil of the river valleys. It reaches a diameter of ten inches on the Kaniapiskau River. The white, or canoe, birch (Betula papyrifera ) is common to the southern part of the peninsula. It reaches ten inches in diameter at Hamilton Inlet, but up the river seldom attains more than eight inches. As it extends northward it is dwarfed in size. As a source of future pulpwood supply Ungava takes important rank among the more northern districts of the Dominion of Canada. It is peculiarly well endowed with water power and means of water trans- portation and will eventually be the scene of extensive and profitable pulpwood manufacture. CHAPTER XXV. CANADA — ITS LUMBER INDUSTRY IN 1 874. History is a kinetoscopic repetition of events. It is interesting to stop the film of time occasionally and to view in detail the conditions pre- vailing during a particular period. It is for that reason that here is in- terjected a chapter showing with considerable detail the extent of the Canadian lumber industry in 1874. This chapter is drawn largely from an article prepared by a representative of the Lumberman's Gazette, a predecessor of the American Lumberman. The following is a pen pic- ture of the Canadian lumber industry in 1874 : Canada, as a whole, must be regarded as possessing within her borders the most extended and connected chain of lumbering establishments in the world; and, from the location of her forests, adjacent to and facing the great continental markets, with such grand maritime facilities, we must pronounce them the most important, for the general markets, of any yet developed. Respecting sensational documents prophesying a timber famine in the near future, which have been industriously put forth, it is sufficient to say that they have a tendency toward good by their restraining influence. But, in an excursion through the whole field, a mention of these prophesies will be promptly met with decidedly derisive ejaculations, the general expression being, "We have stock enough secured for our mills for fifty years or more," and that* the mills now erected in Canada could cut their present yearly agg;regate for that time and still have forests left. Exceptions in old districts will doubtless occur, but new ones are opening yearly, and forests yet unexplored for lumbering will be made accessible when required. In the North Simcoe section there are forty-nine mills of good construction, having 182,000,000 feet capacity yearly (rating low at that), which last year [1874] sent to Toronto 140,000,000 feet ; and yet experts at woodcraft, thoroughly acquainted with these regions, say these mills (including other small ones) can be stocked probably fifty years longer. We find, by careful computation of statistics given by parties of known credi- bility, that within the reach of these mills there Is still of forest timber fit for the saw 4,550,000,000 feet of a merchantable character ; also that the Georgian Bay mills, seven in number, have a still more extended and much less pillaged field to look to— all that region watered by the French, Spanish and other north shore streams, spread out many hundred miles, much of which country is yet unsurveyed and consequently unappropriated for any purpose. This section is estimated low at 20,000,000,000 feet, without including areas beyond those comprised within pres- ent explorations. It sent to the various points accessible by water no less than 90,000,000 feet in 1874, besides square timber. Its outlet is to Chicago, Buffalo 264 CANADA— ITS LUMBER INDUSTRY IN 1874. 265 and Tonawanda, for the United States, and CoIUngwood and thence by rail to To- ronto, for the Dominion. Taking the other side of the Bay, running over the whole of western Ontario, we have a vast area of settled country, with many small but high grade pineries interspersed, owned and protected by private parties, counting at least 2,500,000,000 feet, none too much for home supply, and not one foot of which should ever seek a foreign market. Yet twenty-nine mills, mostly of limited capacity, together with thirteen quite insignificant ones, send 70,000,000 feet of lumber and logs (embracing some square and spar rafts) to Cleveland, Erie, Buffalo and Tonawanda. The above area includes the coast down to the lower wharves of Toronto, from whence we may take a run up the route of the Lake Nipissing railway and find a fair sweep of territory covered with fine forests, much of which is yet untouched and can not be utilized until the road is completed to its proposed terminus at the lake, where it is supposed it will be in line with the Great Pacific. The forests on this line are estimated of sufficient value to induce a board of astute capitalists to make a large outlay of money. Yet, from a cursory glance at the timber, we judge its grade scarcely warrants present handling, if immediate pecuniary margin is the object of the operators. The 11,000,000,000 feet which this division proposes to throw into the great aggregate of forest product will count with good results, if the cutting of it is not too hurried. This road is already constructed nearly ninety miles, and has drawn to it a considerable outlay in mills, about thirteen in num- ber, mostly of small capacity, which sent to Toronto in 1874, 15,000,000 feet ; and this will increase year by year, as other and larger mills are constructed. Proceeding along the shore line of Ontario past Ports Whitby, Hope, Coburg, Trenton, and Belleville to Kingston, thence backward into the outlying country, embracing that extended chain of waters known as the Rice and other lakes, includ- ing the Trent, Moira, Scugog, Otonobee, Marmora, Napanee and other smaller riv- ers, reaching 150 miles toward the Grand Ottawa, we have a large area of country rich in timber, villages, farms and even iron and gold. Many first class sawmills are in operation, while the streams, many of them navigable to small steamers, are filled with floating logs and square timber for the use of mills all along the front. Sev- eral competing railroads cross each other within this stretch, having the posts before named, the large interior towns and the forests for objective points. Al- though it has been settled and worked for fifty years or more, the country still has many valuable timber precincts, which, although largely run over by the spar hunter and hewer, yearly send a vast amount of the same class of product, with logs and lumber, to the market. This product counted in 1874 285,000,000 feet, and the same grounds are computed to possess yet 7,750,000,000 feet for stock for her fifty-seven mills. This section has had the repute of yielding as fine a g^adeof stock as any portion of Canada, and holds its own very fairly in that particular. The country in the rear of Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Cornwall, etc., is also of great importance, as being the location of thirteen good sawmills, whose yield for 1874 was 106,000,000 feet of a good quality, together with considerable hardwood and basswood, while there remains on the main streams 2,250,000,000 feet of good, marketable pine, beside no mean amount of other woods of but little less value. In all this stretch of country there is no thought of catering to other than the 266 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. United States trade, save in the sections where a portion of the square and spar timber goes to Quebec and thence to Europe. We have not herein intrenched upon groves on streams that flow to the grand center, Ottawa. It will doubtless be a surprise to many, even in Ontario, to learn that on these grounds, many of which have been long worked, there remains tributary to the Great Lakes the amount of 45,550,000,000 feet. Yet Ontario is sparsely settled, and in all that vast range all was originally forest and water, with no prairie. Remembering this, the investiga- tor is led to think that there should be even more timber than we have counted, and we think the future will prove that there is more. The country we have been considering extends 750 by about 436 miles, making 327,000 square statute miles, equal to about 209,280,000 acres in area. We approach Ottawa City next, as the great lumber and mill center. We find here, within a radius of about ten miles, twenty-four mills, nearly all of superior grade, embracing over a hundred gangs and six large circulars. These mills represent a capacity of over 400,000,000 feet annually, without night work, and have such timber limits attached to each establishment that scarcely one of them need have any fear of lack of stock for the next twenty-five, fifty, or one hundred years, even if an enlarged demand should decide them to run the whole twenty-four hours. Although many of these mills are located in Ontario, still they draw nearly all their stock of logs from Quebec. The Grand Ottawa is the dividing line between the two provinces. It receives from both sides a very large number of extended water courses, which drain an immense territory of densely timbered land. These mills have been erected mostly for, and are run to subserve, the American market, yet they annually contribute something to the European trade. The Grand Ottawa is a very large and important river, over 750 miles in length, and draining an area of 80,000 square miles. It receives many tributaries varying from 100 to 400 miles in length. The whole valley has been, and is now, mostly covered with dense forests of white pine and red pine, and is held or allotted by the Government as timber limits, with but small exceptions. Besides furnishing stock for these mills, vast quantities of logs are cut and run to Montreal and other mills scattered along the St. Lawrence engaged in cutting deals. This is the great source from which the large timber houses and other concerns of Quebec draw their supplies for the European trade. It is estimated that the Gatineau alone can send to Ottawa over 12,000,000,000 feet, the Madawaska 4,000,000,000, the Upper Ottawa waters 75,000,000,000, the Reviere du Lievre to the mills below 4,000,000,000, all of a good quality of white pine and red pine. The spruce and hemlock timber seem boundless and, although not now regarded of much value, will eventually be the basis of more real wealth than the pine has been, if not ruthlessly destroyed by man or fire. All these sections, though showing large by the figures above, will doubtless yield through the same channels, from adjacent higher lands and more northern regions when necessity demands it, enough more to duplicate their present claims. The Ottawa region, unlike the other sections, occupies an enviable position, inasmuch as it has the privilege of choosing the best of three different markets and can ship to them all by water conveyance — to the United States, to Europe, or to South America and Australia. This region has such superb mill establishments and does the work of cutting in such a neat style that it often gets fancy prices for CANADA— ITS LUMBER INDUSTRY IN 1874. 267 even a low grade article, because it looks well in bulk. Though its reserve stocks are 30,000,000 feet less than they were in 1873, and the cutting in the woods is ex- ceedingly light, the harbors of this section being filled with held-over logs, mem- bers of the trade will be able largely to increase the aggregate for 1875 over that of 1874. It could be done to the extent of 100,000,000 feet if the demand should war- rant it. These millmen, with those of the Lower Ottawa, and with the St. Law- rence operators, being in financial circumstances above panic influences, generally can watch and wait, or work as pleases best, and, having no burdens resting upon them in the shape of timber land taxes or interest, they can well aflEord to rest a season or two if exigencies require. These firms could put into the market for 1875, 450,000,000 feet without straining a single nerve, and the St. Lawrence mills could add 50,000,000 and make the sum 500,000,000, which, however, is not pro- posed by either party. But there is one feature regarding the Canadian forest prod- uct of which sight should not be lost. The square timber trade received such a rude shock that many of the houses have utterly refused to go into the woods at all this winter, which will have a tendency to clean out the stocks on hand and, doubtless, diminish the amount marketed considerably ; and, as much of that wood is put into deals after it arrives in Europe, its loss may be required to be made good by the manufacturer. The river St. Maurice is one of the largest of the St. Lawrence tributa- ries, and drains an immense scope of country. It is over 400 miles long, re- ceives the waters of fifteen important rivers and numerous lakes, and is supposed to drain a widespread territory of pine, spruce and hemlock timber of great value. The Government claims to have yet on its waters over 3,000,000 acres of unallotted timber lands, on which, if we give but 3,000 to the acre, we have 9,000,000,000 feet outside the leased limits. Gasp^ and Bonaventure counties are claimed to have 3,000 square miles of timber limits yet waiting lease, abounding in sawing timber, which, by applying the same rule, will add 6,000,000,000 feet. The estimate so far gives over one hundred years' stock for all the mills now working in the two provinces, yet, to show the probable accuracy of these details, we will state that Quebec records show in 1872, 192,000 square miles reserved for timber limits, and at that time an allotment of 42,399 square miles had been made, leaving unleased land as follows : Six thousand square miles St. Maurice territory ; 2,000 in the Gatineau ; 3,000 in the Upper Ottawa ; 139,000 in other sections of the Province, including Gaspd, Labrador, etc. In other words, they say they have 149,000 square miles of timber land to lease ; and, if we can award to them 3,000 to the acre, or about 2,000,000 to the square mile, we get 298,000,000,000, which is nearly three times the amount we had set down for the different sections en route, and yet we do not intrench upon the 42,399 square miles allotted. It is no more than reasonable to surmise that no practical millman or lumberman would purchase timber limits, and thus subject himself to a yearly rental for twenty-one years, without first ascertaining that such limits were worth the purchase. Therefore, if we give these men credit for common business tact, we must suppose their 42,399 square miles, or 27,135,360 acres, must yield at least 3,000 feet to the acre, less the amount cut off since their occupancy. This would give an additional amount of 81,406,080,000 feet, which we reduce by 15,000,000,000 as the amount cut o£E 5,000,000 acres, leaving 66,406,- 268 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. 080,000. All this, it will be remembered, does not touch the Algoma, nor the Northwest Territory, which we know, from actual exploration, is very extensive and will come in for use when needed, though generations may pass before that time arrives. Neither does it embrace the amount assumed to be still in the Ontario forests, that being about 45,550,000,000 feet. RECAPITULATION. Feet board measure. Ontario forests 45,550,000,000 Onebec, allotted limits 66,406,080,000 Quebec, not allotted 298,000,000,000 Aegreeate 409,956.080,000 If the Government basis is correct those lands will yield all these figures have assumed for them. But it should be stated that the Gasp6 and the St. Maurice ter- ritory, and what may be left on the Saguenay, embrace the spruce and hemlock as well as the pine. In that region those woods may be regarded as possessing a commercial value equal to the Upper Ottawa pine on its stump. On looking over the whole domain of the Dominion we would be surprised, indeed, if it did not furnish 500,000,000,000 feet of sawing stock, knowing what some of the sections that have been cleared have yielded. The year 1874 was the occasion of a sharp and sudden decline in Canadian lumber values. At the opening of the season in 1874, about June 10, the following were the prevailing prices in Canada, a standard deal making 2,750 superficial feet to 100 pieces : Pine standards, firsts,$108, or $39.28 per M feet board measure. Pine standards, seconds, $72, or $26.19 per M feet board measure. Pine standards, thirds, $306, or $13.09 per M feet board measure. Fine standards, fourths, $28, or $10.19 per M feet board measure. Spruce, firsts, $44, or $16 per M feet board measure. Spruce, seconds, $36, or $13 per M feet board measure. Spruce, thirds, $28, or $10.18 per M feet board measure. Spruce, fourths, $28, or $7.27 per M feet board measure. These prices fell oflE fully ten percent during the season. At the opening of 1874 pine sold at 35 cents to 20 cents per cubic foot, oak at iTyi to 50 cents, elm at Z1% to 40 cents, and walnut at 80 to 85 cents. All of these, except the walnut, fell o£E 12 percent in price during the summer. At that time the production of square timber was made up of about three-quarters pine, of which one-twelfth was red. Hardwoods manufactured embraced oak, ash, birch, basswood, white tamarack, walnut, maple and hickory. Spruce and hemlock represented about one-sixth of the total production, but the proportion has since very largely in- creased. The following is a comprehensive statement of the extent of the lumber indus- try of Canada in 1874, the names' of manufacturers and the location and capacity of their mills being given : > The spelllnsr of the names appears Incorrect In many instances, but changes have been made only in a few cases that were known absolutely. The editor does not wish to be held respon- sible for the spelling of these names In this excerpt. CANADA— ITS LUMBER INDUSTRY IN 1874. 269 NAMBS ANI> LOCATION. Thousand feet. Product. Held over. Cntttos of loes. 5,000 2.000 3,000 8,000 5.000 4.000 4,000 2.500 3,000 3,000 1.500 2,000 3,500 2,000 3,000 3,500 1,500 3,000 2,000 500 3.000 3,000 1,000 2.000 2.500 750 3.000 7,500 2,000 6,000 6,500 1.750 3,000 1,000 250 1,000 2,000 500 3,500 2,000 2.000 2,500 1.200 1.000 8,000 2,000 7,000 4,000 1,000 5,000 1,000 200 2,000 500 2,000 2,000 500 2,000 1,500 500 2,000 1,500 5,000 2.000 9,000 2,000 5,000 20,000 5.000 2,000 1,500 500 2,000 1.000 500 2,000 5.000 1.000 5,000 300 1,000 12.000 3.000 8.000 3.000 1.000 3,000 1,000 500 2,000 8,000 3,000 9,000 3,000 2,000 2.500 1,000 250 1,500 12,500 3,000 9,500 10,000 3,000 13,000 5,500 4,000 6,000 2,000 1,500 1,000 1,000 750 1,500 19,250 4,000 22,000 4,000 1,500 4,500 2,000 500 2,000 3,000 750 2,000 1,500 3,000 10,000 3,000 1,000 4,000 4,000 1.000 3.000 500 1.000 15,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 . ... 4,000 6,000 2,000 8,000 8,000 3,000 6,000 12,000 3,000 8.000 3,500 1,000 4.000 1,000 2,000 8.000 1,500 7,000 3,000 2.000 3,000 5,000 150 4,000 10,000 1,000 6,000 4,500 2,000 5,000 2,000 500 2,000 2,000 1,000 3,000 20,000 3,000 10,000 13,500 3,000 2,500 8.000 1,000 ...... 8,000 3.000 7,000 20.000 4,000 16.000 4,000 1,000 2.000 6,000 2,000 4.000 7,250 2,000 8,000 2,000 500 2,000 J. Chaffer, Spanish River R. Christy, Byne Inlet Brasher & Caster, Sonnydale C. Cook & Co Piintiss, New Lowell Smith & Doby, Mad River J.Mercer, Ansrus J.Davidson, Angns S. Fish, Angus W. W. Colwell & Co., two mills, Harrison's Landingr N. Diamond, Allendale and Barrie J. wmiamson, Hawkstone Pish & Co.. Orlllia James Budd. Orlllla R. R. Wier, Orfllla J. Thompson & Co., Longford Smith & Ball. Sweme Bridee M. Warren, Orlllla, Warmcuster Pauby, Marchmont Wm. Snyder, Atherly Stewart, Orlllla J. Banger, CrayvUle SOlman. Belle Ewart Thompson, Smith & Son. Bradford and Barrie Hall & Landing C. & S. P. Lewis, Aurora Feckham & Hoag. Stayner and Newmarket R. & W. Henry, King Hotchkiss, Peckham &Co., Colllngwood D. Davidson. Penetanguishene Jas. Plews, Wye Cook Bros., Wye Kane, Fawlend&Co., Wye Sturgeon Bay Four mills formerly belonging to Dodge & Co., Wautaushene Parry Sound L. Co., Parry Sound Honghson &Co., Mnskoka , St. Michaels Bay , Geo. Caswell, Coldwater E. R. Cook & Co.. Nlpissing railroad and other mills In that locality by two mills Payson, Bigelow & Town, Port Perry W. S. Saxon, Port Perry Needlar & Sadler, Lindsay Thos. Free, Lindsay S. Trudn, Lindsay Bond, Downes & Co., Lindsay Strickland, Lindsay Jabez Thurston, Lindsay McDougal, Peterborough and Rice Lake J. Z. Rogers, Peterborough and Rice Lake Ullyott & Sadler, Peterborough and Rice Lake Geo. Hllllard, Peterborough and Fenelon Falls Boyd, Smith & Co., Peterborough and Bobcaygen Dixon Estate, Peterborough Shaw, Peterborough Benedict (Scott Mills), Peterborough A. H. Campbell, Peterborough Hilllam & Mowry, Fenelon Falls Smlth&Co., Fenelon Falls Green&EUis, Fenelon Falls J.Armstrong, Millbrook Wm. Pratt, Trenton and Near Gilmore & Co., Trenton Baker, Jones & Co., Page Island mill and Belleville Baker, Jones & Co., Belleville Rathbum & Sons, Belleville Rathbnm & Sons, Mill Point H. B. Rathbum & Sons, Napanee Baker & Stewart, Belleville Flint & Huttan. BellevlUe W. Bleeker, Belleville 270 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. HAMES AHS LOCATION. Thousand feet. Product. Held over. Cutting of logs. W. A. Foster & Co., Belleville F. Walbridee. Belleville Jones & Van Dusen, Belleville Lewis & Kerr, Belleville John Ross, Belleville A. Southerland, CaniSEton SUls, CaniflEton John Chaffer, Kingston W. H. Freelanberg, Westport Peter McLaren, Carltonplace Boyd, Caldwell & Son, Carltonplace McLaren & McCrea, Carltonplace Gillis & McLaren, Carltonplace Gillies Bros., Braeside Hil]ard& Dixon, Pakenham McKillip & Gordon, Paltenham Capt. O'Neal, Paltenham Geo. Play fair, FaUbrook. . . . -. William Lus, PaUbrook J. S. Playf air, Playf airville A. Caldwell & Son, Lanark Jas. McCuren, Amprior McLachlin Bros., Amprior Mallock & Adams, Amprior McDonald, Sand Point Ward & Scott, Sand Point Bran, Sand Point J. G. Campbell, Perth Gillies Bros., Perth J* Jackson, Perth W. Steadman, Perth Perley & Pattee, Ottawa J. R. Booth, Ottawa Bronson & Weston, two mills, Ottawa A. H. Baldwin, Ottawa Levi Young, Ottawa Balson& Currier, [Hull] Ottawa H. Crandall & Co., [Hull] two mills, Ottawa Jas. Skead, Napean Mills, Ottawa Conway Estate, Ottawa J. McLaren* Co., Ottawa Welch Bros., Ottawa Gilmore & Co.. Gatineau and Hull, two mills, Ottawa E.B.Eddy, Hull, Ottawa John Rochester, two mills, Ottawa McClymount& Co., New Edembro, Ottawa Jas. McLaren & Co., Buckingham John Ross, Buckingham Buckingham Mfg. Co., Buckingham Blackman & McLaren, Impleton W. E. Edwards & Co., Rockland J. A. Cameron, North Nation D. A. Cameron & Co., North Nation J. Norden, Greenville Hamilton Bros., four mills, Hawkesbury I. R. Ward, Montreal Hall & Co., L'Assomption and Huntertown Wm. Henderson, Montreal, two mills McGauvran & Tucker, Montreal, two mills Jas. Coulin, Montreal Cushing Bros., two mills, Montreal Jas. Little, Montreal, Maskinonge Geo. Baptist & Sons, Three Rivers L. TourbeUe, Montreal, Pierreville, St. Francis, two mills Boyer, Houdon & Co., two mills, Ursula F. MoCarty, Nicholet J. Wilson, Gautham A. Senecoel, So. Gullleme Geo. B. Hall, six mills, Somersett, Krugsie, Warrick, Stamford Romoskle, Montmorencle Mr, Tayton, Point Levi, (leased of Hall) Bennett & Benson, Quebec 1,500 2,000 6,000 2,000 500 2,000 2,000 2,500 2,000 15,000 8,000 2,500 10,000 8,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 1,500 1,500 4,000 4,000 2,500 12,500 2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 21,000 22,000 30,000 15,000 10,000 16,000 7,000 14,000 13,000 12,000 7,000 50,000 55,000 15,000 6,000 6,000 15,000 2,000 1,250 6,000 4,000 6,000 10,000 3,000 5,250 11,000 3,500 12,000 2,000 9,000 3,000 5,000 2,000 ■"■soo 4,000 2,000 6,000 1,000 1,000 500 500 1,000 1,000 500 500 1,500 500 14,000 5,000 2,000 4,000 9,500 2,000 500 1,000 900 750 1,100 4,000 500 2,500 750 1,000 ■■500 1,000 ■"■500 250 9,500 12,500 3,000 6,000 5,000 1,000 2,500 9,000 4,000 1.500 2,500 11,000 20,000 3,000 3,000 4,000 1,500 500 250 8,000 2,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 S,500 7,000 3,500 6,000 500 4,500 500 8,000 5.000 500 1,000 1,000 500 12,000 "2',6"o"6 2,000 2,000 6,000 2,000 2,6bd 2,000 8,000 2,000 17,000 6.000 3,000 dis'd 2,006 2,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 3,000 2,000 6,000 3,000 3,000 1,000 2,000 2,006 5,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 13,000 12,000 15,000 7,000 5,000 15,000 8,000 6,000 5,000 7,000 3,000 30,000 35,000 14,000 2,000 15,000 4,000 "2,606 7,000 9,000 8,000 10,000 20,000 6,000 13,000 4,000 12,000 2,000 10,000 12,000 20,000 10,000 4,000 3,000 5,000 4,000 60,000 4,000 15,000 CANADA— ITS LUMBER INDUSTRY IN 1874. 271 Thousand feet. NAMES AND LOCATION. Product. Held over. Cutting. Ross Richie, Nicholet 2,000 3,000 2,000 6 000 1,000 1,000 3,000 2,000 22,000 A. Mayrand, Nicholet 3,000 10,000 Price Bros., St. Tliomas, Metis, Sagencey, So. Du'Cashon 40,000 Total 864,000 330,250 855,000 The mills enumerated above manufactured, during 1874, in the aggregate, 112,000,000 deals for the European market. In addition there are seventy-three mills about and below Quebec which stock almost exclusively for the European market, or the South American and Australian trade, though we find among their product 23,000,000 feet that might, if the de- mand were good, go to the United States. This stock was made, doubtless, for the southern trade, and, that call being already overstocked, it has mostly been held in reserve. To show the cause, we find the South American, etc., shipments In 1874 have been but 16,975,000 against 41,044,000 in 1873, while nothing to speak of has gone to Australia. RSCAPITULATION OF CANADA PINB LUMBBR, DZALS, TIMBER, BTC. Stock and siding boards produced by mills enumerated Stock and siding boards produced by mills not enumerated. . . . Total of United States market Amount of same grades held oyer from 1873 Amount on the market for 1874 Amount being held over from above mills 330,250,000 Amount being held over from other mills 17,750,000 Amount of foreign sales Pineldeals produced by above mills Fine deals by other mills Fine deals held over from 1873 Amount on the market Amount now in reserve Amount sold and shipped , Approximate pine timber made in 1874.. Approximate held over in 1873 , Approximate amount on the market. . Now In reserve , FOR 1874. Feet board measure. 864,000,000 23,000,000 887,000,000 346,000,000 1,233,000,000 348,000,000 685,000,000 243,000,000 173,000,000 80,750,000 496,750,000 150,750.000 346,000,000 192,000,000 84,000,000 276,000,000 73,000,000 203,000,000 1,434,000,000 Amount of pine timber sold and shipped Total pine shipped from the two provinces approxim ated This faUs 200,000,000 short of the shipments for 1873. In preceding chapters of this history the reader has found figures epitomizing the production of lumber in the districts above named in years later than 1874. A comparison will show the changes in the in- dustry in Canada between 1874 and 1905. Many names of importance in 1874 will be found to have been still prominent in 1905. CHAPTER XXVI. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. The beginning of the Twentieth Century marked, with approximate accuracy, an epochal period in the timber and lumber history of the United States of America. Until that time the country, in its use of forest products, had been drawing upon a surplus, but thereafter a continuance of production on the former scale, without adequate care for the perpetuation or reproduction of the forests, necessarily would draw upon the capital fund, so to speak, with the inevitable result of a growing scarcity of forest products, or, to be more exact, of an increas- ing and manifest deficiency in the supply of standing timber from which the product must be secured. Not only were the forests in surplus supply ; that is to say, occupy- ing a greater territory and in larger quantity than were necessary, provided their natural growth should be maintained, to supply in per- petuity the national requirement, but they were, especially during the period of development up to about 1850, in many instances a positive detriment. Forests stood on millions of acres of fertile lands which were needed by the settler and the would-be farmer, and a slow-grow- ing crop of timber was occupying land that might more profitably be devoted to the annual production of grain or other products of agri- culture. Unfortunately there has never been a timber census of the United States, nor even any very trustworthy estimate either of acreage or volume ; but the best informed students of the subject believe, after as careful investigations as they have been able to make, that the forests yet remaining, if operated along conservative lines, would annually produce in perpetuity an amount of forest products little, if any, more than the present annual output. If that be true, the United States has come to the point where it can no longer be lavish in its use of its won- derful timber resources, but must rigorously conserve them. It no longer will be consuming a surplus, but, except for the adoption of for- estry methods, will be drawing upon its capital. It seems fitting therefore, that, at such a turning point in the life of this great and fundamental industry, a study should be made of its his- UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 273 tory in order that those concerned — and every one is directly or indi- rectly concerned in this subject — may look forward from the vantage point of knowledge and recorded experience. To afford such a van- tage ground is one of the objects of this work, which must be a record not merely of men and of events, but also of conditions. In previous chapters we have outlined the forestal condition of the North American continent and of the present United States as it was when the white race began its work of discovery, exploration and con- quest. But it is necessary to go more minutely into the subject in this chapter than heretofore. In undertaking to state with some definiteness the original location, extent and quality of the forests within the present area of the United States, the historian is confronted with a task impossible of complete execution. The available records do not show with preciseness the limits of the forested areas nor the exact location and size of the tree- less areas within them, and the research and exhaustive personal work necessary to determine these facts would, perhaps, not be worth the while. But it is possible to give an outline of these primary facts suf- ficiently exact to serve the purpose of comparison and, perhaps, to accomplish all that is desirable in this connection. Further, it is necessary to determine, with as much exactness as possible, the present forestal condition of the country, and to measure its timber resources. This task is as'TSOTe difficult than the former ©a©- as it is more important. Upon it many able investigators have centered their attention, and yet, so inadequate and incomplete are the data, that no certain result is to be obtained — only an estimate more or less reliable according to the personal knowledge of the estimator and the thoroughness and skill with which he collects the available facts and draws his conclusions. The personal equation must be considered also. With the best of intentions the pessimist and alarmist will underestimate the amount of standing timber, and so exaggerate the seriousness of the exigency. On the other hand, the optimist is likely to magnify the favorable facts and minimize the unfavorable ones. It is the endeavor in this chapter to avoid either extreme and to reach conclusions through no other means than an impartial study of the existing and recognized facts and a study of the methods, argu- ments and conclusions of those who have hitherto undertaken this task. FOREST ENVIRONMENT OF EARLY EXPLORERS. To those discoverers and explorers who approached the United 274 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. States from the East the forests seemed illimitable. True, the French explorers, like Marquette, Joliet, LaSalle and Tonti, found in the Mississippi Valley extensive prairie areas, but it is doubtful if they saw many of these, for their travels were as far as possible by water, and the waterways were always adorned and sheltered by trees; and, further, they did not go into the true plains country, for Illinois was nearly or quite half covered with forests, and eastern Iowa in those early days indicated little of the real character of most of the area of that great State. Those who approached the continent from the Pacific found wide, open valleys, sterile mountain tops and barren plains, but the coast itself extended the welcome of the forest, and the valleys and the peaks were bordered or surrounded by forests which today are the wonders of the arboreal kingdom. It was only the Spaniards who, like Coronado, entered the country from New Spain, that encountered the great treeless plains. While, therefore, it was soon a matter of common knowledge that in the remote West there were treeless and even desert areas, the colonists on the eastern coast — those to whose labors is due the foundation of that great community which later became the United States — personally knew only of the forest, which, so far as their own explorations informed them, stretched indefinitely into the interior. Months of travel and hundreds of toilsome leagues did not serve to release them from the forest environment. Therefore, to the settler the forest, although a protection and a support to the hunter and trapper, became an enemy to be fought and conquered before a higher civilization could be established. DIVISIONS OF FOREST AREAS. From the time of the first exploration and settlement of the United States until the present, there has been comparatively little change in the location and outline of the areas that may be called wooded. Not- withstanding the clearing of hundreds of thousands of square miles, so that the passengers on the railways may now travel for hours without seeing more than occasional groves or groups of woodland where once a continuous forest shaded the soil, the characteristics of the timber soil still remain. The greatest changes have, perhaps, been in the prairie region, where windbreaks and wood lots now abound and break the monotony of a landscape which once interposed no obstacle be- tween the eye and the circling horizon. Though no census relating to the facts has been made, it is a matter of common knowledge that in UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 275 such states as Kansas and Nebraska the wooded area is much greater now than at any previous time, and is steadily increasing as the own- ers of the land come to a better appreciation of the value of trees in aspects other than as furnishing a lumber material. But, notwith- standing these local changes, the outlines of the forest areas continue to be marked by the remnants of the once continuous woodlands, while within these limits still exist magnificent forests and, though much land has been devoted to agriculture and much lies waste, the growth of trees in the soil and climate to whose invitation they most generously respond has done much to maintain the forest industries. Some students of American forestry divide the forest area of the United States into three grand divisions. One they call the eastern forest ; another, the Rocky Mountain forest, and the third, the Pacific Coast forest. The eastern forest is that originally continuous growth which reached from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, broken toward its western boundaries by the incursion of the prairies. The Rocky Mountain forest is that broken and usually scattered growth found in the dry climate and on the often sterile soil of the Rocky Mountains and their foothills, while the Pacific Coast forest is that lying west of the summit of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, with some extensions to the east. A more logical division would, however, seem to be that which divides the forest area into two grand classes known as the Atlantic and the Pacific, or the eastern and the western. This classification is the more logical because it rests not upon more or less arbitrary geograph- ical or topographical considerations, but because it recognizes the essential difEerences in species characteristic of the two divisions. The Atlantic forest is essentially broad-leaved in its type, while the Pacific forest is coniferous and needle-leaved, and there are compara- tively few species common to them. Excluding tropical species, the Atlantic forest has 199 species of broad-leaved trees, many of which grow in profusion and are of immense economic value, while the Pa- cific forest has only 106 species, few of which are of any considerable value. On the other hand, the Pacific forest has sixty-five species of conifers and the Atlantic forest but twenty-nine, only one of which is common to the two. The conifers of the Atlantic Coast occupied ex- tensive areas and were of the highest economic value, but in territory covered the broad-leaved trees far exceeded them and would either mix with the conifers or penetrate their strongholds through river val- 276 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. leys or by occupation of particularly favorable soils throughout their range. Thus, either in the white pine forests of the North or the yel- low pine districts of the South, the woodsman was never far removed from broad-leaved growths which were of moment in reckoning the forest wealth of the section, while in the Pacific forest the conifers oc- cupied vast stretches of territory to the exclusion of all others, and the broad-leaved trees, when found, were in comparison insignificant and seldom of much value as a material for the sawmill. The great interior plains and prairie region of the continent serves effectually to divide and keep separated the two types of forest. This is true despite the fact that in some places they meet and mingle. The Atlantic type, reaching with some species far into western Texas, meets there species typical of the Pacific forest and also of the arboreal flora of Mexico. Further north the Atlantic forest, stretching out "feelers," as it were, along the rivers and creeks into the plains region meets, as in the Black Hills of South Dakota, outposts of the Pacific flora ; and toward the northern limits of both forests, in the British possessions, they came together in one great stretch of continuous woodland, reach- ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with some species of subarctic adaptabilities which reach from ocean to ocean. THE PRAIRIES. The explanation of the existence of the prairie regions and of the grassy plains of the United States has been the subject of much inves- tigation. It has been presumed by many, in view of the fact that the soil is adapted to tree growth and that, under the influence of occupa- tion by agriculturalists, trees are spreading west of the Mississippi, that at some time these vast fertile areas were covered with forests. There is no disagreement of opinion about the semiarid regions where the vegetable growth is scanty and of few varieties. In those regions, and particularly in the alkali plains and sinks, it is evident that the condi- tions forbid the growth of trees, but it is only recently that anything like an agreement has been reached as to the grassy plains and prairies. It has been the theory of some that fire set by the aboriginal inhab- itants year after year, generation after generation, destroyed and crowded back the forests. But if this had been the case some marks of their existence would have remained. The peculiar mounds left by the overturning of large trees by wind, particularly if they are protected by grasses from erosion, are not readily obliterated. Indeed, it is prob- able that they would persist for hundreds or thousands of years. But UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 277 the genuine prairie regions have no such evidence of former occupancy by forests. Again, the debris of forest growth persists indefinitely. Trunks of trees become buried in marshes or are covered with alluvial deposits and thus are preserved. No such remains, nor the impression of trunk, branch or leaf, have been discovered in most of those regions which were treeless at the beginning of white settlement. The conclusion has been almost universally accepted, therefore, that another cause must be looked for to explain the absence of forests from those great areas, so fertile and now agriculturally productive. Other influences dictate the presence or absence of forests. First may be reckoned soil. There are soils in which trees will not grow, but this influence is comparatively unimportant, for there are few soils in the United States so sterile or poisonous that, if other conditions are favorable, some tree will not adapt itself to the conditions. The second is mean temperature. Henry Gannett, in a monograph on "The Tim- ber Line," ' after a careful study of the height of the treeline on the moun- tains of both the eastern and western parts of the United States, veri- fying the deduction thereby drawn by the conditions in the far north of the continent, states that the mean annual temperature of the timber line is two to three degrees below the freezing point and that this tem- perature limitation of tree growth obtains regardless of altitude. He says: "The ultimate and primary cause of the cessation of forest growth at great altitudes on mountain sides is to be sought for in tem- perature. This upper limit of tree growth is doubtless affected some- what by the depth of the soil, by the steepness of slopes, by exposure to Sim and wind and, in a few cases, by aridity, but these are all con- tributory agencies and temperature remains the primary cause." As, however, the prairie and plains regions are all within a zone of mean temperature higher than that required for tree growth, according to Professor Gannett, the explanation of their treeless condition must be found in the third cause — lack of sufficient moisture. Trees are mois- ture-loving, and the species which make up the rich forests of the United States do not form forests except under the encouragement of a certain amount of annual precipitation properly distributed. In regard to this point Professor Green says,'' referring to Minnesota, which is divided between forest and prairie : ^ Journal of American Geographical Society, vol. 31. p. 118. 2 Principles of American Forestry, by Samnel B. Green, professor of hortlcnlture and forestry. University of Minnesota. 278 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, Eastern Minnesota has a rainfall of perhaps twenty-six to thirty-five inches and a comparatively moist air, and at least during a part of the year is well adapted to the growth of the hardier kinds of trees. Here we find the white pine, basswood, oak, elm, poplar and other trees attaining large size. Western Dakota has a very light rainfall, mostly in the spring, and a very high rate of evaporation. Trees can scarcely be made to grow in this section without irrigation, and the low vege- tation, the grasses, which require a less amount of water, replace the trees. It is evident that between locations having such extremes of tree growth there must be a place where the trees give way to the lower forms of vegetation. Such a meridianal zone is found in central Minnesota, and, though it has probably changed with fluctuating rainfall, its general location has remained practically the same for many years. The location of this zone was probably gradually driven eastward, for many years previous to settlement, by the practice of the Indians of burning over prairies in order to furnish good pasturage for the buffalo. Of late years, since the prairie fires have been largely prevented, the treeline has moved westward and gained a little on the prairies. When left to itself, the western limit of this tree zone would not make very great progress westward, but with man's assistance in cultivation and various other ways, it may be extended much farther toward the arid regions than if left to natural conditions. So we find that, while great sections of the interior of this country are treeless on account of lack of water, trees planted on them and properly cared for may often grow thriftily. The above excerpt recognizes the essential fact of moisture condi- tions as the ruling influence in forest growth and also the influence of change in climate and of human activity. In connection with this same subject William L. Bray,^ treating of the forest distribution of Texas in relation to rainfall, says : The rainfall of Texas decreases progressively from east to west. A map con- structed to indicate the annual precipitation by five-inch divisions would show a series of zones extending in a general north and south direction from the Sabine to the Pecos. Beyond the latter river the elevated mountain masses probably bring up the annual mean of rainfall, but at the westernmost boundary this average scarcely reaches ten inches. The limits of the several rainfall zones are approxi- mately marked by the meridians of longitude. Thus, the ninety-fifth meridian about marks the western limit of rainfall exceeding fifty inches; the ninety-sixth, of forty-five inches ; the ninety-seventh, of forty inches, and so on to the one hun- dred and second meridian, where the average annual rainfall has decreased to fifteen inches. Corresponding in a general way with these zones of rainfall, there is a series of zones of forests of different types. In the eastern region, having a rainfall in excess of forty-five inches, are found the swamp and bayou forests of cypress, tupelo, water oak, swamp hickory and other water-loving species ; in slightly better drained localities, the black gum, cottonwood, sycamore, beech, birch and Spanish oak, and after them red oak, white oaks, walnut, pecan, magnolia, holly and the 3 Forest Resources of Texas, United States Department of Asrriculture, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 47. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 279 like. After these, on higher lands, come the pines, loblolly on the sandy knolls and ridges of the Coast Plain, longleaf on the more rolling sand barrens of the Fayette Prairie and shortleaf on the higher uplands of the Lignitic Belt. The second forest zone consists of oak barrens, lying westward from the types of forest just mentioned, and in a rainfall zone of forty-five to thirty-five inches. Next is the central Texas hill zone, with a rainfall of from over thirty to less than twenty-five inches, where occur mountain cedai;, mountain oaks (five or sis species) , cedar elm, gum elastic, Mexican persimmon and numerous others. Last of all come the pygmy forests of chaparral, embracing mesquite, retama, huisache, cat- claw, allthom, palo-verde and a score besides. Rainfall alone, however, does not determine the limits within which these species occur. There are canyons in the region where the annual rainfall is scarcely twenty inches in which may be found not only oaks, hickories and similar trees, but even the swamp-loving cypress. While the moisture demands of the different kinds of trees constitute the most potent of the causes which determine their distribution. It is not primarily the amount of moisture which falls to the ground, but the amount of moisture which the soil holds that affects them. The distribution through the zones of rainfall is consequently modified very considerably by the varying geological and soil conditions. The geological structure alone may account for heavy timber in regions of low rainfall, simply by the supply of percolating waters which it may furnish. And then, following a discussion of some of the minor influences affecting the tree distribution, Mr. Bray says: "It is rainfall rather than the nature of the soil and rock which has played the principal part in producing the main types into which the forests of the State naturally divide themselves." Dr. J. W. Foster says:* "Whenever we study the annual precipi- tation of moisture in connection with the laws of temperature, we find that wherever the moisture is equable and abundant we have the densely clothed forests ; wherever it is unequally distributed we have the grassy plain and wherever it is mostly withheld we have the inhospitable desert. The varying supply of moisture, then, is sufficient to account for the diversity of vegetation, modified to some extent by the physical features of the country, altitude above the sea and the extremes of heat and cold." He refers to a peculiar theory that the prairies are due to peat growth, and, after showing how little application that theory has to topography and actual conditions of the grassy plains of the United States, says, in reference to changes in arboreal development: "These changes are wholly independent of . . . isothermal lines but dependent on the variable supply of moisture." * The Mississippi VaUey; Its Physical Geography, by J. W. Foster, LL. D., Chicago and London, 1879. 280 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. He quotes Dr. J. G. Cooper, who remarks in regard to the botany of the Mississippi Valley that " No new forms of trees appear, while those found further eastward rapidly diminish toward the west. Thir- teen species have not been traced west of its eastern border; about ninety extend pretty far into the Texan and Illinois regions ; but only five or six cross the western limit of the Camanche and Dakotah regions, which, however, receive nine more from the west and south." The cause of the disappearance of trees he attributes to the insufl&cient and irregular supply of moisture. "It is true," he adds, "that this does not materially affect agriculture in the more eastern regions, in fact, most crops will succeed better with less rain than is necessary for most trees to thrive." LIMITS OF THE EASTERN FOREST. It is not to be supposed there is any sharp dividing line between the forest and the prairie; between the sections where trees are native and the treeless region. Some trees require less moisture than others, and these act as outposts and scouts for the slowly advancing forest, and the valleys, whose soil contains more moisture than that of the general level of the country, carry the tree growth hundreds of miles into the otherwise treeless area. The western limit of the Atlantic forest is, therefore, nowhere continuous. As the forest makes incur- sions upon the prairie, so the prairie makes important openings into what, as a general thing, is forested country. On this debatable ground, where the trees struggle for a foothold with varying degrees of success, cycles of climatic changes may be the reason for the estab- lishment of outlying groups of trees, while fire has undoubtedly been responsible for keeping back the eastern forest limit and also for a good many inroads into the forest. Thus a hundred years ago there were some extended prairies in Kentucky, which, as soon as the fires were stopped, were soon reoccupied by the forest, so that lumbering operations within the last generation have been conducted on land which, when the Indians were expelled, was treeless. Illinois is called a prairie state, but it was almost as much forest as prairie, and investigation leads to the conclusion that about forty-five percent of its area was, at the beginning of settlement, covered with val- uable timber. Lumbermen are well aware that southern Illinois was once heavily forested, but most of them may not know that in the northern and western parts of the State there were some counties with 75 to 100 percent of their area covered with trees of commercial importance. So UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 281 in Iowa, about fourteen percent of the area was forest, but this timber, so far as it was of commercial value, was generally found in the eastern portion of the State in proximity to the Mississippi River. The struggle of the trees for position on the prairies in the face of unfavorable moisture conditions is thus spoken of by Doctor Foster, quoted above: The diflEerences in the retentive power of moisture in the soil give to the eastern line of the prairie region an irregpalar outline, which may be likened to a deeply indented coast— far-entering bays, projecting headlands and an archipelago of islands. What are known as ' ' oak openings ' ' indicate the transition from the densely wooded region to the treeless plains. The trees stand as in an artificial park, shading a green sward devoid of underbrush, so that the traveler may ride or drive in any direction. This characteristic feature I have noticed almost continuously from Green Bay to the western borders of Arkansas. The trees appear dwarfed and sickly. The extremities are often dead, while the main body is covered with foliage and the trunks when felled are found to be more or less decayed. As Stated in a previous chapter, the western boundary of the Atlantic forest runs approximately from northwestern Minnesota in a general southeasterly direction to Lake Michigan and into northwestern Indiana, thence in a southwesterly direction across Illinois and Missouri into Indian Territory, and thence more southerly to the Gulf of Mexico. It is frequently broadly stated that the entire country east of the Mis- sissippi River was originally forested. This is true with the exception of the prairie districts of Wisconsin and Illinois, some small and rela- tively insignificant spaces in Indiana, southern Michigan and other states, and also some open territory along the sea and Gulf. But these open spaces were more than compensated for by the extension of the Atlantic forest west of the Mississippi River. THE WOODED AREA. The historian approaches with much hesitation the question of the area covered with forests either in the past or present. Some things are known with approximate accuracy. The facts as to the original area of the Atlantic forest are available with such accuracy as to make an estimation a very close approximation to the facts. But the West has been only partially examined, and enormous areas which are more or less wooded have not yet been carefully examined, although it is probable that more is known as to the amount of standing timber in Oregon, Washington and parts of Idaho and California than in regard to many of the timbered states of the older East. There is, further, 282 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. a lack of data for exact statement in regard to the present timbered area of the East within the confines of the Atlantic forest, owing to the rapidly changing bases of estimate. Some sections have been cut over a second and even a third time, so that areas whose timber supply was once supposed to have been exhausted, according to standards of estimate then prevailing, are again furnishing material for the sawmill. It is further impossible to determine with anything like accuracy what of the eastern areas not embraced in improved farm lands are desolate wastes of stump lands, or covered with brush, or are actually possessed of calculable quantities of commercial timber. Still, about all of the available data is in connection with such considerations and is further developed by the figures presented in census reports. Before undertaking any minute consideration of the forests of the United States, it may be well to give an estimate for the entire country of the original and present wooded area, by states, omitting Alaska and other noncontiguous territory. This is presented in table A, on a following page. From publications of the Government Land Ofi&ce are derived the areas, in both square miles and acres, of each state and of the country as a whole. Then follows a careful estimate as to the original wooded area of the various states. In the case of most of the states east of the Mississippi River, it was assumed that they were covered, at the beginning of settlement, with practically solid forests. Exceptions of some importance, however, are Florida, which had a considerable tree- less area ; Illinois, which, according to a forest bureau estimate in 1884, was originally between 40 and 50 percent timbered ; Indiana, which had some prairie and treeless swamp land, especially in its northwest por- tions, and some scrub lands in the south ; Michigan, which had some prairies in the southern part of the State; Louisiana, with its grass prairies hardly lifted above tide-water on its south and especially its southwest coast, and Wisconsin with important areas of prairie or of the class called " oak openings." Moreover, all of the south Atlantic and gulf states have considerable areas lying along the coast prac- tically devoid of trees. The states west of the Mississippi River and south of the Rocky Mountains were some of them more difficult to estimate. Such states as Minnesota and Missouri were only partially timbered. The former had an extensive treeless area in the southwest and west, while the southern part of the State was the debatable ground between forest UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 283 and prairie. Missouri, while it was largely prairied in the north and west parts, was solidly timbered in the south, and had a great deal of timber elsewhere. The estimates of these states were made by a consideration of their present condition as shown by government estimates, by observa- ,tion and by conclusions drawn from their industrial and agricultural development. Such states as Kansas and Nebraska undoubtedly con- tain a much larger wooded area at present than at the beginning of their settlement, but the amount of woodland is relatively so insignifi- cant that it did not seem worth while to attempt any adjustment, except in the case of Kansas, which had a small forest area in the southeast largely of deciduous woods. South Dakota has been increasing its wooded land by planting groves and windbreaks, but has lost by the cutting away to a large extent of the Black Hills timber. In a general way, the original wooded area of all the western and Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast states was deduced from the reports of the Geologic- al Survey as presented in the report of the census of 1900. This presentation was the work of Mr. Henry Gannett, geographer, who has made a special study of the forestal condition of the western part of the United States. The conditions in the mountain states with respect to the amount of wooded land have changed very little since white settlement began. Lumbering has made some inroads upon the forest, while forest fires have swept over enormous areas ; but in the main such areas must still be classed as woodlands, as they can be put to no other use, and under favorable circumstances their inevitable condition is a forested one. A typical case is presented in Washington. Out of the State's total land area of 66,880 square miles, about 46,450 is estimated to be wooded. In this State, as to a less degree in other western states, there has been a heavy destruction of timber by fire, but no attempt has been made to estimate the extent of that destruction and to add the areas thus affected to the present area. Due to the fire destruc- tion of the past, there should be a wider difference in the figures in the last two columns, but the endeavor more exactly to express that differ- ence would involve an amount of research which would hardly be repaid by the result to be achieved, the important fact to be discovered being what the present wooded area is. Consequently the original area of the Pacific forest is given as substantially that of the forest of today. 284 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The table, which represents the result of careful study and inquiry as to the original and present wooded areas of the country, is as follows : TABLE A-ORIGINAL AND PRESENT WOODED AREA OP THE UNITED STATES. States and Territories. Total land area. Square miles. Acres. Orisrinal wooded area. Wooded area, 1905. Sauare miles. Acres. Percent o£ wood- ed to total Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory.. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts ... Michigran Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire.. New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina... North Dakota.... Ohio Oklahoma Oreeron Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. . . South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Vlreinia Washington West Virginia.... Wisconsin........ Wyoming 51,1 113, 52, 156, 103, 4, 1, 54, 58, 83, 56, 35, 30, 55 81 39 45 29 9 8, 57 79 46; 68 146 76 109 9 7; 122 47, 48 70; 40, 38 95 44; 1, 30, 76, 41, 262, 82, 9. 39 66, 24, 55, 97, ,028 ,738 ,412 ,203 669 ,794 ,969 ,801 ,850 ,271 ,004 ,860 ,804 ,697 ,848 ,898 ,399 894 ,875 ,038 .530 ,997 ,383 ,431 ,240 ,777 ,901 ,056 454 ,545 ,687 ,972 ,172 .723 ,623 ,746 ,679 ,081 ,460 ,885 ,686 ,506 ,096 ,114 ,925 ,792 ,343 ,117 ,552 32,657,920 72.792,320 33,543,680 99,969,920 66,348,160 3,068,160 1,260,160 35,072,640 37,664,000 53,293,440 35,842,560 22,950,400 19,714,560 35,646,080 52,382,720 25,534,720 29,055,360 19,132,160 6,320,000 5,144,320 36,819,200 51,198,080 29,685,120 43,795,840 93,593,600 49,137,280 70,336,640 5,795,840 4,770,560 78,428,800 30,519,680 31,342,080 44,910,080 26,062,720 24,718,720 61,277,440 28,594,560 " 691,840 19,494,400 49,206,400 26,679,040 168,300,840 52,541,440 5,832,960 25,552,000 42,746,880 15,579,520 35,274,880 62,433,280 50,000 25,500 50;000 45,500 34,000 4,800 1,500 45,000 57,000 35,000 25,000 31>000 22,000 8,000 7,000 38,000 40,000 29,000 9,000 8,000 55,000 60,000 45,000 50,000 42,500 2,500 6,100 9.000 7,000 22,700 47,000 47,000 1,000 40,000 4,400 55,000 44,000 i.Ooo 28,000 3,000 40,000 75,000 10,000 9,000 39,000 48,000 24,000 47,000 12,500 37,000 24,800 39,000 44,300 32,900 1,900 700 36,500 41,000 34,800 10,000 9,000 20,000 7,000 5,700 18,000 28,000 23,000 4,000 4,200 35,200 49,000 32,000 30,000 41.500 2,500 6,100 5,000 3,200 23,500 18,000 34,000 1,000 9,000 4,000 53,900 .21,00.a 400 19,500 2,500 25,000 62,500 10,000 3,500 23,400 46,450 15,500 28,500 12,500 23,680,000 15,872,000 24,960,000 28,352,000 21,056,000 1,216,000 448,000 32,360,000 26,240,000 22,272,000 6,400,000 5,760,000 12,800,000 4,480,000 3,648,000 11,520,000 17,920,000 14,720,000 2,560,000 2,688,000 22,528,000 31,360,000 20,480.000 19,200,000 26,560,000 1,472,000 3,904,000 3,200,000 . 2,048,000 15,040,000 11,520,000 21,760,000 384,000 5,760,000 2,560,000 34,496,000 12,480,000 1,600,000 16,000,000 40,000,000 6,400,000 2,240,000 14,976,000 29,728,000 9.920,000 18,240,000 8,000,000 72.5 21.7 74.4 28.3 31.7 39.6 35.5 66.6 69.6 41.7 17.8 25.0 64.9 12.5 6.9 45.1 61.6 76.9 40.5 52.2 61.1 61.2 68.9 43.8 28.3 2.9 5.5 55.2 42.8 19.1 37.7 69.4 00.8 22.1 10.3 56.3 WTA 64.0 3.2 59.9 23.8 12.1 38.4 58.7 69.3 63.7 51.7 12.8 Total-United States.... 2,972,525 1,902,416,000 1,440,000 1,040,450 665,504,000 35,0 The total land area of the United States, not including noncontigu- ous territory or the District of Columbia, is 2,972,525 square miles, of which the above estimate claims an original wooded area of 1,440,000 square miles, or 48}4 percent, whereas the present woodland area, UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 285 according to this estimate, is only 1,040,450 square miles, or less than 35 percent of the entire land area. The drain upon this timber has been going on in every section since its first occupancy by white men. The first settlers in Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York and Massachu- setts at once began to cut timber for shelter and fuel, and this usage of the forests has continued ever since with new and increasingly diversi- fied uses, expanding not only with the increase of population, but with a still greater growth due to the demands of a rapidly developing civ- ilization, until the equivalent of approximately 40,000,000,000 feet of timber was manufactured in the United States during 1899, which was the year covered by the census of the following year. It will be noted that the expression "wooded area" is used instead of " forest area " for the reason that the dividing line between wooded and forested lands is impossible of exact definition. It is not as- sumed that all of this land estimated as wooded was, oris, entirely covered with commercial timber. There are in it stumpage lands, farmers' wood lots, a certain percentage of brush lands and burned-over lands, bearing little or no commercial timber. The estimate is, therefore, an approximation of the area covered in 1905 by commercial forests and that which is potential forest land — that is to say, land which has been wholly or in part denuded, but which is not available for agricultural uses, and is, therefore, likely to revert to a forested condition. The estimate as to wooded areas of the United States, contained in the report of the twelfth census referred to above, was in square miles, by states and territories, and given in the running comment as to the forested condition of the states, varieties of commercial woods in them, etc., but was not tabulated. Mr. Gannett also named the percentage which these estimated forest areas bore to the entire area of the states. It will be noted that these percentages are in reverse ratio to the quantity of arable land in the respective states where those states were originally forest covered. Thus, in rugged Pennsylvania more than half the area is wooded, while the comparatively young but fertile state of Indiana retains only 30 percent under forest or brushlands. Ohio's pro- portion of wooded land is still smaller. As the country becomes more densely populated the farm area will increase, but it will be many years before any important inroad will be made upon the wooded area of most of the states east of the Mississippi River. These estimates have been tabulated for the pturpose of this work, reducing square miles to acres, and are presented as follows : 286 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. TABLE B-WOODED AREA OF THE UNITED STATES-PROM THE TWELFTH CENSUS. States and Tbrritories. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts... Michlgran Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska .'. Square miles. 38,300 25,000 45,000 44,700 33.500 1,900 700 37,700 42,000 35,000 10,200 10,800 20,000 7,000 5,700 22,200 28,300 23,700 4.400 4,200 38,000 52,200 32,800 41,000 42,000 2,300 Acres. 24,512,000 16.000,000 28,800,000 28,608,000 21,440,000 1,216,000 448,000 24,128,000 26,880,000 22,400,000 6,528,000 6,912,000 12,800,000 4,480,000 8,648,000 14.208,000 18,112,000 15,168,000 2,816,000 2,688,000 24,320,000 33,408,000 20,672,000 26,240,000 26,880,000 1,472,000 Per- cent of total area. 74 22 84 22 32 39 36 70 71 42 18 30 65 13 7 53 62 79 44 52 67 66 70 60 29 3 States and Territories. Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . North Dakota... Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. ... 'khode island...., South Carolina. . South Dakota..., Tennessee , Texas Utah , Vermont Virginia , Washington West Virginia..., Wisconsin Wyoming Total-U. S.. Square miles. 6.100 5,200 3,234 23,700 18,700 35,300 600 9,300 4,400 54,300 23.oor 20,500 2,500 27,300 64,000 10,000 3,900 23,400 47,700 18,400 31.750 12,500 1,094,284 3,904,000 3,828,000 2,069,760 15.168,000 11,968,000 22,592,000 384,000 5,952,000 2,816,000 34,752,000 14,720.000 13,120,000 1,600,000 17,472,000 40,960,000 6,400,000 2,496,000 14,976,000 30,528,000 11,776,000 20,320,000 8,000,000 700,341,760 36 Pet^ cent of total area. 6 58 43 19 39 73 1 23 11 57 68 3 65 24 13 43 58 71 73 58 13 In connection with the above estimates Mr. Gannett briefly describes the forest condition of the various states both as to area covered and kinds of timber. From his remarks have been selected the following, which relate to the particular subject in question — original and present wooded areas : TIMBER CONDITIONS OF THE STATES. Alabama — The northern part of the State, including nearly three-fourths of it, is covered with a timber growth of which hardwoods form the principal compo- nent. . . . The southern fourth of the State is covered with a nearly pure growth of yellow pine, mainly of the longleaf species. In the marshes around Mobile Bay, however, this gives way to cypress. Arizona — The merchantable timber of Arizona is confined almost entirely to the summit and borders of the Colorado plateau. Arkansas — The area of Arkansas is almost entirely covered with forests, the only exception being a few prairies in the eastern part of the State. California — The timber of California is found upon the Sierra Nevada and the coast ranges north of San Francisco Bay. A little is found in the coast ranges farther south and in those of southern California. Colorado — The timber of Colorado is found only in the mountainous portions of the State, the plains in the east and the plateaus in the west being almost entirely destitute of tree growth. Connecticut — Originally covered with forests. Delaware — Originally covered with forests. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 287 Florida— The northern part of Florida, including half of the peninsula, is a forested region, covered in the main with yellow pine, with a large amount of cypress in the marshy regions, especially along the coasts. The forest is not con- tinuous, but is much broken by prairie openings. Georgia — The northern mountainous portion of the State and the Piedmont region, extending southwestward to the Fall Line, which passes through Augusta, Macon and Columbus, are covered with mixed forests, mainly of hardwood ; and the region below the Fall Line comprises the yellow pine belt, which is succeeded in the lower regions immediately bordering the coast by cypress. Idaho— The northern part of Idaho is well timbered, the amount and density of the forest diminishingv southward, so that in the Salmon River Mountains there is not much timber, while the great lava plateau occupying the southern part of the State is entirely devoid of anything larger than sagebrush. Illinois — Mainly prairie with forests in the southern part only. Indiana — This State, with the exception of a small proportion of prairie, was originally covered with forest. Indian Territory — Pine is found in Indian Territory in the eastern part only, and, with the exception of a small area in the Boston Mountains, only in the southeastern part south of the Arkansas River. Elsewhere the timber of the terri- tory consists of hardwoods, mainly of black-jack and post oak upon the uplands, with larger and more valuable species in the bottom lands. Iowa — Iowa is a prairie state without merchantable forests. Such as formerly existed have been practically cut away. Kansas — There are no forests in Kansas. Hardwood is found in the south eastern part of the State, and there only to a small extent. Louisiana — The southern portion and especially the southwestern part of the State, the parishes of Cameron, Vermilion, and Calcasieu, are largely prairie. Elsewhere the State is densely forested. Maine — Originally a forest clad State throughout. Maryland-— Originally the northwest portion of the State, which lies within the Appalachian Mountain region, was covered with mixed forests of white pine, hem- lock and hardwood. The central portion, stretching from the Blue Ridge to Chesapeake Bay, was covered with forests of hardwoods, while the eastern shore contained pine forests with some hardwoods. Massachusetts — Originally covered with forests. Michigan — The Upper Peninsula and the northern half of the Lower Peninsula were originally covered with heavy forests of conifers, consisting mainly of white pine. Southward, in the Lower Peninsula, hardwoods were intermingled in increasing proportion, while the southern part was largely prairie. Minnesota — Heavily timbered, mainly with white pine in the northern portion, while the Red River Valley on the west and the southern portion were largely prairie, with a belt of mixed hardwood forests intervening. Mississippi — Originally nearly all covered with timber. Missouri — The northern jjart of Missouri is, like Iowa, a prairie region, with timber in the valleys of the principal streams and in occasional patches on the uplands. The southern portion is, except where cleared for farming, quite con- tinuously wooded. 288 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, Montana— The forests of Montana are limited to the western half of the State, and in that region almost entirely to the mountains, the valleys being, as a rule, timberless. Nebraska— Woodlands are found only in the eastern part closely bordering the Missouri River and in narrow strips extending up the streams. Nevada— There is but little timber in Nevada, that little being mainly found in the western part of the State in the regions outlying the Sierra Nevadas. New Hampshire— Was originally covered with forests. New Jersey— The northern part of New Jersey was originally covered with a mixed forest, composed mainly of hardwoods, while the southern part was a con- tinuous forest of yellow pine, with some cypress in the lowlands bordering the coast. New Mexico — Merchantable timber in this territory is confined to the moun- tains. New York — Originally covered with forests. North Carolina— The mountain regions of this State were originally covered with dense forests of mixed conifers and hardwoods, the Piedmont region mainly with oak forests and the Atlantic plain with open forests of yellow pine, while the swampy regions near the coast contain large quantities of cypress. North Dakota— In this State woodlands are found only on the Turtle Moun- tains and perhaps a few other glacial hills and in narrow strips along the Missouri and other streams. Ohio — When settlement commenced in this State it was in the main covered with heavy forests of hardwoods, through which was scattered a small admixture of white pine. Oregon— The forests of Oregon are found mainly west of the crest of the Cas- cade Range. . . . East of the range the timber is by no means as heavy and is confined to the eastern slopes of the range, the higher parts of the plateau and the Blue Mountains in the northeastern part of the State. Pennsylvania— The State was originally forest clad. Rhode Island— Originally a forest clad State. South Carolina— The upland portion of this State, from the Blue Ridge down to the Fall Line, was originally covered with hardwood forests, in which was interspersed some pine. Below the Fall Line stretches the yellow pine belt, while in the lowlands along the coast is some cypress. South Dakota — In the eastern part of this State timber is found only in the valley of the Missouri and perhaps one or two other streams. In the western part of the State are the Black Hills, which are covered with a pure forest of yellow pine. Texas— With the exception of the northeastern portion, this great State is almost treeless. Utah — Merchantable timber in Utah is found maiiily in the Uinta Mountains in the northeastern part of the State and upon the high plateaus in the southern part. Vermont— Was originally forested throughout. Virginia— May be divided into three areas : The mountain section, formerly forested with pine, hemlock, and hardwoods; the Piedmont region, largely with oaks, mingled with some pine, and the Tertiary lands below the Fall Line, form- erly covered with yellow pine. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 289 Washingfton — Forests east of the mountains are light as compared with those west of the range. In that portion of the State the forests, consisting mainly of red fir, are very heavy. West Virginia — Lies on the Alleghany plateau. . . . The higher parts of this plateau are timbered with white pine, hemlock and hardwoods, while lower down the slope the proportion of hardwoods increases, and the lower slopes were originally covered with forests of these species. Wyoming— The timber of this State is confined mainly to the Yellowstone Park with the mountains east and south thereof, the Big Horn Mountains in the north and the Medicine Bow Mountains in the southeast. In a few instances some slight exceptions may be taken to the state- ments given above. The assertion that the southern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan was largely prairie, seems. exaggerated. There were prairies of considerable extent in that portion of the State, but they constituted no large percentage of even the southern half of that peninsula. Mr. Gannett says that much of the southern part of the peninsula has been "cleared for cultivation," which would hardly have been necessary if it had been largely prairie. In regard to Illinois, it may be stated that there were " woods " in the western and northwestern parts of the State of sufficient extent to be called forests. It is authoritatively stated that some counties adjoining the Mississippi River north of the southern forest belt were almost wholly covered with commercial timber, while other counties had from 50 to 75 percent of good timber. In regard to Kansas the statements may be technically correct, but the southeastern portion of the State had sufficient timber to maintain something of a lumber industry even to this day. The statement in regard to Iowa is at present correct, but, as shown in table A, about fourteen percent of the State, almost entirely in the eastern portion, bore timber which was of commercial value. In 1900 over 200 sawmills were cutting native timber. IMPROVED AND UNIMPROVED LANDS. It will be observed that areas given in table B are somewhat modi- fied in table A. This is due partly to the passage of time during which the lumbermen and fires have been at work, and partly to the correction of some evident errors. One of the important checks on any such estimate is the census report on farm acreage. This report is worthy of much credence. Under the census report the total farm acreage by states was given, together with the acreage in improved and unimproved lands, which made up the total of farm acreage. The 290 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. total area of the farms in the United States was 841,201,546 acres, of which 414,793,191 was improved and 426,408,355 unimproved. This left 1,061,214,454 acres not included in farms. In this area are forest lands proper, prairies, treeless plains, deserts, government lands and city and village land. Adding together the area not in farms and the area of unimproved farm lands, the sum is 1,487,622,809 acres, out of the total land surface of the United States of 1,902,416,000 acres. This total of land not improved, therefore, is the extreme limit of possibilities as to wooded lands. In the West this area includes, of course, the prairie lands, the grassy plains, the arid regions and that small area that is lifted above the tree- line. In the West, therefore, the proportion of unutilized land that is now and always will be treeless is large. In view of the fact that the available water supply, if it could all be used for irrigation, would then render fertile only the minority of the area west of the one hundredth meridian, it is evident that never — in the human use of that word — will all the area be either improved or under forests. A large percentage of that territory must always remain practically a waste. In the East, on the other hand, while the area not improved con- tains extensive tracts of what are at the present time stump lands, a certain percentage of swamp lands, barrens and tide lands and a con- siderable acreage within the limits of cities, towns and villages, the time will come when nearly all the area east of the Mississippi River will fall into one of two classes — improved lands and forest lands. For, with the swamps drained, as they will be, all the land not needed for agriculture or for residence and business purposes will be devoted to forest growth. In that section stump land not adapted to agriculture will be re-covered with forests, and the ban;ens will be made productive in the same way. The time will come when the difference between the total area and the area of improved farm lands plus the land used for residential, industrial and commercial purposes will almost exactly represent the forest area. This presentation of total land surface, of the acreage of improved and unimproved farm lands, of the area not included in farms, and of the total not improved, as derived from the census of 1900, is as follows : UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 291 TABLE C-IMPROVED AND UNIMPROVED LANDS— FROM THE TWELFTH CENSUS. States Number of acres in farms. AND Total land surface, acres. Total not in farms. Total not Territo- improved. UES. Total. Improved. Unimproved, Alabama — 32,657,920 20,685,427 8,654.991 12,030,436 11.972.493 24,002.929 Arizona 72,792,320 1,935.327 254.521 1,680,806 70.856.993 72.537.799 Arkansas.... 33,543,680 16.636.719 6,953,735 9,682,984 16.906.961 26,589.945 California... 99,969,920 28.828.951 11.958.837 16,870,114 71,140,969 88,011.083 Colorado — 66,348,160 9.474,588 2,273,968 7,200.620 56,873,572 64.074,192 Connecticut. 3,068,160 2.312.083 1,064,525 1,247.558 756,077 2,003,635 Delaware . . . 1,260,160 1,066,228 754.010 312,218 193,932 506.150 Florida 35,072,640 4,363,891 1.511,653 2,852,238 30.708,749 33.560.987 Georgia 37,664,000 26,392,057 10,615.644 15,776,413 11.271,943 27,048,356 Idaho 53,293,440 3.204.903 1.413.118 1,791,785 50.088.537 51,880,322 ininois 35,842,560 32.794.728 27.699.219 5,095,509 3.047.832 8,143,341 Indiana 22,950,400 21.619,623 16.680,358 4,939,265 1,330,777 6,270,042 Indian Ter.. 19,714.560 7,269,081 3,062,193 4,206.888 12,445,479 16.652.367 Iowa 35,646,080 34,574,337 29,897,552 4.676.785 1,071,743 5.748.528 Kansas 52,382,720 41,662,970 25,040,550 16.622.420 10,719.750 27,342.170 Kentucky.... 25,534,720 21,979.422 13,741.968 8.237,454 3,555.298 11.792.752 Louisiana... 29,055,360 11,059,127 4,666,532 6,392,595 17.996,233 24.388,828 Maine 19,132,160 6,299.946 2,386,889 3.913.057 12,832.214 16.745.271 Maryland.... 6,320,000 5,170,075 3,516.352 1,653,723 1.149.925 2,803.648 Mass 5,144,320 3,147,064 1,292.132 1,854,932 1.997,256 3,852,188 Michigan.... 36,819,200 17,561.698 11,799,250 5,762.448 19,257,502 25.019.950 Minnesota . . 51,198,080 26.248.498 18,442,585 7.805.913 24.949,582 32.755,495 Mississippi.. 29,685,120 18.240.736 7,594.428 10.646.308 11.444,384 22,090,692 Missouri 43,795.840 33.997.873 22,900.043 11.097,830 9.797.967 20,895,797 Montana 93,593,600 11.844.454 1,736.701 10,107.753 81,749,146 91,856,899 Nebraska.... 49,137,280 29,911.779 18,432,595 11,479,184 19,225,501 30,704,685 Nevada 70,336,640 2,565.647 672,946 1.992,701 67,770,993 69.763,694 New Hamp. 5,795,840 3,609.864 1,076,879 2,532,985 2,185,976 4,718,961 New Jersey. 4,770,560 2.840.966 1,977,042 863,924 1.929,594 2,793,518 NewMexico. 78,428,800 5.130.878 326,873 4,804.005 73,297,922 78,101,927 New York,.. 30,519,680 22.648.109 15,599,986 7.048.123 7,871^71 14,919,694 N. Carolina. 31,342,080 22.749.356 8,327,106 14,422,250 8,592,724 23,014,974 N. Dakota.. 44,910.080 15.542.640 9,644,520 5,898.120 29,367,440 35,265,560 Ohio 26,062,720 24.501.985 19.244,472 5,257.513 1,560,735 6,818.248 Oklahoma... 24.718,720 15.719.258 5,511,994 10.207.264 8,999.462 19.206.726 Oregon 61,277,440 10.071.328 3,328,308 6.743,020 51,206,112 57.949.132 Penlsylvania . . 28.594,560 19.371,015 455,602 13,209,183 ^187,354 6.161.832 268.24ff 9,223,545 236,238 15.385.377 Rho3eisxand "69X7840 604.485- S.Carolina.. 19.494,400 13.985,014 5,775,741 8.209.273 5.509,386 13,718,659 S. Dakota... 49.206.400 19,070.616 11,285.983 7.784.633 30,135,784 37,920,417 Tennessee... 26.679,040 20,342,058 10.245.950 10.096.108 6,336.982 16.433.090 Texas 168,003,840 125.807.017 19.576.076 106.230,941 42,196.823 148.427.764 Utah 52,541,440 4.116.951 1.032.117 3,084,834 48 424.489 51 509 323 Vermont 5,832,960 4,724,440 2.126.624 2,597,816 1,108.520 3.706,336 Virginia 25,552,000 19,907.883 10.094.805 9,813.078 5.644,117 15,457,195 Washington. 42,746.880 8.499.297 3.465.960 5.033.337 34,247,583 39,280,920 W. Virginia. 15,579,520 10.654.513 5.498,981 5.155.532 4,925,007 10,080,539 Wisconsin . . 35,274,880 19.862,727 11,246,972 8,615.755 15,412,153 24,027,908 Wyoming... 62,433,280 8,124,536 792,332 7.332.204 54,308,744 61,640,948 Total-U. S. 1.902,416,000 841,201,546 414,793,191 426.408.355 1,061,214,454 1,487,622.809 The estimate made by Mr. Gannett in some cases, it will be found, gives a wooded area in a state greater than the total area not improved as derived from the census of farm areas. It has thus been possible to cut down the estimate of the probable area of woodland of the various states into the areas as expressed in table A. Thus, in the eastern forest, including west of the Mississippi River only Missouri, Indian Territory, Arkansas and Louisiana, we find the total wooded area, or actual and potential forest land, to be 624,500 292 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. square miles, as against Mr. Gannett's estimate in 1900 of 673,280 square miles. Without doubt, some such area as this may be consid- ered practically the permanent area of the eastern forest, which, under proper management, will go far toward supplying the timber needs of the eastern half of the country for an indefinite period. This area is the equivalent of 399,680,000 acres. If it be assumed — and it must be remembered that these statements are largely assumption only — that this wooded area contains an average of 3,000 feet of commercial timber to the acre, the amount of timber standing upon it would be 1,199,040,000,000 feet. Therefore, if the Atlantic forest were called upon to furnish 40,000,000,000 feet board measure of material annually, the supply would last thirty years. But it may safely be estimated that the Pacific forest is capable of supply- ing in perpetuity at least 15,000,000,000 feet annually, leaving 20,000,- 000,000 feet to be supplied by the Atlantic forest. This would mean a crop rotation of sixty years, which, under proper methods of manage- ment, it is agreed by professors of forestry, could be easily achieved. The eastern and western forests, which have approximately equal amounts of standing timber, could, between them, easily supply a demand a little more than equal to that of the present. UNDERESTIMATES OF STANDING TIMBER. All past estimates as to the amount of standing timber in the United States have been grossly inaccurate. Without exception they have been far too low, as has been demonstrated by experience. Sev- eral causes have been responsible for these erroneous estimates. One was a lack of inclusiveness. In the lumbering states timber has been largely in the hands of heavy operating holders. These holdings could be estimated with something like accuracy and seldom were forgotten or overlooked in the computation ; but, in addition, there were a multi- tude of small holdings, from the farmer's wood lot of twenty or forty acres up to tracts of a few thousand acres. In the long run all of these contribute to the supply of saw timber, and in many states, espe- cially the older ones, these small holdings have served to prolong the life of the industry far beyond any former estimates. Furthermore, these small tracts have contributed no small amount of timber through forest growth. Another reason for mistaken estimates has probably been the dispo- sition of timber holders to understate either the actual acreage or the stumpage belonging to them. In such underestimates they might be UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 293 influenced by competitive considerations or by the desire to avoid heavy taxation, which has been one of the most serious obstacles with which the industry has had to contend. Still another, and perhaps the most usual, cause of underestimates has been the varying bases of cal- culation at various times. The estimate of standing timber has been based upon the logging custom of the time. ' When it was the practice to cut large timber only, as in Michigan for example, when sixteen-foot logs were of such a size that it required but two to five to make a thousand feet board measure, when only the best trees were cut and only the best logs from the trees were taken to the mill, leaving perhaps two or three times as much timber in cubic contents in the woods as was pre- sented to the saw, the estimate as to the quantity of timber standing, and consequently the duration of the business, was very much lower than in later times when logs as small as six or eight inches in diame- ter were marketable. Illustrating this point, within the last decade government estimators who have been at work upon the problem of the timber supplies of the Pacific Coast have had occasion to revise their calculations and largely to increase the estimate of the standing timber in these states because of current changes in methods of logging. While errors of estimate arising from this cause were natural, it would seem that experience should have taught the later estimators the unwisdom of basing their predictions as to the future life of the indus- try upon current standards. The facts in these matters have always discomfited the theorists. Lumbermen have again and again pro- nounced the supplies of given districts exhausted — as, in fact, they were from their standpoint — only to have their successors cut several times as much lumber as was taken by the pioneers. The Atlantic Coast states, together with New York and Pennsyl- vania, have long passed the period when the lumber industry should, according to the prognostications of early estimators, have been entirely exhausted, and still they remain lumber producers of impor- tance. Growth and reafforestation — the latter, so far, by natural pro- cesses only — have prolonged the life of the industry, while the utiliza- tion of woods once neglected has contributed its share toward the maintenance of the industry. Perhaps the most remarkable example of mistaken estimate has been regarding the pine forests of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The first attempt at a census of the timber of these states was made in connection with the census of 1880. The estimate for Michigan at 294 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. that date was 35,000,000,000 feet; for Wisconsin, 41,000,000,000 feet, and for Minnesota, 8,170,000,000 feet. The estimate for Michigan, which was the best known as it was the earliest developed portion of that magnificent timbered section, was not very far from correct, but Wisconsin since that time has produced over 60,000,000,000 feet, and will support a steadily decreasing output for a good many years to come. Minnesota, which in 1880 was the least known, was most egre- giously underestimated. Whereas the standing pine in that State was estimated in 1880 at 8,170,000,000 feet, in 1895 one of the most thor- ough students of its forestal condition estimated the pine supply as over 17,000,000,000 feet, notwithstanding the product of the State had, during all that period between 1880 and 1895, been steadily increasing, with a total production during that time at least double the amount of the 1880 estimate. And yet in 1905 the fire warden of Minnesota informally estimated the pine timber supply of the State at about 25,000,000,000 feet. Another estimate is 40,000,000,000 feet. It should be stated, however, in connection with these figures, that the earlier estimates covered only white pine, while the later ones include red pine with the white, inasmuch as they grow together, are logged together and are marketed together. The history of the development of lumbering districts shows, first, an overestimate of the supply, because of which this great natural resource was wastefuUy used and disposed of at prices lower than would have been warranted by the actual conditions ; and, second, in a startled revulsion of sentiment, the underestimates noted above, which resulted in prices for standing timber, particularly in the white pine states, higher for the time than were justified by the facts since developed. The result was that timber values were too low for a long period and then experienced a sudden and enormous advance, to be succeeded in turn by a long period of level values, whereas the logical effect of actual knowledge would have been a slow but steady advance from year to year, and from decade to decade. The history of white pine is being repeated in other woods. The supply of southern pine was, for many years, overestimated in respect to its relation to the demand. It was thought that a market could never be found for the possible output of this class of material. In 1880 the tenth census estimate of the stand of southern yellow pine of the four principal species was 237,000,000,000 feet. The product has already reached 10,000,000,000 feet annually, and a conservative esti- UNITED STATES—FOREST RESOURCES. 