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 MAY 29, 1915 
 
 
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 University Extension Bulletin No. U 
 
 Hygienic Conditions in Iowa Schools 
 
 BY 
 
 Irving King 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY, IOWA 
 
 ISSUED TWENTY-ONE TIMES DURING THE ACADEMIC TEAB; MONTHLY FROM 
 
 OCTOBER TO JANUABf, WEEKLY FROM FEBRUARY TO JUNE. ENTERED 
 
 AT THE POSTOFflGE IN IOWA CITY AS SECOND CLASS MATTER 
 
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THE STATE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 IOWA CITY 
 
 University Extension Bulletin No. II 
 
 O. £. KUNGAMAN, M. A., Editor 
 
 Hygienic Conditions in Iowa Schools 
 
 A report on conditions in schools of 181 cities 
 and towns in Iowa 
 
 BY 
 
 Irving King, Ph. D. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
 IOWA CITY, IOWA 
 
The writer's class in "School Hygiene" (1914-1915) ren- 
 dered much assistance in the preliminarj tabulations for this 
 Eeport ; and in the further detailed work necessary for the com- 
 pletion of the study special acknowledgement should be made 
 of the patient and careful help of Miss Florence Schneider, a 
 graduate student in the University of Iowa. 
 
Hygienic Conditions 
 in Iowa Schools 
 
 The conditions described in this report must be considered as 
 true only for the time between April 1st, 1914, and January 
 1st, 1915. In many localities new buildings have already taken 
 the place of the ones here reported upon. (Des Moines reported 
 in April 1915.) 
 
 The 181 cities and towns from which reports were sent are 
 distributed according to size as follows : 
 
 155 to 500 population . 45 
 
 501 to 1000 55 
 
 1001 to 3000 36 
 
 3001 to 6000 11 
 
 6001 to 10000 3 
 
 10001 to 15000 4 
 
 86,368 1 
 
 Consolidated Schools, mostly in small villages and 
 and the country 26 
 
 181 
 Number of separate school buildings reported upon 347 
 (Des Moines 42) 
 
 THE SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY. 
 The questionnaire on which answers from the above schools 
 were returned, made inquiry first as to the sanitation of school 
 grounds and buildings, secondly as to the hygienic conditions of 
 school rooms and class rooms, and, thirdly, as to special precau- 
 tions for the protection of the children themselves. There were, 
 in aU, approximately 176 questions regarding hygienic conditions. 
 These were, however, so stated as to be easily answered, in 
 most eases by a mere check mark. Superintendents were urged 
 to see that the blank was fiUed out while the school was in session 
 and the children actually in their seats. Where measurements 
 were required it was suggested that the pupils be instructed to 
 
make them imder the supervision of the teacher. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that the queries were supposedly 
 quite clear, many ambiguities appeared in the answers, and 
 very few of the questions were answered for each one of the 
 347 school buildings, so that in practically no ease will the 
 answers to any one question be found to tally with the number of 
 schools reporting. In some cases the failure to answer seemed 
 to be due to carelessness or to failure to make the effort neces- 
 sary to find out the point in question. In some cases the failure 
 to reply evidently meant the absence of any thing to report. 
 Thus in answer to the question, Do you have dental inspection ? 
 several said "No", most left the question unanswered. It is 
 fair to conclude that all schools which do have dental inspection 
 reported it, so aU which were blank may fairly be included with 
 those answering definitely, "No." 
 
 A considerable number of superintendents who requested 
 copies of the questionnaire with the ostensible purpose of filling 
 it out and returning it failed to do so. Thus the report given 
 herewith is not nearly as complete as it was hoped it might be. 
 Not very many of the larger cities were included in the inquiry. 
 It was desired to make the study chiefly one of villages and 
 towns of 400 to 6000 population, and 72 per cent of the towns 
 here reported fall within these limits. This represents 30 per 
 cent of the cities and towns of the state of this size. 
 
 The conditions here reported are probably quite fairly repre- 
 sentive of the conditions which generally prevail in the city 
 and town schools of Iowa. The incompleteness of the report is 
 to be regretted chiefly as it concerns the precautions taken by 
 schools for safeguarding the health of children through 
 medical inspection and examinations of eyes, teeth, etc. Here 
 exact and complete information as to what is now being done 
 along these lines is greatly to be desired. It is quite likely that 
 much of the best of such work is done by larger cities not in- 
 cluded in this study. 
 
 THE SIZE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 The first thing that impresses the observer of schools in small 
 as well as in large towns and cities is the frequent failure, in 
 laying out the city and locating the school grounds, to provide 
 grounds of sufBeient size for real play-grounds. The need of 
 ample grounds is not yet actually recognized in many towns. 
 
In many cities, however, as the vacant spaces have been built up 
 the need of play spaces has become more apparent. 
 
 Table I presents the sizes of the school grounds as far as they 
 were reported, reduced to a common basis of square rods. In 
 some cases especially where *'a city block" was given as the 
 size of the school yard an estimate had to be made. From 326- 
 350 square rods considered as probably a fair approximation in 
 all such cases. 
 
 This table shows that the median school ground contains be- 
 tween 201 and 225 square rods. 50 schools have grounds of 
 about an acre in area and 69 schools have grounds of less than 
 an acre. 
 
 TABLE I 
 The size of school grounds of 325 town and city grounds of 
 Iowa, 22 schools did not report the dimensions of their grounds. 
 
 Frequency 
 Square rods All cities and 
 
 towns 
 
 2.17 
 
 
 1 
 
 18.3 
 
 
 1 
 
 25-50 
 
 
 4 
 
 51-75 
 
 
 12 
 
 76-100 
 
 
 27 
 
 101-125 
 
 
 19 
 
 126-150 
 
 
 24 
 
 151-175 — One acre 
 
 50 
 
 176-200 
 
 
 7 
 
 201-225 
 
 Median 
 
 20 
 
 226-250 
 
 
 4 
 
 251-275 
 
 
 11 
 
 276-300 
 
 
 11 
 
 301-325 
 
 
 10 
 
 326-350— Two acres 
 
 65 (a city block) 
 
 351-375 
 
 
 4 
 
 376-400 
 
 
 9 
 
 401-425 
 
 
 4 
 
 426-450 
 
 
 1 
 
 451-475 
 
 
 3 
 
 476-500— Three acres 
 
 4 
 
 501-525 
 
 
 4 
 

 
 Frequency 
 
 Square rods 
 
 
 All cities and 
 towns 
 
 526-550 
 
 
 3 
 
 551-575 
 
 
 3 
 
 576-600 
 
 
 3 
 
 601-625 
 
 
 
 626-650 
 
 
 5 
 
 651-675— Four 
 
 acres 
 
 2 
 
 676-700 
 
 
 1 
 
 701-800 
 
 
 3 
 
 801-900— Five 
 
 acres 
 
 2 
 
 901-lOOa 
 
 
 3 
 
 1001-2000 
 
 
 3 
 
 4884— Thirty acres 
 
 1 
 
 6400— Forty acres 
 
 1 
 
 21% of the school grounds are less than one acre in size 
 
 THE CHARACTER OF THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 Healthful Location 
 
 In locating a new school building it too often happens that 
 the character of the grounds receives only minor consideration. 
 Suitable grounds are, however, of vital importance, not merely 
 that the children may have a good place to play, but also that 
 the building itself may be hygienic. Surely healthful grounds 
 cajinot be left out of account in determining a location where 
 little children are to spend a large portion of their waking hours 
 at seasons of the year when rain or snow is a frequent occur- 
 anee or even a possibility. Disregard of the kind of grounds 
 used can be attributed only to ignorance of the extent to which 
 health is dependent upon them. 
 
