8i^y^^^§^,:.sft;^^j,'o^>;;^ ■ "v^; ■ FRANCO-AMERICAN TRADE SEPTEMBER -OCTOBER 1916 n^ 11 c (\^\\- nil ' f _ —- / • CORNELL i UNIVERSITY 1 LIBRARY ^^ Cornell University Library HC276 .A51 1917 Report to the AffiiSa!J|Jffltim«l& 3 1924 029 982 471 olin Overs Date Due Sv b ^ ^' Cde la Hague e^'" ^. << L-lianne) Js. (IlesN. MAP OF ormandes) Urt/ish CD FRANCE SHOWING ROUTE AND ITINERARY FOLLOWED BY THE COMMISSION ayeuxo IS t/f r -u"*''* ^"en CuutancifsS ''^ ? Cji 'JMANCI^B/ ■" ' CranviJlJ /■'" ILEE-BT- ! LEGEND —— — — — — Route on Water „__„_»_ Route on Trains ==== Route in Automobiles — Stayed Over Night • Other Towns and Places Visited Line of Furthest German Advance Before ' ~ the Battle of the Mame, September 1914 ■lent ^^▼f _ ©Vanne; Paimi ^Joirmoiiti -i ^' X ./ Line of Front, October 1916 Territory Temporarily Occupied by German Troops Yeu % X Vl E N D E E I^DETj ®]aRocho- '^.^ lMSablos\e '" "" '^ d'olonna ^J^^ OLueon JSEV] |Ja RochelTe**.., i>chefort 55HARfeNTE-- ^Y J I c — --22.^^:21°'* oici^ t-iV-. SCALE 1 : 4,500,000 Kilometers 100 150 200 260 I I I I o c i4 A /Y 1 Kilometcr = 0.621 Statute Milea Statute Miles iO 100 II 1 Statute Mile = 1.609 Kilometera '-a Coru A ^ A y ^^Qlonder L-ospafrreo L A N DE S Moreen, v Bay on he tlinrr; Sao Sebasiftin t^y aL Lonf/itude from Folk. stonjj^S^p "'(,':> Hast n^; /"V th y^ Boulogne SLOmeiSt' '''J Abbe ICblognc IDOS j:TJI j> Lapalh;sc o CORREZE ® Tullo rij;c.: LOT jjJV^ Mst. Flouts *\ \LpT-ET- JrONNE ^ TAR fTou'H>use'''i teONNB-Cri — r ?.'IE '^"st.ChaVifjnd^ "..'' ; \\t '^ ■" /Jot- ■Jt v W-*^* ^^^. \ » it rfjijftii ^ i- ^1 J TIu-IiiyiKJii^.T Aniijnnv *jf«* t ( --' \1 r^ ' "^ nana ' ^ ''^feNv I^lontQ^llier,; :AIJLT Bir. l"> „Genoa li(niic, ; I j: ciE / D E Lion ^^L^ erpignan I=.d'Hyerc= r. X T u n n a\ x e J S S E A \ COBSICA cv-pdTmCr,. rj^w -fon THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 33 doctrine of "liberty, equality, and fraternity" was evolved and pro- claimed in 1788 in the neighboring Castle of Vizille. Water power development under high heads began here fifty years ago. During one of its inspections the Commission witnessed the bestow- al of a decoration on behalf of the State, on a workman after thirty years' satisfactory service with one employer. The effect of this simple ceremony upon the spectators, including the executive staff and workers, and the warm appreciation manifested by the principals was full of suggestion. The attention of the Commission was directed to certain gratifying experiences resulting from partnerships between several local and American industries, and to the advantages of international education — for Grenoble is an educational center — both of which were recom- mended as effective instruments in promoting commercial reciprocity. La Grave '^^^ Grenoble Chamber of Commerce planned well for Sept. 28 the Commission's examination of its local industrial, BouRGE educational, and social status, for it not only afforded D-C)isANs g^ thorough inspection of factories and their products Les^Bains ^^ ^ specially arranged exposition, but also took the Lancey Commission up the beautiful Romanche valley of the Voiron French Alps to inspect its water power and other natural (Pop. 12,500) resources. Finally it honored the Commission by St. Pierre accompanying it in its departure from Grenoble DE hartreuse ^Jirough Voiron (where the Commission was cordially received by the Business Men's Club) to St. Pierre de Chartreuse, treating it to a farewell luncheon after a visit to the famous monastery. The Commission recalled at Voiron the general lack in France of American social business clubs, which usually effect closer association between business men, improve acquaintance, and promote mutual confidence and cooperation. The accommodations of a modern hotel Annecy were at the service of the Commission at Annecy, on (Pop. 16,000) whose beautiful lake it enjoyed a sail to Menthone, Sept. 29-30 gj^ route to Ugines, where a visit was paid to the great electric steel furnace plant, which is even now being enlarged. Le Creusot The visit to Le Creusot (no miles from Annecy), (Pop. 30,000) because of the railroad schedule and limited accommo- Oct. 1-2 dations, necessitated a division of the party, which re-united at breakfast in the clubhouse within the grounds of the famous 34 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE There are thousands of homes of this kind which have been totally or partially destroyed steel plant of Schneider & Co., the "steel corporation" of