295 mate in 1905 — an estimate which is almost assuredly under rather than over the fact— is of 300,000,000,000 feet. In regard to this matter Mr. Gannett, in his report on the lumber business in connection with the twelfth census, says : " The area occu- pied by pure pine forests in the states above enumerated [the Caro- linas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas] is approximately 150,000 square miles, or about 100,000,000 acres. The average stand of timber on this area, from the past information on timber, is not far from 3,000 feet board measure per acre, giving a total stand on this area of 300,000,000,000 feet." If that estimate of 1900 were correct as to the acreage of pure pine forest, the amoimt of pine standing in isolated tracts would have largely increased the total of stumpage. Estimates as to the immense hardwood resources of the eastern forest have always been inadequate, chiefly owing to omission of many species once neglected but now readily marketable, and to neglect of the factor of growth. This factor of reafforestation has been, and will be for many years to come, of more importance in connection with the hardwoods than with the pine. The pine forest reproduces itself but slowly, if at all, and, further, the pines are in many cases succeeded by broad-leaved trees. In the hardwood belt, however, reproduction is certain, and as rapid as the rate of growth of the various species will permit. The extension of estimates to include varieties of wood once neglected, is of importance. A quarter of a century ago oak, walnut, ash, hickory, poplar, birch, cherry, maple and basswood were practi- cally the only hardwoods of market value that were considered in the estimate of any hardwood tract. Now gum, Cottonwood, beech, syca- more and others occupy prominent places, in fact, almost every species of broad-leaved trees which matures to a trunk diameter of twelve or fifteen inches is of utility and market value. The same process has been going on in the West. A quarter of a century ago redwood was practically the only tree species of the western forest that was recognized in the East, the only other western species that was manufactured on any important scale being Douglas spruce, or Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga taxitolia), which found a coast- wise market in the United States and was to some extent exported. Now dozens of species are known and utilized, among the most impor- tant being yellow pine, sugar pine, mountain pine, hemlock, cedar of two or three species, spruce, fir of several species and a number of hardwoods. There, also, the forests were considered inexhaustible. 296 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The influences which have resulted in too low estimates in the past are still at work, although the field upon which they may act has been narrowed. If, therefore, the estimate of wooded area in 1905 of 1,040,450 square miles for the entire country, shown in table A, is approximately correct, there is a basis for an estimate higher than any of those ordinarily made as to the amount of standing timber upon it. Recognizing the fact that some of this area has been cut over and burned over, and that some of it is brush lands, it is not improbable that 3,000 feet per acre may yet, on the average, be cut from it, due to closer methods of manufacture in many species, to the inclusion of species now neglected and to the growth of timber on tracts culled over or completely cut. If such an estimate be given, it means 2,000,000,- 000,000 feet of standing timber, which, at a consumption of 40,000,- 000,000 feet annually, would supply the demands of the country for fifty years. The author does not wish to be understood as speaking dogmatically, nor as basing his reputation on such an estimate ; but in view of the history of timber estimates, in view of the rapid changes of the basis of estimation, and considering the very heavy amount of stumpage on much of the yet virgin timber land, it seems not improbable that such an estimation will be realized and perhaps surpassed. But, whatever may be the -outcome, it seems plain that the United States has no more timber than it needs as a capital from which to draw as interest its annual requirements, and that economy and conservation should and must be the policy of the future. This question of the total timber supply of the United States has long been a disputed one, and while of recent years all schools have admitted that the supplies are none too great for future needs and are deserving of conservation, there has been more or less acrimonious controversy as to the precise facts. One of the most able writers on this general subject is Bernhard E. Fernow, LL. D., who was for a considerable period at the head of the Forestry Department of the National government and who has been a careful student along this line of research. In 1902 Doctor Fernow took issue with Mr. Gannett in regard to the amount of timber remaining in the United States, or rather, to the area which then bore merchantable timber or was capable of pro- ducing such within a generation. He said,* as an introduction to the table which is reproduced here- ' Economics of Forestry, by B. E. Fernow, LL. D., December, 1902. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 297 with, which, it will be noted, is along the line of table C, showing total land surface, farm land, unimproved lands, etc.: "The subjoined table gives an estimate of the areas which either bear valuable forests or are capable of producing such without effort of man in our generation. This table is based upon a similar table by the writer in 1893, upon the basis of the area reported by the twelfth census. The geographical arrange- ment and subadditions have been made with a view of bringing out the relative commercial and economic value of the forest areas." TABLE D-DR. FERNOW'S ESTIMATE OF FOREST AREAS. Area. Percent. States and Groups. Total land surface, thousand acres. Improved land in farms, thousand acres. Improv- ed land. Brush, forest and waste land. Prob- ably forest. United States 1,900,800 414,793 22 78 26 Maine 19.132 5.783 5,846 5,155 694 3,100 2,386 1,076 2,126 1,292 187 1,064 12 19 36 25 27 34 88 81 64 75 73 66 42 29 40 29 39,710 8.131 20 80 New York 30,376 .28.790 15.599 13.209 51 4,R 49 .—'54 30 «A,. New "jeFseyrrrr. "?^ . .T". .TT': '. .'t 4,671 1,254 6,310 1.977 754 3.516 42 60 56 58^ 40 44 Maryland 32 Middle Atlantic States 71.401 35,055 49 51 Vlreinla 25,680 31,089 19,308 38,647 10,094 8,327 5,775 10,615 39 27 30 27 61 73 70 73 48 54 45 50 South Carolina Georgfla Sonthem Atlantic States 114,724 34,811 30 70 49 Atlantic Coast 225.835 77,997 35 65 43 Florida 34,713 32,986 29,658 29,069 1,511 8,654 7.594 4,666 4 26 26 16 96 74 74 84 58 53 44 45 Alabama Gnl£ states 126,426 22.425 18 82 50 Texas.... 167,808 19,576 12 88 23 Michigan 36,755 34,848 50,691 11,799 11,246 18,442 32 32 36 68 68 64 50 47 36 Wisconsin Northern Lumbering States 122,294 41,487 34 66 43 298 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. TABLE D-Contlnued. Area. Percent. States and Groups. Total land surface, thousand acres. Improved land in farms, thousand acres. Improv- ed land. Brush, forest and waste land. Prob- ably forest. Ohio 26,086 22,982 35,840 19,244 16,680 27,699 74 73 77 26 27 23 16 15 10 Illinois . 84,008 63,623 75 25 13 207,202 105,110 51 49 31 West Virginia , 15,772 25,600 26,720 33,949 43,990 5,498 13,741 10,245 6,953 22,900 35 54 38 21 52 65 46 62 79 48 52 43 55 36 146,031 59,337 41 59 35,504 45,308 49,696 42,998 52,288 24,960 29,897 9,644 11,285 18,432 25,040 5,511 84 21 23 43 48 22 16 79 77 57 52 78 13 North Dakota 1 South Dakota 2 Nebraska.. 3 7 250,754 99,809 40 60 4 396,785 159,146 40 60 20 92,998 62,448 66,332 78,374 1,736 792 2,273 326 2 1 3 0.4 98 99 97 99.6 18 12 16 6 300,154 5,127 2 98 13 Idaho 53,945 70,233 52,601 72,268 1,413 572 1,032 254 3 0.8 2 0.3 97 99.2 98 99.7 20 Utah 16 11 "Western Rocky Mountain Resion 249,047 3,271 1.3 98.7 8 549,201 8,398 1.5 98.5 10 99,827 60,518 42,703 11,958 3,328 3,465 12 5 8 88 95 92 18 35 52 203,048 18,751 9 91 30 It will be noted that Doctor Femow finds the probable forest land to be 26 percent of the area of the whole United States, excluding nonadja- cent territory, 52 percent of the New England states, 28 percent of the middle Atlantic states, 49 percent of the southern Atlantic states, 43 percent of the entire Atlantic Coast district, 50 percent of the gulf states, etc. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 299 The estimate given by the author in table A, of the wooded area, is that it constitutes 35 percent of the entire area of the country. This "wooded area" is broader in its scope than the ** forest area" accord- ing to Doctor Fernow, but otherwise the estimates are not far apart. The presentation by Doctor Fernow may well be combined with the result of the inquiry made by the twelfth census (1900) as to the acre- age and average quantity of timber per acre of timber land owned by lumbermen. This presentation was as follows : TABLE E-TIMBER LANDS REPORTED OWNED BY LUMBERMEN-TWELFTH CENSUS. States and Groups. Area In acres, accordlnsr to ownership. Average quantity merchant- able timber per acre, in feet. Estimated total Quan- tity mer- chantable timber, in millions of feet. United states Eastern Group Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts.. Rhode Island... Connecticut New York Delaware Lake Group Michlgran Wisconsin Minnesota Central Group Ohio Indiana Illinois West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee Missouri Southern Group Maryland Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Arkansas Texas , 32,222,097 4,498.812 2,107,606 663,879 372,754 41,028 1,673 9,195 648,131 6 44,766 • V,b ' 7({ 2,204 6,694,153 2,747,447 1,920,607 2,026.099 3,244,420 80,699 104,167 162,652 506,059 382,649 1,138,649 869,545 12,414,165 66,928 402,360 1,714,135 454,785 1,107,838 1,318,387 1,224,835 1,214,458 1,497,352 1,741,779 1.671,308 6,700 4,700 2,000 5,800 7,300 9,000 3,000 9.200 5.600 9.300 B'BUU 5.000 4,900 5,300 5,400 3,900 4,700 4,100 5,700 4,800 5,200 4,700 3,900 5,500 5,000 3,700 4,300 3,800 4,400 3,800 4.500 4.200 7.600 6.700 4.500 5.900 215,550.6 20.987.3 4.317.5 3,879.1 2,746.2 375.5 6.3 82.8 3,630.1 5.910.5 "TSi^g- 10.4 32,925.0 14,546.1 10,387.8 7,991.1 15,423.9 334.8 593.7 ■ 778.0 2,608.4 1,787.2 4,496.1 4,825.7 62,711.9 250.1 1,712.9 6,488.4 1,998.2 4,212.2 5,918.5 5,100.7 9,242.7 9,964.1 7,917.8 9,906.3 300 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. TABLE E-TIMBER LANDS REPORTED OWNED BY LUMBERMEN-TWELFTH CENSUS— Continued. States and Groups. Area in acres, according to ownership. Average quantity merchant- able timber per acre, in feet. Estimated total quan- tity mer- chantable timber, In millions of feet. Pacific Group , 3,188,149 1,177,537 825,687 1,184,925 2,182,398 91,993 84,420 32,347 56,160 7,680 95,538 ■l,5i8,780 24,500 30,600 24,500 18,300 2,500 7,300 6,900 3,800 4,900 3,500 6,600 1,566 3,666 2,100 4,500 2,000 1,366 4,000 78,141.6 36,087.7 20,351.8 21,702.1 5,360.9 671 1 California Washinsrton Idaho 576 9 Indian Territory ' 120 5 273 5 28 4 Montana 632 8 2,319.7 North Dakota 5,940 19,300 56,960 202,080 ■■■■10,946 260 18.2 Utah 406 Wyoming 254 3 Arizona 409 2 Alaska 14 6 Nevada 1 1 The average quantity of merchantable timber per acre in the owner- ship of lumbermen, as far as reported by them, was shown to be for the entire country 6,700 feet. Undoubtedly this average estimate per acre is much higher than the average for all the forest lands of the United States, for the reason that lumbermen have generally selected the best timber lands ; but it is also probable that the report by the lumbermen underestimated the total quantities of timber owned by them by a con- siderable amount ; for in almost every case lumbermen have estimates of only certain classes of timber on their land holdings, ignoring many species and qualities which will sooner or later be of material value and, in a consideration which recognizes not merely the customs of the day but the possibilities of the future, should be included in the total stand. If, then, lumbermen report an average of 6,700 feet per acre, it is not improbable that the average of forest lands will, including all kinds of timber, be at least 4,000 feet to the acre. If that be a fair assump- tion, then Dr. Fernow's 26 percent of the total area of the country, or 1,902,416,000 acres, represents 1,978,512,640,000 feet of standing tim- ber, or very close to the quantity arrived at by other methods of esti- mate. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 301 THE ATLANTIC FOREST. The eastern forest of the United States, which is a part of the grand eastern forest of the continent, originally covered nearly the entire area east of the Mississippi, the chief exceptions being open areas in Florida, Illinois and Wisconsin, and extended west of the river in solid masses in Minnesota, Missouri, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Louisiana and Texas. Southern Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana were almost solidly timbered, except the last-named, which had a large prairie area along the Gulf Coast. The solid forest of Texas was confined to a compara- tively small area in the eastern and northeastern part of the State. In addition there were extensions of the forest, usually along the streams or following some peculiar geological, formation to the westward, and outlying parts of more or less importance. The plains and canyons of western Texas marked the extreme southwestern range of the eastern tree species, while in the northwest the limit is found in the foothills and outlying eastern extensions of the Rocky Mountains. In both of these regions the eastern and western forests touch hands, so to speak, though the representatives of both are there usually dwarfed and of comparatively little economic value except as supplying imperative local requirements. Western Texas is peculiarly interesting from the standpoint of forest botany, because there meet and mingle representatives of extremely diverse types. Not only are the Atlantic and Pacific forests represent- ed, but also the Mexican flora with many species of tropical and sub-tropical type. Of eastern species may be mentioned red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) , black walnut, red mulberry, buckeye, persim- mon, live oak, post oak and many others. Representatives of the Pacific forest are western yellow pine, Douglas spruce ( Pseudotsuga taxiiolia), white pine ( Pinus flexilis) , some western oaks, etc. Of the species of more southern origin are the Mexican walnut, Mexican madrona, gum elastic, lignum-vitae, Texas ebony (Zygia flexicaulis) , retama, green-bark acacia and various yuccas and cacti. Southern Florida presents another interesting situation from the standpoint of tree species. While the northern part of the State has the characteristics of the forest regions of the North, the southern end of the Peninsula of Florida and the coast have the truly tropical vege- tation, being an extension of the West Indian flora. The mahogany, the royal palm, the mangrove, the mastic and about sixty other West Indian species characterize it, in the words of Doctor Fernow, as tropic- 302 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. al in all but its geographical position. North of this tropical outpost is a semitropical district which extends in a narrow belt along the coast as far as North Carolina. It is characterized by evergreen broad- leaved trees, dwarfed palmetto, etc. To facilitate discussion it is convenient to divide the area of the country into sections, according to their forest characteristics. The latest authority on the forest botany of North America, including forest distribution, is Sargent's manual of the trees of North America. ° It is in the main a condensation of his monumental work, " The Silva of North America." In this work Doctor Sargent uses for reference pur- poses an outline map of the continent, showing certain grand divisions. The line separating the eastern from the western, beginning at the North at the mouth of the Mackenzie River, passes east of the Rocky Mountains and their outlyers, through Alberta, Saskatchewan, the west- ern portions of North Dakota, South Dakota and Nebraska, through eastern Colorado and New Mexico, and extreme western Texas. The eastern area is subdivided into four regions, the largest of which is the northeastern, extending to the northern tree limit from a line beginning at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, passing south of the Appalachians, north in western Tennessee and thence west, crossing Arkansas and Indian Territory. The next in point of size in the eastern regions is between the above described line and the Gulf. A third and very small one occupies the extreme southern end of Florida, and the fourth, also small, is on the Texas-Mexican boundary. The western forest is also divided, on this scheme, into four parts. One, and the smallest, occupies the southern portions of New Mexico and Arizona and the southwestern extension of Texas. Its flora is of the Mexican type rather than that of the United States. North of this belt stretches the Rocky Mountain area to the Arctic. The third occu- pies California and Oregon, and the fourth includes Washington, part of Idaho, the western part of British Columbia along the coast, and Alaska to north of the Yukon River. DIVISIONS OF THE ATLANTIC FOREST. The above division is a very broad one, and tlie eastern forest proper should be more minutely subdivided. Ignoring its extensions north into Canada, on one scheme of division the eastern forest would be divided into three portions. One, coniferous in its characteristics, ^ " Manual of the Trees o£ North America," by Charles Sprague Sargrent, director of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, author of " The Silva of North America," Boston, 1905. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 303 though almost everywhere mixed with the broad-leaved trees, stretches across New England, New York, northern Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin and into Minnesota. The continuity of this belt is broken by Lake Erie. Disregarding the international boundary, it is continu- ous east and west across the northeastern states, Quebec, Ontario and the district around Lake Superior. The characteristic woods of this coniferous belt are spruce and pine in the east and pine in the west, in some cases forming pure forests, but more generally intermixed with the hardwoods adapted to a northern climate. PRINCIPAL EASTERN TREE SPECIES. Immediately south of this coniferous belt was, and is, what may be called the central hardwood belt. In some sections the division be- tween the two is sharply defined and in others confused. Furthermore, the northern coniferous belt has a prolonged but narrow extension southward along the Appalachians. The central hardwood belt finds its southern boundary along a line extending, approximately, from the mouth of Chesapeake Bay through North Carolina to the northwest comer of South Carolina, and thence in a general westerly direction across northern Alabama and Mississippi, north of the center of Ar- kansas to about the center of Indian Territory. South of this line the forest growth is of the coniferous type, though with a heavy admixture of hardwoods in the northern half of South Carolina, Georgia, Ala- bama, Mississippi and the southern half of Arkans^, and a lighter proportion nearer the ocean and Gulf. The remainder of the southern part of the eastern forest, comprising a belt of somewhat irregular shape and varying in width, extends along the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts from Maryland to eastern Texas, including parts of Virginia, half of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Missis- sippi, practically all of Florida, Louisiana, the major part of Texas, in- cluding its heavy pine forests, and extending northward from Louisiana and Texas into Arkansas and Indian Territory. Such are, in brief, the outline divisions as given by Doctor Fernow. Of the nearly 500 tree species native to the United States, about 230 species, excluding tropical ones, are represented in the Atlantic forest. Many of these trees, however, are of no present commercial value, or, at any rate, of no value for lumber purposes. Some are hardly more than shrubs — the distinction between shrubs and trees being a close and almost indefinite one. Of these eastern species of pine and hardwood trees, leaving out, of course, the yuccas, palms. 304 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. cacti and tropical hardwoods, seventy-two have been selected as having a present commercial value sufficient to warrant specific consideration, though among those omitted many will, undoubtedly, yet find place in the lumber industry. Of these species the pines contribute seven, the spruces two, the hickories seven, the poplars three, the birches four, the oaks thirteen, the elms three, the magnolias two, the maples four, the buckeyes two, the gums two, the ashes three ; of individual species, larch, hemlock, fir, taxodium or bald cypress, red cedar, white cedar, juniper, butternut, walnut, beech, chestnut, tulip tree or yellow poplar, sweet gum, sycamore, black cherry, honey locust, locust, basswood, dogwood, and one of the catalpas — Catalpa speciosa. Of the pines three are northern and four southern. Of the oaks under consideration nine may be classed as white oaks, including one live oak, and four as black oaks. There are fifty-four species of oaks in the United States, not counting subspecies or varieties. Of these, thirty-three belong to the eastern forest, while eight more may be classed with the eastern forest if its boundaries are extended to south- west Texas. Thus, of the thirty-three oak species in the Atlantic forest proper only thirteen are taken into consideration, though some others might be included, as they are already, to some extent, in lumber opera- tions, and will be more extensively in the future. The following table shows the number of selected coniferous and broad-leaved species, respectively, in the different states embraced within the Atlantic or eastern forest : State. Conif- erous. Broad- leaved. State. Conif- erous. Broad- leaved. Maine 11 11 11 10 8 8 10 7 t" 9 7 3 2 2 9 30 30 33 36 34 37 41 36 „„45. 36 45 45 40 47 48 39 9 8 6 8 3 4 3 9 10 8 8 6 8 7 5 5 29 New Hampshire 29 Vermont. 51 51 46 Connecticut 48 New York 34 Virginia 45 North Carolina 49 Delaware South Carolina . . 41 44 West Virginia Florida 33 Ohio 44 38 Illinois 34 Michigran Texas ... 36 The above list is not absolutely complete even in the species selected, because some of them are so sparsely represented in some of the states that they have not been included in the lists for those states. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 305 In Chapter II is given a list practically identical with the one now used, which gives the range of occurrence, including the extreme range and the sporadic instances as well. For example, the tulip tree or yel- low poplar, which grows most numerously and to its best development in the valley of the Ohio River and its tributaries, is found native as far to the northeast as Vermont and Massachusetts, and, in fact, occurs in every state in the above list, except, perhaps, in Maine, New Hamp- shire, Wisconsin, Texas and Indian Territory. The localities in which the various selected species are the most common, or reach their best development, are, respectively, as follows : White pine— New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wis- consin and Minnesota. Red pine — The above states, except Pennsylvania. Jack pine — Michigan and Minnesota. Loblolly pine— Virginia, North Carolina and Arkansas, though found in all the yellow pine states. Shortleaf pine — Virginia, the Carolinas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri and Texas. Longleaf pine — South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana and Texas. Ctiban pine — Close to the coast in South Carolina, Greorgia, Florida, Alabama and Mississippi. Larch — Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Black spruce— The New England states. New York, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. White spruce— The New England states and New York. Hemlock — New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Michigan and Wisconsin. Sargent remarks that it attains its largest size near streams on slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Balsam fir — Northern New England, northern New York and northern Michigan and Minnesota. Cypress — On delta lands of the south Atlantic and gulf states. Northern cedar — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, Wiscon- sin and Minnesota. Coast white cedar — From Massachusetts along the coast to Alabama. Juniper — In middle Kentucky and Tennessee, northern Alabama and Mississippi. Butternut — New England and the northern states generally. Black walnut- Western slopes of the high Appalachians, the Ohio River Valley and in Indian Territory. Pecan hickory— In southern Arkansas, Indian Territory and eastern Texas. Bittemut hickory— On bottom lands of the lower Ohio basin. Water hickory — On bottom lands of the lower Mississippi. Shagbark hickory— On the western slopes of the southern AUeghenies, and in the basin of the lower Ohio. Shellbark hickory— In the swamps of the lower Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 306 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Mockernut hickory— A southern variety, growing to its best development in the basin of the lower Ohio, and in Missouri and Arkansas. Pig^nut hickory— Is at best development in the same region as mockernut. Aspin— A northern and mountain timber. Cottonwood— In the valley of the lower Mississippi. Balsam poplar— Along the northern boundary of the United States, not including Ohio, from Maine to Minnesota. Paper birch— In northern New England and New York. River birch— On the lowlands of the Gulf Coast. Yellow birch— In New England and northern New York. Black birch, known also as cherry or sweet birch— On the western slopes of the southern Appalachians and in Wisconsin, though common in all the northern states. Beech— Widely distributed, but grows largest on intervale lands along the lower Ohio and on the slopes of the southern Alleghenies. Chestnut — Most common south of Lake Erie and in southern Michigan, but grows to its best development on the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. White oak — Found in every state. Has its best development on the western slopes of the southern Alleghenies and in the bottom lands of the lower Ohio basin. Post oak — On dry, gravelly uplands of the Mississippi basin. Bur oak — Southern Indiana and Illinois. Overcup oak— In the lower Red River Valley of Arkansas and Louisiana. Rare in regions north of the Ohio River and on the Atlantic Coast. Chestnut oak — A highland oak. On the lower slopes of the mountains of the Appalachians and Tennessee. Chinquapin oak— Also a highland oak. On the lower Wabash River. Swamp white oak — Western New York and northern Ohio. Cow oak— On southern bottom lands. Live oak— On the southern Atlantic and eastern Gulf coasts and in Texas. Red oak — Reaches its largest development in the region north of the Ohio River. Yellow oak— In the valley of the lower Ohio River. Spanish oak— In the south Atlantic and gulf states on the dry hills between the coast plain and the Appalachian Mountains. Water oak (Quercus nigra) — A southern bottom-land oak. Slippery elm — In comparatively low, fertile soil in nearly all the country away from the Ocean and Gulf. White elm— Most abundant on the banks of streams flowing through the mid- continental plateau. Cork elm— In the southern peninsula of Michigan. Magnolia— In Louisiana and similar situations in Mississippi. Cucumber tree — In the narrow valleys at the base of the high mountains of the Carolinas and Tennessee. Tulip tree — In the valleys of the lower Ohio basin and of the lower slopes of the higher mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Sweet gum— In the maritime region of the south Atlantic states and in the basin of the lower Mississippi River. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 307 Sycamore — On the bottom lands of streams in the basin of the lower Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. Black cherry — On the slopes of the high Allegheny Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Honey locust — In southern Indiana and Illinois. Locust — On the western slopes of the Alleghenies in West Virginia. Sugar maple— Vermont, northern and western New York, northern Ohio and Michigan. Silver maple — On the banks of the lower Ohio and its tributaries. Red maple — Most abundant in the South, especially in the valley of the Mississippi River, and of its largest size in the river swamps of the lower Ohio and its large tributaries. Box elder— In the Mississippi basin generally, reaching its largest size in the valley of the lower Ohio. Ohio buckeye— In the valley of the Tennessee River and in northern Alabama. Yellow buckeye — On the high mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina. Basswood— The lower Ohio River and its tributaries and in Mississippi. Dogwood — Generally distributed through the middle and southern states. Black gum — In the southern Appalachian region. Cotton gum, or tupelo — In the cypress swamps of Louisiana and Texas. Black ash — In damp locations through the northern states generally, and especially important in southern Illinois, Missouri and Arkansas. White ash — On the bottom lands of the basin of the lower Ohio River. Green ash — In the Mississippi basin. Hardy catalpa (Catalpa speciosa)— la southern Illinois and Indiana. For the above outline of the location of the best development of the various species, especial credit should be given to Doctor Sargent, in his "Manual of the Trees of North America." THE NORTHERN CONIFEROUS BELT. From the earliest times in the history of the United States until to- ward the end of the Nineteenth Century the northern coniferous timber belt constituted the basis of the chief supply of forest products for the domestic trade of the country and also entered largely into foreign trade, although an important commerce was founded upon the yellow pine of the south Atlantic Coast and Gulf states. The early discoverers and explorers were struck by the wealth of the forest resources of the north Atlantic Coast, and particularly with the white pine, Pinus strobus. As has been related previously, the English Crown made reservations of the trees of this timber suitable for ships, masts and spars. The white pine grew in profusion in New England. It was seldom found in solid bodies of great extent, for it was usually mixed with spruce and other conifers and hardwoods, but the local or nearby supply was sufficient for all the demands of domes- 308 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tic consumption and of foreign trade until well into the Nineteenth Century. This valuable wood grew, however, far to the west also. Interrupted only by Lake Erie, it stretched across the northern states from Maine to Minnesota. Topography has much influence on the quantity of any given timber found in any region. In the East the uneven character of the surface, with alternations of bottom lands, valleys, hills and mountains, broke up the continuity of pine forests, allowing the introduction not only of other species of conifers, but of broad-leaved trees as well. In the West, on the contrary, in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, especially in the lower peninsula of Michigan, the more level character of a coun- try adapted to the growth of white pine resulted in great stretches of almost pure pine forests, so that in the West was eventually developed the greatest pine industry. This development, however, was slow, de- pending upon the growth of population, the lessening of the supply progressively from east to west, and the opening of transportation routes. Mixed with the white pine almost everywhere was red or Norway pine (Pinus resinosa). This was a happy combination, for what the white pine lacked in strength and hardness to suit it for certain struc- tural and manufacturing uses, was supplied by this heavier wood, so that from early times they were cut together and often marketed to- gether. These were the only pines of large commercial value of the northern United States, though there were others of decided value for local consumption or particular uses. One of these was Pimis rigida, a pitch pine whose range was along the Atlantic Coast. Another was Pinus divaricata, known as Jack pine in the United States, or Banksian pine in Canada. It would be hardly worth the while to attempt an estimate of the original stands of white pine and red pine in the United States, though they furnished the basis of the leading lumber industry of the United States from the beginning until the end of the Nineteenth Century, and still are produced in quantities only second to, yellow pine, with many years of a steadily declining output before them. There is very little virgin growth remaining in the United States in the eastern part of their range. But in 1899 New England produced about 800,000,000 feet. New York over 120,000,000 feet and Pennsylvania about 240,- 000,000 feet of white pine alone. This was practically all from second growth timber, whereas, the over 6,000,000,000 feet produced in Michi- UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 309 gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota was all cut from virgin timber, or was the cleaning up of areas previously lumbered. But as an industry of respectable dimensions has been maintained in the East on the basis of reproduction, so it is to be expected to be in the West. With a sharper delimitation between agricultural and forest lands, and an increase in the values of both standing timber and lumber, there will be a similar lengthening of the industry, though on a much smaller scale than now characterizes it. The other most important conifers of the northern coniferous belt include the larch, or tamarack (Larix laricina), the two spruces, white and black, the hemlock, the balsam fir and the cedar. The larch found its favorite locations in the swamps of Maine, northern Michigan and Minnesota. In the first-named State it was valuable for shipbuilding. The spruces were for a while neglected, but as the supply of pine de- creased they came into prominence, and by their superior powers of reproduction and more rapid growth became the leading timber wood of New England and New York. The development of the pulp indus- try also gave an added importance to spruce. The hemlock found its favorite localities in western New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Michigan and Wisconsin. All these conifers, except the white spruce (Picea canadensis), larch and Jack pine, found altitude a substitute for latitude and so extended southward along the Appalachians, continually rising higher until their southern limit is found on the higher altitudes of the mountains of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The stand of all of these woods is decreasing, unless it be of the spruce, which, when pro- tected from fire, rapidly replaces itself. White pine and red pine, how- ever, still exist in considerable bodies, though exact information as to their quantity is not obtainable. Estimates of standing pine in Minne- sota, for example, vary from 20,000,000,000 to 40,000,000,000 feet; in Wisconsin, from 10,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 feet, and so on. It seems probable that an estimate of 50,000,000,000 to 60,000,000,000 feet for the entire country is not, in 1905, too high. ORIGINAL DISTRIBUTION. The original distribution of forests within the northern coniferous belt was briefly but very satisfactorily outlined by Doctor Charles S. Sargent in his " Forests of the United States," published in 1884. While the statements in that work in regard to the probable future of the lumber industry were proven by subsequent history to be faulty in 310 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. many cases, wherever he dealt with matters of demonstrable fact, es- pecially those coming within the province of the student of American forest botany, his work stands practically unchallenged. From this work are drawn the following statements : Maine— The forests of the northern pine belt extended over the State of Maine. Pine and spruce, with which were mingled maple, birch and other deciduous trees, covered the entire State, with the exception of the immediate coast region between the Kennebec and the Penobscot rivers, a region of hardwood forest. Hemlock was common. Hardwood timber is particularly fine and abundant through the central portion of the State ; farther north the forest is more generally composed of coniferous trees. New Hampshire— The forests of New Hampshire were originally composed of a belt of spruce, mixed with maple, birch and other hardwood trees, occupying all the northern part of the State and extending southward through the central por- tion. The southeastern part of the State and the region bordering the Connecticut River were covered with forests of white pine, through which considerable bodies of hardwood were scattered. Vermont— The forests of Vermont, as compared with those of New Hampshire and Maine, are varied in composition. About the shores of Lake Champlain several western trees first appear, and throughout the State the forest is more gen- erally composed of deciduous than coniferous species. Forests of spruce, however, spread over the high ridges of the Green Mountains, their foothills being covered with hardwood trees, a little pine or hemlock occurring in the valleys. A forest of white pine stretched along the banks of the Connecticut, and great bodies of this tree occurred in the northwestern part of the State, adjacent to Lake Champlain. New York — That portion of the State north of the forty-third degree of lati- tude, including within its limits the elevated Adirondack region, was covered with a dense forest of maple, birch, basswood and other northern deciduous trees, through which were scattered spruce and pine. The low hills bordering the Hud- son and extending along the southern boundary of the State west of that river were covered with the coniferous species of the northern pine belt. Over the remainder of the State the broad-leaved forests of the Mississippi basin spread almost uninterruptedly, except where an occasional sandy plain or high elevation favored the growth of pines. Pennsylvania — Pennsylvania possessed vast forests of white pine and hemlock stretching over both flanks of the Allegheny Mountains and extending from the northern boundaries of the State to its southern limits. East and west of the Allegheny region the whole country was covered with a heavy growth of broad- leaved trees mixed with hemlocks, and occasional groves of pines. Originally the broad pine belt of northern Pennsylvania occupied the region drained by the nu- merous streams constituting the headwaters of the Susquehanna, extended from Susquehanna County, in the northeastern corner of the State, westward through Bedford and Tioga counties to Potter County, and thence southwestward over Cameron, Elk and Clearfield counties. The heaviest growth was in the southwest part of Tioga County. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 311 Michigan— Michigan possessed a tree covering of great density, richness and variety. The hardwood forests of the Ohio Valley covered the southern portion of the State, extending to just north of the forty-third degree of latitude. North of this hardwood belt the character of the forest changed ; the white pine appeared, occupying the drier and more gravelly ridges, and, gradually increasing in size and frequency, became the most important element in the forests of the central and northern portions of the Southern Peninsula. In the Northern Peninsula, especially in the basin of the Menominee River, it covered the sandy plains almost to the ex- clusion of other species. The forests of hardwood, occupying low, rich soil between the pine-covered ridges, were valuable in their stores of sugar maple, birch, ash, beech, oak and other northern trees, while the swamps common in the northern part of the State abounded in tamarack and yellow cedar of large size and excellent quality. North of the central portion of the Lower Peninsula large tracts of barren plains exist. Wisconsin — The great prairies of the central Atlantic region once found their northeastern limits in southern Wisconsin. The forest covering of all the southern part of the State was confined to the bottom lands or open upland groves of stunt- ed oaks of no great extent or of more than local importance. The central part of the State was covered with a dense forest of hardwoods, oaks, ash, maple, cherry, birch and the other trees of the northern forest, through which, upon gravelly or sandy ridges, great bodies of white pine were scattered. Minnesota — The northern pine belt finds in Minnesota its extreme western limit in the United States in longitude 95 degrees 30 minutes, and its southwestern limit near the forty-sixth degree of latitude. Along its southern and western borders a narrow territory covered with an open growth of hardwood separates the forests of pine from the prairie, which occupies all the southern and western portions of the State. The pine in the southern portion, confined to gravelly ridges, is scattered through forests of hardwood. Farther north the forest changes in character. Broad areas of barren land covered with birch, gray pine and scrub oak occur, while the whole country is thickly studded with lakes and with tamarack and cedar swamps. North of the Mississippi River divide the country is more open ; pine is found mixed with spruce, tamarack and yellow cedar. COMMENTS OF EARLY TRAVELERS. All the early explorers and travelers in the eastern United States noted the abundance and high utility of white pine. Michaux, who well may be called the father of American forest botany, in his "North American Sylva" devoted much space to this wood. In regard to its habitat, he said : " It appears to be most abundant between the forty-third and forty- seventh degrees of latitude. Farther south it is found in the valleys and on the declivities of the AUeghenies to their termination, but at a distance from the mountains on either side its growth is forbidden by the warmth of the climate. It is said, with great probability, to be multiplied near the source of the Mississippi, which is in the same 312 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. latitude with the District of Maine, the upper part of New Hampshire, the State of Vermont and the commencement of the St. Lawrence, where it attains to the greatest dimensions." He mentions having measured two trunks felled for canoes in the Kennebec River in Maine, one of which was 154 feet long and fifty-four inches in diameter, and the other, 142 feet long and forty-four inches in diameter, three feet from the ground. He also saw near Hallowell, Maine, a stump exceeding six feet in diameter. In regard to its abun- dance he says: "When I was at Winslow [Maine] in 1806, the river was still covered with thousands of logs of which the diameter of the greater part was fifteen or sixteen inches and that of the remainder (perhaps one-fiftieth of the whole), twenty inches. The blue ash and the red pine were the only species mingled with them, and these in not the proportion of one to a hundred." He wrote from personal observation of the white pine of New Eng- land, New York and Pennsylvania. He says: "The upper part of Pennsylvania near the source of the Delaware and Susquehanna, which is mountainous and cold, possesses large forests of this pine. . . . Beyond the mountains, near the springs of the river Allegheny, from 150 to 180 miles from its junction with the Ohio, is cut all the white pine destined for the market of New Orleans, which is 2,900 miles distant." The great forests of white pine have most of them disappeared, and small indeed is the volume of production which compares in size and quality with that of old days ; still this wood remains and will remain an important contributor to the wealth of the country. But the conifers were not the only inhabitants of this northern timber belt. Of the hardwoods of commercial importance New England had walnut, butternut, three varieties of hickory, four or five poplars, four varieties of birch, beech, chestnut, six or seven of oak, three of elm, beech, cherry, four of maple, two of ash; while representatives of other families were to be found. In fact, the tulip tree, or yellow poplar, was found to a limited extent and of inferior growth in western New Eng- land. One variety of gum, the basswood and the dogwood, were also native. Farther west, the valley of the Hudson and the rich bottom lands and well drained hill sides of New York and Pennsylvania carried more varied and much richer growths of hardwoods. Professor Kalm,' writing about the middle of the Eighteenth Cen- tury, gave what he called a " small catalogue of the trees which grow ' " Travels in North America," by Professor Peter Kalm, 1749. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 313 spontaneously in the woods nearest Philadelphia." He named three conifers, one of which was Pinus tada, which he called the New Jersey fir tree, but which is now known as loblolly pine, and more than twenty species of broad-leaved trees. Recounting a trip via the Hudson to Alle- gheny, he said: "The trees which grow along the shores and on the adjacent hills within our sight today [June 24, 1749] are elms, birch, white firs, alders, dog trees, lime trees, red willow and chestnut trees." The Duke de le Rochefoucault Liancoiurt, during his travels in America in 1795, in speaking of western New York, says : "The woods are thick and lofty, sugar maple, black birch, oak, hickory, hemlock-fir and beech are the most prevailing trees." He throws a ray of light on the lumber market of those primitive days, for he tells of a land owner and inn-keeper at Watkinstown, New York, who cut 4,500 feet of boards daily, which were sent on the lake to Canandaigua, where they were sold for ten shillings a thousand feet. Space forbids more than the briefest description of this northern coniferous belt. Suffice it to say that it stretched in a solid body of forest from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and that where the conifers were not found they were replaced by an equally luxuriant and, if pos- sible, more valuable growth of hardwoods. The coniferous areas proper will, to a considerable extent, remain for an indefinite time de- voted to timber growth, but the hardwood areas already have been largely cleared and will almost all, in course of time, be given over to agriculture, except as the exigencies of the lumber markets may war- rant the devotion of a small percentage of their area to tree culture. THE CENTRAL HARDWOOD BELT. Perhaps the most valuable hardwood section of the United States, which may be called the "central hardwood belt," is that great interior section of the eastern forest whose outlines have been briefly given on a previous page. A sharp definition of the boundaries between this area and the forests of coniferous type which surround it on the north, east and south is impossible, for in some sections the types gradually merge into each other, and in others, where the line is sharp, it is too irregular to permit of description in the space available ; but it may be thus roughly, and in a somewhat general way, described : Beginning at Niagara it would run east and then south, passing through central New Jersey ; thence southwest, following the eastern and southern edge of the Piedmont Plateau to a point north of the center of Alabama ; thence in a general westerly direction into Indian 314 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Territory, thence north through the Territory to, approximately, its northeastern corner, thence in a general northeastern direction across Missouri, Illinois and the extreme northwest corner of Indiana, thence swinging around northeast and east to Lake St. Clair. The territory thus included embraces western New York, parts of New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland, the western portions of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, the northern portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Arkansas, the eastern part of Indian Terri- tory, the southern part of Missouri and Illinois and the southern third of the southern peninsula of Michigan. Entirely included within this boundary are Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. It must be admitted that too much, from certain standpoints, is in- cluded. Western New York, while wonderfully rich in broad-leaved trees, had considerable areas of pine and hemlock; the fame of Penn- sylvania in the lumber industry has been based upon its pine and hem- lock rather than upon its hardwoods ; West Virginia and western Mary- land had large quantities of hemlock and spruce and a little pine, all of these conifers, further, extending along the higher altitudes of the Appa- lachians as far as Georgia. Arkansas had, and has, a mixed growth of pine and hardwoods, with pine predominating in the southern part of the State and hardwoods in the north and through the eastern bottom lands. Missouri also had an extensive pine area in the southeastern part of the State. The southern boundary of this hardwood region is as difficult of exact definition as its northeastern boundary, for in the south Atlantic and gulf states the conifers, which furnish almost pure stands toward the coast, almost imperceptibly merge into. the hardwood forests as one moves toward the interior, the Piedmont Plateau being a region of mixed pine and hardwoods, while, on the other hand, the river bottoms in the pine districts proper are often filled with very heavy growths of hardwoods suitable to such locations. Probably nowhere in the world is there a forest growth which more fully meets all the needs of man than does that found in this hardwood forest of America. A more restricted area, including Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Illinois, is, perhaps, nowhere else equaled in the quantity and valuable quality of its original arboreal wealth. Here were found the light, soft and easily worked woods, such as cottonwood, basswood and tulip; woods of strength, such as the hickories, maples and oaks ; woods of beauty, like UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 315 the walnut, cherry, maple and oak — in short, woods to meet almost every conceivable requirement of the pioneer settler or of the highest civilization. In quantity, quality and variety this forest was almost unique. It has been said that the ordinary farm in the valley of the Wabash River would contain more varieties of broad-leaved trees than are to be found in the whole of Europe. Out of the comparatively few species selected for especial mention in this chapter, West Virginia had forty-five; Ohio, forty; Indiana, forty-eight; Illinois, forty-eight; Ken- tucky, fifty-one, and Tennessee, fifty-one. In all this forest, oak, with its many varieties, was, and is, the every- where present factor ; and, notwithstanding the inroads of the sawmill, the stave mill or the stave river, and of the tie-maker, Quercus will undoubtedly in the long run more than hold its own in comparison with other woods. One of the most valuable trees was the black walnut, whose range was wide, occurring in every state of the Atlantic forest, but growing in special profusion and of the finest quality in the hard- wood belt proper. But this tree, once so plentiful that it was the favorite wood, because of its straight grain and easy cleavage, for furnishing fencing and structural material for the early settlers, and later prized as the most valuable cabinet wood native to the United States, has almost disappeared. An industry of some importance is still based upon the small tracts or isolated specimens still remaining, and will be continued in the utilization of second-growth timber — for the walnut is a tree readily propagated and one which grows rapidly. But the percentage of this tree now in the forests is, and probably will remain, insignificant. The third of the species of most importance is the tulip tree, or so- called yellow poplar ( Liriodendron tulipifera) . This tree grew in extraor- dinary profusion and of fine quality in Indiana and western Tennessee and on intervale lands on the western slopes of the Appalachians. Only in the last-named section does it now remain an important factor in the forests. To name the broad-leaved trees of this forest is to name all the species of value to be found in North America, except a few on the Pacific Coast and in Mexico. Early travelers through what then were the wilds of the interior always were impressed with the variety and luxuriance of this hardwood forest; they might have appreciated the wonderful scope and value of the coniferous forests, but there was an atmosphere abiding tmder the shade of the broad-leaved trees which 316 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. impressed itself with peculiar force upon minds attuned to the majestic and beautiful in nature. Speaking on this subject a recent writer" says : Of the broad-leaf forests there are many types. There are forests of oak and chestnut ; of maple and beech ; dry upland forests and the tangled woods of the swamps. ■ There are young thickets of birch and aspen ; of willow and alder and scrubby oak barrens. There are second-growth forests, and now and then even a patch of fine old virgin timber. In size, also, there is a great difference, from the grove that covers the hilltop to the unbroken forest that stretches over an entire mountain range. It appears, therefore, that variety is one of the marked characteristics of our eastern woods. As several hundred different kinds of trees enter into their com- position under every form and modification of circumstances, we find in these woods an endless novelty and perennial freshness. . . . Let us imagine ourselves standing, for instance, on some point of vantage in the Blue Ridge, of Virginia, the season being early May. The view extends across ranges of low, rounded mountains, which are fresh with the new foliage of spring. On the nearest hill the individual trees and their combinations into groups can be distinguished ; but receding into the valleys and more distant slopes the forms and colors grow less distinct, till the tone becomes darker and at last melts into the familiar hazy blue of distant hills. Looking again at the nearer hillsides we recog* nize the tulip trees with their shapely crowns, clothed in a soft green and lifted somewhat above the general outline. The light green of the opening elms and sweet gums can be very well distinguished beyond the more shadowy beeches, ashes and maples. The remaining spaces are occupied by hickories and chestnuts, still brown and leafless, and by rusty-hued oaks which are only just beginning to break their buds. Within the leafless portions of the wood an occasional dash of bright yellow or creamy white not quite concealed, shows where the sassafras or dogwood is in bloom. The crests and ridges, however, are likely to be occupied by groups and bands of pines, while the sides of the mountain brook will be studded with cedars and hemlocks. OBSERVATIONS OF EARLY TRAVELERS. As a matter of course the forests which lay along the route of early exploration and travel and adjoining the primitive settlements, first came under notice and were especially commented on. Previous quo- tations have been made from Peter Kalm, who wrote in 1749 regarding a visit to America. Describing a trip from Chichester to Philadelphia, he said that the oaks were the most plentiful trees in the woods, and that there were several species of them, all different from European oaks. Further he said: The red maple, or Acer rubrum, is plentiful in these places. . . . Out of its wood they make plate spinning wheels, rolls, feet for chairs and beds and all sorts of work. With the bark they dye both worsted and linen, giving it a dark 8 " Forest Trees and Forest Scenery," by G. Frederick Schwarz, New York, 1901. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 317 blue color. . . . When the tree is felled early in the spring a sweet juice runs out of it, like that which runs out of our birches. This juice they do not make use of here, but in Canada they make both treacle and sugar of it. There is a variety of this tree which they call the curled maple, the wood being as it were marbled within ; it is much used in all kinds of joiners' work, and utensils made of this wood are preferable to those made of any other wood in the country. Writing from Fort Anne, he said : " The American elm ( Ulmus amer- icana Linn.) grows in abundance in the forests hereabouts. There are two kinds of it. One is called white elm, on account of the inside of the tree being white. It is more plentiful than the other species which is called the red elm." George Washington, in his campaign against the French in 1753, passed through the upper Ohio Valley, and remarked that the territory was covered with forests of hickory, walnut, ash, poplar, sugar maple and wild cherry trees. One of the earliest of American forest botanists was Humphrey Marshall, of Philadelphia, who published in 1785 a work entitled, " Arbustrum Americanum." His observations were ap- parently limited to the eastern and northeastern states, but some of the comments he makes as to the favorite habitat of trees are decid- edly interesting. He calls the yellow poplar the " Virginian tulip tree," which he credits with a height of seventy to eighty feet and a diameter of four feet. He gives the favorite location of the evergreen magnolia as Florida and South Carolina. The tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) he de- scribes as growing to large size in the swamps of Carolina and Florida and as very, abundant upon the Mississippi River. The upland tupelo, or sour gum, he says, grows naturally in Pennsylvania, and "perhaps" elsewhere. The Duke de le Rochefoucault Liancourt, writing in 1795 in regard to the trees of South Carolina, says : " The Itixuriance of the woods stand unrivaled ; there are eighteen different species of oak, particu- larly the live oak, the palmetto or cabbage tree, the cucumber tree, deciduous cypress, liquidambar, hickory, etc. In short, all the species of trees which are so excessively dear in Europe." Of Virginia he says: Among the numberless species of trees which grow in Virginia are distin- gpiished the silver-leaved maple, the ash-leaved maple, the catalpa, the Carolinian allspice, the judas tree, the Virginian mespilus [a thorn or haw tree], of which I have seen some twenty-five feet in height, comeltrees of difiEerent sorts, the per- simmon, the nickertree, the triacanthos, walnut, various species of cedar, sweet bay, benjamin tree, the maple-leaved liquidambar, the evergreen laurel-leaved 318 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tulip tree [probably the Magnolia fcetida"], the swamp pine and many others, the black and Carolina poplar, various species of oak, etc., but many of them, the tulip tree for instance, do not attain the same height in Virginia as in South Caro- lina and Georgia. Although Virginia does not produce some trees, which grow only under a higher degree of latitude, yet it contains, in my opinion, a greater variety of species than any other state. One Norris Birkback, in a work entitled "Notes of a Journey in America," published in 1817, has some interesting comments on the forests of Ohio, where he was particularly impressed with the oaks and sycamores. He may be quoted as follows : Trees are very interesting objects to the American traveler. They are always beautiful and, in the rich bottoms, they sometimes exhibit a grand assemblage of gigantic beings, which carry the imagination back to other times, before the foot of a white man had touched the American shore. Yesterday, June 18, 1817, I measured a walnut almost seven feet in diameter, clean and straight as an arrow, and just by were rotting, side by side, two sycamores of nearly equal dimensions. The sycamores grow in bottoms liable to be overflowed, to an unwieldy bulk, but the white oak is the glory of the upland forest. ... I measured a white oak by the roadside which at four feet from the ground was six feet in diameter, and at seventy-five feet it measured nine feet around, or three feet in diameter. Writing from notes made at Chillicothe, Ohio, he says : " Before we entered on the flat country were some hills covered with the grandest white oak timber, I suppose, in America. There are thousands, I think, of these magnificent trees within view of the road for miles, measuring fourteen or fifteen feet in circumference, their straight stems rising without a branch to the height of seventy or eighty feet, not tapering and slender, but surmounted by full, luxuriant heads." In regard to the famous valley of the Wabash River, Maximilian, Prince of Wied, about 1833, wrote : Some remarkable peculiarities strike the observer when he looks at the forests on the Wabash. One of these is the want of evergreens. . . . The planes [syca- mores] often attain an enormous size and are then generally hollow and divide'd into several colossal branches. We measured several of these trees and found one that was forty-one feet five inches in circumference. The hollow inside was twelve feet in diameter, so that in our winter excursions we used to light a fire in it, where we were sheltered from the wind. Tall tulip trees shoot up straight as masts, blossom and bear seed at their summits, unseen by human eye. Maples of great height and circumference, many species of oak, especially mossy overcup oak (Quercus macrocarpa) , with its large acorns, which at this time lay on the ground, stand crowded together. A great many species of trees are mixed together, among them the Gymnocladtts canadensis or Guilandina bondac [cofifeetree] , with its broad pods, the divers kinds of walnut trees, the Gleditschia triacanihos [honey locust] , with its formidable thorns and many climbing plants twined round the UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 319 trunks. The inhabitants of these forests would never be in want of an ample sup- ply of wood for fuel and for timber if they had been at all careful. The black walnut and cherry tree wood are the best for cabinet work, and for fuel the hick- ory, which aflEords more wood than beech wood. The price of wood at Harmony was $1 for a cord, but the price is already rising, because the forest in the neigh- borhood of the village is gradually being cleared and the carriage is more expen- sive. Commenting upon the Ohio Valley, he says: "The woods in the valley of the Ohio are more lofty and luxuriant than on the other side of the Allegheny Mountains." MICHAUX ON DISTRIBUTION OF HARDWOODS. Most interesting and valuable observations as to the ranges and habitat of American hardwoods a hundred years ago are found in the writings of F. Andr6 Michaux, for he and his father, Andr^ Michaux, to whose work he succeeded, covered most of the territory east of the Mississippi River. Somewhat liberal quotations from this authority will be pardoned. It should be noted that the botanical names he uses do not in all cases agree with present nomenclature. White oak (Quercus alba) — In the District of Maine, Vermont and Lower Canada it is little multiplied and its vegetation is repressed by the severity of the winter. In the lower part of the southern states, in the Floridas, and in lower Louisiana, it is found only on the borders of the swamps with a few other trees which likewise shun a dry and barren soil. The white oak is observed to be un- common on the lands of extraordinary fertility like those of Tennessee, Kentucky and Genesee [western New York] . The white oak abounds chiefly in the middle states, and in Virginia, particularly in that part of Pennsylvania and Virginia [now West Virginia] which lies between the Alleghenies and the Ohio River. Beginning at Brownsville, on the Monongahela, I have seen large forests, nine-tenths of which consisted of white oaks. In the western districts, where it composes entire forests, the face of the country is undulated and the yellow soil, consisting partly of clay with a mixture of calcareous stones, yields abundant crops of wheat. Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) — In the United States I have met with this inter- esting species only in the lower part of the Carolinas and of Georgia. The overcup oak grows in more humid situations than any other species of this genus in the United States. It expands to a majestic size and the influence of the deep and constantly humid soil is shown in the luxuriancy of its vegetation. On the banks of the Savannah I have seen stocks which were more than eighty feet high and from eight to twelve feet in circumference. Red oak {Quercus ru6ra)— In the lower part of New York, in New Jersey, the upper districts of Pennsylvania and along the whole range of the Alleghenies it is nearly as abundant as the scarlet and black oaks, but it is much less common in Maryland, the lower part of Virginia and the maritime parts of the Carolinas and Georgia. The red oak is a tall, widespreading tree, frequently more than eighty feet high and three or four feet in diameter. 320 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Black walnut (Juglans nigra)— 'East of the Allegheny Mountains in Virginia, and in the upper part of the Carolinas and of Georgia it is chiefly confined to the valleys where the soil is deep and fertile and which are watered by creeks and rivers. In the western country, in Genesee, and in the states of Ohio and Ken- tucky, where the soil in general is very rich, it grows in the forests with the cofiEee- tree, honey locust, red mulberry, locust, shellbark hickory, black sugar maple, hackberry and red elm, all of which trees prove the goodness of the soil in which they are found. It is in these countries that the black walnut displays its full pro- portions. On the banks of the Ohio and on the islands of that beautiful river I have often seen trees of three or four feet in diameter and sixty or seventy feet In height. It is not rare to find them of the thickness of six or seven feet. Butternut {Juglans cat Aariica)— The butternut is found in Upper and Lower Canada, in the districts of Maine, on the shores of Lake Erie, in the states of Kentucky and Tennessee and on the banks of the Missouri ; but I have never met with it in the lower part of the Carolinas, of Georgia, and of East Florida. In cold regions, on the contrary, its growth is luxuriant; for in the State of Vermont, where the winter is so rigorous that sledges are used during four months in the year, this tree attains a circumference of eight or ten feet. I have nowhere seen it more abundant than in the bottoms which border the Ohio between Wheeling and Marietta. Pecannut hickory (Juglans olivteformis) — On the borders of the rivers Missouri, Illinois, St. Francis and Arkansas it is most abundantly multiplied. It is also common on the river Wabash. On the Ohio it is found for 200 miles from its junc- tion with the Mississippi ; higher than this it becomes more rare and is not seen beyond Louisville. My father, in traversing this country, learned from the French inhabitants, who ascend the Mississippi in quest of furs, that it is not found on that river beyond the mouth of the Mackakaiety [Maquoketa?], which discharges itself in the latitude of 42.51. Mockernut hickqry {Juglans tomentosa) — It is most abundant in the forests that still remain on the coast of the middle states and in those which cover the upper parts of the Carolinas and of Georgia, but in the last-mentioned states it becomes more rare in approaching the sea. I have noticed, however, that this is the only hickory which springs in the pine barrens. Shellbark hickory {Juglans squamosa or Carya alba) — It abounds on the shores of Lake Erie about Geneva, in Genesee, along the river Mohawk, in the neighbor- hood of Goshen in New Jersey, and on the banks of the rivers Susquehanna and Schuylkill in Pennsylvania. In Maryland, in the lower parts of Virginia, and in the other southern states it is less common. Pignut hickory {Juglans porcina)— In. the Atlantic parts of the middle states it helps with the mockernut hickory, white oak, swamp white oak, sweet gum and dogwood to form the mass of the forests. In the southern states, especially near the coast, it is less common. White maple {Acer eriocarpum or Acer dasycarpum) [soft maple] — In no part of the United States is it more multiplied than in the western country and nowhere is its vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the Ohio and of the great rivers which empty into it. Beginning at Pittsburg, and even some miles above the junction of the rivers Allegheny and Monongahela, white maples twelve and fifteen feet in circumference are continually met with at short distances. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 321 Red flowering maple {Acer rubrunt) — I have nowhere observed it of as ample dimensions as in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. In those states exist extensive marshes, called maple swamps, exclusively covered with it, where it is found seventy feet high and three or four feet in diameter. Sugar maple {Acer saccharinum) — It is nowhere more abundant than between the forty-sixth and forty-third degrees, which comprise Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the states of Vermont and New Hampshire and the District of Maine. In these regions it enters largely into the composition of the forests, with which they are still covered. Farther south it is common only in Genesee, in the State of New York, and in the upper parts of Pennsylvania. It is estimated by Doctor Rush that in the northern parts of these two states there are 10,000,000 acres which produce these trees in the proportion of thirty to an acre. The sugar maple covers a greater extent of the American soil than any other species of this genus. In the United States maple sugar is made in the greatest quantities in the upper part of New Hampshire, in Vermont, in the State of New York, particularly in Genesee, and in the counties of Pennsylvania which lie on the eastern and western branches of the Susquehanna. A g^eat deal of sugar is also made in Upper Canada, on the Wabash, and near Michili Mackinac. Large flowered magnolia or big laurel {Magnolia grandiflora) — It is first seen in the lower part of North Carolina near the River Nuse in the latitude of 35 degrees 31 minutes ; proceeding from this point it is found in the northern parts of the southern states, and of the Floridas, and as far up the Mississippi as Natchea 300 miles above New Orleans. Loblolly bay — The loblolly bay is confined within the same limits with the long- leaved pine, being confined to the lower parts of the southern states, to the two Floridas and to lower Louisiana. It is very abundant in the branch swamps and attains greater proportions than the red bay, swamp bay and black gum, with which it is usually associated. Poplar, or tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) — The southern extremity of Lake Champlain in latitude 45 degrees may be considered as the northern limit, and the Connecticut River, in the longitude 72, as the eastern limit of the tulip tree. It is multiplied in the middle states in the upper parts of the Carolinas, Georgia and still more abundantly in the western country, particularly in Ken- tucky. The western states appear to be the natural soil of this magnificent tree. It is commonly found mingled with other trees, such as the hickories, the black walnut, butternut, and the wild cherry tree, but it sometimes constitutes alone pretty large tracts of the forests, as my father observed in Kentucky, on the road from Beard Stone to Louisville. In no other part of the United States did he find the tulip trees so lofty and of such great diameter. He measured one which, at five feet from the ground, was twenty-two feet six inches in circumference and whose elevation he judged to be from 120 to 140 feet. The nature of the soil has such a striking influence upon the color and upon the quality of the tulip tree that mechanics who employed it have made the remark, and have distinguished it by the names of white poplar and yellow poplar. Sweet gum {Liquidambar styraciflua) — On the seashore it is seen toward the northeast between Portsmouth and Boston in latitude 43 degrees 30 minutes ; and it is found as far as old Mexico toward the southwest ; from the coast of Virginia it 322 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. extends westward to the Illinois River, thus spreading over more than two-thirds of the ancient territory of the United States, together with the two Floridas, upper and lower Louisiana and a great part of New Spain. Buttonwood or sycamore {Platanus occidentalis) — The nature of the button- wood confines it to moist and cool ground where the soil is loose, deep and fertile. The buttonwood is in no part of North America more abundant and more vigorous than along the great rivers of Pennsylvania and Virginia, though in the more fertile valleys of the West its vegetation is, perhaps, still more luxuriant, especially along the banks of the Ohio and the rivers which empty into it. On a little island in the Ohio fifteen miles above the mouth of the Muskingbm, my father measured a but- tonwood which, at five feet from the ground, was forty feet four inches in circum- ference, and, consequently, more than thirteen feet in diameter. Twenty years be- fore, General Washington had measured the same tree and found it to be of nearly the same size. In 1802, in a journey through the western states, I found on the right bank of the Ohio, thirty-six miles from Marietta, a buttonwood whose base was swollen in an extraordinary manner. My traveling companion and myself measured it, and at four feet from the ground we found it to be forty-seven feet in circumference. A buttonwood of equal size is mentioned as existing in Genesee. Canoe birch {Betula papyracea) — The canoe birch is most multiplied in the for- ests in the country lying north of 43 degrees latitude and between 75 degrees of west longitude and the Atlantic Ocean, comprising the lower part of New Brunswick, the District of Maine and the states of New Hampshire and Vermont. Black birch (Betula lento) —In Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York it is next in esteem to the wild cherry tree among cabinet makers in the country. Locust {Robinia pseudacacia) — The locust is mostly multiplied in the South- west, and abounds in all the valleys between the chains in the Allegheny Mountains, particularly in Limestone Valley. It is also common in all the western states, and in the territory between the Ohio and Illinois rivers, and the Lakes and the Mississippi. Wild cherry tree {^Cerasus virginiana) — It is nowhere more profusely multiplied nor more fully developed than beyond the mountains in the states of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. On the banks of the Ohio I have measured stocks which were from twelve to sixteen feet in circumference and from eighty to 100 feet in stature. American chestnut (Casianea vesca) — It is most multiplied in the mountainous districts of the Carolinas and of Georgia and abounds on the Cumberland Moun- tains and in East Tennessee. The coolness of the summer and the mildness of the winter in these regions are favorable to the chestnut. White beech {Fagus sylvestris) — Most multiplied in the qiiddle and western states. It is common in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and throughout the country east of the mountains. I found the finest beeches on the banks of the Ohio, between Gallipolis and Marietta. Black gum {Nyssa sylvaticd) — In all the more southern states, both east and west of the Allegheny Mountains, it is more or less multiplied, as the soil is more or less favorable to its growth. It is designated by the names of black gum, yellow gum and sour gum. White ash (Fraxinus americana) — It sometimes attains the height of eighty feet with a diameter of three fQ.et and is one of the largest trees of the United UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 323 States. This wood is highly esteemed for its strength, suppleness and elasticity and is employed with advantage for a great variety of uses. White elm (Ulmus americana) — This tree is found over an extensive tract of the North American continent. I have myself observed it from Nova Scotia to the extremity of Georgia, a distance of 1,200 miles. It abounds in all the western states and I have learned that it is common in the neighborhood of the great rivers that water upper Louisiana and empty into the Mississippi. But it appeared to be the most multiplied and of the loftiest height between the forty-second and forty- sixth degrees of latitude, which comprise the provinces of Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the northeastern section of the United States, and Genesee, in the State of New York. American lime or basswood (Tilia americana) — Among the lime trees of North America, east of the Mississippi this species is the most multiplied. It exists in Canada, but is more common in the northern parts of the United States, where it is usually called basswood. It becomes less frequent toward the South, and in Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia it is found only on the Allegheny Mountains. More than a hundred years of settlement has made great inroads upon the continuous forests that once covered the territory embraced within the boundaries of the central hardwood belt. Much of the land within this territory is of great natural fertility, but the settlers found it covered with forests. The first necessity that confronted them was, therefore, besides the securing of sufficient timber for structural, domestic and industrial purposes, to clear a way for the crops. Thus, an enormous quantity, and also enormous in value, if it should be meas- ured by present standards, was consigned to the burning log pile. Later, the remaining forests were drawn upon for the needs of com- merce, until now the last strongholds are being attacked. Ohio, Indiana, southern Michigan and central Illinois, once densely covered with broad-leaved trees, have become agricultural rather than timber sections, although much timber in more or less detached groups still remains. The same is true of western Kentucky and Tennessee and of Missouri. Western New York has been essentially an agricul- tural section for nearly three-quarters of a century. Pennsylvania, so rich in mineral resources, has drawn upon its woodlands to supply the needs of the mines and furnaces, so that its forests — whether conifer- ous or broad-leaved — have been cut into in all directions, and agricul- ture has supplanted the trees through the fertile bottom lands and mountain benches to a greater or less extent throughout the whole territory. The primeval forests are now chiefly confined to certain plateaus of central Kentucky and Tennessee and to the southern Appa- lachians from Pennsylvania to and into Georgia and Alabama. Even 324 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. on these still largely untouched forests some attacks have been made and more or less culling of the better classes of timber, notably of oak suitable for several purposes, poplar, walnut and cherry, has been made. An enormous area, as shown by a table given on a preceding page, still is unused by agriculture, remaining either in primitive forests, in stump lands or in brush lands. Much of the area still available for forest growth and of little use for any other purposes has been de- spoiled of all its better trees and is earning little in the way of forest growth that is of value, for tree weeds too often, unless restrained by the art of forestry, succeed the more valuable species. However, there still remains a wonderfully valuable resource of almost or quite un- touched forests, while the hope for the future of the country rests in the great areas that, though sadly diminished in value, are still available for forest growth and will doubtless be devoted to that purpose. Coin- cident with the diminution of the hardwood supply is a growing public appreciation of its value and a greater interest in and knowledge of the methods necessary to perpetuate or reproduce the forests. Wherever there is a tract of land upon which trees of value may once more grow, no matter how barren, unkempt and worthless it may appear to be, there is the possibility of a new forest, which a later generation will be able to devote to the use of a wiser, more conservative, and more appreciative civilization. THE SOUTHERN CONIFEROUS BELT. This extremely valuable forest area — which within the last twenty years has been the seat of the most active and extensive development of the lumber industry, only in the last ten years being rivaled in point of growth by the Pacific Coast — as stated before, extends from Dela- ware along the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts to about the Trinity River in Texas, extending inland various distances, but in rough outline taking in the eastern portions of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, nearly all of Florida, the southern portions of Georgia, Ala- bama and Mississippi, all of Louisiana, the eastern part of Texas and the southern part of Arkansas. North of this territory the forests are so largely broad-leaved in their species that they are of hardwood rather than of coniferous type. The chief exceptions to the general coniferous character of this area are found in the extreme southern part of Florida and along the bottom lands of streams flowing into the Gulf, including the wide hardwood UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 325 belt bordering the Mississippi River on its lowlands; in these cases, however, possession being often taken by the cypress. Dr. B. E. Fernow thus describes this forest area, with special refer- ence to the four leading pine species: "There are, in general, four belts of pine forest of different types recognizable, their boundaries running in general direction somewhat parallel to the coast line: (1) The coast plain, or pine-barren flats, within the tidewater region, ten to thirty miles wide, once occupied mainly by the most valuable of south- em timbers, the longleaf pine, now being replaced by Cuban and lob- lolly pines ; (2) the rolling pine hills, or pine barrens proper, with a width of fifty to 120 miles, the true home of the longleaf pine, which occupies it almost by itself ; (3) the belt of mixed growth of twenty to sixty miles in width, in which the longleaf pine loses its predominance, the shortleaf , the loblolly, and the hardwoods associating and disputing territory with it, and (4) the shortleaf pine belt, where the species predominates on the sandy soils, the longleaf being entirely absent and the loblolly only a feeble competitor, hardwoods being interspersed or occupying the better sites." In this coniferous belt are seven species of pines ; one Taxodium, the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) ; one species of cedar (Chamce- cyparis thyoides), known as white cedar; three species of juniper; one of the genus Tumion, known as stinking cedar, and one yew. Of these species the most important are the Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla) , loblolly pine (P- ttedaj, spruce or cedar pine (P. glabra), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), longleaf pine CP. palustris) and sand pine (P. clausa); two species of juniper (Juniperus virginiana and /. barba- densis), known as red cedars, and bald cypress. Of all the above named coniferous species, four are of conspicuous value : The longleaf pine, the shortleaf pine, the loblolly pine and the cypress. The Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla) is almost invariably given as one of the four coordinate yellow pines of the South, but its range is so narrow and its quantity so small comparatively, that it is, in fact, a minor wood, owing its chief importance to the fact that in the second growth it often replaces the longleaf. THP LONGLEAF PINE. The most valuable of all the southern pines, though perhaps not adapted to the most diversified uses, is the longleaf pine ; the famous American pitch pine of foreign trade, or the Georgia pine of domestic commerce up to the time when the more definite term, longleaf pine. 326 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. was adopted. This wood was principally confined to a belt about 125 miles in width roughly following the coast from the mouth of Chesa- peake Bay to the Trinity River in Texas. The distribution of this wood was continuous from the first-named point to western Mississippi, where the lowlands of the Mississippi River introduced a remarkable break, the species reappearing again in Louisiana and in eastern Texas. The heaviest growth found its northern limit in central North Carolina. In eastern Alabama there was an extension north near the Tennessee line. West of the Mississippi River there were two main bodies, one lying north of the Red River, and the other in western Louisiana and eastern Texas. The growth of this wood in respect to quality and quantity per acre was remarkably uniform through South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, but while the immense resources of Georgia and the early prominence of that State in its production and coastwise shipment gave the name " Georgia pine" to the product, the average density, if not the quality of growth, increased toward the west. Thus, the Georgia forests pro- duced higher averages per acre than those of South Carolina, and Ala- bama forests were denser than those of Georgia or northern Florida ; while still heavier were the longleaf forests of Mississippi; and in Mississippi the western portion of the forests, lying west of the Pearl River, were the heaviest. Crossing the Mississippi River, however, the most luxuriant forests of longleaf pine in the country were, and still are, to be found, though perhaps not excelling in this respect some considerable districts in Mississippi. In Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas large tracts have averaged as high as 20,000 feet of merchant- able timber per acre. The longleaf pine is characterized by weight, strength and firmness of grain, and its sap has been the chief basis of the turpentine industry of the Southeast. In his exhaustive study of the southern pines, entitled, " Timber Pines of the Southern United States," Doctor Charles Mohr thus de- scribes the habitat of the longleaf pine and incidentally gives a clear idea of the other forest characteristics of the region : This great maritime pine belt east of the Mississippi River presents such differ- ences in topographical features and such diversity of physical and mechanical con- ditions of the soil as to permit a distinction of three divisions going from the coast to the interior : 1. The coastal plain, or low pine barrens within the tidewater region, extends from the seashore inland for a distance of from ten to thirty miles and over. The UNITED STATES—FOREST RESOURCES. 327 forests of the longleaf pine which occupy the poorly drained grassy flats of the plain are very open, intersected by numerous inlets of the sea and by brackish marshes. They are also interrupted by swamps densely covered with cjrpress, white cedar, white and red bay, water oak, live oak, magnolia, tupelo gum and black gum , and again by grassy savannas of greater or less extent. On the higher level, or what might be called the first terrace, with its better drained and more loamy soil, the longleaf pine once prevailed, but almost everywhere in the coastal plain the original timber has been removed by man and replaced by the loblolly pine and the Cuban pine. 2. The rolling pine lands, pine hills, or pine barrens proper are the true home of the longleaf pine. On the Atlantic Coast these uplands rise to hills over 600 feet in height, while in the Gulf region they form broad, gentle undulations rarely exceeding an elevation of 300 feet. Thus, spreading out in extensive tablelands, these hills are covered exclusively with the forests of this tree for many hundreds of square miles without interruption. Here it reigns supreme. The monotony of the pine forests on these tablelands is unbroken. 3. The upper division, or region of mixed growth. With the appearance of the strata of the Tertiary formation in the upper part of the pine belt, the pure forests of the longleaf pine are confined to the ridges capped by the drifted sands and pebbles and to the rocky heights of siliceous chert, alternating with open woods of oak (principally post oak), which occupy the richer lands of the calcareous loams and marls. However, where these loams and marls, rich in plant food, min- gle with the drifted soils, we find again the longleaf pine, but associated with broad-leaved trees and with the loblolly and shortleaf pine. Here the longleaf pine attains a larger size and the number of trees of maximum growth per acre is found almost double that on the lower division. Of the distribution of the longleaf pine west of the Mississippi River, Doctor Mohr says : The forests of the longleaf pine west of the Mississippi River, as in regions so far considered, are geographically limited to the sands and gravels of the latest Tertiary formation. They make their first appearance in Louisiana above the great alluvial plain, in the uplands bordering the valley of the Ouachita, and follow its course for fifty miles ; then extend west, skirting Lake Catahoula and the alluvial lands of the Red River. These pine forests to the north of this river cover an area estimated at 1,625,000 acres, extending northward for a distance averaging fifty-five miles. Toward their northern limit the forests pass gradually into a mixed growth of deciduous trefes and shortleaf pine. In the center of this region the pine ridges alternate with tracts of white oak and hickory. Tending toward the Red River, the pure forest of longleaf pine which covers the undulating uplands is unbroken. . . . South of the Red River bottom the forests of longleaf pine continue un- broken to the Sabine River and south to the treeless savannas of the coast in Calcasieu Parish, their eastern boundary parallel with the eastern boundary of that parish. Roughly estimated, these forests cover an area of about 2,668,000 acres. . . . On the lands rising gently above the flat woods, with the ridges still low and wide and then more or less imperfectly drained, longleaf pine is found of an exceedingly fine growth. The trees in the dense forest are tall and slender, and 328 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. their timber is equaled only by the timber of the same class growing in the valley of the Neches River, in Texas. ... In Texas the forests of longleaf pine ex- tend from the Sabine west to the Trinity River and from the grassy savannas of the coast region north to the center of Sabine, San Augustine, and Angelina counties, and include an area of about 2,890,000 acres. In amount and quality of the timber these forests are unsurpassed and are only equaled by the forest of the adjoining region in Louisiana. . . . The growth of longleaf pine which covers the gentle, wide swells is dense, of fine proportions and of remarkably rapid development. The longleaf pine no longer exists in commercial quantities in some sections where it was once abundant. Such is the case in Virginia and most of North Carolina. The lumber industry based upon this timber has also probably reached its maximum in Georgia and Alabama. Yet in all the states south of the Carolinas it will continue for many years to be a tree of first importance economically and in the supply of the markets. Of recent years the greatest developments in the industry have been seen in Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, and the largest quantity of standing timber is to be found in the three states last named. Preponderant in quantity of timber, however, is Louisiana, and it promises to maintain an output of longleaf pine which shall be of importance long after the other states have shown marked diminution. THE SHORTLEAF PINE. Next in importance among the southern pines is the shortleaf pine. This wood is of very wide distribution, reaching far to the north of the limits of the southern coniferous belt. According to F. Andr6 Michaux, this species originally extended as far north as Albany, New York, and even to the present time specimens are found on Staten Island. Its northern limit of growth of commercial value is, however, today found in eastern Maryland. Doctor Charles Mohr thus describes the northern limit, west of the Alleghenies, of shortleaf pine : " A line drawn from the lower part of Wood County, West Virginia, to Menifee County, eastern Kentucky. Beyond the wide gap covered by the deciduous forests of the lower Ohio Valley and the flooded plain of the Mississippi the tree appears on the southeast spur of the Ozark Hills in Cape Girardeau County, Missouri, latitude 37 degrees 30 minutes ; and on the opposite side of the river on the bluffs of Union and Jackson counties, Illinois, the line dropping gradually half a degree southward to the westward limit of its range." It was originally most abundant in Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Indian Territory and Missouri. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 329 For the most part it grew mixed with hardwoods, or the longleaf and loblolly pines, but it made almost pure forests in some limited sections east of the Mississippi River and in northwestern Louisiana, north- eastern Texas, southwestern Arkansas and southern Missouri. Not- withstanding the fact that it has largely disappeared from the north- eastern part of its range, it still is an important factor in the pine pro- duction of all the southern states east of the Mississippi and an especially important one in Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas. The Missouri supplies of this timber are approaching exhaustion and its production in Arkansas cannot long continue at the present rate. In character the lumber made from the shortleaf pine is lighter and softer than that from the longleaf, and it usually, though not always, bears a similar relation to loblolly. It is often difficult to discriminate among the three varieties of lumber, except when seen in considerable quantities. Individual boards of one species may so resemble charac- teristic boards of other species as to be almost impossible of identi- fication, but in quantities the shortleaf pine is usually easily recogniz- able. The wood is • especially adapted for house finish, sash and door manufacture, etc. THE LOBLOLLY PINE. Tlje third important southern pine is the loblolly, which will proba- bly achieve the distinction of proving in the long run the heaviest contributor of all the southern pines to the lumber supply of the country, inasmuch as it is mixed with all the other pines, reproduces itself readily and ordinarily takes the place of its associates when they are removed by the lumbermen. Its characteristic of abundant fertility and rapid growth has given it the name of "oldfield" pine, inasmuch as it customarily constitutes the second growth timber on cut over pine lands. Loblolly pine extends south over practically the entire range of both longleaf and Cuban pine, and north through the heavier range of shortleaf, except west of the Mississippi River, but finds its northern limit far south of the extreme northern boundary of shortleaf. Its northern limit is found substantially along the northern boundaries of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, reaching north on the east to North Carolina and Virginia, and on the west extending a short distance into Tennessee. West of the Mississippi River it is found in western Louisiana, eastern Texas from the Gulf to Indian Territory, in southeastern Indian Territory and in southern and southeastern Arkansas. It is the leading 330 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. pine of Virginia and North Carolina. Its heaviest growth east of the Mississippi River is found through central South Carolina and just south of the center of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi. Large forests exist in northern Alabama. West of the Mississippi River there are two great bodies, one in eastern Texas and the other in northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas. In almost every case the loblolly grows in mixture with longleaf or shortleaf pine or both and also occu- pies territories in mixture with hardwoods. In its lumber characteristics the loblolly is not considered the equal of either longleaf or shortleaf, but its growth is so afEected by location that it may in different sections partake of the characteristics of either. In the longleaf district it is usually cut and marketed with the longleaf, and in the shortleaf districts with that wood, seldom, if ever, appearing in the market under its own name. In some sections it grows with a large amount of sap and a small heart, producing lumber even lighter and softer than shortleaf, resembling in this respect northern white pine, while in some other regions it grows heavy and hard, with a marked resemblance to longleaf pine. The original stand of the yellow pines of the South was enormous. They covered more or less densely a third of Virginia ; half of North Carolina ; all of South Carolina ; nearly all of Georgia ; three-fourths of Florida ; nearly all of Alabama ; three-fourths of Mississippi ; two- thirds of Louisiana ; a strip in Texas, all the entire length of its eastern boundary reaching from 100 to 125 miles west ; half of the Indian Ter- ritory; all of Arkansas, except the hardwood limits in the eastern bottoms, and the southern fourth of Missouri, together with scattering examples in Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia. In 1905 the seat of the most extensive manufacture of yellow pine is in Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas, though it is still an important industry everywhere within its range and will continue to be for indefinite years to come. However, while the industry as a whole is increasing in the volume of its production, some sections are show- ing a decrease. Such are Missouri and portions of Arkansas, and prob- ably within a decade a decided reduction in the annual output of pine from Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas will be observed. In the most eastern part of their range the yellow pines have already de- clined to a basis which can probably be maintained for many years. Estimates of the quantity of standing timber of the four varieties of yellow pine vary materially ; but perhaps an average of the various UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 331 estimates of the quantity of timber, so standing that it can be made the basis for pine sawmill operations, is, for the entire South, 300,000,000,- 000 feet — a quantity which should supply the mills at their present rate of output for about thirty years. But, as the pines cover more or less solidly so wide a range of country, and as their rate of growth is so rapid, there appears no reason why, with conservative management, they should not supply indefinitely a consumption as great as the present. However, only the beginnings of conservative lumbering have yet been made ; in fact, the perpetuation of these wonderful re- sources is only just beginning to be considered by the owners of forests and by lumber producers. THE SOUTHERN CYPRESS. The other great conifer of the South, particularly worthy of special mention, is the cypress. Its range is in river swamps and damp low- lands from southern Delaware, near the coast, along the south Atlantic and gulf states into Texas, and north along the Mississippi River and its tributaries as far as southern Illinois and Indiana. In locations favorable as to soil and moisture in all this range, it grows in commer- cial quantities, but to its highest value on alluvial deposits in the delta regions south of the limit of heavy frosts. As these lands have their greatest area in Louisiana, there the cypress of first quality is found in the greatest abundance on the lands that, before the construction of levees, were subject to overflow ; but it is found of similar quality in corresponding locations in Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia and South Carolina. OUTLINES OF THE PACIFIC FOREST. The western grand division of the forest area of the United States will be treated here only in a general way. Somewhat minuter state- ments as to tree varieties find an appropriate place in the chapter relating to forest reserves, which are almost entirely found in the West, rendering unnecessary a detailed treatment in this place. The Pacific or western forest includes all the timbered area west of the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains, thus including Montana, the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico and extreme western Texas, and all the states lying west thereof. Various schemes for the subdivision of these forests have been proposed. A broad one,' obvious both because of topography and tree species, makes one dividing line running approximately north and south just east of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains. East of that line, 332 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. including the great Rocky Mountain region, the country is arid, or semiarid, with a class of trees adapted to the climate ; while west of that line difEerent meteorological conditions prevail and a somewhat distinct flora is to be observed, although there are some species whose botanical and commercial ranges extend over the entire length and breadth of the western forest region. Doctor Sargent makes this grand division, but with further subdivisions. The extreme southern end of the Rocky Mountain forest introduces a narrow east and west division covering all the southern portions of Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas. This is because in that region the flora is largely of the type of Mexico, with numerous species which are not found elsewhere in the United States and with few that prevail on or north of the mountain masses and elevated plateaus in northern Arizona and New Mexico. Doctor Sargent also turns the main line of the division running east of the Sierras, eastward from Wash- ington to include northern Idaho and northwestern Montana, whence it would extend into British Columbia. This extension, though it would seem to ignore the influence of the Cascade Mountains, agrees with the facts as to the distribution of commercial timber, the coast species at this point extending eastward to Montana with a development which warrants the classification of the timber of western Washington, north- ern Idaho and western Montana with the coast flora proper rather than with that of the Rocky Mountains. Doctor Sargent, however, divides the coast forest — that great tim- bered region extending from the summits of the Cascades and Sierra Nevadas to the coast — by a line following the boundary between Wash- ington and Oregon. From a commercial standpoint that line should be drawn on or just north of the boundary between California and Oregon, for the forests of western Washington and western Oregon are similar in character, and consist chiefly of the same species, while the forest flora of California is somewhat distinct in its character and its species. Thus, the leading commercial species of western Washington, Douglas spruce, hemlock, tideland spruce, giant arborvitse or red cedar, and various firs, are found in equal development through Oregon, well toward its southern portion ; whereas some of the leading species of California, notably redwood and sugar pine, are not found far north of the California border. Redwood, in fact, stops short at the State's boundary, except for a small body in extreme southwestern Oregon. Sugar pine reaches a little farther into Oregon, but decreases in quan- UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 333 tity as the line of the Cascades is followed. From a market standpoint, likewise, Washington and Oregon should be grouped, while the forest products of California, including a certain limited portion of south- western Oregon, find markets of their own. The Pacific forest is as different from the eastern forest as can well be imagined. It is, in the first place, coniferous in its type. Ignoring the Mexican species at the extreme south, it has nearly sixty species of conifers and only about 105 species of broad-leaved trees, while the eastern forest practically reverses this proportion with only sixty-five species of conifers, while it has about 200 species of broad-leaved trees, in both cases excluding tropical species. In the second place, whereas the eastern forest was originally continuous or practically so, the west- em forest is much broken, and of the total area included within its limits only a minor portion is tree covered. A topographical map of the United States clearly shows the cause of these differences. The Rocky Mountain region, lifting itself in multitudes of ranges and high plateaus above the prairie and plains region of the Mississippi Valley and also the interior arid basin of the West, is forested, to such an extent as it is, simply because its average height enables it to squeeze some moisture out of the air, dry as it is, from its passage over the coast ranges on the west or the plains and prairies on the east. The trees of all this great Rocky Mountain region, covering more than six states and territories, are distinctly of mountain type. West of the Rockies is a region of lower and arid mountains, sandy plains and dry and hot valleys, which is practically destitute of forests, the scanty and inferior tree growth being hardly sufl&cient for the domestic needs of the sparse population. The determining topographical feature that accounts for this condi- tion is the great Cordillera, which, known as the Cascades through Wash- ington and Oregon and as the Sierra Nevadas through California, acts as an almost impassable barrier, through the greater part of its course, to the warm and moisture laden winds from the Pacific. Rising abruptly from the shore line, are the Coast ranges of Wash- ington and Oregon. These are broken, so that the parts of those states west of the Cascades are more generally afforested than is the case in California. In that State the Coast ranges are almost continuous, the only important break being at San Francisco Bay. This fact introduces through central California and throughout the south a comparatively dry and treeless region. This continuity of the Coast ranges of Call- 334 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. fornia and the broken character of the Coast ranges of Oregon and Washington is one of the chief reasons why the east and west dividing line of the Coast arborescent flora should be at about the northern border of California, rather than between Oregon and Washington. Latitude also has its influence. Stretching from about 32 degrees to 49 degrees north latitude, or nearly 1,200 miles, in the western United States, the treeline rises from north to south so that some trees which cover the whole range are of great commercial value at one extreme and of little value at the other. Thus, some of the firs, which are found at comparatively low levels in Washington, are at high levels on the Sierra Nevadas. The Douglas spruce or red fir ( Pseudotsuga taxifolia), which is found at moderate elevations in northern Washington, is found on elevations of 8,000 feet or more in Arizona and New Mexico. Mountain white pine (Pinus monticola), which is found at an altitude of 5,000 feet in Idaho, is near the treeline in California, while Pinus flexilis, another white pine grow- ing at accessible altitudes near the northern boundary of the United States, is near the treeline in New Mexico and Arizona; further, the Engelmann spruce, at an elevation of 5,000 feet in Idaho, is found in New Mexico at over 8,000 feet. There are certain species which bind all these somewhat scattered forest areas together. One is the western yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa) , of which the botanist recognizes two or three varieties. This is the most important timber tree of New Mexico and Arizona, one of the most important of the Sierras and Cascades, is scattere<^ all along the various Rocky Mountain ranges, grows as far east as western Texas and western South Dakota, and is one of the most important contribu- tors to the sawmills of Montana, Idaho and western Washington. The Engelmann spruce is another of these trees of wide distribution. The Douglas fir, which reaches its best development in western Washington and Oregon, is found throughout the entire western forest system, reaching east to the extreme limits of those timbered areas. On the other hand, some trees are limited in their range. Pinus flexilis is characteristic of the Rocky Mountains and Pinus monticola of the Coast ranges. Sugar pine is almost exclusively confined to the Sierra Nevadas; tideland spruce, to the immediate vicinity of the northern coast ; western hemlock, to the Coast ranges and to northern Idaho ; lowland fir, to northern California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and western Montana; noble fir, to the northern Coast ranges, etc. UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 335 The white fir is, by the way, one whose range is practically universal south of central Oregon, Idaho and Wyoming. The following is a list of the leading commercial timber species of the Pacific forest, with their range and location of best development : Pinus monticola, silver pine, white pine— Range : From Vancouver Island and southern British Columbia, northern Idaho and Montana, on Cascade and Coast ranges of Washington and Oregon and on Sierra Nevadas, to Calaveras County, California. Best development in northern Idaho. Pinus latnbertiana, sugar pine — Range: From southern Oregon through Cali- fornia, at elevations of 3,000 to 7,000 feet, to San Bernardino Mountains. Best development on western slopes of Sierra Nevadas. Pinus flexilis, limber pine. Rocky Mountain white pine — Range : Eastern slope of Rocky Mountains from Alberta to western Texas, and in Montana, Nevada, Arizona and southeastern California at elevations of 5,000 to 12,000 feet. Best development in Montana and northern New Mexico and northern Arizona. Pinus ponderosa, bull pine, western yellow pine — Range : From southern British Columbia and western South Dakota south to western Texas and west to the Pacific Ocean. Very widely distributed, but reaching best development in New Mexico and Arizona and in the northern Sierra Nevadas. Two varieties are in- cluded. Larix occidentalis , western larch or tamarack — Range : Southern British Columbia south between Cascade Mountains and western Montana to northeastern Oregon. Best development northern Montana and northern Idaho. Picea engelmanni, Engelmann spruce, white spruce — Range : High .slopes of Rocky Mountain region west to the Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia to northern Arizona. Best development in extreme north. Picea sitchensis, Sitka spruce, tideland spruce — Range : Moist soil near coast from Kadiak Island, Alaska, to Mendocino County, California. Most abundant in extreme western Washington. Tsuga heterophylla, western hemlock — Range : Southeastern Alaska to San Francisco, western slopes of Cascade and Coast ranges, reaching Idaho and western Montana. Best development western Washington and Oregon. Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Douglas spruce, red fir, Oregon pine — Range : North and south through the Rocky Mountain region and west to the Pacific Coast, ex- cept the arid mountains of western Utah and of Nevada. Best development west of the summit of the.Cascades in Washington and Oregon. Abies grandis, lowland fir, white fir — Range : Coast region from Vancouver Island into northern California, east in Washington and northern Oregon to western Montana. Best development in Washington and northern Oregon. Abies concolor, white fir— Range : Central Oregon south to Mexico, and east over arid regions to Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. Best development on California Sierras. Abies amabilis, white fir— Range : Coast and Cascade ranges from British Columbia into northern Oregon. Best development on the Olympic Mountains, Washington. Abies nobilis, noble fir, red fir, larch— Range: Coast ranges of Washington 336 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. and Oregon, on Cascade Range from northern Washington to center o£ Oregon. Best development on western slopes of Cascades in southern Washington and northern Oregon. Abies magnifica, red fir — Range : Southern Oregon and south along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas. Best development in southern Oregon and northern California. Sequoia Washingtoniana, bigtree— Range : Western slope of Sierra Nevadas, California, from latitude 36 to 39 north. Best development on the North Fork of the Tule River. Sequoia sempervirens, redwood— Range: Fringing the coast within the influ- ence of ocean fogs from southern Oregon to Monterey County, California. Best de- velopment north of Cape Mendocino. Libocedrus decurrens, incense cedar— Range: South from Marion County, Ore- gon, on western slopes of Cascades and Sierra Nevadas through California, and on Coast ranges of California from Mendocino County south ; also in western Nevada. Best development on Sierras of central California at elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet. Thuja plicata, giant arborvitae, red cedar, canoe cedar — Range: From coast of southern Alaska south to Mendocino County, California, east in northern Wash- ington and Idaho to northern Montana. Best development in western Washington. Chameecyparis lawsoniana, Port Orford cedar — Range: Close to Ocean from Coos Bay, Oregon, to the Klamath River, California, also on Siskiyou Mountains and Mt. Shasta. Best development north of Rogue River, Oregon. ChanuBcyparis nootkatensis, yellow cedar, Sitka cypress — Range: Cascade Mountains of Washington and northern Oregon west to the coast. Best develop- ment in the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, and on coast of Alaska. Quercus californica, black oak — Range: From central Oregon along western slopes of Sierras through California, and west to Coast ranges. Best development in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Quercus agrifolia, California live oak — Range: From Mendocino County, Cali- fornia, south through the Coast ranges to Lower California. Best development in valleys south of San Francisco Bay. Quercus garryana. Pacific post oak, white oak — Range: From British Columbia south through western Washington, Oregon and California. Best development in valleys of western Washington and Oregon. Acer tnacropkyllum, Oregon maple, broad-leaved maple — Range: From sea level to 2,000 feet elevations west of the Cascades and Sierra Nevadas to the coast through Washington, Oregon and California. Best development bottom lands of western Oregon. Arbutus menziesii, madrona— Range: Coast region of Washington and Oregon, and Coast ranges in California. Best development in Mendocino, Humboldt and Del Norte counties, California. It will be noted that in the above list are twenty species of conifers and but five of broad-leaved trees. The western hardwoods are not of great commercial importance, unless the maple ° be excepted, though 9 Thomas Nuttall, the EngHsh-American botanist, who in 1834 explored the Pacific Coast of the United States, thus speaks of the largre leaved maple (.Acer macrophyllum) : " The topographical UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 337 important in the domestic economy of the Coast, furnishing fuel, staves, furniture material, house finish, etc. It is difficult to state what wood is of greatest economic value, but probably that position should be given to Douglas spruce, or Douglas fir, as it has been popularly known. Certainly if with it be combined the various firs, genus Abies, such as the lowland, white, noble and red firs, it will excel any other wood in quantity of standing timber and in its contribution to the markets. Perhaps next in importance is the western yellow pine {Piniis pon- derosa). This is so, not so much because of its preponderating quan- tity in any one locality, as because of its wide distribution, entering largely, as it does, into the lumber product of most of the states under consideration. Its product is known as California white pine in Cali- fornia; as Arizona white pine in Arizona; as white pine in eastern Washington, Idaho and Montana. It is the common pine of every day use in many widely separated localities. After these two timbers come others, rivaling each other in impor- tance, such as western hemlock, whose merits are only yet beginning to be appreciated, redwood, larch and red cedar {Thuja plicata) . There are other woods of high quality but of restricted range, such as tide- land spruce and Port Orford cedar. Then there are the white pines proper {Pinus monticola and Pinus flexilis) , which, though covering a wide range, are seldom found in heavy forests. FORESTS OF THE WEST, BY STATES. A brief description of the locations and leading species of the for- ests of the West, by states, may be of interest. Washington, west of the center of the State, was originally covered by an almost solid forest. The only important exceptions were the treeless summits of the Cascades and Olympics, some semiprairies in the basin between Puget Sound and the Columbia River, and the sand dunes of the coast. These forests were of remarkable uniformity and wonderful density from the summits of the Cascades westward. To the east the tree growth decreased as the mountains were left behind until in the southeastern part of the State the plains enclosed and drained by rangre of this splendid species of maple, wholly indlgrenous to the northwest coast of America, ... is a somewhat narrow strip along the coast of the Pacific. . . . The largest trunks of this species we have seen were on the rich alluvial plains of the Willamette, and particularly near to its confluence with the Clackamas ; here we saw trees from fifty to ninety feet in height, with a circumference of eight to ten feet. . . . The wood, like that of the sugar maple, exhibits the most beautiful variety in its texture, some of it being undulated or curled; other portions present the numerous concentric spots which constitute the bird's-eye maple. . . . According to Loudon, specimens of the timber which were sent home by Douglas exhibit a grain scarcely inferior in beauty to the finest satinwood." 338 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the Columbia, Snake and lower Yakima rivers are found to be treeless. The northern part of the State throughout its entire width from east to west, was more or less timbered, with valuable forests in the extreme northeast. In the southeast, the forests of the Blue Mountains reach into Washington from Oregon. Oregon has two principal forest belts. One, following the Coast ranges the entire length of the State, is broken only by some large river valleys ; the other follows the line of the Cascade Mountains. These two coalesce in the southern part of the State on the cross ranges, which are there a feature of the topography. East of the summit of the Cascades the timber decreases in quantity and value. The northwest- ern part of the State is sparsely timbered, but on the mountains, and especially on the Blue Mountains and other ranges in the northeast- ern part of the State, they are of considerable importance. The central and southeastern interior plain is practically treeless, being a portion of the arid region which extends through Nevada and portions of Utah. The greatest remaining forests of the United States are in Oregon, though nearly equaled by those of California and Washington. As previously noted, California has two chief mountain systems, one, the Sierra Nevadas, running approximately from northwest to southeast, touching the eastern border of the State at Lake Tahoe where Nevada juts into it, and the other following the coast. The two ranges come together, or are joined by cross ranges, north at about Mt. Shasta, and south by the San Rafael, San Gabriel and other ranges. There is left between these two systems a great valley — that of the Sacramento to the north and of the San Joaquin to the south. This valley is almost treeless. On the Sierras grow sugar pine, western yel- low pine and firs of various sorts ; and on the Coast ranges, firs, spruces and, close to the coast, the famous redwood. South of the thirty-sixth parallel the forests are not of much commercial importance, but of im- mense value for local consumption and the protection of watersheds. In the southern and southwestern portions of the State, the forests are unimportant or lacking altogether, and in any event are confined to the mountain slopes. The forests of the northern part of Idaho are extremely rich, though the rugged topography so breaks them up that in stumpage per acre they will not compare with the forests of western Washington. Here is a notable extension of the coast flora proper, red cedar, Douglas fir and other coast woods growing in profusion, though of smaller size than on the Coast, while there are other timbers of importance, charac- UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 339 teristic of the Rocky Mountain region. The southern part of the State is largely arid and treeless, though in the southwestern portions there are some mountain forests of at least local importance. Nevada is almost treeless. A projection of the Sierra forest is found in the extreme western part of the State, but elsewhere tree growth is confined chiefly to the low ranges of the central and southern part. Montana is more or less timbered throughout, but the timber of commercial value is chiefly confined to the western and southwestern portion of the State. The main line of the Rockies, running from the state line north of Flathead Lake southwest to the Yellowstone Park, roughly outlines the eastern limits of the forests of commercial value. Wyoming is a state of rather thin mountain forests, but largely without trees. Only its highest mountain ranges are well timbered. The high tableland which occupies the central part of the State is des- titute of tree growth, while the low ridges which rise from this plateau, on the south, carry a scanty open forest. The most valuable trees of Wyoming are yellow pine, Alpine fir, cottonwood, larch, lodgepole pine, etc. The forests of Colorado are largely confined to the mountain ranges and high valleys of the western part of the State, east of the mountains the surface sloping away into the treeless plains. The most important tree is the Engelmann spruce, mingled with mountain pines. Below the spruce belt come red fir, yellow pine, etc. The Colorado forests have been of extreme value in the development of the State, but are so scattered and thin, and have been so difficult of access, that they have supplied only local requirements. Utah is largely treeless. Its forests are chiefly in the northeastern and central portions of the State, on the Wasatch Mountains and their continuations to the south. A part of the Colorado forest crosses into Utah in the eastern portion of the State. There are, therefore, two main treeless areas. One in the valley of the Colorado River between the center of the State and the mountains of Colorado; the other occupy- ing the western portion of the State from north to south. In New Mexico the forests are confined to the slopes and portions of the high mountain ranges. The elevated plateau which forms the eastern part of the State is practically treeless. Extensions to the south of Colorado forests .are found in the north, but the chief body of timber is west of the Rio Grande near the central part of the State 340 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. north and south. Here the yellow pine forms valuable forests with other woods such as red fir, white pine {Pinus flexilis) , cypress, etc. Arizona is almost entirely treeless, except for the central mountain region, which forms an extension of the New Mexico forests north- westward nearly to the Rio Grande. There is also a little timber in the northeastern part of the State and in the southeastern part on the mountain ranges. The yellow pine here constitutes extensive forests of commercial value. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE WEST. Scattered and broken as are the wooded areas embraced within the western states, the Pacific forest represents the greatest remaining timber resource of the United States; and it will continue to increase in relative importance. Remote from the centers of population and of lumber consumption, these forests will constitute the basis of a great lumber industry long after the eastern forest shall have reached the point of slow, conservative utilization on the basis of annual reproduc- tion. On page 284 will be found a table giving the areas of the various states, an estimate of their wooded areas, and the ratio of those areas to the total areas. From that table we reproduce some of the figures relating to the states within the Pacific forest : States and Territories. Total land area, SQuare miles. Wooded area, square miles. Percent of wooded to total area. 113,738 156,203 103,669 83,271 146,240 109,901 122.545 95,746 82,096 66,792 97,552 24,800 44,300 32,900 34,800 41,500 6.100 23,500 53,900 10,000 46,450 12,500 217 28.3 31.7 417 Montana 28 3 5.5 New Mexico 19.1 Oregon 56 3 Utah 12.1 Washingrton 69.3 Wy omlngr 12.8 Total 1.177,753 330,750 28 1 Standing without comment these figures seem to mean more in some cases and less in others than they actually do. The total area of the eleven states and territories is 1,177,753 square miles, of which 28.1 percent is estimated to be wooded. But the term "wooded area" is an elastic one. It means anything from hardly more than brush lands or a thin growth of inferior trees to the most magnificent forests of the UNITED STATES— FOREST RESOURCES. 341 globe. Thus, the large wooded area of Arizona, or Colorado, or Mon- tana, or New Mexico, means little to the lumber industry, while the figures for California, Oregon and Washington stand for enormous resources. Balancing the estimates in the various states, offsetting worthless lands with those of enormous value, actual or potential, it would not be surprising if the 212,000,000 acres west of the eastern boundary of the Rockies should carry a quantity of timber approaching one thousand billions of feet. These forests are to remain a great national resource, not only be- cause of their remoteness from the most important lumber consuming sections of the country, but also because they are to be presented and protected in a large measure by the National government. Over thirty- nine percent of this estimated wooded area was in the latter part of 1905 included within the forest reserves, a somewhat detailed account of which will be given in a succeeding chapter. Much of the more than 83,000,000 acres thus reserved is of scattering timber of little commer- cial value and set aside for the protection of watersheds and in the hope of an improvement of forest growths; but many large reserved areas, as in Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California, include some of the choicest forests of the continent. Under government control these forest resources will be guarded from fire and theft, and pre- served against the day when the lessening supply of timber and the growing demand will render practicable their scientific utilization. CHAPTER XXVII. PUBLIC LAND POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES, IN ITS RE- LATION TO LUMBERING. By the national domain is meant the entire territory over which the United States exercises sovereignty. The public domain includes that portion of the national domain where the title to the land is, or origi- nally was, vested in the United States. In a general way the public domain and the national domain coincide, except as to the area of the thirteen original states as delimited by their cession to the United States of their western land claims (which will be discussed later). In their present form these states have the following areas : New Hampshire. Massachusetts... Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina. . . South Carolina. . . Georgia Total 312,840 200,217,600 Land surface. Square miles. 9,056 8,038 1,081 4,794 47,687 7,454 44,679 1,969 9,875 39,925 48,972 30,460 58.850 Acres. 5,795,840 5,144,320 691,840 3,068,160 30,519,680 4,770,560 28,594,560 1,260,160 6,320,000 25,552,000 31,342,080 19,494,400 37,664,000 Water surface. Square miles. 321 508 166 818 6,032 719 1,249 411 2,422 2,405 3,702 588 586 19,927 205,440 325,120 106,240 523,520 3,860,480 460,160 799,360 263,040 1,550,080 1,539,200 2,369,280 376.320 375,040 12,753,280 Total area. Square miles. 9,377 8,546 1,247 5,612 153,719 8,173 ^45,928 2,380 12,297 42,330 52,674 31,048 59,436 Acres. 6,001,280 5,469,440 798,080 3,591,680 34,380,160 5,230,720 29,393,920 1,523,200 7,870,080 27,091,200 33,711,360 19,870,720 38,039,040 332,767 212,970,880 1 Includes 3,140 square miles lakes Erie and Ontario. 2 Includes 891 square miles Lake Erie. Four of the states afterwards admitted were formed within the unceded boundaries of the original thirteen colonies — Kentucky, Ver- mont, Maine and West Virginia. Tennessee was formed from the North Carolina cession, which, however, was subject to existing private claims and to Indian rights, in amount practically equaling the cession. On November 10, 1791, Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State, reported to Congress that the Indian titles had been extinguished to about 7,500,000 acres, and private claims already reported amounted to 8,118,- 601J^ acres. The rest of the Indian titles were extinguished by treaty, 342 UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 343 purchase, or conquest, but the volume of reported claims grew propor- tionately, and Congress, by act of February 18, 1841, turned both the old claims and the lands over to the State of Tennessee, granting the State any surplus which might be left over after satisfying the claims (Public Domain, p. 83). In the annexation of Texas the State retained the title to its public lands, as explained in a subsequent portion of this chapter, so that in the following states the State, and not the United States, is the owner of the public lands : Admitted. Land surface. Water surface. Total areas. Square miles. Acres. Square miles. Acres. Square miles. Acres. Kentucky.... Vermont — Tennessee . . Maine Texas W. Virginia. June 1,1792 Mar. 4,1791 Jnne 1.1796 Mar. 15, 1820 Dec. 29, 1845 June 19. 1863 39,898 9,114 41.686 29,894 262,506 24,343 25,534,720 5,832,960 26,679.040 19.132.160 168,003,840 15,579,520 434 449 370 3,145 3.505 161 277.760 287,360 236.800 2,012,800 2,243,200 103,040 40,332 9,563 42,056 33,039 266,011 24,504 25,812,480 6,120,320 26,915,840 21,144,960 170,247.040 15,682,560 Total.... 407,441 260,762,240 8.064 5.160,960 415,505 265,923.200 Connecticut, in her deed of cession of western lands, September 13, 1786, excepted the "Western Reserve " of Connecticut in Ohio, extend- ing from the western boundary of Pennsylvania 100 miles westward, and from the forty-first parallel north to Lake Erie. Of this tract, containing about 3,800,000 acres, about 500,000 acres, known as the "fire lands," were donated to its citizens who suffered by fire and raids during the Revolutionary War. Of the balance about 3,000,000 acres were sold to a land company at forty cents an acre, or $1,200,000, form- ing the basis of the present Connecticut school fund. Both the juris- diction and title to these lands were passed to the United States by deed of May 30, 1800, as authorized by the Connecticut Legislature on the second Thursday of May, 1800, and by Congress by act of April ■ 28, 1800. This action was chiefly to confirm title to the land, giving the holders from Connecticut the warrant of United States patents, and this territory was, therefore, practically never a part of the public domain. Other states also made certain specific reservations in their cessions, these being chiefly provisions for military and private land claims which had been issued by the State for the benefit of existing settlements and for extinguishment of Indian titles. CESSIONS BY THE STATES. The English colonies were established under royal charters with grants of land in fee simple, though some of the charters were after- 344 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ward forfeited or surrendered and the colonies became royal or crown colonies. The land grants were usually between given parallels of latitude or a given distance north and south from a certain point, bounded on the east, for most of the colonies, by the Atlantic Ocean, with the western boundaries necessarily somewhat vague because of the limited and inaccurate geographical knowledge of the period, but usually covering westward to the " South Sea " or Pacific Ocean, though, of course, practically confined to the western limits of British territory, or the Mississippi River. These charter grants were in most cases the bases of colonial claims to -vrestern lands or "back lands," though the claims of New York were based on Indian purchases, and Virginia, in addition to charter titles, claimed a large portion of northwestern terri- tory on the basis of conquest and occupancy based upon the expedition of General George R. Clarke to the Illinois country. The northern and southern extent of the various charter grants often overlapped, causing much confusion. By proclamation King George III restricted the colonial limits of Virginia, Massachusetts and Connecticut to the eastern watershed of the Allegheny Mountains. By this proclamation of 1763 the western lands were set apart as " Crown lands," following the treaty of Paris in the same year, dividing the territory acquired from France and Spain into four provinces : Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. All the lands which were not included within these provinces nor within those granted to the Hudson Bay Company were reserved to the use of the Indians, and the colonies were forbidden to make purchase or set- tlement without royal permission. The Provincial governors were authorized to issue land warrants in this territory only where they were awarded by the Crown for services in the French and Indian War. Various land companies were formed and secured lands in this territory, but in each instance petitioned direct to the Crown and not to any Colo- nial government. Among these were the Ohio Company, 1748, which secured 600,000 acres on the Ohio River ; The Loyal Company, 1749, which obtained a grant for 800,000 acres of land (Perkins' Western An- nals, p. 60) ; The Greenbrier Company, 1757, which obtained a grantfor 100,000 acres. After the treaty of Paris in 1763 a number of other companies secured concessions. Among them were the Walpole Com- pany, 1766, which in 1772 obtained a grant of 2,500,000 acres of land east of the Scioto River between latitudes 38 and 42 degrees north; the North Carolina and Pennsylvania Company, 1775, and the Missis- sippi Company, 1769. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 345 With the assertion of independence, however, the colonies reestab- lished their claims to the western lands according to the provisions of their original charters; and the colonial claims of territory at the be- ginning of the Revolution covered all the present area of the United States east of the Mississippi River, except the portion of Wisconsin and Michigan in latitude north of the northern boundary of Massachu- setts; the territory south of the southern line of Georgia, and a strip west from the present western boundary of Georgia through Alabama and Mississippi. This latter strip was confirmed to the United States by the treaty of peace in 1783, as also the Wisconsin and Michigan territory above referred to. After the treaty Great Britain ceded Flor- ida back to Spain, from whom it had been secured in 1736 in exchange for Cuba, rendering its later purchase by the United States necessary. At the beginning of the Revolution, therefore, the United States did not own a foot of the land to which the Declaration of Independence applied. However, on September 16, 1776, it granted both commissioned and non-commissioned officers certain bounty lands, the former 150 to 500 acres, according to rank, and the latter 100 acres and $20 cash. On October 19 of that year, the Maryland convention resolved "That this State ought not to comply with the proposed terms of offering lands to the officers and soldiers, because there are no lands belonging solely and exclusively to this State and the purchase of lands might eventually involve this State in an expense exceeding its abilities, and an engage- ment by this State to defray the expense of purchasing land according to its number of souls would be unequal and unjust." (Conventions of Maryland, p. 272.) This was the beginning of the famous "Maryland Controversy," which can be given here only in barest outline. Maryland proposed to substitute in regard to its own soldiers a cash bounty for the land bounty, but the general Government objected and conveyed assur- ance that the land bounty would be provided by it; and upon this assurance, though the general Government had not then title to a foot of land with which to carry out the promise, Maryland raised its full quota of eight of the eighty-eight battalions of troops called for. Thus was the original objection overcome, but the question as to how the United States was to acquire the land still remained. If it purchased from states having large holdings, like Virginia, these states would thereby be relieved of their proportion of the expenses of the war, and Maryland's soldiers would be attracted from its boundaries to 346 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. add not only to the wealth but to the population also of other states, at the expense of its own. In the discussion of the Articles of Con- federation on October 2, 1777, a Maryland delegate offered a resolution giving to Congress the power to fix the western boundaries of such states as claimed western lands, and to create new states from the back territory cut off in this way. This was defeated and a counter resolution was adopted adding to the ninth of the Articles of Confederation a pro- vision that "no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States." Maryland, however, was not finally defeated and continued the agitation for two years, during which all the other colo- nies had ratified the Federation. On May 21, 1779, the delegates from Maryland presented the "instructions " of December 18, 1778, in which they were directed not to agree to the federation unless they secured the cession of the western lands. A portion of the argument of this inter- esting document is well worthy of room here, as it was the turning point in the final establishment of the United States in the possession and control of the public lands : Suppose, for instance, Virginia indisputably possessed of the extensive and fertile country to which she has set up a claim : what would be the probable con- sequences to Maryland of such an undisturbed and undisputed possession? They cannot escape the least discerning. Virginia, by selling on the most moderate terms a small proportion of the lands in question, would draw into her treasury vast sums of money, and, in pro- portion to the sums arising from such sales, would be enabled to lessen her taxes. Lands cheap and taxes low, compared with the lands and taxes of an adjacent state, would quickly drain the state thus disadvantageously circumstanced of its most useful inhabitants and its wealth; and its consequence in the scale of the con- federated states would sink, of course. A claim so injurious to more than one- half, if not to the whole of the United States, ought to be supported by the clearest evidence of the right. Yet what evidences of that right have been produced? What arguments alleged in support of either the evidence or the right? None that we have heard of deserving a serious refutation. While, however, Maryland stood alone in withholding the ratifica- tion of the Articles of Confederation until a definite settlement of the western land question had been secured, it was supported by other states having no western lands, who, however, had not on that basis withheld their ratification. Delaware signed the articles on February 22, 1779, and on the following day presented the following resolutions which had been passed by the Legislature of that State. Resolved, That this State thinks it necessary, for the peace and safety of the states to be included in the Union, that a moderate extent of limits should be UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 347 assigned for such of those states as claim to the Mississippi or South Sea; and that the United States in Congress assembled, should, and ought to have the power of fixing their western limits. Resolved, That this State consider themselves justly entitled to a right, in common with the members of the Union, to that extensive tract of country which lies westward of the frontiers of the United States, the property of which was not vested in, or gfranted to, individuals at the commencement of the present war: — that the same hath been, or may be, gained from the King of Great Britain, or the native Indians, by the blood and treasure of all, and ought therefore to be a com- mon estate, to be granted out on tertas beneficial to the United States. New Jersey also, in ratifying the Articles of Confederation in 1778, called attention to this matter and supported the position of Maryland, but left it to the candor and justice of the several states for future ad- justment. Virginia and some other states claiming western lands, however, opened land oflSces and otherwise began to dispose of the lands, which led Congress, on October 30, 1779, by a vote of eight states to three, to pass a resolution declaring "the appropriation of vacant lands during the continuance of the war to be attended with great mischiefs," and requesting Virginia to "reconsider their late act of assembly for opening their land office." Public sentiment was, meanwhile, growing to a due appreciation of the value and importance to the Nation of the western lands, and of the difficulties involved in their remaining under state ownership, particu- larly under the various conflicting claims. New York in the next year led in their cession by the various states, by authorizing its delegates in Congress to act in behalf of the State in restricting its western bound- aries, the ceded lands to remain within the jurisdiction of the State, but the title to be in Congress for the benefit of all the states. Congress, by resolution of October 10, 1780, recommended such action to the other western land states, reminding them "How indispensably neces- sary it is to establish the Federal Union on a fixed and permanent basis, and on principles acceptable to all its respective members ; how essen- tial to public credit and confidence, to the support of our army, to the vigor of our councils, and success of our measures ; to our tranquillity at home, our reputation abroad, to. our very existence as a free, sov- ereign, and independent people; that they are fully persuaded the wisdom of the respective legislatures will lead them to a full and im- partial consideration of a subject so interesting to the United States, and so necessary to the happy establishment of the Federal Union." At this time, also, before any public lands had been acquired, was 348 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. laid the foundation of a public land policy in the following resolution, adopted October 10, 1780 : Resolved, That the unappropriated lands that may be ceded or relinquished to the United States, by any particular state, pursuant to the recommendation of Congress of the sixth day of September last, shall be disposed of for the common benefit of the United States, and be settled and formed into distinct republican states, which shall become members of the Federal Union, and have the same rights of sovereignty, freedom, and independence, as the other States; that each State which shall be so formed shall contain a suitable extent of territory, not less than 100 nor more than 150 miles square, or as near thereto as circumstances will admit; that the necessary and reasonable expenses which any particular State shall have incurred since the commencement of the present war, in subduing any British posts, or in maintaining forts or garrisons within and for the defence, or in acquir- ing any part of the territory that may be ceded or relinquished to the United States, shall be reimbursed. That the said lands shall be granted or settled at such times, and under such regulations, as shall hereafter be agreed on by the United States, in Congress as- sembled, or any nine or more of them. On this day, also, Connecticut tendered a cession of her claims, which was not accepted because of objectionable restrictions as to juris- diction. This left New York the opportunity to be first in the cession of such claims. Meanwhile, however, the Virginia Legislature, on January 2, 1781, by act offered a cession of western lands upon terms which were unacceptable to Congress, and on March 1 of that year the Maryland delegates signed the Articles of Confederation, being assured of the final satisfactory settlement of the matter, and not being willing longer to give hope to Great Britain through her refusal. On the same day the New York delegates in Congress made a formal offer of her western lands. It was not until October 29 of the following year that this cession, under motion by a delegate from Maryland, was accepted by Congress, Virginia and Massachusetts voting in the negative. Other cessions followed in the following order : New York — The cession as above noted was for title to land held under treaties with the Six Nations of Indians, of indefinite extent from the source of the Great Lakes southward across the Ohio Valley as far as the Cumberland Mountains. There was no crown or royal charter except for the small portion west of New York, now a part of Pennsyl- vania, containing 315.91 square miles, sold by the United States to Pennsylvania in 1792 for seventy-five cents an acre. This New York claim overlapped those of Massachusetts and Virginia. Virginia — On October 20, 1783, Virginia empowered her delegates UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 349 to make a cession of her claims, consummated by deed of March 1, 1784. This was to land north of the Ohio River, overlapping completely the claims of Connecticut and Massachusetts, based upon charters and upon conquest through the Clarke exploration. She retained the territory embraced in the present states of West Virginia and Kentucky. To latitude 41 degrees the claim was by charter, and north of that by con- quest. Massachusetts — On April 19, 1785, Massachusetts ceded her claims to 64,000 square miles of back lands, in what is now southern Michigan and Wisconsin, being the westward extension of the boundaries of her charter grant. Connecticut — On September 13, 1786, Connecticut made the cession of western lands claimed by her, in extent 40,000 square miles, lying in a narrow strip extending westward from Pennsylvania through the northern parts of the present states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois to the Mississippi River. South Carolina — South Carolina was next, August 9, 1787, with the grant of 4,900 square miles extending directly westward from the pres- ent western botmdary of the State. North Carolina — On February 25, 1790, North Carolina ceded her western lands, 45,000 square miles, coincident with the present State of Tennessee. This grant was conditional upon the settlement by the United States of private claims, which were found to consume all the public land within the cession, so that Tennessee is only nominally reckoned among the public land states. Georgia — This State was last, on April 24, 1802, with the cession of her western lands, estimated at 88,578 square miles. This cession was delayed by a dispute over what are known as the "Yazoo land claims," further reference to which is made upon page 351. The following table gives a summary of these state cessions :' 3 Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 11) is authority for the areas here given, no later figures be- ing available. Adding the total above given to the latest survey figures (including water surface) of the original thirteen states and of Kentuckj', Vermont, Maine and West Virginia, which were formed from their original areas, 440,205 square miles, gives a total area of 799,560.91 square miles. As the latest authorities give the area of the United States in 1800 at 827,544 square miles (see O. P. Austin in "Summary of Commerce and Finance " for May, 1905, p. 4299) , this leaves 28,283.09 square miles of national domain unaccounted for in the above figures. Donaldson appears to in- clude in the area of the Virginia cession the northern part of Michigan and Wisconsin, and of Min- nesota east of the Mississippi River, confirmed to the United States by Great Britain in the treaty of 1783, and in the Georgia cession the strip in the southern part of Alabama and Mississippi con- firmed in the same manner, so that the area of these cessions added to the area of the states noted should equal the entire national domain at that time. It is probable that the figure quoted for total area of the United States in 1800 includes areas of the Great Lakes, while these were excluded in computing the areas of the cessions ; which, with discrepancies in survey figures would account for the difference. 350 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. States. Date. SQuare miles. Acres. ^^i^^S^T'' \ cessions disputed | ; New York — actual * Virginia— exclusive of Kentucky South Carolina North Carolina Georgia Apr. 19, 1785 Sept. 13. 1786 Mar. 1. 1781 Mar. 1, 1784 Angr. 9, 1787 Feb. 25,1790 Apr. 24, 1802 54,000 40,000 315.91 265,562 4,900 45,600 88,578 34,560,000 25,600,000 202,187 169,959,680 3,136,000 29,184,000 56,689,920 Total cession. 404,955.91 259,171,787 Thus was laid the foundation of the public domain and the United States became a land owner over a large portion of its original area.' The public domain was afterwards largely added to by subsequent an- nexations, almost the entire area of which was added to the public do- main as well as to the national domain. The following is a table of these additions: AREA ADDED. Terkjtoriai, Division. Year. National domain, square miles. Public domain, square miles. Cost. 1803 1819 1845 1846 1848 1850 1853 1867 875,025 70,107 389,795 288,689 523,802 ■36,211 599,446 875,025 70,107 288,689 523,802 123,784 36,211 599,446 6 $30,295,463.15 '6,489,768.00 Florida purchase 918,250,000.00 1116,000,000.00 10,000,000.00 7,200,000.00 Purchase from Texas Total 2,783,075 2,517,064 $88,235,231.15 * New York's claims under Indian treaties were inchoate and located in the same territory claimed by Virginia and partly by Massachusetts and Connecticut, and the above included area is only the small triangnilar tract lying; west of New York State, which was afterward purchased from the United States by Pennsylvania. The Massachusetts and Connecticut cessions are not included in the above total because included in the area of the Virginia cession. <> The total area of the United States in 1800 was 827,844 square miles, so that the public domain after the Georg:ia cession (includlnif Tennessee) was 48.9 percent of the total area. « This is usually gfiven at $15,000,000, the original purchase price. Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 105) gives the cost to June 30, ISCiO, as follows : Principal sum, $15,000,000 ; interest to redemption, $8,529,353 ; claims of citizens of the United States due from France, under this treaty assumed by the United States in part payment for the territory and paid to Jtme 30, 1880, $3,738,268.98 ; total, $27,267,621.98 ; to which must be added " French spoliation claims " paid from June 30, 1880, to June 30, 1904, others of which are still in process of adjustment (com- piled from treasury reports), $3,027,841.17, making; the total given of $30,295,463.15. 7 Includes interest. 8 By some authorities the Oreg;on territory is included in the Louisiana purchase, but Govern- ment officials now prefer to rest the title upon the treaty with Great Britain. (See O. P. Austin of the Department of State, in Encyclopedia Americana under "United States, Territorial Ex- pansion of the " ; and " Territorial and Commercial Expansion of the United States, 1800-1903," p. 4299, in " Summary of Commerce and Finance " for May, 1904, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor.) "The northwest boundary [of the Louisiana purchase] was also somewhat vagnie and uncertain, and would be open to controversy with Great Britain. [That] the territory extended west to the Rocky Mountains was not questioned, but it mig;ht be claimed that it extended to the Pacific. An impression that it did so extend has since UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 351 Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 18) also includes in a similar table the Georgia cession of 88,578 square miles or 56,689,920 acres, at a cost of $6,200,000, the amount eventually paid in settlement of what are known as the " Yazoo scrip claims," although the deed of cession pro- vided that Georgia was to receive $1,250,000 " out of the first net proceeds of lands lying in said ceded territory."" The inclusion of this item brings the entire cost of purchases to $94,435,231.15. For the sake of completeness the following table of segregated additions may be added, though they will hereafter be ignored as addi- tions to the public domain : Territorial Division. Year. Area, square miles. Purchase price. 1897 1898 1898 1899 1899 1901 6,740 3,600 175 143,000 73 68 $20,000,000 Additional FhlliDDiiies . . 100,000 Total . 153,656 $20,100,000 prevailed In some quarters, and in some public papers and documents it has been assumed as an undoubted fact. But neither Mr. Jefferson nor the French, whose right he purchased, ever claimed for Louisiana any such extent, and our title to Oreg:on has been safely deduced from other sources. Mr. Jefferson said expressly: 'To the waters of the Pacific we can found no claim in right of Louisiana.'"— Judge T. M. Cooley, "The AcQuisitlon of Louisiana" (Indiana Hist. Soc. Pamphlets. No. 3). "The claim to the territory beyond [the Rocky Mountains] was based upon the principle of continuity, the prolongation of the territory to the adjacent great body of water. As against Great Britain, the claim was founded on the treaty of 1763, between France and Great Britain, by which the latter power ceded to the former all its rights west of the Missis- sippi River. The United States succeeded to all the rights of Prance. Besides this, there was an independent claim created by the discovery of the Columbia River by Gray, in 1792, and its ex- ploration by Lewis and Clark. All this was added to by the cession by Spain, In 1819, of any title that it had to all territory north of the forty-second degree."— Rt. Rev. C. P. Robertson, " The Lou- isiana Purchase " (Papers of the Am. Hist. Assn., v. 1, p. 259). While the latter writer sets up one claim by Inheritance through the Louisiana Purchase, It will be noted that various other factors are also relied upon to support the title. 9 Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 18) gives this at $15,000,000. The " Summary of Commerce and Finance " for May, 1904, (Supplement on " Territorial and Commercial Expansion of the United States, 1800-1903 "), gives the above total, with the statement that $3,250,000 of this sum was in payment of claims of American citizens against Mexico. 1** Some authorities give this at $10,000,000, the original purchase price, which was to have been paid (Public Domain, p. 135) in fonrteen-year five percent bonds. The original act of Septem- ber 9, 1850, however, (U. S. Stat. 9,447) contained the following provision: " Provided, also, ^at not more than $5,000,000 of said stock shall be issued until the creditors of the State holding bonds and other certificates of stock of Texas for which duties on imports were specially pledged, shall first file at the treasury of the United States releases of all claims against the United States for or on account of said bonds or certificates. In such form as shall be prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury and approved by the President of the United States." By act of February 28, 1855 (U. S.Stat. 10, 617), Congress further provided that In lieu of the $5,000,000 in five percent stock which had been withheld under the previous act the Secretary of the Treasury be authorized to pay such creditors of the late Republic of Texas as were reported to be under the provisions of the aforesaid act by the " report of the late Secretary of the Treasury to the President of the United States, and approved by him on the thirteenth day of September, 1851." The act further provided that the sum of $7,750,000 be divided pro rata among said creditors. Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 135), states that the sum distributed under this act was $7,500,000, which, with the original issue of bonds and the interest of $3,500,000 upon them, makes up the total given of $16,000,000. (v. 2). 11 J. W. Monette, "Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi," bk. 5, ch. 13 352 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ACRE COST OF PURCHASES. The following shows the cost per acre of the additions to the public domain secured through purchase, based upon the foregoing tables : Territorial Division. Louisiana purchase.. .. Florida purchase Mexican cession Purchase from Texas . Gadsden purchase Alaska purchase Georgia cession Total.. Total area. Sauare miles. 875,025 70,107 523,802 123,784 36,211 599,446 88,578 2,316,953 560,016,000 44,868,480 335,233,280 79,221,760 23,175,040 383,645,440 56,689,920 1,482,849,920 Total cost. $30,295, 6,489, 18,250, 16,000, 10,000, 7»200, 6.200, ,463.15 ,768.00 ,000.00 ,000.00 ,000.00 ,000.00 ,000.00 $94,435,231.15 Cost per acre. $0.0549 .1446 .0547 .2019 .4315 .0188 .1094 Average cost per acre for total purchases, 6.36 cents. As a matter of curiosity it may be noted for comparison with this showing that the purchase of the Philippines, 91,520,000 acres at $20,- 000,000, cost 21.85 cents an acre, and the small additional purchase overlooked in the original treaty, cost $2.1043 an acre. If to this be added the cost of conquest of the islands after purchase it will be seen that modem American diplomacy suffers by comparison with that which secured the early expansion of American territory, though, in respect to the Philippines, it may properly be noted that the price paid to Spain was no ordinary purchase, but was the result of the effort of a victorious and rich nation to establish a just and lasting peace, based on a resto- ration of friendly relations. PRIVATE LAND CLAIMS. The cost of settling claims has been included in the cost of two of the purchases, as will be noted. There is, however, another item which enters largely into the cost, not only of the purchases but of lands secured by cession or conquest. This consists of private claims to lands under the previous governments from which the titles were ac- quired. In these transfers the United States has always recognized vested property rights, whether complete and perfected or still incom- plete. Various states made certain reservations in their cessions, some of which have been noted ; and in one case, that of North Carolina, the liabilities which the United States assumed in connection with the ces- sion were such as eventually to consume all the public land comprised therein. In the acquisitions which were at one time or another formerly under Spanish domination private grants were especially numerous and liberal. The land department has issued various maps upon which the old UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 353 Spanish grants which so far have been confirmed are located ; but no statement of their aggregate is available.^^ COST AND RETURNS OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN TO DATE. Thomas Donaldson (Public Domain, pp. 17-21 and 523-524), gives some interesting detailed statements as to the receipts and the cost of the public domain to June 30, 1883, which may be summarized briefly as follows: RECEIPTS PRIOR TO JUNE 30, 1796. 1787, sold at New York, 72,974 acres (cash) $117,108.24 1796, sold at Pittsburg:, 43,446 acres (certificates and land war- rants) 100,427.53 1792, to the State of Pennsylvania, 202,187 acres (certificates of public debt) 151,640.25 1792, to John Cleves Symmes, 272,540 acres (army land war- rants) 189,693.00 1792, to Ohio Company, 892,000 acres (certificates and army land warrants) 642,856.66 Total, 1,484,047 acres $ 1,201,725.68 Gross receipts from June 30, 1796, to June 30, 1883 232,375,135.36 Total gross receipts $233,576,861.04 Deduct amount paid to the several states under the 2, 3 and 5 per- cent fund acts, to June 30, 1882, when last adjusted $7,333,069.76 Deduct cash paid the several states and territories tmder the distri- bution act of September 4,1841 691,117.05 8,024,186.81 Net receipts by the United States from the public lands to June 30,1883 $225,552,675.23 COST OP THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. Purchase price under treaty stipulations $ 88,157,389.98 Surveys cost to June 30, 1880, estimated (including: salaries of clerks and expenses of surveyors-g:eneral) 24,468,691.00 General and local land office expenses to June 30, 1880, partly es- timated 22,094,611.07 Survey and Land Office expenses for three years to June 30, 1883 8,484,437.03 Expenses of Indian department to June 30, 1883, on account of holding: treaties, etc., and including: yearly payments for an- nuities and other charg:es, which are. In fact, in consideration for surrender of occupancy title of lands to the Government. 208,776,031.24 Total cost $351,981,160.32 Deduct total receipts 225,552,675.23 Leaves present cost $126,428,484.89 The purchase price as here given by Donaldson should be corrected by the addition of $3,250,000, claims of American citizens against Mex- ico assumed by this country in connection with the Mexican cession, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This item, as already stated, Mr. Donaldson appears to have overlooked. In order to bring the cost of 12 As an illustration it may be stated that in New Mexico, with a land area of 78,428,000 acres, the state map issued by the General Land Office in 1896 showed claims whose area is esti- mated approximately as follows: Confirmed, about 365 townships; confirmed, requiring: new boundaries, about 62 townships ; total, about 427 townships, or 15,372 square miles, or 9,838,080 acres ; unconfirmed, about 49 townships, or 1,764 square miles, or 1,128,960 acres. William E. Curtis, in The Chicago Record Herald of Aug:ust 5, 1905, quotes Governor Otero, of ^ New Mexico, as authority for the statement that the United States Court of Private Land Claims, ' created by act of Congrress in 1891, and which went out of existence on June 15, 1894, confirmed the title to about 7,300,(>00 acres out of claims ag;g:reeatinG: over 40,000,000 acres in that Territory. 354 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the Louisiana Purchase down to June 30, 1904, the French spoliation claims" paid during the fiscal years ended June 30, 1891, to June 30, 1904, $3,027,841.17, must also be added, making the aggregate present cost of purchases $94,435,231.15. This does not include the expenses of making the several treaties under which territory was acquired, nor of commissions to adjust boundaries. A list of these is given in Senate Ex. Doc. No., 38, second session, Forty-fourth Congress. If it were possible to do so the extent of private land claims antedating acquisi- tion of territory and finally confirmed should be taken into consideration, either in reducing the area of acquired territory or in enhancing the cost. These have been variously settled, either by allowing the claims for land in place, or issuing lieu scrip giving privilege of selecting other lands, or by cash payment; and have been so inextricably con- fused with private land claims of origin subsequent to acquisition of the territory that no statement of even approximate accuracy could be com- piled without an amount of labor and research not warranted in a work the purpose of which is along another line. COST AND RECEIPTS OF PUBLIC DOMAIN, 1884 TO 1904 INCLUSIVE. An attempt has been made to bring Donaldson's figures down to date, although the task is one of considerable difficulty owing to the manner in which Government reports are made up, as will hereafter be explained in connection with the showing of cost. In regard to re- ceipts there was little difficulty in making up from the annual reports of the Commissioner of the General Land Office the table which is here given: 13 The claims oJ $3,738,268.98 Included by Donaldson In the cost of the Louisiana Purchase -were claims of citizens of the United States dne from France and specifically assumed under the treaty of purchase, -which limited the amount of claims so assumed to $3,750,000. The French " spoliation claims " whose payment by the United States began in 1890-1, have a different ident- ity. In the convention with France of 1800 "a distinction, which was finally embodied in the treaty, was drawn by the French grovemment between two classes of claims: First, debts due from the French gfovemment to American citizens for supplies furnished, or prizes whose restoration had been decreed by the courts ; and, secondly, indemnities for prizes alleged to have been wrongfully condemned. The treaty provided that the first class, known as debts, should be paid, but excluded the second or indemnity class. . . . Upon this basis the convention was finally ratified. . . . The United States, therefore, having received a consideration for its refusal to prosecute the claims of its citizens, thereby took the place, with respect to the claimants, of the French government, and virtually assumed the obligations of the latter. . . . The claims for indemnity thus devolving upon the United States, known as the French spoliation claims have been from that day to this the subject of frequent report and discussion in Congress, but with no result until the passage of the act of January 20, 1885, referring them to the Court of Claims. At the present time (1888) they are undergoing judicial examination before that tribunal."— J. R. Soley, "The Wars of the United States 1789-1859." (Narrative and Critical Hist, of Am., v. 7, ch. 6 ; and editor's footnote.) These are the claims upon which payments run from 1890 to the last report at hand, for June 30, 1904, and whose payment is probably therefore still incomplete. " Spoliations committed by the French in the Rev- olutionary and Napoleonic wars subsequent to the year 1800 were indemnified under the provisions of the treaty for the Louisiana Purchase, under the treaty with Spain in 1819, and under a later treaty with France which was negotiated in Andrew Jackson's most imperative manner in 1831. These do not enter into what have become historically specialized as the French spoliation claims. —Lamed, " History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading," p. 3439. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 355 Land sales and fees $127,171,951.96 Government property sales.. $ 25,298.93 Indian sales 10,722,423.97 Transcript fees 227,580.45 Timber depredations 474,155.76 Timbersales" 164,763.27 Total receipts $138,786,174.34 In regard to the expenses of survey, administration and disposition much difficulty is experienced in making an accurate showing, owing to the fact that the annual land office reports do not make a complete showing. The expenses of local land offices are set forth, but there are no assembled details as to the salaries and other expenses of gen- eral land office, expenses of surveying public lands, etc. The annual reports for 1901 to 1904 do give, without analysis, the following sums as representing the total cost of the land service for the respective years, including both payments and liabilities : 1901 $1,813,719.12 1902 1,881,588.40 1903 1,923,624.16 1904 2,100,093.92 Two or three of the older annual reports, after the total of disburse- ments of the accounting division, say, " To which maybe added salaries of the General Land Office," giving the amount. Owing to the unana- lyzed condition of the items shown in these statements, however, it was found necessary to go to the annual Finance Reports (Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury), which annually publish a table of net disbursements by warrants. From these tables the following figures were compiled : Public land offices $14,067,015.84 Distribution of proceeds," Contineent expenses public 1885 $ 10,461.89 land offices 3,115,027.52 Classification of certain min- Surve3ring: public lands ^^ 5,586,939.86 eral lands in Montana and Repayment for wrongly sold.. 1,300,367.23 Idaho, 1898-1901 113,444.85 Depredations public timber. . . •* 727,294.43 Payment to Des Moines River Protectlne public lands 2,442,964.39 settlers, 18 1897, 1901 and Protecting forest reserves 1,543,125.72 1902 359,292.76 Surveying forest reserves 945,345.50 Total $30,211,279.99 An inspection of these figures will show the necessity for further rearrangement in order to make the proper showing as to expenses and receipts from the public domain. The receipts from sales of Indian lands are trust funds, whose disbursements are not shown in the expen- •* These timber sales were under the acts of March 3, 1891, and June 4, 1897. 15 This amount includes surveys Indian Territory, 1897-8, $327,346.39 ; resurvey Chickasaw lands, 1898-9. $141,500, and surveys in land grants, 1898-9, $69,270.59. 1° In later years, after 1893, this esipenditure appears to be consolidated with that represented in the following item, the title of which was thereafter changed to " Protecting public lands, timber, etc." 17 This seems to have been the last payment under the distribution act of September 4, 1841. (See page 353 and footnote, page 354 ; also page 378.) 19 Certain public lands were in 1846 granted the State of Iowa for the improvement of the Des Moines River. The above payments were indemnities to settlers occupying these lands at the time of the grants. 356 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ditures, and they should, therefore, be ignored. Sales of timber and amounts received on account of timber depredations may properly be included among the receipts from the public domain; but the sales of Government property (old office furniture and the like) and the receipts for transcripts should be deducted from the expenditures. From the receipts, in turn, should be deducted the repayments for lands wrongly sold; distribution of proceeds (the single item in the year 1885), and also the payments to states under the 2, 3, and 5 percent fund acts, and cash swamp land indemnity claims paid, these two items not being in- cluded in the table of expenditures. This will produce the following showing : FINANCIAL STATEMENT, 1884-1904 INCLUSIVE. Receipts. Disbursements, Receipts from land sales and fees $127,171,951.96 Receipts from timber depredations 474,155.76 Receipts from timber sales 164,763.27 Total gross receipts $127,810,870.99 Less repayment for lands wrongrly sold $1,300,367.23 Less distribution of proceeds 10,461.89 Less 2, 3 and 5 percent funds " 5,267,066.45 6,577,895.57 Leaves net receipts $121,232,975.42 Cost of public land offices $14,067,015.84 Contingent expenses of same 3,115,027.52 Costof surveying public and other lands 5,686,939.86 Surveyingr forest reserves 945,345.50 Depredations on public timber 727,294.43 Protecting public lands and timber 2,442,964.39 Protecting forest reserves 1,543,125.72 Classification of certain mineral lands in Montana and Idaho 13,444.85 Payment to Des Moines River settlers 359,292.76 Total gross expenses $28,900,450.87 Less Government property sales $ 25,298.93 Less transcript fees 227,580.45 $ 252,879.38 252,879.38 Leaves net expenses $28,647,571.49 Deduct from receipts 28,647,571.49 Leaves net returns of $ 92,585,403.93 It will be noted that Donaldson includes the expenses of the Indian department in the cost of the public domain, on the theory that the care of the Indians is an equivalent for their surrender of occupancy of the land of the United States. It might, perhaps, be argued that this care of dependent wards of the nation would have been exercised in any event. However, the reader may include this item or eliminate it, as he chooses. There has been paid out in this connection to June 30, 1904, $412,677,393.55, and to June 30, 1883, $208,776,031.24, the differ- 19 This item was secured by subtracting from the totals paid the several states to June 30, 1904, $12,600,136.21 (Land Office Report 1904, p. 218) the totals paid under this head to June 30, 1883, $7,333,069.76 (Public Domain, p. 523). UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 357 ence between these sums, or $203,901,362.31, representing the cost for the later period. This sum is sufficiently large to swallow up the entire net returns from the land service and leave a deficit of $111,325,958.38, accruing in the years 1884-1904 inclusive, to be added to that shown by Mr. Donaldson's figures (as corrected). Against this Donaldson offsets the cost of the Indian department, which to June 30, 1904, as already stated, amounted to $412,677,393.55. This would make the present cost of the public domain remaining in the possession of the United States, above all returns therefrom, $145,- 740,111.18. PRESENT AREA OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. The following table of public land states (exclusive of Tennessee) shows the total public domain (exclusive of island possessions) unap- propriated, reserved and appropriated, to June 30, 1904 : ^'' UNAPPROPRIATED, RESERVED AND APPROPRIATED LANDS IN THE PUBLIC LAND STATES AND TERRITORIES. Area vmappropriated and unreserved. Area Surveyed. Unsurveyed. Total. reserved. 219,730 12,064,793 2,427,587 28,077,190 31,733,053 997,777 10,848,849 21 368,035,975 34,936.800 ■7,136,603 4,098,543 160,070 28,819,787 219,730 368,035,975 47,001,593 2,427,587 35,213,793 35,831,596 1,157,847 39,668,636 51,480 Alaska 22 67,705 20,249,180 2,560 California 20,818,779 5,294,348 19,259 Idaho 2,061,577 19,714,560 owa ""947,642 102,173 340,507 2,243,210 92,420 191,681 18,409,023 7,822,789 30,833,050 38.123,606 7,795,095 ■'2',095,427 14,527,289 10,413,471 11,560,475 4,008,954 71,373 34,320,326 Kansas 947,642 167,191 340,507 3,127,408 92,420 191,681 56,455,435 7,834,763 61,250,580 52,252,340 11,097,451 "2,"o'95,427 20,174,254 10,720,302 39,703,466 8,862,932 71,373 36,930,178 120,375 65,018 ""884,198 1 468 434 Michigan 120 654 2,346,820 M'^"tflna 38","d46,412 11,974 30,417,530 14,128,734 3,302,356 18,616,446 Nebraska..... 628,855 Nevada 5,983,409 7,356,104 2,686,670 Ohio Oklahoma "'5,"646,965 306,831 28,142,991 4,853,978 ■■2",'669,852 3,055,469 14,894,967 South Dakota 12.225,989 Utah 7,750,479 Washington 11,395,331 432 524 15,511,085 270,267,760 571,604,617 841,872,377 172,873,079 20 From page 130 of the report for 1904, Commissioner of General Land Office. ^^ The unreserved lands In Alaska are mostly unsurveyed and unappropriated. 22 So far as estimated. 358 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. UNAPPROPRIATED. RESERVED AND APPROPRIATED LANDS IN THE PUBLIC LAND STATES AND TERRITORIES-Continued. State or Territory. Area appropriated. Total area in State or Territory. Land surface. Water surface. Total area. 32.386,710 "5'.541.547 31.113.263 43,937.338 25.222.216 33.895.534 11.563.227 35.842.560 22.950.400 32.657,920 368,103,680 72.792.320 33.543.680 99.969.920 66.348.160 35.072.640 53,293,440 35,842,560 22,950,400 19,714,560 35,646,080 52,382,720 29,055,360 36,819.200 51.198.080 29,685.120 43.795.840 93,593.600 49.137.280 70.336.640 78.428.800 44.910.080 26.062.720 24,718.720 61.277,440 49.206.400 52,541,440 42,746,880 35,274,880 62,433,280 465,920 15,541,760 84,480 522,240 1,299,200 192,000 2,677,120 356,480 1,504,000 465.280 279.680 366.720 248.320 2.705,280 25,894,400 4.056.320 343,040 451,840 525,440 482,560 497,920 90,880 452,480 2,394,240 158,720 698,880 444,800 1,812,480 2,420,480 6.840.320 208.640 33.123.840 Alaska 383.645.440 72.876.800 34,065,920 California 101,269,120 66,540,160 Florida 37,749,960 Idaho 53,649,920 Illinois 37,346,560 23.415 680 Indian Territorv.. 19 994 240 35.646.086 51.314.703 27.419.735 36,358,039 45,723,852 29,592,700 43,604,159 18,521,719 40,673,662 3,102,651 18,820,356 31,125,939 26,062,720 19,567,824 26.208.219 26.260,109 5,087,495 22,488,617 34,770,983 9.992.017 36,012,800 52,631 040 31.760 640 62,713,600 Minnesota 55,254,400 30,028,160 44,247,680 94,119,040 Nebraska 49,619,840 70,834,560 78,519,680 North Dakota 45,362,560 28,456,960 24,877,440 61,976,320 South Dakota 49,651,200 54,353,920 45,167,360 42,115,200 62,641,920 Grand total 794.794.384 1,809,539,840 74.481.920 1.884,021,760 The public domain remaining in the possession of the United States includes both the unappropriated and the reserved, a total land area of 1,014,745,356 acres, or about fifty-six percent of the total land surface of the public land states. Comparing this with the present cost, includ- ing expenses of the Indians, it will be seen that the present Govern- ment holdings have a cost of 14.86 cents an acre. Deducting from the above area the 368,103,680 acres of lands in Alaska, and from the cost $10,000,000 as a roughly assumed present cost for Alaska, leaves the cost of the public lands remaining in the United States 20.99 cents an acre. It is, however, evident that if the cost of taking care of the Indians is to be included, upon the theory advanced by Mr. Donaldson, this cost, including the future estimated cost, should be charged against the entire original area of the public domain, as a part of the original pur- chase price which is still being paid. While during the first one hun- dred years of our Government the cost of the Indians averaged only a UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 359 little over a million dollars annually, during the twenty-one years from 1883 to the close of the fiscal year 1904 the average annual cost was a little over $9,700,000. This expense will rapidly decrease with the acceptance of individual, allotments and the passing of the individual from the condition of a ward of the Government into that of independ- ent citizenship. It is, however, a small estimate to place the final cost of the Indian department at $600,000,000; which, added to the actual cost of purchases would make a total eventual cost of $694,435,231.15. Upon the total land area of the public land states and territories (ex- clusive of Alaska and deducting $10,000,000 from the cost as the assumed present cost of Alaska) this is a cost of 40.54 cents an acre. Upon the 794,794,384 acres already appropriated in the public land states the gross returns of the land office (less distribution of proceeds and cash paid in swamp land indemnities to the states) amount to fifty- six cents an acre, and the cost for administration, survey and disposi- tion has been twenty-two cents an acre. The remaining public domain must, therefore, realize 41.9 cents an acre above the cost of survey and disposition, if the United States is to come out whole on its public lands and on its Indian charges, considered together. These figures do not take into consideration the amount of land required to satisfy out- standing railroad and other land grants and private land claims pending and scrip issued in settlement therefor and still outstanding. As an ofEset, it does not consider the considerable portion of the original pub- lic domain in these public land states which went to satisfy reservations in the deeds of cession by the states, or private land claims existing at the time of cession or of purchase and subsequently allowed by the United States, or, in many cases, still pending. There should also be considered the fact that the process of selection has left the more unde- sirable lands unselected, greatly reducing the average value of the remaining public lands as compared with that of the original holdings ; this being in turn offset by the general enhancement of land values with the development of the country.^' It should, however, be considered that in acquiring and disposing of this immense domain the United States has occupied a position far more dignified and responsible than that of a mere dealer in real estate. In 23 The report of the Commissioner o£ the General Land Office for 1904 gives the total of lands disposed of durins the year ended June 30 at 16,405,821.75 acres ; gross receipts of the land serv- ice $9,283,341.98, and gross expenditures and estimated liabilities $2,100,093.92. These figures (which Include Indian lands in both the acreage and the receipts) show returns of 56.58 cents an acre on the amoimt disposed of, and costs of survey and administration at 12.8 cents an acre, which includes expense of inspecting mines in territories and expense of protecting forest reserves. 