 Low and poorly drained grounds almost inevitably make damp 
 basements and damp buildings. Such grounds, also, when the 
 frost is out of them are apt to be unsuitable for play during pro- 
 tracted periods, especially in the spring months. Moderately 
 high school grounds usually have adequate natural drainage. 
 
Flat grounds may be rendered suitable by artificial drainage. 
 Low grounds are always to be condemned. 
 
 The conditions reported for these Iowa schools appear to be 
 fairly satisfactory. The grounds of 196 schools are said to be 
 high; 121 are flat, 22 are low. Good drainage is reported for 
 292 schools ; fairly good for 8, and 36 are given as wet. 
 
 11% of the school grounds are reported as wet 
 
 Distance from Other Baildings 
 
 The distance of other buildings from the school building is 
 important from several points of view. Adjoining buildings 
 less than 50 feet distant may, if high, interfere seriously with 
 the lighting of the school-rooms, especially those on the ground 
 floor. Such buildings may also impair the usefulness of the 
 play-grounds. Furthermore they may be used for purposes that 
 interfere with the school's work or they may be postively detri- 
 mental to the health and morals of the children. This is especial- 
 ly true of factories by reason of their many employees, or because 
 of noise, smoke and bad odors. Buildings of this sort are of 
 course undesirable even when several times 50 feet distant. 
 Free space of a width of 75 to 100 feet is a very modest re- 
 quirement for a school building of any size and it should often 
 be much more than this. 
 
 The conditions reported in reply to the query as to the dis- 
 tance of the nearest building are as follows : 
 
 TABLE II 
 Nearest buildings within 10-20 ft. 21 schools 
 Nearest buildings within 20-30 ft. 24 schools 
 Nearest buildings within 30-40 ft. 20 schools 
 Nearest buildings within 40-50 ft. 28 schools 
 Nearest buildings within 50-75 ft. 68 schools 
 Nearest buildings over 75 feet 183 schools 
 Of these, 321 report that such adjoining buildings are not un- 
 favorable to the pupils' health or efficiency; 14 schools report 
 that the adjoining buildings are detrimental to the school. The 
 
lack of definite and tmiformly applied standards in answering 
 this query impairs the value of the information given, but it is 
 at least roughly significant. 
 
 Suitable Playgrounds 
 
 The need of suitable play grounds for the schools is now gener- 
 ally recognized. Many schools in small towns as well as in the 
 cities are quite inadequately provided in this respect from the 
 point of view of mere size alone. From the first table one can 
 see how many diminutive school yards there are. Although the 
 median school ground area is nearly 225 square rods, there are 
 64 school grounds only one half this size, and the median ground 
 of the Des Moines schools where play space is needed if anywhere 
 is scarcely more than 135 square rods, nearly 100 square rods 
 less than the median of the state. 
 
 The query as to whether the grounds were suitable for play- 
 grounds brought the answer "yes" from 275 schools, and ."no" 
 from 34 schools, while 15 reported "fairly so". 
 
 Here, again, the lack of a suitable standard as to what consti- 
 tutes a good play-ground renders these numbers only rough 
 measures of actual conditions. It is probable that only the very 
 small or otherwise very unsuitable play-grounds were reported 
 as such. 
 
 15% of the school grounds are reported as unsuitable for play 
 
 grounds 
 
 Playgrouiid Surface 
 
 The surface of the play-grounds is also important. A tough 
 close sod cannot be surpassed, especially for the elementary 
 grades. But it is impossible to keep sod on a moderately sized 
 play-ground which is actually used by many children. A smooth 
 dirt surface would be good were it not for the dust or the mud 
 which is sure to be present at times. The muddy grounds are a 
 menace to health through the resulting dirty floors and wet feet. 
 
 Grass is reported either as wholly or mainly the school-yard 
 covering of 205 schools. Clay or dirt of 94. Cinders 31. Gravel 
 
15. There was some overlapping 'in these answers. 
 
 From the point of view of the cleanliness of the school build- 
 ing and of the children the surfacing of adjoining streets is 
 always important. 61 schools report paved streets ; 13 macadam- 
 ized ; and 274 dirt. 
 
 The Traffic 
 
 The traffic on adjoining streets often interferes with the effi- 
 ciency of the school because of the distraction due to noise and 
 to the frequent passing of vehicles. Moreover, heavy traffic 
 passing by a crowded school yard is a menace to the lives of the 
 children at play. Only 33 of these schools report heavy traffic ; 
 127 report medium, and 170 light. 
 
 (A) Heavy Traffic, 10% 
 
 (B) Medium traffic, 40% 
 
 (C) Light traffic, 50% 
 
 THE CHAKACTER OF THE SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 This is an era of bidlding in the school world. Modem build- 
 ings are rapidly displacing old and unsanitary structures. Sev- 
 eral consolidated schools in, Iowa, located in country communi- 
 ties have the finest type of modem fire-proof building. While 
 the progress is commendable, it will take a long time to get rid 
 of aU the school buildings that should go. 
 
 Buildings Old or New 
 
 Of the schools reporting for this investigation 111, or nearly 
 33 1-3 per cent have new buildings ; 64 are modem, and 145 are 
 old. Six are partly new and partly old. 242 buildings are said 
 to be in good repair, and 45 are reported as shabby. In several 
 cases it was stated that the old shabby structure was soon to be 
 replaced by a new building. Some superintendents would not 
 report on their schools at all because a report of current con- 
 ditions would be unfair to the community which had already 
 voted a new building or was actually erecting one. 
 
(A) 33 1-3% of the buildings are reported "new" 
 
 (B) 45% of the huildings are reported "old" 
 
 (C) 21% of the buildings are reported as "modern" 
 
 Out-Swinging Doors 
 
 The precaution of having the outer doors open outward seems 
 to be almost uniformly observed, 334 buildings reporting this 
 condition. Of the 11 which report inward swinging doors, al- 
 most all are small one-room buildings. 
 
 Fire Escapes 
 
 As to fire escapes, the State Laws are explicit in requiring 
 that all school buildings covering a ground area of 2500 square 
 feet and three or more stories in height shall be so provided. 
 155 of these buildings report having fire escapes ; and 53 report 
 none. It was not possible to determine whether these schools are 
 violating the law or whether they are of a size that does not re- 
 quire this precaution. In Des Moines, for instance, 27 buildings 
 report that fire escapes are not needed. 
 
 Fire Drills 
 
 The state laws also require monthly fire drills in aU school 
 buildings. The question asked was, "Do you have monthly 
 fire drills as required by state law?" The response was 283 in 
 the affirmative, and 31 in the negative, 8 schools report "not 
 regularly", and two as "not needed". 
 
 Halls 
 
 It sometimes happens, in planning a new building, in the de- 
 sire to have ideal class-rooms or school rooms, that most atten- 
 tion is centered on them, and the halls receive insufficient con- 
 sideration. 
 
 At least three things should be kept in mind in planning halls : 
 Their width, lighting and cleanliness. 
 
Width of Halls 
 
 As to width there axe well recognized standards.* The width 
 must be such as to prevent congestion of pupils on even unusual 
 occasions. The width should be increased with the age of the 
 pupils to be accommodated. In high schools 16 feet is a good 
 width. They -should never be less than 14 feet. For grammar 
 schools 12 feet is a moderate estimate. Certainly the elementary 
 grades should fall very little short of this. The width depends 
 to some extent on the length. A very short hall, into which 
 many different rooms open, must be proportionally broader. 
 It was desired in this study of Iowa schools to obtain a classi- 
 fication of all halls as to width. Aside from a few failures to 
 answer, the answers were ambiguous in that some checked the 
 width for the entire building without specifying the number 
 of the halls; others gave the actual number of haUs of varying 
 widths. 
 
 Table III. 
 Width of halls In Iowa School Buildings 
 
 Less than 10 ft 135 
 
 10 ft.-12 ft 132 
 
 12ft.-16ft 101 
 
 Over 16 ft 59 
 
 In 60% of the schools the halla are too narrow 
 
 Lighting of Halls 
 
 The lighting of halls is also important, not merely from the 
 point of view of the proper supervision of the children, but 
 also from decorative considerations. Pictures cannot be placed 
 with any satisfaction in a narrow, ill-lighted hall. Dresslar 
 says: "I believe one of the weakest points about our types of 
 school buildings is that the halls are not generally attractive 
 and are rarely weU-lighted. " 
 
 On the question of lighting, 270 Iowa school principals report 
 
 •Dresslar, "American School Houses," Bnlletln Barean of Bdncation, 1910, 
 
 No. 3. 
 
the halls well-lighted; 10 fairly well-lighted; and 49 as dark. 
 
 18% of the schools report that their halls are not properly lighted 
 
 deanliness of Halls 
 
 The third consideration for halls is that they be so con- 
 structed as to be easily kept clean. The floors are subject 
 to more wear than the rooms and they should receive special 
 attention. Concrete or tile floors for halls are especially recom- 
 mended. A certain type of asphalt floor has also been found 
 very satisfactory, both easy to clean and noiseless. Good oak 
 floors stand next in desirability. Clean, halls present a real 
 problem which is probably not adequately recognized in the 
 answers to the question on cleanliness. 259 schools report 
 clean halls. 5 report fairly clean, and 11 report their halls 
 as dirty. 
 
 The Stairways 
 
 There are for stairways, as for halls, well-recognized stand- 
 ards. Our inquiry covered only width and material. As to 
 width 5 1-2 to 6 feet should be the minimum to insure safety 
 from congestion. 
 
 In reply to our inquiry 168 stairways of less than 5 feet in 
 width were reported; 166 of 5 feet; 79 of 6 feet width; 83 of 
 7 feet, and 10 of a width of 8-10 feet. 
 
 As to whether the balustrades should be opened or boxed in 
 there is diiference of opinion. In mixed schools it is probably 
 best that the lower part of the balustrades should be closed. 
 In the schools here considered the closed balustrade seems to 
 be the favorite type, 178 reporting closed, and 125 open. 
 
 Fireproof Stairways 
 
 The stairways in even a wooden building should be of fire- 
 proof construction. In fact, the need of fire resisting stairs 
 is greater, if anything, in a wooden than in a stone or brick 
 structure. The answers gained on this point in our inquiry 
 were not complete. Wood stairways were reported for 49 
 buildings; fireproof stairs in 54 buildings, and 202 schools did 
 
not repoi-t. It is probable that all the buildings with fire-resist- 
 ing stairR-ays reported. Hence., the prevailing condition in this 
 respect in Iowa is far from ideal. 
 
 86% of the stairways are wooden 
 
 Outside Toilets 
 
 Outhouses still persist in a large number of our town and 
 village schools. These are often vile both materially and moral- 
 ly. 130 of our schools reported outside toilets. The following 
 table shows that many of them are located quite near the school 
 buildings. The median distance is between 50 and 75 feet. 24 
 schools did not report the distance. Certainly 100 to 150 feet 
 would be better. 
 
 Taile IV 
 Distance of outside toilets from school buildings. 
 
 Less than 25 feet 4 
 
 25-50 ft 29 
 
 50-75 ft 32 
 
 75-100 ft 29 
 
 100-150 ft 6 
 
 175 ft 1 
 
 200-300 ft 5 
 
 Median 50-75 feet. 
 
 61% of the outside toilets are less than 75 feet from the school 
 
 building 
 
 Separation of Toilets 
 
 Strangely enough the proper separation and screening of 
 toilets is often, neglected, especially in country districts. Studies 
 in rural school conditions in a number of states have revealed 
 a most amazing disregard of the most elementary principles 
 
of decency. In Pennsylvania, for instance, 112 rural schools 
 recently reported that both sexes used the same outhouse. Sim- 
 ilar conditions, as a result of actual investigations, are found 
 in parts of Iowa. In the villages and towns the chief criti- 
 cisms are probably with reference to proper separation, screen- 
 ing and cleanliness. • In our study there were 119 reporting 
 that boys' and girls' outside toilets were properly separated; 
 11 that were not; 96 reported suitably screened; 15 not and 3 
 fairly so ; 105 reported privy vaults and 19 none. 
 
 Inside Toilets 
 
 Inside toilets were reported by 205 of the schools. The prob- 
 lems of separation, of cleanliness and light were the only ones 
 on which inquiry was made. One school was visited in which 
 the two toilets opened into -the same hall along which the boys 
 and girls both passed and the door of one was standing open. 
 Fourteen schools reported that the inside toilets were not com- 
 pletely separated. 
 
 Cleanliness and light are absolutely essential. If possible 
 the rooms should be flushed with sunlight for a portion of the 
 day. To facilitiate lighting and encourage cleanliness the 
 walls should either be of white glazed tile or white enameled. 
 That this is feasible is proved by the experience of principals 
 who have tried it. However, there are too many principals who 
 favor dark painted walls so the "defacements will not show." 
 
 191 schools report well-lighted toilets ; 14 report they are dark. 
 Clean fixtures are reported by 199; clean air by 173; fairly 
 3 and foul by 7. 178 schools report water flushing; and 24 
 dry types. 
 
 No inquiry was made as to the degree of privacy furnished 
 by accommodations within the toilet, but an inspection of many 
 
 •SECTION 2784: WATER CLOSETS. It shaU give special attention to the 
 matter of convenient water-closets or privies, and provide on every school- 
 house site, not within an Independent city or town district, two separate 
 buildings located at the farthest point from the main entrance to the school 
 house and as far from each other as may be, and keep them In wholesome 
 condition and good repair. In Independent city or town districts, where it 
 is inconvenient or undesirable to erect two separate outhouses, several closets 
 may be included under one roof, and if outside the school-bouse each shall 
 be separated from the other by a brick wall, double partition, or other solid 
 or continuous barrier, extending from the roof to the bottom of the vault 
 below, and the approaches to the outside doors for the two sexes shall be 
 separated by a substantial close fence not less than seven feet high and 
 thirty feet in length. (25 6. A., Ch. 3.) Code of Iowa, 1897. 
 
school toilets shows clearly that much is to be desired in these 
 directions. Whatever sense of modesty the child has is not 
 encouraged, but rather broken down. In some schools the vic- 
 ious practice prevails of "keeping children in" for several 
 miniites after school as a penalty for visiting the toilet during 
 tJie school session^ Sometimes the janitor locks the toilet room 
 doora as school is dismissed although many children may still 
 be detained about the building. 
 
 The provision of a suitable lavatory and towels is a self- 
 evident hygienic requirement for every school toilet, but it is 
 often omitted. The schools reporting here make fairly good 
 showing, 163 saying that lavatory and towels are provided 
 and 21 that they were not. Others did not report on this point.* 
 
 As to the kind of towels, 121 paper; 46 linen or other fabric; 
 none or blank 27. The use of the paper towel, even to this 
 extent, is encouraging. 
 
 197 schools report the toilet room doors kept shut, 15 report 
 that they are not. It is explained by some who answer "No" 
 that it is not necessary on account of their location in complete- 
 ly separate parts of the basement. 
 
 The Water Supply 
 
 With reference to water supply, 137 schools depend on wells. 
 School wells deserve more consideration than they usually get. 
 They are often shallow and the water contaminated. Of those 
 reporting wells, 50 are dug, 43 driven or drilled. 84 report 
 that the wells are tightly covered. 
 
 40% of the schools depend on. wells for drinking water 
 
 Among the different precautions against contamination of weU 
 water is isolation from the drainage of outside toilets and other 
 surface pollution^ Our inquiry touched only the distance from 
 the toilets and these are given in the following table. Only 
 68 schools give this distance. The median is seen to lie between 
 
 •This Query referred specifically to lavatories In toilets, cf. with paragraph 
 below on "Lavatories"- 
 
75 and 100 feet, which instead of being the median distance 
 should be the minimum distance. 
 