360 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. her purchases of territory she secured not only land but governmental jurisdiction; an extension of the boundaries of the nation, and in- creased opportunities for the development of national wealth and pros- perity. In disposing of them she has for a half century sought not for revenue but for the encouragement of settlement and development of new communities. The purposes which were thus sought to be accom- plished have constituted the national land policy ; and the methods and instrumentalities through which their accomplishment were sought have constituted the public land system. An historical consideration of these will now be in order. ADMINISTRATION OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. The present public land system of the United States is an historical outgrowth, and, in many features, an historical relic which has outlived its period of usefulness. It is a result of political contentions and compromises of issues long since dead, and also of real and actual needs now largely disappeared. Founded at the outset upon the policy of disposing of the land rapidly in large lots with the idea of producing revenue for an impoverished government, it has become a system of paternalism to actual settlers and of restriction of disposition in other directions, through provisions which often offer loopholes for cunning and fraud and are a restraint chiefly upon honest enterprise. The re- forms now badly needed in the land department have for some time been under consideration by a Public Land Commission whose reports and reconimendations will receive subsequent consideration in this chap- ter. A knowledge of past events is necessary in order to understand present conditions, and the more important which have had their influ- ence will be briefly given here, referring the reader to general historical works for more complete information. Coming into possession of the great domain whose extent and origin have already been given, nearly all of it unsettled and unoccupied terri- tory, the United States, as already suggested, assumed both ownership and government jurisdiction. The first involved the control and dis- position of the lands, and the second involved the responsibility for the extension of a form of government over the territory. Even before its acquisition of the first foot of territory through state cessions, Congress had outlined a policy in regard to the prospective public domain, in the resolution of October 10, 1780, already quoted (page 347), providing that such acquired territory "shall be disposed of for the common benefit of the United States, and shall be formed into distinct republic- UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 361 an states, which shall become members of the Federal Union, and have the same rights of sovereignty, freedom, and independence as the other states." This was the corner stone of the territorial system of the United States, and upon it subsequent legislation was founded. It laid down the general principles both for the disposition of the land by the Government and for the establishment of forms of government. The first legislation following the principles of this resolution was reported out by a committee of which Thomas JefEerson was chairman, on the same day that Virginia ceded her claims to the Northwest Ter- ritory — March 1, 1784 — and with subsequent recommitment to the com- mittee, and some additional amendments, was adopted April 23, being known as "the ordinance of 1784." This ordinance applied to all the territory, both north and south of the Ohio River, in providing that settlers might organize for themselves a temporary government, with a representative in Congress having the right to engage in debate but not to vote. When, however, the population of the State had increased to that of the least populous of the original states it might be admitted with the assent of nine states, as required by the Articles of Confeder- ation, and then have equal privileges and representation. As the reso- lution referred to in the preceding paragraph had provided that new states to be organized should have "not less than 100 nor more than 150 miles square" of territory, the original draft of this ordinance pro- vided for the division of the Northwest Territory into states, extending north and south between odd numbered parallels of latitude beginning with the thirty-first, and east and west, to the Mississippi River and to the meridian of the western cape of the mouth of the Great Kanawha River, from the meridian passing the lowest point of the rapids of the Ohio River, which served as the boundary between the eastern and western tier of states. No attempt was made to establish state boun- daries for the southwest territory, the committee stating that it did not have sufficient information for the purpose. To the new states were assigned such fanciful names as Sylvania, Michigania, Chersonesus, Assenisipia, Metropotamia, Illinoia, Saratoga, Washington, Polypo- tamia, and Pelysipia. As finally amended these names were stricken out, as also the definite state boundaries laid down, together, also, with the original provision that slavery should not exist in this territory after the year 1800. It is generally believed that Jefferson, in drafting this law, was governed by Washington's advice; but this law proving a dead letter. 362 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. and no settlement occurring under it, we find Washington later advocat- ing the marking out of a single state instead of ten. This seems to have been because the antislavery sentiment was then strong and rapidly developing in the northern states, and they did not favor the formation of ten new states in which it would be permitted; and the tide of settlement from these older northern states which later invaded the Ohio Valley and beyond, was accordingly slow in manifesting itself. The question of government of the territory, however, came up again in 1786 on a petition from the inhabitants of the Kaskaskias. This and renewed agitation for abolition of slavery in the territory had its cul- mination in the celebrated ordinance of July 13, 1787, ^* which has had a dominant influence not only upon all subsequent legislation but upon the forms of government in the states afterwards created from this and other western territory. The ordinance provided for a governor and secretary to be appointed by Congress, the first for three years and the second for four ; also a court of three judges under common law jurisdiction. The act guaran- teed the privileges of habeas corpus and of trial by jury, provided for equal distribution of estates among children, with a dower right for life of one-third to the widow, and stipulated that real estate might be conveyed by simple conveyance with witnesses ; and, after providing in detail for an assembly and for the formation of township and county organizations from time to time "in parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished," the ordinance continues: And for extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics, their laws, and constitution are erected ; to fix and establish those principles as the basis of all laws, constitutions, and governments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said territory ; to provide, also, for the establishment of states and permanent governments therein, and for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal footing with the original states, at as early periods as may be consistent with the general interest: It is hereby ordained and declared, by the authority aforesaid. That the follow- ing articles shall be considered as articles of compact, between the original states and the people and states in the said territory, and forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit: 24 As originally drafted, and even at the third readinsf, this ordinance was quite common- place ; and there has been much controversy over the question of authorship of the remarkable changes which were incorporated in it between this period and its final passage. This question was finally settled by William F. Poole (North American Review, April, 1876), who showed that the dominant influence was that of Dr. Manasseh Cutler, then connected with the Ohio Company and engaged in negotiations for western lands on behalf of that company for colonization by New England settlers. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 363 The six articles which follow are too long to be given here in com- plete form, but Article IV provided that the territory and states formed from it should forever remain a part of the United States ; that its in- habitants should pay their just share of federal debts ; that state legis- latures should never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by Congress or with its regulations for securing the title of the soil to bona fide purchasers ; that public lands should not be taxed, nor non- residents higher than residents ; and that navigable waters leading into the Mississippi or St. Lawrence rivers should forever remain public highways without tolls to all citizens of the United States. Upon the adoption of the present Constitution and its taking effect in 1789 the first Congress passed an act bringing the ordinance under its provisions. On May 23, 1790, the provisions of the ordinance were extended to the territory south of the Ohio River, except the sixth article prohibiting slavery, as North Carolina in her deed of cession had provided "That no regulations made or to be made by Congress shall tend to emancipate slaves." EARLY DISPOSAL OF PUBLIC LANDS. The colonies were originally founded under royal grants to com- panies which were in effect colonization syndicates, and which distrib- uted the lands to the individual colonists in various ways. New communities were often assigned lands in bulk, the local authorities making a redistribution to the first inhabitants and to subsequent comers according to their individual needs — or their standing and im- portance in the community — for building lots and farms or business sites, with suitable reservations for church and school sites and other public purposes, and as a reservation with which to stimulate further settlement. In New England especially this communal system pre- vailed. Often these lands were awarded without compensation as a premium to encourage settlement. With the growth of the commun- ity real estate would begin to take on a substantial value, by which time the allotment system had largely performed its purpose. It was but natural that in the early colonization of the western lands the same methods should have been followed. We find, therefore, large colonization syndicates corresponding to the companies which had ob- tained the early royal charters, purchasing large tracts of land at low prices and colonizing them with eastern settlers who built up the new communities, following the ideas and institutions of the old. Such was the origin of the Ohio Company, formed in New England in 1786, in- 364 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. eluding prominent men and a large number of Revolutionary army veterans who used their army land warrants, together with certificates of public debt, in purchasing the lands. Two million acres were at first awarded, but various military and Indian reservations within the boundaries of the grant cut it down to 892,900 acres. The stipulated price was $1 an acre with a rebate of one-third under certain conditions, and the total price eventually paid was $642,856.66. ^° In the same year (1792) 272,540 acres were sold to John Cleves Symmes and his asso- ciates for $189,693 in army land warrants, and 202,187 acres (the triangular comer of the state west of New York) for $151,640.25. These sales were made by the treasury board, requiring authorization by Congress for each sale. They were doubly an expedient for the dis- charge of national debts — first, to the soldiers in accepting army war- rants in part payment,^" and second, by using the cash proceeds to pay creditors of the United States. These were the only large sales made prior to the new constitution. ALEXANDER HAMILTON'S REPORT. Under the new constitution the public land question was one of the first to engage the attention of Congress. Alexander Hamilton (then Secretary of the Treasury) was called upon for his views, which he embodied in his famous report of July 22, 1790. This report recognized that there would be two probable classes of purchasers : Those desiring to buy in large quantities for investment or for colonization, and those desiring to purchase small tracts for actual settlement. It recommended the establishment of a general land office for the convenience of the former, and of local land offices which would best serve the convenience of the small purchaser. Hamilton's prac- tical mind also supplied many suggestions as to details, which were actually worked out in practice. In 1800 the act was passed establishing local land offices and officers known as registers, setting a minimum price of $2 an acre, one-fourth cash and balance in four annual pay- ments. This credit system did not work well and was later abandoned. In 1812 the General Land Office was established, and in 1849 upon the establishment of the Department of the Interior it was made a bureau of that department. 26 Public Domain, p. 18. 26 Donaldson states (Public Domain, p. 198) that each acre In these warrants was, on the sales above noted, accepted as payment of an acre and a half of land — probably because the regular price of $1 an acre had been reduced one-third in these sales. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 365 At the time of Hamilton's report the fixed minimum price per acre of the public lands was $1 an acre. He recommended that this be made thirty cents an acre, but instead it was raised to $2 by act of May 18, 1796, which, however, included the cost of survey, which Hamilton had recommended should be paid by the purchaser. This act also included the substance of the present rectangular system of surveys, which had been adopted by Congress in 1785 upon report of a committee of which Thomas Jefferson was chairman. The original committee report had recommended townships of ten miles square, which was amended to the present size. Previous surveys had been by metes and bounds, and the origin of the rectangular system back of the committee's report is not known. It is by some thought that the system came from Holland and was primarily of Roman origin. ^' Under the credit system up to June 30, 1820, there had been sold 19,399,158.04 acres of land, for $47,689,563.09 ; but reversions by for- feiture and otherwise cut the amount down to 13,642,536 acres, and the sum eventually received therefor was $27,900,379.29. During this time many relief acts for settlers were passed; but on July 1, 1820, the cash system went into effect and the price was reduced to $1.25 an acre, which has ever since been the basis price on public lands in general. This act, of April 24, 1820, also made it the duty of the President to proclaim sales of public land, Congress having theretofore ordered such sales. There were thereafter no important changes in the method of dis- posing of public lands until the passage of preemption and homestead legislation ; and this was the growth of an intervening popular move- ment or trend of sentiment which must now be considered. CLAIMS OF THE PUBLIC LAND STATES. By the provisions of the ordinance of 1787, already mentioned, the states in western territory were to have no interest in the public lands, nor the power of taxing them as long as the title was in the United States. These western states considered this a grievance, and at vari- ous times memorialized Congress, pointing out their disadvantage in comparison with the older communities which had the disposal of lands within their boundaries. As a matter of fact these older communities had suffered from the depletion of their population by the tide of west- em immigration, and had put the price of state lands down in some 2' Prof. Austin Scott, o£ Rutgers College, in the Rutgers Tarsum, December 12, 1884. 366 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. cases as low as fifty cents an acre, cutting under the price of Govern- ment lands and producing a correspondingly small revenue to the states. The western states, however, clamored for cession to them of the public lands within their boundaries, at a reduced price. This question was the theme of the famous Webster-Hayne debate in Congress, in which Webster was the champion of the existing land system ; and in 1832 it was referred to the House Committee on Manufactures, of which Henry Clay was chairman. The question naturally belonged to the committee on public lands, but there was a political object in saddling the question upon Mr. Clay, because he was then a candidate for the presidency and it was thought that he must make enemies whichever side of the ques- tion he took. The report submitted on April 16, 1832, was, however, a masterly treatment of the subject. Regarding the contention that the price was too high, the report said, "There is no more satisfactory criterion of the fairness of the price of an article than that arising from the brisk- ness of the sales when it is offered in the market." The annual increase in land sales was then offered as an evidence in rebuttal of the conten- tion. It was also said that a reduction of price would be unfair to those who had already purchased, and would be an incitement to speculation, the military bounty lands being referred to as having given more bene- fit to speculators than to those for whom they were intended. Upon the question of cession of the public lands to the states, either by gift or by purchase, the committee was equally firm. The public lands involved were worth, at $1.25 an acre, $1,362,500,000, and the committee report stated : It is difficult to conceive a question of greater magnitude than that of relin- quishing this immense amount of national property. If they were transferred to the new states, the subsequent disposition would be according to laws emanating from various legislative sources. Competition would probably arise between the new states, in the terms which they would offer to purchasers. Each state would be desirous of inviting the greatest number of immigrants, not only for the lauda- ble purpose of populating rapidly its own territories, but with a view to the acquisi- tion of funds to enable it to fulfill its engagements to the general Government. Collisions between the states would probably arise, and their injurious consequences may be imagined. A spirit of hazardous speculation would be engendered. Vari- ous schemes of the new states would be put afloat to sell or divide the public lands. Companies and combinations would be formed in this country, if not in foreign countries, presenting gigantic and tempting, but delusive, projects, and the history of legislation in some of the states of the Union admonishes us that a too-ready ear is sometimes given by a majority in a legislative assembly to such projects. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 367 The report also intimated that the relations of debtor and creditor between the states and the general Government would produce much the same evils as those which had attended the selling of public lands to individuals on credit. Delinquencies would arise and the indebtedness be sought to be avoided or wiped out by relief measures. The report was, however, accompanied by a draft of a bill for distribution tempo- rarily of the proceeds of sale of public lands to the various states. This bill was recommitted, finally passed the Senate, and passed the House in the closing days of the session, but failed to receive President Jackson's signature. In 1835 it was revived by Clay and passed the Senate, but was lost in the House. In 1841 a similar bill was passed as an administration measure, and under it there has been paid out to the various states $701,578.94, as already given in the preceding finan- cial tables. A further concession to the public land states was the Preemption Act passed in 1841, although it was bitterly opposed by Calhotm and by some others who insisted upon the cession of land to the states and were not willing to accept compromises. Lands were still sold at $1.25 an acre under this act, but it gave preference to the actual settler, at the minimum price, and closed the lands to public sale where a premium over this price might have been secured. At first it applied only where settlement was made subsequent to survey, but afterwards was extend- ed to apply to unsurveyed lands. It was the beginning of the present epoch in the disposition of public lands. Theretofore the primary idea had been revenue to the Government ; thereafter it was to be the en- couragement of the actual settler and of homebuilding. The act, hav- ing outlived its usefulness and having been made the instrument of speculative manipulation, was repealed in 1889. From the passage of this act to that of the Homestead Act in 1862 no legislation of a general character was enacted regarding the disposi- tion of public lands. There were during this period a number of dona- tion acts, designed to encourage settlement upon the frontiers. Of this character was the act passed in 1842 for the territory of East Florida, granting a quarter-section of land free to persons able to bear arms, certain locations for such settlement being designated. There were somewhat similar acts for Oregon, Washington and New Mexico. In 1849 and 1850 the swamp land legislation was enacted, giving swamp lands to the several states, the proceeds to be used for levees and drainage, and other public improvements. These acts are still in force, 368 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. and the various states to which they apply have, to June 30, 1904, selected 82,699,285.33 acres of swamp lands, of which amount 65,015,- 414.86 acres have been approved and 62,645,909.28 acres patented. Claims for 8,674,324.32 acres have been rejected. THE HOMESTEAD LAW. The preemption law has been referred to as marking a change in the Government land policy, the promotion of settlement being placed above the question of revenue. As a matter of fact, this law combined both principles and was a transition step to the giving away of land to actual settlers, with no charges except sufficient to cover cost of survey and disposition. '" This was the effect of the Homestead Act, finally passed in 1862, but which had been a burning issue in the national poli- tics of many previous campaigns. This question gave its name to the Free Soil movement originating in 1848, though slavery and other issues were also involved in that movement. The land agitation of that time involved four contentions on the part of the radicals : 1. Freedom of the public lands in a limited way to actual settlers. 2. Cessation of the sale of public lands to nonresident purchasers. 3. The exemption of homesteads. 4. The restriction of the purchase of any other lands to a limited quantity. All these principles have now found a place in the land system. The Free Soil Democracy in 1852 held a convention in whose plat- form appeared the following clause : "The public lands of the United States belong to the people and should not be sold to individuals, nor granted to corporations, but held as a sacred trust for the benefit of the people, and should be granted in limited quantities, free of cost, to landless settlers." In the campaign of 1856 the Free Soil movement, as such, had disap- peared with the birth of the Republican party, which, however, stood for the same land principles. The main issues of the campaign were free homes and the restriction of slavery. The homestead movement entered Congress in 1859, a bill passing the House by a vote of 120 to 76, but failing in the Senate. A com- promise between Senate and House passed a bill in 1860 which Presi- dent Buchanan vetoed, giving in detail reasons, some of which may be summarized as follows : 28 Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 533) shows that the General Land Office would not be self- sustaining {rom fees and commissions alone, but must depend partly upon revenues from cash sales to pay current expenses. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 369 Congress has no power to give away the public lands, either to states or to individuals. The bill would prove unequal and unjust among the actual settlers themselves. The old settlers are public benefactors, and have paid $1.25 an acre for their lands. It is unjust to them that new settlers should be allowed to come in and pay the greatly reduced price for lands. This bill will prove unequal and unjust in its operation, because from its nature it is confined to one class of our people. The mechanic who emigrates to the West, and pursues his calling, must labor long before he can purchase a quarter-section of land ; while the tiller of the soil who accompanies him obtains a farm at once by the bounty of the Government. At present the older states receive their share of the benefits from the land revenues going to the general treasury ; but the homestead law would not only de- prive them of this revenue, but offer a premium for emigration from these states. This bill will open one vast field for speculation. The bill requires native or naturalized citizens to be heads of families, but makes no such requirement ' ' when applicable to persons of foreign birth recently arrived on our shores." The effect of this bill on the public revenue must be apparent to all. . . . The Secretary of the Interior estimates the revenue from the public lands for the next fiscal year at $4,000,000 on the presumption that the present land system would remain unchanged.^' Should this bill become a law, he does not believe that $1,000,000 will be derived from this source. In the Senate the question of passing the bill over the veto received twenty-eight affirmative votes to eighteen negative, less than the neces- sary two-thirds required to pass it. The homestead law was, however, passed in 1862 and received President Lincoln's signature on May 20, forming the substance of the present homestead law. There have been numerous amendments affect- ing the details, which cannot be given here, but the principle of the law remains the same. Its current provisions will be given farther on in this chapter. Another historical act for the distribution of land to individuals was the Timber Culture Act passed March 3, 1873 ; amended March 13, 1874, and by further acts up to June 14, 1878, which was repealed March 3, 1891. The act of 1878 provided substantially for the planting and growing for eight years of one acre of timber to each sixteen acres of land in a quarter section or less, when free patent will issue. The acts of 1873-4 permitted homesteaders to take the option in lieu of cul- 29 This appears to have been a very extravagant estimate. While the bill did not become a law, the gross receipts for the fiscal year referred to (ended June 30, 1861) were actually only $870,658.54. This may have been partly an effect of the war ; yet the gross receipts for the previ- ous fiscal year, approaching its close at the time this veto message was written, were but $1,778,- 557.71, an increase of less than $12,000 over the previous fiscal year, and it was absurd to antici- pate that the next fiscal year would show an increase of over $2,000,000. 370 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tivation requirements, and required cultivation of the timber for but two years. Although the act had been repealed fourteen years there were final entries under this act in the fiscal year 1904 of 70,640.05 acres, on which the original entries had been made prior to the repeal of the act. There have also been numerous special acts granting land to in- dividuals or to the states, which cannot be considered here except in so far as they have a bearing on the present disposition of lands, and particularly the acquisition of timber lands by lumbermen. In this class will be included the private land grants for which scrip was issued assignable in character, which scrip has been used in considerable quantities for the purchase of timber lands. Soldiers' additional home- stead entries are also assignable and do not require residence or culti- vation, as will be seen in the ensuing discussion of the various methods of disposal of the public lands, in their relation to the acquisition of timber lands by lumbermen. DISPOSAL OF PUBLIC LANDS IN QUANTITY. In the past the private acquisition of timber lands from the public domain has largely been under laws for its disposal in considerable areas. These disposals have been to individuals, by private entry and public auction ; to the states, under grants for education, for internal improvements, grants of swamp lands and grants of desert lands ; and to railroad, canal and military wagon road companies as bounties for construction work of public benefit. The states and corporations re- ceiving such grants have, in turn, sold the lands to individuals for the raising of funds for the purposes of the grants, and many of the timber land holdings have been secured in this way. ACQUISITION BY PUBLIC SALE. The first provision for the disposal of public lands was by public sale to the highest bidder; and this system continued for many years. Such sales were proclaimed by the President until in 1846 the Commis- sioner of the General Land Office was authorized to order lands into the market. Lands offered at such public sale and remaining unsold were known as "offered" lands, and were then subject to private sale at the minimum price of $1.25 an acre. While public sale was a generally recognized early method of disposing of the lands received by state cessions, not all the subsequent acquisitions have been subject to such sale. Most of the land in the Louisiana Purchase has been subject to public sale. In 1866 Congress reserved the public lands in Arkansas, UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 371 Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida from public sale for home- stead purposes, but this act was repealed in 1876 and the lands brought into the market for sale. The alternate sections in the Pacific railroad grant were reserved by the Government for homestead and preemption entry. The act of March 3, 1891, forbade public sale of public lands, except abandoned reservations and disconnected fractional tracts. No great areas of public land have been disposed of in this manner, the total sales from 1884 to 1904, inclusive, being less than 621,000 acres. SALE BY PRIVATE ENTRY. All lands which had been offered at public sale and remained unsold were formerly subject to private entry at the minimum price per acre fixed by law. With the adoption of the Homestead Act the general sentiment was for the restriction of land sales at $1.25 an acre, and no very great proportion of the public domain, especially west of the Mis- sissippi, was ever offered in this way, consequently the area subject to private entry remained somewhat limited. An exception was, however, made in the case of five southern states above referred to, all the land in which was offered for sale soon after the congressional restriction upon its sale was removed in 1876. At that time, however, there was no general demand for the land, and it remained subject to private entry until in the '80's the value of southern pine timber began to be manifest to northern operators ; and in that decade large amounts of Government timber land were purchased by lumbermen. The act of March 2, 1889, withdrew all public lands in the United States from private entry except those in Missouri. Any public lands in Missouri are still subject to private entry, whether they have been offered previously at public sale or not, the distinction between "offered" and "unoffered" lands which existed for so many years having been abolished in 1898. Special acts still make certain other lands, in small amounts, subject to private entry, 22,308.12 acres having been taken in this way in 1904. The total of private entries in the period from 1884 to 1904, inclusive, was 6,119,279.25 acres. There was no limit upon the amount of land that might be secured by a single in- dividual through either public sale or private entry, it being sold in the former case in half sections and in the latter in any desired subdivision down to a quarter quarter section. GRANTS OF LAND TO THE STATES. The clamor made by the public land states for an interest in the public domain lying within their boundaries, while it did not secure a 372 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. cession of the lands in to to, had its influence upon the amount of ces- sions made by the United States to the various states for specific pur- poses, already mentioned. GRANTS FOR EDUCATION. The first school grant was that of the ordinance of 1785 of the six- teenth section in each township, which was reserved for this purpose. There was no provision as to its ultimate disposition, but upon the ad- mission of Ohio, and thereafter in the case of all the other states, these lands were turned over to the State for administration. In the admis- sion of Oregon and all subsequent states both sections 16 and 36 in each township have been set aside, and these sections have been reserved in the public lands in the territories, for their benefit when they shall have become states. When these sections are mineral in character, or otherwise appropriated, other sections are selected. The total grants of this character have been about 68,000,000 acres, but, owing to the scattered nature of the selections, they have been of little importance in the formation of timber holdings. UNIVERSITY GRANTS. Under various special acts Congress has made university grants of 40,000 to 60,000 acres to each of specified universities in the various states, aggregating about 1,200,000 acres to 1888. AGRICULTURA-L AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE GRANTS. In the year in which the homestead law was passed (1862) Congress provided for grants of 30,000 acres to each state for each senator and representative in Congress for the benefit of agricultural and mechani- cal colleges existing or to be established in conformity with the terms of the act. In certain public land states these lands were granted "in place; " in the other states, scrip was issued which could be located in any public land state, upon land subject to private entry, or could be used in preemption payments or in commutation of homestead entries. Many of the states receiving such scrip sold it at prices as low as fifty cents an acre, and much of it was used in the location and purchase of timber lands, though it did not offer any special privileges in the selec- tion of lands not available for ordinary cash purchase. In one notable instance (that of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York,) this scrip was held in trust and timber lands located with it, chiefly in Wisconsin, which were held for investment for many years. An individual trustee- ship was necessary, because by the provisions of the act the states could UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 373 not themselves use the scrip in locating lands in other states, but only their assignees. Ezra Cornell bound himself by contract to purchase the scrip at sixty cents an acre, locate the land and pay taxes on it for twenty years and at that time sell it for the benefit of Cornell Univer- sity. This time expired in 1886, but the time was extended ten years. The eventual returns from the 500,000 acres of timber which Mr. Cornell purchased with the sixty-cent scrip, after paying the cost of administration and carrying cost, were nearly $5,500,000, or $11 an acre. There was granted under this act to 1883 1,770,000 acres of lands in place and 7,830,000 acres of scrip. The amount of such scrip that was locatable in any one state was limited to 1,000,000 acres, and not more than three sections in any township. The reports for the year ended June 30, 1901, show that there had been granted to that time 10,320,843 acres, of which 1,030,572 acres remained unsold. The funds from these sales are kept intact as endowments, the interest only being expended; and on the date mentioned the invested funds amounted to $10,806,780, yielding 6.3 percent. The provisions of this act have been held to ap- ply to new states upon their admission without special new legislation. There have been other special grants for education, the aggregate public domain set aside for this purpose being about 87,000,000 acres. DESERT LANDS. Congress in 1877 passed an act permitting individual entries of 640 acres of desert land, which will be again referred to with other in- dividual entry acts. By act of August 18, 1894, Congress granted such lands to the states wherein situated, not to exceed 1,000,000 acres in each state, patent issuing upon the lands whenever an ample supply of water shall have been furnished for irrigating them. By subsequent legislation ten years is allowed upon such segregations in which to make the irrigation improvements required in order to secure the patent. Under this act 1,644,556 acres have been segregated temporarily await- ing irrigation improvement; 39,838.06 acres have been patented and 938,236.20 acres have been approved for patent, and 44,826.6 acres were awaiting action upon the date of these statistics, June 30, 1904. It is evident that lands of this character from their very nature cannot be timber lands ; and it has been specifically decided that land which will support a growth of trees cannot be arid land within the meaning of the law. The reclamation of arid lands in the West has, however, a connection with lumbering which will be explained in a subsequent ref- erence to the Government Reclamation Service. 374 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. SWAMP LANDS GRANTED TO STATES. By act of March 3, 1849, Congress granted to the State of Louisiana the whole of the swamp and overflowed lands within the State which were unfit for cultivation. September 28, 1850, the grant was extended to Arkansas and other states containing swamp lands ; and subsequently extended to Oregon and Minnesota after their admission. The Govern- ment survey notes were at first followed in determining what lands were swamp lands under the acts ; but afterward overflowed lands were in- cluded upon the presentation of other evidence as to their character. In the southern states where surveys were made in wet weather or during the time of spring overflows the surveys showed many tracts as "impassable swamp" which at ordinary seasons were pine upland. The lands were usually, however, actually swamp lands. It was stipu- lated that the proceeds from the sale of such lands by the states was to be used in their drainage and in levee improvement as far as necessary. In the southern states they were usually redonated to local levee boards which sold them at various prices, large quantities being sold at fifty cents an acre. A large portion of the timber holdings of the South, and especially in cottonwood and cypress, was purchased from levee boards. As these lands were not segregated or withdrawn from entry in advance of their selection by the State, considerable portions of them would be found to be taken up at the time of such selection ; and Con- gress passed indemnity acts providing that where they had been sold for cash the receipts should be turned over to the states as cash indem- nity, and where they had been located with bounty warrants or home- steaded the State should be given a lieu selection for other lands. The swamp land grants were not extended to states admitted subsequently, except to Minnesota, Oregon and California ; and in these states lands which had been disposed of by the United States were reserved from the grants and a limitation was set upon the time within which selection could be made. Other states have been made land grants of other sorts in lieu of land grants, including North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Utah and New Mexico. The transactions under the swamp land acts until June 30, 1904, have been as follows : Selected by the states 81,699,235.33 Approved to the states 65,015,414.86 Certified or patented 62,645,909.28 Indemnity claims rejected 8,674,324.32 Land indemnity certified 861,630.23 Cash indemnity, $2,049,340.64 on 1,717,644.54 In the southern states the proceeds of the swamp lands have been largely used for levee improvements. In Minnesota these lands have UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 375 been largely used for railroad bounty lands, in alternate sections, the need for drainage improvement not being so great as in the southern Mississippi Valley. These lands have been very largely timber lands, and have been rapidly disposed of by the various states, being now largely in the hands of private timber owners. Most of these lands have now been taken up by the various states, something over a million acres remaining unadjusted, consisting chiefly of remanent tracts, and being exceeded in area by the indemnity claims remaining unadjusted, over 2,000,000 acres. SALINE LANDS. The states have been granted saline springs, usually limited to twelve in number for each state, with sections of land surrounding each spring, to be disposed of as they thought best for school and internal improvement purposes. Additional saline land is for sale at public auc- tion and afterward by private entry at $1.25 an acre, and all saline land is reserved from entry in other ways. The total disposed of in this way to the states has been but little over a half million acres. LAND GRANTS FOR RAILROADS, CANALS AND WAGON ROADS. The first land grants for the improvement of transportation facilities were in aid of wagon roads, Ohio, in 1802, being given one-twentieth of the proceeds of public lands sold in the State, for the purpose of building roads between the Ohio River and navigable waters emptying into the Atlantic. The following year that State was given an addi- tional three percent of the net proceeds of public lands sold in the State, for road-building purposes within the State. Legislation of this character continued until 1823, when canal build- ing began to occupy attention. The next few years saw canal grants to Indiana, Illinois and Ohio, of alternate section of a strip five miles in width, extending half that distance from either side of the proposed canal. The Illinois canal lands were thereafter, by permission of Con- gress, merged in the Illinois Central railroad grant. Canal grants con- tinued at various times until the congressional session of 1866, which granted 500,000 acres for ship canal improvements in Michigan and Wisconsin. The aggregate grants of this sort to 1883 comprised 4,424,073.06 acres, and so far as known there have been no canal grants since that time. The grants of money to Ohio for wagon roads were succeeded by land grants, which for " military roads " still continue, the aggregate of such grants to June 30, 1904, being 2,616,796.37 acres. The germ of the first railroad land subsidy appeared in the act of 376 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. March 2, 1833, authorizing the State of Illinois to divert her canal land grant to the purpose of constructing a railroad. The first direct rail- road grant was in 1835 to a Florida road, and was very modest in its terms, granting the land for thirty feet on each side of the line, with ten acres at the terminus and the use of timber for 300 feet on either side of the track. Another early grant was that of 1836 to the New Orleans and Nashville railroad, with easements of five-acre tracts not less than fifteen miles apart for railroad stations. The first general railroad land subsidy legislation of importance, however, was that of 1850 relating to the Illinois Central railroad. It established the princi- ples upon which all subsequent legislation of the character has been founded. The railroad had been projected in 1835, but had been delayed by generally unsettled financial conditions. The original request of the railroad projectors was that Congress give them a preemption right of the lands on each side of the track for a certain distance back, with ten years' time in which to file the preemptions, the lands being, meanwhile, reserved for them. Stephen A. Douglas opposed this and favored granting alternate sections to the State of Illinois in trust, the State to make its terms with the railroad company. This grant extended for six miles upon either side of the right of way. It was finally passed Sep- tember 20, 1850, by a majority of three, through the personal efforts of Mr. Douglas, and with the assistance of southern congressmen secured through an amendment extending the grant to the Mobile & Ohio road, which had been under construction, to connect with the proposed Illinois Central road, but whose construction had been stopped for want of funds. The Illinois Legislature in 1851 granted the lands, 2,595,053 acres, to the railroad company, with a provision for the payment of 5 to 7 percent of the gross earnings of the road semiannually to the State. The receipts from this source had in 1880 given the State a return of over $3 an acre for the lands, and continue to increase with the growth of the railroad company's business. Other land grants to states for railroad building followed, being always of alternate sections, and usually the odd-numbered sections, the even-numbered being reserved to the United States. Upon such lands the minimum price of $1.25 an acre is doubled, thus theoretically recouping the Government for the railroad grant. The double minimum lands, where entered by scrip or military bounty warrants calling for a given number of acres, may be taken to half the number of acres specified. Previous to 1879 eighty UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 377 acres of double minimum lands were considered equal to 160 acres of other land for purposes of homestead entry, and applicants were limited to this amount; but in that year the distinction between single and double minimum lands, as far as homestead entry was concerned, was abolished as to all even-numbered sections, and as to odd-numbered sections in Arkansas and Missouri, where the grants to railroads had been of even-numbered sections. There were other grants of even- numbered sections to railroads, but prior to 1861, and in 1880 an act was passed by Congress reducing all double minimum lands which had been on the market prior to January 1, 1861, and were still unsold, to the single minimum scale of $1.25 an acre. Another historical land grant was that to the Northern Pacific Rail- way Company, whose extensive history cannot be given here. It was the first grant direct to the corporation, there then being no existing state governments along the greater portion of the proposed road. Alternate Government sections in the grant were reserved for homestead entry. The total of railroad lands patented, to June 30, 1904, is as follows, the list of patents to railroads including only the patents of 1,000,000 or more to each road : Patented Direct to Corporations. Acres. Acres. Northern Pacific 27,898,370.41 SiouxCity & Pacific 19,082,211.02 Central Pacific 9,018,196.53 Southern Pacific 3,609,452.67' Burlington & Missouri River 2,374,090.77 Oregon & California 2,728,153.48 Atlantic & Pacific ..5,544,311.31 New Orleans Pacific 1,000,817.70 And others, making a total of 68,426,832.97 Certified to States for Various Railroads : Illinois 2,595,053.00 Mississippi 1,075,345.02 Alabama 3,348,124.96 Florida 1,911,538.56 Louisiana 1,181,835.61 Arkansas 2,561,881.20 Missouri 1,837,728.15 Iowa 5,015,255.66 Michigan 3,263,549.21 Wisconsin 3,718,940.49 Minnesota 8,544,509.14 Kansas 4,656,568.53 North Dakota 28,322.59 Total to states 39,738,652.12 Total railroad land grants 108,165,485.09 Wagon road grants already given 2,616,796.37 Canal grants already given 4,424,073.06 Total transportation subsidy grants 115,206.354.52 Railroad land grants have always been made upon the theory of encouraging railroad construction in sections of the country not yet 378 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. sufficiently developed to afford the new road sufficient earnings without such assistance. Naturally, a large proportion of such lands, in the timbered states, were of virgin timber, and have been purchased from the railroads for the timber. Although these lands have always been in alternate sections cornering upon each other, this, in heavy timber, affords a sufficiently compact body for economical lumbering operations, and in many instances it has been possible to purchase the even-num- bered sections also, subsequent to their acquisition from the Govern- ment by individuals. Various acts of Congress have confirmed settlers in their rights to even-numbered sections of land within railroad grants where their rights antedate the grant to the railroad, but permit the railroad to make other selections from unappropriated odd-numbered sections within the limits of the grant. In all sections of the country, but especially in the South, considerable portions of the present timber holdings have been acquired from railroad lands, supplemented by pur- chases of alternate sections from individual owners, of school sections or of railroad lieu selections to make up a solid body of timber. STATE SELECTIONS FOR INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The act of September 4, 1841, granted to each state thereafter ad- mitted, 500,000 acres of land, including any such grants that might have been made to it as a territory. The total grants under this law, up to the admission of Colorado, were 7,806,654.67 acres. In the special acts admitting subsequent states this act is repealed and specific grants are made for educational purposes and for public buildings, the aggregate of which is not at hand. The states have the privilege of the selection of such lands from time to time, and in the land office re- ports all the state selections under various general and special acts are merged in a single item. The total of such state selections in the period from 1884 to 1904 inclusive, as compiled for this work from the land office reports, is 16,345,195.78 acres. SCRIP LOCATIONS. The Government has issued a large variety of land scrip or warrants, in satisfaction of Revolutionary military bounties, of private land claims, in pursuance of Supreme Court decisions, to states for agricultural col- leges, to Indians and half-breeds in pursuance of treaty provisions, to soldiers and sailors where their original entries have been for less than 160 acres, for changes in location of entries, and finally as payment for land in Government forest reserves. Most of this scrip has been as- signable and could be used in the acquirement of Government land in UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 379 any quantity; but much of it is applicable only to lands subject to pri- vate entry. There were issued for services in the Revolutionary War warrants for 2,165,000 acres of land, and on account of the War of 1812 warrants for 4,930,192 acres. The war with Mexico and additional legislation increased the total issue to 66,076,550 acres, of which amount 7,227,960 acres are still outstanding. Originally, these warrants were locatable only in military districts reserved from the public lands for the pur- pose, with the idea of enforcing immigration and settlement; but this not working well, the bounties were extended to all lands subject to private entry. Up to June 30, 1888, there had been issued scrip, in satisfaction of various claims other than for military bounties, amount- ing to 1,028,800 acres, and Indian scrip amounting to 488,880 acres. This scrip has been used to some extent in the purchase of timber lands, but its chief use has been in payment for preemption and other cash entries and in commutation of homestead entries by individuals. The act of June 4, 1897, in regard to forest reserves, among other provisions contained one by which lands covered by patents, or by un- perfected homestead or other claims could be relinquished in lieu of selection outside of the reserve of an equal tract of any vacant unap- propriated surveyed land subject to homestead entry, the act of March 3, 1901, confining the selections to lands of this character. This was the lieu selection law, and the certificates under it constituted the lieu land scrip which has for some time been on the market in considerable quantities, being assignable. This privilege of lieu selection is repealed by the act of March 8, 1905, saving previous rights, the intention being hereafter to award cash indemnity instead of scrip in such cases. Dur- ing the time that it has been in force the transfers under this law have been as follows : PERFECTED CASES. Number selections received 10,853 2,287,746.92 Patented 4,502 1,028,363.36 Rejected 735 131,356.13 Pending 5,616 1,128,027.43 UNPERFECTED CASES. Received 46 7,463.84 Approved for patent 14 2,249.00 Rejected 12 1,923.76 Cases pending 20 3,291.08 The lieu selection privilege has largely been used for the selection of timber lands, there being no restriction as to the character of the lieu selection being the same as that of the land relinquished. It was \ ft C-^ 380 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. entirely regular under this law to enter the finest timber land to be found upon the public domain, with scrip obtained in exchange for bar- ren mountainside areas within forest reserves. INDIAN LANDS. The Indian title to land within the United States has been reduced, rapidly of late years, to the area of the present Indian reservations. Abandoned reservations are usually offered at public sale and are after- wards subject to private entry, though in many cases they are specific- ally excepted from any but homestead entry. During the period from 1884 to 1904, inclusive, the aggregate sales of such Indian lands were 5,265,894.33 acres, as compiled from land office reports. For the pre- vious period no figures are obtainable. The earliest sawmills in Mich- igan and Wisconsin were located upon Indian lands (which then comprised almost all the land area) upon permission from the Indians, approved by the Government; and Indian reservations since have entered largely into lumbering operations, as timber is available from such reservations under certain provisions of existing laws, while in regard to the public domain there has never been a law authorizing the sale of timber apart from the land. This observation, of course, does not apply to forest reserves, which are withdrawn from the public domain. RESTRICTIVE INDIVIDUAL SETTLEMENT AND ACQUISITION LAWS. With the exception of certain special land grants to states for specific purposes, the above comprise practically all the methods under which public lands have passed from the ownership of the United States in large blocks. There have, however, been large timber areas at different times which did not fall under the operation of these various laws, and which, therefore, remained in the public domain except as disposed of under the various laws for the acquisition of land by individuals in restricted areas — the most prevalent unit of limitation being a quarter section, or 160 acres. After such lands have thus passed into the owner- ship of numerous small individual holders they have, in many instances, been repurchased by lumbermen to make up solid, or nearly solid, tracts of sufficient area for practical manufacturing operations. A brief review of the various methods by which small individual holdings of land can be acquired from the Government at the present time, or could be acquired under laws no longer in force, will, therefore, be of interest, especially as the greater portion of the original public domain has been segregated under the operation of these laws. UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 381 The first of these laws was the preemption law, whose historical development and origin have already been reviewed. The right of preemption extended to any citizen of the United States, or anyone who had made declaration of intention to become a citizen^ who was not already the owner of 320 acres of land in the United States and who had not abandoned the ownership of land in order to take up public land. He must already have become a settler on the land. Actual inhabitance and occupancy of the land must continue until final proof and payment, which must be within twelve months of filing on offered lands (lands which had been offered at public sale and remained unsold) and within thirty-three months on unofEered lands. The preemptor was required to pay the regular minimum price of $1.25 an acre (or $2.50 in railroad grant areas) and the only advantages of preemption were the ability to hold the land against all claimants by the actual settler and occupant, and the insuring of the minimum price of un- ofEered land. Land which had been offered was, of course, already subject to private entry at the minimum price, but in practice land sold at public auction has rarely brought any premium over the minimum price. The preemption law was repealed March 3, 1891, pending rights, however, being saved ; so that final preemption entries are still being made in cases originating before the repeal, over 2,000 acres having been patented under this law during the fiscal year 1904. As to the total area disposed of under the preemption law from its passage in 1841 to 1888, no exact figures are obtainable, as they were mingled with other cash sales in the land oflSce reports ; but Donaldson (Public Domain, p. 1247) estimates it at 175,000,000 acres. During the subse- quent years to the date of the repeal of the law the disposition under it was 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 acres annually, then dwindling gradually with the diminution of the number of entries or of rights of entry pending at the time of repeal. The aggregate final entries from 1883 to 1904, as compiled from land office reports, was 22,974,157.78 acres, which, with Donaldson's estimate, brings the total acreage disposed of under the law close to 200,000,000 acres. THE TIMBER CULTURE LAW. This law applied only to prairie regions and, of course, had no bearing upon timbered land. It was repealed at the same time as the preemption law, as it was found not to have greatly encouraged reaf- forestation of the prairies. The original entries under this law to June 30, 1883, were 16,768,076.7 acres, and continued at the rate of 382 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 acres annually until its repeal, the aggregate for the period subsequent to 1883 being 27,561,191.43 acres, or a grand aggregate of nearly 45,000,000 acres. DONATION ACTS. At various times between 1842 and 1854 Congress passed donation acts giving homesteads to citizens in Florida, Oregon, Washington and New Mexico in order to induce settlement in these frontier territories. This was a special concession at that time, but later the Homestead Act made like gifts to everyone from public lands everywhere. The total disposition under these acts to June 30, 1883, (Public Domain, p. 1278) was 3,121,534.52 acres, and since then — more particularly under the New Mexico Donation Act, the last in force — it has been 25,142,37 acres. DESERT LAND ACT. The Desert Land Act, as passed in 1875 and amended in 1891, pro- vides for the entering of not to exceed 640 acres of arid land, the entrant being possessor of a water right capable of irrigating the land, and having three years in which to complete the irrigation, being re- quired to spend at least $1 an acre annually in the irrigation improve- ment. He must pay for the land $1.25 an acre, twenty-five cents when making original entry and the balance upon final entry. The original desert land entries aggregated 1,607,310.22 acres to June 30, 1883, (Public Domain, p. 291) and since that time 11,645,511.2 acres, or over 13,000,000 acres in all. The act has been largely an instrument of fraud, as very few sections of arid land are capable of irrigation through the resources of an individual owner. The Government charges $1.25 an acre for such lands, but gave away the valuable swamp lands which now constitute the rich cotton and sugar plantations of the South. MINERAL AND COAL LANDS. Regarding these lands it is sufficient to say that of coal lands the United States has disposed of 40,172.97 acres prior to 1883, and subse- quently 245,825.42 acres, at prices of $10 to $20 an acre according to distance from an established railroad ; of mineral lands it sold, between 1866 and 1883, inclusive, 224,483.54 acres, and subsequently 931,141.9 acres, at various prices, usually $2.50 to $5 an acre. Western mineral lands ordinarily do not contain as much timber as is needed for their working, and certain privileges in the taking of timber from adjoining public land are given. Coal lands in the Southeast, and iron and cop- per lands in the Great Lakes region, are often covered with valuable UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 383 timber growths, and lumbering and mining are often associated indus- tries in these regions, though the former occupation requires much greater land areas for an operation of a given magnitude. THE STONE AND TIMBER ACT. Although public lands are classified broadly as agricultural and non- agricultural, and the latter subdivided into mineral, coal, desert, etc., there is no classification of timber land as such, and it has been disposed of as agricultural land whenever fit for agriculture after clearing (and often where absolutely worthless for that purpose). Congress, how- ever, by act of June 3, 1878, has provided that land unfit for cultivation and valuable chiefly for timber and stone, not yet proclaimed and offered for sale, may, in California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, be sold in areas of not over 160 acres to any one individual, at $2.50 an acre. August 4, 1892, the act was amended to apply to all the public land states. It is conceivable that a quarry business may be profitably conducted on 160 acres of land, but such an area is hardly adequate for the establish- ment of a lumber manufacturing operation ; yet the applicant is required to swear that he is not purchasing the land on speculation, but for his own " exclusive use and benefit." It is but natural that the purchaser of such lands containing timber should undergo a change of sentiment soon after acquiring title, and that such impracticably small holdings should in time become consolidated into larger ones suitable for lumber manufacturing purposes. There has been disposed of, under the pro- visions of this act, to June 30, 1883, 456,743.91 acres, or less than half the amount disposed of annually during 1903 and 1904. The aggregate disposition from 1884 to 1904, inclusive, has been 7,139,334.37 acres ; in 1903, 1 765,222.43 acres, and in 1904, 1,306,261.3 acres. THE HOMESTEAD LAWS. We have reserved as the last for discussion the most important of the settlement laws, though it antedates some of those already referred to. Under the original homestead law of May 20, 1862, and subsequent amendments, there had been entered 75,216,164.17 acres to June 30, 1883. (Public Domain, p. 519), and since that time 157,868,778.86 acres, an aggregate of over 130,000,000 acres. One hears the statement that the agricultural lands of the public domain (to which only the homestead acts apply) are becoming exhausted, yet the entries in 1902, 1903 and 1904 have been the largest in the history of the homestead law, being respectively 14,033,245.78, 11,193,120.25 and 10,171,265.97 acres. These figures are for original entries, a certain percentage of 384 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. which fail of final patent, but the land office reports are deficient in that they do not show the relinquishments and rejections. The immense reclamation projects now under way have withdrawn large areas of arid public domain, susceptible to irrigation by these projects, from entry other than by homestead ; but as only one of these irrigation works is as yet distributing water, but few homestead entries have been made under the operations of the Reclamation Act. The privilege of homestead entry is extended to citizens of the United States over twenty-one years of age, of either sex, married or single, not already owning over 160 acres of land in the United States. A married woman must be the legal head of the family. A single woman having entered a homestead does not lose the right to prove up on it by marriage, but if the husband also has a homestead upon which proof is not completed at the time of the marriage they must select one and relinquish the other, as they cannot maintain separate residences on the two homesteads. The law extends also to aliens who have de- clared intention of citizenship, though they must have become citizens before making final entry. They have the advantage of citizens in that they may enter before becoming twenty-one years of age. Citizens who have served at least fourteen days in either army or navy during actual war, however, are permitted to make homestead entry before arriving at the age of twenty-one years. Continuous residence for five years is required before making final entry and securing patent. It is not necessary to review here subsequent amendments to the original Homestead Act, which merely supplement it in details. Its provisions were, however, subsequently expanded by provisions for adjoining farm homesteads ; for additional homesteads ; for soldiers' homesteads, and for Indian homesteads. The original homestead privilege was for 160 acres of land in a solid body or legal subdivision. If under this act less than 160 acres were entered, the entry right was considered to have been satisfied. The act of March 2, 1899, permitted the second entry of additional contiguous land to make up 160 acres, without additional residence or cultivation upon the contiguous tract, it being considered as a part of the original entry and patent issuing at the same time ; though if for any reason title were not secured to the original entry, the title to the additional entry failed with it. The same act also provided for additional noncontiguous entry to make up a total of 160 acres, final proof having been made upon the original entry, and additional residence and cultivation of the second entry UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 385 being required. Originally, as already stated, homestead entry was restricted to eighty acres upon double minimum lands (within railroad grants); but the act of July 1, 1879, made this 160 acres and permitted previous homesteaders to enter an adjoining eighty acres without additional fees or commissions, or to surrender the old entry and take a new one of 160 acres, occupation of the old entry to count on the new, with the provision that occupation of the new or additional entry shall continue for not less than one year before final proof. Soldiers and sailors are, by act of June 8, 1872, given homestead rights to 160 acres, amended in 1901 to include service in the war with Spain or in the Philippines. The time of service is deducted from the five years' occu- pation otherwise required, except that at least one year's settlement is required. The original entry may be made by agent, but the settle- ment and final entry must be in person. In case of death in actual service the widow or minor heirs are permitted to make final entry and the entire time of enlistment is taken as full satisfaction for the five years' occupation, and patent may issue upon satisfactory proof of the above facts. If a soldier or sailor die before having made original entry, the right existing to do so, this right passes to his unmarried widow or minor heirs, and if the death occurs during the period of enlistment the entire period of enlistment is deducted from the period required for settlement and occupation. Other privileges are extended, such as the right to abandon residence upon a homestead during the period of service ; and particularly by the same act was given the privi- lege of additional entry to make up 160 acres when the original entry was for less than that amount. Certificates were issued for these addi- tional entries, which became an object of purchase and sale ; and though restrictions were at first attempted upon their sale, Congress, on August 18, 1894, validated all previous or subsequent sales, made to bona fide purchasers for value. These certificates constitute the "soldiers' additional" scrip already referred to. Unlike most other scrip it can be located upon any lands subject to homestead entry. By the act of March 3, 1875, Indians abandoning tribal relations are given right of homestead, though not permitted to dispose of the land until after five years from issuance of the patent, retaining, however, a tribal interest in annuities and other funds. The act of July 4, 1894, extended homestead privileges to all Indians located upon public lands, the fee simple, however, being reserved until twenty-five years from the date of the patent, the Government assuming trusteeship during 386 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, that period. Indians are also, in special cases, allowed peculiar privi- leges of homestead on Indian lands otherwise reserved from homestead entry. The homestead privilege in general formerly extended only to sur- veyed public lands, but now extends to all unappropriated lands, and, by special provisions, to various withdrawn or reserved lands, such as mineral land on which no valuable mines have been discovered; lands subject to private entry in California and thereafter withdrawn from market; on abandoned or useless military reservations where the settler was on the land prior to reservation for such purposes or prior to 1884 ; on granted railroad lands subsequent to expiration of grant ; on lands sold to the settler by the State of Missouri, which the United States afterwards declared not to be swamp lands and reserved title to from the State ; on arid lands withdrawn from other settlement under the provisions of the Reclamation Act, under such limitations of the homestead area as are prescribed in each particular irrigation tract under the provisions of that act, and many other special privileges of entry which cannot be enumerated here. Like the supplementary laws requiring a term of residence, the homestead law was drafted with the idea of encouraging settlement and the building up of communities. Had homestead entry actually been restricted to lands suitable for agricultural pursuits the purposes of the law would have been more closely met ; but under it there has been permitted the entry of lands which from their very nature were not fitted to afford to occupants a permanent means of livelihood, in- cluding grazing lands of such a character that large areas would be required for a profitable grazing industry, and, at the time at least, incapable of affording a living through tillage of the soil; including, also, timber lands which, when denuded of their forest cover, became barren sand wastes. In many other cases timber land when cleared had some agricultural utility, but its value per acre would be much less when fitted for cultivation than in its virgin state; and such land should not have been classified as agricultural. Its reservation in the same manner as coal and mineral land and salines, and its disposition with special reference to the utility of the timber for lumber manufacture, or the sale of the saw timber by the Government and the subsequent opening of the partially cleared land to homestead entry, would have been carrying out the policy of the Government as shown in regard to the other mentioned classes of lands. Instead, the policy was in- UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 387 augurated — and continues to the present time — of classing all timber lands as agricultural except where, under the provisions of the Timber and Stone Act already cited, the entrant prefers to declare that the lands are unfit for agriculture, in order that he may secure 640 acres at $2.50 an acre instead of 160 acres as a gift. In other words, the Government gives away its timber lands which (in the opinion of the entrant and his witnesses) may be suitable for agriculture ; but if they are lands which will be worthless after the timber is removed, it charges $2.50 an acre for them. An inevitable result of this policy on the part of the Government was that in many cases lands would be taken under homestead entry for the purpose of selling the timber and then abandoning them, or of securing final title and selling both lands and timber to adjoining larger timber owners, or of securing title to grazing lands to be concentrated into large range holdings in the same way. In many parts of the country during long periods it has been impossible to purchase either timber or timber lands from the public domain at any price, and often the only resource has been the purchase from homesteaders. Such was the case in the five southern states of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas and Florida, during the period when all the public lands in these states were reserved for homestead entry, prior to July 4, 1876. Such was the case in California, Oregon, Nevada and Washington prior to the passage of the Timber and Stone Act of June 3, 1878, which limited the lands which might be acquired by any one individual to 640 acres. Upon this point the Public Land Commission, in its report of February 21, 1880, recommending the sale of public timber at a gradu- ated price, said : It is proper to say that much difficulty is encountered in trying to suppress depredations upon the timber on the public lands. The difficulties arise from a variety of causes, chief among which has been, and still is, the impossibility of purchasing in a straightforward, honest way from the Government either timber or timber-bearing lands. Settlements upon timber-bearing lands in the states and territory mentioned in the act [the original Timber and Stone Act, applying to the far West], under the homestead and preemption laws, are usually a mere pretense for getting the tim- ber. Compliance with those laws in good faith where settlements are made on lands bearing timber of commercial value is well nigh impossible, as the lands in most cases possess no agricultural value, and hence a compliance with the law requiring cultivation is impracticable. In such parts of the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Missouri as contain public lands, which are at the same time agricultural and timber lands, the title may be obtained only under the homestead and preemption laws. 388 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. There is no way provided by law for disposing of lands which are chiefly valu- able for timber of commercial value in those states, as it must be conceded by all that the homestead and preemption laws apply only to lands valuable for agri- culture. The condition stated in the report still exists, except that the pre- emption law has been repealed. Instead of restricting homestead entry to lands suitable for such entry, the Government has attempted^the larger and more impossible task of restricting the settler's administration of the homestead during the period of occupation before receiving final patent. The land, though reserved to the settler by the act of entry thereon, is still the property of the United States, and the settler's position prior to issuance of patent is by numerous decisions held to be analagous to that of a tenant for life. The principle upon which the court decisions rest is stated in "Washburn on Real Property" as follows (first edition, vol. 1, p. 108): In the United States whether cutting any kind of trees in any particular case is waste, seems to depend upon the question whether the act is such as a prudent farmer would do with his own land, having regard to the land as an inheritance, and whether doing it would diminish the value of the land as an estate. Questions of this kind have frequently arisen in those states where the lands are new and covered with forests, and where they cannot be cultivated until cleared of the timber. In such cases, it seems to be lawful for the tenant to clear the land if it would be in conformity with good husbandry to do so, the question depending upon the custom of farmers, the situation of the country, and the value of the timber. . . . Wood cut by a tenant in clearing the land belongs to him, and he may sell it, though he cannot cut the wood for purposes of sale ; it is waste if he does. It is evident that a strict construction of the principle laid down in the first paragraph above quoted would absolutely prohibit a settler from clearing land where the value of the land so cleared was less than its value with the virgin timber upon it ; which has been the case with much of the land upon which homestead entry has been not only per- mitted but encouraged by the Government. Such a clearing is a dimin- ishing of the value of the estate; yet without this clearing the settler cannot comply with the provisions of the law as to occupation and cul- tivation. Upon this point the courts have allowed some latitude. "In theory, at least, the land is better and more valuable with the timber ofi than with it on. It has been improved by the removal." (U. S. vs. Cook, 19 Wall 591 ) . The doctrine is further laid down in this decision : " It [the timber] can be rightfully severed for the purpose of im- UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 389 proving the land, or the better adapting it to convenient occupation, but for no other purpose. When rightfully severed it is no longer a part of the land, and there is no restriction upon its sale." This decision would, therefore, seem to justify the removal of all the timber from the land without restriction, if the clearing of the land and not the sale of the timber is the principal object in view, as laid down farther on in the decision^jj^ Other authorities do not agree with this liberal and reasonable interpretation, or, at least, inject into the subject certain other drastic principles of interpretation of the purpose of the settler under given circumstances. The land must be cleared for the purpose of cultivation. (U. S. vs. Lane, 19 Federal Reporter 910, and many other decisions); and a use of the land for grazing pur- poses, without plowing it up, is not cultivation as meant by the law (U. S. vs. Niemeyer et al., 94 Federal Reporter 147). The learned court here may be credited with little actual knowledge of agricultural condi- tions on newly cleared lands. As a matter of fact, the plow is an un- known implement of tillage upon such lands. Until, in the course of time, the stumps and roots shall have sufficiently decayed to permit their economical removal, the first crops of corn or potatoes must be worked in among the roots with a hoe or mattock; patches of grain are sowed upon the burned over ground without other tillage than that afforded by the harrow, and the settler must rely largely upon the pasturage of beef and milch cattle and crops of hay, the most practical product of newly cleared land, which the court has seemingly entirely overlooked. It was the sale of hay to the logging camps, supplemented somewhat by the sale of dairy products, swine and beef, that made possible much of the earlier settlement of Wisconsin and other northern timbered coun- try ; but in this, the only practical method of agriculture at the time, the settler was outside of the course of action laid down by the law and its weird interpretations. It was, perhaps, admissible to clear the land for grazing purposes, for the raising of hay or for other uses not involv- ing "plowing it up," if the timber were burned; but an attempt to sell the timber under such circumstances would at once render the settler a criminal under the enlightened rulings of the land department and the courts. By such erratic interpretation and administration of the law has it been endeavored to cure the aberrations inherent in the law itself ; and it is little to be wondered that there should have been laxity of enforcement and lack of compliance with the real spirit of the law, under conditions which afforded little repression of shrewd inten- 390 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tional fraud, but acted as an embarrassment and hardship upon all whose desire was to comply honestly and strictly with the homestead requirements. The decisions of the courts have also recognized as lawful the re- moval of timber for the purpose of constructing necessary improve- ments, such as buildings and fences, or the exchange of timber for lumber to be so used. Some decisions appear to sustain the exchange of timber for an amount of lumber of equal value ; but in others the principle is laid down that the exchange must be on the basis of quantity instead of value, and in United States vs. Shiver the defendant was convicted for selling timber to the value of $126, though the proceeds were put into improvements valued at $229. The use of timber in this way for building improvements is provided for aside from and in ad- dition to the removal of timber in preparing the land for cultivation; as, for instance, where the settler desires to build before having prepared for the cultivation of his land. Homestead settlers also have the privilege of commutation after fourteen months' residence — that is, have the privilege of paying for the lands at $1.25 an acre and receiving patent therefor — by the original Homestead Act. This provision has been a great incentive to the tak- ing of homesteads by persons who did not in good faith desire them for their own use, but for speculation and subsequent disposition. It rendered the five years' residence unnecessary, and in effect perpetu- ates in the homestead law the evils which existed under the preemption law and which were instrumental in finally securing its repeal. Com- muters of homestead entries also have the privilege of additional entry, which second entry is not subject to commutation. Homesteads on irrigable land under the provisions of the Reclamation Act are also not commutable. The act of April 8, 1904, permits a second [p. 79] entry where the first was not perfected by the settler " on account of some unavoidable complications of his personal or business a;££airs, or on account of an honest mistake as to the character of the land," and where the relinquishment or abandonment was not for a consideration ; and such second entries are also not commutable. THE RECLAMATION ACT. Another great epoch in the public land system of the United States was inaugurated with the passage of the act of June 17, 1902, popularly known as the Reclamation Act. It introduced the principle of using the proceeds derived from the disposition of that portion of the public domain located in the specified arid or semiarid states in fitting the UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 391 arid portions of it by irrigation for disposition and settlement in its turn, the cost of such improvement being assessed against the land in ten-year installments, and coming back into the reclamation fund to be used in further irrigation improvements. As the fund is thus never decreased and is being constantly enhanced by the net receipts of the General Land Office it will, in time, reclaim all the desert portions of the country susceptible of practical irrigation, and will tend to decrease floods on the lower rivers by holding the flood waters back in reservoirs to be used in irrigation and incidentally to add to the streamflow during the low water season. The Reclamation Act briefly provides that the entire proceeds of the sale of public lands, and of surplus fees and commissions, less the per- centage payments to the several states, shall be set aside for a recla- mation fund. Surveys for projected irrigation works are provided for, as also the withdrawal of the lands from market. When the area is determined which can be watered by the proposed work, this area is made subject to homestead entry and the balance of the withdrawn area is restored to the unappropriated public domain. Homestead entry is, however, subject to further provisions of the act, that the unit area capable of entry, while it may be as large as the usual area of 160 acres, may also in certain cases be restricted to as low as forty acres, and these homestead entries are not commutable, but require five full years' residence and occupation in order to secure patent. No one person is allowed to own over 160 acres within a single irrigation dis- trict, and if he is the prior owner of more than that area he must dispose of the surplus portion before a water right will be supplied him. The entire cost of the irrigation work is assessed against the area of land served and becomes a lien upon the land ; and upon payment of the sum in ten annual installments the landowners of the district become the sole owners of the irrigation system, and the Government relinquishes control to them. To do this work there has been organized a Reclama- tion Service under the Geological Survey, Department of the Interior, and a number of important and expensive irrigation works, such as could hardly have been successfully inaugurated under individual or corporate enterprise, are now under way. The funds turned over to the Reclamation Service during the first four years after the law went into operation amounted to $34,207,000. As the operations of the Reclamation Act are confined to the arid lands, it might be thought that they, like the other desert land laws. 392 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. have little bearing upon the lumber business. The great forest reserves of the West have, however, largely been established for the protection of the headwaters of the western streams, and these waters are in turn being conserved with a view to their use in irrigation. The conserva- tion of the forest regions and the irrigation of the arid plains are closely allied subjects, which, however, belong in a subsequent chapter. RELATION OF LAWS TO LUMBERMEN. Lumbermen have been the chief sufferers from the flaws in the public land policy in general, some of which President Buchanan, in his veto of the homestead bill, pointed out in regard to that legislation, as already referred to in this chapter. His criticism that the law provided a home for the farmer but not for the mechanic or artisan has its retort in the query as to what an artisan or mechanic, as such, could do with 160 acres of land. The possession of land is not a necessary incident of his calling, however necessary or useful the calling may be. In the settlement of a new country lumber is, however, a necessity and the sawmill an important establishment, requiring for its operation the opportunity to purchase timber or timber-bearing land, as well as an adjunct for the economic development of the wooded homestead. Under the interpretation of the homestead law above given it would be possible to establish a small custom mill to saw lumber for the settler by the thousand feet, or on the plan of a custom grist mill ; and yet the decisions would seem to forbid the taking of toll in a certain proportion of the product to pay for the sawing, and the farmer must wait until he has earned money from other sources to pay the saw bill in cash. Such a plan might be sufficient to supply local lumber needs after a fashion ; but beyond that, the timber resources of a new country, like its other resources, should be available for enhancing the wealth of the com- munity during the early period when it is most needed. To restrict the use of timber in such a community to the actual local needs is as detrimental to its development as would be a similar restriction of the mineral resources, which has never been enforced. The pioneer lumbermen of the earlier days did not suffer particu- larly from such restrictions. Timber was long held at prices very little beyond the actual logging cost. Later advances in stumpage were more than offset by advances in lumber values, and there was still avail- able for purchase much Government land by public sale and private entry. Little practical restraint was placed upon homesteaders in the disposal of timber. Of late years, however, with the discontinuance of UNITED STATES— PUBLIC LAND POLICY. 393 public land sales and of private entry, the deficiency of the public land system in making no provision whatever for the direct acquisition of timber by lumbermen from the public domain, in areas adapted to the establishment of a lumber manufacturing operation,, has been more keenly felt. This and other defects of the public land systems have been the sub- ject of reports and recommendations by commissioners of the General Land Office and by public land commissions for many years. A report of a public land commission in 1880 has already been quoted. Such a commission is now engaged in elaborate investigation of the subject, and has made two partial reports in March, 1904, and February, 1906. This commission is composed of the commissioner of the General Land Office, W. A. Richards ; the chief engineer of the Reclamation Service, F. H. Newell, and the chief of the Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot, all men of eminent ability and authority. The earlier report points out the importance of the present public lands, embracing an area very nearly one-third the total land area of the country ; speaks of the wide diversity of situation and of environment ; refers to existing laws as antiquated and as having been drafted with reference to eastern lands, while the western lands which remain are of a different character, and states that the suggestions offered "have principal bearing upon the control, use and disposal of the forest lands, as these are among the most valuable of the lands remaining in public ownership." The repeal of the Timber and Stone Act is recommended, the commission believing " that Congress did not intend that this law should be used for the acquisition of large tracts of valuable timber land by individuals or corporations, but it has been used for such pur- poses." Provision is, however, made for the needs of the lumberman in the following recommendation of the report : Some means should be provided by which the matured timber upon the unre- served public lands may be sold, not only for the use of individuals, but also to supply the demands of commerce. There is now a provision of law for the free use of timber in limited quantities for domestic and mining purposes which meets the requirements of those needing small quantities, but there is no provision for the sale of timber except from forest reserves. We recommend the enactment of a law under which it shall be lawful for the Secretary of the Interior to sell to the highest bidder, at public outcry or otherwise, under such rules and regulations and subject to such conditions and restrictions and In such quantities as he may prescribe, the right to cut and remove, within such period of time as he may fix, any timber from any unappropriated, non- mineral, surveyed public lands, after first having had such timber duly appraised. 