 Table V 
 Distances of Wells from Toilets* 
 
 30-50 feet 14 
 
 50-75 feet 14 
 
 75-100 feet 11 
 
 100-200 feet 21 
 
 Over 200 feet 11 
 
 A public \yater supply is reported by 176 schools. In an.swer 
 to the query as to whether the purity of the water used by the 
 school had ever been tested, 125 replied that it had and 85 re- 
 ported definitely that it had not. Surely there is here a serious 
 remissness in observing a most necessary precaution. 
 
 There are many hygienic problems connected with the proper 
 handling of drinking Avater in schools. The use of buckets or 
 tanks is common. These are sometimes left uncovered and are 
 seldom scalded out every day as they should be. Then there is 
 the question of cups. 142 schools report the use of buckets or 
 tanks; 28 schools still use common drinking cups; 97 mention 
 individual cups; and 225 drinking fountains. t 
 
 ■ 
 
 In 8 % of the schools the common drinking cup is still used 
 
 liavatories 
 
 School health would undoubtedly be greatly promoted if op- 
 portunities for frequent washing of faces and hands were ade- 
 quately and attractively provided. The hands especially are 
 
 •Revised Rules State Board of Health, 1911, Chapter 4, Rule 6, Section 1: 
 No privy vault shall be within one hundred feet of the nearest well or other 
 soiirce of water supply for drinking or culinary purposes : it shall not be in 
 water-bearing strata. 
 
 tit is worth noting that not all so-called drinking fountains are really 
 sanitary. Some do not bubble high enough to permit of drinking without 
 putting the lips in actual contact with the orifice or cup surrounding the 
 orifice. They thus are little if any better than the common cup which they 
 have displaced. . Every teacher should insist that the drinking fountains 
 actually bubble up and should determine by frequent observation whether 
 the children tend to put their mouths on any of the parts of the device. 
 
soon soiled in the ordinary school. Desks, doors, and other 
 wood work become grimy and the opportunities for infection 
 are multiplied. Why should not all the tops of desks and all 
 parts of wood work frequently touched by the children be 
 washed every day with soap and water? If this is idealistic with 
 our present type of janitor service and lax public sentiment, 
 the washing of hands with soap and water and wiping on a 
 clean paper towel is surely immediately practical. 244 schools 
 report facilities for washing hands and faces. 21 schools state 
 they do not have such facilities. Basins are used by 102 schools, 
 and running water is reported by 168; 203 report towels. It is 
 impossible to be sure whether those not reporting on this point 
 are unprovided with towels, but it is fair to assume that many 
 of them are not. 150 schools report paper towels, 81 cloth, 
 7 individual and two report the children use their hand- 
 kerchiefs. It is to be feared many more do the same, although a 
 clean handkerchief is certainly to be preferred to a soiled cloth 
 towel. In one school the children are said to furnish their own 
 towels. 
 
 40% of the schools report the use of paper towels 
 
 The Heating System 
 
 The heating of school rooms presents many well known prob- 
 lems. Stoves alone are used by 25 of our schools, hot air by 74, 
 hot air and steam by 6, steam alone by 202, hot water 20, hot 
 water and hot air by 1. Of all these the stove is the least desir- 
 able, unless jacketed and provided with an outside intake for 
 fresh air. Choice among the other methods depends on circum- 
 stances. Steam heating seems to be in most favor at present. 
 
 ■ 
 
 7.5% of the schools use stoves for heating 
 
Of more importance than the method of heating is the question 
 of getting the heat evenly distributed and the question of pre- 
 venting children from becoming overheated by sitting too close to 
 the source, such as register, radiator or stove. . The latter prob- 
 lem apparently presents difficulties which many schools have 
 not been able to overcome, 125 reporting that some of their 
 children are obliged to sit too close to radiators, etc., 172 that 
 they are not. According to 243 principals the heat is well 
 distributed over the rooms. The answers to this question cannot 
 be expected to reveal any but the most obvious defects of this 
 sort. Teachers have no means of determining accurately the 
 distribution of heat over a school room. 
 
 In 42% of the schools children have to sit too near stoves, 
 radiators, etc. 
 
 Thermometers 
 
 A thermometer in every school room is absolutely essential 
 to the proper regulation of the temperature. 303 schools report 
 thermometers in every room, and 21 report that there are not. 
 23 schools do not report. 
 
 I 
 
 6% of the schools do not use thermometers 
 
 The placing of a thermometer is important. Against the 
 outer wall it is apt to register too low, against an inner wall too 
 high. It is better to have it suspended near the middle of the 
 room. In the case of 43 schools the thermometer is placed 
 against the outer wall of the rooms, against the inner wall of 
 237 schools, and suspended in the center of the room in 62 
 instances. 
 
 The thermometer should not be hung so high that it registers 
 the temperature of the stratum of air quite above the heads of 
 
the children. In general the tendency is to hang a thermometer 
 too high rather than too low. Table VI states the practice of 
 the 276 schools which answered the query. 
 
 Table VI 
 Distances of thermometers from floors 
 
 2-3 feet 13 
 
 4-41^ feet 62 
 
 5-5% feet 144 
 
 6 feet 46 
 
 7 feet 9 
 
 8 feet 2 
 
 70% of the schools hang thermometers too high 
 
 A thermometer must not merely be in the school room but 
 it must be consulted and the temperature of the room regu- 
 lated accordingly. Too many theromometers are mere orna- 
 ments. In 236 schools the teachers are said to tiy to regulate 
 the temperature by the theromometer. In 25 schools there is 
 no attempt. 8 schools report thermostats. 
 
 Considerable variations appear in temperatures at which 
 rooms are kept, although both the median and the modal tem- 
 perature is given as 70°. It is now generally recognized that, 
 with a humidity of 60 to 65%, a temperature of 68°F. is most 
 desirable for school rooms. The relative humidity and per- 
 ceptible motion of the air are of more importance than the 
 proportions of oxygen and of carbon-dioxide. Hence it appears 
 that every school room should be provided with a simple hair 
 hygrometer. Such an instrument with a face like an alarm 
 clock, from which the relative humidity of the air can be read 
 as readily as the time from a clock, costs less than $2.50, and 
 should be in every school room. Some of the school rooms of 
 one city here reported were tested and found to have air of a 
 relative humidity of 20 per cent. Such air is drier than desert 
 atmosphere and is sure to produce harsh, dry skin and parched 
 mucus membranes of throat and nasal passages with attendant 
 liability to colds, and other affectations of the respiratory 
 
Table VII 
 
 Temperatures at which rooms are kept 
 
 60-70° 2 
 
 65° 6 
 
 68'' 34 
 
 .68-70° 52 
 
 ' 68-74° 6 
 
 70° 142 
 
 70-72° 7 
 
 72° 7 
 
 70-75° 2 
 
 75° . , 4 
 
 The median is about "70°. 
 
 One school reports an automlatic system under which the tem- 
 perature varies from 48° to 80°. 
 
 64% report a room tempera/ture of 70° or above; too ■warm if 
 humidity is right 
 
 Most school rooms are not provided with any means of in- 
 troducing more moisture into the air, except the opening of 
 the windows which is fairly effective except in very cold 
 weather. Notwithstanding that 95 of these schools report pro- 
 vision for keeping the air properly moist the answer is of doubt- 
 ful merit, for many of those answering do not really know what 
 proper provision really is. For example several report steam 
 heat as the method of keeping moisture in the air. It is need- 
 less to say that this is not an adequate method. Pans of water 
 set on stoves, or radiators, jets of water sprayed into hot air 
 chambers, where hot air systems are in use, are fairly effective 
 but not completely so. 
 
 Ventilation SysteniB 
 
 Window ventilation is reported by 156 of our schools. 
 All ventilation systems need to be supplemented by windows. 
 By proper adjustment of windows a moviement of the air 
 
through the school room may be secured. The children 
 can be protected from strong drafts by the use of window boards 
 about 5 inches in width placed under the lower sash; this per- 
 mits the air to enter the room between the lower and upper 
 sashes. Of our schools, 99 report the use of such boards, and 
 75 that they do not. 146 schools report the use of some venti- 
 
 34% of the schools do not use window boards 
 
 lating system other than or in addition to windows. But no 
 ventilation system is perfect and fresh, cold outdoor air needs 
 to be frequently admitted into all school rooms. 224 schools re- 
 port periodic flushing out of rooms by opening of windows. 39 
 schools do not. Table VIII gives the frequency of this as re- 
 ported by these schools. 
 
 TaJ}le VIII 
 Rooms flushed by opening windows 
 
 Hourly 11 
 
 At recesses or 2-4 times a day . . . 128 
 
 3-5 times a day 18 
 
 6 times a day 4 
 
 Windows always open 3 
 
 Not regularly .... . . 9 
 
 Any time .1 
 
 Spring and Fall 1 
 
 36% of the schools do not flush out rooms periodically hy opening 
 
 windows 
 
 Cloak Rooms 
 
 The older school houses frequently failed to make any pro- 
 vision for the disposition of wraps and lunches other than 
 hooks in the main halls or in the rear of the school rooms. This 
 
is now recognized as unhygienic. Hanging them in the all-too- 
 narrow halls is also unsightly, and gives too ready opportunity 
 for pilfering. If lockers are impracticable as they would be in 
 most elementary schools, an adequate cloak room should be 
 provided in connection with every school room, to be entered 
 only from the room itself.* It is needless to say these cloak 
 rooms should be well ventilated and heated that damp wraps 
 may dry and odors be carried off. 
 
 Of these schools, 214 report cloak rooms, 77 report none, 
 and 56 do not report. The answers on the query as to ven- 
 tilation are not all clear; only 56 report that their cloak 
 rooms are not well ventilated. In 76 schools the wraps 
 and lunches are said to be hung in the main halls ; in 4, in the 
 school rooms; 3 schools report cupboards and shelves for the 
 lunches; 2 a back room for this purpose; 4 lockers; one school 
 reports wraps and lunches are put anywhere; one in the base- 
 ment and one in the principal's of&ce. 
 
 The School Booms 
 
 There is no particular standard as to the number of school 
 rooms that a building should contain. This is governed entire- 
 ly by the type of building. There are undoubtedly instances 
 of too many rooms for the size and arrangement of the build- 
 ing. Table IX is given here merely to show the varying sizes 
 of the buildings reported. 
 
 Table IX 
 
 Number of School Rooms in Buildings 
 
 (Rooms used for study and recitation) 
 
 Number rooms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12+ 
 
 Frequency 16 26 10 66 39 55 19 57 21 20 8 9 13 
 
 Number of Class Rooms in Building 
 
 (Rooms used for recitation only) 
 
 Number 123456789 10+ 
 
 Frequency 54 46 23 26 16 7 6 4 4 14 
 
 Size of School Booms 
 
 The theoretical standard of 20 square feet of floor space for 
 every pupil in the room is seldom followed in practice. 
 
 The ideal school room should certainly not exceed 25 i 30 feet 
 in floor dimension. This provides 20 square feet of floor space 
 
 •Dresslar "American School Houses," p. 51. 
 
for about 35 pupils. A wider room is apt to be improperly 
 lighted on the side away from the windows, and a longer room 
 requires too much strain on the teacher both in the matter of 
 voice and of control of the pupils. Moreover, a longer room ren- 
 ders it difficult to see work on the blackboards which should of 
 course be in front of the pupils. 
 
 The dimensions of rooms given in these reports are as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Table X 
 Less than 20 x 32 feet . . . . 419 
 Approximately 20 x 32 feet ... 709 
 In excess of 20 X 32 feet .... 1111 
 
 50% of the rooms reported are larger than standard size 
 
 Xamber of Children to the Boom 
 
 As to the number of children in a room 35 to 40 should be the 
 maximum ; better 25 to 30. 
 These schools report 
 
 Tahlt XI 
 Number of rooms with 20-30 children . . . 691 
 Number of rooms with 30-40 children . . . 734 
 Number of rooms with 40-50 children . . . 378 
 Number of rooms with 50-60 children ... 57 
 Number of rooms with more than 60 children . . 61 ' 
 
 The Seating 
 
 The old fashioned double seats are disappearing and properly 
 so. However, 35 schools report still using double seats and 25 
 other schools use double seats only in part and 281 report single 
 seats entirely. 
 
 ff 
 
 (A) 14% use double seats (B) 10% use both single and double 
 seats (C) 71% use single seats only 
 
The need of adjustable seats has long been recognized but 
 many difficulties have appeared tojnterfere with their general 
 adoption. Not many adjustable types of seats are entirely free 
 from objection of one sort or another. For example, some types 
 have proved difficult to adjust properly; the expense attached 
 to really desirable varieties has proved a serious obstacle to 
 their general use. Many schools attempt to have a few extra 
 seats of a different size on hands to meet the needs of very small 
 or imusually large children. But this expedient is really quite 
 inadequate. Even if the proper size is available it is not al- 
 ways easy to get it installed. Besides there are really two dif- 
 ferent adjustments that need to be made, viz: the height of 
 the seat and the height of the desk and these two requirements 
 are seldom properly met even with fixed seats of different sizes. 
 49 of our schools report the use of adjustable seats; 
 36 of partly adjustable and 257 seats of those reporting the 
 use of fixed seats, 112 schools say there are desks of different 
 sizes available to suit all children, while 46 schools say that no 
 such adjustment is possible. 
 
 11% of schools report adjustable seats 
 
 The writer has never visited a school provided only with 
 fixed seats in which there were not some children improperly 
 sea.ted either on seats too high or too low, or at desks too high 
 or too low. However, with reference to too high seats, 79 
 schools report that none of their pupils are so seated, 3 schools 
 report a few while one school reports 10 per cent of its pupils 
 in seats too high and the rest of the schools reporting on this 
 point give 1463 children in seats too high to put their feet 
 squarely on the floor. 82 schools report no children sitting in 
 seats that are too low, but the remaining schools give 1183 
 children so seated. With reference to too high desks the question 
 was asked, "How many children when sitting upright are 
 obliged to raise their forearms considerably when resting them 
 on their desks?" 66 schools report "none", 5 schools reported 
 gome; one principal "didn't know" ajid the remaining schools 
 
reported 1651 children seated before desks too high for them, 
 to work at properly. It is not strange that many children ac- 
 quire lateral spinal curvature and humped shoulders at school 
 when the seating is so obiviously defective as these reports seemi 
 to indicate. 
 
 In 11% of the schools seats are not properly adjusted to the size 
 
 of the pupils 
 
 liighting of School Booms 
 
 Sides on which light enters 
 
 Unilateral lighting while the accepted standard for all modem 
 school room construction, may he carried to an extreme. High 
 windows in the rear of a room or one or two windows at the 
 pupils' right but .well back are often essential to adequate 
 lighting and the cross shadows from them are negligible. Uni- 
 lateral lighting also in rooms depending on window ventilation 
 shuts off the opportunity for perciptible air currents now re- 
 garded as so desirable. Lighting in front of the pupils should 
 not, of course, be permitted although it still persists in many 
 buildings; nor should rear lighting be strong enough to injure 
 the teachers' eyes. 
 
 Our statistics show that 667 of the rooms reported on have 
 unilateral lighting, 100 from the rear only ; 433 are lighted 
 from two sides; 1216 from one or both sides and rear; 40 are 
 lighted from the front in addition to sides or rear; one room 
 reports front light only and one sky-light. 
 