394 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. and after giving public notice of the time, terms, manner and place of such sale ; that he shall have power and authority to reject any and all bids offered at any such sale, and that it shall be unlawful for any purchaser at such sale to sell, transfer, assign, or in any manner alienate the rights secured by him under this act, except as authorized by said secretary; that the act entitled "An act for the sale of timber lands in the states of California, Oregon, Nevada, and Washington Territory" [the Timber and Stone Act], approved June 3, 1878, and all acts amendatory thereof be repealed, and that no lands valuable chiefly for timber shall hereafter be patented under the commutation provisions of the homestead laws ; that any person who violates any of these provisions, or any regulation or require- ment prescribed pursuant hereto, shall forfeit to the United States all benefits con- ferred, and all moneys paid by him, and that any right to cut timber which he may then hold shall be canceled and revoked. The evils of the commutation clause of the Homestead Act are also pointed out, but the committee states that it is not yet prepared to recommend its repeal. The committee also recommends that desert land entries shall be made unassignable, and that provision shall be made for the delimitation of land chiefly valuable for agriculture within forest reserves, by metes and bounds, opening such land to homestead entry. The second report called attention to the evils of the forest reserve lieu land selection law already discussed, and repealed at about the time of the report; renewed and emphasized the recommendations of the previous report in regard to repeal of the Timber and Stone Act and provision for sales of timber, and recommended that the commutation clause of the Homestead Act apply only after three years' occupation. More stringent provisions were recommended for the Desert Land Act, the purposes of which were briefly reviewed in the following paragraph : " In short, the law should render impossible the continuance of the practices by which desert lands without water, without cultivation, and without crops are passed into the possession of claimants." The report also recommended the setting aside of grazing districts and the issuance of grazing permits at a moderate fee, under appropri- ate regulations modified in each case to conform to local conditions. Other minor recommendations of the earlier report were also restated. In this summarization of the various ways in which timber lands have passed into the ownership of lumbermen from the public domain, no reference has been made to the use of timber upon the great system of Government forest reserves which have in recent years been set apart from the public domain. This subject will be treated in the suc- ceeding chapter. CHAPTER XXVIII. UNITED STATES — FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. From a time practically contemporaneous with the first colonial set- tlement the problem of forest economics has been recognized and debated on the American continent. The idea at first took the form of forest preservation rather than of reaflEorestation and progress was slow, because it combated the commercial instinct. In more recent years the forestry idea has not sought to prevent the cutting of timber, but to regulate it so that the timber crop may be continuous. It has sought not only to bring about sensible methods of timber cutting, but also to promote timber culture. Among the early settlers of the United States the sentiment for forest protection was strong. As early as 1640 Exeter, New Hamp- shire, sought to regulate the cutting of oak, and in 1682 it was provided in Pennsylvania that " the grantee must keep one-sixth part of the land granted in Pennsylvania in forest." In New Jersey laws against forest fires early appeared on the statute books. In 1701 it was reported that there were forty sawmills in the Province of New York, and, referring to one equipped with twelve saws, the Governor remarked, "A few such mills will quickly destroy all the woods in the Province at a reasonable distance from them." The provincial assembly of New Hampshire recognized the forestry cause in 1708, by forbidding the cutting of mast trees on ungranted lands, under penalty of £100. Further, the Province had a surveyor general of forests, appointed by the Crown, for the purpose of prevent- ing depredations upon the timber. In 1770, Adolphus Benzel, son of Archbishop Benzel, of Sweden, was appointed inspector of His Majesty's forests in the vicinity of Lake Champlain, with a salary of £300 a year. In the days when all transportation had to be carried on by water or by wagon load, the cutting away of supplies in the immediate vicinity of settlements was a serious matter. The Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, of New York, made an inquiry as to modes of preserving and increasing the timber growth, and in 1795 published a report on the subject. In the first years of the Nine- teenth Century, the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agri- 395 396 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. culture took action, in the desire to promote the growth of forests, and offered premiums for forest plantations. GifEord Pinchot, Chief of the United States Forest Service, says: "The conspicuous care of the forest in regions where at first it was a hindrance rather than a help in the gaining of a livelihood is explained by the early associations of the settlers. They came from a country where wood was comparatively scarce and where the penalties for its destruction were severe and strictly enforced. The respect for the forest which had been bred in their ancestors by the early English game laws and continued in themselves by enactments of extreme rigor was brought over almost without change to the new land, but it was not destined to last. A growing realization of the vast resources at their command, together with the bitter struggle of the farmer against the forest in the early days, gradually replaced care with carelessness and respect with a desire for destruction. The feeling bred by the battle against the forest began to take a dominant place in the minds of the people and to prepare that mental attitude which is still responsible for the greater part of the forest destruction even yet in undiminished prog- ress over by far the larger part of the United States." With the formation of the Republic the thirteen original states adopted laws for the prevention of forest fires. These were patterned after European models, but omitted the important feature of police. Some impetus was given to the consideration of forest problems in the new republic by the travels of Andr6 Michaux and his son, between 1785 and 1807, and the publication of their " North American Silva." The younger Michaux, F. Andr6, testified to his interest in his life work and in the United States in his will, made in 1855, by which he left two legacies, in the following terms : Wishing to recognize the services and good reception which my father and myself, together and separately, have received during our long and often perilous travels in all the extent of the United States, as a mark of my lively gratitude, and also to contribute in that country to the extension and progress of agriculture, and more especially of sylviculture in the United States, I give and bequeath to the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, of vrhich I have the honor to be a member, the sum of $12,000 ; I give and bequeath to the Society of Agriculture and Arts in the State of Massachusetts, of which I have the honor to be a member, the sum of $8,000 ; these two sums making 180,000 francs, or, again, $20,000. I give and bequeath the sole ownership to these two abovesaid societies, and the usufruct to my wife for her life. These bequests became available in 1870, and, while small from FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 397 present-day standards, have been, under intelligent administration, help- ful along their intended lines. PRIVATE FORESTRY. Conditions in the United States concerning timber supplies and prices of forest products have been such that until within a few years the private practice of forestry methods has been well nigh impossible from a commercial standpoint. What has been done by private timber owners has been experimental and largely a labor of love. Even now there is a wide difference between the accepted methods of forest pres- ervation or reafforestation in the United States and those which have been practiced for centuries in Europe. There have been occasional attempts to follow literally the methods employed by European forest- ers, but it is becoming progressively clearer that the conditions existing in America are quite different from those to be found on the other side of the water. A history of the forestry movement in the United States, therefore, is not merely a continuation of the story of forestry with the scene of its early chapters laid in the woods of Germany and other foreign lands. It is American forestry in the strictest sense, because it is based on American conditions. The foresters of this country are working out their own salvation to a large degree ; and, while the ex- periences of European foresters have been of great benefit to them, the conclusion has been reached that successful forestry in America must be American forestry — an invention, not an imitation. In Germany, for example, the forest has been as carefully cultivated as would be a flower garden by a gardener, and undesirable growth has been eliminated, to the end that every tree should produce saw timber. This method has been feasible, not only when practiced by European governments, but by individual timber holders, because sale can be found for every scrap of material, while in the United States, up to a recent time, only the better quality of body timber was available. In Europe, therefore, the practice has prevailed of absolutely denuding the land and then replanting, while in the United States another plan is dictated by commercial conditions. In the case of the average Ameri- can natural forest, at the utmost a quantity not exceeding one-third of the forest growth is worth removing, because of the size, character and kind of growth, or for other reasons. When, therefore, approximately only one-third of the forest is removed, there remains, under proper cutting methods, a vast quantity of valuable young growth which it would take from ten to seventy-five years to replace by the artificial 398 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. planting of trees or seed. The American method, or rather, the method most generally adopted by the foremost American foresters, is not the planting of trees in an open field as one would plant tm'nips, but rather a continuous selection and cutting of only mature timber, thus permit- ting the immature timber — which includes two-thirds of the ordinary American forest — to attain its growth. The time will come when the European method will prevail in the United States, but it is not yet feasible on any large scale for the prac- tice of individual owners. However, the country has not been without those who have attempt- ed with greater or less success the growing of timber. Perhaps the earliest attempt at conservative forestry was made by a private citizen. In Connecticut, in 1730, Jared Elliott, of Guilford, in partnership with Governor Bulkley and Mr. Livingston, of New York, started a small blast furnace at old Salisbury. The wood used in making the charcoal for the furnace was secured from the neighboring woodlands. Henry S. Graves, in telling of the efiorts of these pioneers, who created a system of conservative forestry and of subsequent private forestry, says: " Instead of clearing the forests, as was usually done, a careful system of thinning was adopted. Only the large trees were cut, while the small specimens were left standing to shade the ground and to grow to a larger size. Tradition states that under this system the owners returned for successive crops every twenty years, and it is reported that timber is still being cut periodically from this same land." A similar system of careful cutting is said to have been used by a large number of farmers in New England early in the last century, and the practice was, without doubt, inaugurated very soon after the coun- try became thickly settled. Some farmers went further than simply to select with care the trees which they wished to use or sell, and made thinnings with the sole view of improving the remaining trees. Thus, it appears that, in 1840, B. F. Cutter introduced on his land at Pelham, New Hampshire, a system of improvement cuttings. The planting of forest trees on waste lands was begun in Massa- chusetts at a very early period. It is said that between 1740 and 1750 an experiment in planting trees for ship timber was made at Pembroke, Massachusetts. Tradition relates that the plantation was a complete success, and that timber was cut from it about 1810. Another early plantation was made in Bristol County, Massachusetts, in 1790, where a farmer stocked a field with young oak by sowing it with acorns. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 399 One of the first experiments in planting, of which there is record, was made in 1819 at Chelmsford, Massachusetts, where Rev. J. L. Russell transplanted a large number of pitch pine seedlings from a field, which he wished to cultivate, to a stretch of barren drift sand. He was much laughed at by his neighbors, but to their astonishment the trees flourished, and in twenty years he had a fine growth of pine, six to eight inches in diameter. Of still greater interest and value as an illustration is the plantation of Zacharias Allen, at Smithfield, Rhode Island, who planted about forty acres of waste land, in 1820, to oak, hickory and locust. The seed was sowed in plowed furrows on the smooth ground, and in rough places was dropped in holes made with a hoe or a similar implement. A careful account of all expenditures and receipts was kept, and at the end of fifty-seven years the books showed a profit of 6.92 percent on the capital invested. Priestford farm, Harford County, Maryland, was the scene of an experiment in tree planting in 1822 which was eminently successful. Many similar plantations were made in early days, but in compara- tively few cases have definite records been made and preserved. Among the best known of Massachusetts plantations are those of Richard Fay, at Linn, who planted about two hundred acres with oak, ash, maple, Scotch pine and larch, and of John F. Fay, who stocked about one hundred and twenty-five acres with trees. The history of the prairie regions of the United States and of the earlier settled and cleared regions east of the Mississippi abounds with efforts at tree planting, mostly, however, for ornamental or protective purposes. The face of the country west of the Mississippi River, as far as the one hundredth meridian, has been changed by these plant- ings, which, for the most part, have had no definite commercial object in view. Within the last quarter of a century, however, successful experiments have been made in growing commercial timber in the West, by which it has been demonstrated that tree growing is not only theoretically possible but commercially practicable. Among the favorite trees are black walnut and hardy catalpa. Extensive experi- ments are being made by railroads, both east and west, in growing ca- talpa and locust as tie timber. FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS. The public interest in the question of forestry, which at first was fostered by a comparatively few far-seeing men, was strengthened and stimulated by the manifest decrease in standing timber supply and the 400 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. enhanced value of forest products, so that for about thirty years there has been an accelerating movement under private auspices designed to awaken and educate the public in regard to forestry methods, and to further the cause of forestry as a national policy expressed through Congress, and for the proper protection of the timbered portion of the public domain. In this connection due credit should not fail to be given to the late J. Sterling Morton, Secretary of Agriculture from 1893 to 1897, who instituted in Nebraska in 1872 the annual Arbor Day, which institution has now come to be recognized by every state and territory. The tree planting which is a feature of Arbor Day has, perhaps, amounted to little, but the educative value of the observance of the day has been great, particularly in planting in the minds of the school children of the country the seed of ideas which will bear fruit as they come to citizenship. The propaganda in favor of forest preservation for a long time made slow progress. Perhaps the first movement toward a national forestry association was in 1875 when a call was issued for a convention in Chicago. This association was organized in the following year at Philadelphia, but there its history practically ends. This attempt at organization doubtless grew out of the first efEort to ascertain the forest resources of the United States, which was made by Professor F. W. Brewer in connection with the Ninth Census. In 1873 the American Society for the Advancement of Science had memorialized Congress and the state legislatures to " promote the cultivation of timber and preserve the forests " by proper legislation. The American Forestry Congress, which afterward became the American Forestry Association, was organized at Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1882 through the influence of Baron von Steuben, chief forester of Germany. Doctor B. E. Fernow, subsequently Chief of the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, was made secretary. The subsequent fifteen years were largely years of preparation and education. The American Forestry Association, holding regular meetings annually and special meetings at other times in different parts of the country, has centered and organized all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. Its public proceedings form a library of technical and practical value to all students, not only of forestry but of the forestry movement. It publishes also a monthly journal called Forestry and Irrigation. The Association, which was incorporated in January, 1897, now has nearly 3,000 members, representing every state in the Union, Canada and foreign countries. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 401 The objects of this Association are to promote : 1. A business-like and conservative use and treatment of the forest resources of this country; 2. The advancement of legislation tending to this end, both in the states and the Congress of the United States, the inauguration of forest administration by the Federal government and by the states ; and the extension of sound forestry by all proper methods ; 3. The diflEusion of knowledge regarding the conservation, management and renewal of forests, the proper utilization of their products, methods of reafiforesta- tion of waste lands, and the planting of trees. The annual dues of the Association for regular members are $2, which includes its official organ ; for sustaining members, $25. A life membership is secured on payment of $100, requiring no further dues ; while any person contributing $1,000 to the funds of the Association is called a patron. The officers of the American Forestry Association, chosen at the annual meeting held in Washington, District of Columbia, in 1905, are as follows : President, Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture ; first vice president, James W. Pinchot, Washington, District of Columbia ; recording secretary, Edward A. Bowers, New Haven, Connecticut; corresponding secretary, H. M. Suter, Washington, District of Columbia ; treasurer. Otto Luebkert, Washington, District of Columbia. Directors, James Wilson, William L. Hall, Otto Luebkert, George P. Whittlesey, Henry S. Graves, B. E. Femow, F. H. Newell, Gifford Pinchot, Edward A. Bowers, George K. Smith, William S. Harvey. Vice presidents. Sir Henri Joly de LotbiniSre, Victoria, British Columbia ; Charles C.Georgeson, Sitka, Alaska; John L. Kaul, Birmingham, Alabama; B. A. Fowler, Phoenix, Arizona; T. P. Lukens, Pasadena, California; W. G. M. Stone, Denver, Colorado; Austin F. Hawes, New Haven, Connecticut ; Henry M. Canby, Wilmington, Delaware ; John Joy Edson, Washington, District of Columbia; Elihu Stewart, Ottawa, Ontario; Charles H. Herty, Greencove Springs, Florida; R. B. Reppard, Savan- nah, Georgia; J. T. Pence, Boise, Idaho; Charles Deering, Chicago, Illinois; W. H. Freeman, Indianapolis, Indiana; Hugh P. Baker, Ames, Iowa; George W. Tincher, Topeka, Kansas; S. C. Mason, Berea, Kentucky; Lewis Johnson, New Orleans, Louisiana; John E. Hobbs, North Berwick, Maine; Edward L. Melius, Baltimore, Maryland; Alfred Akerman, Boston, Massachusetts; Filibert Roth, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Samuel B. Green, St. Anthony Park, Minnesota; William Trelease, St. Louis, Missouri; Charles E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska; Frank W. Rollins, Concord, New Hampshire; John Gifford, Princeton, New Jersey; William F. Fox, Albany, New York; C. A. Schenck, Biltmore, North Carolina; William R. Lazenby, Columbus, Ohio; S. C. Bartrum, Roseburg, Oregon; William T. Little, Perry, Oklahoma; J. T. Rothrock, Westchester, Pennsylvania; George Peabody Wetmore, Newport, Rhode Island; George H. Whiting, Yankton, South Dakota ; William L. Bray, Austin, Texas; Luke Lea, Nashville, Tennessee; George L. 402 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Swendsen, Salt Lake City, Utah; George Aitken, Woodstock, Vermont; D. O. Nourse, Blacksburg, Virginia ; Thomas L. Burke, Seattle, Washington ; A. D. Hopkins, Morgantown, West Virginia; E. M. GriflSth, Madison, Wisconsin; Joseph M. Carey, Cheyenne, Wyoming ; William Little, Montreal, Quebec; George P. Ahern, Manila, Philippine Islands ; William R. Castle, Hawaii ; J. H. McLeary, San Juan, Porto Rico. A notable development is the active interest taken by operating lumbermen in the affairs of the American Forestry Association and in the practical working out of the problems involved. For many years American lumbermen, for the most part, held aloof from the movement, largely owing to the impracticable theories promulgated by many of those most prominent in public discussion of the forestry question ; but with the entrance into the work of men of education and practical ideas, and with the approach of the time when it will be possible to apply the principles of forestry to individual timber holdings, the forestry move- ment has come to have the support of multitudes of individual lumber- men and of organizations of lumber producers and timber owners. Among the other societies concerned in the promotion of forestry are the International Society of Arboriculture, of which General William J. Palmer, of Colorado Springs, Colorado, is president ; Henry John Elwes, F. R. S., of Colesborne, Cheltenham, England, vice president, and J. P. Brown, of Connersville, Indiana, secretary; and the Society of American Foresters, of which Gifford Pinchot, of Washington, District of Columbia, is president and George B. Sudworth, of Washington, District of Columbia, is secretary. STATE FORESTRY WORK. In the development of a forestry policy the general Government has had the moral assistance of nearly all of the states, and has profited by their successes and mistakes. To Wisconsin belongs the honor of having created the first forest commission ever appointed by any of the states ; but the first forestry association organized for the purpose of advancing state forestry inter- ests was formed on January 12, 1876, in St. Paul, Minnesota, largely through the efforts of Leonard B. Hodges. This association was aided by state appropriations, which enabled it to offer premiums for the set- ting out of plantations, and also to publish and distribute widely the "Tree Planters' Manual." Revised editions are issued from time to time, the State aiding in the promotion of this missionary work. MINNESOTA. The great Hinckley forest fire of 1894 aroused the people of Minne- sota to the necessity of forest protection and resulted in the enactment FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 403 of an excellent forest fire warden law which was approved in April, 1895. By its provisions township officials are ex-officio fire wardens. There is a chief fire warden who superintends the fire warden system and issues annual reports. Two-thirds of the expenses are borne by the county in which they are incurred, and the State pays the other one- third ; but no county can expend under this law more than $500. This law has worked excellently. Notwithstanding some very dry and hazardous seasons, in which forest fires were numerous, the dam- age has been insignificant. The loss by forest fires in Minnesota, according to the reports of the fire wardens, has averaged only $35,000 a year, while Minnesota forests, at a conservative estimate, are worth $100,000,000. An estimate of the chief fire warden, based on reports, figures that, subsequent to settlement and previous to 1895, there was destroyed within the State $4,232,000 worth of timber. It is estimated that there are in Minnesota 5,000,000 acres of land suitable only for growing timber. Minnesota has the Itasca State Park, of 19,000 acres (200 miles north of St. Paul), of which 7,600 acres were given by Con- gress on condition that the State would protect the timber, and 2,452 acres bought of the Northern Pacific Railway Company for fifty cents an acre. The park is well wooded with pine and other varieties of trees. An act, approved April 28, 1904, was passed by Congress granting 20,000 acres of land to Minnesota for experimental forestry purposes. The lands selected are in a body a few miles north of Ely, in St. Louis County. Wisconsin's first forest commission was appointed in 1867, but the results were not important. In 1893, however, a state forestry associ- ation was organized, which procured the passage of bills in the legis- lature providing for foresters in charge and giving the forest fire protection, and also issued circulars of instruction for settlers and farmers within the forest area of the State. In 1895 a fire law modeled on the Minnesota statute, but less effective in character, was passed. In 1897 a commission of inquiry, cooperating with the chief of forestry, did some work in this State, and in 1898 a new fire warden law was passed. Maine appointed a board of commissioners in 1869, and in 1872 an act was passed encouraging tree-planting by granting a twenty-year tax exemption. In 1891 the state land agent was made forest commis- sioner. Since the enactment of the Maine forestry law in March, 1891, 404 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Maine has suffered less from forest fires. An organization called the Maine Lumbermen & Land Owners' Association was formed at Bangor in February, 1896, with former Governor Davis, of Bangor, as presi- dent and Wilson Crosby, of Bangor, as treasurer. NEW YORK. New York has made more rapid and important progress in the solu- tion of the forest problem than any other of the commonwealths of the Union. In 1872, by legislative enactment, there was instituted a state park commission, consisting of seven citizens with Horatio Seymour as chairman, which was instructed to make inquiries with the view to re- serving or appropriating the wild lands lying northward of the Mohawk River, or so much thereof as might be deemed expedient for a state park. Finding that the State then owned only 40,000 acres in that region, the commission recommended a law forbidding further sales of state lands, and the retention of lands forfeited for the nonpayment of taxes. In 1883 this recommendation was acted upon, at which time the State, through reversion of private lands by the nonpayment of taxes, had secured title to 600,000 acres. The following year the State Comp- troller was authorized to employ experts to investigate and report a system of forest preservation. This commission of experts was com- posed of four and made a report in 1885. But the lumber interests of the State antagonized the proposed legislation. There was finally passed, however, a compromise bill entitled "An Act Establishing a Forest Commission, and to Define its Power, and for the Preservation of Forests." The original forest commission was superseded in 1895 by the Commission of Fisheries, Game and Forests under a law passed April 25, of that year. Under this law the commission consisted of five mem- bers, and among its duties were the protection and preservation of forest reserves. This law of 1895 was a comprehensive measure, which proved extremely valuable in its workings. In 1897 was passed an important act, which provided for a forest preserve board which was given power to secure for the State, by pur- chase or otherwise, such lands as it deemed advisable for the interests of the State, and giving it the power to exercise the right of eminent domain. Large amounts of land were purchased under this provision, so that at the present time the Adirondack Forest Preserve contains about 1,350,000 acres and the Catskill Preserve nearly 85,000 acres. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 405 The Adirondack Forest Preserve is located within the Adirondack Park, which is a large district set apart in 1892 for the protection of the watershed of the Hudson and the other rivers of the State for public recreation and for the practical study of forestry. The area of the Adirondack Park is about 3,225,000 acres, of which the State owns not much over one-third, The act of 1897 provided that the owner of land to be taken under the act might reserve the spruce timber ten inches or more in diameter, and the previous act provided that private owners who desired to have their lands included within the limits of the Adirondack Park should forever refrain from removing any timber except spruce, tamarack, or poplar twelve or more inches in diameter. The commission now consists of one salaried and two unsalaried members, each holding office for four years. The commission employs thirty-two fish and game protectors and foresters at salaries of $500 a year each, three forestry experts and a superintendent, Colonel W. F. Fox. New York has shown its purpose to preserve its forests by a single appropriation of $1,800,000 to increase the area of its preserves. The Louisiana Legislature passed an act in 1904 to establish a de- partment of forestry to provide for the preservation of the forests, to prevent and suppress forest fires, and see to the reafEoresting of de- nuded lands. It provides that the Registrar of the State Land Office shall be Commissioner of Forestry, with an addition of $500 in salary. With him four other citizens, serving without compensation, constitute the State Forest Commission, which shall see to the administration of the actii The act provides for fire wardens in the various counties of the State and a chief fire warden to personally superintend forest-fire control, at a salary of $500 a year and expenses. He is empowered to spend an amount not to exceed $5,000 a year for fire control, as he sees fit, for fire patrol and prevention in other ways. The parish fire war- dens are to receive $2 a day for time spent in this work — two-thirds from their parish and one-third from the State. The fire wardens are empowered to call upon all citizens to assist them in times of fire or danger of fire. Willful, negligent, or careless setting of forest fires that cause injury are punishable by a fine of not over $500, or imprison- ment for not over ten years, or both. The law further provides that leaving camp-fires unquenched, using combustible wads in firearms, or carrying naked torches in forests shall be punished, whether injury result or not, by a fine of not more than 406 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. $100, or imprisonment for three months. The same penalties hold for defacing warning placards. Railroads are required to clear their right of way fifty feet on each side of their lines. In New Hampshire commissions of inquiry were appointed at various times between 1881 and 1885 and between 1889 and 1893. Since the latter year there has been a permanent commission with a paid secretary who presents an annual report. In 1901 was organized a society for the protection of New Hampshire forests, which employed a forester. It is estimated that New Hampshire annually receives from 40,000 to 50,000 visitors, attracted by her mountain and forest scenery, leaving in the State from $6,000,000 to $8,000,000. Little has been done in Vermont, although a commission existed from 1882 to 1884. Massachusetts passed a law in 1882 encouraging municipal forests. In 1890 the State Board of Agriculture was instructed to report on forest conditions. There is a patriotic and efficient forestry associa- tion in the State. California had a state board as early as 1885 and public power was delegated in 1887. The board passed out of existence in 1891. It issued altogether three reports, botanical in character, and established two experiment stations, which still exist as a part of the University of California. The entire coast range from San Francisco north was gone over by the State Board of Forestry during its life, the forests platted by sections and some very accurate maps prepared. While Wisconsin deserves credit for having appointed the first forestry commission, Colorado deserves greater credit in the forestry movement, for it is the only state in the Union discussing forests in its constitution ; and the State has not only endeavored to accomplish something, but has succeeded in passing favorable legislation. In 1885 it appointed a forestry commission and has maintained a depart- ment of forestry, fish and game since 1897. In 1901 the legislature passed a law licensing campers and hunters. Pennsylvania has a forestry association which has edited Forest Leaves since 1886. A commission of inquiry was appointed in 1893 to report on watersheds on state lands and to employ a botanist, an engineer and a statistician. In 1895 a department of agriculture with a division of forestry was created, the division afterward becoming a department. Considerable forestry legislation was enacted in 1897, in- cluding an excellent fire law, a law providing for tax exemptions on FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 407 small tracts and an act establishing a state forest reserve by the purchase of three 40,000-acre tracts and of land delinquent for taxes. In March, 1892, the state reserves had reached an area of 325,000 acres. A forest ranger training school was established in 1903. Kansas attempted to do something in 1887 by appointing a forestry commission. The net results are two state nurseries which distribute seedlings. Michigan, in spite of occasional adverse legislation, has done some forestry work, beginning with 1887, when it organized its State Board of Agriculture and Forestry Commission. The legislature did not act upon its reports. Senator Charles A. Garfield succeeded in 1899 in securing the creation of a commission of three members which sub- mitted a forestry bill at the session in 1901, but the bill failed of pas- sage. The commission, however, was authorized to receive donations and to withdraw from sale 200,000 acres of state lands unfit for agricul- ture. Nearly all of the 6,000,000 acres of tax title lands in Michigan are cut-over lands. The forest reserve under the control of the state forest commission comprises all of the state land in three surveyed •townships, amounting to about 35,000 acres. The. law demands that these lands be protected, especially against fires ^''^be improved by re- stocking denuded portions and by the promotion of forest growth generally ; and be examined, to ascertain the agricultural lands. This practically prescribes the policy to be pursued by the forest commission and is the basis of all that thus far has been done. The commission has engaged forest rangers and one forester to watch over these lands, has planted 51,000 trees, established a tree nursery, begun a survey of lands in detail, established roads and trails, cleared lands, and is sell- ing off and cleaning up the dead timber. A chair of forestry was established at the University of Michigan in 1893, with Doctor Filibert Roth in charge. There has been spasmodic legislation in Ohio, and Ohio was, in a sense, the cradle of the forestry movement in the United States. As has been stated, the American Forestry Congress was organized in Cincinnati in 1882, the direct result of a visit to that city during 1881 by Baron von Steuben, chief forester of Germany. In 1883 out of this congress grew the Ohio State Forestry Association, which was instru- mental in securing the appointment of a state bureau of forestry, which survived for six years and issued forestry reports in 1885, 1886 and 1887. The present forestry activities in Ohio are principally those of 408 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the United States Bureau of Forestry and the Ohio State Experiment Station. North Dakota appointed a commission of irrigation and forestry in 1890, but there has been no important legislation. There has been a forester in North Carolina since 1891, attached to the Geological Survey. He has made three reports. In New Jersey the Geological Survey has had an appropriation since 1894 for gathering forestry statistics. It has made three reports. In West Virginia a bill was offered at the session of the legislature of 1897 for a forestry commission, providing for state preserves. No action has been taken. Indiana appointed a state forestry board in 1900 and provided for a salaried forester. In this State a tax exemption on small tracts having 170 trees to the acre is effective. In 1903 state reserves of 2,000 acres and state nurseries were created. Beyond the enactment of laws against the firing of woods and stock laws optional with the counties, Alabama has done little toward the permanent preservation of the forests. There has been forest legislation in other states. Connecticut, Minnesota, New York and all the prairie states in the '70's began to urge forestry by granting bounties and exemptions from taxes on forest plantations. Pennsylvania and Wisconsin are prevented, by their constitutions, from making loans for the purpose of purchasing forest reserves. Iowa has an association called the Iowa Park and Forestry Associ- ation which meets annually. At its last meeting the secretary of the association. Professor L. H. Pammel, made an exhaustive report of what the state college has done in planting, both for park and forestry pur- poses during the last thirty years, giving a list of the hardy trees, like the white pine, white spruce, red elm, Austrian pine, elm, Norway spruce, hemlock, hard maple, soft maple, red cedar and cottonwood, and giving accounts of their hardiness and adaptability to different conditions. The officers for 1905 are as follows: President, L. H. Pammel, of Ames; vice president, Wesley Greene, of Davenport; secretary. Professor Thomas H. MacBride, of Iowa City ; treasurer, J. C. Monnett, of Iowa City. Executive committee : J. S. Trigg, of Des Moines; H. P. Baker, of Ames, and C. A. Mosier, of Des Moines. Legislative committee : C. L. Watrous, of Des Moines ; B. Shimek, of Iowa City; Sidney Foster, of Des Moines; Bruce Fink, of Grinnell, FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 409 and Elmer Reeves, of Waverly. Committee on ways and means: Wesley Greene, W. A. Burnap, of Clear Lake ; Eugene Secor, of For- est City. Committee on civic improvements : A. T. Erwin, of Ames ; Silas Wilson, of Atlantic, and B. Shimek. Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia have given their consent to the establishment of the proposed national forest reserve in the southern Appalachian Mountains, granting juris- diction to the national Government to that end. SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. Within the last few years the character of forest teaching has been revolutionized, so that at the present time an education in professional forestry is easily obtainable. One of the earliest movements among the colleges to give a prac- tical course in forestry was at the State University at Bozeman, Mon- tana, in charge of Captain George P. Ahem, U. S. A., later in charge of the Philippine government forests. This course was discontinued, however, shortly after it began. It may be said that the first effort at establishing practical educa- tional work in forestry was attempted in 1898, when schools of forestry were established at Cornell University and at Biltmore. The New York Legislature of 1898 made provision for the establishment of a college of forestry in Cornell University, and provided for the purchase of a school forest of 30,000 acres to be used as an experimental demon- stration area for illustrating the principles and practice of scientific forest management. The school was organized in April, 1898, with Dr. B. E. Fernow as director and dean. The resources of the entire university, with its library, laboratories, museums and collections, were practically at the disposal of the college by the action of the board of trustees. Its first session opened in Sep- tember, with the beginning of the collegiate year 1899. This was the first professional school of forestry established in America, which offered in its courses the same full complement of studies as are to be found in European institutions of similar kind. Cornell had begun to graduate students when the school was discontinued in 1903, owing to dissatis- faction of the State legislature with results, this dissatisfaction due largely to lack of appreciation of the purposes of the school and of the forestry methods employed. Biltmore has an undergraduate course, covering one year, without vacation, which is doing good work in the cause of forestry, under the direction of C. A. Schenck. 410 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The other institutions in the country which have given any attention to instruction in forestry heretofore have been the land-grant colleges of the several states. Of these, twenty-two have offered courses vary- ing in length from a brief series of lectures to two full terms' work. These are the agricultural colleges of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Iowa, Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington and West Virginia. Nine colleges touch upon forestry incidentally in connection with instruction in other branches, such as botany and horticulture, namely, those of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Colorado, Oklahoma, Indiana and Maine. Ten institutions report no reference to the subject whatever. As to the character of the instruction in the courses in forestry, it varies greatly in the several institutions. The usual purpose is to give the students a general idea of the influence of forests upon climate and water flow and of forest geography, with more specific training in identification of trees and in propagation and planting. It is evident that, considered as a part of a general course in agri- culture, it is not feasible or desirable to make forestry the major subject, as is necessary in a technical school; but the brief courses offered in the agricultural colleges have been very successful in pro- moting public interest in forest protection and sylviculture. In 1895 there were introduced into Congress two bills providing for forestry education, one (H. R. 8389) providing an appropriation of $5,000 to each of the agricultural colleges, to be devoted either to instruction or providing object lessons in the field; the other (H. R. 8390) providing for a post-graduate school — a national school of forestry — in connection with the Department of Agriculture and its Division of Forestry. No action beyond hearings before the Committee on Agri- culture, to which the bills were referred, resulted. One of the most complete forestry schools in the world is that at Yale, it having already graduated more professional foresters than all the other schools combined. The Yale Forest School offers a two-year graduate course, leading to the degree of master of forestry. The junior year begins in July, the first term being conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pennsylvania. Under the direction of the officers of this school a two months' popular course — July and August — also is con- ducted at Milford. Professor Henry S. Graves is the director. This school owes its being to the philanthropy of Mr. and Mrs. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 411 James W. Pinchot and their sons, Gifford and Amos R. E. Pinchot, who gave $150,000 in 1900 for the establishment of a department of forestry at Yale University' and a summer school of forestry at Gray Towers, the estate of J. W. Pinchot at Milford, Pike County, Pennsylvania. In 1903 Mr. and Mrs. Pinchot and their son. Professor Gifford Pinchot, added $50,000 to the gift. As it is now conducted. Marsh Hall is used as the central school building and is equipped with lecture rooms, a library and reading room, botanical and wood testing laboratories and drafting rooms. There is conducted a large amount of field work in Maltby Park, a forest of 400 acres, and at Gray Towers. At the latter place J. W. Pinchot has erected a number of valuable buildings for the use of the school. In addition, the students are given practical work in the lumber camps of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, the Caro- linas, Michigan, Florida and Texas. The regular course embraces two years study and is designed to give the students a complete knowledge of American woods, as well as an understanding of forestry conditions in the island possessions of the United States. The University of Michigan Forest School is part of the general department of literature, science and the arts. It has a two-year graduate course, leading to the degree of master of science in forestry. Professor Filibert Roth is the director. Harvard University Forest School has a four-year undergraduate course in connection with the Lawrence Scientific School. R. T. Fisher is in charge of the curriculum. The Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa, has a four-year course in forestry and horticulture, in which particular attention is paid to farm forestry, leading to the degree of bachelor of science. A course is also given adapted to students in the civil engineering department. H. P. Baker, assistant professor, is in charge of forestry. University of Maine, Department of Forestry, Orono, Maine, has a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of bachelor of science of forestry. Professor S. N. Spring is in charge of the department. The Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, has a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of bachelor of science. E. E. Bogue is professor of forestry. The University of Minnesota has a forest school with a four-year 412 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. undergraduate course, leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. Professor Samuel B. Green is in charge of the school. The forest department of the University of Nebraska is connected with the Industrial College, Lincoln, Nebraska, and offers a four-year undergraduate course, leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. Frank G. Miller is professor of forestry. NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES. The establishment of forest reserves as a settled policy of the United States dates from the act of Congress, approved March 3, 1891, which, in Section IV, granted the authority in these words : The President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any state or territory having public lands bearing trees, any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reserves, and the President shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishments of such reserves and the limits thereof. This, however, was not the first grant of authority for the establish- ment of forest reserves, for as early as 1799 Congress appropriated $200,000 for the purchase of timber, or of lands on which timber was growing, suitable for the use of the navy, and for its preservation for future use. This was in the days of wooden vessels, when the preser- vation of timber suitable for vessel construction was considered essen- tial, and in this step the young Republic but followed the example of the mother country, which for nearly two centuries had placed the broad arrow of the British admiralty upon pine suitable for masts and spars. Some small purchases were made on the Georgia coast under the provisions of this act, and on March 1, 1817, another act was passed renewing the act of 1799 under the following terms : The Secretary of the Navy is authorized, under the direction of the President, to cause such vacant and unappropriated lands of the United States as produce the live oak and cedar timbers to be explored, and selections to be made of such tracts, or portions thereof, where the principal growth is of such timbers, as in his judg- ment may be necessary to furnish for the navy a sufficient supply of the same. A subsequent act, in 1822, authorized the President to employ the land and naval forces of the United States in the protection of reserved timber or timber lands in Florida, and in 1831 penalties were provided for trespass. Under an act dated 1817 19,000 acres of land were reserved in Louisiana. There was a more general act, approved March 3, 1827,. by which the President was authorized to take proper measures to preserve the live oak growing on the lands of the United States. Under the various acts above mentioned nearly 25,000 acres of for- FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 413 est land were reserved in Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi. Theoretically, the timber on all public lands was reserved, subject to certain exceptions. Thus, in 1878 an act was passed authorizing the citizens of Colorado, Nevada and the territories to fell and remove tim- ber on the public domain for mining and domestic purposes, and another allowed the settler to take the timber necessary "to support his improve- ments." These were typical of numerous acts relating to this general subject and which were further modified or broadened by court decisions. In addition to the timber reservations made for specific purposes prior to 1891, there are a number of national parks, the most important of which are in a wooded country, and all of which serve as forest pre- serves. The first great national park was the Yellowstone National Park, located in Montana and Wyoming, chiefly in the latter, on the headwaters of the Colorado River, established by act of March 1, 1872, and containing at the present time 2,142,720 acres, or 3,504.25 square miles. The act gave authority to the Secretary of the Interior to make such regulations as "shall provide for the preservation from injury or spoliation, of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities or won- ders, within the park and their retention in their natural condition." Next in magnitude of the national parks is the Yosemite, which was established by an act of October 1, 1890. It covers 682,480 acres and includes the famous Yosemite Valley, of California. This park contains a large amount of timber. Another important park is the Sequoia, established by act of Sep- tember 25, 1890, and containing 160,000 acres. Near to it is the Gen- eral Grant National Park, established by the same act, and containing 2,560 acres. Both the Sequoia and the General Grant parks were established to preserve the bigtree groves within their boundaries. Another national park which bears a large amount of timber is the Mt. Rainier, in Washington, established March 2, 1899, and containing 11,520 acres. It is entirely included within the boundaries of the Mt. Rainier Forest Reserve. The Crater Lake National Park, established by act of May 22, 1902, contains 149,360 acres. It is located in Oregon and contains Crater Lake. Other national parks of small area and of little, if any, timber value, are the Wind Cave National Park, established by act of January 9, 1903, and containing 10,560 acres, in South Dakota, twelve miles east of the 414 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. town of Hot Springs ; SuUys Hill National Park, established by act of June 2, 1904, and containing 960 acres, on the south shore of Devil's Lake, South Dakota; Hot Springs Reserve, Arkansas, original act April 20, 1832, and containing 911.63 acres ; Casa Grande Ruin, established act of March 2, 1899, executive order June 22, 1892, containing 480 acres, in Penal County, Arizona. In addition to these national parks, and not included within the list of forest reserves, are numerous military reservations, some of consid- erable size and in timbered sections. One of the most interesting is the Mt. Whitney Military Reserve, in California. It contains about one hundred and forty square miles and includes within it the summit of Mt. Whitney, the highest peak in California. The erection of forest reserves as a definite and permanent govern- mental policy was not the result, however, of hurried consideration. Perhaps the first suggestion of such a policy appeared in 1876 with a bill (H. R. No. 2075) "for the preservation of the forests adjacent to the sources of navigable rivers and other streams," which never pro- gressed farther than the pigeonhole of the Public Lands Committee. Similar bills, introduced from time to time, experienced the same fate in the same or other committees, until more defined reservations were called for. An act to establish forest reservation on the head- waters of the Missouri and Columbia rivers passed the Senate in 1884, and again in 1885, but died in the House Committee; in the same year a general act providing for forest reservations was reported favorably in the House. After this, hardly a year passed without a number of legislative propositions to the same effect being introduced, the titles of the bills filling several quarto pages of the above-cited documents. Hardly any kind of legislation which could be suggested was over- looked, from the creation of forest commissions to investigate the sub- ject to providing for fully organized forest administrations and the establishment of forestry schools. The American Forestry Association presented a comprehensive bill drawn by the Chief of the Forestry Division in 1888, providing for the withdrawal from entry or sale of all public timber lands not fit for agri- cultural use, and for their proper administration under technical advice. (S. 1476 and S. 1770, 60th Cong. 1st sess.) Modifications of this bill were introduced from year to year, and their enactment urged, but with small success. Finally, in the Fifty-first Congress, through the earnest insistence FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 415 of Secretary of the Interior John W. Noble, who was fully imbued with the necessity of some action such as was advocated by the Association, the following section was added to the act entitled "An Act to Repeal Timber Culture Laws, and for Other Purposes," approved March 3, 1891: Sec. 24. That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any state or territory having public lands bearing forests, any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof. It is upon this feeble "rider," attached to a bill hardly germane to the subject, that the forest reservation policy of the Federal government is based, and that the federal land policy, which before considered only disposal of the public domain, was changed, the Government be- coming a land owner in perpetuity. Acting upon this authority, the President established seventeen forest reservations, with a total estimated area of 17,500,000 acres pre- vious to 1894. These reservations were established usually upon the petition of citizens residing in the respective states and after due examination, the forestry association acting as intermediary. Meanwhile, the legislation devised for the administration of the forest reserves, existing or to be established (H. R. 119), specially urged by Representative McRae, chairman of Public Lands Committee, failed to be enacted, although in the Fifty-third Congress it was passed by both houses, but failed in conference. Forest reservation without forest administration threatened to make the whole policy unpopular. Urged by the committee of the Forestry Association, which hoped to secure thereby potent influence for the proposed legislation, Secre- tary Hoke Smith, of the Department of the Interior, impressed with the importance of devising some adequate system of protection and management of the forests, both within the reserves and in the public domain, under date of February 15, 1896, requested the National Academy of Sciences, the legally constituted adviser of the Govern- ment in scientific matters, to investigate and report "upon the inaug- uration of a rational forest policy for the forested lands of the United States." Under date of February 1, 1897, the academy submitted to Secretary Francis a preliminary report recommending the creation of thirteen additional forest reserves with a total area of 21,379,840 acres, the avowed purpose being, by radical action, to bring the matter to a head. 416 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. These reserves were proclaimed as recommended, without examination, by President Cleveland, February 22, 1897. On May 1, 1897, the presi- dent of the academy submitted his complete report (Senate Doc. No. 105), recommending substantially the legislation so long urged by the Forestry Association. A storm of indignation broke out in Congress over the precipitate action of the President, the repeal of the entire forest reservation policy was demanded by the western senators and representatives, who felt insulted by the lack of consideration, and the laboriously achieved first step threatened to be lost. A compromise was, however, eflEected. The sundry civil appropriation bill passed June 4, 1897 (see Senate Doc. No. 102), set aside the proclamations of February 22, 1897, sus- pending the reservations which were made upon the recommendation of the committee of the academy until March 1, 1898, ostensibly to give time for the adjustment of private claims and more carefully to delimit the reservations. For this purpose an appropriation of $150,000 to survey the reservations under the supervision of the Director of the Geological Survey was made. The provisos attached to this appropri- ation embody the most important forestry legislation thus far enacted by Congress. These provisos had been in the main formulated in the above-cited bill known as the McRae bill, which was passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate of the Fifty-third Congress, without, however, becoming a law ; and again had passed the House in the Fifty-fourth Congress, it being the legislation advocated by the American Forestry Association as a first step toward a more elaborate forest administration of the public timber lands. Excluding minor items, the law provides that : All public lands heretofore designated or reserved by the President of the United States under the provisions of the act approved March third, eighteen hun- dred and ninety-one, the orders for which shall be and remain in force and effect, unsuspended, and unrevoked, and all public lands that may hereafter be set aside and reserved as public forest reserves under said act, shall be as far as practicable controlled and administered in accordance with the following provisions : No public forest reservation shall be established, except to improve and pro- tect the forest within the reservation, or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flow, and to furnish a. continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States ; but it is not the purpose or intent of these provisions or of the act providing for such reservations to authorize the inclusion therein of lands more valuable for the mineral therein or for agricultural purposes than forest purposes. For the purpose of preserving the living and growing timber and promoting FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 417 the younger growth on forest reservations, the Secretary of the Interior, under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, may cause to be designated and appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees found on such forest reservations as may be compatible with the proper utilization of the forests thereon, and may sell the same for not less than the appraised value in such quan- tities to each purchaser as he shall prescribe, to be used in the state or territory in which such timber reservation may be situated, respectively, but not for export therefrom. . . . Such timber, before being sold, shall be marked and desig- nated, and shall be cut and removed under the supervision of some person ap- pointed for that purpose by the Secretary of the Interior, not interested in the purchase or removal of such timber, nor in the emplojrment of the purchaser thereof. . . . Upon the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President, . . . any public lands embraced within the limits of any forest reservation which, after due examination by personal inspection of a compe- tent person appointed for that purpose by the Secretary of the Interior, shall be found better adapted for mining or for agricultural purposes than for forest usage, may be restored to the public domain. And any mineral lands in any forest reser- vation which have been or which may be shown to be such, and subject to entry under the existing mining laws of the United States and the rules and regulations applying thereto, shall continue to be subject to such location and entry, notwith- standing any provisions herein contained. The law authorized the Secretary of the Interior to permit the use of timber and stone by bona fide settlers, miners, etc., for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting and other domestic purposes. It protected the rights of actual settlers within the reservations, em- powered them to build wagon-roads to their holdings, enabled them to build schools and churches, and provided for the exchange of holdings for allotments outside the reservation limits. Under the above enactment the commissioner of the General Land Office formulated rules and regulations for the forest reservations, and a survey of the reserves was begun by the United States Geological Survey, the appropriations for such a survey having been continued from year to year, afid the date for the segregation of agricultural lands and their return to the public domain open for entry having been deferred. Under this reorganization of the management of forest reserves rapid progress was made. Both President Cleveland and President McKinley were ardent advocates of the reserve policy and set aside large areas of public lands for this purpose. With the purpose of the reserves clearly defined by statute and the rights of settlers and the needs of growing communities being provided 418 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. for, the popular opposition rapidly subsided until, in 1905, practically all opposition had ceased, complaints being confined almost entirely to details, such as the inclusion within reserves of sections or townships in regard to whose character some might differ from the conclusions of the experts of the forest service. These complaints, however, covered small areas and little, if at all, afEected the general policy and practice of the Government. In the act of March 3, 1901, it was provided that forest agents, super- intendents and supervisors and other persons employed under the appropriation made upon that date in execution of the provisions of the act of June 4, 1897, should be selected by the Secretary of the In- terior only with reference to their fitness and without regard to their political aflSliations; it also provided that such employees of the de- partment should aid in the enforcement of the game and fish laws of the state in which the reserves were located. As time went on it became more plainly evident that so immense a business enterprise as the administration of the forest reserves should be more centralized than had been the case. The reserves had been, until 1905, under the exclusive control of the Department of the Inter- ior, notwithstanding that there existed in the Department of Agriculture a bureau of forestry whose province was to make a special study of all such subjects as would arise in connection with the administration of the forest service. The interior department had the forests and the agricultural department the foresters. The American Forest Congress, held at Washington, District of Columbia, January 2 to 6, 1905, under the auspices of the American Forestry Association, recognized the anomalous conditions and one of the most important acts was the adop- tion of the following resolution : Resolved, That we heartily approve the movement for the unification of all the forest work of the Government, including the administration of the national forest reserves, in the Department of Agriculture, and urge upon Congress the necessity for immediate action to that end. It also adopted resolutions recommending the repeal of the Timber and Stone Act and the passage of an act as a substitute therefor which should confer authority to sell timber growing on the public lands when such sale should be for the public welfare, and also an amendment or repeal of the lieu land law, so that lieu selections should be confined to lands of equivalent value and similar conditions as regards forest growth; also that the law which prohibited the export of forest reserve timber FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 419 from the state in which it was grown should be repealed so far as con- cerned the states in which the export of such timber would be to the public interest; also the passage of a law which would authorize the sale of all nonmineral products of the forest reserves, all proceeds of such sales to be applied to the maintenance of the reserves. These recommendations bore some immediate fruit, the principal one, recommending the unification of the forest work of the Govern- ment, being passed by Congress and signed by President Roosevelt, February 1, 1905. It was in the following terms: The Secretary of the Department of Agriculture shall, from and after the pas- sage of this act, execute, or cause to be executed, all laws affecting the public lands heretofore or hereafter reserved under the provisions of Section' XXIV of the act entitled "An Act to Repeal the Timber Culture Laws and for Other Purposes," approved March 3, 1901, and an act supplementary thereto and amendatory there- of, after such lands had been so reserved, respecting such laws as afiEected the sur- veying, locating, appropriating, entering, relinquishing, conveying, or patenting of any such lands. Thus, while title and all necessary duties and rights relating thereto remained with the interior department, the management of the forest reserves, as such, was concentrated in the Department of Agriculture as represented by the Bureau of Forestry,which, after July l,was, by the agri- cultural appropriation act of March 3, 1905, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, erected into the "Forest Service," to begin with July 1, 1905. This act provided for the general expenses of the forest service — "the expenses necessary to protect, administer, improve and extend the national forest reserves." It gave police power to all persons em- ployed in the forest reserves and national park service in support of the laws and regulations relating to them and, further, granted power to the Department of Agriculture in the following terms : And the Secretary of Agriculture may, in his discretion, permit timber and other forest products cut or removed from the forest reserves of the United States, except the Black Hills Forest Reserve, in South Dakota, and the forest reserves in Idaho, to be exported from the state, territory, or the District of Alaska, in which such reserves are respectively situated — for the employment of local and special fis- cal and other agents, clerks, assistants and other labor required in practical forestry, in the administration of forest reserves, and in conducting experiments and investi- gations in the city of Washington and elsewhere ; and he may dispose of photo- graphic prints at cost and ten per centum additional, and other property or materials under his charge in the same manner as provided by law for other bureaus ; for collating, digesting, reporting, illustrating and printing the results of such experiments and investigations ; and for the purchase of all necessary supplies, apparatus and oflSce fixtures ; for freight and express charges and traveling and other necessary expenses. 420 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Thus full power was granted to the agricultural department to con- duct the forest reserves on such a business basis as might appear to be for the benefit of the people. Another act, of March 3, 1905, was entitled "An Act to Prohibit the Selection of Timber Lands in Lieu of Lands in Forest Reserves." The forest reserve and preservation policy of the United States, to sum it up, now includes the right of the President to withdraw from entry and sale any part of the public domain and to erect the same into forestry reserves when, in his judgment, the interests of the districts where such domain is located, and of the people at large, will be sub- served thereby. Ample provision is made for the care of the preserves and, under an efficient forest service, well provided with money, oppor- tunity is afforded for scientific and practical development of the forest reserves contained within them. Mature timber can be sold and plant- ing can be undertaken if desirable. Abuses of the reserves are done away with. They are guarded against depredations by cattle, sheep and men, and fire is, as far as practicable, forestalled. There is no intention definitely to withdraw the timber within the reserves from public use. It can now be used when immediate neces- sity arises and can be sold for the support of the lumber industry when it is needed for that purpose and when market conditions warrant. FOREST RESERVES IN 1905. Since the adoption of the forest reserve act of March 3, 1891, the presidents of the United States have been earnest advocates of the for- est reserve policy and, consequently, progress in setting aside reserva- tions has been rapid. Within two years after the act went into effect seventeen reservations were set aside under executive order, having a total area of 17,564,800 acres. The first was the Yellowstone National Park Timber Land Reserve, in Wyoming, which has ceased to exist as such. The second was the White River Plateau Reserve, in Colorado. The third the Pecos Forest Reserve, in New Mexico, the fourth the Sierra, in California, and the fifth the Pacific Forest Reserve, in Wash- ington. These have been largely modified or included in other reserves since that time. Under the administration of President Theodore Roosevelt there was extensive enlargement and increase in the number of reserves, though some have decreased in area, to adapt them, individually, to the conditions of the localities in which they are situated. On September 15, 1905, there existed eighty-six forest reserves, created by presiden- tial proclamation, embracing 88,344,541 acres. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 421 The following is a list of the reserves, the state or territory in which each is located, and the date of its establishment, or on which its boundaries were changed, and its estimated area on the above date. The list contains, therefore, an outline history of the executive action in carrying forward the forest reserve policy of the National govern- ment. It is as follows : FOREST RESERVES, SEPTEMBER 15, 1905. State or Teiuutort. Name of Reserve. Date o£ proclaxna' tion creating: reserve or chang:- Ing: boundary thereof. Present estimated area. Alaska Alaska Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona California California California California California California California California California California California California California California California Colorado Colorado Colorado , Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado and Wyoming: Colorado Colorado , Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Idalio Idaho and Mon- tana Af og:nak Forest and Fish Culture Reserve The Alexander Archipelag:o Forest Reserve... Grand Canyon Forest Reserve The San Francisco Mountains Forest Reserve. The Black Mesa Forest Reserve ThePrescott Forest Reserve The Santa Rita Forest Reserve The Santa Catalina Forest Reserve. The Mount Graham Forest Reserve. The Cbiricahua Forest Reserve Pinal Mountains Forest Reserve San Gabriel Timber Land Reserve . . Sierra Forest Reserve San Bernardino Forest Reserve The Trabuco Canyon Forest Reserve . The Stanislaus Forest Reserve The San Jacinto Forest Reserve The Lake Tahoe Forest Reserve The Santa Barbara Forest Reserve The Modoc Reserve The Warner Mountains Reserve The Plumas Reserve The Klamath Reserve The Lassen Peak Reserve The Trinity Reserve Diamond Mountain The White River Forest Reserve . Pikes Peak Timber Land Reserve.. The Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve. The San Isabel Forest Reserve.. The Gunnison The Leadville Reserve , The Medicine Bow Forest Reserve., The San Juan Reserve Park Rang:e Wet Mountains Cochetopah : Montezuma Uncompahgrre Holy Cross The Pocatello Forest Reserve. The Bitter Root Forest Reserve. Dec. 24, Aug. 20, f Feb. 20, IMay 6, f Aug:. 17, : I April 12, Aug:. 17, /May 10, I Oct. 21, : Apr. 11, : July 2, July 22, July 30, Mar. 20, Dec. 20, (Feb. 14, (July 25, Feb. 25, : J Feb. 25, I Jan. 30, Feb. 22, : Feb. 22, Apr. 13, : Dec. 22, : Nov. 29, : Nov. 29, : Mar. 27, : May 6, : June 2, ! .Apr. 26, : July 14, : Oct. 16, : June 28, : May 21, : Feb. 11, : Mar. 18, : May 12, : Dec. 24. : May 16, : June 5, '. f Apr. 11, : (June 12, : May 12, : May 12, : fMay 22, : \ July 19, : (May 17. : June 3, : June 12, : June 12, : June 13, : June 13, : June 13, : Aug:. 25, ] Sept. 5 ] Feb. 22, ] June 14, ] May 22, ] Acres. 403,640 4,506,240 2,307,520 1,975,310 1,658,880 423,680 387,300 155,520 118,600 169,600 45,760 555,520 5,375,890 737,280 109,920 691,200 « 668,160 -i/ 136,335 1,838,323 288,218 306,518 579,520 1,896,313 897,115 1,243,042 626,724 978,880 1,681,667 797,720 321,227 901,270 1,219,947 1,576,493 1,437,406 757,116 239,621 1,133,330 576,719 478,111 990,720 49,920 4,552,880 « 422 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. FOREST RESERVES, SEPTEMBER 15, 1905-Continuea. State or Territory. Name of Reserve. Date of proclama- tion creating: reserve or chang:- ing boundary thereof. Present estimated f Idaho and Wash- ington Idaho Idaho Idaho Idaho Kansas C Montana Montana Montana Montana Montana Montana Nebraska Nebraska New Mexico New Mexico New Mexico Oklahoma Oregon Oregon Oregon Oregon Oregon Oregon Oregon and Washington... Oregon South Dakota... South Dakota... ^ South Dakota and Wyoming. South Dakota. . . • Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah -• Washington • Washington A Washington « Wyoming Wyoming, Mon- tana and Idaho. The Priest River Forest Reserve The Henrys Lake Reserve The Welser Reserve The Sawtooth Reserve , Cassia Garden City The Lewis and Clark Forest Reserve The Gallatin Forest Reserve The Little Belt Mountains Forest Reserve The Madison Forest Reserve The Highwood Mountains Forest Reserve The Elkhom Reserve The Dismal River Forest Reserve The Niobrara Forest Reserve The Pecos River Forest Reserve , The Gila River Forest Reserve The Lincoln Forest Reserve , Wichita Forest Reserve Bull Run Timber Land Reserve. The Cascade Range Forest Reserve Ashland Forest Reserve The Baker City Forest Reserve The Wallowa Reserve , The Chesnimnus Reserve The Wenaha Reserve The'Maury Mountains Reserve The Cave Hills Forest Reserve The Slim Bnttes Forest Reserve The Black Hills Forest Reserve Short Pine , The Uintah Forest Reserve The Fish Lake Forest Reserve The Logan Forest Reserve ThePayson Forest Reserve The Mantl Forest Reserve The Aauarius Forest Reserve The Grantsville Forest Reserve The Salt Lake Forest Reserve The Sevier Reserve The Washington Forest Reserve The Olympic Forest Reserve The Mount Rainier Forest Reserve The Big Horn Forest Reserve The Yellowstone Forest Reserve.. Feb. 22, May 23, May 25, May 29, June 12, July 25, I Feb. 22, I June 9, Feb. 10, Aug. 16, Aug. 16, Dee. 12, May 12, Apr. 16, Apr. 16, I Jan. 11, I May 27, I Mar. 2, I July 21, July 26, July 4, June 17, I Sept. 28, I July 1, Sept. 28, Feb. 5, May 6, May 12, May 12, June 2, Mar. 5, Mar. 5, I Feb. 22, Sept. 19, July 22, Feb. 22, July 14, rFeb. 10, LMay 2, May 29, Aug. 3, , Nov. 5, 'July 21, May 29, Oct. 24, May 7, May 26, May 12, 'Feb. 22, Apr. 3, .June 12, Feb. 22, Apr, 7, July 15, Feb. 22, Feb. 22, June 29, May 22, Mar. 30, Sept. 10, May 22, June 13, Jan. 29, May 4, .May 22, 1897 1905 1905 1905 1905 1905 18971 1903 J 1899 1902 1902 1903 1905 1902 1902 18921 1898) 1899 1 1905 1 1902 1901 1892 18931 1901/ 1893 1904 1905 1905 1905 1905 1904 1904 18971 1898/ 1905 18971 1905 1 1899 1 1904 f 1903 1901) 1903}- 1905) 1903 1903 1904 1904 1905 1897) 1901 J- 1905) 1897) 1900 >■ 1901) 1897 1897 1900 1902 1891"! 1891 1902 1902 1903 1904 1905 J Acres. 645,120 798,720 324,964 1,947,520 326,160 97,280 4,670,720 140,320 501,000 736,000 45,080 186,240 85,123 123,779 431,040 2,823,900 500,000 57,120 142,080 4,436,120 18,560 52,480 747,200 220,320 731,650 54,220 23,360 58,160 1,209,760 19,040 1,852,000 199,040 182,080 167,280 584,640 639,000 68,960 95,440 357,000 3,952,840 1,466,880 2,027,520 1,216,960 7,988,560 Total., 1891-1905 83,516,511 'Even sections only. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 423 Few who have not taken pains to inform themselves about the mat- ter have any idea of the extent of the forest reserves belonging to the United States. The more than eighty-eight million acres covered by the above named reserves can best be appreciated by some graphic illustrations. Their area is, approximately, equivalent to a tract of land 200 miles wide reaching from New York to Chicago, or, it is in excess of the combined areas of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. The reserves con- tain more than three times the area of the great State of Pennsylvania, and more than any one state or territory in the Union, except Texas, California and Montana. The forest reserve area is 4.4 percent of the entire area of the United States. The reserves within the State of Cal- ifornia are 16 percent of its area, in Washington 18 percent and in Oregon almost 10 percent. In the above percentages the area of the two Alaska reserves has been excluded from the calculation. These reserves are the Afognak Forest and Fish Culture Reserve, consisting of Afognak Island, located to the east of the base of the Alaska Penin- sula and north of Kadiak Island, and practically marking the extreme western limits of the forests or North America, and the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve. The latter occupies the southeastern islands of Alaska, which are, for the most part, densely covered by forests, including a large amount of timber of commercial value, al- though authorities disagree as to the precise character of the timber in this particular. Statements have been made that the forests compare with those of British Columbia and Washington ; but better informa- tion leads to the conclusion that the growth is smaller and less perfect, and will not come into requisition as a source of supply for the lumber markets until the more southern timber supplies are greatly depleted. The purpose of the forest reserves is two-fold. First, to perpetuate for the benefit of the United States a supply of timber, and, second, to protect the water supply of arid, or semiarid regions. Some re- serves, like those of Washington and Oregon, are primarily for the first-named purpose, others, like those of southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana, are primarily for the second purpose. Space does not permit a detailed description of all the reserves, but from the reports of the Geological Survey, which has in charge the ex- amination and mapping of the reserves, may be taken descriptions of the timber of certain typical reserves, which will serve the double ob- ject of outlining their general character and purpose and of indicating 424 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. the timber species and stands of timber in the sections of which they are typical. SAN FRANCISCO MOUNTAINS FOREST RESERVE. In Arizona the most important reserve is the San Francisco Moun- tains Forest Reserve, with its area of nearly two million acres, occupy- ing portions of the broad summit and the slopes of the elevated tract of land in north central Arizona, the altitude ranging from 3,500 feet to 12,794 feet at the summit of San Francisco Peak. This region may be regarded as an extension southward of the Col- orado Plateau. This reserve contains twelve species of coniferous trees and nearly the same number of broad-leaved trees. The chief timber of the reserve is the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). It is estimated to constitute 99 percent of the merchantable timber on the reserve, and about 90 percent of the total forest, and it grows at eleva- tions between 6,200 and 8,500 feet. Above the yellow pine zone come the red fir, limber pine, aspen and scattering Engelmann spruce. Be- low the yellow pine belt there is a scanty forest of semiarid species of little or no commercial value, of which the one-seed juniper and the piSon are the most prominent. The reserve is estimated to contain an average of 3,377 feet board measure an acre, the uncut yellow pine in its best development on a considerable area measuring 10,000 feet and upward per acre. Por- tions of this reserve, especially within the limits of the yellow pine belt, are valuable for their timber stands and for the possibilities of their forest reproduction, but upon the water flow from the reserve depends, in a large measure, the welfare of potentially rich agricultural districts. BATTLEMENT MESA FOREST RESERVE. The Colorado reserves are typical of those of Utah, Wyoming, New Mexico and Arizona, as well as of Colorado itself. The Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve lies south of Grand River, east of the lower Gunnison River. Its area is 797,720 square miles. Its commercial species of timber are the Engelmann spruce, Alpine fir, red fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), blue, or parry, spruce, yellow pine (a variety of the Pinus ponderosa), one-seed juniper and Rocky Mountain juniper. The deciduous species are nine or ten in number, of no com- mercial value, except possibly in the case of the aspen ; a few of the others, like the Rocky Mountain oak, the service berry and the narrow- leaf Cottonwood, being of some value for domestic use. In this reserve the Engelmann spruce and the Alpine fir are the most conspicuous and FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 425 abundant timbers, and where the two kinds are represented the spruce forms 70 to 75 percent of the entire stand. This species ranges between 8,000 and 10,000 feet in elevation. No estimates are made as to the total stand of timber or average per acre on this reserve, but it is ex- tremely small. None of the trees on this reserve grow to large sizes. The extreme dimensions of the spruce are from forty to sixty feet in height and from six to fourteen inches in diameter. The Alpine fir reaches a somewhat greater height. The remaining coniferous species are of comparatively small commercial value. PIKES PEAK FOREST RESERVE. Somewhat different are the characteristics of the Pikes Peak Forest Reserve, which occupies 1,681,667 acres in central Colorado, on the eastern outposts of the Rocky Mountains. Tree species within this reserve include five species of pine, two of spruce, two of fir, the red fir, two of cedar, one of oak and four of poplar. The most abundant and most valuable species of the pine is the Pinus ponderosa, the west- em yellow pine. It reaches an extreme diameter of four feet and a height of 125 feet, with an average of between one and two feet in di- ameter and seventy-five feet in height. The pine of second impor- tance is the lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana) . The pine which ranges third in value is the Pinus aristate, known as range, or pitch, pine. Other pines are the limber pine and pinon. The red fir is abundant in this reserve, growing to a diameter of four feet or more, and to a height of over 100 feet, but with an average diameter and height very much less. The Engelmann spruce, or white spruce, is a less abundant tree, but furnishes saw timber at elevations between 10,000 and 11,500 feet. No estimates of the total timber stand of the reserve have been made, but extensive compact forests formerly existed at altitudes above 6,000 feet. Pikes Peak Reserve is typical, in great measure, of the forests of the eastern ranges of the Rockies from Montana south. LEWIS AND CLARK FOREST RESERVE. A reserve typical of the northern Rocky Mountain region is the Lewis and Clark Reserve, of Montana, which now contains 4,670,720 acres. In 1899 the reserve, which as then constituted contained but 2,926,000 acres, was carefully examined by the Geographical Survey. It then occupied the whole breadth of the Rocky Mountains, except the western slope of Mission Range, and included four parallel ranges, the principal streams including the Middle Fork of Flathead River, the South Fork of Flathead River, the North Fork of Blackfoot River, the 426 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Sun River, the North Fork of Dearborn River and the Swan River. Flathead Lake is to the west of it, and the city of Missoula a short distance south. The country is extremely rugged and the tree growth is almost entirely of the mountain type. The examination showed an average of only a little more than 900 feet of merchantable timber to the acre. The trees listed as growing within the reserve are eighteen in number, of which five are pines, two are spruces, two are larches, two are firs, one is red fir, one is cedar, two are hemlock and three are poplars. The most abundant tree is the larch, the next being the red fir, then the spruce and the yellow pine and the lodgepole pine. The total estimate of timber in the reserve was 2,644,360,000 feet. Worthy of special note in connection with this reserve are the limited number of tree species of sufficient account to enter into the examination, and the sparse distribution of the timber, the best of it being found in the valleys which are between 3,000 and 5,000 feet in altitude, the pines of the main ranges lying between 7,000 and 10,000 feet. The timber is, for the most part, defective, even the yellow pine being of inferior character. The lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana), while small, is usually straight and sound. The most useful tree is the Engelmann spruce. The red fir attains a size of three feet in diameter and 100 feet in height, but is a victim of dry rot. THE OLYMPIC FOREST RESERVE. The quantity and quality of the timber in the northwestern part of the United States generally improves to the westward from the summits of the Rockies, except in the great interior arid basin. The Priest River Reserve in northern Idaho and northeastern Washington is of decidedly better character than the Montana reserves, though the Bitter Root Reserve, in southwestern Montana and southeastern Idaho, is of better character than the others in Montana. It is when we come to the reserves situated on the Cascade Mountains, or west of them, that we find the heavy and valuable timber. The most notable of any of the reserves in this respect is the Olympic Forest Reserve, which occupies the principal portion of the Olympic Peninsula in north- western Washington, lying between Puget Sound and the Ocean, and bounded on the north by the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This reserve occupies 1,466,880 acres. It was the subject of a monograph issued by the United States Geographical Survey in 1902. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 427 The reserve includes the Olympic Mountain group with its slopes toward the east, north and south, together with the long slope to the west and a considerable extent of the lowland bordering the Pacific Coast. The Olympics are a group of mountains of nearly circular shape, the central mass of which culminates in Mount Olympus, with an altitude of 8,150 feet, while many other summits rise to altitudes ranging between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, and large areas lie above timber- line, which in this locality has an altitude of 5,500 to 6,000 feet. This mountain mass is drained by many rivers which radiate in all directions from the interior of the tangle of mountains. Taken as a whole it is probably the most heavily forested region of Washington and, with a few exceptions, of the country. The densest forests are found in the townships near the Pacific Coast and in the southern tier of townships. The examination referred to covered 3,483 square miles, of which 88 percent carried commercial timber, 5 per- cent had been burned, 8 percent consisted almost entirely of Alpine meadows and was naturally timberless, and 4 percent of rock and ice. It was estimated that the timber of the reserve amounted, on the basis of the estimate used, to 60,998,250,000 feet, or 25,570 feet board measure to the acre, while of the timbered area of the reserve the estimate was about 33,000 feet an acre. The red fir comprised 24 per- cent of the entire timber stand ; the cedar, 10 percent ; the hemlock, 42 percent; the spruce, 6 percent, and the lovely fir (Abies amabilis) 18 percent. The above percentages are approximates only, for there are other trees which are of minor importance. These are the Alpine fir, found only on the higher parts of the mountains ; the white pine (Pinus monticola) ; the Alaska cedar; the Sitka spruce, found only in the neighborhood of the Pacific Coast; the vine maple, a small tree of no commercial value; the maple (Acer macrophyllum) , a fine bottom land tree; the madrona, seldom more than twelve inches in diameter, and a species of cottonwood, which sometimes grows to a diameter of five feet. CASCADE RANGE FOREST RESERVE. While in Washington there are two other great reserves, the Wash- ington and the Mount Rainier, each exceeding the Olympic in size and both carrying large quantities of timber and including in their area a large percent of the timber resources of the State, space forbids their description. Substantially similar in character, however, is the Cascade Range Forest Reserve, of Oregon, which contains 4,436,120 acres. This reserve occupies the summit of the Cascade Range from the 428 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Columbia River on the north southward nearly to the California boundary, and extending a greater or less distance over both the western and eastern slopes of the main range. The range has an average altitude of about 6,000 feet, though upon its crest stand numer- ous extinct volcanoes which rise much higher. Mount Hood, on the north, rises to 11,225 feet above the sea; Mount JefiEerson, 10,350 feet; Mount Washington, 8,500 feet; the Three Sisters, from 10,000 to 10,500 feet; Mount Thielsen, 9,250 feet; Mount Pit, 9,760 feet. It is estimated that about 85 percent of the land in reserves is forested; 8 percent has been burned; 5 percent is open country, and that only 2 percent consists of mountainous rocks and ice, of water surface or of cultivated land. The total timber upon the reserve is estimated at over 50,000,000,000 feet or about one-fourth of the entire standing timber of Oregon. This gives an estimate of 10,240 feet board measure as the average stand per acre, all classes of lands being included. The most important timber tree of the Cascade Range Forest Reserve is the red fir ( Pseudotsuga taxiiolia), furnishing 54 percent of the commercial timber. Next in importance is the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) ; next is the Patton hemlock, or spruce, (Tsuga mertensiana) ; next the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa); next the noble fir ; next the lovely fir, and next the tamarack. Altogether there are more than twenty tree species listed within the reserve, of which the only deciduous trees are Pacific oak, cottonwood, aspen, Oregon maple, chinquapin and alder. The firs, pines and hemlocks are estimated to comprise 95 percent of all the timber, three-fourths of which is found west of the summit of the range. Among the trees sparingly repre- sented, but which are characteristic of the region, are Engelmann spruce, incense cedar, white pine, (Pinus monticola) lodgepole pine, sub-alpine fir, sugar pine, and a juniper. The following table shows the percentage of trees which grow in sufficient quantity to make up some appreciable percentage of the whole : Red fir 54 percent. Lodgepole pine 1 percent. Noblefir 6percent. Red cedar 2percent. Lovely fir 4 percent. Patton hemlock 9 percent. White fir 2 percent. Western hemlock 11 percent. Yellowpine 7 percent. Tamarack Spercent. White pine 1 percent. One of the most important trees of the Pacific forests is the sugar pine, but it does not figure largely in the Cascade Range Forest Re- serve for the reason that its northern limit of typical growth is found near the southern limit of the reserve. FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 429 THE YOSEMITE FOREST. Great variety is to be found in the distribution and density of growth on the forested mountain regions of California. The heavy timber ex- tends along the Sierra Nevadas from the northern boundary of the State well toward the San Bernardino Mountains in the south. Yellow pine, sugar pine and fir are the valuable trees of the northern Sierras, while on the Coast Range near the ocean is found the redwood. Lo- cated near the central part of the State is the Yosemite National Park, adjoining which, on the north, is the Stanislaus Forest Reserve and south of it the great Sierra Forest Reserve. An examination of the Yosemite quadrangle, made in 1899, is inter- esting as showing the conditions in one of the most heavily timbered sec- tions of the Pacific Coast. This quadrangle contains 954 square miles, or 610,560 acres. It is estimated that the total stand of the timber is about 10,000,000,000 feet, or about 16,350 feet per acre for the entire area. It is estimated that 284 square miles maintain an average of 25,000 to 50,000 feet of timber per acre ; 234 square miles, 10,000 to 25,000 f eet; 277 square miles, 5,000 to 10,000 feet. The principal trees of commercial value are yellow pine, sugar pine and red fir, while the incense cedar, the white fir, the silver fir, white bark pine and numerous other species are also found. The sugar pines reach a great size in this forest, many of them exceeding 200 feet in height and seven feet in diameter, while practically the same dimensions are reached by the yellow pine. The red fir, also, attains good size and is abundant, its range extending to a higher elevation than the kinds mentioned. The incense cedar is a large tree, mingled with the pines and fir. The white and silver firs are symmetrical trees of high value, but of smaller size than the red fir, and their range, according to alti- tude, extends from about 5,000 to 9,000 feet. The tamarack is a good sized tree at about 7,000 feet elevation, but the trees of commercial value grow best between the altitudes of 4,500 and 6,500 feet. In se- lected areas in this section of California, the stand will reach as high as 150,000 feet an acre, while the average of the timbered areas, leaving out treeless and brush lands, is estimated at above 30,000 feet to the acre. All the forest reserves of Washington, Oregon and northern and central California are essentially timber reserves, that is, their prime purpose is to perpetuate a forest growth and timber supply, though all of them have the incidental advantage of the protection of watersheds and, consequently, of promoting irrigation of the semiarid lands depend- ing upon them for water. 