 Ratio of Glass Area to Floor Area 
 The glass area which should be counted in computing this is 
 that which gives an unobstructed view of the sky. The accepted 
 standard today is a lighting area equal to at least one-fifth of 
 the floor area. Where state aid is given to schools in which 
 one of the requirements is the modern building, this aid should 
 be withheld where this standard of lighting is not reached. 
 The ratios of lighting area to floor space given in these reports 
 
is as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 : 13 
 
 1 room 
 
 
 7 
 
 261 rooms 
 
 1 : 12 
 
 8 rooms 
 
 
 6 
 
 351 rooms 
 
 1 : 11 
 
 1 room 
 
 
 5 
 
 688 rooms 
 
 1 : 10 
 
 11 rooms 
 
 
 4 
 
 497 rooms 
 
 1 : 9 
 
 2 rooms 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 rooms 
 
 1 : 8 
 
 221 rooms 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 rooms 
 
 40% of the schools reported have too low a ratio of window area 
 
 to floor area 
 
 A room with insufficient lighting area may be well lighted on 
 ordinary days in spring and autumn, but in the winter months 
 and on cloudy days the light becomes entirely insufficient. The 
 most siirprising variations have been noted by careful measure- 
 ments taken in various portions of apparently fairly well-lighted 
 school rooms. Sixty-five of the schools included in this report 
 say they have no insufficiently lighted rooms, while 512 rooms 
 are reported by the remaining schools as having insufficient 
 light on slightly dark days for books to be read easily or for 
 writing on black boards to be read without strain on the eyes. 
 
 Shades 
 
 The difficulty of providing sufficient light for school rooms 
 under the wide variations due to season and weather have led 
 to the recognition of light shades as preferable to dark ones. 
 The best color for school room window shades is light tan, such 
 as will cut off blinding rays of the sun, but permit enough light 
 to pass through to keep the room well illuminated. And yet 
 dark shades, usually dark green, are most commonly used in 
 schools. Worse still, these dark shades are often kept drawn 
 halfway down even on cloudy days, because "they look better 
 so." 204 of these schools report dark shades; 96 light, and 25 
 schools both kinds. One school reports no shades. Double 
 shades are, of course, often a convenience, especially when the 
 room is exposed to a great deal of sunlight or when a lantern 
 is sometimes used in it in the day time. But for ordinary rooms 
 
the light shades are quite snfScient. 
 
 60% of the schools use dark shades 
 The Attachment of Shades to Windows 
 
 This is also an important matter. 256 of these schools report 
 the shades fastened at the top. This is the worst of all possible 
 arrangements for the school-room. The top of the window 
 needs especially to be kept open to strong light that the farther 
 side of the room may be weU illuminated. There is little likeli- 
 hood of the sunlight which enters from the top of the windows 
 falling on the pupils. The pupils sitting close to the windows 
 are most apt to suffer in this respect and in the average school 
 room in order to save them from the glare there is nothing to 
 do but pull a dark shade down almost to the bottom of the 
 window, thus cutting off all the valuable difiEusion of light from 
 the upper waUs and ceiling for the sake of shutting off the un- 
 desirable glare of sunlight through the lower sash. 
 
 It should be obvious that light is more important than "looks" 
 in the school room, but "looks" do not have to be ignored alto- 
 gether. If only one shade can be attached to each window it 
 should either be adjustable or fastened at the bottom of the 
 casing. Two shades, one at the bottom of the casing, and one in 
 the middle are a fair substitute for the adjustable shade. Only 
 8 of our schools report adjustable shades ; 7 report them fastened 
 at the bottom of the casings, 31 in the middle ; while 256 schools 
 adhere to the objectionable top attachment. 
 
 80% of the schools have shades attached at top of window casings 
 
 If aU our schools were equipped with artificial lights the 
 problem of iUunmiation in dark winter afternoons would not 
 be so serious. Only 175 of the schools report artificial lighting. 
 Electric lights are used by 134 of these schools, gas by 31, and 
 oil lamps by 6. 
 
The Blackboards 
 
 The main blackboards should obviously be in front of the 
 pupils. This is the case in 838 rooms as reported ; they are at 
 the side in, 289 rooms ; behind the pupils in 2 rooms. In regard 
 to height, they are reported to be low enough for pupils of 
 various ages in 295 schools; too high in five schools, and of 
 proper height for all but the primary grades in 6 other schools. 
 
 No inquiry was made as to the surfacing of the blackboards. 
 This, as is well known, is not always what it should be, namely 
 a dead black or dark green slate surface. 
 
 Floors 
 
 The floors of school rooms present serious hygienic problems. 
 The ordinary wooden floors are hard to keep clean. They are 
 often cracked and, if of soft wood and bastard sawed boards, 
 they are often splintery. 
 
 The floors of 273 of these schools are reported as hardwood ; 
 52 are softwood; both hard and soft 2; tight floors are claimed 
 by 214 schools. The floors of 74 schools are cracked and of 57 
 schools splintery. 
 
 16% of the schools have splintery floors 
 
 Oiling and Washing 
 
 An oil dressing of one kind or another for floors is popular 
 in schools, on the ground that it keeps down the dust both 
 during school hours and during sweeping. It is probably pos- 
 sible to use oil so that it will produce satisfactory results. If 
 put on too frequently or in too large a quantity it is often very 
 objectionable, not merely in making the dust and dirt stick to 
 the floor, but also in adhering to shoes and skirts. Oil is often 
 the refuge of a lazy janitor. On the other hand it may be used 
 so infrequently as to accomplish nothing except preventing the 
 needed scrubbing of the floors. There is certainly no substitute 
 for thorough scrubbing of school-room floors and no floor, 
 grimy with heavy oil, can compare with a tight hard wood 
 floor frequently scrubbed. The use of a sweeping compound is 
 
sufficient to keep down the dust in sweeprug such a floor. 
 
 The popularity of oil, whether deservedly or not, is attested 
 by the frequency of its use, — 127 schools reporting oil on floors. 
 No definite standard as to how often a floor should be oiled, 
 seems to prevail as the following table shows. 
 
 Taile XII 
 
 Floors oiled, how often? 
 
 Daily by sweeping compound ... 3 
 
 Weekly-monthly 4 
 
 6 weeks-two months 10 
 
 3 months 5 
 
 4 months 29 
 
 Once a year 27 
 
 Once every two years .... 4 
 Once every three years .... 2 
 "When needed 3 
 
 Washing of Floors 
 Great diversity as to the frequency of scrubbing schoolroom 
 floors exists, as is shown by the following table. 
 
 Table XIII 
 Floors washed, how often? 
 
 Daily 5 
 
 Weekly 12 
 
 2-3 weeks 19 
 
 Monthly 52 
 
 6 weeks 5 
 
 2-3 months 50 
 
 2 times a year ..... 23 
 
 Once a year 15 
 
 When needed 6 
 
 Irregularly 5 
 
 Often 2 
 
 Dry cleaned when needed ... 2 
 
 Dry cleaned once a year ... 1 
 
 52% of the schools do not scrub the floors oftener than every two 
 
 months 
 
Dusting 
 
 This should always be done after the dust has well settled, 
 preferably in the morning before school and with an oiled or 
 damp cloth. The feather duster and dry cloth should not be 
 tolerated. Our schools frequently fail to specify the precise 
 method, 146 simply reporting that the dusting is done with a 
 cloth; 48 specifying an oiled cloth or dustless duster; 15 say 
 "with a duster"; 8 frankly confess "a feather duster"; 14 a 
 brush or broom ; 5 a damp cloth ; 2 use a vacuum cleaner, and 
 one "doesn't know how it is done." 
 
 The times of dusting are suminarized below : 
 Table XIV 
 
 Mornings . 181 
 
 Evenings 52 
 
 Daily ........ 23 
 
 After sweeping 2 
 
 No set time 2 
 
 Seldom 1 
 
 Don't know 1 
 
 Saturdays 1 
 
 Monthly 1 
 
 18% of schools report that dusting is done soon after sweeping 
 
 Ghildren Subjected to Dust of Sweeping 
 
 This probably occurs oftener than it is admitted. 249 report 
 that they are not ; 33 that they are. This is explained by several 
 to occur after hours or when they are kept after school. A few 
 schools were inspected which reported negatively on this point 
 and in all of them the sweeping was begun before the children 
 were out of the building in the evening. 
 
 Nearly 12% report that children are subjected to the dust of 
 
 sweeping 
 
Parents may well demand, either that their children be not 
 detained after school or, if they are, that it be in a portion of 
 the building where there is no sweeping allowed while they 
 are there. 
 
 Washing of Windows 
 
 We hardly need emphasize the necessity of clean windows, 
 not merely from the point of view admitting light, but also for 
 aesthetic considerations. Table XV gives the current practice 
 as here reported. 
 
 Table XV 
 
 8 times a year 21 
 
 4-5 times a year 34 
 
 2-3 times a year 124 
 
 Once a year 35 
 
 Often 2 
 
 When needed 37 
 
 Irregularly 3 
 
 Seldom , . 5 
 
 Never 2 
 
 31% of the schools do not wash windows oftener than once a year 
 
 The Care of Pencils, Pens, and Books 
 These articles present many difficult questions. It is known 
 that diseases may be transmitted through the promiscuous use 
 of any or all of them. This is especially apt to occur in those 
 schools where they are furnished by the school authorities. 
 Pencils are sometimes given out every day and after being 
 handled all day and put in mouths are collected with no effort 
 to keep them separate and returned the next day without 
 regard to the previous users. 
 
 Disinfecting 
 
 Systematic disinfecting of all such articles as weU as of the 
 school rooms themselves has been strongly recommended and 
 practiced in some schools. There is, however, today a feeling 
 
that this is largely wasted effort and that the really important 
 thing to insist upon is greater cleanliness both of rooms and 
 children and the exclusion and treatment of actual disease car- 
 riers. 
 
 Eapeer states in an unpublished report that soap and water 
 cleaning are recommended by the New York State Board of 
 Health instead of fumigation. "In fact, cleaning and sunlight 
 are gaining rapidly in favor with experts in this field over 
 older methods of disinfection that have been brought in during 
 the past fifty years. Fumigation has been aptly called 'Burning 
 incense to our superstitions. ' It may be necessary in some cases 
 merely to allay the fears of parents, but soap and water scrub- 
 bing should accompany it." 
 
 Our inquiry included the question as to disposition of pens, 
 pencils, and books. The material obtained in answer to these 
 questions was very fragmentary and unsatisfactory. In many 
 cases nothing was given, and where the questions were answered 
 they were often answered ambiguously or without bringing out 
 definitely the information desired. The answers as far as they 
 could be used are given below. 
 
 Table XVI 
 The disposition of pens and pencils, if furnished 
 how? disinfected? 
 
 Not furnished 37 
 
 Given to pupils but they keep them .... 10 
 
 Pencils kept in a box and distributed by teacher 12 
 
 Primary grades, only, have pencils kept by teachers . 9 
 
 Kept in block or perforated tray, envelopes, racks, etc. 8 
 
 Kept loosely together and passed indiscriminately 7 
 
 Kept in boxes and marked with the child's initials 2 
 
 Teacher has a certain place for each child's pencil 2 
 
 Kept in cases and distributed by pupils in charge . 1 
 
 Distributed by monitors 1 
 
 Some promiscuous use of pencils 1 
 
 Distributed each morning by teacher and daily disinfected 1 
 
Table XVII 
 Are books furnished and disinfected? 
 Not furnished (most schools left this blank) 
 Disraf ected : 
 
 Yes 10 
 
 No 66 
 
 How often? 
 
 Three times a year ... 1 
 
 Twice a year .... 6 
 
 Once a year .... 6 
 
 Irregularly .... 7 
 
 After epidemics ... 8 
 
 22 
 
 THE HYGIENE OF THE CHILD 
 Testing of Eyes 
 
 Where it is impossible to have this done by nurses or physi- 
 cians it is recommended that preliminary testing be done by the 
 regular teachers. Many of the pronounced eases of eye defect 
 can be detected in this way and referred to the specialist. 
 
 In answer to the query as to whether the eyes of children are 
 tested at school, 102 schools report that they are; 198 that they 
 are not. In 27 schools besides the above, it is stated that special 
 eases are tested. This testing is said to be done by teachers or 
 superintendents in 29 schools and by a school nurse or physician 
 in 44 others. 
 
 In 66% of the schools the children's eyes are not regularly tested 
 
 Dental Inspection 
 
 Almost as necessary as the testing of the eyes is inspection 
 of and instruction in the care of the teeth. Tw-elve cities and 
 towns (including Des Moines) report dental inspection and 
 168 report in the negative. 
 
 (A) 34% report testing of eyes (B) 3.5% report dental inspection 
 
The School Nurse 
 
 Effective medical inspection is now recognized to depend 
 largely on the assistance of a school nurse or corps of nurses. 
 They are for all practical purposes as efficient in detecting un- 
 healthful conditions in a school as are the physicians and they 
 can do much that the physician cannot do in following up the 
 inspection and securing proper treatment of those who need it. 
 Begular medical inspection by physicians has made very little 
 headway in Iowa, partly on account of no legislation, either 
 mandatory or permissive upon the subject. Several Iowa towns 
 have, however, employed nurses to do this work. Not all such 
 towns are included in this report. Of the towns and cities re- 
 porting, three report an all-time school nurse or nurses, and two 
 report having, on occasion, the services of a "visiting nurse," 
 presiunably employed for general supervision of health con- 
 ditions in the town. 
 
 Other Agencies or Precantions for Safeguarding the Health of 
 Children at School 
 
 The following points were practically all that were mentioned. 
 Most of the reports were entirely blank on this point. It is 
 obvious that the health problem does not claim much attention 
 in these Iowa schools. 
 
 One city reports examinations by a physical director who 
 keeps records of children's conditions. 
 
 One city reports teachers' special effort to supervise the 
 health of the children. This is supplemented by a part-time 
 school physician. 
 
 One city mentions gymnastics as its only special agenvy. 
 
 One reports that children suspected of having contagious dis- 
 eases, weak eyes, adenoids, etc., are examined by the town health 
 officer. Children not properly clean are sent home to receive 
 attention. 
 
 One reports occasional inspection by city health officer. 
 
 One reports 'fumigating on occasion and talks to children on 
 hygiene. 
 
 Two mention the work of the physical director. 
 
 Two mention the Board of Health. 
 
 One says that in case of serious illness a doctor's permit is 
 required on returning to school. 
 
 Nine mention disinfecting as the only health measure. 
 
Two towns provide hygiene talks for pupils and parents. 
 
 Three report that the teacher watches the health conditions 
 and reports to physician. 
 
 Thirteen report simply "the watchfulness of the teachers." 
 
 Two report physicians on the School Boards. 
 
 One reports health practice at home as a part of the school 
 work in physiology and hygiene. 
 
 One reports that the teaehei's report each day to principals 
 any cases of sickness. 
 
 Two mention out-door exercise and pure country air. 
 
 One mentions advice of city physician also that a local physi- 
 cian gives lectures on evil effects of narcotics and alcohol. 
 
 One says that "the superintendent keeps on the look-out all 
 the time." 
 
 One says "health certificate is required after absence." 
 
 One reports inspection by the medical society or by a visiting 
 nurse. 
 
 One says that cases coming to attention of teacher are recom- 
 mended to the family physician. 
 