430 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The forest reserves of southern California proper, the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, Santa Barbara, etc., are, however, all de- signed primarily for the protection of the water supply and they are of little, if any, value for timber. The San Gabriel Reserve is typical of this class in southern Califor- nia. It contains 555,520 acres and consists of the crest and a greater portion of the slopes of the western section of the San Gabriel Moun- tains. The greater portion of the surface of the reserve is semiarid, covered with a growth of brush and chaparral, California juniper or piSon pines. About eighty-one percent of the entire reserve is of this class. The chaparral is composed of forty or more species of shrubs, some of which become trees in favorable situations. Most of them are low, not exceeding five feet in height. The coniferous species lowest in altitude is the bigcone fir, which constitutes the bulk of the forest between elevations 3,500 and 8,000 feet, and is the most common tree throughout the reserve. Above 4,000 feet two grades of pines are added. At altitudes of 5,500 feet incense cedar and western yellow pine are found, and at altitudes of 6,000 feet white fir is found. On the semiarid tracts below the yellow pine belt the timber growth is open, scattered and of little value, except for fuel. Nearly a hundred thousand acres of the reserve, however, carries trees of commercial value, whose growth is open and park like. The chief species of value are the western yellow pine, the sugar pine and bigcone fir, but altogether it is estimated that the stand of timber on the entire reserve is only about 80,000,000 feet, of which yellow pine constitutes more than half, and the majority of even this quantity is not of a class suitable for sawmill operations. FOREST RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. While entirely apart from the forest reserves of the United States and not to be considered as among the timber resources of this country, the forest area of the Philippine Islands is so large as to be worthy of consideration, more especially as the political status of the islands makes it probable that Philippine timber will come, to a large extent at least, under control of American lumbermen. It has been extremely difficult accurately to estimate the timbered area of the islands, there being over 1,700 of them in the group, and forestry there being, comparatively speaking, in its infancy. Of course, only the large islands have been considered, and of these the best recognized authorities place the timbered area at between 35,000,000 FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 431 and 40,000,000 acres, some putting it as high as 50,000,000 acres. The Province of Cagayan, in the extreme northeast of the Island of Luzon, is the most heavily timbered tract in the island. Mindoro contains 2,542,000 acres, almost entirely covered with a tropical forest growth; the great Island of Mindanao, with its 23,191,000 acres, is nearly all forested; while the island of Palawan is credited with 3,000,000 acres of virgin forests. Other heavily timbered areas are found in the Luzon provinces of Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Bulacan, Bataan, Tayabas, Prin- cipe and Infanta, and the islands of Samar and Leyte. Philippine timber has had the advantage which comes from receiv- ing forestal protection before the commencement of extensive lumber- ing operations. May 7, 1904, the Philippine Commission, acting under congressional authority, adopted the "Forest Act," a measure provid- ing for the protection of the timbered areas for the benefit of the people of the islands. Captain George P. Ahearn, of the Ninth In- fantry, U. S. A., was placed at the head of the Bureau of Forestry, created by this act, and his investigations have been of material assist- ance in determining the extent and character of the merchantable timber growth. The chief provisions of the Forest Act, briefly, are as follows : The public forests shall include all unreserved public lands covered with trees, and these forests shall be held and protected for the public use. The civil Gov- ernor, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, may set apart from the public lands, as forest reserves, such tracts as may be recommended for that pur- pose by the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, and the same shall not be entered, sold or otherwise disposed of. The civil Governor may, however, by proclamation, alter or modify the boundaries of any forest reserve, or revoke any such proclama- tion, and upon such revocation such forest reserve shall again be considered a part of the public lands. The Chief of the Bureau of Forestry is given power to make all necessary pro- visions for the protection, management, reproduction, etc., of public forests, with the object of continuing a supply of timber for future use. He may lease to hold- ers of timber licenses sawmill sites not exceeding four hectares [about ten acres] , and may grant free rights of way through public lands where the same are neces- sary. In short, the chief of the Bureau of Forestry is given full power for the formulation and pursuance of a policy of forest protection, conser- vation and reproduction, subject only to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior. For the purposes of the Forest Act the provinces of the island are divided into classes as follows : 432 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Class A: Abra, Bataan, Batangas, Benguet, Bulacan, Capiz, Cavite, Cebu, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo, Laguna, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Romblon, Rizal, Sorsogan, Tarlac, Union and Zambales. Class B: Albay, Ambos Camarines, Antique, Bohol, Cagayan, Isabela, Lepanto-Bontoc, Leyte, Masbate, Mindoro, Misamis, Moro, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Nueva Vizcaya, Paragua, Samar, Surigao and Tayabas. The timber itself is divided into four classes, according to the value of the woods. On all timber cut on any public land or forest reserve, whether for domestic use or for export there shall be paid into the Insular treasury as follows : On first-class timber, cut from any province in class A, 5 pesos ($2.50) for each cubic meter (about 47 cubic feet or 565 feet board measure), and when cut in any of the provinces of class B, 2 pesos and fifty centavos ($1.25). On second-class timber cut in any of the provinces of class A, three pesos ($1.50); when cut in class B, one peso and fifty centavos (seventy-five cents). On third-class timber the taxes are one peso and fifty centavos (seventy-five cents) and one peso (fifty cents), and on fourth-class timber one peso (fifty cents) and fifty centavos (twenty-five cents), according to whether cut in class A or class B. Other sections of the act empower the chief of the Bureau of For- estry to grant gratuitous licenses for certain purposes, as for mining, also providing duties and limitations connected therewith. Under the heading of " Forest Regulations " a number of provisions have been made in conformity with the purposes expressed in the For- est Act. Some of the more important of these are given below : Holders of timber licenses will be allowed four months within which to begin operations, at the end of which period, in the absence of good reason for delay, the license will be revoked. Licenses of all classes may be transferred by authority of the forest oflBcer granting the same, or of the chief of the bureau. Dating from June 30, 1905, every holder of a license is required to perform, personally or through his agents, all operations in the forest under the license which he holds. Failure in this to result in forfeiture of license. A license agreement will be granted only for territory where extensive cutting, extending over a period of years, can be allowed and where logging operations can be personally superintended by forest officers. Should the amount of timber cut be less than that prescribed in the agreement, the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry may lessen the area covered by the license. Holders of licenses must exercise particular care in cutting, working up, col- FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 433 lecting or transporting timber, firewood, or other forest products to avoid killing or injuring young trees less than forty centimeters [about sixteen inches] in diam- eter, or seedlings, especially those of the first and second groups. Round timber forty or more centimeters in diameter at the larger end and squared timbers twenty- two centimeters [about nine inches] in width or thickness will be considered of legal size. Timber cut under license and not removed within the time specified will be charged for at the regular rate. The timber which has been officially listed by the forestry bureau numbers seventy-one species, best known among which are the calan- tas, ebony, narra, santol, teak, molave, lauan, apitong, guijo, yacal, tanguile, sacat and ipil. Lauan is the most extensively used, as it is one of the cheapest of the native woods. It is a soft, reddish white wood, easily worked and corresponds in some respects to American poplar. Narra ( both red and white ) is known as the mahogany of the Philippines. The ipil, another of the more important woods, ages into a strong resemblance to ebony and is said to be impervious to decay. It is much sought for in Chinese markets. The molave is a white wood, very strong and practically everlasting. It is said to re- semble New Zealand teak, and cannot be surpassed for railroad sleepers or for constructive work under water. Yacal is a fine, close-grained wood much in favor with cabinetmakers. The guijo and tanguile are strong, tough, elastic woods used in shipbuilding and general construc- tion work. On an average the timber growth of the Philippines is not heavy, judging by standards of United States lumbermen, but in the virgin forests found in the pro-vinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya and all along the coast of Luzon south of Antimonan, the timber is said to run from 5,000 to 10,000 cubic feet to the acre. Indeed, Captain Ahearn's report mentions "20,000 cubic feet of magnificent timber to the acre," but such acres are not numerous enough to consider in esti- mating the probable yield of large areas. Since the American occupation of the islands the lumber business and allied industries have improved, but they are still relatively unim- portant. Many things combine to make timber manufacture in the Philippine group a much more difiicult problem than it is in the United States. There is a great deal of waste in tropical forest growth, and of the larger trees only a portion are suitable for milling, and a certain per- centage of these are so burdened with vines and a parasitic growth that the expense of cutting and cleaning them exceeds their market value. 434 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Rafting streams are not common, and some of the native woods are too heavy to float in the water, and, while the character of the timber makes long hauls necessary, keeping roads open is a matter of considerable expense, owing to the heavy and fast-growing undergrowth. Native labor, while cheap, is poor, it being estimated that one white chopper will do the work of eight or nine natives. In 1902 four wooden packing box plants were running in the islands, employing thirty-one men ; thirty-one establishments were engaged in furniture and cabinet making, giving employment to 262 persons, and seventy-eight concerns and individuals were engaged in the manufac- ture of lumber, representing invested capital amounting to 2,623,037 pesos ($1,311,518.50). Twenty-six establishments were engaged in ship and boat building, employing 4,200 persons. Considerable lumbering has been done in the country districts, most of the work being by contract, and the employer generally manages to keep the natives who are working for him in his debt. As a rule, me- dium-sized logs are selected, being easier to transport than large ones, and the small logs not paying the expense of getting them to market. Labor is paid for by the Spanish cubic foot, the price varying according to the size and hardness of the timber. From 1900 the islands have been increasing their imports of wood and its manufactures. In that year $233,504 was received; which amount, in 1901, was increased to $532,572; in 1902, the total was $474,238; in 1903, $539,710, and in 1904, $623,818. These imports of wood and its products into a country almost half of the area of which is covered with forest growth, is surprising until it is remembered that before the American protectorate was established Spanish timber regu- lations so tied up the forests that it was impossible for domestic man- ufacture to thrive. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS BY IRRIGATION. The two primal objects of the establishment of forest reserves are conservation of timber supply and conservation of moisture. In many cases the denudation of these areas of their forestal covering would re- sult in the land becoming arid, or semiarid, and, consequently, valueless. During the last three years the Government has done much toward the reclamation of arid lands by irrigation. June 17, 1902, a bill was signed by President Roosevelt which provided (with a few minor ex- ceptions) that all moneys resulting from the sale of public lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Ne- FORESTRY AND FOREST RESERVES. 435 vada. New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming, beginning with the fiscal year ended June 30, 1901, should be set aside as a special fund for the examination and survey of lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation works for the storage, diversion and development of waters in the re- clamation of arid and semiarid lands in the states and territories named. The act gave authority to the Secretary of the Interior to make examinations and surveys for, and to locate and construct, irrigation works and, prior to letting contracts for the construction of them, to withdraw from public entry the lands required for their location and also any public lands proposed to be irrigated. When the land is again open for entry or sale, it shall be divided into tracts not exceeding 160 acres to any one land owner, and not less than forty acres, the size being such as, in the opinion of the secretary, will, under the circumstances, support a family. Before water is turned on, all lands within the area to be irrigated exceeding 160 acres in one ownership shall be reduced to the maximum allowed by the law. No sales may be made to any land owner unless he be a bona fide resident on such land or an occupant thereof residing in its neighbor- hood. The land owner shall assume the estimated cost of irrigating his land, payment to be made in not more than ten annual installments, title to remain in the Government until payments are completed. The water supply for the irrigating works is to be protected by reserves, which will serve not only that purpose but also as forest reserves, assuring timber supplies for the local use of irrigated districts. From June 30, 1901, to June 30, 1905, there had been set aside for the prosecution of this work $34,207,000. The subjoined table gives a fair idea of the action taken and in contemplation from the time the reclamation bill went into efEect to the date last named above: PROJECTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION. Project. Amount. Acres. Salt River, Arizona $3,600,000 180,000 Yuma, California and Arizona 3,000,000 85,000 Uncompahsrre, Colorado 2,500,000 125,000 Minidoka, Idaho 1.300,000 60,000 Huntley, Montana 900,000 35,000 Port Buf ord, Montana and North Dakota 1,800,000 60,000 North Platte, Nebraska and Wyoming 3,500,000 100,000 Truckee-Carson, Nevada 2,740,000 100,000 Hondo, New Mexico 280,000 10,000 Belle Pourche, South Dakota 2,100,000 80,000 Shoshone, Wyoming 2,250,000 125,000 PROJECTS APPROVED BY THE SECRETARY OP THE INTERIOR. Klamath Palls, Oregon and California $1,000,000 236,000 Malheur, Oregon 2,250,000 100,000 MilkRiver, Montana 1,000,000 200,000 Bismarck, North Dakota 15,000 Buford-Trenton, North Dakota Pumping 550,000 18,000 Payette-Boise, Idaho 1,300,000 250,000 436 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Estimates of the lands which may be reclaimed vary greatly, and no positive statement is possible, owing to the fact that there are many thousands of acres of arid land which could be reclaimed, but only at an expense which at present would be deemed in excess of its subsequent value. A conservative estimate, made by the engineers who have the work in hand, places the area at from 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 acres, fig- uring in only such land as is subject to irrigation at a reasonable outlay. Estimates of the work in hand place the average cost of reclamation at $17 an acre, while the last census gave $47 an acre as the average value of irrigated lands in the United States. CHAPTER XXIX. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. Since the adoption of the Constitution of the United States in 1789 this nation has been almost uninterruptedly committed, in a greater or less degree, to the policy of a protective tariff. Previous to the Revo- lutionary War the colonies had been administered more with a view to the commercial benefits which might be derived by the mother country than to those that might be enjoyed by the colonies themselves ; and this was one of the chief causes of that remarkable contest. Under English rule there were no import duties on articles of Eng- lish manufacture. American manufactures were not promoted. Ameri- can colonists were not simply discouraged in their efforts to manufac- ture their necessities, but were actually prohibited from doing so and from exporting articles which competed with British products. Some instances illustrative of this policy may be of interest. In 1699 the British Parliament enacted a law which said that " After the first day of December, 1699, no wool, woolfels, yarn, cloth or woolen manufactures of the English Plantations in America shall be shipped in any of the said English Plantations or otherwise loaden, in order to be transported thence, to any place whatsoever, under the penalty of for- feiting ship and cargo, and £500 for each offence." In 1731 a similar act prohibited the exportation from the American colonies of hats or felts, and limited the number of hatters' apprentices. In 1749 an act of Parliament was passed "to encourage the impor- tation of pig and bar iron from His Majesty's colonies in America and to prevent the erection of any mills or other engine for slitting or roll- ing of iron, or any plateing forge to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for making steel, in any of the said colonies." In order to protect the English naval trade all the slitting mills in the colonies were ordered to be destroyed, but pig iron could be exported to England free of duty to be manufactured in the mother country and then re- turned to the colonists. In 1733 the British government undertook to protect its sugar plant- ers in the British West Indies by compelling all the New England 437 438 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. merchants to buy all of their molasses from them and laid a prohibitory duty upon all sugar and molasses imported into North America from the French islands. The efiEect of this measure would have been prac- tically to destroy the profitable commerce of the colonial merchants in fish and lumber with the French West Indies, from which they received molasses in return. It was not, however, until 1764 that this measure was enforced, and at the same time the trade between the American colonies and the Spanish American colonies was frowned upon. The next year, 1765, the Stamp Act was passed, bearing with special severity upon the internal life and business of the colonists. In addition to the acts specifically mentioned above were numerous others in restriction of colonial industry. One prohibited the import of artisans, another the import of woolen machinery, and a later one the import of cotton machinery and artificers in cotton ; still another the ex- portation from England to the colonies of iron and steel machinery and workmen, and another prohibited the import of colliers into America. In fact, British legislation sought to make the colonists producers of agricultural products and exporters of raw material only, and in return to render them absolutely dependent upon the mother country for goods. So successful was this series of legislative acts that in 1781 the imports of the colonies exceeded the exports by $13,760,000, a sum that appears remarkable when the volume of business in those days is considered. But England was sowing the wind and she reaped the whirlwind. After the successful issue of the Revolutionary War the united colo- nies sought to exist under the Articles of Confederation, and did so exist until 1789, though with growing competition between the states and an increasingly vivid demonstration that the National government was too weak to preserve internal peace and promote domestic welfare, and that it did not constitute a government strong enough to take a prominent place in the sisterhood of nations. Those Articles made a tariflE on imports a practical impossibility, because Congress had authority to enact a general tariff only with the consent of every one of the thirteen states. In a country so large as that composed of the old English colonies, small as it was compared with the present area of the United States, such a unanimous consent would be impossible to obtain. The different states, then as now, varied in commercial and industrial interests. The first of the Articles of Confederation, following the declaration of the style of the confed- UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 439 eracy to be the "United States of America," declared that "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jmrisdiction and right which is not by this Confederation expressly dele- gated to the United States in Congress assembled." This emphatic declaration of state rights merely put into definite form the feeling which dominated the states prior to and after its adoption. Article IV declared as follows : " The people of each State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce subject to the same duties, imposi- tions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof, respectively ; provided that such restrictions shall not continue so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State to any other State of which the owner is an inhabitant." In Article IX it was declared that "no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their own people are subject to, or from prohibiting the exportation or im- portation of any species of goods or commodities whatever." Thus it is seen that, aside from the lack of administrative power in the general Government, the states were so independent as to leave open the way for endless disputes. Some of the northern states were then, as now, largely engaged in manufacturing, and, consequently, favored a tariff by which their industries might be protected and pro- moted. The South, on the contrary, was then, as afterwards, consist- ently opposed to a general tariff on manufactured products. There was also at that time a superabundance of sentiment based on a dis- torted idea of what constituted liberty, while national pride was in- choate. Each of the newly formed states believed itself competent to manage the affairs which particularly pertained to it, and sought to regulate its trade relations with the other states and with foreign coun- tries without regard to the interests of the nation. In no phase of national legislation could this situation produce greater dissension among the states than in the consideration of the tariff problem, because that which was good for one seemed bad, and often was unquestionably detrimental, to another. There ensued the most remarkable tariff legislation with which the country has ever been afflicted. Pennsylvania provided for a duty of 2^ percent on imports, but New Jersey opened a free port at Burlington, where the Pennsyl- vania merchants entered their goods and took them surreptitiously 440 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. across the river to Pennsylvania, thus escaping the duty imposed by their own State. New Jersey voted to allow Congress to impose a general tariff, but New York, because of its peculiar situation, refused to consent to the measure. New Jersey then withdrew and established a free port at Paulus Hook, in the present Jersey City, where the New York merchants followed the same tactics that had been adopted by the merchants of Philadelphia. The lumber industry, then hardly more than in its infancy, having to deal with a superabundant natural resource and fearing no competi- tion, was very little affected by either colonial administration or subse- quent dissensions among the newly created states. Exports of Ameri- can lumber and American shipbuilding materials were welcomed into the mother country as well as by the West Indies and other southern countries whose resources were not of a sort adapted to ordinary lumber purposes ; nor had the consumption of the forests progressed to such a point that the importation of foreign lumber, aside from certain cabinet woods and manufactures of woods, was even prospective. American lumbermen of that day cared very little about a protective tariff nor asked its assistance in favor of their industry. The lumber- men, in fact, were affected by the tariff conditions of the time only so far as those tariff conditions affected the general commercial situation. The only industry, dependent upon the forest for its supply, which was seriously concerned was that of shipbuilding. The colonial policy of the British government had been to discourage the building of Ameri- can ships, for by the Navigation Act Great Britain declared that " No merchandise, either of Asia, Africa or America, except only such as should be imported directly from the place of its growth or manufacture in Europe should be imported into England, Ireland, or any of the plantations, in any but English built ships, belonging either to English or English plantation subjects, navigated by English commanders, and having at least three-fourths of the sailors Englishmen." This first English Navigation Act was passed in 1651, was reenacted after the Restoration, and remained without important changes until the conclu- sion of the war of American Independence, when the produce of the United States was allowed to be imported into England in ships belong- ing to citizens of the United States ; but it was not until 1845 that the British Parliament adopted the policy of free trade on the high seas. The condition of the new republic, following a long and costly war, with its component states seriously differing on important subjects and UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 441 without a central government strong enough effectually to promote the general commercial and industrial welfare, was almost pitiable. Long afterwards Daniel Webster, in a speech delivered July 8, 1833, in de- scribing the condition of the period subsequent to the successful issue of the War of the Revolution, said: " After the close of the War of the Revolution there came a period of depression and distress on the Atlantic Coast such as the people had hardly felt during the sharpest crises of the war itself. Shipowners, shipbuilders, mechanics, arti- sans, all were destitute of employment and some of them destitute of bread." The treaty concluding the Revolutionary War was signed in 1783, and the dissensions which followed under the Articles of Confederation, which have been previously described, led to the adoption in 1789 of the Constitution of the United States. The first important law passed by the first Congress bore the title : " An act for laying a duty on goods, wares and merchandise imported into the United States." The first section of the act was in these sig- nificant words: "Whereas it is necessary for the support of the Gov- ernment, the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the encouragement and protection of manufactures, that duties be laid on goods, wares and merchandises imported ..." The first act of the first Congress prescribed the form of oath to be taken by oflBcials ; but the first act affecting the country in general was one imposing a tariff on imports, which was passed by both Houses and signed by President Washington July 4, 1789. In his first presidential message President Washington said: "I cannot forbear indicating to you the expediency of giving effectual encouragement, as well to the introduction of new and useful inventions from abroad, as to the exertions of skill in producing them at home." Among the first petitions presented to Congress immediately after the organization of Congress under the Constitution, was one from the mechanics, tradesmen and others of Baltimore upon the subject of pro- tecting manufactures. In it were these words: " They confidently hope that the encouragement and protection of American manufactures will claim the earliest attention of the Supreme Legislature of the nation ; as it is a universally acknowledged truth that the United States contain within their limits, resources amply sufficient to enable them to become a great manufacturing country, and only want the patriotism and sup- port of a wise, energetic Government." At the same session was 442 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. presented a petition from the mechanics and manufacturers of the City of New York, expressing the fear that in its independence the country might have gained only the form of liberty, while lacking the essential elements of prosperity, which said: "Your petitioners have long looked forward with anxiety for the establishment of a Government which would have the power to check the growing evil, and extend a protect- ing hand to the interests of commerce and the arts." A petition from Boston said: "The citizens of these States conceive the object of their independence but half obtained till those national purposes [American arts and manufactures] are established on a permanent and extensive basis by the legislative acts of the Federal Government." While, as stated above, the lumbermen in the early years of the republic felt no necessity for the assistance of an import duty upon the products of the forest, it was inevitable that so important a branch of commerce should be recognized in a general tariff act. The only articles of this class enumerated in the act of July 4, 1789, were cabinet wares, canes, walking sticks and whips, which were charged with an import tariff of 7J^ percent ad valorem. A general duty of 5 percent was to be collected upon all "goods, wares and merchandises," to use the language of the act, that were not enumerated. Thus, for a few years there was a duty, though small, even upon round timber and the like, which for the most part have been on the free list from 1792 until this time. By the tariff act of May 2, 1792, "unmanufactured wood" was spe- cifically mentioned and placed on the free list. It is probable that sawed lumber was not included in this classification, as it is today, for when such material was first mentioned (act of July 14, 1832), the lan- guage used was as follows : " Boards, planks . . . and all other manufactures of wood." Yet this conclusion is not certain, for by the act of September 11, 1841, it was provided that " boards, planks, staves, scantling, sawed timber and all other descriptions of wood which shall have been wrought into shapes that fit them respectively for any spe- cific and permanent use without further manufacture shall be deemed and taken as manufactured wood." It seems therefore, that rough lumber, at any rate, had been considered unmanufactured wood. In the act of June 7, 1794, is found the expression " cabinet wares, and all manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the material of chief value." Substantially this phraseology thereafter appears in the tariff schedules. It is probable that the protective policy had little influence in de- UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 443 termining the early tariff rates on forest products and their manufac- tures, but that their rates were for revenue, primarily, with protection to the producers of furniture and other manufactures of wood only incidental, for at that time the wealthier citizens imported most of their household goods, including furniture and cabinet ware, offering an excellent opportunity to secure revenue with incidental protection. In 1806, the country for the first time found itself confronted with a surplus ; but the protective policy was not abandoned. The famous Embargo Act was passed in December, 1807, though ordinarily accredited to 1808. Great Britain and France were at war and each had prohibited all commerce by the world with the other, established blockades and instituted search of neutral vessels. President Jefferson called England "a den of pirates," and France "a den of thieves,'.' and the Embargo Act, at his suggestion, was passed as an act of retaliation. It absolutely prohibited all foreign and coastwise trade — it closed the ports of the country. So impossible were the conditions it created, and so serious were the internal dissensions, dissolution of the Union being threatened, that in March, 1809, it was succeeded by the Non-intercourse Act, which prohibited intercourse with Great Britain and France, but opened the ports to commerce with other countries and to coastwise trade. The embargo was fruitless save of untold damage to the United States, while the countries against whom it was directed actually profited by it in the removal of the commerce of a rival power from the seas and in the expansion of the trade of their own colonies. The Non-intercourse Act was suspended by proclamation on June 10, 1809, so far as it related to Great Britain. Within a few months $10,- 000,000 worth of American property was seized by the French. But difficulties with England continued to increase, arising largely from its claims to right of search, and complicated by an Indian war, which, it was believed, was inspired by England. The final outcome was the declaration of war by the United States against Great Britain on June 18, 1812. Immediately the necessity for increased revenues was apparent. At the outset of the war custom duties were doubled, causing the 15 per- cent ad valorem duty on manufactured woods to be raised to 30 percent. There were various changes in the tariff following the War of 1812, but none of them affected lumber, the manufactures of wood being charged a duty of 30 percent ad valorem until the act of 1832 (effective March 3, 1833) was passed, at which time a reduction was made to 25 444 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. percent, but cabinet wares were retained at 30 percent. In the meantime there had been some slight additions to the classification of timber and timber products, which did not materially affect the industry, as they consisted chiefly in the itemization of the general divisions of manu- factured and unmanufactured. Until 1833 there had been a number of changes in the general tariff policy of the Government, but in that year a compromise measure was adopted, effective from December 31, 1833, by which it was provided that within a period of ten years the excess above 20 percent ad valorem in all schedules should be abolished, the reduction to be made by degrees. This brought about a gradual re- duction in the tariff on manufactured lumber to 20 percent in 1842. The Whigs returned to power in 1842, and Congress passed a high tariff law. This act put rough lumber, sawed timber and some other items, classified as unmanufactured, on the dutiable list, and was char- acterized by a more minute classification of forest products than had been made up to that time. Some woods which theretofore had been on the free list, were placed on the dutiable list, as, for example, rose- wood, mahogany, etc., which were given a duty of 15 percent. The details of this lumber schedule will be given on a following page. In 1846 the tariff of 1842 was repealed and a tariff law imposing very low duties on imports was substituted, but lumber was left un- changed, except that a 30 percent ad valorem tariff was imposed on unmanufactured woods, which had theretofore been admitted free. No further change was made until 1857, except that during this period the first reciprocity treaty which directly affected forest products was entered into. It provided for free trade in natural products with Canada. The date of the signing of this treaty was June 5, 1854. It took effect on March 16, 1855, and was maintained until March 17, 1866, when it came to an end under a notice authorized by Congress more than a year before. The effect of this treaty has been recounted in a previous chapter (pages 169-171). It changed the balance of trade between the two countries in favor of Canada, and this fact was the ostensible reason for its denouncement. In 1857 the general tariff was further reduced. The tariff on lumber was reduced to 15 percent and on unmanufactured wood to 24 percent. . In 1861 the adoption of the first Morrill tariff returned the country to the policy of a high protective tariff which it has since followed. The lumber tariff, except as to the Canadian product, was increased to 20 percent, while the tariff on unmanufactured woods was reduced to 20 UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 445 percent. Since that period there have been many slight changes affect- ing individual products, but the policy of protection has been pretty well maintained. It was not until this period that the lumber industry began to be seriously affected by tariff legislation, and American lumbermen began to take an active interest in the tariff question. The tariff law of 1870 restored logs to the free list, but retained the 20 percent ad valorem tax on lumber. In 1872, for the first time, a specific tariff was placed on lumber, amounting to $1 a thousand feet board measure on hemlock, whitewood, sycamore and basswood, and $2 on pine and other varieties of sawed lumber. There had been since April 27, 1816, a steadily enlarging classification of timber and timber products, and this disposition to differentiate the products of the forest in later timber lists was evidenced in the act of 1872 which added a specific tax of 15 cents a thousand on lath, 85 cents a thousand on shin- gles, $2 a thousand on pine clapboards and $1.50 a thousand on spruce clapboards. The next tariff enactment seriously affecting lumber was the Morrill bill, of March 8, 1888, effective July 1, 1883, which continued in effect until October 1, 1890. It left logs on the free list and retained the tariff of $1 per thousand feet board measure on hemlock, whitewood, sycamore and basswood lumber, and of $2 on pine and other varieties of lumber. In this year, however, for the first time a specific tariff was imposed on planed and tongued and grooved lumber ; a tariff of 50 cents additional for each side so planed, and of $1 for lumber planed on one side and tongued and grooved, and of $1.50 for lumber planed on two sides and tongued and grooved. THB M'KINLEY bill OF 1890. The conflict of interests between the Canadian and American lum- bermen became sharply evident during the tariff discussion which pre- ceded the passage of the McKinley bill in 1890. The high lumber tariff imposed by previous bills had led to retaliation on the part of the Canadians, in the shape of an export duty on logs amounting to $2 a thousand. The gradual diminution of the native log supply for the American mills on Lake Huron, on Lake Erie and on their connecting waters had reached a point where a number of serious questions had arisen. The prospect was that many of these mills, especially in the Saginaw Valley, would be obliged to shut down or remove unless some new source of 446 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. log supply could be secured. These mills represented a heavy invest- ment of capital, and upon them depended, in large degree, the pros- perity of a number of communities. There was, therefore, both a financial and a social question involved. Across Lake Huron from Michigan, in the waters tributary to Georgian Bay, were immense pine forests in which American lumbermen had begun to make investments; but while the American duty of $2 a thousand on sawed pine restricted the importation of the Canadian product, the Canadian export duty on logs largely prevented the importation of that raw material for the saw- mills. In spite of the export duty some logs were brought over, but the profit on the transaction was small. It was, therefore, desirable, from the standpoint of American sawmill owners whose timber was nearly or quite exhausted, that Canada be induced to rescind her restrictions on log export. The opportunity arose in connection with the revision of the tariff under the leadership of William McKinley. Through the McKinley bill, therefore, which was tinctured throughout with the reciprocity idea, it was sought to solve this problem by reducing the tariff on Canadian THE Mckinley bill. (Approved October 1, In effect October 6, 1890.) SCHEDULB P— WOOD AND MANDFACTCRES OF. 216. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars end In bulldlne wharves, ten per centum ad valorem. 217. Timber, squared or sided, not specially provided for In this act, one-half of one cent per cubic foot. 218. Sawed boards, planks, deals, and other lumber of hemlock, whltewood, sycamore, white pine and basswood, one dollar per thousand feet board measure ; sawed lumber, not specially pro- vided for in this act, two dollars per thousand feet board measure : but when lumber of any sort is planed or finished, in addition to the rates herein provided, there shall be levied and paid for each side so planed or finished fifty cents per thousand feet board meastu'e ; and If planed on one side and tongrued and grooved, one dollar per thousand feet board measure ; and if planed on two sides, and toncrued and grooved, one dollar and fifty cents per thousand feet board measure ; and in estimatinz board measure under this schedule no deduction shall be made In board meastu^ on account of planing, tongulng and groovlns: Provided, That in case any foreign country shall Impose an export duty upon pine, spruce, elm, or other logs, or upon stave bolts, shingle wood, or heading blocks exported to the United States from such country, then the duty upon the sawed lumber herein provided for, when Imported from such country, shall remain the same as fixed by the law in force prior to the passage of this act. 219. Cedar: That on and after March first, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, paving posts, railroad ties, and telephone and telegraph poles of cedar, shall be dutiable at twenty per centum ad valorem. 220. Sawed boards, planks, deals, and all forms of sawed cedar, lignum-vits, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satlnwood, and all other cabinet woods not further manufactured than sawed, fifteen per centum ad valorem ; veneers of wood, and wood, unmanufac- tured, not specially provided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valorem. 221. Pine clapboards, one dollar per one thousand. 222. Spruce clapboards, one dollar and fifty cents per one thousand. 223. Hubs for wheels, posts, last-blocks, wagon-blocks, oar-blocks, gun-blocks, heading- UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 447 lumber from $2 a thousand feet to $1 a thousand feet, provided the Canadian government should remove its export duty of $2 a thousand feet on logs. A tacit agreement was entered into between United States and Canadian authorities, or, between parties representing them, to the efiEect that, if the American duty should be lowered to $1 a thousand, the export duty on Canadian logs should be abolished. The agreement was carried out on both sides. The remaining $1 of duty served to restrict Canadian competition in coarse lumber in American lumber markets. Therefore, while that duty was retained there was not much encouragement for American lumbermen to remove their mills to Canada; while the abolition of the Canadian export charge on logs enabled them to be rafted to the American mills to be manufactured, thus maintaining the industry in the districts mentioned. That tariff "act best known as the McKinley bill went into effect October 1, 1890. It very closely followed the lines of the Morrill schedules, the chief exceptions being the reduction of the duty on white pine lumber from $2 to $1 a thousand feet, placing it on the same basis as hemlock, whitewood, sycamore and basswood, while all other sawed lumber retained the duty of $2 a thousand feet. It reduced the duty on white pine shingles to twenty cents a thousand, and on other shingles blocks, and all like blocks or sticks, rough-hewn or sawed only, twenty per centum ad valorem. 224. Laths, fifteen cents per one thousand pieces, 225. Pickets and palingfs, ten per centum ad valorem. 226. White pine shingles , twenty cents per one thousand ; all other, thirty cents per one thousand, 227. staves of wood of all kinds, ten per centum ad valorem. 228. Casks and barrels (empty), suear-box shocks, and packing-boxes and packlng-bos sbooks, of wood, not specially provided for In this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. 229. Chair cane, or reeds wrought or manufactured from rattans or reeds, and whether round, SQuare, or in any other shape, ten per centum ad valorem. 230. House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished, manufactures of wood, or of which wood Is the component material of chief value, not specially provided for In this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. FRBE LIST. 754, Wood— Logs, and round unmanufactured timber not specially enumerated or provided for in this act. 755, Fire wood, handle bolts, heading-bolts, stave-bolts, and shingle-bolts, hop-poles, fence- posts, railroad ties, ship timber, and ship-planking, not specially provided for in this act. 756, Woods, namely, cedar, lignum-vitae, lancewood, ebony, box, granadllla, mahogany, rose- wood, satinwood, and all forms of cabinet-woods, in the log, rough or hewn ; bamboo and rattan unmanufactured; briar-root or briar-wood, and similar wood unmanufactured, or not further manufactured than cut into blocks suitable for the articles Into which they are Intended to be con- verted , bamboo, reeds, and sticks of partridge, hair-wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and other woods not otherwise specially provided for in this act ; in the rough, or not further manufactured than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for umbrellas, parasols, sunshades, whips, or walking- canes; and India malacca joints, not further manufactured than cut into suitable lengths for the manufactures into which they are Intended to be converted. 448 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. to thirty cents a thousand, both from thirty-five cents. It also cut the former duty on pine clapboards, of $2 a thousand, in two. Logs were continued on the free list, and most other items remained unchanged as compared with the previous act. While the McKinley bill almost exactly followed the wording, arrangement and schedules of the Morrill tarifiE act, with the exceptions above noted, it introduced for the first time a feature which had so marked an influence on subsequent legislation and on the relations, diplomatic and commercial, between the United States and Canada, that it should be especially mentioned. It was the so-called "retaliatory clause" of Section 218 of the McKinley bill. This section is the one in which is contained the rate of duty on sawed lumber and additional duties on finished lumber. It ended with the clause in question, which read as follows : Provided, That in case any foreign country shall impose an export duty upon pine, spruce, elm, or other logs, or upon stave bolts, shingle wood, or heading blocks exported to the United States from such country, then the duty upon the sawed lumber herein provided for, when imported from such country, shall remain the same as fixed by the law in force prior to the passage of this act. This clause was understood to be an expression of the understand- ing between the two countries as to the action of Canada in regard to the export duty in case the reduction in the American duty on sawed lumber should be accomplished, and was so accepted by the Canadian people. In fact, it came to be popularly regarded by the Canadian lumbermen as in the nature of a contract between the two countries, which could not be violated by either without the consent of the other. So far as the American lumbermen were concerned, it assured them that they would be able to keep their mills sawing on Canadian logs; for they knew it to be of vital importance to many Canadian millmen that they should have a market in the United States for their surplus product. The Canadian mills had three principal markets for their product : First was their own home demand, but so vast were the timber resources of the Dominion and so large its lumber manufacturing capa- city, that a large surplus remained which was obliged to find a foreign market. The second of the three markets, therefore, was that furnished by the United Kingdom, but that market was prepared to take only the better grades of lumber, for it had a large and cheap supply of low grade material close at hand on the Baltic. There remained, therefore, for other disposition, largely in the United States, a heavy amount of UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 449 lumber, some of it of good grade but chiefly of the lower grades. Shipments to the United States had been, for a number of decades preceding the enactment of the McKinley bill, of great magnitude. This trade varied in quantity but it was always large. In 1871 the im- ports of sawed lumber from Canada into the United States were 725,- 746,000 feet board measure; in 1881, 575,210,000 feet, and for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1890, 659,703,000 feet. It was believed— and rightly so, as the event proved — that Canada would be willing to sacri- fice somewhat to retain that trade; and it did not, in fact, openly object to what was privately considered the somewhat harsh phraseology of the retaliatory clause. The immediate result of the removal of the Canadian export duty on logs was a great increase in the shipment of logs from Georgian Bay waters to American mills, with some business of this sort being carried on also on Lake Superior. Previous to this time some Canadian logs had been imported, but not on any large scale. The methods of rafting logs across the waters of the Great Lakes were experimental. Under the new conditions, however, methods of handling logs were perfected, and the business grew to large proportions. It was main- tained until 1898 and amounted to more than 330,000,000 feet in some years. The receipts of Canadian logs at Michigan mills, which received most of them, were, for the free period, as follows : 1891 80,000,000 1892 184.000,000 1893 184,500,000 1894 301,000,000 1895 279,229,743 1896 274.388.654 1897 252.344,532 1898 - 238,843,024 The new conditions checked the contemplated removal of mills to Canada, and those which had already been established by Americans on Canadian soil were operated at somewhat of a disadvantage, inasmuch as their product had to pay a duty of $1 a thousand feet, while logs were imported into the United States free of duty, at a cost for rafting which, it was claimed by some, was more than paid for by the sale of offal, which was of no value at all except for local fuel at Georgian Bay mill points. In the meantime, American millmen had been making very heavy purchases of Ontario stumpage, or, rather, of licenses to cut from Crown lands. The result to the Canadian Crown lands department was a marked increase in the value of timber berths. At the sale of October 450 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, 13, 1892, 603 square miles of limits were sold at an average price of $3,657.18 a mile, as against the highest previous price of $2,859.06. At this sale the highest price for any single square mile was $17,500, against the previous high price of $6,300. It will be noted that the heavy investments made during the period of unrestricted exportation of Canadian logs, which lasted until 1898, were the foundation for the establishment of many American manufacturing enterprises in Canada at a later period. THE WILSON BILL OF 1894. This was the condition of affairs, so far as the tariff relations of the United States and Canada in the matter of lumber were concerned, when the Wilson bill of 1894 was passed. It went into effect August 28 of that year and marked the greatest change in lumber tariffs that had been seen in twenty years. The lumber schedule of that bill, which, as a whole, was a grievous disappointment to the free trade school of political economists and was almost as great a disappointment to the administration of President Cleveland, who allowed it to become a law without his signature, was almost the only one which, in its completed form, reflected with ap- proximate accuracy the principles and purpose of the framer of the original bill. It was practically a free trade schedule. It removed the THE WILSON BILL. (Adopted August 13, effective August 28, 1894.) SCHEDULE D— WOOD AND MANUPACTCKES OF. 179. Osier or wUlow, prepared for basket-makers' use, twenty per centum ad valorem ; manu- factures of osier or willow, twenty-five per centum ad valorem ; chair cane, or reeds, wrought or manufactured from rattans or reeds, ten per centum ad valorem. ISO. Casks and barrels, empty, sugar-box shocks, and packing boxes and packing-box shocks, of wood, not specially provided for in this Act, twenty per centum ad valorem. 181. Toothpicks of vegetable substance, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. 182. House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished, manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component material of chief value, not specially provided for in this Act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. FREE LIST. Ashes, wood and lye of, and beet-root ashes. Charcoal. Cork wood or cork bark, unmanufactured. Wood: 672. Logs, and round immanufactured timber not specially enumerated or provided for In this Act. 673. Firewood, handle bolts, heading bolts, stave bolts, and shingle bolts, hop poles, fence posts, railroad ties, ship timber, and ship planking, not specially provided for in this Act. 674. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars and in building wharves. 675. Timber, squared or sided. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 451 duty from all forms of sawed lumber, rough or dressed, except that made from cabinet woods ; from pine and spruce clapboards ; from lath, pickets, shingles and staves, and hubs, blocks, logs, bolts, etc. On the dutiable list it placed only casks and barrels, shooks, toothpicks, house or cabinet furniture and manufactures of wood, or of which wood should be the component material of chief value, not otherwise provided for in the act, together with willow, cane and reeds prepared for use. The full text of the portion of the Wilson bill relating to lumber is given as a footnote herewith. It will be noted that the maintenance of the Canadian concession of free importation of logs was safe-guarded by a provisional or retaliatory clause, similar to that of the McKinley bill, which provided that the duties of the McKinley bill should be imposed on logs, bolts, posts, ties, timber, sawed lumber, lath, shin- gles, staves, etc., imported from any country which should lay an export duty or impose discriminating stumpage dues on any of them. The Wilson bill, by removing the $1 a thousand protection accorded sawed lumber by the tariff act of 1890, which itself had been a conces- sion of $1 from the preceding act, did not largely afEect the volume of importations during its brief existence of a little more than three years. The importations of boards, planks, deals, joists and scantling for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1893, amounted to 742,597,000 feet; the fiscal year of 1894 showed a heavy falling off, the importations of this class of material being only 514,619,000 feet. This was due partly 676. Sawed boards, plank, deals, and otber lumber, rougrh or dressed, except boards, plank, deals and other lumber of cedar,Ilemum-vlt2e,lancewood, ebony, box, granadllla, mahogany, rose- wood, satlnwood, and all other cabinet woods. 677. Pine clapboards. 678. Spruce clapboards. 679. Hubs for wheels, posts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, gun blocks, headinsr, and all like blocks or sticks, rough hewn or sawed only. 680. Lath. 681. Pickets and palings. 682. Shingles. 683. Staves of wood of all kinds, wood unmanufactured: Provided, That all of the articles mentioned in paragraphs six hundred and seventy-two to six hundred and eighty-three. Inclusive, when imported from any country which lays an export duty or imposes discriminating stumpage dues on any of them, shall be subject to the duties existing prior to the passage of this Act. 684. Woods, namely, cedar,llgnum-vltse,lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose- wood, satlnwood, and all forms of cabinet woods, in the log, rough or hewn ; bamboo and rattan unmanufactured; briar root or briar wood, and similar wood unmanufactured, or not further manu- factured than cut into blocks suitable for the articles into which they are intended to be converted ; bamboo, reeds, and sticks of partridge, hair wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and other woods, not otherwise specially provided for in this Act, in the rough, or not further manufactured than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for umbrellas, parasols, sunshades, whips, or walking canes ; and India malacca joints, not further manufactured than cut into suitable lengths for the manufactures into which they are intended to be converted. 452 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. to the serious business depression of that year, and partly to the pros- pect, during about eight months of the year, that the duty on lumber would be removed. During the following fiscal year — that of 1895 — however, the importations increased to 600,798,000 feet, the following year to 786,209,000 feet, and in 1897 to 883,781,000 feet, which was the highest figure ever reached in sawed lumber, the nearest being 1873, when the record was 818,302,000 feet. More recent years, however, have approached it, 1903, with 720,937,000 feet and 1905, with 710,- 527,000 feet. The placing of lumber on the free list removed the last obstacle to the establishment of American lumber manufacturing enterprises in Canada. By that time a number of American milling concerns that were rafting logs from their limits on Georgian Bay, Ontario, waters had decided that, under the circumstances, manufacturing would be more profitable in Ontario than in Michigan. The cost of towing logs, added to the loss of logs by that process, had proved more than to ofEset any special advantages that might accrue from manufacturing on the American side. The result was the beginning of removal of mills to Canada, a number being erected there, during the life of the Wilson tariff, by American lumbermen. In this connection there arose a curious thing in relation to Ameri- can machinery manufacturers ; and, so closely associated are the lum- bermen and the lumber, shingle and planing mill machinery manufac- turers, it should be made a matter of record. When American lumber- men began to move their mills to Canada, they wished to take with them American machinery, but they found that there was a duty of 25 percent on machinery imported into Canada. The consequence was that, while part of the American tariff resulted in locating the lumber mills in Canada, the Canadian tariff prevented the American machinery manufacturers from following the mills to the new field. The Wilson bill was far from satisfactory to American lumbermen, particularly as conditions, that now have been ameliorated, existed that made open Canadian competition unwelcome. The competition which was liked the least was that of Canadian coarse lumber. In the produc- tion of lumber, from timber of an increasing inferiority, American lum- bermen were compelled to produce a surplus of coarse stock, a quantity, in fact, which was far in excess of the demand. The cream of the market lay in the East; and the Wilson bill opened this market to Canadian lumber free of duty. This splendid market was near to the UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 453 Canadian forests and the western and southern manufacturers of lumber in the United States could not, at a greater distance and with their higher freight rates, hope to compete with the Canadian lumbermen in supplying the East with the coarser grades. With the triumph of the high tariff idea in the presidential election of 1896, American manufacturers immediately demanded the enactment of a new tariff law, and the lumbermen took organized action to secure a protective tariff for American lumber. The credit for initiative action is to be given to the North Carolina pine country, which spoke through John L. Roper, of Norfolk, Virginia. The Cottonwood and yellow pine manufacturers also took action. The Southern Lumber Manufacturers' Association, which represented almost the entire yellow pine industry, placed itself on record as in favor of an import duty on rough lumber, and suggested the calling of a convention, national in its character, to express in definite form the request which the lumber trade of the United States desired to make to Congress. At the request of a number of lumbermen throughout the country, W. B. Judson, publisher of the Northwestern Lumberman, and J. E. Defebaugh, publisher of The Timberman, (the two publications which were later consolidated in the American Lumberman, of Chicago, Illinois,) called a convention of the lumber industry of the United States, which was held in Cincinnati, Ohio, Tuesday, December 15, 1896. The call is given herewith : A CALL. To Lumbermen and Lumber Organizations of the United States: The lumber trade of this country is apparently of one mind as to the serious injury done to the lumber industry — the greatest manufacturing industry of the country — by the tariff act of 1894, in placing rough lumber upon the free list ; while no inconsiderable element of the lumber trade is of the opinion that the tariff act of 1890 was a mistake in that it reduced the tariff on ordinary building lumber imported into the United States from $2 per one thousand feet to $1 per one thousand feet board measure. The injustice done to the lumber industry by the entire abolition of the import duty has been attested by bitter experience, and is emphasized by the fact that it is practically the only American industry of importance that has been entirely deprived of protection. While the Government has been deprived of much needed revenue, the lumber trade has been subjected to a competition, based on cheap stumpage values, which has been disastrous to investments and profits; and, further, from the fact that it rendered market values uncertain, produced conditions which are prejudicial to lumber dealers as well as lumber manufacturers. 454 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. In view of the fact that a revenue measure is now in Congress, and that either that measure or some other must be put into early eflEect to increase the revenues of the Government, and in order that no hasty or ill-advised action may be taken by our national representatives, it has been urged by many lumbermen's associa- tions and by hundreds of individual lumbermen in all sections of the country that prompt action should be taken by the lumber industry of the United States, look- ing toward promptly laying before Congress the claims which, with advantage to the Government, with regard for the commercial interests of the United States and in justice to the lumber trade itself, it can make upon it in the way of protection to this industry, of such vital importance to the country at large. In order that the call for a national convention might come from a source which might be regarded as representing the lumber industry of all sections and in all its branches, the Southern Lumber Manufacturers' Association has, together with numerous individual lumbermen in all sections of the country, requested the undersigned, publishers of journals representing the lumber trade, to call at an early date such a National Lumber Tariff Convention. We, therefore, on behalf of the trade, call a convention of the lumber industry of the United States, to be held at the Grand Hotel, in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, on Tuesday, the fifteenth day of December, 1896; to which convention every lumbermen's organization of the United States, whether local, state or sectional, or devoted to any particular branch of the lumber industry, is invited and urged to send delegates. Invitation is, furthermore, extended to individual members of ttte lumber trade to be present and to take part in the deliberations and action of said meeting, under such rules as the convention itself may adopt upon organization. W. B. JUDSON, Publisher Northwestern Lumberman. J. E. Dbfebaugh, Publisher The Timberman. Chicago, Ili,., December 1, 1896. Those intending to be present will please promptly notify either of the above at the Grand Hotel, Cincinnati, where they will be Monday morning next. At this time the Dingley bill was under consideration, and a propo- sition had been made to place a tariff on lumber equivalent to 60 per- cent of the duties named in the act of 1890, which would be $1.20 a thousand on rough pine lumber. The sentiment rapidly grew among lumbermen that this was entirely inadequate, and the early expressions of individuals and the editorial utterances of the American Lumber- man's predecessors were in favor of asking restoration of the $2 tariff. The convention went on record as strongly in favor of such a duty. The following resolutions were adopted : Whereas, The placing of lumber on the free list by the existing tariff law not only promotes ruinous competition on lumber from Canadian mills, but discrimi- nates against lumber as compared with other manufactures; therefore be it UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 455 Resolved, That this convention, representing the entire lumber industry ot the United States in all lines, respectfully petition Congress to place lumber on the dutiable list ; and be it further Resolved, That each lumber dealer in the United States be urged to furnish to the senators of his state, and to the member of Congress from his district, full information in relation to the needs and condition of the lumber industry, to the end that they can consistently assist in the passage of this measure ; finally be it Resolved, That this convention recognizes the fact that unjust discrimination prevails in some countries in South America and elsewhere, as against American lumber, and that we are entirely opposed to such unjust discrimination, and we invoke the aid of the United States Congress for the purpose of removing the same, either by reciprocity or otherwise. W. B. Mershon, Michigan. A. J. Nkimhybr, Arkansas. H. C. Akeley, Minnesota. W. T. Smith, Alabama. H. Clay Tunis, Maryland. Committee on Resolutions. The convention in Cincinnati was attended by delegates from thirty- one associations, besides numerous individual operators from all sec- tions of the country. There were lumbermen present from Pennsylvania, Iowa, Montana, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Indiana, Maryland, Wisconsin, Florida, New York, Illinois, Virginia, Louisiana, Minnesota, Arkansas, Oregon, West Virginia, Washington, Missouri, Michigan and Ohio. J. A. Freeman, of Millville, Arkansas, was chosen temporary chair- man and W. B. Judson and J. E. Defebaugh temporary secretaries. C. W. Goodyear, of Buffalo, New York, was made permanent chairman of the convention, and Charles W. Wells, now deceased, of Chicago, permanent secretary. The convention resulted in the appointment of an aggressive and representative ways and means committee, whose members came from the south Atlantic Coast region, the region of the middle South, the Southwest, the Northwest, the Pacific Coast and the Gulf, and an ex- haustive memorial was presented to the Fifty-fifth Congress, asking for the restoration of the $2 tariff on lumber. It was reenforced by com- munications from associations and individuals engaged in the lumber trade in various parts of the country. PASSAGE OF THE DINGLEY BILL. The tariff of 1897, which was still in effect in 1905, was speedily enacted. Its text is given as a footnote herewith. The Fifty-fifth Con- 456 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. gress convened March 16, 1897, in extra session, for the express purpose of enacting a tariff law. Three days later Congressman Dingley, of Maine, chairman of the ways and means committee of the House, re- ported out the Dingley bill. March 31 the bill passed the House and was sent to the Senate. The Senate referred it to the finance commit- tee, which returned it with amendments on May 4. July 7 the bill passed the Senate and was sent to a conference committee. The bill was finally approved by this committee, was adopted by both houses, and was signed by the President July 24, 1897. The agitation among American lumbermen which resulted in the Cincinnati convention and which ultimately effected the $2 tariff on lumber when the Dingley bill was enacted in 1897, was to a consider- able extent due to a desire on the part of American lumbermen to DINGLEY BILL. ACT OF JULY 24, 1897. SCHEDUI.K D— WOOD AND MANTJFACTnRES OF. 194. Timber hewn, sided, or squared (not less than eight inches square) , and round timber used for spars or in buildins; wharves, one cent per cubic foot. 195. Sawed boards, planks, deals, and other lumber of whltewood, sycamore, and basswood, one dollar per thousand feet board measure ; sawed lumber, not specially provided for in this Act, two dollars per thousand feet board measure ; but when lumber of any sort is planed or finished, in addition to the rates herein provided, there shall be levied and paid for each side so planed or finished fifty cents per thousand feet board measure ; and if planed on one side and tong:ued and grooved, one dollar per thousand feet board measure ; and if planed on two sides and tongued and Grrooved, one dollar and fifty cents per thousand feet board measure ; and In estimatins: board measure under this schedule no deduction shall be made on board measure on account of planing:, tonguing and grooving: : Provided, That if any country or dependency shall Impose an export duty upon saw logs, rotmd unmanufactured timber, stave bolts, shingle bolts, or heading bolts, exported to the United States, or a discriminating charge upon boom sticks, or chains used by American citizens in towing logs, the amount of such export duty, tax, or other charge, as the case may be, shall be added as an additional duty to the duties imposed upon the articles mentioned in this para- graph when imported from such country or dependency. 196. Paving posts, railroad ties, and telephone, trolley, electric-light and telegraph poles of cedar or other woods, twenty per centum ad valorem. 197. Kindling wood in bundles not exceeding one-quarter of a cubic foot each, three-tenths of one cent per bundle ; if in larger bundles, three-tenths of one cent for each additional quarter of a cubic foot or fractional part thereof. 198. Sawed boards, planks, deals, and all forms of sawed cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadllla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, and all other cabinet woods not further manufactured than sawed, fifteen per centum ad valorem ; veneers of wood, and wood, tmmanufac- tured, not specially provided for in this Act, twenty per centum ad valorem. 199. Clapboards, one dollar and fifty cents per thousand. 200. Hubs for wheels, posts, heading bolts, stave bolts, last-blocks, wagon-blocks, oar-blocks, beading-blocks, and all like blocks or sticks, rough-hewn, sawed or bored, twenty per centum ad Valorem ; fence posts, ten per centum ad valorem, 201. Laths, twenty-five cents per one thousand pieces. 202. Pickets, palings and staves of wood, of all kinds, ten per centum ad valorem. 203. Shingles, thirty cents per thousand. 204. Casks, barrels, and hogsheads (empty), sugar-box shocks, and packing-boxes (empty). UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 457 remove from the coarse lumber of American manufacture the competi- tion of Canadian mills. The issue between Canadian lumbermen and American lumbermen, while it somewhat affected, never seriously con- cerned the upper grades except that as it lessened the demand for low grades it lessened the demand and price of the entire product of the log, particularly on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts ; but the manufacture of the upper grades necessitated the production of lower grades in large quantities. So long as the East was open to Canadian lumber without a restrictive tariff, Canada supplied almost the totality of the coarse lumber used in the East. The Dingley law of 1897, like those of 1894 and 1890, sought to assure the millmen of the United States located along the Great Lakes that Canada would not reimpose its export duty upon logs. But this matter was of special importance at that time because of the danger of retaliation by the Canadian government, not only on account of the replacement of sawed lumber upon the dutiable list, but also because the new tariffs went beyond the duties of the McKinley bill, and were, in fact, those of the old Morrill tariff. The effort was to make this point particularly strong. The clause, as reported to the House by the and packlngr-box shocks, of wood, not specially provided for in this Act, thirty per centum ad valorem. 205. Boxes, barrels, or other articles containing: oranges, lemons, limes, grape fruit, shad- docks or pomelos, thirty per centum ad valorem: Provided, That the thin wood, so called, com- prisinsT the sides, tops and bottoms of orange and lemon boxes of the growth and manufacture of the United States, exported as orange and lemon box shooks, may be reimported in completed form, filled with oranges and lemons, by the payment of duty at one-half the rate imposed on similar boxes of entirely foreign growth and manufacture. 206. Chair cane or reeds, wrought or manufactured from rattans or reeds, ten per centum ad valorem ; osier or willow prepared for basket makers' use, twenty per centum ad valorem ; manu- factures of osier or willow, forty per centum ad valorem. 207. Toothpicks of wood or other vegetable substance, two cents per one thousand and fifteen per centum ad valorem ; butchers* and packers' skewers of wood, forty cents per thousand. 208. House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished, and manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component material of chief value, not specially provided for in this Act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. FREE I,IST. 699. Logs and round unmanufactured timber, including pulpwoods, firewood, handle-bolts, shingle-bolts, gun-blocks for gun-stocks rough-hewn or sawed or planed on one side, hop-poles, ship-timber and ship-planking ; all the foregoing not specially provided for in this Act. 700. Cedar, lignum-vitee, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla. mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, and all forms of cabinet woods, in the log, rough, or hewn only ; briar root or briar wood and similar wood unmanufactured, or not further advanced than cut Into blocks suitable for the articles into which they are intended to be converted; bamboo, rattan, reeds unmanufactured, India malacca joints, and sticks of partridge, haJr wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and other woods not specially provided for in this Act, in the rough, or not further advanced than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for umbrellas, parasols, sunshades, whips, fishing rods, or walking-canes. 458 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, Committee on Ways and Means, and as adopted by the House prior to sending it to the Senate, read as follows : Provided, That in case any foreign country or dependency shall, either directly or indirectly, impose upon pine, spruce, elm, or other saw logs, or round unmanu- factured timber, pulp wood, stave bolts, shingle bolts, or heading bolts, an export duty, discriminating Crown dues, ground rents, customs regulations, or other duty or tax, when such articles, or any of them, are exported or intended for export to the United States from such country or dependency, then a duty of twenty-five per centum ad valorem upon the lumber mentioned in this paragraph shall be levied, collected and paid in addition to the duty herein imposed when the same is im- ported from such country or dependency. It was believed that the words " customs regulations " in the above would cover any act of the Canadian or Ontario governments calculated to restrict or prevent exportation of logs. But the Senate, in its wis- dom, proposed the reenactment of the retaliatory clause as found in the McKinley bill, and carried its point in the conferences between the committees of the two branches of Congress. The clause as it finally became part of the law is given in the full schedule as printed herewith, and provided merely against placing an export duty upon sawlogs and other materials ; and provided, instead of an additional charge of 25 percent of the value of the lumber, that merely the amount of such export tax or charge should be added to the duties pro- vided for in the act, which, in regard to lumber, were contained in schedule D. There was left, therefore, an opening of which the Ontario government was prompt to take advantage. It did not impose any export duty upon logs or any of the items mentioned, but simply abso- lutely forbade any exportation of logs cut from Crown lands after April 1, 1898, which was the date of expiration of the annual licenses to cut from Crown lands. The log importations of 1898 by American mills were still heavy, because the logs had been cut prior to the above date and were rafted across the water boundary during the succeeding season of navigation, but that practically ended the business, the only remain- ing logs for export being those from the few tracts owned in fee simple and some logs from Indian lands. The Americans who had been harvesting logs in Canada and rafting them to their own side, carried the matter to the Dominion courts and asked relief, but without success. It was claimed by these millmen that they had, at the auction sales of limits, purchased the right to cut, paying large amounts therefor, and that, therefore, law and equity demanded that the Dominion government should maintain the conditions under which they had bought. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 459 It was, in turn, pointed out to the Americans that by the decisions of the Dominion courts they were not owners in fee simple of the lands which they were lumbering, but that the title remained in the Dominion, or the province ; they were simply operating under licenses to cut, which, by their terms, were renewable annually under such conditions as the Government might annually determine. The Americans there- upon carried the case to England and by the highest court of the empire were denied relief. The conditions under which the Canadian logs had been rafted to American mills were thus abolished, with the result of the immediate erection of a number of sawmills by American capital on the shores of Georgian Bay and at Sarnia and Sandwich, Ontario. The licenses, or rather, the privilege of renewing licenses, held by Americans remained in force, but the logs cut thereunder must be manufactured within the Dominion. As time went on other provinces adopted similar measures, though in none other was the prohibition of exports so complete. JOINT HIGH COMMISSION. The Dingley bill and the conditions arising out of it, as narrated above, continued until the date of publication of this work; but, in the meantime, there arose, in 1898, a matter which for the time seemed to threaten the duty on lumber as provided for in that act. This was found in the organization and proceedings of the Joint High Commis- sion, so-called. As the outcome of negotiations opened in Washington in the autumn of 1897, relative to the seal-killing controversy, an agreement between Great Britain, Canada and the United States for the creation of a Joint High Commission was concluded on May 30, 1898. The purpose of this convention was, if possible, to negotiate a treaty by which all existing subjects of controversy between the United States and Canada should be settled definitely and finally. Among the ques- tions to be referred to the commission were the Bering Sea and the sealing diflSculties ; the establishment of the disputed boundary between Alaska and British Columbia; the northeastern fisheries question, in- volving the rights of fishing in the North Atlantic, off the Newfound- land and other coasts ; the alien labor migration across the Canadian- American border ; regulation of the transportation bonding system, and commercial reciprocity between the two countries. It was , in connec- tion with the last named clause that lumber manufacturers of the United States felt their interests threatened. 460 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. The commission, as it was finally composed, consisted, on behalf of Great Britain, of the Lord High Chancellor, Baron Herschell ; on be- half of Canada, of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, premier ; Sir Richard Cartwright, minister of trade and commerce, and Sir Louis Henry Davies, minister of marine and fisheries ; on behalf of the United States, of Hon. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State; United States Senator (in 1905 Vice President) Charles W. Fairbanks, of Indiana; United States Senator Charles J. Faulkner, of West Virginia, and Hon. John A. Kasson, Reci- procity Commissioner. The commission began its sessions in Quebec in the latter part of 1898 and adjourned at Washington in February, 1899, subject to call, which call, owing in part to the settlement, by other means, of some of the most important questions involved, but mainly to the evident impossibility of agreeing on some matters con- sidered vital by one side or the other, was never issued. Early in the sessions of the Joint High Commission it became apparent that one of the demands of the Canadian representatives on the Commission would be, in connection with the subject of commercial reciprocity, the abolition, or at least a heavy reduction, of the duty on lumber imported into the United States. This aroused American lum- ber manufacturers. They saw in it a menace to what they considered a protection of vital importance to them, since it was evident that there were few of the American tariff schedules that the Canadian commis- sioners considered of so large importance to them. The American lumbermen felt that, not only were they in danger of being deprived of needed protection, but of being called upon to carry the bulk of the burden involved in any commercial reciprocity treaty. They felt that if any reduction were to be made in the duty for the benefit of Canadian lumber producers the Canadian government should reciprocate by per- mitting the free exportation of logs. They manifested a disposition to accept a reduction not to exceed 30 percent of the current tariff, which would have meant $1.40 a thousand, but contended that the measure of protection under the McKinley bill of $1 was too low. This was entirely unacceptable to the Canadians. The result was that the American lumbermen used all their influ- ence, which was great, to oppose any reduction in the lumber duty more than that as suggested above, nor even that unless Canada should recede from its position as to log exports. This was undoubtedly one influence that led to the abandonment of negotiations, though the chief reasons therefor were summed up by the President of the United States in his message to Congress in December, 1899, as follows : UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 461 Much progress had been made by the Commission toward the adjustment of many of these questions, when it became apparent that an irreconcilable difference of views was entertained respecting the delimitation of the Alaskan boundary. In the failure of an agreement as to the meaning of articles 3 and 4 of the treaty of 1825 between Russia and Great Britain, which defined the boundary between Alaska and Canada, the American commissioners proposed that the subject of the bound- ary be laid aside and that the remaining questions of difference be proceeded with, some of which were so far advanced as to assure the probability of a settlement. This being declined by the British commissioners, an adjournment was taken until the boundary should be adjusted by the two governments. SUMMARY. The lumber tariffs of the United States, like all other tariffs, have been fixed not only by political and economical considerations and the financial conditions of the Government, but have been influenced by local, sectional or trade considerations. Rough lumber was not men- tioned in the early tariff bills enacted by Congress, and it is probable that when, in 1794, a small duty was placed upon manufactured wood it was done as a revenue measure. In fact, the tariffs upon forest prod- ucts until that of 1842 seem none of them to have been more than incidentally protective in their character. Indeed, it was not until the opening of the Erie Canal and its feeders, the Welland Canal and the canals connecting the St. Lawrence via the Sorel River and Lake Champlain with the Hudson, that any large importation of Canadian lumber was practicable. With neither railroads nor canals, imports of Canadian products were necessarily confined to shipments across Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, or from the Maritime Provinces to New England and New York ports ; but even so, ship- ments were hardly necessary, and amounted to little, until the immedi- ately available white pine resources of the New England states and New York were exhausted. The diminution of the supply from that source had, however, reached such a stage during the first third of the Nineteenth Century that imports from Canada were practicable and profitable. They in- creased so rapidly that it is possible that the protective feature entered into the 20 percent ad valorem duty, which by the act of 1842 was imposed upon rough lumber. Thereafter lumber manufacturers of the United States were claimants for consideration whenever the protective theory dominated the tariff policy of the National government. The protective features of the various tariffs on lumber and forest products have related almost entirely to imports from Canada, which for many years, because of its proximity to eastern markets and the volume and cheapness of its products, affected seriously the prices of 462 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, low grade pine lumber in the northeastern part of the United States and indirectly affected prices everywhere. Of recent years the protect tion of tariffs has been sought and enjoyed by Pacific Coast manufac- turers, to meet the rapid growth of the lumber industry of British Columbia, until at the time of this writing lumber producers in all parts of the United States claim an interest in the tariff policy of the National government. Since 1897 there has been a decided change in the attitude of Cana- dians toward this whole subject. Bitterly opposed at first to the reimpo- sition of a duty on lumber imported into the United States after the period of free admission accorded by the Wilson tariff, they now pro- fess satisfaction with the results of that measure. The prohibition of log export, coupled with the United States duty, was seen to be of value as checking a too rapid expansion of the industry in Canada. Thus the Canadian forests have been preserved, a more scientific forest manage- ment has resulted, the lumber market has been steadied, and Canada bids fair to remain for generations one of the important timber producing countries of the world; whereas, otherwise, its forest resources were in danger of waste and too rapid decrease. Since discussion of lumber tariff legislation by the United States necessarily most concerns white pine, a summary of the tariffs on white pine logs and rough lumber since the enactment of the first tariff law in 1789 until now, may be of interest. It is assumed that rough lumber or logs were dutiable when they were not enumerated and when a gen- eral duty was attached to all goods, or to unmanufactured woods not specified, though there seems to be some doubt as to the fact. The sum- mary is as follows: PINE LOGS. 5 percent Free Free Free Free 30 percent DATE OF ACT. July 4, 1789. May 2, 1792. July 14, 1832. September 11, 1841. August 30, 1842. July 30, 1846. August 5, 1854 (Canadian). Free March 3, 1857. 24 percent March 2, 1861. 20 percent July 14, 1870. Free June 6, 1872. Free October 1, 1890. Free August 13, 1894. Free July 24, 1897 Free PINB LUMBER, ROUGH. 5 percent 7K percent 25 percent Free 20 percent 20 percent Free 15 percent 20 percent 20 percent $2 per M feet $1 per M feet Free $2 per M feet UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 463 SUMMARIES OF LUMBER TARIFFS. From the tarifiE laws of the United States, since the establishment of the Government under the Constitution, have been selected those portions which relate to such forest products as form part of the lumber industry. These portions are given in the following summaries, some of them verbatim, some of them paraphrased, and some of them in tabular form. Especially significant portions are quoted. Laws which made no changes in duties on such goods are not mentioned. In all cases the respective rates are, for convenience, set apart from the text. Where rates per centum are given, the duties are ad valorem ; in all other cases they are specific : Act of July 4, 1789. All cabinet wares l}i percent. Canes, walking sticks and whips Iji percent. All other goods, wares, and merchandise 5 percent. Act of August 10, 1790. New act. Repeals previous duties. Cabinet wares T/i percent. All other goods, wares and merchandise (not specially excepted) 5 percent. Act of May 2, 1792. Duties changed on items, specifically mentioned only. Cabinet wares 10 percent. Unmanufactured wood Free. All goods, wares and merchandise, not specially excepted 7^ percent. Act of June 7, 1794. Effective July!, 1794. "Seel. . . . There shall be levied, collected and paid upon the following articles im- ported into the United States, in ships or vessels of the United States, the several duties hereinafter mentioned, over and above the duties now payable by law; — viz: . . . " Five per cent, ad valorem. "... On cabinet wares, and all manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the material of chief value. . . . " Sec. 2. . . . There shall be laid, levied, and collected, in addition to the present duty thereupon, a duty of 2% per cent, ad valorem, upon all goods, wares and merchandise, which, if imported in ships or vessels of the United States, are now charge- able, by law, with a duty of 1% per cent, ad valorem." Cabinet wares and all manufactures of wood or of which wood is the material of chief value 15 percent. Unmanufactured wood Free. Act of July 1, 1812. "An additional duty of 100 per centum upon the permanent duties now imposed by law upon goods, wares and merchandise imported into the United States shall be levied and collected. . . . To continue in force until one year after conclusion of peace with Great Britain." 464 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Cabinet wares and all manufactures of wood or of which wood is the material of chief value 30 percent. Unmanufactured woods Free. Act of April 27, 1816. EflEective July 1, 1816. Cabinet wares and all manufactures of wood 30 percent. Wood, unmanufactured, of any kind Free. Act of July 14, 1832. Effective March 3, 1833. "Boards, planks, . . . and all manufactures of wood, not otherwise specified, 25 per centum ad valorem; cabinet wares, 30 per centum." [This seems to be the only act in which boards and planks are considered manufactured wood.] Boards and planks 25 percent. All manufactures of wood, not otherwise specified 25 percent. Cabinet wares 30 percent. Wood, unmanufactured, of any kind Free. Act of March 2 , 1833 . "Be it enacted," etc., " That, from and after December 31, 1833, in all cases where duties are imposed on foreign imports, by the act of July 14, 1832, . . . or by any other act, shall exceed 20 per centum on the value thereof, one- tenth part of such excess shall be deducted ; from and after De- cember 31, 1835, another tenth part thereof shall be deducted ; from and after December 31, 1837, another tenth part thereof shall be deducted ; from and after December 31, 1839, another tenth part thereof shall be deducted ; and from and after Decem- ber 31, 1841, one-half of the residue of such excess shall be de- ducted ; and from and after June 30, 1842, the other half thereof shall be deducted." Act of September 11, 1841. Effective September 30, 1841. . . . ' ' There shall be laid, collected and paid on all articles which are now admitted free of duty or which are chargeable with a duty of less than 20 per centum ad valorem, a duty of 20 per centum ad valorem except on the following enumerated articles, that is to say : . . . dye woods of all kinds, unmanufactured woods of any kind, except rosewood, satinwood and mahogany. . . . Provided, That boards, planks, staves, scantling, sawed timber and all other descriptions of wood which shall have been wrought into shapes that fit them respectively for any specific and permanent use without further manufacture shall be deemed and taken as manufactured wood." Boards, planks, staves and scantling, wrought, as per act of March 2, 1833 Dutiable. Sawed timber, wrought, as per act of March 2, 1833 Dutiable. Cabinet wares, as per act of March 2, 1833 Duitable. All other manufactured wood, as per act of March 2, 1833 Dutiable. Dye woods of all kinds Free. Unmanufactured wood, n. o. s.' Free. ' Not otherwise specified. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 465 Rough boards, planks, staves, scantling and sawed timber Rosewood, satinwood and mahogany, unmanufactured 20 Act of August 30, 1842. Section 5, paragraph 11. "... Boards, planks, staves, scantlings, hewn or sawed timber, unwrought spars, and all other descriptions of wood which shall have been wrought into shapes that fit them, respectively, for any specific and permanent use without further manufacture, shall be deemed and taken as manufactured wood, and pay duty accordingly. . . . Rough boards, planks, staves, scantling, and sawed tim- ber, not planed or wrought into any shapes for use, shall pay a duty of 20 per centum ad valorem." Boards, planks, staves and scantling, vrrought 30 Hewn or sawed timber, wrought 30 Unwrought spars 30 Cabinet wares or household furniture, n. o. s 30 All manufactures of wood, n. o. s 30 Timber used in building wharves 20 Firewood 20 Rough boards, planks, staves and scantling 20 Sawed timber, rough 20 Rosewood, satinwood, mahogany and cedar wood 15 Dye woods in stick Unmanufactured woods, n. o. s Act of July 30, 1846. Effective December 1, 1846. New act. Re- peals all previous duties. Manufactures of cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose- wood and satinwood 40 Furniture, cabinet and household 30 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component part, n. o. s 30 Wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 30 Firewood 30 Boards, planks, staves, lath, scantling, spars 20 Timber, hewn and sawed 20 Timber used in building wharves 20 Cedar wood, ebony, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood and satin- wood, unmanufactured 20 Actof Augusts, 1854. "Be it enacted," etc., "That, whenever the President of the United States shall receive satisfactory evi- dence that the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and the Provincial Parliaments of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward's Island, have passed laws on their part to give full effect to the provisions of the treaty between the United States and Great Britain, signed on the fifth of June last, he is hereby authorized to issue his proclamation, declaring that he has such evidence, and thereupon, from the date of such procla- Free. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. percent. Free. Free. percent, percent. percent, percent, percent, percent, percent, percent. percent. 466 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. mation, the following articles, being the growth and produce of said provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward's Island; to-wit: "... Timber and lumber of all kinds, round, hewed and sawed, unmanufactured in whole or in part ; fire-wood ; . . . —shall be introduced into the United States' ' The treaty above referred to, affecting Canadian agricultural, forest, mines, and fishery products, took effect March 16, 1855, and terminated March 17, 1866. Act of March 3, 1857. Furniture, cabinet and household 24 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component part, n. o. s 24 Wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 24 Firewood 24 Boards, planks, staves, lath, scantling and spars 15 Timber, hewn and sawed 15 Timber used in building wharves 15 Cedar, lignum-vitse, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose- wood, satinwood and all cabinet woods 8 Shingle bolts and stave bolts Act of March 2, 1861. Boards, planks, staves, lath, scantling and spars 20 Timber, hewn and sawed 20 Timber used in building wharves 20 Firewood 20 Wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 20 Furniture, cabinet and household 30 Manufactures of cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose- wood and satinwood 30 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the chief component part, n. o. s 30 Sandalwood Shingle bolts and stave bolts Staves for pipes, hogsheads, or other casks Cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, g^ranadilla, mahog- any, rosewood, satinwood and all cabinet woods, unmanu- factured Act of July 14, 1862. Boards, planks, staves, lath, scantling and spars 20 Timber, hewn and sawed 20 Timber used in building wharves 20 Firewood 20 Wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 20 Furniture, cabinet and household 35 Free. percent. percent, percent, percent, percent, percent, percent. percent. Free. percent, percent, percent, percent, percent, percent. percent. percent. Free. Free. Free. Free. percent, percent, percent, percent, percent, percent. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 467 Manufactures of cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose- wood and satinwood 35 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the chief component part, n. o. s 35 Cork wood, unmanufactured 30 Staves for pipes, hogsheads, or other casks 20 Sandalwood Shingle bolts and stave bolts Cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahog- any, rosewood, satinwood and all cabinet woods, unmanu- factured Act of April 29, 1864. "Resolved," etc., "That until the end of sixty days from the passage of this resolution, 50 percent of the rates of duties and imposts now imposed by law on all goods, wares, merchandise, and articles Imported, shall be added to the present duties and imposts now charged on the importation of such articles. . . ." Act of March 16, 1866. " Be it enacted," etc., " That the produce of the forests of the State of Maine upon the Saint John river and its tributaries, owned by American citizens, and sawed or hewed in the Province of New Brunswick by American citizens, (the same being unmanufactured in whole or in part,) which is now admitted into the ports of the United States free of duty, shall continue to be so admitted under such regulations as the Secre- tary of the Treasury shall from time to time prescribe." Act of June 1,1866. "Beitenacted," etc., " That the produce of the forests of the State of Maine upon the Saint Croix river and its tributaries, owned by American citizens, and sawed in the Prov- ince of New Brunswick by American citizens, (the same being unmanufactured in whole, or in part,) and having paid the same taxes as other American lumber on that river, shall be admitted into the ports of the United States free of duty, under such reg^i- lations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall from time to time prescribe." Act of July 14, 1870. The only change, affecting the lumber busi- ness, made in the tariff by this act was the addition to the free list of the following articles : Cork wood, unmanufactured Hemlock bark Logs and round unmanufactured timber not otherwise provided for, and ship timber Oak bark Sandalwood Woods, viz. : Poplar, or other woods for the manufacture of paper Act of June 6, 1872. Effective August 1, 1872. Repeals former tariffs and imposes new duties. "When lumber of any sort is percent. percent. percent. percent. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. Free. 468 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, planed or finished, in addition to the rates herein provided, there shall be levied and paid, for each side so planed or iinished, fifty . cents per thousand feet ; and if planed on one side and tongued and grooved, $1 per thousand feet ; and if planed on two sides and tongued and grooved, $1.50 per thousand feet." Timber, squared or sided, n. o. s. , per cubic foot 1 cent. Sawed boards, plank, deals and other lumber of hemlock, white- wood, sycamore and basswood, per thousand feet b. m $1.00 All other varieties of sawed lumber, per thousand feet b. m.. .. $2.00 Hemlock, whitewood, sycamore and basswood lumber planed or finished on one side, per thousand feet $1.50 All other varieties of sawed lumber planed or finished on one side, per thousand feet $2.50 Hemlock, whitewood, sycamore and basswood lumber planed on one side and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet $2.00 All other varieties of sawed lumber planed on one side and ton- gued and grooved, per thousand feet $3.00 Lath, per thousand pieces 15 cents. All shingles, per thousand 35 cents. Pine clapboards, per thousand $2.00 Spruce clapboards, per thousand $1.50 Hubs for wheels, posts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, gun blocks, heading blocks, etc., rough-hewn or sawed only. 20 percent. Pickets and palings ' 20 percent. House or cabinet furniture, in pieces or rough, and not finished. 30 percent. Cabinet wares and house furniture, finished 35 percent. Casks and barrels, empty, sugar-box shooks, and packing boxes of wood, n. o. s 30 percent. Firewood Free. Logs, and round unmanufactured timber n. o. s. and ship timber Free. Railroad ties, of wood Free. Act of March 3, 1873. "Be it enacted," etc., "That on and after the date of the passage of this act, for all purpose relating to cus- tom duties and importation 'heading bolts' shall be held and construed to be included under the term ' stave bolts.' " Act of February 8, 1875. The only change, affecting the lumber in- dustry, made by this act was : Ship planking and handle bolts Free. Act of March 3, 1883. The Morrill tariff. Schedule D. Timber, squared or sided, n. o. s., per cubic foot 1 cent. Sawed boards, plank, deals and other lumber of hemlock, white- wood, sycamore and basswood, per thousand feet b. m $1.00 All other sawed lumber, per thousand feet b. m $2.00 When lumber of any sort is planed or finished, for each side so planed or finished, per thousand feet b. m., an additional.. 50 cents. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 469 When lumber is planed on one side and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m. , an additional $1.00 When lumber is planed on two sides and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m., an additional $1.50 Lath, per thousand pieces 15 cents. Shingles, per thousand 35 cents. Pine clapboards, per thousand $2.00 Spruce clapboards, per thousand $1.50 Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars and in building wharves 20 percent. Hubs for wheels, posts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, gun blocks, heading blocks, etc., rough-hewn or sawed only. 20 percent. Staves of wood of all kinds 10 percent. Pickets and palings 20 percent. House or cabinet furniture, in pieces or rough, and not finished. 30 percent. Cabinet wares and house furniture, finished 35 percent. Casks and barrels, empty, sugar-box shooks, and packing boxes, and packing-box shooks, of wood, n. o. s 30 percent. Manufactures of cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose- wood and satinwood 35 percent. Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the chief component part, n. o. s 35 percent. Wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 20 percent. Cork wood, unmanufactured Free, Firewood Free. Hop poles Free. Logs, and round, unmanufactured timber, n. o. s., and ship timber and ship planking Free. Railroad ties, of wood Free. Shingle bolts and stave bolts (including heading bolts) Free. Handle bolts Free. Woods, poplar, or other woods, for the manufacture of paper.. Free. Woods, namely, cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, and all cabinet woods, unmanufactured Free. Act of October 1, 1890. Effective October 6, 1890. The McKinley *"'^- Schedule D. Timber, squared or sided, n. o. s., per cubic foot % cent. Sawed boards, planks, deals and other lumber of hemlock, white- wood, sycamore, white pine and basswood, per thousand feet b. m $1.00 Sawed lumber, n. o. s. , per thousand feet b. m $2.00 When lumber of any sort is planed or finished, for each side so planed or finished, per thousand feet b. m., an additional.. 50 cents. When lumber of any sort is planed on one side and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m., an additional $1.00 470 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. When lumber of any sort is planed on two sides, and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m., an additional $1.50 Pine clapboards, per thousand $1.00 Spruce clapboards, per thousand $1.50 Lath, per thousand pieces 15 cents. White pine shingles, per thousand 20 cents. All other shingles, per thousand 30 cents. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars and in building wharves 10 percent. Paving posts, railroad ties, and telephone and telegraph poles of cedar, on and after March 1, 1891 20 percent. Sawed boards, planks, deals and all forms of sawed cedar, lig- num-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and all other cabinet woods, sawed.. . 15 percent. Veneers of wood, and wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 20 percent. Hubs for wheels, posts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, g^in blocks, heading blocks, etc., rough-hewn or sawed only. 20 percent. Pickets and palings 10 percent. Staves of wood of all kinds 10 percent. Casks and barrels (empty) , sugar-box shocks, and packing boxes and packing-box shooks, of wood, n. o. s 30 percent. House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished.. 35 percent. Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component ma- terial of chief value, n. o. s 35 percent. Logs, and round unmanufactured timber, n. o. s Free. Firewood, handle bolts, heading bolts, stave bolts and shingle bolts, hop poles, fence posts, railroad ties, ship timber and ship planking, n.o. s Free. Woods, namely, cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and all forms of cabinet woods, in the log, rough or hewn Free. Briar-root or briar-wood, and similar wood unmanufaciured Free. Act of August 13, 1894. Effective August 28, 1894. The Wilson *^"^- Schedule D. Casks and barrels, empty, sugar-box shooks, and packing boxes and packing-box shooks, of wood, n. o. s 20 percent. Toothpicks of vegetable substance 35 percent. House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished.. 25 percent. Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component ma- terial of chief value, n. o. s 25 percent. Logs, and round unmanufactured timber, n. o. s Free. Firewood, handle bolts, heading bolts, stave bolts, and shingle bolts, hop poles, fence posts, railroad ties, ship timber and ship planking, n. o. s Free. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars and in building wharves Free. UNITED STATES— TARIFF LEGISLATION. 471 Timber, squared or sided Free. Sawed boards, plank, deals and other lumber, rough or dressed, except boards, plank, deals and other lumber of cedar, lig- num-vitse, etc. , and all other cabinet woods Free. Pine clapboards Free. Spruce clapboards Free. Hubs for wheels, posts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, gun blocks, heading, etc., rough-hewn or sawed only Free. Lath Free. Pickets and palings Free. Shingles Free. Staves of wood of all kinds Free. Wood unmanufactured Free. Woods, namely, cedar, lignum-vitaa, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and all forms of cabinet woods, in the log, rough or hewn Free. Briar-root or briar-wood, and similar wood unmanufactured.... Free. Act of July 24, 1897. The Dingley tariff. Schedule D. Timber hewn, sided, or squared (not less than eight inches square), and round timber used for spars or in building wharves, per cubic foot 1 cent. Sawed boards, planks, deals and other lumber of whitewood, sycamore and basswood, per thousand feet b. m $1.00 Sawed lumber, n. o. s. , per thousand feet b. m $2.00 When lumber of any sort is planed or finished, for each side so planed or finished, per thousand feet b. m., an additional.. 50 cents. When lumber of any sort is planed on one side and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m. , an additional $1.00 When lumber of any sort is planed on two sides and tongued and grooved, per thousand feet b. m., an additional $1.50 Kindling wood in bundles not exceeding one-quarter of a cubic foot each, per bundle 3-10 cent. Kindling wood in larger bundles, for each additional quarter of a cubic foot or fractional part thereof 3-10 cent. Clapboards, per thousand $1.50 Lath, per thousand pieces 25 cents. Shingles, per thousand 30 cents. Toothpicks of wood or other vegetable substance, per M \ -.^ nercenT^ Butchers' and packers' skewers of wood, per thousand 40 cents. Paving posts, railroad ties, and telephone, trolley, electric-light and telegraph poles of cedar or other woods 20 percent. Sawed boards, planks, deals and all forms of sawed cedar, lig- num-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and all other cabinet woods, sawed. . . 15 percent. Veneers of wood, and wood, unmanufactured, n. o. s 20 percent. 472 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Hubs for' wheels, posts, heading bolts, stave bolts, last blocks, wagon blocks, oar blocks, heading blocks, etc., rough-hewn, sawed, or bored 20 Fence posts 10 Pickets, palings and staves of wood, of all kinds 10 Casks, barrels and hogsheads (empty), sugar-box shooks, and packing boxes (empty) , and packing-box shooks, of wood, n. o. s 30 Boxes, barrels, or other articles containing oranges, lemons, etc. (see text of act for proviso) 30 House or cabinet furniture, of wood, wholly or partly finished.. 35 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component ma- terial of chief value, n. o. s 35 Logs and round unmanufactured timber, including pulpwoods, firewood, handle bolts, shingle bolts, gun blocks for gun- stocks rough-hewn or sawed or planed on one side, hop poles, ship timber and ship planking ; all n. o. s Cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood, ebony, box, g^anadilla, mahog- any, rosewood, satinwood and all forms of cabinet woods, in the log, rough, or hewn only Briar-root or briar-wood and similar wood unmanufactured.... percent, percent, percent. percent. percent, percent. percent. Free. Free. Free. CHAPTER XXX. UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. A comprehensive history of the lumber industry would be incom- plete without comparative statistics regarding the value of forest prod- ucts ; but, unfortunately, such are not obtainable in complete form, and it is only since 1850 that the decennial censuses of the United States have been of much value in this respect. Prior to that time records were incomplete, or lacking altogether, and what ■ there are may more properly be treated under the caption of the respective states or sec- tions, this chapter having to do with the country as a whole. Lumber production began with the first settlement, and it was es- tablished as an industry as labor became diversified and villages, towns and cities arose whose needs could not be supplied from the timber within their boundaries or immediately adjacent. The sawmill industry was, therefore, recognized at an early date in the history of white set- tlement within the present United States. As a local industry, the sawmill could be, and was, located at any point convenient to the demand which it supplied, provided always that there was a stream furnishing power, for the sawmill of the old type antedated the practical use of steam. As the mills began to be called upon to supply a more remote demand, they were more defi- nitely located with respect to water transportation routes, for lumber is a bulky commodity that is with difiiculty and high expense moved by road vehicles ; therefore, the first sawmills, aside from those cutting for purely local use, were established on the coast at the mouths of streams down which the logs could be floated, or on streams down which their product could be rafted to market, or on streams of such size and character that they could be reached by vessel. Thus, at an early date there were mills as far inland as the site of Augusta, on the Kennebec River, in Maine, and as early as 1682 there were six sawmills in Kittery, at the mouth of the Piscataqua River, and twenty-four in the territory now known as Maine. The first sawmill in Massachusetts was erected about 1633 ; the first in New Hampshire, near Portsmouth, before 1635, and the French settlers had sawmills, at Ticonderoga at a very early date. The Dutch settlers had mills on the Delaware even before the arrival of William Penn, and the industry de- 473 474 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. veloped rapidly in the section later known as Pennsylvania. In 1786 there were sixteen sawmills within thirty-nine miles of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The first mill in McKean County, Pennsylvania, was built at Ceres in 1798, and was a step in the westward movement of the industry toward the region of the Great Lakes and the upper Ohio. The State of New York numbered as many as thirteen mills in the Seventeenth Century, and at the outbreak of the Revolution fifty-two were recorded as established, the shores of the Hudson furnishing sites for most of them. The rivers farther to the south, such as the Poto- mac, the James and others, had sawmills on their banks at an early date. As the country developed, the lumber industry extended always along the lines of water transportation, in its westward march follow- ing two chief courses : One along the Great Lakes, and the other, at first the more important, across New York and Pennsylvania by the rivers. Until about 1880, this dependence of the lumber industry upon water transportation remained almost unbroken. It was not until settlement in the valley of the Ohio River advanced so that its villages began to grow into cities that the lumber trade of that region assumed real importance. From the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers lumber development progressed down the Ohio until lumber manufacture be- came one of the chief industries of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and Tennes- see. In the meantime, following the line of the Great Lakes, Michigan was being developed. Closely following that State came Wisconsin and Minnesota and the establishment of mills in the Mississippi Valley. The lumber industry of the South was early developed, and for many years led the other sections of the country in the proportion of the product that was exported. Nevertheless, the interior was most rapidly developed in the north, along the lines above mentioned. With the railroad era of transportation the pine forests of Michigan, Wiscon- sin and Minnesota attracted the most attention, then came the opening of the interior pine regions of the South, and, finally, as eastern supplies began to show exhaustion, or as opportunities for timber investments at low prices became less numerous, the Pacific Coast became the scene of the most active exploitation. Of all these vast movements the United States census furnishes the only complete record, other efforts have been made to secure and pre- serve the facts as to particular sections or as to special departments of the industry. The State of New York, for example, requires an account of the lumber cut in the Adirondacks, the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of the State submitting a report to the State UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 475 annually. The American Lumberman for more then thirty years has compiled statistics yearly of the lumber production of Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota, and, of late years, different lumber associa- tions have collected reports from their members. But there are no statistics referring to the lumber industry of the country as a whole except the census figures, and of them only those of the last fifty years are of much value, owing to the incompleteness or entire lack of the earlier ones. For this reason allowances must be made in comparing reports of the earlier censuses with those of later years. The census rests upon a provision of the Constitution for the appor- tionment of representatives and of direct taxes among the states accord- ing to population, and the first census report authorized by the first Con- gress was an enumeration of population only. In 1800 memorials were presented to the Senate asking that the census be expanded to include other useful information. The census of 1800 contained a few new features not of much importance, and that of 1810 was enlarged still more, embracing an account of manufactures, with results of little value. The experiment was repeated at the following census and wholly aban- doned in 1830. In 1840 manufactures were again included, and frag- mentary reports were secured, but it was not until 1850 that results of substantial value were obtained. At that time the scope of the census was greatly enlarged, and now not only is the number of people taken into account, and age, race and marital relations given, but also the occupations of the people and the facts regarding the industries in which they are engaged. Some of the earlier census reports, while not affording information of much value to the lumber industry, are interesting, nevertheless, and throw side lights upon some features of the business that belong now entirely to the past. They are also interesting as showing the crude methods of the Government of the young republic. The census of 1810, which was the first to include, to any extent worthy of mention, anything besides the enumeration of the population, may be styled an industrial census. The part devoted to industries was headed as follows : ' 'A Series of Tables of the Several Branches of Amer- ican Manufactures, exhibiting them in Every County of the Union so far as They are returned in the reports of the Marshalls, and of the Secretaries of the Territories and of theit respective Assistants, in the Autumn of the year 1810, together with returns of certain doubtful goods, productions of the Soil and Agricultural Stock, so far as they have been received." 476 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. It is well, perhaps, that the clause "so far as they are returned" was inserted, as the reports are exceedingly meager. We give here- with the returns from the different states of all the branches allied to the lumber industry : CENSUS OF 1810. The State of Massachusetts, which at that date included what is now the State of Maine, reported nine counties producing cabinet work to a total of $318,112; four counties reported 1,694 dozen chairs manu- factured, valued at $96,060 ; four counties reported 37,995 casks made in coopers' shops, valued at $69,318 ; two counties reported 150 saw- mills, having a product of 11,215,000 feet, valued at $87,335. Vermont reported on cabinet work a valuation of $13,000 from Windsor County and "Seth Whitmore's District," to which latter item was appended a note as follows: "These returns do not mention in what county they are, but as there is no return expressly for Benning- ton, it is supposed that they belong to that County." Rhode Island returned but one item — twenty-eight sawmills for Providence County, and New Jersey but one — Essex County, mahog- any sawed, $6,000. From Pennsylvania, 949 coopers' shops in thirty-one counties, the value of whose product was $344,687; from forty counties, 2,016 saw- mills, producing 74,538,640 feet, valued at $628,330, including mahog- any valued at $7,800 in Philadelphia, and mahogany valued $10,000 in Philadelphia County. Maryland, fifteen cabinetmakers in five counties, value of product, $8,042; 113 sawmills in four counties. Virginia, thirty-eight counties reporting $114,556 value of cabinet work; two counties manufacturing 112 dozen chairs, valued at $2,025; Richmond City having 394 coopers' shops, the value of whose product was placed at $7,100; five counties reporting 112 sawmills. South Carolina, sixty-five sawmills in five counties. Georgia, one sawmill, producing 1,252,000 feet, valued at $25,400. Territory of Orleans (that part of the Louisiana Purchase south of the thirty-third parallel of north latitude, now the northern boundary of the State of Louisiana), thirty-four sawmills in seven counties, having a product of 6,790,000 feet, valued at $339,500. Territory of Louisiana (that part of the Louisiana Purchase north of the thirty-third parallel), two "districts" reporting nine sawmills. Ter- ritory of Indiana, two "divisions" having fourteen sawmills, the prod- uct of which was 390,000 feet, valued at $3,900. Territory of Illinois, UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 477 one county reporting five sawmills, having a product of 480,000 feet, valued at $12,000. The census is dated and signed as follows: "Philadelphia, in the United States of America. May 30th, 1813. Tench Coxe." Fragmentary as the returns of that census were, they are capable of being condensed into the following table, showing number of mills, quantity and value of product and value per thousand feet : CENSUS OP 1810. States and Tbrritoiubs. Massachusetts Rhode Island Pennsylvania Maryland Virgrinia South Carolina Territory of Orleans — Territory of Louisiana . Territory of Indiana Total. No. of saw- mills. Product. Quantity, feet. Value. PerM. 150 28 2,016 113 112 65 34 9 14 11,215,000 $ 87,335 $ 7.78 74,538,640 628,330 8.43 6,790.000 339,500 50.00 390,000 3,900 10.00 2,541 It will be observed that New Hampshire, New York, Connecticut and North Carolina, are entirely lacking, while Vermont made no re- port as to sawmills. Also, that five made no report as to quantity and value. A curious fact is the average price given for the Territory of Orleans; whether the quantity was too small or the value too high, there is no way to determine. There is some reason to believe that in Pennsylvania the number of saws, and not the number of estab- lishments, was reported. CENSUS OF 1820. Of somewhat more value than the census of 1810, was that of 1820, published in 1823. The official title of the publication containing the report is as follows : DIGEST OF ACCOUNTS OF MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND THEIR MANUFACTURES, MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE, IN PURSUANCE OF A RESOLU- TION OF CONGRESS OF 30tH MARCH, 1822. The resolution referred to provided that a digest of the information secured by the census authorized March 14, 1820, be prepared, and 1,500 copies be printed. While the digest gives much information of value as to industrial and commercial conditions, it is impossible of classifica- tion, as will appear. It seems worth while, howeyer, to reproduce the report as far as it relates to lumber, omitting coordinate lines, if for no other reason than to display the crudities of the methods then in use, and the absurdities of their results : 478 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. O o on •35 IS o 5 ° CI ■ gsass S™ a ^ rt o t; CO S5^ pa oa 2 J3 « a 0) a oTj h cl (A tf o a HSS«g Orto Ma's s^a ■a2S"?a§ la igja „ J o . 3^ tS nlTJ «at;'3« Iz; a ea 3 n o sales half. n full nt. 3 « Sg a tfl ^ s'S a^ 0,3 0) a J3 « p H ^ o o in M « o O o O t- » o j5 o CO o « a « ffi TJ 13 a ka, ^^ II XD bi n IC N in « s Q O O H 00 ^ O iH H «& H Q 2, w o ffl m a •R ■SS. S ^" « H a.2 <» ^S P t< U ■s'Sg a a aa 11 i! •2.S iS Si a cs in o lO Q lO K a> » H ef iH » » m o CO 00 0) r> •^ iO 01 to €» ee- «3^ o o O 05 o H o CD ^ M a • g s s Ss (fi S „0J 00 in la fo ■^ to t~ o lO t- B o o o 00 H g 5 o 00 H in rt » » €» *ti Id Hi H i Sa QO-H CO in B t » c a s s J PU (1< o o o Oi r- H C4 cr r i^ £& » sf SJ S 5 1 St ^ H S a i 3 S ^ 9 : J >A hJ] h ^ iJ 9) o EJ d a g S o o d g a m O t « ^ UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 479 ffl Ol^-MtH^ fc* H « a^ 01 3 m riO 5 -o OcJO ■^ *i O CXI ^7i ql rt Q rt ■Saa V.4J U-M a 3 o m [ft "iC agS£ ri ■» & ■* ^-^ o 2 o ■°So- M o— ■" lihh "■OS bl •9 S • hfi . a n n S « sas « g — ^ I- « 3 g d -^■-. flj*3 [fl ^ da sa a CO o l> o ■OS .d O d ii OJ-w d5 d CA S m a ; i-t 'T n n S "" N _ H O CO Oi .■a i> o N 3 >J o d t; ■a ^a 3 3 3 0) O .O 03 OfeO -O*" OS "a As a n t-' tH" CO « in H » » «■ -o a £- s S a t- a 1 a! iH 10 fa t> CO « H w r> » •» Jji; Pj M en 00,00 stave ,000 f ,000 f . a u S tll ^ a 0) 1 a ^s .5 3 «« a J H H J s H CO ^1 CO g CO 0. iH (A . 00 H °aS t- CO » «J i4 0} ,2 1 1 ■d §1 J3 % A a S3. a a 3 3 rt Si t-] ^3 m u fo u, §10 o o 5 GO •o & ^a)q= a _^ It oa o r-t 00 'i « g § CD 03 rH » O lO 03 C4 a 01 1 (A in H •d ll as 5" IN 01 1 01 ■* 00 o iH M 00 H 0) CO O 1 "a 5 o 1 d § s H OS o o ? s So al ll a 3 ■O a ea 5-0 So "•a cnO 1^ 3 en g 1-1 ij 1 3 1 i o CO § UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 483 OB'S- S<.auQai a" a S5a s OS OS u as 3^ ■ri 01 R It) -o -rt o o bi a ta c» O IC GO to to CO •* iH «■ €& O o H C& t* iH «& «& ^ e o o o o o C4 t- m ih- €& g to o s a s a 3 S . ■i S 1 1 (fl CO a 01 « CO m to 00 t- ■* iH (Ef o o H t- t- « H <& OJ a g 43 ^ .Q ■°d fl a ^S H t< H o Q ,2 © w m N ^ a» ca u a" "d to II fl Ho ;^ S A3 S u ^ J J a d) n ^ M S iJ ^= a ii a o o 2 O ^O tl) ooo - ih" ■*" a a I - SSii t^ a (D - °^S I n o 1. . el gas" bj o 1-1 a-Bilt *0£6 "" 01 a (O tA ^ 0} 484 I o I O CO & CO H O LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. o a _• o as O !* V (5 fl a a H . O O d) « to » Ooj 13 M to Bio's oS a S a ^« .H >*_: " ra »" son go "•a"' » t3 ^ tfl s^TS o "> a = 3£?aS§ 3 ° O IP Ma's tJ 3 - (0 3 eS 5 w»-j « a) P (H ^ ■S£a§ , fy rt (S a i5 a a r" a o ■ odXi AO ad . o Pi o *^ o ^ a o iZiCJ 01 o tfl fc to ^ a N in N ^ CO CQ i4 iH IH ^ CO {& ■ « ee » » « €6 «e €» €6 « f& «& o 2 o 2 s o i in H o g g o § o H ». cc © f-( in ■^ in t> o W 3 (D •«# ^' in o" iH to 1-" iH in CO N « » «l& « » «^ » €& «■ «& S «& n a I-t rH & -o M&l . a 1 ca Ell 1 =•3 CO rH S CO a cd CO CO CO ^a EA 1 m ea H " IB o as si ^ 1 1 coiO 1 all CO J, a a§? 10 to 1 1 3 CO at (A 1 CA 1 CA c» Q ^ ODOS 1-t to iH (^9 05 S in ,« N •^ t> CO C-o CO •>* D1 iH iH S N O H iH 01 (M « CO C4 CO H CO s s o t: in O iC o H o « CD ffl t> lO 5 Tji O) CO « O Cft 00 ". iH H H w iH rH « ff § «» ^ * «e « » ^ m A 1 bo o CO i O O §^ 1 CO a o h OO a ino~ o o o s O in »S § » °3 s § l~( iH w iHM M ro i-T § w N mto"M b "2 b,; ■w'"" -cf •w fl f^ JU o 3 3 a ■^ >. 2& =•3 4) O 5'S a « & fl ea GS ffi ^ o ti 1 J ".a 1° II i 4 r s; .a a II 1 a a CO 1 o o a) 3° ilrO o . o in J, in ■* o (5 o o ^ p cq <» in Oi o b- Cfl t> «6 q H in H t3 H CO M J3 t^ Q ■0 t3 -0 a TJ „-u * 3-i! •o s a S3 a u V .Q a a cnO 11 ffl o S it 4 §1 A O co3 fS 3. tA !>,ri a a o cs . a«o Ma's M la's, ""S a '^ «.= o> «> S ao a5- B a_: S»- art's «at; sa ■^a a a§ CS o u 13 O ij <^ ^ ii a 1 a ID Q m en •c ■d 8 mand. ber is rea on credit. Demand consld able. Demand consid 1 1 a Q 1 1 Q D 1 CO N id o H o O o 5 g ^ S «• » » » «■ « » ' i CO 8 CO g O 01 s o o C4 A^ 5 s I-( ^ m » ee- o in 00 8 01 1 o H g CO o H o 8 of fe- ?d 1 3a a« 1 c3 CO CO CO 1 saw 9 run o£ stones, 3 saws etc. a 1 a 1 ij a c4 ci a a 1 1 cfl lA CO (M 3 cfl CO s to CO CO 1-i § u 1 H lO lO 3 « « r^ 3 |<* m O H in o iM o o €6 X !?! Q o 5 tn CO CO 4n H CO o H H ^ d CO bd S CO Q o ^ o 5 (0 1 c 8 CD s i Iff 8 q ,- 8 g o to ■^ a cS ■a , a 0} ■s « A If b . s c/ b CO JB bo Gd 5 5 J e a ■ i\ c hJ t# o J c ^ Jili i o i S S 1 C > c c c > r ^ O H P- ^ H H to » * -a & ^ ^ ^ J » {e a » « > €6 ■ft 1 O 1 •a . 1 © o S -a 3 Si [A O 1 CO i 1 I) O Boards and scantling Flour andmeal Lumber etc. Boards and scantling co' 5 5 1 1 a -d /) o Boards and scantling , . ; >• : a 0) o £ a 8 g : : M d ^ i B • s a Si i H 5 m 13 cfl a q 3 Pi to UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 487 Ready sales. Good sales for boards. 1 1 HI 1—1 j ■0 o o o 1 cn Q Bo 51 $ 170 240 g « o in M $ 930 1,215 (H g iH $ 5,100 14,700 § 8 »n 01 o o o 7 saw mills S run of stones 3 saw mills, etc. 6 a s a 1 Cfl S 1 CC r-l in H H lO m o § O CO co' 2,050 33,500 bu. 1,025 logs § O . oo CO'CD Logs Grain and timber o en cn to o in ■* i S » § Boards and scantling Flour, meal. Lumber etc. II o a m i.i O en CQ II -:l O tfl l.g il Scioto 2 : 1 ■a o o i s 3 Cfl 0) H •o s . S-2'g ^§1 i 8 g g OS o o o in tH to" l>" s 3l g«i pf'E Cfl '^ tf C5 1 tn 3 a GO Grist and saw mill Grist and saw mill 1 m CO tH O rH H U o in CO to €6- 3 ii ca o 0) o § CO rH O 00 H €6- o 0) a Boots, shoes, bricks, cabinet £umiture,flour, earthenware, hats, leather, plank and sad- dlery a a § § i o tfl 1 o a o cn 1 , O o CO CO iH ^ •9^ ^5 a ^- ^ .s* CO n" ■* [A bt iJ 55 00 « 1.^ ca o ^ O M m iJ s g ■E 11 o oo S 488 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ^ en -^ S S 1=1 • o o » U W =, U uA Oi 0) a«..s"" <^ o-G a) or! 3£ bo as? 3 d a .Sga g^a-s O c4 . .a«o Ma's s^a £«« 10 o*j fl^ A (!) S; 3 " m 2 "S CO-H flj Q) 3 rt o g>£'308rt 3 (d'o.&o "B'Sffl^ 3 fl 3 a; S ■a s >> O h a§ A O ;z;o a 6 ca > O £ CO 51 S 1 ■S'SSSSSSS i^feSS^rt 1 ?o The Quantity square and roui timber carried market this ye (1820) is much le than formerly owi to large quantiti having been tak from the most cc venient places on t Mississippi Riv and its numero tributaries, and al to the low price t tained for lumber New Orleans. 03 m ■%^ w s III « » m t> » OS €© r> iH r-* g n a s ^ % S ^ rf! to •s CO u 1 1 1 c» ■f ^ s >: 'gj s^ ■* RRITOB ndrou he sq. f 1 S6 a go to " fl» f, a W "■" 01 H M oiS " " iid 3 o'g s § 3 d> 0" s feS s ■* 10 w iH ba J . •2 K 3 S S'S <«a 3K d > s 1 2 i Q C i 5 u 01 II S2 ClJ g •as 3 "If ^13 •53 *J : j< : - So ■go States and Territories. Number of es- tablish- ments. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut, ....'. Dakota Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana , Maine Maryland Massachusetts ... Michigran Minnesota , Mississippi , Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire, New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina.. Ohio Oregron Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. . . Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia.... Wisconsin Wyoming Total-United States 284 1 211 291 32 393 10 80 1 104 532 10 511 1,861 545 195 562 152 1,099 391 .644 1,571 207 265 806 31 50 18 723 285 12 3,510 523 2.230 165 3,739 81 227 702 324 95 637 605 46 343 720 8 25,832 Capital. Number of wage- earners. $744,005 5,000 694,400 3,856,440 132,700 775,391 37,400 290,424 1,500 775,090 1,718,473 50,750 2,542,530 5,975,746 3,925,001 642,955 1.724,686 541,800 6,614,875 1,055,600 2,054,829 26,990,450 3,311,140 1,153,917 3,241,670 146,000 152,200 193,500 2,428,193 2,238,900 47,100 15.110,981 1.175,950 6,191,679 913,262 24,804,304 161,200 583,425 1.622,741 870,491 338,500 2,872,451 979,386 1,285,202 981,950 11.448,545 110,500 $143,493,232 149,997 1,428 16 1,107 4,077 218 908 68 311 15 1,116 2.976 47 3,100 9,446 3,782 1,161 2,497 1,054 8,506 1,245 2,291 20,058 2,952 1,954 3,900 161 202 324 3,398 1,145 63 15,409 2,361 8,237 692 17,427 204 1,212 2,910 1,750 541 ■2.782 2.283 474 1,515 12,461 213 Wages. $357,195 6,000 255,186 1,620,626 78,711 242,990 14,256 70,823 1,800 421,820 667,628 17,924 817,212 1,901,612 995,962 282,662 482,683 284,953 2,449,132 259,551 569,300 6,400,283 880,028 580,056 1,031,513 80,965 47,102 153,930 725,304 369,835 35,425 3,438,601 379,611 1,535,909 261,785 5,261,576 39,826 209,806 578,364 390,149 139,533 729,925 343,823 388,830 349,368 3.755,089 104.500 Cost of materials used. $520,513 1,600 546,059 1,986,119 117,075 940,665 32,772 229,856 20,000 1,163,238 1,616,527 20,177 2,163,655 5,563,985 3,302,782 822.028 1,805,591 519,938 6,872,723 674,858 2,065,375 14,347,661 2,193,965 828,793 3,428,235 172,098 118,975 135,450 2,471,427 1,612,802 40,083 11,228,613 970,294 5,038,678 358,273 14,940,096 157,079 581,499 1,446,782 644,274 266,047 1,731,516 860,949 580,259 682,180 7.422,866 99,000 $40,009,162 $103,343,430 $210,159,327 Value of products. $1,359,083 10,000 1,344,403 5,227,064 324,370 1,541,038 72,280 405,041 30,000 2,235,780 4,044,375 56,850 4,546,769 12,324,755 5,794,285 1,736,381 3,662,086 1,212,037 11,395,747 1,501,471 3,556,870 31,946,396 4,299,162 2,160,667 6,363,112 430,957 278,205 432,500 4,286,142 2,745,317 121,225 21,238,228 2,000,243 10,235,180 1,014,211 28,938,985 257,258 1,197,005 3,390,687 1,960.851 661,431 3,525,122 2,111,055 1,307,585 1,478,399 15,130,719 268,000 1 For purposes of comparison the values of 1870 should be reduced about twenty percent because of a depreciated currency for that year. The census of 1880 showed little change in the order, except that the more eastern and the hardwood states, with their smaller but more numerous mills, led in the first column. In number of establishments the states stood in the following order: Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Virginia, Missouri, Maine, North Carolina, Tennessee and Wisconsin. In value of products Michigan was emphatically the leader, with its $52,500,000, followed at a long distance by Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, New York, Indiana and Ohio. UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 493 CENSUS OP 1880. States and Tbrritoribs. Alabama Arizona Arkansas Calif orcla Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mlchlsran Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire ... . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total-United States Number o£es- tabUsh ments. 354 13 319 251 96 300 39 86 1 135 655 48 640 2,022 328 146 670 175 848 369 606 1,649 234 295 881 36 38 9 680 284 26 2,822 776 2,352 228 2,827 49 420 755 324 107 688 907 37 472 704 7 Capital. $1,545,655 102,450 1,067,840 6,454,718 481,200 657,300 113,750 259,250 25,000 2,219,550 3,101,452 192,460 3,295,483 7,048,088 4,946,390 262,975 2,290,558 903,950 6,339,396 1,237,694 2,480,340 39,260,428 6,771,145 922,595 2,867,970 208,200 93,375 132,000 3,745,790 1,657,395 74,675 13,230,934 1,743,217 7,944,412 1,577,875 21,418,588 144,250 1,056,265 2,004,503 1,660,952 272,750 3,274,250 2,122,925 2,456,450 1,668,920 19,824,059 26,700 25,708 $181,186,122 147,956 Number o£ wage- earners. 1,647 79 1,744 3,434 877 707 290 391 25 2,030 3,392 173 3,851 10,339 2,989 516 2,601 976 6,663 1,239 1,970 24,235 2,854 1,170 3,503 142 140 35 3.104 768 172 11,445 3,029 9,317 579 14,914 152 1,468 3,718 3,186 385 2,511 4,011 499 2,183 8,465 38 Wages. $424,156 33,375 237,394 1,095,736 112,931 178,336 54,974 40,694 6,000 562,249 554,085 33,367 787,867 1,571,740 825,244 66,757 671,939 200,063 1,161,142 223,786 431,612 6,967,905 924,473 197,867 669,644 47,945 29,313 9,892 548,556 179,693 24,240 2,162,972 447,431 1,708,300 242,154 2,918,459 33,143 221,963 549,222 732,914 65,175 426,953 540,231 200,539 459,945 2,257,218 6,380 Cost of materials used. $1,608,635 131,786 1,070,395 2,242,503 700,294 641,569 281,875 243,375 34,000 1,867,213 3,197,155 230,566 3,144,905 9,627,097 4,141,885 447,449 2,410,743 1,187,059 4,951,957 1,106,795 1,904,105 32,251,372 4,529,055 1,219,116 3,215,292 278,098 164,878 162,810 2,272,991 989,979 117,055 9,119,263 1,577,139 8,896,106 1,331,342 13,955,430 120,888 1,237,361 2,142,885 2,096,775 238,274 2,021,868 1,983,777 1,188,075 1,375,372 12,471,473 27,350 $31,845,974 $146,155,385 $233,268,729 Value of products. $2,649,634 215,918 1,793,848 4,428,950 1,051,295 1,076,455 435,792 411,060 50,000 3,060,291 4,875,310 349,635 5,063,037 14,260,830 6,185,628 682,697 4,064,361 1,764,644 7,933,868 1,813,332 3,120,184 52,449,928 7,366,038 1,920,335 5,265,617 527,695 265,062 243,200 3,842,012 1,627,640 173,930 14,356,910 2,672,796 13,864,460 2,030,463 22,457,359 240,579 2,031,507 3,744,905 3,673,449 375,164 3,258,816 3,434,163 1,734,742 3,431,857 17.952,347 40,990 By the census of 1890 the greatest advance in the value of product had been made by Wisconsin and Minnesota. It was taken near the zenith of the northern pine industry, when those states were rapidly in- creasing their product. The leading states in value of product were Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Indiana, Washington and New York. In number of mills Michigan led also, followed by Pennsylvania, New York, Indiana, Ohio and Wisconsin. In capital Michigan was still in the lead, with Wisconsin second. No other state closely approached 494 LUMBER INDUSTRY OP AMERICA. them, but since 1900 great advances have been made in the South and West. CENSUS OF 1890. States and Terkitokibs. Number of es- tablish- ments Capital. Number o£ wage- earners Wages. Cost of materials used. ' Value of products. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory... Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland M assachusetts Michigan Mlimesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina.... North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 472 10 4 539 258 120 176 48 215 449 44 363 1,633 3 143 27 599 127 894 217 488 2,124 392 366 830 31 31 570 114 26 1,734 713 5 1,461 8 350 1,948 32 352 41 820 314 32 779 663 462 454 1.119 17 $7,460,108 105,727 212,975 6,928,720 16,184,235 941,561 1,092,586 265,791 5,438,366 5,019,635 462,130 4,095,212 11,387,470 16,000 17.530,335 70,865 6,571,374 5,714,313 12,978,315 1,459,895 5,135,860 129,467,072 39,442,925 4,498,788 8,245,425 832,948 96,539 7,592,167 1,557,508 193,335 21,430,739 5,376,807 118,830 11,806,709 16,605 8,103,000 45,107,300 135,156 1,848,155 251,255 7,259,027 11,175,551 198,248 7,789,874 4,427,627 21,400.307 5,086,114 105,191,521 160,049 6,335 78 94 6,563 4,689 1,156 783 532 4,363 5.943 393 4,089 15,021 38 6,819 102 6,322 3,311 11,540 1,552 3,000 54,308 16,170 4,427 6,703 609 138 5,370 641 316 12,981 6,466 135 11,727 29 4,214 19,598 195 2,590 351 7,424 7,485 257 6,054 5,973 9,491 4,182 41,305 102 $1,712,336 18,625 57,770 1,894,395 1,927,551 592,010 254,926 96,059 1,289,276 1,533,217 136,195 1,037,525 4,356,196 11,800 2,101,648 13,555 1,568,394 1,160,528 2,689,845 335,909 1,042,508 15,548,833 4,155,522 1,169,673 1,930,504 307,617 40,497 1,600,993 201,751 151,725 3,369,484 1,202,994 22,510 3,143.494 5,170 1,680,618 5,440,480 64,697 420,588 91,585 1,860,008 2,656,119 58,901 1,501,776 1,244,633 4,643,564 1,039,530 10,712.947 37,803 $4,551,261 30,198 126,765 4,798,577 4,421,267 647,058 765,751 195,346 2,745,016 3,304,249 245,022 2,907,390 10,627,901 23,900 7,960,286 43,298 4,375,392 3,089,179 6,228,808 840,941 2,719,117 49,418,374 15,170,349 2,867,798 4,328,903 547,325 63,552 2,607,473 695,987 172,321 8,865,653 3,038,960 36,045 7,621,133 13,900 3,061,439 15,677,103 116,696 996,289 180,757 5,045,906 6,420,878 131,432 3,854,670 2,926,474 8,331,336 3,023,297 36,649,358 52,166 $8,507,971 58,440 248,790 8,943,052 8,794,655 1,363,749 1,353,544 405,057 5,514,879 6,545,195 631,790 5,135,155 20,278.023 41,950 12,056,302 85,521 7,904,428 5,745,194 11,849,654 1,600,472 5,211,607 83,121,969 25,075,132 5,770,387 8,359,925 1,182,510 154,945 5,641,445 1,225,766 389,761 17,160,547 5,898,742 76,173 15,279.843 27,260 6,530,757 29,087,970 264,625 2,146,750 375,709 9,073,686 11,942,566 249,940 6,958,674 5,630.600 17,450,301 5,515,065 60,966,444 124,462 Total-United States 22,617 $567,881,054 311,964 $87,934,284 $242,562,296 $437,957,382 1 In 1890 and 1900, for purposes of comparison, " Cost of materials used" Includes wages reported under the heads of " Logging " and *' Cost of keep of animals." The Twelfth Census, taken as of June 30, 1900, but in its reports as to industries covering the calendar year of 1899, showed a substantial advance in the totals of every principal item as compared with that of 1890, but marked a decline in the industry of the North, and great gains in the South and West. The summaries are as follows : UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 495 CENSUS OF 1900 (SAWMILLS, PLANING MILLS OPERATED IN CONNECTION WITH SAWMILLS, AND TIMBER CAMPS). Statks ans Tbkiutoribs. Number of es- tablish- ments. Capital. Averagfe number wagre- eamers. Total wagres. Cost of materials used. Value of products. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Callfomla Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho minols Indiana Indian Territory Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts.. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina., North Dakota.... Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island Sonth Carolina.. . South Dakota.... Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Wa shington West Virginia.... Wisconsin Wyoming Total— U. S.... 1.111 25 14 1,199 313 159 , 200 76 416 1,254 117 837 1,849 49 264 54 1,280 432 838 367 553 1.705 438 844 1,197 139 23 4 553 205 32 1,765 1,770 4 2,054 33 436 2,338 35 729 29 1,732 637 81 658 1,341 778 950 1,066 52 S 13,020,183 181,950 940,698 21,727,710 28,236,332 972,098 1,188,965 354,464 14,937,693 11,802,716 913,352 5,246,277 10,947,574 104,003 8,762,219 85,194 9,805,404 20,093,044 15.764.538 2,622,928 6,253,171 67,379,698 52,095,923 17,337,538 11,089,799 2,590,224 117,360 9,327 11,382,114 1,477,930 291,599 21,873,203 13,385,097 27,275 13,741,418 136,361 8,167,433 47,832,548 216,670 5,187,727 283,720 12,900,595 19,161,265 182,780 7,051,523 9,299,046 26,041,089 10,421,570 77,366,223 603,956 12,638 93 342 21,302 9,322 970 1,074 ^531 ^,041 14,720 594 4,173 11,808 209 2,919 93 9,277 13,186 9,049 2,481 3,463 36,900 20,081 13,713 8,389 1,949 39 6 6,382 978 557 9,243 16,149 17 10,459 49 5,130 20,359 182 6,559 295 12,980 10,962 202 4,743 11,031 19,143 7,924 30,497 637 > 3,091,821 85,252 244,850 6,410,843 4,620,912 441,135 416,290 127,153 2,798,279 3,404,972 262,815 1,570,472 4,465,113 55,643 1,098,717 28,172 3,015,656 4,325,882 3,391,444 622,874 1,499,661 15,305,722 9,451,787 3,967,030 2,809,551 1,037,291 13,917 2,225 2,383,074 409,282 170,290 3,653,383 3,443,805 4,400 4,023,596 10,725 2,558,667 8,312,776 64.367 1,314,592 146,350 3,950,524 4,233,096 66,326 1,532,957 3,137,853 10,444,731 2,665,084 12,947,544 289,017 $ 4,660,648 80,134 156.035 9,424,347 4,642.942 582,695 572,960 190,365 4,196,771 4,249,555 318,249 4,194,014 9,822,024 66,781 5,848,218 34,027 6,201,921 7,285,674 6,660,817 1,008,690 3,034,828 22,367,102 21,345,651 6,077,422 4,982,654 916,018 20,339 1,066 3,496,425 830,655 121,724 7,153,962 5,626,605 7.037 9,650,823 25,131 4,814,196 14,408,076 70,861 1,880,865 165,025 8,636,752 7,548,680 57,867 2,638,050 4,879,077 13,043,512 3,959,909 28,124,015 213,907 i 12,867,551 211,229 547,790 23,959,983 13,764,647 1,627,605 1.818,643 471,482 10,848,403 13,704,923 937,665 7,652,118 20,613,724 199,879 8,677,058 104,182 13,774,911 17,408.513 13,489,401 2.650,082 6,526,230 54,290,520 43,585,161 15,656,110 11,177,529 2,949,992 51,773 7.060 9,218,310 1,859,014 411,627 15,766,977 14,862,593 24,200 20,790,854 63,569 10,352,167 35,749.965 233,579 5.207,184 445,861 18,127,784 16,296,473 214,187 6,131,808 12,137,177 30,286,280 10,612,837 57,634,816 831,558 33,035 $611,611,524 382,840 $140,327,924 $246,295,101 $566,832,984 In order to show in the plainest way the development of each state from 1840, or from the time when it first appeared in the census returns, to 1900, the following tables are presented, which combine sawmills, dependent and independent timber camps and dependent planing mills, and give, as far as possible, the figure regarding the same details as are shown in the decennial tables — number of establishments, capital, number of wage-earners, wages, cost of materials and value of products: 496 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. COMPARATIVE CENSUS RETURNS, 1840-1900-SUMMARY BY STATES. States and Territories. 1^ Number of es- tablish- ments. Capital. Number of wagre- eamers. Wages. Cost of materials used.1 Value of products. 1840 1850 1860 21870 1880 1890 1900 1890 1900 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1870 1880 31890 31900 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1840 1850 1860 524 173 339 284 354 472 1,111 10 25 1 13 4 14 88 66 178 2U 319 639 1,199 10 296 291 261 258 313 32 96 120 159 673 239 208 393 300 176 200 10 39 123 83 71 80 86 48 76 65 49 87 s "952,473 1,756,947 744,005 1,545,655 7,460,108 13,020,183 106,727 181,950 5,000 102,450 212,976 940,698 "li3',575 683,690 694,400 1,067,840 6,928,720 21,727,710 147,200 1,948,327 3,866,440 6,454,718 16,184,235 28,236,332 132,700 481,200 941,561 972,098 'miso 386,800 775,391 657,300 1,092,586 1,188,965 37,400 113,750 "l58',i86 247,760 290,424 259,250 265,791 354,464 ""5',666 20,000 1,500 26,000 "m'.m 1,282,000 "■937 1,686 1,428 1,647 6,335 9,273 78 81 16 79 94 197 "'275 969 1,107 1,744 6,563 16,896 114 1,924 4,077 3,434 4,689 5,806 213 877 1,156 732 '"sii 3U 908 707 783 788 68 290 "'224 176 811 391 532 433 ""14 4 15 25 "'499 1,222 $ "l64',268 428,268 367,195 424,156 1,712,336 2,265,018 18,625 76,988 6,000 33,375 57,770 137,810 "«2',828 268,716 265,186 237,394 1,894,395 4,730,413 175,080 1,474,626 1,620,626 1,095,736 1,927,551 2,849,457 78,711 112,931 392,010 331.038 "97',392 89,878 242,990 178,336 264,926 306,915 14,256 54,974 "5b',646 48,132 70,823 40,794 96,059 105,093 ""2.466 1,680 1,800 6,000 "99,672 316,292 « ■529",976 692,027 620,513 1,608,636 4,551,261 6,646,124 30,198 90,683 1,600 131,786 126,765 304,205 "sV,™ 303,137 646,059 1,070,395 4,798,677 13,068,267 38,050 1,215,244 1,986,119 2,242,503 4,421,267 7,528,215 117,075 700,294 647,058 864,454 "W7,83i 377,580 940,665 641,569 765,751 902,391 32,T?2 281,875 "n8,322 154,500 229,866 243,375 195,346 234,193 "22',506 17,000 20,000 34,000 "121,216 541,531 $ 169,003 Alaska 1,103,481 1,876,628 1,369,083 2,649,634 8,507,971 12,867,661 58,440 211,229 10,000 215,918 248,790 647,790 176,617 California 122,918 1,158,902 1,344,403 1,793,848 8,943,052 23,959,983 969,485 4,003,431 6,227,064 4,428.960 8,794,655 13,764,647 324,370 1,051,295 1,363,749 1,627,605 147,841 534,794 589,456 1,541,038 1,076,465 1,353,544 1,818,643 72,280 435,792 5,562 236,863 276,161 405,041 411,060 405,067 471,482 "ss',666 21,125 30,000 50,000 20,346 391,034 1,476,646 Dakota Delaware District of Colambla Florida ' In 1890 and 1900, for purposes of comparison, " Cost of materials used " Includes wages reported under tbe heads of " Logging " and " Cost ofkeep of animals." ' For purposes of comparison the values of 1870 should be reduced about twenty percent because of a depreciated currency for that year. 3 See North Dakota and South Dakota. UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 497 COMPARATIVE CENSUS RETURNS. 1840-1900-SUMMARY BY states- Cont. States and Tbriutokibs. 1 Number o£ es- tablish- ments. Capital. Number of wage- eamers. Wagres, Cos t of materials used. Value of products. 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 104 135 216 416 677 333 411 632 655 449 1,254 10 48 44 117 785 468 463 511 640 363 837 1,248 928 1,331 1,861 2,022 1,633 1,849 3 49 75 144 661 545 328 143 264 124 195 146 27 54 718 466 482 562 670 699 1,280 139 138 161 162 175 127 432 1,381 732 926 1,099 848 894 838 $ 775,090 2,219,550 5,438,366 14,937,693 1,008,668 1,639,717 1,718,473 3,101,452 5,019,636 11,802,716 50,760 192,460 462,130 913,362 '843,535 1,446,088 2,642,530 8,295,483 4,095,212 5,246,277 l,5b2',8ii 2,544,538 5,975,746 7,048,088 11,387,470 10,947,574 16,000 104,003 "2b4',475 1,656,535 8,925,001 4,946,390 17,530,335 8,762,219 395,940 642,955 262,975 70,865 85,194 i,b29',986 1,405,835 1,724,686 2,290,558 6,571,374 9,806,404 ■892',785 1,213,726 641,800 903,950 5,714,313 20,093,044 3,bb9',246 4,401,482 6,614,875 6,339,396 12,978,315 15,764,538 1,116 2,030 4,363 7,081 "l,22i 1,872 2,976 3,392 5,943 10,240 47 173 393 406 "i.m 1,798 3,100 3,851 4,089 3,526 "2,266 8,631 9,446 10,339 15,021 9,603 38 173 "'S44 1,762 3,782 2,989 6,819 2,793 497 1,161 516 102 76 "1,490 1,665 2,497 2,601 6,322 7,549 ""948 1,039 1,064 976 3,311 10,171 '4,439 4,969 8,606 6,663 11,640 6,834 $ 421,820 562,249 1,289,276 2,197,875 ■238',366 438,828 667,628 564,085 1,633,217 2,344,523 17,924 33,367 136,196 180,179 "298,524 497,280 817,212 787,867 1,037,525 1,343,640 'sis'ae 1,001,034 1,901,612 1,571,740 4,356,196 3,608,932 11,800 48,498 "8'l',348 478,080 996,962 826,244 2,101,648 1,046,181 204,920 282,662 66,757 13,666 22,897 "3b'6',324 439,080 482,683 671,939 1,668,394 2,477,696 "226,462 286,956 284,963 200,063 1,160,528 3,337,020 i,'3'o'l,376 1,453,739 2,449,132 1,161,142 2,689,845 2,638,771 $ 1,163,238 1,867,213 2,745,016 5,725,887 "377',766 1,211,807 1,616,527 3,197,155 3,304,249 6,655,897 20,177 230,566 245,022 482,200 "mi,m 1,153,237 2,163,655 3,144,905 2,907,390 4,619,705 "858',634 1,734,483 6,663,986 9,627,097 10,627,901 11,316,001 23,900 81,792 "■ss.m 1,071,285 3,302,782 4,141,885 7,960,286 6,824,034 538,882 822,028 447,449 43,298 43,251 "7"2l',889 990,021 1,806,591 2,410,743 4,375,392 7,379,148 "273,694 548,647 519,938 1,187,059 3,089,179 9,449,678 3,'6b9',247 4,604,368 6,872,723 4,961,957 6,228,808 7,994,596 $ 2,235,780 3,060,291 8,514,879 10,848,403 114,050 Idaho 923,403 2,414,196 4,044,376 4,875,310 6,545,195 13,704,923 56,850 Illinois.., 349,635 631,790 937,665 203,666 TDdlCmtli <•■*«■ ■m«.>>ia*tr 1,324,484 2,681,295 4,546,769 5,063,037 5,136,155 7,652,118 420,791 2,195,351 4,451,U4 12,324,765 14,260,830 20,278,023 20,613,724 41,950 199,879 50,280 470,760 2,185,206 5,794,285 6,185,628 12,056,302 8,677,058 1,563,487 1,736,381 682,697 85,521 104,182 130,329 1,592,434 2,495,820 3,662,086 4,064,361 7,904,428 13,774,9U 66,106 1,129,677 1,576,995 1,212,037 1,764,644 5,745,194 17,408,513 1,808.683 <^ 5,872,573 7,167,762 11,395,747 7,933,868 11,849,654 13,489,401 Indian Tenltorv.... ........ Iowa. •••••••■■■••••■• •.•.«.. Kentucky.... Lonisiana Maine 498 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. COMPARATIVE CENSUS RETURNS, 1840-1900-SUMMARY BY STATES-Cont. Number Number Cost o£ materials used. States and Tbrritories. IS 4) of es- tabUsh- Capital. of wage- Wages. Value of products. ments. earners. Af sryland ••■«•*■■■■■■■■>■■*. 1840 430 $ S 77,892 $ $ 226.977 1850 123 237,850 '"357 298,715 585,168 1860 187 472.800 377 101,208 239,808 609,044 1870 S91 1,055,600 1.245 259,551 674,868 1,501,471 1880 369 1,237,694 1,239 223,786 1,106,795 1,813,332 1890 217 1,459,895 1,552 335,909 840,941 1,600,472 1900 367 2,622,928 1,964 476,776 1,390,357 2,650,082 Massachusetts 1840 1.252 344,845 1350 448 1,369,275 "1,237 "396',676 "^■,847 1,552,265 1860 611 1,419,473 1,408 421,548 1,570.362 2,353,153 1870 644 2.054,829 2,291 669,300 2,065,375 3,556,870 1880 606 2,480,340 1.970 431,612 1,904,105 3.120.184 1890 488 5,135,860 3.000 1,042,508 2,719,U7 5,211.607 1900 553 6,253,171 2,768 1,215.088 3,574,418 6,526.230 Michigan 1840 1850 491 392,325 2,464,329 553 l,88b',875 "2.736 ■74b',676 "987',525 1860 986 7,735,780 6.980 1,895,162 3,425,613 7,303,404 1870 1,571 26,990,450 20.058 6,400,283 14,347,661 31,946,396 1880 1,649 39,260,428 24,235 6,967.905 32,251.372 52,449.928 1890 2,124 129,467,072 54,308 15.548,833 49,418,374 83.121,969 1900 1,705 67,379,698 26.199 11,122,030 29,439,931 54,290,520 Mlnoesota 1850 1860 4 92,000 1,349,620 62 1.175 18,300 371,988 23,800 603,095 57,800 1,257,603 163 1870 207 3,3U,140 2,952 880,028 2,193,965 4,299.162 1880 234 6.771,145 2,854 924,473 4,529,055 7.366,038 1890 392 39,442,925 16,170 4,155,522 15,170,349 25,075,132 1900 438 52.095.923 15,140 7,140,571 26,047,781 43,585.161 Mississippi 1840 1850 309 192,794 913,197 259 'Vii.iso "1,679 '221,628 "^',141 1860 229 1,049,910 1.441 436,U6 653,157 1,832,227 1870 265 1.153,917 1.954 580,056 828,793 2,160,667 1880 295 922.595 1.170 197,867 1,219,116 1,920,335 1890 366 4,498,788 4,427 1,169,673 2,867,798 6,770,387 1900 844 17.337,538 9.676 2,790,780 8.422,253 15.656.U0 Missouri 1840 1850 393 70.355 1.479,124 334 "K3',i69 "1.226 '239,692 '6!s',5i8 1860 548 1,809,725 ■ 1,753 477,372 1,398,564 3,085,026 1370 806 3,241,670 3.900 1.031,613 3,428,235 6,363,112 1380 881 2,867,970 3,503 669,644 3,215,292 5.265.617 1390 830 8,245,425 6,703 1,930,504 4,328,903 8.359.925 1900 1.197 11.089,799 6,043 2,012,659 6,410,216 11,177.529 Montana 1870 31 146 000 161 142 80,965 47,945 172,098 278,098 430,957 527,695 1880 36 208!200 1390 31 832,948 609 307,617 647,325 1,182,510 1900 139 2,590,224 1,191 637.924 1,665,536 2,949,992 Nebraska 1860 46 127,800 152,200 155 202 43.648 47,102 113.750 118.975 335.340 278,205 1870 EO 1880 38 93,375 140 29,313 164,878 265,062 1890 31 %,539 138 40,497 63,552 154,945 1900 23 117.360 31 10,727 27,123 51,773 Nevada 1870 18 193.500 132.000 324 35 153,930 9,892 135,450 162,810 432,500 243,200 1880 9 1900 4 9.327 4 1.376 3,234 7.060 New Hampshire 1840 1350 959 545 433,217 1.099.492 "869,SCI5 "'969 "265',668 "622'.564 1860 667 1,185,126 1,195 341.160 702.IU 1.293.706 1870 723 2,428,193 3,398 725.304 2.471,427 4,286,142 1380 680 3,745,790 3,104 548.556 2,272,991 3,842,012 1890 670 7,592,167 5,370 1.600.993 2,607,473 5.641.445 1900 653 U.382.U4 4,188 1.654,965 4,927.399 9,218.310 New Jersey 1840 597 ' 271,591 1.123.052 1850 324 'msoo ""665 "m.iso "646'.269 1860 268 1.163.100 591 188.752 942,706 1.623.160 UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 499 COMPARATIVE CENSUS RETURNS, 1840-1900-SUMMARY BY STATES-Cont. Number Number Cost of materials used. States and Territories. 1 of es- tablish- Capital. of wage- Wages. Value of products. >< ments. earners. New Jersey, Cont 1870 286 $ 2,238,900 1,145 768 $ 369.836 179,693 $ 1,612.802 989,979 $ 2,746,317 1880 284 1,667,395 1.627.640 1890 114 1.557,608 641 201,751 696,987 1.225.766 1900 205 1,477,930 706 305.486 998,161 1,859.014 New Mexico 1850 1 5,000 4 864 10,000 20.000 1860 9 45,100 42 14.520 12,960 45.150 1870 12 47,100 63 35,425 40,083 121,225 1880 26 74,675 172 24,240 117,055 173,930 1890 26 193,335 316 161,725 172,321 389,761 1900 32 291,599 340 112,967 212,571 4U,627 New York. 1840 6,356 3,891,302 1850 4.625 8,032,983 10,840 2V863',i88 6',8i3'.i36 13.126.759 1860 3.035 7,931,708 8,798 2,369,720 6,631.704 10.597.595 1870 3.510 15,110,981 15,409 3,438,601 11,228,613 21.238.228 1880 2.822 13,230.934 11,445 2,162,972 9,U9,263 14,356,910 1890 1.734 21,480,739 12,981 3.369,484 8,865,653 17,160,647 1900 1,765 21,873,203 6,850 2,737.361 9,038,425 15,766,977 North Carolina 1840 1.056 506,766 1850 299 l,b57,685 "I'ise 198,984 "4'8b',967 985,075 1860 349 941,880 1,364 296,952 510,379 1.176.013 1870 623 1,175,950 2,361 379,611 970,294 2.000,243 1880 776 1,743,217 3,029 447,431 1,677,139 2,672,796 1890 713 6,876,807 6,466 1,202,994 3,038,960 6.898,742 1900 1.770 13,385,097 U,751 2,491,089 7,743,235 14,862,693 North Dakota 1890 5 118,830 135 22,610 36,045 76,173 Ohio 1900 1840 4 2,883 27,275 12 3,000 11.532 24,200 262,821 1850 1.639 2,600.361 ■3,756 "924',684 l'.'693,688 3,864,452 1860 1,911 3.708,153 4,327 1,209,386 2,521,481 5,279,883 1870 2,230 6,191,679 8,237 1,535,909 5.038,678 10,236,180 1880 2,362 7,944,412 9,317 1,708,300 8.896,106 13,864,460 1890 1,461 11,806,709 11.727 3,143,494 7,621,133 16,279,843 1900 2,054 13,741,418 8,639 3,298,668 11,296,045 20,790,854 Oklahoma.,,. 1890 8 16,605 29 5,170 13,900 27,260 Oree^on 1900 1850 33 37 136,361 536,200 43 242 9,475 331,980 27,621 190,000 63,669 1,355,600 1860 126 430,400 378 210,312 189.925 690,008 1870 165 913,262 692 261,785 358.273 1,014,211 1880 228 1,577,875 579 242.154 1,331,342 2,030,463 1890 350 8.103,000 4,214 1,680,618 3,061,439 6.530,757 1900 436 8,167,433 4,084 2,023,914 6,727,720 10,352,167 Pennsylvania ............... 1840 6,389 1.150,220 1850 2,894 6,913,267 '7,652 1,7S7',526 3'.'869,558 7,729,058 1860 3.078 10,978,464 9,419 2,486,103 5,211,990 10,994,060 1870 8.739 24,804,304 17,427 6,261,576 14,940,096 28,938,985 1880 2,827 21,418,588 14,914 2.918,459 13,965,430 22,457.359 1890 1,948 45,107,300 19,598 5,440,480 15,677,103 29,087.970 1900 2,338 47,832,648 13,510 5,560,163 20,777,869 35,749,968 Rhode Island 1840 123 44,465 1850 51 "l38',706 ■"i34 "6b',252 "l42',768 241,566 1860 26 66,000 79 21,828 46,027 76.114 1870 81 161,200 204 39,826 157,079 257,268 1880 49 144,250 152 33,143 120,888 240,679 1890 32 135.156 196 64,697 U6,696 264,625 1900 35 216,670 123 43,280 124,973 233,579 South Carolina,,. 1840 746 637,684 1850 353 1,106,633 "i,isi '2)3,226 "6'25'844 1,108,880 1860 361 1,146,U6 1,263 219,361 498,290 1,125,640 1870 227 583,425 1,212 209,806 581,499 1,197,005 1880 420 1,056.265 1,468 221,968 1,237,361 2,031,507 1890 362 1,848.155 2,690 420,588 996,289 2,146,750 1900 729 5,187,727 4,685 897,899 2,629,805 5,207,184 500 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. COMPARATIVE CENSUS RETURNS, 1840-1900-SUMMARY BY STATES- Cent. Number Number States and Tekkitokies. u CS of es- tablish- Capital. of wag:e- Wages. Cost of materials used. Value of products. >< ments. eamers. South Dakota 1890 41 $ 251,255 351 $ 91,585 92.425 % 80,757 258,955 $ 375,709 445,861 I^J^^IAL&A Mmf CfeJ^vr !„&«■■•■■■«•■■• ■■•■ 1900 29 283,720 181 Tennessee 1840 977 217,606 725,387 1850 451 '7b7',286 "i'm9 "lffi,6i2 "283',667 1860 546 1,492,013 1,867 435,536 880,595 2,228,503 1870 702 1,622,741 2,910 678,364 1,446,782 3,390,687 1880 755 2,004,503 3,718 549,222 2,142,885 3,744,905 1890 820 7,259,027 7,424 1,860,008 5,045,906 9,073,686 1900 1,732 12,900,595 11,192 3.424,510 10,008,275 18,127,784 TGZ8S .....•••••■••••■ 1850 89 300,075 1,278,080 426 96,912 365,376 156,148 530,545 466,012 1,754,206 1860 194 1,211 1870 324 870,491 1,750 390,149 644,274 1,960,851 1880 324 1,660,952 3,186 732,914 2,096,775 3,673,449 1890 314 11,175,551 7,485 2,656,119 6,420,878 11,942,566 1900 637 19,161,265 7,924 3,094,917 9,668,343 16,296,473 Utab 1850 6 12 400 18 14,620 145,505 1860 28 151,656 80 "46,466 "61,973 1870 95 338,500 541 139,533 266.047 661,431 1880 107 272,750 385 65,175 238.274 375,164 1890 32 198,248 257 58,901 131,432 249,940 1900 81 182,780 140 43,504 102,932 214,187 Venuont 1840 1,081 346,939 618,065 1850 326 ' 438,625 '"606 "153,288 "303',366 1860 *JI 862,060 939 244,551 477,798 928,541 1870 637 2,872,451 2,782 729,925 1,731,516 3,525,122 1880 688 3,274,250 2,511 426,953 2,021,868 3,258,816 1890 779 7,789,874 6,054 1,501,776 3,854,670 6.958.674 1900 658 7,051,523 3,625 1,184,904 3,377,131 6,131,808 Virginia 1840 1,987 2 538,092 977,412 1850 "17,666 ""io ""2,466 ■419,536 1860 784 1,292,886 2,139 464,182 911,714 2,218,962 1870 605 979,386 2,283 343,823 860,949 2,111,055 1880 907 2,122,925 4,011 540,231 1,983,777 3,434,163 1890 663 4.427,627 5,973 1,244,633 2,926,474 5,630,600 1900 1,341 9,299,046 7,611 2,144,382 6,763,831 12,137,177 Washlngrtoo. I860 33 1,168,000 1,285,202 653 383,130 388,830 424,671 680,259 1,194,360 1,307,585 1870 46 474 1880 37 2,456,450 499 200,539 1,188,075 1,734,742 1890 462 21,400,307 9,491 4,643,564 8,331,336 17,450,301 1900 778 26,041,089 15,696 8,511,224 16,455,553 30,286,280 West Virginia 1870 343 981,950 1,668,920 1,515 2,183 349,368 459,945 682,180 1,375,372 1,478,399 2,431,857 1880 472 1890 454 5,086,114 4,182 1,039,530 3.023.297 5,515,065 1900 950 10,421,570 5,327 1,828,558 5,584,717 10,612,837 Wisconsin 1840 134 202,239 1,218,616 1850 278 l,b66',892 "l,569 "419,346 "538',2S7 1860 520 5,785,355 4,703 1,227,385 2,067,816 4,616,430 1870 720 11,448,545 12,461 3,755,089 7,422,866 15,130,719 1880 704 19,824,059 8,465 2,257,218 12,471,473 17,952.347 1890 1,119 105,191,521 41,305 10,712,947 36,649,358 60,966.444 1900 1,066 77,366,223 21,701 9,480,011 35,199,409 67.634,516 Wyoming 1870 g 110,500 26,700 213 38 104,500 6,380 99,000 27,350 268,000 40,990 1880 7 1890 17 160,049 102 37,803 52,166 124,462 1900 52 603,956 559 256,025 297,476 831,558 UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 501 Taking up each item in the summary tables, a series of tables by states and years is presented. These show the changes from decade to decade in number of establishments, capital invested, wage-earners employed, wages paid and value of products, by states. The table re- lating to number of establishments is as follows : NUMBER OP ESTABLISHMENTS. States and Territorzks. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 524 ""bs ■■673 "lis 1 65 677 "785 1.248 ■"■75 ■■7I8 139 1,381 430 1,252 491 "■309 393 ■gs'g 597 6,3"5^6 1,056 2,88^3 5,389 123 746 ■"977 i'osi 1,987 (5)— • 124 173 ■■■■66 10 ■■239 ■'ss 1 49 333 ■"iiss 928 "144 "466 138 732 123 448 558 4 259 334 ■"545 324 1 4,625 299 r,6"39 ■■■■37 2,894 51 353 "i's'i 89 5 326 2 339 ■'178 295 ■■2d8 ■"Vi 1 87 411 "463 1,331 ■■sei 124 482 161 926 187 611 986 163 229 548 ■"46 ■■567 268 9 3,035 349 i,9li ■'126 3,078 26 361 ■■546 194 28 415 784 33 ;}2o 284 ■■■■'i 211 291 32 393 10 80 1 104 532 10 511 1,861 "545 195 562 152 1,099 391 644 1.571 207 265 806 31 50 18 723 285 12 3,510 523 m 2,230 ■'ilBS 3,739 81 227 <*^02 324 95 637 605 46 343 720 8 354 ""13 319 251 96 300 39 86 1 135 655 48 640 2,022 ■■32^8 146 670 175 848 369 606 1,649 234 295 881 36 38 9 680 284 26 2,822 776 m 2,352 ■■m8 2,827 49 420 («) 755 324 107 688 907 37 472 704 7 472 10 4 539 258 120 176 (') 48 ■'215 449 44 363 1,633 3 143 27 599 127 894 217 488 2,124 392 366 830 31 31 "576 114 26 1.734 713 5 1,461 8 350 1,948 32 352 41 820 314 32 779 663 462 454 1,119 17 1.111 Alaska 25 14 1,199 California 313 159 200 Dakota (') 76 Florida 416 1,254 daho 117 Illinois 837 1,849 49 264 54 1,280 432 Maine...' 838 Maryland 367 Massachusetts 553 Michigan 1,705 438 Mississippi 844 1,197 139 23 4 553 205 32 New York 1,765 1,770 North Carolina Ohio 2,054 33 Oldahoma^ Oregon 436 Pennsylvania 2 338 Rhode Island 35 1,732 637 81 658 1.341 Utah Vermont Virginia West Virginia 1,066 52 Total— United States 31,650 17,475 20,658 25,832 25,708 22,617 33,035 ' See North Dakota and South Dakota. 1890. i See Dakota. ^ Included in Virginia. 2 See Dakota. 3 part o£ Indian Territory prior to The number of establishments has shown much less increase than capital, wages and product. This is due chiefly to improvements in 502 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. sawmill machinery and in transportation facilities, both of which have aided in concentrating the industry in large establishments. A remarkable increase is noted in the capital invested in the lumber industry, especially from 1880 to 1890. That decade witnessed a won- derful development of the northern pine industry and also the real beginning of development in the southern pine states west of Georgia. AMOUNT OP CAPITAL INVESTED. States and Territories. 1850. 1860. 1 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California , Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware , District of Columbia.... Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma * Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total— United States $952,473 113,575 147,200 308,150 158,180 6,000 271,400 1,008,668 843,635 1,602,811 204,475 1,029,980 892,785 3,009,240 237,850 1,369,275 1,880,875 92 000 711,130 633,109 859,305 928,600 6,000 8,032,983 1,057,685 2,600,361 636,200 6,913,267 188,700 1,106,033 707,280 300,075 12,400 438,025 17,000 1,006,892 $1,766,947 1,948,327 386,800 247,760 20,000 1,282,000 1,639,717 1,446,088 2.544,538 1.656,535 396,940 1,405,835 1,213,726 4,401,482 472,800 1,419,473 7,735,780 1,349,620 1,049,910 1,809,725 127,800 1,185,126 1,163,100 45,100 7,931,708 941,880 3,708,163 430,400 10,978,464 66,000 1,146,U6 1,492,013 1,278.080 161,666 862,060 1,292,886 1,168,000 (») 6,786,355 $744,006 5,000 694,400 3,856,440 132,700 775,391 37,400 290,424 1,500 775,090 1,718,473 60,760 2,542,530 5,975.746 3,926,001 642,956 1,724,686 541,800 6,614,875 1,065,600 2,054,829 26,990,460 3,311,140 1,153,917 3,241,670 146,000 152,200 193,500 2,428,193 2,238,900 47,100 15,110,981 1,175,950 (3) 6,191,679 913,262 24,804,304 161,200 688,426 (=) 1,622,741 870,491 338,500 2,872,451 979,886 1,286,202 981,950 11,448,545 110,500 $1,546,656 102,450 1,067.840 6,464,718 481,200 657,300 113,750 269,260 25,000 2,219,550 3,101,452 192,460 3,295,483 7,048,088 4V946,396 262,976 2,290,558 903,950 6,339,396 1,237,694 2,480,340 39,260,428 6,771,145 922,595 2,867,970 208,200 93,375 132,000 3,745,790 1,667,395 74,675 13,230,934 1,743,217 (3) 7,944,412 1,677,875 21,418,588 144,260 1.066,266 (5) 2,004,603 1,660,952 272,750 3,274,260 2,122,925 2,456,460 1,668,920 19,824,069 26,700 $7,460,108 105,727 212,976 6,928,720 16,184,235 941,561 1,092,686 (2) 265,791 6,438,366 5,019,635 462.130 4,095,212 U,387,470 16,000 17,530,335 70,866 6,571,374 5,714,313 12,978,316 1,459,895 5,135,860 129,467,072 39,442.925 4,498,788 8,245,426 832,948 96,639 7,592,167 1,567,608 193,335 21,430,739 6,376,807 118,830 11,806,709 16,605 8,103,000 45,107,300 135,166 1,848,165 251,256 7,269,027 11,175 551 198,248 7,789,874 4,427,627 21,400,307 8,086,114 105,191,621 160,049 $13,020,183 181,950 940,698 21,727,710 28,236,332 972,098 1,188,965 (2) 354,464 14,937,693 11,802,716 913,352 5,246,277 10,947,574 104,003 8,762,219 86,194 9.806,404 20,093,044 15,764,538 2,622,928 6,263,171 67,379,698 62,095,923 17,337,538 11,089,799 2,590,224 117,360 9,327 11,382,U4 1,477,930 291,599 21,873,203 13,385,097 27,275 13,741,418 186,361 8,167,433 47,832,648 216,670 5,187,727 283,720 12,900,596 19,161,265 182,780 7,061,523 9,299,046 26,041,089 10,421,570 77,366,223 603,966 $40,031,417 $74,619.590 $143.493.232 $181,186,122 $667,881,054 $6U,6U,524 • For purposes of comparison the values of 1870 should be reduced about twenty percent because of a depreciated currency for that year. 2 gee North Dakota and South Dakota. ^ See Da- kota, i Part of Indian Territory prior to 1890. 5 See Dakota. « Included in Virginia. UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 503 In number of wage-earners employed the invention and application of labor-saving machinery has promoted an actual reduction, coincident with a large increase in product. The changes in this item are shown by the following table : TOTAL NUMBER OP WAGE-EARNERS. 1 See North Dakota and South Dakota. 2 See Dakota. 3 Part of Indian Territory prior to 1890. 4 See Dakota. ° Included In Vlr^la. States and Territories. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. Alabama 937 "275 114 "37"i "224 14 499 1,221 1,306 2,265 "344 1,490 948 4,439 357 1,237 2,730 62 1,079 1,220 "969 665 4 10.840 1.135 3.756 "242 7.052 134 1,431 1.229 426 18 606 10 ■(=)" 1,569 1.686 "969 1.924 "311 "176 4 1,222 1,872 1.798 3,631 1,7(52 497 1,665 1,039 4,969 377 1.408 6,980 1,175 1,441 1,753 "l55 1,195 591 42 8,798 1,354 4,327 "378 9,419 79 1.263 1,867 1,211 80 939 2,139 653 (5) 4,703 1,428 16 1.107 4.077 218 908 68 311 15 1.116 2.976 47 3,100 9,446 "3,782 1,161 2,497 1,054 8,506 1,245 2,291 20,058 2,952 1,954 3.900 161 202 324 3,398 1,145 63 15,409 f,361 8,237 ""692 17,427 204 1,212 2,910 1,750 541 2.782 2.283 474 1,515 12,461 213 1.647 79 1,744 3,434 877 707 290 391 25 2,030 3,392 173 3,851 10,339 "2,989 516 2,601 976 6.663 1.239 1,970 24,235 2,854 1,170 3,503 142 140 35 3,104 768 172 11,445 3.029 (2) 9.317 ""579 14.914 152 1,468 3.718 3.186 385 2.511 4.011 499 2,183 8.465 38 6,335 78 94 6,563 4,689 1,156 783 <"532 "4,363 5,943 393 4.089 15.021 38 6,819 102 6,322 3,311 11,540 1,552 3,000 54,308 16,170 4,427 6,703 609 138 "5,376 641 316 12,981 6,466 135 11.727 29 4,214 19.598 195 2,590 351 7,424 7.485 257 6.054 5,973 9.491 4,182 41,305 102 9,273 Alaska 81 197 15.895 California 5,806 732 Connectictit 788 (I) '°° 433 7,081 10,240 Idaho 406 Illinois 3,526 9,503 173 2,79S 76 7,549 10,171 6,834 1,964 2.768 Michigan 26,199 Minnesota 15,140 Mississippi 9.676 6.043 1,191 Nebraska 31 4 4,188 New Jersey 706 New Mexico 340 New York 6,850 11,751 North Dakota 12 Ohio 8,539 Oklahoma^ 43 4,084 Pennsylvania 13,510 Rhode Island 123 South Carolina 4,585 South Dakota 181 11,192 7,924 Utah 140 Vermont 3,625 7,611 15,696 West Virginia 5,327 21,701 559 51.218 75,852 149.997 147.956 311,964 283,260 Notwithstanding the decrease or small increase in number of wage- earners, the rate of wages has, during the last two decades, increased 504 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. materially. In 1880 the average wage was $215.24, in 1890 it was $281.87 and in 1900 it was $369.42. It should be mentioned, however, that prior to 1900 the total of wages paid in the lumber industry was not accurately obtained. TOTAL WAGES. States Ain> Tekkitories. 1850. 1860. 1 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia., Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois , Indiana Indian Territory Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma^ Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total-United States . . . . $164,268 42,828 175,080 97,392 50,640 2,400 99,072 238.356 298,524 513,216 81,348 306,324 226,452 1,301,376 77,892 396,576 740,076 18,300 221,628 289,092 265,068 177,180 864 2,863.188 198,984 331,980 1,787,520 60,252 203,220 192,612 96,912 153,288 2,460 (6) 419,340 $428,268 268,716 1,474,626 89,878 "48,i32 1,680 816,292 438,828 497.280 1,001,034 478,080 204,920 439,080 286,956 1,453,739 101,208 421,548 1,895,162 371,988 486,116 477,372 43,648 341,160 188,752 14,520 2,369,720 296,952 1,209,386 210,312 2,485,103 21,828 219,361 435,536 365,376 46,460 244,551 464,182 383,130 («) 1,227,385 $357,195 6,000 255,186 1,620,626 78,7U 242,990 14,256 70,828 1,800 421,820 667,628 17,924 817,212 1,901,612 995,962 282,662 482,683 284,953 2,449,132 259,551 569,300 6,400,288 880,028 580,056 1,031,513 80,965 47,102 153,930 725,304 369,835 35,425 3,438,601 379,611 (3) 1,535,909 261,785 5,261,576 39,826 209,806 (=) 578,364 390,149 139,533 729,925 343,823 388,830 349,368 3,755,089 104,500 $424,156 33,375 237,394 1,095,736 112,931 178,336 54,974 40,694 6,000 562,249 554,085 33,367 787,867 1,571,740 825,244 66,757 671,939 200,063 1,161,142 223,786 431,612 6,967,905 924,473 197,867 669,644 47,945 29,313 9,892 548,556 179,693 24,240 2,162,972 447,431 (3) 1,708,300 242,154 2,918,459 33,143 221,963 (5) 549,222 732,914 65,175 426,953 540,231 200,539 459,945 2,257,218 6,380 $1,712,336 18,626 67,770 l,894,i 1,927,551 392,010 254,926 (2) 96,059 1,289,276 1,533,217 136,195 1,037,526 4,366,196 U,800 2,101,648 13,555 1,568,394 1,160,628 2,689,845 336,909 1,042,508 15,548.833 4,155,522 1,169,673 1,930,504 807,617 40,497 1,600,993 201,751 151,725 3,869,484 1,202,994 22,510 3,143,494 5,170 1,680,618 5,440,480 64,697 420,588 91,585 1,860,008 2,656,119 58,901 1,501,776 1,244,633 4,643,564 1,039,530 10,712,947 37,808 $2,265,018 76,988 137,810 4,730,413 2,849,457 331,038 306,915 (2) 105,093 2,197,875 2,344,523 180,179 1,343,640 3,608,932 48,498 1,046,181 22,897 2,477,696 3,337,020 2,633,771 476,776 1.215,088 U.122,030 7,140,571 2,790,780 2,012,659 637,924 10,727 1,375 1,654,965 305,486 112,957 2,737,361 2,491,089 3,000 3,298,668 9,475 2,023,914 5,550,163 43,280 897,899 92,425 3,424,610 3,094,917 43,504 1,184,904 2,144,382 8,511,224 1,828,568 9,480,0U 256,025 $13,017,792 $21,698,365 $40,009,162 $31,845,974 $87,934,284 $104,640,591 > For purposes of comparison the values of 1870 should be reduced about twenty percent because of a depreciated currency for that year. 2 See North Dakota and South Dakota. ' See Dakota. * Part of Indian Territory prior to 1880. <> See Dakota. * Included In Virginia. UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 505 In value of products there has been a remarkable increase from census to census, only during the last decade any important lumber producing states having shown a material decline, those declines be- ing confined to northern pine territory. VALUE OP PRODUCTS. States and Territories. 1840. 1850. 1860. • 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware Dlst. of Columbia.. Florida Georgia Idabo Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. . . . Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana , Maine Maryland Massachusetts MicUean Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . . . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma * Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming $169,008 $1,103,481 $1,875,628 176,617 122,918 959.485 1,158,902 4,003,431 534,794 589,456 5,562 20,346 114.050 236,863 29,000 391,034 923,403 276,161 21.125 1,476,645 2,414,196 203,666 420,791 1,324,484 2,195,351 2,681,295 4,451,U4 50,280 470,760 180,329 66,106 1,808,683 226,977 344,845 392,325 192,794 70,355 1.592,434 1,129,677 6,872,573 585,168 1,552,265 2,464,829 57,800 913,197 1,479,124 2,185,206 1,563,487 2,495,820 1,575,995 7,167,762 609,044 2,353,153 7,303,404 1,257,603 1,832,227 3,085,026 335,340 433,217 271,591 3,891,302 506,766 1,099,492 1,123,052 20,000 13,126,759 985,075 1.293,706 1,623,160 45,150 10,597.695 1,176,013 262,821 3,864,452 5,279,883 1,150,220 44.455 537,684 1.355,500 7,729,058 241,556 1,108,880 690,008 10,994,060 76,114 1,125,640 217,606 638,092 725,387 466,012 14,620 618.066 977,412 2,228,503 1,754,206 145,505 928,541 2,218,962 1,194,360 202,239 1,218,516 4,616,430 $1,359,083 10,000 1,344,403 5,227,064 324,370 1,541,1 72,280 405,041 30,000 2,235,780 4,044,375 56,850 4,546,769 12,324,755 5,794,285 1,736,381 3,662,086 1,212,037 11,395,747 1,501,471 3,556,870 31,946,396 4,299,162 2,160,667 6,363,112 430,957 278,205 432,500 4,286,142 2,745,317 121,225 21,238,228 2,000,243 (3) 10,235,180 1,014,211 28,938,985 257.258 1,197,005 (5) 3,390,687 1,960,851 661,431 3,525,122 2,111,055 1,307,685 1,478,399 15,130,719 268,000 $2,649,634 216,918 1,793,848 4,428,950 1,051,295 1,076,455 435,792 411,060 60,000 3,060,291 4,876,310 349,635 6,063,037 14,260,830 "6',i85',628 682,697 4,064,361 1,764,644 7,933,r 1,813,332 3,120,184 52,449,928 7,366,r- 1,920,335 6,265,617 527,695 266,062 243,200 3,842,012 1.627,640 173,930 14,356,910 2,672,796 (3) 13,864,460 2,030,463 22,457,369 240,579 2,031,607 (5) 3,744,905 3,673,449 375,164 3,258,816 3,434,163 1,734,742 2,431,857 17,952,347 40,990 $8,6OT,971 68,440 248.790 8,943,052 8,794,655 1,363,749 1,353,544 (2) 405,057 5,514,879 6,545,195 631,790 5,135,155 20,278,023 41,950 12,056,302 85,521 7,904,428 6,745,194 11,849,654 1,600,472 5,211,607 83,121,969 25,075,132 5,770,387 8,359,925 1,182,510 154,945 5,641,445 1,225,766 389.761 17,160,547 6,898,742 76,173 15,279,843 27,260 6,630,757 29,087,970 264,626 2,146,760 375,709 9,073,686 11,942,566 249,940 6,958,674 5.630,600 17,450,301 5,515,065 60,966,444 124,462 $12,867,551 211,229 547,790 23,959,983 13,764,647 1,627,605 1,818,643 (2) 471,482 "id,'848,463 13,704,923 937,665 7,652,U8 20,613,724 199,879 8,677,058 104,182 13,774,911 17,408,513 13,489,401 2,650,082 6,526,230 54,290,520 43,585,161 15,656,U0 11,177,529 2,949,992 51,773 7,060 9,218,310 1,869,014 411,627 15,766,977 14,862,693 24,200 20,790,854 63,569 10,352,167 35,749,965 233,579 6,207,184 445,861 18,127,784 16,296,473 214,187 6,131,808 12,137,177 30,286,280 10,612,837 57,634,816 831,558 Total-United States $12,943,507 $58,611,976 $96,699,856 $210,159,327 $233,268,729 $437.957,382 $566,832,984 ' For purposes of comparison the values of 1870 should be reduced about twenty percent because of a depreciated currency for that year, 2 See North Dakota and South Dakota. 3 See Dakota. * Part of Indian Territory prior to 1890. ° See Dakota. 506 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Most complete in its details and exact in its methods was the Twelfth Census ; and because it was the latest census available for this work, its returns, relating to lumber and associated industries, are given at length. The three tables which next follow relate to the sawmills and planing mills operated in connection with them and to timber camps, the figures being aggregated to cover the lumber pro- ducing industry proper: STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF SAWMILLS, PLANING MILLS (OPBRATED IN CONNEC- TION WITH SAWMILLS) AND TIMBER CAMPS OP THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES, CENSUS OF 1900. States and Capital. Mlscella- Cost of materials Valub of Products. Tkrritokibs. lol expenses. used. Total. Sawmill. Alabama 1,111 $13,020,183 $ 471,111 $ 4,660,648 $12,867,551 $10,514,349 Alaska 25 181,950 12,280 80,134 211,229 95,449 411,833 17,306,562 Arizona 14 940 698 18,322 156,035 547,790 Arkansas 1,199 21,727,710 1.149,025 9,424,347 23,959,983 California 313 28,236,332 771,329 4,642.942 13,764,647 8,729,654 Colorado 159 972,098 80,257 582,695 1,627,605 1,290,000 Connecticut 200 1,188,965 146,721 572,960 1,818.643 1,304,304 Delaware 76 354,464 6,315 190,365 471,482 401,042 Florida 416 14,937,693 848,458 4,196,771 10,848,403 8,493,424 1,254 11,802,716 281,504 4,249,555 13,704,923 937,665 7 652,118 11,601,361 641,868 5,624,331 18,745.545 194,504 Idaho 117 913 352 29 787 318 249 Illinois 837 5,246,277 321.956 4,194,014 1,849 10,947,574 601,823 9,822,024 20 613 724 Indian Territory 49 104,003 2,778 66,781 199,879 Iowa 264 8 762 219 694 325 5,848,218 34,027 8,677,058 104,182 5,264,931 101,264 11,846,565 54 85,194 3,827 Kentucky 1.280 9,805,404 644,275 6,201,921 13,774.911 Louisiana 432 20,093,044 1,000,742 7,285,674 17,408.513 12,074,055 Maine 838 15,764,538 738,455 6,660,817 13,489,401 11,476,563 2,286,248 Maryland 367 2,622,928 163,378 1,008,690 2,650,082 Massachusetts... 553 6,253,171 371,852 3,034,828 6,526,230 5,057,483 Mlchlgfan 1,705 67,379,698 3,266,221 22,367,102 54,290,520 42,517,495 Minnesota 438 52,095,923 3,103,389 21,345,651 43,585,161 25.891.210 Mississippi 844 17,337,538 636,058 6.077.422 15,656,110 12,136.488 1,197 11,089,799 2,590,224 527 267 4,982.654 916.018 11,177,529 2,949 992 8.882.000 2.291,289 51,373 139 66,688 Nebraska 23 117,360 830 20.339 51,773 4 9,327 269 1.066 3.496,425 7,060 9,218,310 7,060 6,726,754 New Hampshire 553 11,382,114 358,102 New Jersey 205 1,477,930 57,712 830,655 1,859,014 1,276,014 New Mexico 32 291,599 8,188 121,724 411,627 290,527 New York 1,765 21,873,203 835,060 7,153,962 15,766,977 11,676,620 North Carolina.. 1,770 13,385,097 633,149 5,626,605 14,862,593 11,782,101 North Dakota... 4 27,275 86 7,037 24,200 21,800 Ohio 2 054 13,741,418 938,710 9,650,823 25,131 20,790,854 63,569 17,306,294 63,569 Oklahoma 33 136,361 1,459 Oregon -. 436 8 167 433 376 640 4,814,196 14,408,076 10,352,167 35,749,965 6,883,234 28.516,776 Pennsylvania.... 2,338 47,832,548 2,743,351 Rhode Island 35 216,670 20,981 70,861 233,579 185.313 South Carolina. . 729 5,187,727 121,908 1,880.865 5,207,184 4.253,670 South Dakota... 29 283,720 8,035 165.025 445,861 292,938 Tennessee 1,732 12,900,595 729,179 8.636.752 18,127,784 15,229,933 637 19,161,265 612 980 7,548.680 57.867 2.638.050 4,879,077 13,043,512 16,296,473 214,187 6,131,808 12,137,177 30,286,280 10,533,438 189,562 4,206,936 9,900,057 18,617,179 Utah 81 182 780 3,293 263,876 545,056 1,421,520 658 7,051,523 9 299 046 Virginia 1,341 Washington 778 26,041,089 West Virginia... 950 10,421,570 630,206 3,959.909 10,612,837 9.390.818 Wisconsin 1.066 77,366,223 4,263,605 28.124.015 57,634,816 39,944,711 Wyoming 52 603,956 6,698 213,907 831,558 285,567 Total-U. S... 33.035 $611,611,524 $30,539,036 $246,295,101 $566,832,984 $422,812,061 UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 507 STATISTICAL SUMMARY OP SAWMILLS. PLANING MILLS (OPERATED IN CONNEC- TION WITH SAWMILLS) AND TIMBER CAMPS OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES, CENSUS OF 1900. Proprie- tors and firm mem- bers. Salaried officials, clerks, etc. Average number of wage-earners and total wages. States and Tkkkttories. Total. Men, 16 years and over. Number. Salaries. Average number. Total wages. Average number. Total wages. 