 One reports making a health survey according to Dr. Hoag's 
 Outlines. 
 
 One says that children not feeling well are sent home and 
 another that teachers report cases of sickness to local Board of 
 Health. 
 
 One says that the schools have excellent bath accommodations. 
 
 One reports a part time school physician. 
 
 One reports sending unhealthful children to an. open air 
 school. 
 
 One reports free clinics and free dispensary and school doctor. 
 
 The following fuller statements from certain principals are 
 of interest in showing how some schools are facing the health 
 problem. Very few statements of this nature were received. 
 We had hoped there would be many. Most of the comments at 
 the ends of the reports were of the brief, fragmentary character 
 reported above. 
 
 "Each teacher is instructed to test eyes of children by charts 
 for this purpose. Also watch for children with throat trouble. 
 If the child is thought to have troubles, he is sent to a physician. 
 We have sent several cases to the doctor this year. All were 
 needing treatment. We found four cases of very bad eyes. One 
 so bad that the little girl will probably never go to school again 
 
I am a new man here and the leading doctor is on the board, so 
 we have to handle this phase of the work very carefully. I shall 
 do more in this regard next year." (Dallas Center.) 
 
 "I. By the use of a 'Snellen Test Card' we seat our pupils 
 according to acuteness of vision. 
 
 II. In every room in our building we have two full size 
 sash screens. These are made of two thicknesses of cheese cloth. 
 one screen is in upper half of window, and the second one in 
 lower half, but at right angles to the one in upper half. 
 
 III. In our First and Second grades we do much of our work 
 out doors or in the 'Fresh Air Eoom — ' (a room with six cheese 
 cloth screens in it.) 
 
 IV. Our First Grade has no desks. "We have tables with 
 drawers and the ' Sanitary Mosier Chairs. ' Both First and Sec- 
 ond Grades use this room alternately. It is not a 'Cold Air' 
 room but a 'Fresh Air' room — we keep the temperature from 
 68 degrees to 70 degrees here, also." (Des Moines.) 
 
 "We had no medical inspection up to the tenth week of 
 school but at that time we secured a nurse and she is at work. 
 We had a nurse beginning in January, 1914, for the first time. ' ' 
 (Keokuk, Nov. 15, 1914.) 
 
 Schools maintain 2 periods of gymnasium work, (a director 
 for boys and one for girls) each week, 45 minutes in length, 30 
 minutes floor work. Two equipped gymnasiums used, one for 
 boys and one for girls. Physical records and measurements 
 made and kept, comparison with normal growth possible. Plans 
 are under way to get free treatments for eye, ear, nose and 
 throat and teeth of needy children. 
 
 This building has shower bath equipment. ^(Charles City. 
 This town also reports the services of a full-time school nurse.) 
 
 "We have a fine location for our school house. It is located 
 on one of the highest pieces of ground ia the town. It is situated 
 on a hill overlooking the Maple River Valley. There are about 
 200 elm trees planted on the school grounds. The lawn is well 
 looked after by our janitor. Physical apparatus and swings 
 have been placed at different places on the school grounds. 
 There are also two outside basketball courts, one for the girls 
 and one for the boys." (Castana.) 
 
 "Six local physicians attend to our medical inspection free 
 of all cost. They are the best men we have, and they rank high. 
 
Some were interested in discovering the facts. All felt that 
 there was great need of giving school children better attention. 
 Personally I feel that when pupUs fall behind their class, at- 
 tention must first be given to their physical condition. I find 
 that this is true absolutely. And the medical report gives me 
 a powerful weapon when a parent objects to his child's progress. 
 
 Just assigned two men to each building. They spent from 
 9 to 10 a. m. each day tiU all were examined. Only one parent 
 objected. The examinations brought about numerous operations. 
 Many, however, have not cared for their children yet. But I 
 reported to each teacher the pupils in her room needing atten- 
 tion, and as opportunity comes, she sees the parent and urges 
 the matter. 
 
 I am convinced that it is a move in the right direction. We 
 may call some meetings a little later and invite the parents 
 whose children need the most attention." (Cherokee.) 
 
Below are reproduced the medical inspections blanks used 
 in Cherokee. 
 
 INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT OF 
 CHEROKEE, IOWA 
 
 MEDICAIi INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 NOTICE TO PARENTS 
 
 Mr 
 
 Dear Sir : — This is to notify you that 
 
 , a pupil in the 
 
 School is in need of 
 
 medical attention for, 
 
 you are advised to consult a physician without delay. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 Date 
 
 Supt. of Schools 
 
 INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT OF 
 CHEROKEE, IOWA 
 
 MEDICAIi INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 Name, Address Age 
 
 Parent or Guardian 
 
 Vision, Right eye 
 Vision, Left eye 
 
 Hearing, Right ear, Left ear, 
 
 Nose 
 
 Throat 
 
 Tonsils, Right Left, 
 
 Adenoids 
 
 Teeth 
 
 General condition, skin, etc 
 
 Notice sent, 
 
 Remarks .■ 
 
 Inspector M. D. 
 
The Extension Division has issued the following pamphlets, copies of 
 which may be obtained, free of charge, upon application. Similar papers, 
 along the same and other lines, will be published from time to time, as 
 material is available. 
 
 Serial No. and Date 
 Preliminary announcement 70 Dec. 1, 1913 
 
 No. 1. Street lighting, by Professor Abthtjk H. Foed 75 Apr. 25, 1914 
 
 No. 2. Sate malevng for puilic utiUties, by Dean William G. Raymond 
 
 76 May 2, 1914 
 
 No. 3. Engineering as a profession, by Dean William 6. Batmond 
 
 73 Apr. 11, 1914 
 
 No. 4. Store lighting, by Professor Abthub H. Foed 80 May 30, 1914 
 
 No. 5. Economy of time in arithmetic, by Professor Walter A. Jessup 
 
 82 June 13, 1914 
 
 No. 6. Vocational guidance in high school, by Associate Professor Ervin 
 E. Lewis 85 July 4, 1914 
 
 No. 7. Ninth annual announcement of the Iowa High School Veiating 
 League, by Assistant Professor Glenn N. Meert 86 Oct., 1914 
 
 No. 8. Water worTes statistics of thirty-eight cities of Iowa, with the meter 
 rates of seventy cities, by Assistant Professor John H. Dunlap 
 
 87 Nov., 1914 
 
 No. 9. WorTc, wages, and schooling of eight hundred Iowa toys in relation 
 to the problems of vocational guidance, by Associate Professor 
 Ervin E. Lewis 90 Feb. 1, 1915 
 
 No. 10. Principles of advertising, by Philip J. Sodeegeen 
 
 98 May 22, 1915 
 
 No. 11. Hygienic conditions in Iowa schools, by Assistant Professor 
 Ieving King 99 May 29, 1915 
 
THE STATE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 Iowa City, Iowa 
 
 The Graduate CoLiisaB 
 
 The College op Liberal Arts 
 
 The CoLiiEGE op Law 
 
 The ColIjEge op Medicinb 
 
 The College op Homeopathic Medicine 
 
 The College op Dentistry 
 
 The College op Pharmacy 
 
 The College op Applied Science 
 
 The College op Fine Arts or Mark 
 
 Banney Memorial Institute 
 The College op Education 
 
 The School op Commerce 
 The Schools pob Nurses 
 The School op Musio' 
 
 The Summer Session, including 
 
 The Lakeside Laboratory at Okoboji 
 The School for Library Training 
 
 The Ex _ 
 
 Correspondence is invited. For cata- 
 logues, illustrated bulletins, and other 
 information, address: 
 
 The Registrar 
 Iowa City, Iowa 
 
Cornell Unlvsrslty Library 
 
 arW38926 
 
 Hygienic conditions in Iowa schools 
 
 3 1924 031 754 389 
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