1,516 35 13 1,565 335 201 249 105 537 1.697 141 1,106 2,471 65 327 68 1,699 522 1,112 474 685 2,161 543 1,099 1,614 178 30 4 681 246 36 2,161 2,426 6 2,800 46 596 3,078 38 918 24 2,486 845 106 815 1,789 978 1,334 1,284 77 494 14 22 873 387 47 38 2 416 468 23 138 428 4 147 "'355 636 312 87 97 1,467 715 538 275 49 "'Ui 32 12 387 482 1 375 1 250 579 4 252 16 447 426 7 91 416 743 296 1,326 18 S 367,229 7,810 33,560 682,546 427,242 38,487 20,396 900 337,405 297,402 14,240 116,034 329,547 957 175,768 "266,879 617,759 252,344 44,437 82,596 1,413,518 834,222 453,244 235,431 60,906 "lb4',937 23,384 8,200 303,104 328,729 300 309,686 600 229,101 481,405 1,325 150,999 13,820 370,643 409,113 1,850 66,193 280,038 743,918 233,044 1,348,601 10,495 12,638 93 342 21,302 9,322 970 1,074 531 9,041 14,720 594 4,173 11,808 209 2,919 93 9,277 13,186 9,049 2,481 3,463 36,900 20,081 13,713 8,389 1,949 39 6 6,382 978 567 9,243 16,149 17 10,469 49 6,130 20,369 182 6,559 296 12,980 10,962 202 4,743 11,031 19,143 7,924 30,497 637 $ 3,091,821 85,252 244,850 6,410,843 4,620,912 441,135 416,290 127,163 2,798,279 3,404,972 262,815 1,570,472 4,465,113 55,643 1,098,717 28,172 3,015,656 4,325,882 3,391,444 622,874 1,499,661 15,306,722 9,451,787 3,967,030 2,809,551 1,037,291 13,917 2,225 2,383,074 409,282 170,290 3,653,383 3,443,805 4.400 4,023,696 10,725 2,558,667 8,312,776 64,367 1,314,592 146,350 3,950,524 4,233,096 66,326 1,532,957 3,137,853 10,444,731 2,665,084 12,947,544 289,017 12,216 93 330 21,077 9,222 958 1,074 496 8,896 14,588 586 4,012 11,708 207 2,803 92 9,113 13,077 8,990 2,235 3,408 36,386 20,028 13,634 8,232 1,948 36 6,300 976 556 9,144 15,919 17 10,322 49 5,037 20,186 181 6,619 295 12,620 10,921 192 4,604 10,664 19,060 7,863 29,977 637 $ 3,033,800 Alaska 85,252 240.850 6,371,464 California 4,596,982 436,725 Connecticut Delaware 416,290 122,385 2,776,344 Georgia.. 3,391,071 Idaho.. 261,415 Illinois 1,541,625 4,448,153 Indian Territory.. Iowa...... 55,253 1,081,294 28,022 2,989,550 4,306,829 Maine 3,378,783 602,918 Massachusetts.... 1,484,740 15,196,768 Minnesota Mississippi Missouri 9,439,116 3,954,765 2,782,115 Montana 1,037,051 Nebraska 13,386 2,225 New Hampshire. . New Jersey New Mexico NewYorli 2,365,418 408,982 170,165 3,636,988 North Carolina... North Dalsota Ohio 3,416,631 4,400 3,999,610 10,726 2,537,650 Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina.... South Dakota Tennessee 8,284,082 64,249 1,310,379 146,356 3,893,129 4,225,577 Utah 65,203 Vermont 1,614,280 Vlrelnla 3 103,060 Washington West Virginia Wisconsin 10,416,710 2,654,210 12,837,527 289,017 Total— U.S 43,322 14,388 $12,520,143 382,840 «140,327,924 377,480 $139,428,499 508 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF SAWMILLS, PLANING MILLS (OPERATED IN CONNEC- TION WITH SAWMILLS) AND TIMBER CAMPS OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES, CENSUS OF 1900. Sawed lumber. Value of T^fnHiinfo States ANB V C*XU^ v& Total. Merchant. Custom. Qu'ntity TEItRITO- RIBS. Quantity Quantity (esti- mated) Value Planing mill. Timber camp. Mfeet board measure. Value. M feet board measure. Value. Mfeet board meas- ure. (esti- mated.) Alabama .... $ 2,080,427 $ 272,775 1.101,386 $9,833,239 1,036,841 $ 9,262,377 64,545 $ 570,862 Alaska 69,462 46,318 6,571 89,249 6,571 89,249 Arizona 106,557 30,400 36,182 407,308 36,122 406,588 ""60 720 Arkansas.... 6,205,410 448,011 1,623,987 14,160,671 1,601,510 13,951,546 22,477 209,025 California... 3,916,512 1,118,481 737,036 7,823,897 729,860 7,764,872 7,186 69,025 Colorado 289,521 48,084 133,746 1,269,306 132,746 1,258,522 1,000 10,784 Connecticut. 152,997 361,342 108,093 1,614,701 78,983 1,152,140 29,110 462,561 Delaware . . . 56,700 13,740 35,955 395,828 27,556 316,707 8,399 79,121 Florida 1,758,738 696,241 790,373 7,853,462 782,677 7,786,452 7,696 67,010 Georeia 1,650,062 453,500 1,311,917 11,355,532 1,257,468 10,932,272 54,449 423,260 Idaho 172,257 123,540 65,363 614,188 62,238 681,934 3,125 32,254 Illinois 1,774,983 252,804 388,469 5,049,663 336,891 4,434,282 51,578 615,381 Indiana 1,556,243 311,936 1,036,999 16,818,041 853,479 14,154,157 183,520 2,663,884 Indian Ter.. 4,375 1,000 15,985 167,480 14,559 149,328 1,426 18,162 Iowa 3,389,020 23,107 352,411 5,146,786 328,168 4,789,069 24,243 367,726 Kansas 2,918 10,665 146,180 5,826 74,540 4,839 71,640 Kentucky.... 1,677,636 350,710 774,651 10,045,547 682,691 8,994,720 91,960 1,060,827 Louisiana... 4,664,832 669.626 1,116,366 10,916,954 1,107,876 10,859,901 7,490 57,053 Maine 1,704,702 308,136 784,647 9,256,158 701,787 8,347,909 82,860 908,249 Maryland 284,453 79,381 183,711 2,036,716 159,523 1,774,001 24,188 262,715 Mas'ach's'ts 1,243,408 225,339 344,190 4,006,845 273,868 3,180,402 70,332 826,443 Michigan.... 5,822,481 5,950,544 3,018,338 36,865,616 2,648,247 31,612,301 370,091 4,253,315 Minnesota .. 12,069,993 5,623,958 2,342,338 28,637,800 1,858,612 22,731,828 483,726 5,905,972 Mississippi,. 3,305,365 214,257 1,206,266 11,665,152 1,173,109 11,352,144 33,156 313,008 Missouri 1,977,248 318,281 723,754 8,011,022 643,187 7,113,586 80,667 897,437 Montana.... 450,728 207,975 255,686 2,297,860 247,666 2,221,496 8,019 76,364 Nebraska.... 400 4,656 64,831 4,220 49,611 435 5,320 Nevada 725 7,060 725 7,060 New Hamp. i!m,m 1,067,993 672,447 6,544,136 495,758 5,730,163 76,689 "8i3',973 New Jersey. 423,788 159,212 74,118 1,233,323 57,649 945,533 16,569 287,790 New Mexico. 17,950 103,150 30,880 289,401 27,802 260,915 3,078 28,486 New York... 3,393,544 696,813 878,448 12,364,362 685,373 8,907,359 193,075 3,457,003 N. Carolina. 2,760,410 320,082 1,286,638 11,067,909 1,195,028 10,371,778 91,610 696,131 N. Dakota.. 2,400 2,030 22,060 2,000 21,700 30 360 Ohio 2,854,510 'VsbloM 990,497 15,820,939 768,903 12,756,868 221,594 3,064,071 Oklahoma... 6,119 69,374 4,626 53,688 1,493 15,686 Oregon 2','733',466 "735',467 734,538 6,691,214 732,906 6,675,623 1,632 15,591 Pen'sylvania 3,860,689 3,372,600 2,333,278 27,476,411 2,125,518 24,946,209 207,760 2,630,202 Rhodelsland 1,733 46,533 18,528 226,919 13,737 165,951 4,791 60,968 S.Carolina.. 826,381 127,133 466,429 3,933,009 446,416 3,781,460 20.013 151,549 S. Dakota... 113,783 39,140 31,704 299,188 29,133 275,278 2,571 23,910 Tennessee... 2,624,585 273,266 950,968 11,832,696 825,196 10,372,328 126,762 1,460,268 Texas 6,196,849 566,186 1,232,404 10,197,675 1,214,013 10,041,932 18,391 165,643 Utah 15,225 9,400 17,548 209,308 14,183 170,883 3,365 38,425 Vermont 1,846,156 79,716 375,809 4,294,276 307,370 3,508,219 68,439 786,057 Virginia 1,817,534 419,586 959,119 9,379,689 883,571 8,642,277 75,548 737,412 Washington. 5,180,545 6,488,556 1,429,032 12,291,046 1,411,080 12,142,903 17,962 148,143 W. Virginia. 763,336 458,683 778,051 9,185,416 682,921 8,141,940 95,130 1,043,476 Wisconsin.. 15,449,096 2,241,009 3,389,166 41,302,531 2,776,662 33,956,433 612,504 7,346,098 Wyoming... 34,966 511,025 16,963 213,200 16,483 194,580 1,480 18,620 Total— U. S. $107,622,519 $36,398,404 35,084,166 $390,489,873 31,508,214 $347,402,903 3,575,952 $43,080,970 The sawmill furnishes the most important of the figures which go to make up the totals in the preceding tables. The following table is a summary, by states, of the principal figures relating to sawmills. In UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 509 the table on page 506, 33,035 establishments were included ; of them 31,838 were sawmills, the remainder being timber camps. The sum- mary of sawmills, by states, is as follows : SAWMILLS-SUMMARY BY STATES, 1900. [Separated from planlne mills and timber camps.] States and Territories. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts .. Michigan Minnesota^ Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire.. New Jersey New Mexico... New York North Carolina... North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. Rhode Island.. South Carolina... South Dakota.. Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia.... Wisconsin Wyoming Num- ber of estab- lish- ments 1,087 17 14 1,142 285 155 187 76 368 1,201 114 825 1,829 48 264 54 1.232 405 832 366 534 1,613 404 820 1,169 127 23 4 535 197 31 1.742 1,751 4 2.023 33 365 2.280 33 716 28 1.694 601 81 657 1.324 535 929 1,033 46 Capital. 5,708,312 99,300 363,876 10,534,242 8,351,543 601,872 667,047 247,367 6,104,352 5,133.630 542.505 3,147,593 8.293,433 91,718 4,985.726 57,806 5.738.461 10,453.713 9.779.413 1,333.229 4.014.837 33.760,292 24.582.496 7.696.179 6.237,749 1,711.321 44.385 5.162 5.460.705 858,351 160,798 10,736,550 6,255.000 7,950 9.381.789 46.955 4,481.236 22,989.861 103.339 2,933.475 138,115 8,956,798 8.381.728 99.148 4.141.842 5.208.551 12.592,523 5,293.975 37.146.043 122.935 Total-U. S.... 31.833 $305.785.226 10.835 89.702.785 229.717 Salaried employees. \l^- Salaries. 347 13 15 744 283 41 29 1 326 360 19 111 387 4 104 309 492 239 68 85 1.062 396 413 201 32 86 27 9 297 364 1 333 1 188 463 3 199 13 375 318 7 63 311 500 240 950 6 $ 276,116 7,250 23,794 592,161 308,798 35,413 15,753 200 271,950 238,030 13,006 92,440 301,737 957 124,650 241,015 485,473 212.605 36.037 74.848 1.055,960 534.487 361,854 181,689 40.609 73.697 19.922 6.000 242.503 257,478 300 277,876 600 179,933 393,418 725 123,642 11,161 323,270 316,204 1,850 39,929 209,527 485,935 194,639 1,014.849 2,495 Wage-earners. Number. Wages. 7.858 63 180 15,273 4,385 625 681 411 5,678 8,705 362 2,890 8.924 168 1.560 76 6.768 7.568 6.290 1.825 2,439 22,105 8,228 7,995 5,050 1,070 31 4 3,226 570 234 5,578 9,910 11 7,508 43 2,844 12,017 115 3,945 122 10,007 5,867 135 2,976 6,581 9,710 4,823 16,177 106 1.933.038 59,106 126,073 3.859.932 2.120.281 282.617 267,513 99,801 1,770,010 2,019,459 160,176 1,102,135 3,394,106 47,238 583,519 22,897 2.231.037 2.519.406 2.425.425 442.787 1.073.090 9,253,991 4,076,293 2,321,077 1,687,056 573,017 10,727 1,375 1,320,126 247,617 80.851 2.225.383 2.084.650 2,676 2,901,774 9.475 1.434.533 4.940.979 40,607 776,377 61,979 3,067.312 2.296.614 41.825 972.654 1.852.614 5.085.156 1.657.437 7.086.215 44.915 Value of product. 10,514,349 95,449 411,833 17,306,562 8,729,654 1,290,000 1,304,304 401,042 8,493.424 11.601.361 641.868 5.624.331 18.745.545 194.504 5.264.931 101.264 11.846.565 12.074,055 11,476,563 2,286,248 5.057.483 42.517.495 25.891.210 12,136,488 8,882,000 2.291.289 51.373 7.060 6.726,754 1.276.014 290.527 11.676.620 11.782.101 21.800 17,306.294 63.569 6.883.234 28,516,776 185,313 4,253,670 292,938 15,229,933 10,533.438 189,562 4.206,936 9,900,057 18,617,179 9.390.818 39,944.711 285.567 $82,694,951 $422,812,061 Average product per mill depends on value of timber sawed and on the size of the mills. In pine states, where extensive forests permit centralized operations, the average is high, as in Minnesota, with an average of $64,087 to the mill. In sections where the timber is scat- 510 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. tering the mills are usually comparatively small, as in New York, with an average production of only $6,728 per mill. In Minnesota the aver- age stumpage value is high ; in New York it is comparatively low. In the two following tables, giving the figures for logging camps, those operated in connection with the sawmills and those operated independently are combined. The first relates to number of camps, capital and expense items, and the second to materials and products. LOGGING CAMPS-SUMMARY BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, 1900. States and Territories. Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas CaliComla Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland M assachusetts Michisran Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin... Wyoming Total-United States Num- ber o£ estab- lish- ments. 663 12 7 738 231 SA 97 31 252 793 66 342 591 19 85 19 522 273 292 164 247 690 165 500 508 94 8 4 260 84 16 647 918 4 691 7 274 1,046 19 370 25 653 413 48 299 661 651 407 459 37 Capital. $ 6,583,875 54,000 489,026 9,572,851 18,295,293 286,856 451,968 81,135 8,143,661 6,146,964 284,532 1,513,362 1,883,526 10,885 3,096,092 27,338 3,405,932 8,492,539 5,178,405 1,101,641 1,700,742 31,588,689 26,042,470 8,825,755 4,309,060 705,019 72,975 4,165 5,393,667 405,796 124,991 9,499,802 6,242,710 19,160 3,253,257 89,206 2,976,044 23,243,085 111,560 1,990,440 130,485 2,890,722 9,594,929 72,205 2,136,032 3,449,113 11,854,999 4,757,919 37,420,320 460,850 15,376 $274,466,098 Propri- etors. 797 5 8 872 278 99 120 38 301 956 79 406 707 22 102 23 633 324 349 197 294 824 189 600 606 110 10 5 315 101 19 774 1,100 5 829 8 335 1,264 22 444 30 788 492 58 359 •792 697 487 550 46 18,469 Salaried employees. Num- ber. HI 1 6 121 75 3 8 1 67 77 3 10 26 26 84 55 14 4 349 223 77 48 14 7 75 202 45 226 12 2,406 Salaries. 1 62,457 560 8,360 84,016 86,805 485 4,100 700 46,273 38,881 550 9,450 16,125 2,000 10,264 72,996 23,737 6,750 700 301,894 170,135 49,342 30,238 16,490 42 20,099 2 1,248 3 2,200 .W 33,673 70 37,315 13 7,695 29,071 64,837 600 16,800 1,800 17,965 37,245 2,960 50,965 218,131 29,484 173,452 8,000 $1,785,738 Wage-earners. Num- ber. 3,703 23 145 5,779 4,063 269 351 98 2,676 5,095 191 760 2, 126 17 1,915 3,832 2,232 521 789 13,107 8,889 4,261 2,566 778 8 2 2,773 297 317 2,684 4,812 6 2,093 6 1,657 7,185 66 2,103 144 1,! 3,421 62 1,126 3,580 8,206 2,784 9,666 521 Wages, $ 892,822 19,443 107.040 1,809,366 2,078,507 124,097 132,466 22,060 814,673 1,172,068 84,096 268,392 898,496 7,909 52,536 5,275 588,907 1,211,732 762,829 147,213 322,903 5,345,880 3,902,231 1,223,297 864,109 409,817 3,190 850 906,110 113,145 87,333 1,036,357 1,059,329 1,400 790,300 1,260 806,391 2,896,904 23,537 437,433 69,346 671,857 1,281,805 22,822 350,563 1,039,705 4,716,129 898,387 3,818,264 239,559 120,122 $44,439,100 Miscel- laneous expenses. $ 626,928 1,725 20,150 1,166,357 . 514,528 111,166 164,770 U,104 641,730 669,799 44,800 152,127 419,465 3,808 374,678 2,554 487,216 759,659 442,319 161,129 175,453 1,782,481 1,954,652 151,346 1,244 618 370,041 38,130 17,248 610,010 733,696 1,175 672,969 665 225,069 2,623,796 23,945 212,072 22,124 686,683 631,110 10,069 240,462 669,330 1,113,646 687,554 2,616,569 31,910 $23,795,596 UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 511 LOGGING CAMPS-SUMMARY BY STATES AND TERRITORIES , 1900— Continued. Materials. Products.2 States and Territories. Log stumpage. Other stumpage^ and supplies. Total value. Sawlogs. Other products. Quantity M feet b. m. Cost, Cost. Quantity Mfeet b. m. Value. Value. 818.886 2.186 35,975 1,460,854 902,876 94,237 82,411 13,260 597,929 1,041,289 55,005 144,716 420,628 4,267 107,735 2,170 371,263 928,669 372,207 117,596 163,843 2,307,813 1,934,157 891,903 440,238 239,356 1,855 725 620,814 39,239 25,088 497,736 883,508 1,700 421,916 806 483,723 1,759.507 17,210 323,876 27,296 387,956 897,320 12,078 212,676 651,587 2,151,433 509,017 2,462,901 88,417 $ 978,316 2,114 37,150 1,689,902 1,043,244 105,161 238,898 46,775 732,039 1,062,594 89,997 382,233 2,267,006 5,157 532,871 4,710 989,913 1,129,132 936,664 343,902 433.200 7,067,793 6,586,304 1,162,130 831,098 282,294 4,260 765 1,394,884 154,222 28,617 1,854,015 1,180,886 1,700 2,077,414 2,045 320,038 5,173,444 61,889 398,647 49,222 846,146 1,049,786 15,899 443,901 1,167,946 1,716,042 1,202,361 8,653,682 112,287 $ 334.108 8,860 1,915 361,916 313,613 21,922 25,737 2,502 213,773 240,712 43,157 76,366 191,971 845 39,223 1,135 138,996 371,205 204,336 43,435 118,585 1,548,209 846,104 307,080 169,344 62,793 1,624 205 131,150 43,862 8,057 377,328 270,041 1,450 274,668 386 106,760 976,720 90 98,508 5,816 106,577 298,946 5,625 58,047 270,447 832,919 182,678 984,734 52,764 $3,603,069 57.423 299.813 7.032.361 4.663,717 492,799 946,419 85,218 3,719,799 4,787,052 309,862 1,281,736 4,058,050 20,533 1,333,165 17,931 2,628,112 5,3]8,067 3,140,345 867,214 1,681,801 20,462,236 16,031,839 4,137,652 3,159,528 1,060,833 10,973 2,914 3,930,448 427,999 204,794 4,364,081 3,974.689 8.500 4,384,269 4,685 2,079,613 14,316,677 154,638 1,386,774 161,879 2,628,262 4.113,601 65,334 1,272,491 6,646,727 11,531,776 3,601,664 18.112,112 599,516 808.354 2.186 35.975 1.434,868 843,646 90,937 76,656 13,260 554,707 1,010,101 64,793 133,387 407,614 4,237 107,736 2,170 357,288 915,779 370,737 117,376 169,073 2,216,224 1,920,002 867,513 426,572 234,929 1,868 725 610,065 38,159 21,088 496,220 880,963 1,700 407,047 805 443,175 1,747,476 15,658 317.109 23.436 371.996 879.937 12.078 213.275 631,810 2,164,601 606,151 2,412,833 15.652 $ 3.474.566 11.105 269,813 6,804,366 3,905,502 453,920 604,017 73,593 3,453,154 4,456,402 216,457 1,116.063 3,825,913 19,533 1,310,088 17,013 2,449,907 6,115,083 3.021.499 792.113 1.509.402 16.860.747 15,525,762 3,994,865 2,947,443 965,688 10,873 2,914 3,552,268 288,565 101,644 3,844,762 3,918,592 8,500 3.854,939 4,686 1,977,169 11,732,110 111,956 1,318,634 123,039 2,438,749 3,932,854 64,134 1.236,076 5,274,211 11,116,044 3,333,631 17,364,091 88,491 $ 128,500 Alaska 46,318 30,000 Arkansas 227,995 748,216 88,879 342,402 11,625 Florida 266,645 Georgia Idaho 330,660 93,405 Illinois 166,683 232.187 Indian Territory.... 1,000 23,107 918 178,205 Louisiana 199,984 Maine 118,846 75,101 Massachnsetts Michigan Minnesota MississIoDi 172,399 3,611,488 506,087 142,787 212,085 94,775 Nebraska 40O New Hampshire 378,180 139,434 New Mexico 103,150 New York 519,329 North Carolina.. North Dakota Ohio 56,097 102,444 Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee 2,584,667 42,683 68,140 38,840 189,603 Texas 180,647 Utah 1,200 86,416 Virginia 371,816 Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 416,732 168,123 748,021 511,026 Total-United States 26,928,940 $56,439,474 $10,767,020 $174,066,365 26,279,702 $158,880,362 $18,186,013 poles, fence posts, railway cross-ties, etc., were manufactured. 2 The products of the camps not classified as ^awlogs are shown in a separate table, which gives the details here combined under " Other products." The total sawlog product of the timber camps, which should, when manufactured in the sawmills, produce the entire sawed lumber output of the country, is 25,279,702 feet, a quantity apparently too small as 512 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. compared with the total shown in a succeeding table ; but is, undoubt- edly, accounted for by the fact that log scales do not show the actual quantity of lumber that by modern machinery can be cut from the logs. THE PLANING MILL INDUSTRY. The planing mill industry, including sash, door and blind factories, but excluding planing mills operated as adjuncts to sawmills, is repre- sented in the following" table : INDEPENDENT PLANING MILLS (NOT CONNECTED WITH SAWMILLS) AND SASH, DOOR AND BLIND FACTORIES-1900. States AND T£R- KITOKIES. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Total capital. Propri- etors and firm mem- bers. Salaried ofiiclals, clerks, etc. Num- ber. Salaries. Avease num' ber. Wage- earners. Wases. Total cost of materi- als used. Products, including; custom work and repairing. Alabama Arizona Arkansas . . . California... Colorado Connecticut. Delaware . . . Dist. of Col.. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Ter.. Iowa Kansas... Kentucky Louisiana... Maine Maryland Mass Michigan .... Minnesota. Mississippi Missouri Montana . . . Nebraska . . New Hamp. N.Jersey N. Mexico... New York. . . N. Carolina, Ohio Oklahoma... Oregon. . . Penna Rhodelsland S. Carolina. . S. Dakota Tennessee.. Texas .... Utah Vermont.... Virginia. . Wash W.Virginia.. Wisconsin,.. All other States.. 50 3 60 136 32 40 12 10 20 99 7 240 205 6 65 28 90 28 70 52 143 235 61 34 21 67 113 6 509 101 354 3 41 642 19 53 7 88 76 28 46 88 29 83 123 1 345,872 35,644 1,213,011 3,431,949 843,675 1,909,946 215,495 252,397 416,349 2,074,226 37,640 6,550.568 3,394,054 265,683 3,576,306 344,265 1,508,038 1,040,035 1,351,555 3,259,501 4,120,037 8,571,463 2,489,374 631,663 3,540,243 275,781 378,966 1,142,201 3,985,044 35,674 22,941,540 1,366.823 7,498,314 15,200 508,997 14,191,248 611,300 412,128 34,552 1,343,381 932,860 199,543 2,095,507 1,618,168 762,120 803,673 6,591,U4 109,740 58 4 57 149 28 39 17 11 20 120 7 275 257 6 66 32 123 30 81 81 156 288 75 41 69 7 19 70 122 6 648 100 436 5 57 765 25 67 6 108 93 32 54 108 22 126 123 83 1 89 162 44 88 8 20 23 150 1 423 189 19 187 19 80 67 56 93 230 371 143 49 221 14 32 860 126 434 "25 627 22 25 1 71 62 16 53 96 57 80 245 25,390 600 66,969 176,290 41,410 84,365 5,790 16,095 25,595 146,620 360 405,172 160,210 17,100 180,435 14,340 57,694 64,117 42,878 75,261 228,867 343,116 127,288 43,710 219,472 10,970 27,526 32,686 183,922 857,588 83,990 355,979 25,720 450.697 23,240 17,264 800 61,319 51,998 9,300 52,568 74,946 59,860 19,760 277,107 3,250 432 13 1,082 2,022 433 776 91 236 481 2,171 11 5,122 2,115 254 2,372 297 981 881 742 1,287 2,434 5,281 1,639 748 1,' 49 294 871 1,993 29 11,515 1, 4,696 10 335 7,472 282 495 15 1,170 667 U4 814 1,: 647 655 4,377 66 $ 140,659 10,000 346,806 1,211,188 324,016 406,102 37,736 109,658 186,675 672,243 6,750 2,676,159 879,644 88.956 983,924 134,371 379,273 323,446 351,793 529,262 1,344,066 2,012,764 667,091 236,083 1,016,039 43,810 129,441 373,556 1,060,680 16,185 5,583,243 473,589 2,169,264 4,490 175,964 3.516,560 136,102 146,539 6,282 452,079 332,288 63,617 301,215 467,962 329,396 238.595 1,653,319 38,561 $ 452,649 36,132 1,459,636 2,436,391 631,198 1,510,940 104,636 204,979 406,492 2,280,495 20,201 6,072,377 2,957,266 222,211 3,196,243 311,907 1,089,331 855,165 767,908 2,310,655 3,635.754 8,341,834 2,619,848 844,248 2,247,720 129,010 561,731 924,587 2,902,997 27,087 18,507,066 1,801,478 6,649,648 3,936 312,684 9,441,629 325,613 621,831 27,407 1,330,800 900,302 116,278 1,856,136 1,625,501 685,268 1,199,914 5,036,773 125,922 I 763,125 71,482 2,266,522 4,807,690 1,065,970 2,298,810 178,188 498,744 777,782 4,302,976 36,620 11,141,771 5,088,669 424,399 5,295,546 569,203 1,891,617 1,573,481 1.414,504 3,553,083 6,292,281 12,469,532 3,988,276 1,315,775 4,417,871 198,169 886,333 1,590,510 5,107,217 57,100 29,756,257 2,892,058 11,066,671 14,600 651,547 16,736,839 664.018 1,016,328 48,664 2,323,247 1,606,297 252,187 2,698,581 2,686,893 1,257,369 1,820.463 8,400,695 218,138 Total— U.S. 4.204 8U9,271,631 5,094 5,682 85,249,632 73,627 $32,685,210 $99,927,707 $168,343,003 UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 513 THE PACKING BOX INDUSTRY. While not a part of the lumber industry, the manufacture of wooden packing boxes is so closely associated with it as to justify its inclusion in this compilation. Not all the states are represented in it, and the magnitude of the business depends on both local demand and conven- ience of lumber supply. The following table contains the chief figures regarding it : WOODEN PACKING BOXES-1900. States and Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Total capital. Wage-earners. Miscel- laneous expenses. Total cost of materials used. Products, including Territokies, Average number. Wages. work and repairing. California Connecticut Delaware Florida 23 12 6 3 7 58 18 16 9 9 6 28 26 94 46 12 4 27 3 31 27 159 11 61 6 59 9 10 9 34 17 6 5 38 7 $ 717.116 75,439 107,925 51,034 187,170 2,896,640 308,554 378,550 223,655 482,784 92,706 444,449 668,018 2,413,227 1,441,522 200,656 51,525 668,275 20,275 546,955 382,322 4.497,105 44,235 1,187,705 184,377 1,211,133 220,813 97,062 70,252 207,719 450,334 50,015 21,986 1,325,604 25,620 599 86 257 45 274 2.784 419 363 264 630 107 404 1,211 2,081 1,268 232 82 850 43 712 336 3,363 183 1,117 100 865 170 120 74 201 1,246 71 50 1,290 47 $ 284,068 41,715 46,650 10,320 56,164 1,101,390 140,973 116,167 88,850 186,973 34,280 156,966 363,001 914,332 388,683 71,620 24,104 32 ,611 17,930 282,898 124,492 1,449,646 23,821 384,057 47,000 352,535 74,853 31,116 21,782 70,020 154,684 28,773 13,458 386,743 17,280 $ 65.421 9,029 1,618 1,645 9,643 179,261 25,902 27,219 12,315 9,581 15,202 31,908 64,493 185,774 87,842 25,100 885 61,641 1,157 31,612 23,430 373,483 2,459 97,832 20,632 51,197 11,844 10,107 3,446 6,834 30,165 3,709 1,571 68,620 1,133 $ 1,027,205 104,586 46,915 4,324 76,249 2,916,101 337,940 542,745 338,938 379,074 121,084 348,021 1,104,752 2,052,669 1,464,176 238,132 15,825 814,797 53,888 510,916 290,222 4.954,761 30,956 1,207,586 93,420 1,344,918 224.346 61,487 61,488 138,084 513,596 62,214 36,899 1,250,295 39,018 $ 1,778,970 186,191 111,375 24,450 Georgia 194,881 Illinois 4,858,580 597,121 852,687 485,322 Kentucky Louisiana Maine 692,894 230,300 599,858 1,847,528 Massachusetts . . . Michigan 3,723,518 2,287,495 Minnesota Mississippi 401,704 61,694 1,467,054 Nebraska New Hampshire. New Jersey New York North Carolina.. Ohio 78,640 979,758 524,217 7,850,262 76,093 1,965,293 172,070 Pennsylvania Rhode Island.... Tennessee Texas 2,117,029 360,856 134,126 124,049 Vermont 264,286 Virginia 899,620 Washington West Virginia.... Wisconsin All other States'. 120,905 62,295 1,989,663 95,600 Total-U. S.... 896 $21,952,757 22,034 $7,827,955 $1,553,710 $22,807,627 $38,218,384 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 1; Arkansas, 2; Colorado, 1: North Dakota, 1 ; South Carolina, 1 ; South Dakota, 1. FOREST PRODUCTS IN 1899. The census of 1900, in respect to annual output, related to the calendar year of 1899. The first table presented combines all products which are given in thousands of feet board measure, including not only lumber and sawed timber, but such other items as pickets, palings, etc. It would seem that the totals should be much larger than those fur- nished by sawed lumber alone, but such is not the case. While the "side 514 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. lines " of the lumber trade are important they are almost insignificant in comparison to the enormous values represented by sawed lumber and timber. In fact, many of them are merely by-products. PRODUCTS-BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, 1900. Sawed lumber (Includes all products elven In M feet board measure). Statbs and Territories. Quantity, M feet board measure Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut... Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts .. Micblg:an Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire, New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina.. North Dakota... Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania.. . . Rhode Island... South Carolina. South Dakota... Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia... Wisconsin Wyoming Total-U. S. Total. 1,101,386 6,571 36,182 1,623,987 737,035 183,746 108,093 35,955 790,373 1,3U,917 65,363 388,469 1,036,999 15,985 352,411 10,665 774,651 1,115, 784,647 183,711 344,190 3,018,338 2,342,338 1,206,265 723,754 255,685 4,655 725 572,447 74,118 30,880 878,448 1,286,638 2,030 990,497 6,119 734,538 2,333,278 18,528 466,429 31,704 950,958 1,232,404 17,548 375,809 959,119 1,429,032 778,051 3,389,166 16,963 Value. $ 9,833,239 89,249 407,308 14,160,571 7,823.897 1,369,306 1,614,701 395,828 7,853,462 11,355,532 614,188 5,049,663 16,818,041 167,480 5,146,785 146,180 10,045,547 10,916,954 9,256,158 2,036,716 4,005,845 35,865,616 28,637,800 U,665,152 8,011,022 2.297,860 54,831 7,060 6,544,136 1,233,323 289,401 12,364,362 11,067,909 22,060 15,820,939 69,374 6,691,214 27,476,411 226,919 3,933,009 299,188 11,832,596 10.197,575 209,308 4,294,276 9,379,689 12,291,046 9,185,416 41,30^,531 213,200 35,084,166 $390,489,873 Quantity, M feet board measure. Merchant.! 1,036,841 6,571 36,122 1,601,510 729,850 132,746 78,983 27,556 782,677 1,257,468 62,238 336,891 853,479 14,559 328,168 5,826 682,691 1,107,876 701,787 159,523 273,858 2,648,247 1,858,612 1,173,109 643,187 247,666 4,220 725 495,758 57,549 27,802 685,373 1,195,028 2,000 768,903 4,626 732,906 2,125,518 13,737 446,416 29,133 825,1% 1,214,013 14,183 307,370 883,571 1,411,080 682,921 2,776,662 15,483 31,508,214 Value. $ 9,262,377 89,249 406,588 13,951,546 7,754,872 1,258,522 1,152,140 316,707 7,786,452 10,932,272 581,934 4,434,282 14,154,167 149,328 4,789,059 74,540 8,994,720 10,859,901 8,347,909 1,774,001 3,180,402 31,612,301 22,731,828 11,352,144 7,113,585 2,221,496 49,511 7,060 5,730,163 945,633 260,915 8,907,369 10,371,778 21,700 12,756,868 53,688 6,675,623 24,946,209 165,951 3,781,460 275,278 10,372,328 10,041,932 170,883 3,508,219 8,642,277 12,142,903 8,141,940 33,956,433 194,580 $347,402,903 Custom.' Quantity (estimated), M feet board measure. 64,545 60 22,477 7,185 1,000 29,110 8,; 7,1 54,449 3,125 51,578 183,520 1,426 24,243 4,1 91,960 7,490 82,860 24,188 70,332 370,091 483,726 33,166 80,567 8,019 435 76,689 16,569 3,078 193,075 91,610 30 221,694 1,493 1,632 207,760 4,791 20,013 2,571 125,762 18,391 3,365 68,439 75,548 17,952 96,130 612,504 1,480 3,576,952 Value (estimated). $ 670,862 720 209,026 69,025 10,784 462,561 79,121 67,010 423,260 32,254 616,881 2,663,884 18,152 357,726 71,640 1,050,827 57,053 908,249 262,716 826,443 4,253,315 5,906.972 313,008 897,437 76,364 6,320 "8i3',973 287,790 28,486 3,457,003 696,131 360 3,064,(y71 16,686 15,591 2,530,202 60,968 151,549 23,910 1,460,268 166,643 38,425 786,067 737,412 148,143 1,043,476 7,346,098 18,620 $43,086,970 > Includes 292,536 M feet board measure, valued at $5,099,951, made up of all Items reported in M feet board measure under ** Other sawed products." 2 Includes 4,646 M feet board measure, valued at $91,618, made up of all Items of custom prod- uct reported in M feet board measure under " Other sawed products." UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 515 ROUGH LUMBER PRODUCTS. The next succeeding table gives the aggregates of the rough lumber products of the United States, by states, in 1899, by quantity and value. It is followed by tables, showing, first, the product of the conifers, by specified woods, and, second, the product of hardwoods, and then the shingle product. ROUGH LUMBER PRODUCTS-BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, 1900. Aggregate. Total, conifers. Total, hardwoods. States akd Tbrritories. Quantity, M feet board measure. Value. Quantity. Mfeet board measure. Value. Quantity, Mfeet board measure. Value. Alabama Alaska 1,096,539 6,571 36,182 1.595,933 734,232 133,746 107,594 35,395 788,905 1.308.610 65.331 381.584 977,878 15.980 351.769 10.645 765.343 1,113,423 756,515 183,393 342,058 3,012,057 2,341,619 1.202.334 715.968 255.685 4.655 725 562,258 72,660 30,880 874,754 1,278,399 2,030 957,239 6,075 734,181 2,321,284 18,265 466,109 31,704 939,463 1.230.904 17.484 365.869 956,169 1,428,205 773,583 3,361,943 16,957 $ 9,771,908 89,249 407,308 13,665,163 7,795,277 1,269,306 1,598,515 385,693 7,839,134 11,324,211 613,728 4,916,919 15,642,971 167.355 5.135.892 145.795 9.851.555 10.888,747 8,926,737 2,030,740 3,968,325 35,784,606 28,626.935 11,614,390 7.859.509 2.297.860 54.831 7,060 6,381,929 1,195,409 289,401 12,286,346 10,951,145 22,060 14,996,419 68,664 6,686,601 27,303,868 220,719 3,929,629 299.188 11,595,991 10.177,609 208,603 4,124,486 9,345,422 12,284,737 9,103,551 40,933,690 213,118 991.048 6.571 36,182 1.151,831 783,693 133,671 30,000 29,076 786,705 1.265.811 65,331 131.223 2,099 6,602 290.741 '30,957 1,041,225 727,785 105,812 299.911 2,200.408 2.279.663 995.012 273.732 254.385 872 725 538,790 40,789 30.880 667.528 1.132.742 '39.608 10 731,652 1,801,122 14,277 448,626 31,146 77,589 1,192,848 17,484 315,446 716,309 1.422.502 203.375 2.842.912 16.957 $ 8.431.801 89.249 407.308 8,823,530 7,786,690 1,268,406 387,393 270,446 7,802,214 10,874,190 613,728 1,866,413 29,678 62,145 4.165,316 ""315,725 9,705,329 8,572,632 972,107 3,204,906 26,168,885 27,863,684 8,974,808 2,584.875 2.276.360 11.130 7.060 5.994.371 592.312 289.401 7.969.931 9.430,631 """760,299 250 6,647.223 19.905,286 155.724 3.732.688 293,208 721,716 9,735,873 208,603 3,467,344 6,602,488 12,192,601 1,895,928 34,196,109 213.118 105,491 444",rd2 539 75 77,594 6,319 2,200 42,799 250,361 975,779 9,378 61,028 10,645 734,386 72,198 28,730 77,581 42,147 811,649 61,956 207,322 442,236 1,300 3,783 ■23",4"68 31,871 2"67".22'6 145,657 2,030 918.231 6,065 2.529 520.162 3,988 17,483 558 861,874 38.056 '56"4"2"3 239,860 5,703 570,208 519,031 $ 1.340.107 Arkansas Califomla 4.841.633 8.587 900 Connecticut Delaware Florida 1.211.122 115.247 36 920 Georgia Idaho 450.021 Illinois 3.050.506 15.613,293 Indian Territory. Iowa 105.210 970.576 Kansas 145.795 9 535 830 Louisiana Maine 1.183.418 354.105 Maryland Massachusetts... Michiean Minnesota Mississippi Missouri 1,058.633 763.419 9.615.721 763.251 2.639,582 5,274 634 Montana Nebraska 21.500 43.701 New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico NewYork North Carolina.. North Dakota.... Ohio 387.558 603.097 "'4."3"i6"4"l5 1.520,514 22,060 14,296,120 Oklahoma 68,414 39,378 Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina... South Dakota.... Tennessee Texas Utah 7,398,582 64,995 196,941 5,980 10,874.275 441,736 657.142 Virginia 2.742.934 Washington West Virginia... Wisconsin Wyoming 92,136 7.207.623 6.737.581 Total-U. S.... 34,787,084 $385,298,304 26.153.063 $268,481,112 8,634.021 $116,817,192 516 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA, rio '00100 3 03 .caioc5 5CJ IcQt^r^ O " CQ O ^ O^ u iH •lOOCOiHC :gSf :S"3 C S -Sg ?S :SSS • eoo«03!>o - • 2 N .(ovowcneo s s •3 > gfi :8 :| . .OTfHrHuS ift O •OiOtO COO 'tO-^t-. «eD -caeoo Cfof I O rHtO ii^ii 1 : ; § ; 1 40 : eooiOCJ-* lOt-t-i-IM (NcOiH W-^ lO • o (Ncn CO : : : .•gg "S i i 1 rh -Tf a« QO • cOi-C-^OtO •OliO .OH-(rHaO«D -Ot- • rHSDOSOoo .tq« si r- s •i ■: SS Sii gr-i s :S : S^ iHtT , CSO 0100(0 r-cocMTtfoo aO.-jCiO>CO CO .■^OQOT-HOeOQi-l tH .O-fftOCOOt-OOOQ -# ."^cothoo w»n;oio .i>-^ooo • OCOOD3 1-H • iqmor-no IjacocOrHTP .eoc5r-rt coeooOO ocomiot> :S;s; '«OGOOQC00030>iA iCOi-ltH QOHC-5lC»I>EO^ jeOOJ OS WiHC tNC>» .i-HOT 030 -0001 CC<0 'C-O • ooo-^ coco OJ t-OlM O I— I r- 1-1 £> Tji r-ocOiHiQ Oeoo>cnoorir^(0 0>Ot-«30»OeDtOO* tOO'^OOOrHOCOi-l 13 i-ioicooocoeocO'4ic>(Nr-(I>-^rHMNCOOOO 00 M CC IC to •* CO ■W C^i-it^-^^T-iM (> CO eO iH O^Q rH oT^^m (O CO I> O eg ;*" CO » OS M SCOiOOOOrHC^T-lTHi-HOSOCCCO^iCOaOtDCOCO^ oi>cDoacpr»THOeocoo>inc4cQC4cooi~(r*0'«< ^ , „ *i«c>icSi>S»Oi«DC "* f CO co«otjodci"cf lO . .___ , — OMOi-l i>coo]t«aotHiH c^ioiociepiHkOGOc^cieNtocoeo ■w^oiocooi(Ncoocooa»o»oii-i ^i^*^ "^^ ^ ^^ ^*^'~< oo "-I N tOOl CO oi" ««3(NiH-^ as OO r-( W rH eg rH O CO lO I- l4t>C4^00^Qb^OOt>r^ti!6 :c4" : :« : :a" • r- . . . . . -3 0. > a • rn «££ a^S 5 ca > .■S : :g s 1 ^ S a -■£ o :? « a -ei30 .100 3 3^5 3~ S : coiqSc^S ■eg .o SS-: rHQO r4 . •QOQOOlftOCO -Or-^g • eoiO"*i-t eo -coeo 518 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. cdoVoo :» :(n" HOiO 'CO • ■^o : : looooco •OHICOOO :COCOCDOO 00 000 t*OTCO«CDifiiI> CCO)t>COQ0(Na) 05 1> « CD iH N O XiHXw'cO CO ■or>-^t>o :OQocceD > ■t-o :cot" ■ CODI :© -o o o .10 '00 1-t CO 00 (MCQO 00"*© coQq^_ 100 « Oioinco 'CO OQ0_t>Q0 .«* Ncc'ior> :oo lOCDQOCC -iO :coco :CSrH Oi> -co coo 'CO ioQO .in 1 10 00 00 ■l>XCO :S c- rs OOT(MO •« mr-(-<*cD ;o :rHiH ■eoo » -ot- ■» QD .w^ .in d : CO :« a > oooinirio C-iHCC-*0 ■* -iHO 10 ■o« . •* •iHCO • t* .01 :qo" .t> •ei •05 •oco :00QD ■ fflCO • CO : t* . •0 • ■00 to :« : :iH»o .^ . ■ fH iH ■ iH O O 00 O CO :cooo if30 COCO cc'o 05 CO •OiHCOifl :mthcoco •roosM^it •l>t>'<#05' ■OOCDiOOSOtntMOOiOiH ; iH 05 Oi IM iH (;D ':i< r^ « CO O . ON-* coo rH ■^05 000 ^00 i>iO(D cicoTiTcD'o COOH 0- -mOOiHCsO -0000 1* CO CO ^00 ; Ti* iH -* (N H :t>0»nD»(NH :CDCOOCOCOOSCO , COCO'^N .CDOCOOb-OS .lO0iC0«O'<*l> O i-ICD .CDiHOO (N ifi-^ -O i-lQO CO .WCOOlCOCOlftiO « -OSOOHi-tlOCOM :oi r-t 00 C4 |>C0 inio 00 '(NNiOCO lO :cD05t>O iH .■^05O<£i * l> iC t> O5O5C0 O « O Tjf CO • CO OOOSN rHl>COiHTJI H!©t> ■TjlOOt>-^iH -OCOOOCOt-t* HifliH ICOO'HOMt* :O05OC0OO-^ OiCD .05i-(C0CD CO •'"l^lC^.OWN® CO'CO -00 rf rH ^Co'co'i-TiH Co'm'cO t>C0l>ONt*OiHCDC0OCDir5OQ0tnC005iHr-lMTjlO'^OOTHQ00)inHOinc0C^Tj(C0C0r-t Oco GO O CT tJ( (N (M O 05 1-( t-Oi CO iH oco H 00 05 rjl 00 1> CO Tjl CO CO « X HCOit505HCN050m(M«ir5t-00'*HCOTj'l>NlOCOmt>»nOTilir30iHT}iCOin050505(Nt>iH05iH(OiO 01 > CO 00 ■^ O CO_H 05 r-* iqr-l_CO O t> CD t> CD N coin 05rH H 05* cilfl C0«DP3in C^ CO 00rl «l> O' 01 t>CD" iH(N05uDTli050C5iH05QOQOmcOQOOrHt>05CD«COOCOOOrH«Ot*OHir3C5MOOCOOOti(CDCOOOOCOrH 050POI>OirHOOiCOt>t^«^0005COOO^'^m(MCOOTOCDl>(NmcOCOCDOICDOOOOOt>mNCDOOPO TiJ^iH lO O_C0 N ^•_C0_t*_C0_O_CD CO_rH b._iqrH CD_05 C0_« CO_l> TJJ^OO 0» CO O NO>niH05Tf«O_ lo-** t^fOcicidioa>r^o-^ciaat>(:^r^r^t:^<^rAc6c6r^tyt6<^oS^<:iont:^ ihqo'oosioo'os" O-dl t* ■«*mi> CD tH CO t-fN O ■^ iH CD O tH «COO'<* rH 01 H CDCOlOOO t-rH i-t^ 0105 l> 00 0»^ OlrH 05 »0 00 01 IflW a*^ cop n CO :aa •ti'd^rt rt M >^ ^^H [« a . a'a : Sua ^1 §fi III! Ililllllllllllllpi 2 §111 i 1 1||| O rt""*^ S CB UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 519 :t*(>(N t>tD in O X l> iniQ <«^ O lOCO O Til H O QOOSCQOCO • R.'^^'i^^R.'^.^^'^^'^^'i.'i.'i.'^^'l^ ^•'^ 00 J3 CO CO CO :i-(OH»r-tocoH©o(>oiMo>co NO ^' H i-TcO rJIPOiOCOeOH ;NC0Oi-4Ht> : «*«> ift iH iHO iHCOrHONN :« o H 'CoconiAOino : •OHOOs coirs iNCOiHlO iHOS a lOGOO) NOSt* 03 ACQ co^" con 01 Tjl CO N iM OS-i* l> N rjl O rH aO« iH OOO (0 OS O n «Da O r-( ;h lo i> -?t( CO oioo (N H o 00 o -^ Oi OT CO o n o -^ o t- m »o 'XOOHOJQDI>OOt-NeOt-COaDOCOCDiOTjM Q0Nt>COI>Ti( : iH 00 CO CD l> ■«*" ■WrH OSNOCO .O»r5i-I00iH03»r5C0'^0iint>iOC0iOt^'^NrH (NOS'^CO .COCO NrHrH H Nt^-^ CO 03 CDiHCOCOOO iHiHtJIOO 'OS *# H HCO CO i-t iHM "O CO ' CO C4 C) 'dl O CO CI li-ltHGOOOTflO ;iHOI -^ lOCO '^ fH CO H iftino -co -co •■^oiO'Hco -o CON** cot> ^co O 'iO • OSCDOlOrtl .CO CO ■Olio -CON ta .oq -CO-"* co" 'tD^ 'eiif M "CO lOJiO : ; « ' N s^S a^ inCOIN -N 'CO -iHOOCDrH coHco ;cot> -QDW iH -NiH -DICO CO :ioo :i>o CO -oDTti .ao> HQO Nt> 00 'lOlOOSCD -OiOi-INOCD -CO '^ :oco(N03 :cocooaooo :co CD .-^^coiqw ■ lO q in oqaq 01 .oq t> ;b.*iH«CO I'dJ'lHfflCOH "t^ COrH • t> : C4C0 'OW ;(Nt> oom cot- CO coot> i>oo iHiOCO CON •OlOOO -ODO ;0iCDON ;rHO ■ O^lOiH .^iO C4N 00 CO t^COrjjO I>CO(NN co»-4HOfH :cocomiootn • i-l ONiH •COO) :tHao •cow OSCOt1< lOt-CO OOO^ QootncD 'Oin tJICDNCD :t>N 00 ;os :qdtj< -QOm .N -CD THb; :t>io ^co" ■ -QD'oi •QDN -W ■ -NO :n : : n^ . O N • lO o • lO r^ . CO iH O ■ ^ N lO com OON NO tnio •oo oo .1-HO OCDO QiOO CDCDiH cooiNoom NNOOCOt^ CO iH 00 01 CO •hVo 01 1> OlOl oin ■lO •© -ooo :iQ :qo ;i>oi -O . -IN-^ t*»n mm com a COO ON imrtl lOSfHNCOOD • iHCO •COr-fOQDCO ■01 iH :com -01 -o •Or» :oo :co :if5co • H -in .NO -tfO NCO t>co_ cd"n r-tCO-^O t*rHiH GOOD CON IAN as ooi -moscocooo coco It-iHtHOSCD coco •COlON CO"* : CO NCO CO-* ■*in TjICO i^ noooooi CSiH(M aj P H H ■§53 °§ .3 b. cd o O » O gj o rt_c ^ a I K « S o 3 I \3s • > ra ■ ^ M r^ n (O a a 3'bia •=-S>g 520 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. rt g o 1 1 s A . u Pf.i 3 o.fi O ss • NO <0 laoisin -^oeoe HfflO ■■!> 00 H « ;t- (0 IinOi-iTji .0)0 QOQOH •CDIACDNQOOr^OO'^tOCI • OHOS It-HMON-^QOQO-^lOin ! WlOi-l . OOC-N-^OO 01 . 00OQD03 't^CO ccoOrH icoro ■*HOa> .OOiH 1> a n> .'•i o > i . >. >. . CO a^ OO -lOOO o -om H ot> t^ -HlO lo ■ o : h" : CDH CO iH iH : »q ■ «' '• CO : si o : to : •MCO -WlOO :iHco : Nco tH -OCD O HO to ■ t> '•r^ ' 1 CO 00 *«& ' oocct- -NOH '-^ifiooaoo QDiHfo :i>«« :Ht>QDCOCO eooio -03t«o -cooot>oio ootoo ■^OiOO OOOHJM CO lO •O -lOtOO .«* .ffilOOl •»OOO0)N s^ lOCOIN •OOCCO ot>CD :«»nco 'l>OI>»COS ;(NH01CDCO • -•^NCCr-trH 04 -co OlQOOl 'Cq coocoo CO -(NO!D iH ;iomH OD .coco O" • Oi" e» : ■«# lOONlOOiHt* ■ii^ in 03 lO o CO 01 . 1 > ^ n Ss •Ht-lO C4CD01 'OO :oco .toot »OCC« 'i^i-i SClOOiCCOOlO 'CDtOOO (Mt-O-^WOO :co!>»oo '«q_t^iqr>^wosoo .cdw^coih ;HN«Dad-«irt>C0'^ r t-^rA ■ 03H lO CO • « ■« -o »n o .CO -co OiOCi 00 CO CO CDi-l -OO ,t-CO :i-IQD OM -Ofrl •Oaot-tnwcDcco ;O>OC0iHiH(MiHC0 -iHCJCDMOOTjIrH • t-OO 'COO :ioi-( :i>r-* •00 'CO coo •» -ost- COr-( '.a :r-tH iHO -OJ -COt^ TOiH '00 :«H -lOCO -CO 'OO tiHco :o3 :io-<# • CO .« 'iHiH •a ODi-t 1>C0 -OiOOOHOCO :OrHOCDiOt>CD • OSMOlOt-ClCD •iOO»OOt>'#CO :t>00CCCOT{ICDCO ••*Oin>OI>rtl(3SQ0iO : Tt( CO |> CO (M 00 rj( 00 1> .COI>QqrH03NWl>(N ■ N l> O CO ir305'- os" ■CJCO O NtJ< :ao 05 'CO ■lO •rHMOOinioooccoco • CD_eO in OD (N lO CO CO 00 ."ofcq" ■co« ;io ■ OQ0C0_H -O Ihoscd'co Iqd woo -as •OOOICD -iO :osco-<*Qo :t* . cowco .w -W -O -co ;M(N It* ^t* ICi .^O .X* -^ -co .coco ■coos -■^ -Oi •« -iHW :to :o :« :[-■* .CO 't- .00 .(Mi-I h" 'a '■ •to • ;oo •t-ffi 'ffiCft Ii-tOO UNITED STATES— LUMBER PRODUCTION. 521 w 'a S. : '^S S- 00 ej 1-1 1-1 2 • »Haoeot-« .i-tao .c*- •'^'Qir-lQ •C4COIO 'OO :8 :g5 M -OO S-COrHiaeO -i-fNO 't-Q -CO-^ '^S ■ iHtocno -cmiaS -ciB -trt "SS lO -OWt-i-t •OTCD-^ '^^ •OOOi •OJO SiOSOMNiHOQC ■ot-'g(«»HO>i-Hto«-*3r-(QiO'-ia>oo • cMeDoor-i-ir*eciO(OW'Hc5o>"*eoTH CO to da i-(iftQOMooT}9" SiOtO^COiHt-TtiOOIt^OOOOm ^H-w»OOiCO>H(OC^Oi CC Oci(N00 OMC^W 00 Tl« 1-1 to IN i-i .»oo .1 -a O_00t^ toooo OCDM or^T! (COO •CiiDiO ■^r-co .Cii-Hi?5 fQ S ;m 3 :o :S;S "3 * ■ :SS OCO 3 :5 503CiC0 .-r cQoco .e coto . (^ (D • rHUi . C» • OtN . s oT :S : >o . lO ! ^ i OOCD00«0 -lOC m oo)i-ir- -ustf i-ioJiotoco .o» • o«o • St«-«oooo toCTi'veoNt^iou3mC0mM'^tOCS'g i> -^ r t* "* i-< -V 05 (O lO O (O IN W M Oi CO M ■^ CO « t-l iH CO «0 CO lO tH lO (N CO CO C fHM iOtH O-W i-(C1 CO 1822.. 1823.. 1824.. 1825.. 1826.. 1827.. 1828.. 1829.. 1830.. 1831.. 1832.. 1833.. 1834.. 1835.. 1836.. 1837.. 1838.. 1839.. 1840.. 1841.. 1842.. 1843 2 1844.. 1845.. 1846.. 1847.. 1848.. 1849.. 1850.. 1851.. 1852.. 1853.. 1854, . 1855. . 1856.. 1857.. 1858.. 1859. . 1860. . 1861. . 1862.. 1863. . 1864.. 1865.. 1866. . 1867.. 1868.. 1869.. 1870. . 1871.. 1872. . 1873.. 1874.. 1875.. 1876.. 1877.. 1878.. 1879.. 1880.., 1881.., 1 Specie Included with merchandise prior to 1821, > Nine months ended June 30. 1843. 540 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCTS. VALUES AND RELATIONS TO TOTAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS.— Continued. Total all exports. Exports forest products. Percent- agre Year. Unmanufac- tured. Manufactured. Total. forest products of whole. 1882 733.239.732 804,223,632 724,964,852 726,682,946 665,964,529 703,022,923 683,862,104 730,282,609 845,293,828 872.270.283 1,015,732,011 831,030,785 869,204,937 793,392,599 863,200,487 1,032,007,603 1,210,291,913 1,203,931,222 1,370,763,571 1,460,462,806 1,355,481,861 1,392,231,302 1,435,179,017 1,491,744,695 18,595,472 21,249,858 18,925,408 16,683,827 15,934,547 15,025,879 17,806.981 20,760.391 21,764,888 20,282,718 19.476,876 20.607,534 20,938,445 20,866,100 24,520.633 31.032,384 28.415,033 31,774,241 39,365,578 41,345,942 36.162,158 44,672,284 52,447,305 45,439,347 5,413,556 5,543,850 5,349,720 4,780,495 4,708,843 4,629,055 5,256,127 6,150,281 6,509,645 5,987,322 6,062,789 6,058,896 6.773.724 6.249,807 7.226.475 8.592,416 9,098,219 9,715,285 11,232,839 11,099,643 11,617,690 13,071,251 12,981,112 12,560,935 24,009,028 26,793,708 24,275,128 21,464,322 20,643,390 19,654,934 23,063,108 26,910,672 28,274,533 26,270,040 25,539,665 26,666,430 27,712,169 27,115,907 31,747,108 39,624,800 37,513,252 41,489,526 50,598.417 52.445.585 47,779.848 57,743,535 65,428,417 68.000,282 3.02 1883 3.03 1884 3.03 1885 3.00 1886 3.01 1887 3.06 1888 3.05 1889 3.07 1890 3.03 1891 3.00 1892 2.05 1893 3.02 1894 3.02 1895 3.04 1896 3.07 1897 3.08 1898 3.01 1899 3.04 1900 3.05 1901 3.06 3.05 1903 4.01 4.05 19053 8.09 > Preliminary fitrores. While it is true that during the eady years of the Government the export trade of the United States passed through many adverse con- ditions and survived many accidents which threatened to overwhelm it — the French wars practically closing the ports of the civilized world to American shipping, and the disaster being aggravated by the domestic embargo — peace finally came, and with peace the United States took her place among the other producing world nations. A perusal of the above table will show how consistently the exports of forest products kept increasing with the growth of other domestic exportations during the last eighty-eight years. For example, in 1818 the value of forest products exported was $2,890,425, which was 3.09 percent of the total of all exportations. Forty -three years later, or in 1861, there were wood products exported to the value of $7,882,933 or 3.08 percent of the whole ; add another forty-four years, bringing the comparison down to 1905, and it will be found that $58,000,282 worth of forest products were exported in that year, and this amount was 3.09 percent of the whole exportation of domestic products. The highest percentage point obtained in 1865, the last year of the Civil War, when 13 percent was reached. This was at the expense of other exports — cotton being the heaviest loser. The classification of timber exportations has been changed many UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 541 times since the inception of statistical compilation by the Government. All timber exportations were classed as hewn from 1821 to 1868 and the quantities were given in tons ; from 1869 to 1883, inclusive, it was classed as "hewn and sawed," and the quantities were given in cubic feet. In 1884, however, timber was divided into two classes — hewn and sawed^hewn being given in cubic feet and sawed in thousands of feet. It will be seen that the exportations of sawed timber have grown to be ten times greater than those of hewn. This was a natural evolution, for with the perfecting of American machinery the foreign countries that had been importers of hewn timber from this country were convinced that it was to their interests to purchase the sawed article in preference to the hewn. The United States is still exporting enormous quantities of hewn timber, however, the United Kingdom and other European countries being the heaviest buyers. The following table shows ex- portations of timber from 1821 to 1905, inclusive : EXPORTS OP TIMBER, 1821-1905. Hewn. Hewn. Sawed. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Cubic feet. M feet. 1821 15.220 1843 1,230 1865 4,133 1884 10,615,065 201,257 1822 10,487 1844 4,700 1866 19,975 1885 8,411,066 153,248 1823 3,756 1845 4,590 1867 51,467 1886 5,077.612 193,344 1824 7,166 18,176 1846 1847 6,779 9,714 1868 75.720 1887 1888 4,260,639 5,813,175 167,609 1825 187,780 1826 7,515 1848 21,033 1889 6,301,065 252,996 Year. Cubic feet. 1827 5,940 1849 9,979 1890 8,732,761 270,984 1828 4,523 1850 20,287 1869 3,861,728 1891 6,900,073 214,612 1829 36,435 1851 13,372 1870 7,115,975 1892 6,736,446 235,550 1830 19,203 1852 24,409 1871 7,115,007 1893 7,836,921 214,198 1831 32,335 1853 45,564 1872 12,594,738 1894 4,082,709 237,830 1832 26,439 1854 41,964 1873 14,154,244 1895 6,039,539 297,693 1833 20.247 1855 52,377 1874 25,209,048 1896 5,616,476 332,934 1834 20,383 1856 34,260 1875 13,553,714 1897 6,406,824 391,291 1835 36,020 1857 68,265 1876 21,786,414 1898 5,489,717 331,575 1836 28,744 1858 41,474 1877 20,640,259 1899 4,796,658 406,448 1837 17,187 1859 48,849 1878 18,361,915 1900 4,416,741 473,542 1838 21,238 1860 32,376 1879 13.255,241 1901 4,624,698 533,920 1839 20,899 1861 8,821 1880 16,365,346 1902 5,388,439 412,750 1840 12,484 1862 4,391 1881 22,961,618 1903 3,291,498 530,659 1841 61,249 1863 394 1882 24,491,354 1904 3,788,740 558,690 1842 13,633 1864 6.742 1883 19,913,220 1905 1 3,856,623 486,411 ' Preliminary figures. Taking up the exportation of boards, planks, deals, joists and scant- ling : The West Indies have from the earliest years been large buyers of this product. In 1790 this country exported 46,747,000 feet of sawed lumber, of which 41,163,000 feet went to the West Indies. The follow- ing table shows a break in the continuity of exportations from 1800 to 1812. All records covering this period were burned by the British on the capture of Washington. The totals given, however, are vouched for by the Department of Commerce and Labor. 542 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. is d incoN :::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::: jt-ggj H cs •§ o • T-tNCDOOlOOSN : :OrH05C0eit>fH . . 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N in OS ■rj< 01 o t> X 00 « OrH qin o qcD »n in t> in q-^_x CO rH oqoq H q© CD co^oo : H ■^•oinodi>«m^ ,HHHHHHHHNCOinint>COint-CO ^ l>(NHt>C0 0S0S0SXOC0C0l>O«inX0SOOinC0X-^t-O'<#HC0-<*C0OO-^©X©-^O OS o th OS in o CD -di xco X xos « inTj* xcoco m CD (M xin « COX in (N X coxxHi> t> i-(os« -«# (N CO ■<* N tji CO OS N b:t» -^.N '-t'-l(» <»t:® ® <»'>M ''3x_« ©OS ION i>qinb-_©co« H HcocdHcoinTi<*co«cd«'^"i>co'inoodo"Ninoo«oscoosi>H HHHHHHHHrH H HHH (N h rH in i>cooocjso'o"in co'o in hosco'oscotj^ococoh in in ti* HH CO Tt t>©C-(M ^ «*« CO ^ CO t* CO -^ X ox O O OS QD t^TJi « in Wl OS CDX H X b^ 00 OS d H C4 CO •«li in CD r> 00 OS d H C4 CO '^ in CO b^ 00 OS © rH ffi CO 't-l>l>t-t>t>t»l>t>XXXXXXXXXXm©ScD©0S0S0S©SoOOOOO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX©CD©mSffi UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 545 EXPORTS OP BOARDS, DEALS. PLANKS. JOISTS AND SCANTLING TO CERTAIN COUNTRIES OMITTED PROM PRECEDING TABLE-M FEET. Ybar. 1871... 1872... 1873... 1874... 1875... 1876 .. 1877... 1878... 1879... 1880... 1881... 1882... 1883... 1884... 1885... 1886... 1887... 1888... 1889... 1890... 1891... 1892... 1893... 1894... 1895... 1896... 1897... 1898... 1899... 1900... 1901... 1902... 1903... 1904... 1905.1.. Peru. 19,420 33,190 25,259 15,212 5,412 10,506 12,591 11,410 12,016 2,188 353 3,570 5,952 7,597 3,324 4,105 4,492 3,785 5,837 8,832 9,233 10,144 8,411 4,236 4,760 11,879 15,117 14,204 9,777 2,497 18,743 21,696 16,356 26,749 Uru- ETuay. 14,475 17,717 36,640 24,416 13,853 3,133 10,456 11,024 12,916 10,443 19,101 25,980 17,556 17,480 31,693 14,818 23,843 18,575 26,123 41,117 6,753 4,172 5,114 9,796 10,967 13,006 16,975 8.604 12,250 17,707 13,804 17,917 11,850 20,336 Hawai- ian Islands. 7.215 11,081 14,561 13,644 19,675 22,123 23,226 22,512 15,077 16,935 16,669 12,218 12,528 19,095 30,007 8,702 8,703 13,747 18,616 21,441 24,400 33,030 48,028 67,384 28,263 19,273 16,933 Chile. 4,171 7,637 12,611 10,284 7,859 4,917 9,077 11,883 2,820 3,635 4,397 8,067 22,851 12,348 13,118 15,934 19,927 12,539 26,158 23,320 17,019 25,331 28.820 12,806 34,055 21,810 14,786 7,215 7,861 11,732 21,958 32,208 33,799 31,278 British Aus- tralasia. 4,735 5,738 5,385 13,275 2,122 7,202 11,499 15,872 17,991 14,118 9,425 22,390 29,829 38,441 44,024 71,879 52,142 52,174 65,663 57,995 74,311 55,163 30,725 19,309 41,118 51,567 64,884 41,242 47,500 44,222 88,011 61,555 69,414 104,155 68,248 China. 4,376 3,614 331 5,456 143 18 5 394 506 1,006 638 2,207 7,023 983 1,738 1,830 4,887 2,328 2,309 5,269 4,491 4,928 2,651 7,646 15,111 7,371 17,256 15,487 15,877 9,683 21,790 21,871 22,726 38.598 Colom- bia. Italy. 1,763 63 1,649 57 1,869 70 3,249 365 2,460 487 1,874 685 2,121 597 2,090 2,678 2,398 1,238 2,828 3,500 4,056 3,303 12,953 3,029 13,465 3,414 21,887 5,729 40,859 3,650 19,360 9,717 26,278 10,353 15,139 13,010 8,160 10,390 1,136 15,586 3,252 9,338 3,617 8,740 6,755 10,405 2,822 6,721 4,829 12,452 3,717 10,937 4,363 9,994 4,355 14,615 3,752 16,617 4,738 11.560 3,552 3,467 16,814 2,996 12,997 4,103 21,064 2,272 23,653 1 Preliminary fisnires. The exportation of shingles by the United States has always been large. As early as 1790 it exported 67,331,000 shingles, of which 25,676,- 000 went to the British West Indies; 35,574,000 to the French West Indies, and 4,524,000 to the other West Indies. The highest point reached in the exportation of this commodity was in 1858, when it reached the enormous figures of 195,170,000. British North America was the high- est individual importer in that year, buying 142,194,000; the British West Indies were next with 28,816,000 and the French West Indies third with 5,371,000. During the last six years, however, there has been a steady decrease in the exportation of this product. In 1900 there were 86,118,000 shingles exported; the next year, 1901, 39,255,000 were shipped, a drop of more than half. This was followed the next year by an- other drop of 6,000,000 ; the next year, 1903, saw an increase of 5,000,000 — there being exported 38,211,000. In the two following years, 1904 and 1905, the exportation fell to 28,484,000 and 22,345,000, respectively. The above decreases in exportation of shingles are accounted for by the 546 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. fact that the home consumption of this commodity has increased very ma- terially in the last few years, together with an increased production in Canada. The following table shows shingle exportations by principal countries from 1790 to 1905, inclusive : EXPORTS OP SHINGLES BY PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES AND TOTAL ALL COUNTRIES, 1790-1905-THOUSANDS. British French Danish Porto Rico other British Hawai- Total all Year. West West West Cuba. West North ian coun- Indies. Indies. Indies. Indies. America. Islands. tries. 1790 25,675 35,574 812 4,524 285 67,331 1791 33,667 33,654 786 3,831 43 74,206 1792 30,712 31,583 994 8,126 155 71,638 1793 29,432 38,934 1,686 10,615 126 80,813 1794 12,996 3,922 3,407 7,317 144 27,650 1795 20,642 3,038 6,243 7,998 164 38,939 1796 24,251 5,032 6,348 11,435 25 47,307 1797 11,805 13,167 11,047 14,744 22 51,605 1798 18,659 12,008 4,306 15,769 67 50,915 1799 42,238 2,840 6,349 ...... 6,782 10 58,510 1800 76,028 1801 81,044 1802 82,110 1803 78,926 1804 75,156 1805 74,854 1806 82,146 1807 76,890 1808 17,512 1809 34,047 1810 43,122 1811 69,097 1812 30,327 1813 530 9,750 10,750 1814 439 3,659 . 4,196 1815 6,560 5,596 1,204 11,266 518 25,419 1816 21,970 21,406 9,061 23,663 2,233 78,919 1817 27,308 26,282 6,071 24,892 3,336 88,813 1818 25,100 21,170 2,304 .■■■■■. 16,004 1,272 66,342 1819 14,918 18,622 4,588 15,732 6,313 61,652 1820 22,237 13,004 4,812 19,666 7,380 68,647 1821 4,483 15,816 5,241 3,751 17,468 4,568 53,583 1822 3,993 17,615 2,940 4,341 18,219 4,061 52,183 1823 15,447 5,532 2,241 2,457 12,810 293 40,383 1824 14,239 7,408 4,014 2,202 8,977 195 38,129 1825 16,513 10,242 2,830 9,486 562 40,959 1826 26,442 17,412 8,944 4,588 11,552 185 71,991 1827 5,201 13,761 3,866 2,648 8,707 1,158 37,696 1828 674 17,155 14,942 3,482 12,574 1,065 51,672 1829 100 21,354 9,731 13,869 14.000 1,886 62,459 1830 14,981 5,842 6,205 9,544 2,528 41,175 1831 8,572 6,665 4,548 3,237 6.420 1,213 23,122 1832 15,469 3,156 4,786 2,939 9,075 738 39,123 1833 13,912 5,420 3,817 4,794 9,054 1,177 40,956 1834 7,325 8,754 6,110 3,203 9,515 805 37,917 1835 5,892 8,379 4,014 1,447 15,362 1,142 39,288 1836 13,730 6,087 6,923 3,946 9,900 1,004 43,604 1837 13,386 7,225 5,510 2,671 8,302 2,367 42,108 1838 8,292 6,435 4,770 4,367 7,479 1,574 36,007 1839 7,916 6,954 5,410 3,158 8,049 1,855 37,569 1840 6,459 6,525 3,734 1,749 8,522 2,129 31,359 1841 9,996 6,880 4,587 2,199 8,163 2,665 37,759 1842 9,214 8,674 2,030 1,777 8,280 934 34,050 1843 7,017 5,594 1.556 1,043 2,800 89 20,270 1844 19,459 9,290 2,185 1,676 5,717 161 42,615 1845 33,964 8,573 4,029 3,495 6,305 431 60,918 1846 20,992 7,164 3,043 1,225 5,913 687 42,093 1847 18,685 5,511 3,279 1,812 6,285 529 38,147 1848 19,852 4,042 1,740 1.506 7,955 775 39,743 1849 14,802 2,716 2,8S8 1,052 3,444 530 30,277 UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 547 EXPORTS OP SHINGLES BY PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES AND TOTAL ALL COUNTRIES. 1790-1905-THOUSANDS-Continued. British French Danish Porto Rico. Other British Hawai- Total aU Year. West West West Cuba. West North ian coun- Indies. Indies. Indies. Indies. America. Islands. tries. 1850 11,872 5,975 2,363 1,169 3,044 496 32,779 1851 14,417 6,743 2,677 616 4,972 536 34,871 1852 20,596 8,930 6,072 737 9,649 218 53,405 1853 17,339 8,914 3,805 524 5,931 622 41,932 1854 8,396 3,879 2,241 591 6,662 421 26,174 1855 12,539 3,680 715 722 2,465 5.86S 947 36,825 1856 18,157 6.554 3,812 917 3,989 2,859 1,529 45,173 1857 20,664 6,383 3,359 3,131 3,155 3,828 21.743 70,646 1858 28,316 5,371 4,239 1,563 2,205 3,568 142,194 195,170 1859 30,846 4,567 2,314 1,948 2,714 3,456 2,717 57.815 1860 18,940 3,986 1,847 1.741 3,580 2,480 714 41.601 1861 12,965 2,158 1,818 1,116 1,217 3,259 207 30,078 1862 1,970 1,266 3,187 2.019 1,933 381 20,118 1863 3,389 2,633 4,084 1.197 5,646 221 30,708 1864 3,611 1,139 3,146 1,775 9,495 322 30,344 1865 2,122 615 5,771 1.403 1,716 6,093 1.116 33,034 1866 2,332 5 3,72€ 260 1,224 4,127 305 25,480 1867 2,959 60 3,237 275 2,451 4,575 1.250 29,747 1868 7,037 508 4.640 341 2,197 3,338 1.185 31.460 1869 5,800 1,276 3,476 100 2,640 1,003 118 27,342 1870 5,619 1,076 1,605 502 2,164 3.217 192 28,787 1871 3,404 1,244 2,644 556 1,562 5,073 56 4,849 23,254 1872 6,523 1,372 3,341 87 2,404 3,004 408 3,771 27.042 1873 6,389 1,296 3,364 33 1,827 3,731 5,153 3,459 33,441 1874 4,174 826 1,258 154 634 3,590 4,354 4,316 28,311 1875 7,518 2,634 1,937 100 2,455 5,055 5,692 4,916 40,628 1876 9,512 588 1,465 228 2,058 4,385 2,243 4,662 33,636 1877 6,278 890 1,776 42 3,872 4,784 5,370 8,471 38,327 1878 11,357 1,917 2,975 236 2,842 3,984 1,948 12,536 46,518 1879 13,075 3,184 4,371 100 3,731 5,547 5,017 12.166 55,858 1880 6,447 4,141 2,206 85 4,538 1,176 7,447 12,065 54,311 1881 9,010 1,810 3,691 185 1,763 5,445 12,756 16,529 60,790 1882 8,126 1.247 1,805 181 1,357 2,405 15,856 15,539 61,065 1883 9,309 682 2,104 169 829 2,248 19,418 17,994 67,059 1884 7,976 2.539 2,387 243 2,857 2,162 10,934 17,032 61,962 1885 7,329 1,371 1,444 327 339 3,702 9,532 12,096 45,867 1886 6,000 2 2,441 60 975 1,996 10,819 12,415 42,072 1887 5,968 661 1,576 85 1,418 2,250 7.138 12,646 38,644 1888 8,969 916 1,168 3 365 1.927 94 10,743 33,932 1889 11,405 2,020 1,273 64 414 1,485 1,864 10,030 34,538 1890 11,464 1,139 810 150 429 2,833 2,626 9,759 36,527 1891 10,370 837 270 1,132 434 1,042 7.440 13,584 42,463 1892 6,889 1,286 242 712 376 499 115 13,011 31,198 1893 7,353 995 559 232 65 848 97 4,521 22,938 1894 10,832 1,184 375 109 893 1,076 264 6,029 28,277 1895 9,196 340 418 70 803 643 8,262 9,476 40.122 1896 8,698 645 35 140 241 19.369 13,526 56.047 1897 9,073 132 101 32 609 537 25,874 13,836 58.508 1898 8,124 477 275 72 30 273 12,902 16,855 50,524 1899 8,221 943 180 312 140 64 24,721 27,787 73,791 1900 8,185 953 546 936 266 104 25,385 34,782 86,118 1901 6,169 220 285 504 543 259 17,849 39,255 1902 7,208 55 50 1,460 434 145 11,712 33,224 1903 2,490 62 284 821 581 81 19.781 20,092 38,211 1904 7,069 454 179 752 539 44 4,280 13,224 28.484 1905.1. 22,345 * Preliminary figrures. For many years manufactures of wood were classed under two divi- sions only — furniture and all other manufactures. It was not until 1864 that woodenware and hogsheads and barrels were segregated. Twenty years later, or in 1884, mouldings, trimmings and other house furnish- 548 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. ings, and doors, sash and blinds were separated in this classification, and in 1898 wood pulp was separately recorded. Taking up the manufactures seriatim, the growth of the furniture trade with foreign countries was given on a preceding page. Wood- enware exportation shows a steady increase up to 1900 when it fell away somewhat, only to recover soon. With the inception of the machine made door the United States was placed in a position to compete with the world in the sash and door trade, and how well it succeeded is shown in the subjoined table. Mouldings, trimmings and other house finishings show a steady increase in value from 1884 down to the present time. The highest point reached was in 1905— $616,331. The trade in hogsheads and barrels is about holding its own. The United Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, Cuba and the West Indies are among the heaviest buyers. The United States imports ten times as much wood pulp as it exports, but what is exported goes for the greater part to the United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, France, Germany and Mexico. The following compilation shows exportations of wood manufac- tures from 1811 to 1905: CLASSIFIED STATEMENT OP WOOD MANUFACTURES EXPORTED FROM UNITED STATES, 1811-1905. Year. Furniture. All other manufac- tures. Total all manufac- tures. Year. Furniture. All other manufac- tures. Total all manufac- tures. 1811 $ 148,758 43,248 2,230 2,526 52,278 114,847 100,743 99,134 125,383 159,704 179,436 262,959 196,599 276,453 248,182 321,022 306,486 311,616 224,199 239,463 229,231 169,038 200,635 177,309 264,790 244,046 $ 190,635 109,335 61,137 49,462 150,660 199,635 202,372 193,274 174,276 148,481 169,715 197,883 191,801 207,028 176,840 216,710 213,815 238,686 217,829 172,772 275,219 312,678 318,641 319,131 417,532 421,016 $ 339,393 152,583 63,367 51,988 202,938 314,482 303,115 292,408 299,659 308,185 349,251 460,842 388,400 483,481 425,022 537,732 520,301 550,302 442,028 412,235 504,450 481,716 519,276 496,440 682,322 665,062 1837 $ 265,421 281,683 361,840 295,844 310,105 290,997 197,982 327,938 277,488 317,407 225,700 297,358 237,342 278,025 362,830 430,182 714,556 762,559 803,960 982,042 879,448 932,499 1,067,197 1,079,114 838,049 942,454 $ 444,149 549,165 659,291 596,305 548,308 623,718 391,312 919,100 677,420 957,790 1,495,924 2,042,695 1,697,828 1,948,752 2,076,395 2,193,085 2,294,122 2,837,270 3,683,420 2,501,583 3,158,424 2,234,678 2,339,861 2,703,095 2,344,079 1,755,793 $ 709,570 830 848 1812 1838 1813 1839 . .. 1 021 131 1814 1840 892,149 1815 1841 858,413 914 715 1816 1842 1817 18431 1844 589,294 1.247 038 1818 1819 1845 954,908 1820 1846 1,275,197 1 721 624 1821 1847 1822 1848 2,340,053 1823 1849 1,935,170 2 226 777 1824 1850 1825 1851 2,439,225 1826 1852 2,623,267 3 008 678 1827 1853 . . 1828 1854 3,599,829 1829 1855 4 487 380 1830 1856 3,483,625 4,037,872 1831 1857 1832 1858 3,167,177 3,407,058 3,782,209 3,182,128 2,698,247 1833 1859 1834 I860.. 1835 1861 1836 1862 > Nine months ended June 30. UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 549 CLASSIFIED STATEMENT OP WOOD MANUFACTURES EXPORTED FROM UNITED STATES, 1811-1905-Continued. Year. Furniture. Wooden- ware. Doors, sash and blinds. Mouldingrs. trimmings and other house fur- nishings. Hogs- heads and barrels. Wood pulp. All other manufac- tures. Total aU manufac- tures. 1863. 1864. $1,282,008 1,389,302 2,115,798 1,138,104 1,052,249 1,199,160 1,202,486 1,245,886 1,110,090 1,493,679 3,727,764 1,882,767 1,711,769 1,574,935 1,700,412 1,961,522 1,804,296 1,653,878 1,894,209 2,342,191 2,579,369 2,429,831 2,128,692 2,121,812 1,978,745 2,335,569 2,628,673 3,088,902 2,956,114 3,090,146 3,112,291 3,427,147 3,048,895 3,261,209 3,785,143 3,701,851 3,571,375 4,191,036 3,951,498 4,125,953 4,454,309 4,555,411 4,439,944 $226,846 396,652 287,852 258,347 216,908 196,606 237,097 240,350 342,815 342,860 328,839 287,861 255,770 331,137 330,589 442,688 516,770 406,264 321,464 331,235 325,986 293,064 321,378 360,515 387,823 356,553 328,817 346,847 451,037 458,651 531,480 500,042 728,375 981,938 777,040 758,578 886,080 981,888 782,138 $■■51,749 54,812 $173,661 131,403 104,935 114,061 102,220 114.985 116,295 140,670 202,589 208,002 163,585 167.652 177,061 197,934 287,494 376,273 428,185 436.325 492,907 565,213 561,504 616,331 $i45"56^5 123,668 170,033 173,148 288,047 277,284 292,561 277,307 267,195 335,777 459,085 349,456 255,911 159,420 248,085 262,029 155,662 284,051 301,234 320,184 324,206 497,458 456,992 502,556 312,401 425,278 240,430 290,113 218,830 209,852 216,234 286,846 267,345 236,860 210,137 167,855 117,442 127,603 175,020 215,532 188,996 $2,549,056 492,870 734,568 550,592 936,929 777,957 1.422,799 554,914 488,627 730,291 957,389 1,196,283 1,080,616 1,216,146 1,117,128 1,555,020 1,451,907 1,466,621 1,914,043 2,344,626 2,146,477 1,724,838 1,590,714 1,386,398 1,479,943 1,699,695 2,465,488 2,197,815 1,924,022 1,827,470 1,917,451 2,423,186 2,090,113 2,865,748 3,253,110 3,017,787 2,995,899 3,872,851 3,774,773 4,451,858 4,818,014 4,640,266 5,206,591 $3,831,064 2,306.332 1865. 3,425,498 1866. 1,858,729 1867. 2,162,326 1868. 2,265,164 1869. 2,913,137 1870. 2,336,431 1871. 2,108,186 1872. 2,697,883 1873. 3,189,445 1874. 3,655,177 1875. 3,594,285 1876. 3,483,397 1877 3,402,290 1878. 3,963,823 1879. 3,760,058 1880. 3,713,665 1881. 4.294,503 1882. 5,413,556 1883. 1884 ■■294,94'2 284.016 267,005 273,328 323,023 307,356 320,840 338,263 295,918 273,455 203,107 275,876 376,960 557,404 817,515 1,136,907 1,132,510 990,698 920,688 1,727,387 1,433,037 853,350 5,543,850 5,349,720 1885. 1886. 1887. 4,780,495 4,708,843 4,629,055 1888. 5,256,127 1889. 1890. 6,150,281 6,509,645 1891. 5,987,322 1892 6,062,789 1893 6,058,896 1894 6,773,724 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 19051 $'536,676 696,319 458,463 1,051,867 740,103 445,228 593,474 473,585 6,249,807 7,426,475 8,592,416 9,098,219 9,715.285 11,232,838 11,099.643 11,617,690 13,071,251 12,981,112 12,560,935 ' Preliminary figures. IMPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCTS. So far as the importation of forest products into the United States is concerned, it was never dictated by necessity, but was more in the nature of a luxury or convenience. For this country could from the beginning of its existence until now supply all the kinds of woods neces- sary for the manufacture of its articles of merchandise, with possibly one exception — dyewoods. The fancy cabinet woods imported were and are for the greater part mere substitutes for the less expensive or ornate, but as useful, domestic woods, and so must be classed as luxuries. As the forests of the East became decimated, however, the eastern markets looked to the forests of Canada for considerable portions of their supplies ; for it was found cheaper and more convenient to buy from 550 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. our neighbor across the border than to go into our inland forests for timber. This importation was made possible, aside from the coastwise traffic, by the opening of the canals connecting the St. Lawrence, and therefore the Ottawa River lumber districts, with the Hudson, via the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. The opening of the Erie Canal, in 1825, gave access to the forests of western New York and to the wonderful pine resources of Michigan as they developed ; but through its Oswego feeder it furnished an inlet to the Canadian product tributary to Lake Ontario, and, in connection with the Rideau Canal, furnished a new route for Ottawa lumber. Further- more, when Michigan in its turn began to show exhaustion, a way was open for an economical movement of lumber of Georgian Bay produc- tion to the eastern markets. The Erie Canal secured for New York the domination of the Atlantic seaboard and created or solidified the remark- able line of cities along its route. The lumber industry was one of those great lines of business which were built up and whose trend of trade was largely directed by those artificial waterways, and which, in turn, supplied and built up the eastern markets. A presentment of the history of the reciprocity treaties with Canada by the United States, with their causes and effects, is given in chapter XXIX, on tariff legislation ; therefore, it is not necessary to take the subject up here, as showing the part which it played in the growth of our commercial dealings in timber with that country. Suffice it to say that the development of this trade, while, to a certain extent fostered by the favoring conditions of the reciprocity treaty of 1854 with Canada and by later concessions in the McKinley and Wilson tariff acts, was in the main due to the rapid growth of population in the eastern states coin- cident with the gradual diminution of their home sources of supply, ren- dering it necessary for them to look elsewhere for their lumber. Entering into the history of our importations briefly, it will be found that the balance of trade stands indebted to the forests. For example, our exports of wood and its manufactures in 1824 were valued at $2,218,067, but imports were valued at only $27,093, in which amount cabinet woods valued at $17,174 were included; fifty years later, or in 1874, our exports had reached the sum of $21,353,721 and imports had increased to $11,215,965; the value of forest products exported in 1904 was $65,428,417, and of imports $26,984,358. The following table shows the relation of importations of forest products to the grand total of all importations from 1824 to 1905 : UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 551 IMPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCTS, VALUES AND RELATION TO TOTAL IMPORTS 1824-1905. Imports forest products. Percent- imports. Unmanufac- tured. Manufactured. Total. forest products of whole. $ 72,169,172 $ 20.422 $ 6,671 $ 27.093 0.03 90,189,310 213,376 75.474 288.850 0.32 78,093,511 216,102 125.750 341.852 0.45 71,332,938 393,445 98,316 491.761 0.68 81,020,083 398,572 101,048 499.620 0.61 67,088,915 314,240 120,881 435.121 0.64 62,720,956 286,825 112,047 398,872 0.63 95,885,179 332,111 147,750 479,861 O.50 95,121,762 317,836 174,263 492,099 0.51 101,047,943 275,636 154,506 430,242 0.42 108,609,700 353,905 152,753 506,658 0.49 136,764,295 453,855 213,213 667,068 0.49 176,579,154 591,106 367,915 959,021 0.55 130,472,803 650.060 317,302 967,362 0.75 95,970,288 392,959 199,514 592,473 0.60 156,496,956 504,826 338,682 843,508 0.53 98,258,706 307,645 234,752 542,397 0.55 122,957,544 499,719 225,244 724,963 0.59 96,075.071 148,112 254,466 402,578 0.41 42.433,464 21.522 61,279 82,801 0.19 102,604,606 200,579 80,720 281,299 0.27 113,184,322 299,082 176,092 475.174 0.42 117,914,665 260,347 294,637 554.984 0.47 122,424,349 332,069 224,516 556.585 0.45 148,638,644 539,099 179,857 718.956 0.4S 141,206,199 552.633 250.739 803.372 0.56 173,509,526 427,620 353.981 781.601 0.45 210,771,429 675,130 403.102 1.078.232 0.51 207,440,398 717,715 462,045 1.179,760 0.57 263,777,265 875,384 478,813 1.354,197 0.5C 297,803,794 1,300,345 829.990 2.130,335 0.71 257,808,708 1,196,464 876.435 2.072,899 0.80 310,432,310 501,957 624,811 1,126.768 0.36 348,428,342 589,481 629,544 1.219,025 0.35 263,338,654 424,472 478,365 902,837 0.34 331,333,341 525,029 436,751 961,780 0.29 353,616,119 792,224 510.438 1.302.662 0.37 289,310,542 424,424 390,170 814.594 0.2S 189,356,677 ! 3.001.527 232.433 3.233,960 1.07 243,335,815 348,250 332.537 680.787 0.27 316,447,283 588,691 332,594 921,285 0.29 238,745.580 629,918 190,048 819,966 0.34 434,812,066 1.921,512 506,946 2,428,458 0.58 395,761,096 7,045,815 756,962 7,802,777 1.09 357,436,440 7.167,603 779,417 7,947,020 2.02 417 506,379 8 938,890 2 01 435,958,408 10,352,208 2.03 520,223,684 8.813,751 1,149,389 9,963.140 1.09 626,595,077 9,461,680 1,510,994 10.972.674 1.07 642,136,210 12,171.853 1,494,803 13.666.656 2.01 567,406,342 10.006,108 1,209,857 11.215,965 1.08 533,005,436 6,997,008 1,081,565 8,078,573 1.05 460,741,190 5,420,432 1,155,231 6.575.663 1.04 451,323,126 4,684,649 798,175 5,482,824 1.02 437,051,532 4,904,489 832,267 5,736,756 1.03 445.777.775 5,333,277 924,464 6,257,741 2.01 667,954,746 8,413,161 1,127,065 9,540,226 1.04 642,664,628 10,281,636 1,384,190 11,665,826 1.08 724,639.574 12,910,019 1,647,624 14,557,643 2.O0 723,180,914 13,167,108 1,690,470 14,857,578 2.O0 667,697,693 13,220,559 1,598,830 14,819,389 2.02 577,527,329 11,276,427 1,593,978 12,870,405 2.02 635,436,136 10.907,201 1,576,568 12,483,769 1.09 692,319,768 11,425.330 2,174,423 13.599,753 1.09 723,957,114 13,084,426 2,745.486 15,829.912 2.02 1824.. 1825.. 1826.. 1827.. 1828.. 1829.. 1830.. 1831.. 1832.. 1833.. 1834.. 1835.. 1836.. 1837.. 1838.. 1839.. 1840.. 1841.. 1842.. 18431 1844.. 1845.. 1846.. 1847.. 1848. . 1849.. 1850. . 1851.. 1852.. 1853.. 1854.. 1855. . 1856.. 1857.. 1858.. 1859.. I860.. 1861.. 1862.. 1863.. 1864.. 1865.. 1866. . 1867.. 1868.. 1869.. 1870.. 1871.. 1872.. 1873. . 1874. . 1875.. 1876.. 1877.. 1878.. 1879.. 1880. . 1881.. 1882. . 1883. . 1884.. 1885.. 1886. . 1887.. 1888.. 1 Nine months ended June 30. ' Of this item $2,696,601 was lumber, timber and firewood from Canada. 552 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. IMPORTS OP FOREST PRODUCTS, VALUES AND RELATION TO TOTAL IMPORTS. 1824-1905-Continued. Total all Imports. Imports forest products. Percent- age Year. Unmanufac- tured. Manufactured. Total. forest products of whole. 1889 1890 $ 745,131.652 789,310,409 844,916,196 827,402,462 866,400,922 654,994,622 731,969,965 779,724,674 764,730.412 616.049,654 697,148,489 849,941,184 823.172.165 903.320.948 1.025,719,237 991,087,371 1,117,512,629 $14,066,141 13,561,788 15,437,120 15,288,578 17,512,190 14.347.420 14,690.416 17.048.557 17.708.665 11.541.390 11,883,173 15,837,342 15,605,049 19,620,812 22,257,849 20,489,432 22,046,896 $3,125,227 3,680,128 4,451,066 4.557.860 5,640,409 3,806,653 3.123.703 3.519.410 2.834.750 2.320.553 2,619.182 4.754.566 4.149.156 4,824,787 6,488.422 6.494.921 7,517,269 $17,191,368 17,241,916 19,888,186 19.846.438 23,152,599 18,154,073 17,814,119 20,567,967 20,543,415 13,861,943 14,502,355 20,591,908 19,754,205 24,445,599 28,746,271 26,984,353 29,564,165 2.05 2.01 1891 2.03 1892 2.04 1893 2.07 1894 2.08 1895 2.03 1896 2.06 1897 2.07 1898 , 2.02 1899 2.01 1900 2.04 1901 2.04 1902 2.07 1903 2.08 1904 2.07 1905 3 2.06 3 Preliminary figures. Taking up the different kinds of timber imports seriatim, it is thought advisable to place the cabinet woods first; especially as this is the only class that has any degree of continuity from the early years down to the present time. Most of this commodity comes from Haiti, San Domingo, Cuba, Porto Rico, Mexico, West Indies, Honduras and Central America. Of all the woods in this catagory mahogany is of the greatest importance. For many years the bulk of this product was shipped across the ocean to the United Kingdom, there to be redistrib- uted throughout the world. This still holds true of the African mahogany ; but during the last decade numerous individuals and com- panies of the United States have entered upon the direct purchase of trees or forests in the West Indies, Central and South America and Africa, with the intent to broaden the field of production and to make direct importations. This fact intensifies the grip the United States is getting on the mahogany resources, in that it controls its own sources of supplies. The total mahogany import in 1900 was 28,228,000 feet; of which 6,320,000 came from the United Kingdom, 7,363,000 from Central America, 10,264,000 from Mexico and 2,815,000 from Cuba. In 1905, 31,844,000 feet were imported ; 6,757,000 coming from the United Kingdom, 12,525,000 from Central America, 8,644,000 from Mexico and 1,467,000 from Cuba. A statement of the imports of mahogany for six years ending with 1905, by principal countries, is here given : UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 553 IMPORTS OP MAHOGANY, 1900-1905— FEET. Countries. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. United Kingdom Central America Mexico 6,320,000 7,363,000 10,264,000 2,815,000 520,000 739,000 207,000 4.559,000 8,603,000 12,477,000 5,170,000 502,000 933,000 37,000 10,893,000 14.289,000 11.724,000 6,977,000 1,219,000 312,000 359,000 14,000,000 12,831,000 12,064,000 7,939,000 753,000 189,000 611,000 8,926,000 16,560,000 16,723,000 4,946,000 1,785,000 752,000 687,000 6,757,000 12,525,000 8,644,000 Cuba 1,467,000 Other West Indies 91,000 1,088,000 1,272.000 Total all countries 28,228,000 32,281,000 44,773,000 48,387,000 50,370,000 31,844,000 The value of all cabinet woods — mahogany, lancewood, cedar, granadilla, ebony, rosewood, satinwood, etc. — imported into the United States from 1824 to 1905, by countries, is shown in the following table: IMPORTS OF CABINET WOODS, BY PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, 1824-1905. British Year. British Isles. British North America. West Indies and Brit- ish Hon- duras. Cuba and Porto Rico. Brazil. Mexico. Haiti and San Domingo Central America. Total all coun- tries. 1824 $ 56 $ $ 5,948 $ 10 $ $ 9 S 4,362 $ 6,002 $ 17,174 1825 84 2,798 14,798 19 4,864 123,402 27,669 218,045 1826 1,601 5,689 8,652 50 324 43,257 211,682 1827 810 9,358 24,695 334 11,724 189,291 43,330 388,464 1828 189 34,202 3,428 40,210 222,163 32,569 390,161 1829 900 9,696 13,220 238,782 8,466 306,670 1830 161 28,917 188 8,178 203,948 26,018 282,472 1831 42 17,361 21,691 1,465 6,297 229,603 17,937 326.167 1832 1,163 19,700 34,414 6,107 3,618 206,308 13,298 1833 642 26,966 29,008 1,491 1,520 156,766 18,939 263,134 1834 984 22,442 37,395 3,714 1,797 205,134 14,978 320,378 1835 1,966 26,747 51,666 2,716 5,828 276,854 18,834 428,811 1836 756 63,156 108,941 8,659 2,660 282,040 35,130 539,679 1837 45,576 124,730 7,428 1,117 366,068 16,062 605,137 1838 340 66,620 42,238 520 866 196,697 24,686 344,415 1839 7,604 39,476 48,822 492 2,683 298,815 5,313 469,332 1840 5,340 30,721 49,361 2,878 1,517 168,209 7,482 284,361 1841 4,749 37,217 54,403 2,893 6,620 293,861 16,818 464,646 1842 2,569 914 35,485 10 478 19,964 2,793 98,633 1843 1,180 1,346 1,821 76 850 389 297 21,007 1844 26,678 49,561 5,370 228 105,841 3,734 198,879 1845 29,930 95,033 80,149 286 126.526 3,927 298,697 1846 6,320 18,461 95,366 26,287 1,364 101,709 3,134 258,999 1847 19,207 34,476 42,580 4,562 1,253 76,296 2,142 257,586 1848 10,998 32,187 116,861 45,650 3,169 123,365 6,853 396,349 1849 993 21,172 107,862 43,130 9,237 112,647 4,497 464,943 1850 164 18,836 80,273 55,918 3,988 70,246 4,106 343,573 1851 30,271 4.320 37,236 97,680 118,968 1,431 127,607 1,688 428,951 1862 15.310 5.701 72,118 118,879 93,278 4,608 106,325 15,800 435,563 1863 8,274 10,955 67,017 133,808 118,930 5,483 105,322 462,818 1854 18,366 13,7m 87,606 206,562 150,897 24,773 162,021 8,508 687,624 1855 11,967 1,41'; 61,076 137,168 158,891 66,074 118,791 5,974 604,240 1856 1,206 59,045 118,365 80,998 58,64! 97,531 6,027 873 73 36,236 108,847 154,346 43,8i; 137,652 860 560,024 637 191 34,682 117,914 81,242 43,65! 84,103 397 419,415 1859 .... 5,439 15 36,416 89,118 135,89! 56,911 122,687 f^21 524,271 I860 5,551 2,058 69,345 133,527 230,907 101,371 116,316 4,624 698,390 1861 644 2: 22,84( 69,40( 133,747 99,897 52,696 116 420.679 1862 1,056 1,60( 27,71( 85,231 ,. 51,416 98,823 1,738 296,938 1863 2,276 76i 17,03: 80,20! 95,85 68,75 67.58C 1,066 345.645 36,797 8,058 17,97: 200,268 166,982 62,845 56,84E 1,45E 581,060 7,704 2,015 ■ 32,42: 203,01S 142,648 83,92: 45,833 8,041 668,298 1866 63,477 2,59£ 90,141 160,63( 113,60E 82,88C 72,73! 10,46' 642,915 1867 26,995 12,00f 35,17C 211,376 88,11E 106,90( 61,604 10,99; 605,131 554 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. IMPORTS OF CABINET WOODS, BY PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, 1824-1905.— Continued. British Year. British Isles. British North America. West Indies and Brit- ish Hon- duras. Cuba and Porto Rico. Brazil. Mexico. Haiti and San Domingfo Central America. Total all coun- tries. 1868 23,838 2,333 27,108 117,170 92,584 72,824 60,654 8,811 435,271 1869 38,562 39,411 13,346 138,404 219,302 126,345 36,868 16,747 686,361 1870 39,006 27,874 14,665 62,624 190,653 107,808 75,638 21,662 670,131 1871 68,352 23,897 18,654 54,673 238,493 172,785 81,896 14,965 909,330 1872 94,091 279,356 31,195 47,396 269,732 278,950 74,100 16,932 1,326,416 1873 129,837 946,146 17,723 50,283 197,649 171,564 143,980 19,970 1,877,631 1874 112,532 1,087,669 , 35,609 70,095 189,246 324,620 66,102 37.061 2.262,441 1876 142,521 867,523 16,629 26,671 142,269 346,923 60,500 71,651 1,895,685 1876 115,278 614,575 29,179 4,366 134,959 247,833 60,067 18,066 1,406,681 1877 83,011 665,216 8,163 9,804 75,988 133,690 53,680 35,001 1,237,618 1878 115,162 630,437 9,117 6,397 88,061 267,853 86,863 13,968 1,429,096 1879 229,161 771,126 13,110 42,364 104,524 224,926 41,493 26,924 1,768,652 1880 177,622 1,016,937 ; 46,118 245,777 223,276 408.764 46,406 40,327 2,884,679 1S81 209,443 26,907 244,538 268,663 329,295 71,105 56,195 1,530,824 1882 160,649 61,091 349,591 237,487 499,776 57,569 27,802 1,673,162 1883 110,102 23,962 425.048 317,945 441,083 102,515 61,288 1,881,789 1884 155,480 50,626 612,171 167,326 742,460 62,187 53,529 1,724,015 1885 246,662 32,391 553,226 49,464 459,702 19,587 131,265 1,658,314 1886 169,727 23,578 578,416 63,146 316,929 87,340 50,160 1,438,361 1887 143,066 23,920 436,553 65,815 438,153 91,692 27,234 1,421,134 1888 108,310 24,192 388,724 36,204 537,600 60,388 19,593 1,416,742 1889 154,281 33,758 419,768 63,826 301,142 4,965 55,392 1,612,372 1890 167,789 20,668 516,489 35,327 405,322 16,125 63,616 1,527,153 1891 182,606 26,437 581,666 47,462 436,466 70,766 139,263 1,799,816 1892 251.748 13,696 525,688 90,893 698,666 103,114 261,716 2,152,803 189S 841,595 13,369 1,072,186 101,916 626,369 59,773 246,688 2,662,658 1894 150,473 12,500 681,850 17,809 360,490 60,819 198,268 1,635,276 1895 115,978 456 10,872 494,848 43,469 263JL62 54,262 14,157 1,312,764 1896 137,018 lO.Wt 1,74« 524,212 16,614 769,726 40,022 189,615 1,858,655 1897 97,830 667 13,926 65,534 12,691 677,972 60,512 236,494 1,391,714 1898 200,547 56S 8,791 17,92€ 21,276 867,066 69,306 266,482 1,722,231 1899 346,991 91 16,827 40,636 33,509 969,949 57,400 419,545 2,230,340 1900 449,33C 618 17,678 381,05C 22,633 809,919 85,770 418,985 2,103,201 1901 501,621 5,808 13,482 811,332 35,407 771,660 102,483 478,208 2,993,349 1902 910,713 10,798 20,226 679,057 16,749 667,358 90,375 807,680 3,361,276 1903 1,285,422 1,566 104,125 1,098,638 35,937 620,063 153,753 616,127 4,036,300 1904 953,746 341,838 1,076,615 41,729 688,320 102,713 632,402 4,124,611 19051 3,055,617 1 Preliminary figures. An examination of the above table shows a remarkable increase in the imports of cabinet woods from British North America of from $23,897 in 1871 to $279,356 in 1872, and $946,146 in 1873. This is accounted for in one way only, and that is that some other class must be included with cabinet woods from 1872 to 1880, inclusive — possibly "other unmanufactured," for cabinet woods are combined with " other unmanufactured" from 1881 to 1894, inclusive. It might be well to mention here that dyewoods have been elimi- nated throughout, for the reason that they have been included in the chemical and not in the wood schedules. Nearly all the importations of lumber are from British North Amer- ica, a large portion of which is of the lower grades. The United States gets some good lumber from Canada, but the bulk of that product goes across the Atlantic. For a period of thirty-five years, beginning UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 555 with 1871 and ending 1905, it imported 10,573,919,000 feet of sawed lumber from Canada, against 15,929,000 from all other countries. The highest point reached in the importation of this commodity from that country was in 1897, the fiscal year preceding the adoption of the Dingley bill, when it amounted to 883,770,000 feet. The year follow- ing the restoration of the old duty of $2 on lumber the imports of boards, deals, etc., dropped to 353,134,000 feet. The subjoined state- ment shows imports of sawed lumber from British North America from 1871 to 1905, inclusive, and from all other countries combined : IMPORTS OP BOARDS AND OTHER SAWED LUMBER-FEET. Year. British North America. AU other countries. Year. British North America. All other couB tries. 1871 725,784.000 714,671,000 818,250,000 562,237,000 393,768,000 333,990,000 316,261,000 327,281,000 355,294,000 515,315,000 575,210,000 612,343,000 575,044,000 600,714,000 555,325,000 547,504,000 558.963.000 608,326,000 210,000 60,000 52,000 158,000 18,000 6,000 10,000 17,000 10,000 28,000 110,000 21,000 55,000 48,000 257,000 328,000 273,000 417.000 1889 647,842.000 659.703.000 757.149.000 663,226.000 742,351.000 514,461,000 600,790,000 786,101,000 883,770,000 353,134,000 423,730.000 678.900.000 490.571.000 664.751.000 719.110.000 586,459,000 705.591.000 332,000 1872 . 1890 624,000 1873 1891 95,000 1874 1892 27,000 1875 1893 246,000 1876 1894 158.000 1877 1895 8,000 1878 1896 108,000 1879 1897 11,000 1880 1898 81.000 1881 1899 198.000 1882 1900 1,326.000 1883 . 1901 249.000 1884 . 1902 852.000 1885 1903 1.827.000 1886 1904 2,773,000 1887 1905> 4,936,000 1888 1 Preliminary figrures. The following table shows quantities and values of total imports of boards, planks, deals, joists and scantling from 1871 to 1905, inclusive: IMPORTS OP BOARDS, PLANKS. DEALS. JOISTS AND SCANTLING, 1871-1905. Year. 1871.. 1872.. 1873.. 1874.. 1875.. 1876.. 1877.. 1878.. 1879.. 1880,. 1881.. 1882.. 1883.. 1884.. 1885.. 1886.. 1887.. 1888.. Quantity, thousands. 725,994 $6,863,684 714,731 7,132,061 818,302 9,458,641 562,395 6.764,314 393,786 4,571,078 333,996 3,672,105 316,271 3,146,093 3,174,335 327,298 355,304 3,292,042 515,343 5,086,880 575,320 6,279,541 612,364 7,386,799 572,099 7,582.194 600,762 7.757,156 555,582 6,814,248 547.832 6,392,305 559,236 6,854,401 608,743 7,515,719 Year. 1889.. 1890.. 1891.. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897.. 1898.. 1899.. 1900.. 1901.. 1902.. 1903.. 1904.. 19051 Quantity, Value. thousands. 648,174 $7,823,721 660,327 7.786,093 757,244 8,412,842 663,253 7,543,229 742,597 8.239,370 514,619 6,136,961 600,798 6,859,532 786,209 8,505,634 883,781 9,075.981 353,215 3,509.818 423,928 4,200,168 680,226 7,475,509 490,820 6,361,423 665,603 9,271,090 720,937 10,673,317 589,232 8,878,474 710.527 10,906,661 1 Preliminary fifures. 556 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. Importations of all other lumber are shown in the subjoined table from 1871 to 1900. The greater portion of this product was received also from British North America. During the last five years there has been imported to this country miscellaneous lumber to the value of $7,575,712, divided as follows : 1901, $1,246,509 ; 1902, $1,380,973 ; 1903, $1,753,532, which was the highest point reached in the last thirty- five years; 1904, $1,545,384, and 1905, $1,649,314. IMPORTS OP OTHER LUMBER— VALUES, Year. British North America. All other countries. Year. British North America. All other countries. 1871 $ 402,387 268,633 397,855 476,724 219,529 224,793 224,504 198,329 182,365 301.519 449.432 762,885 706,839 790,738 688,531 $ 2.072 1.452 1,777 92 378 90 175 1.687 1.862 12.504 25.911 3.358 10,921 16,637 16,280 1886 $ 757,578 813,432 1,067,016 1,318,180 1,088,858 1,084,030 1,319,092 1,570,499 1,415,049 299,365 21,375 14,916 789,630 978,151 1,296,528 $ 10.715 1872 1887 5,141 1873 1888 4,404 1874 1889 5.945 1875 1890 5.801 1876 1891 26,352 1877 1892 11,099 1878 1893 12.026 1879 1894 4,616 1880 1895 741 1881 1896 370 1882 1897 4,063 1883 1898 7,213 1884 1899 8,988 1885 1900 46,065 All shingle importations are from Canada, and they come for the most part from Quebec, Ontario and New Brunswick. The amount imported has fluctuated for thirty-three years, but the high water mark was reached in 1904 when 770,873,000 were received at a value of $1,602,- 999. The following table shows quantities and values of shingle im- portations from 1872 to 1905, inclusive : IMPORTS OP SHINGLES, 1872-1905. Year. Quantity, thousands. Value. Year. Quantity, thousands. Value. 1872 102.904 108.448 109,245 82,110 38,279 34,190 47,532 48,710 59,402 87,135 99,264 104,657 86,219 69,511 79,150 89,169 161,715 $ 209.503 243.404 273.490 197.755 86.255 68.189 97.149 93,619 117,347 188,400 244,819 280,905 215,424 157,778 171,597 185,385 331,329 1889 214.546 194.168 260.652 363.027 459,044 378,632 51,513 1 1 435,421 471,594 541,040 555,853 707,614 724,131 770.373 758.745 $ 461.841 1873 1890 414.347 1874 1891 553,285 1875 1892 732.191 1876 1893 916.829 1877 1894 732.284 1878 1895 99.790 1879 1896 1880 1897 1881 1898 760.984 1882 1899 827,886 1883 1900 1,011.234 1.028,184 1,362,821 1,494.906 1,602,999 1.581.421 1884 1901 1885 1902 1886 1903 1887 1904. 1888 19052 ' Not separately enumerated for 1896-1897. ^ Preliminary figures. UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 557 In the importations of unmanufactured wood from British North America from 1881 to 1894, inclusive, cabinet woods are included; after that date, however, cabinet woods were again kept separate as a class, and will be found under another caption. When the Dingley bill became effective the importations of unmanufactured wood dropped nearly two- thirds in value. The statement which follows shows imports of this commodity from British North America, compared with all other coun- tries: IMPORTS OF OTHER UNMANUFACTURED WOOD, 1881-1900 . Year. British North America. All other countries. Year. British North America. AH other countries. 1881 $ 1,279.670 1.980.029 1.904.960 1,573.217 1.062.983 1.362.337 1.600.456 2.039.897 2,145.219 1.948.334 $ 519.839 833.900 775.198 1.046.244 804.724 717.328 526.601 683,148 782,033 766,598 1891 $ 2,357,238 2,109,767 3,053.709 3.794,041 3,955,245 3,445,862 3,650,440 1,484.158 1.157.038 1.394.653 $ 1.131,210 1882 1892 1.263.573 1883 1893 989.431 1884 1894 581.175 1885 1895 1.023.993 1886 1896 709.690 1887 1897 1.051.625 1888 ... 1898 820,608 1889 . 1899 818,977 1890 1900 3 ,256.145 It is somewhat remarkable that the United States imports large quantities of wood pulp from Europe. British North America is its chief foreign source of supply, however, for in 1905 it furnished 130,882 tons out of the total importations of 167,504 tons. Going back to 1891, the earliest year in which wood pulp statistics are shown, more of this product was received from Sweden and Norway than any other one country. This continued to be the case until 1895, when British North America took the lead and has since held it, gaining year by year. In value, importations of wood pulp are many times greater than exportations. The following tables show quantities and values of importations from 1890 to 1905, inclusive, and quantities received from principal countries from 1891 to 1905, inclusive : IMPORTS OF WOOD PULP. 1890-1905. Year. Quantity, tons. Value. Year. Quantity, tons. Value. 1890 43,478 43,316 41,118 63,565 35.587 28.440 45,143 41.770 $1,814,356 1.902.689 1.820.143 2.908.884 1.664,547 958,009 1,052.829 800.886 1898 29.846 33.319 82.441 46.757 67.416 116.881 144.796 167.504 $ 601.642 1891 1899 671,506 1892 1900 2,405,630 1893 1901 1,586,402 1894 1902 2,059 092 1895 1903 3,387,770 3,602,668 4,500,955 1896 1904 1897 1905 1 ' Preliminary fieures. 558 LUMBER INDUSTRY OF AMERICA. IMPORTS OP WOOD PULP FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 1891-1900— TONS. Countries. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. Austrla-Huneary . . Belgium British North America Germany Netherlands Sweden & Norway. United Kingrdom... 2,218 108 9,424 10,259 30 15,102 1,672 1,754 157 11,158 11,388 14,655 592 3,753 20 12.051 21,124 86 22,551 1,099 2,129 90 9,417 8,942 50 13,866 499 1,792 125 11,716 5,984 170 7,136 204 424 105 22,797 6,195 7,839 1,383 28,880 1,783 14 5,019 10 80 20,327 1,617 3,704 215 23,653 713 14 4,192 265 1,030 96 40,312 5,765 262 15,140 545 IMPORTS OP WOOD PULP, 1901-1905-TONS. Countries. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905.1 British North America 36,845 2,823 7,089 51.162 5,533 10,621 81,985 13,783 21,113 101,415 9,104 34,277 130.882 Germany....' 6,994 29,628 1 Preliminary fignires. It is unfortunate, from an historical viewpoint, that the statistics of importations of logs and round timber and sawn and hewn timber were not kept separate until recent years, and it is owing to this oversight on the part of the government officials that it is impossible to go back earlier than 1895 with a view of showing the quantities and values of the importations of this valuable product. While this is regretted, the following tables will show the effect the Dingley bill had on these commodities : IMPORTS OF LOGS AND ROUND TIMBER, 1895-1905. Year. Quantity, M feet. Value. Year. Quantity, M feet. Value. 1895 153,056 335,469 333,727 275,547 198,195 101,397 $1,149,764 2,584,438 2,616,397 2,430,089 1,766,294 879,956 1901 82,985 106,171 73,836 66,033 97,302 $ 804,188 1896 1902 907,168 1897 1903 637,881 1898 1904 552,504 1899 1905 I 722,693 1900 1 Preliminary figrures. IMPORTS-TIMBER, SAWN AND HEWN— SQUARED OR SIDED, 1895-1905. Year. Quantity, cubic feet. Value. Year. Quantity, cubic feet. Value. 1895 5,048 8,010 4,743 138,786 133,792 564,789 $ 56,783 82.022 93.777 39,543 18,068 46,550 1901 112,653 129,183 207,554 139,180 184,742 $ 18,810 1896 1902 18,027 1897 1903 41,131 1898.. 1904 33,357 1899 19051 28,912 1900 1 Preliminary figures. UNITED STATES— FOREIGN TRADE. 559 Taking up the importations of cabinet ware and other manufactures of wood, it will be found that the value of this commodity has grown Wi^ii the development of the country. During the first three years of the last five there was a steady increase in the importations of wood manu- factures. In 1904 it fell away somewhat, but it recovered in the follow- ing year. In 1901 there was imported $2,562,764 worth of this product, $2,765,695 in 1902, $3,100,652 in 1903, $2,890,792 in 1904 and $3,016,314 in 1905. The following table shows the importations of wood manufactures, by decades, from 1830 to 1900 inclusive. The magnitude of the figures shown as received from British North America in 1870 is accounted for in that all the statistics of importations of wood for the year are bunched — with the exception of .cabinet woods — in this total. IMPORTS OP CABINET WARE AND OTHER MANUFACTURES-PRINCIPAL COUN- TRIES BY DECADES, 1830 TO 1900. Countries. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. United King- dom France Germany British North America . . . China Holland and Bel^um . . . Japan $ 28,228 31,676 38.542 1.776 6,852 1,699 $ 46,120 92.141 79,025 4.664 4,713 2.899 $ 70,444 123.526 100.384 26,337 234 19.973 $ 78.239 128.271 189,124 45,101 32,887 4,976 $ 218,155 183,229 420,113 8,610,723 15,947 34,353 18,204 $ 270,270 181,627 220,811 217,497 21,200 57,382 109,704 $ 396,860 432,079 601,220 93,292 27,101 34,223 46.343 $ 246,523 426,952 506,356 181,766 95,747 98.419 162.246 Total all countries. $112,047 $234,752 $353,981 $510,438 $9,682,077 $1,122,016 $1,865,772 $2,348,936 '1 1 w