France. The day was spent within a military cordon, examining the manu- facturing facilities and methods, welfare work, industrial housing, etc. of this institution. Besancon Besancon, with its Roman ruins and other vestiges of (Pop. 58,000) a glorious past cleverly utilized to adorn the city, has Oct. 3-4) established itself as a great center of watchmaking, nearly 80 per cent of the fine French designs having their origin here. Both chronometers and watches de luxe are homemade to an extent only second to the laces of Le Puy, and the industry is fostered in the same way by community interest, as is evidenced by its School of Watch-Making and Mechanics of Precision, and its National Observa- tory with its highly organized chronometrical standardizing test departments. The former is also a national institution of over fifty years' standing under the direction of the minister of commerce and industry, and the attention it pays to "the moral principles and rules every honest man should observe," according to its manual, is indeed impressive. Besancon has long been an educational center with an excellent university. The Commission received every attention at the hands of the Chamber of Commerce, the Syndicate of Local Enterprise, the Syndi- cate of Watch-Makers, and the educational leaders were unanimously THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 35 and cordially responsive to its quest. The final act of courtesy, an exhibition in the city hall specially organized in order to inform the Commission regarding the character of the Besancon articles of manu- facture, was a fitting close to a valuable survey. MoNTBELiARD ^n routc to Bclfort visits were made to several impor- (Pop. 11,000) tant plants engaged almost wholly on war supplies, ^ ' '^~^ auto-trucks, war helmets, canteens, etc. Everywhere there was displayed the same skillful and efficient adaptation to the national need of every available agent. Belfort The "Belfort Lion" of Bartholdi (the sculptor of the (Pop. 40,000) New York Statue of Liberty), 73 feet long and 37 feet ^ ■ ^~ high, carved out of the cliff below the citadel, com- memorates the stubborn resistance of the town. Belfort has been exposed to German guns less than ten miles away for two years, and the town is much shattered from the effects of bombardment from cannon and aeroplane bombs. Many of the citizens still engage in their ordinary daily pursuits, but live in the cellars of their houses. Fully half the houses are placarded with notices naming the individual capacity of the cellars available in case of bombardment. r, The course from Belfort to Rheims was parallel to the Remiremont . ^ fighting line, and the Commission, m its journey of six days within gunshot, was given ample opportunity to acquaint itself with the horrors of war. Under the guidance of the prefects of the invaded departments and other State and military officers, there was demonstrated to a touching degree the terrible devastation with all its consequences which this populous and thriving region has suffered since the war began. After a quick run into German Alsace, within a mile of iHANN ^j^g trenches, and a night at Gerardmer, the Com- Gerardmer mission proceeded along the front toward Nancy, (Pop 10 000) through towns and villages in all states of demolition, r from house fronts pitted by the rifle shots of street St. Leonard r 1 1 • t t , ^ , , , fights to piles 01 debris. It traversed the Col-de-la- Chipotte, the scene of a forest battle whose ferocity is Raon l Etape measured by 30,000 graves among the trees ; Gerbeviller, LuNEviLLE ten miles from the lines, where amid the ruins new ViTRiMONT houses already furnish shelter for its citizens; and utterlv forlorn Vitrimont, which Miss Daisy Polk of California is re- 36 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE vi.-^s». Prefect Mirman consoling peasant war sufferers in devastated town of Gerbeviller building permanently according to modern plans with the $10,000 per month contributed by her Committee of Philanthropists. We have had our first experience in riding for miles over national highways screened from the German lines. We also saw interesting examples of protective coloring used to disguise military automobiles, cannon, etc., by painting screens to blend with the landscape, in one instance of " camouphlage," a bridge was hidden from view by a high screen which descended to the water simulating a landscape. St Nichoias P^'^^^ct Mirman of the department of Meurthe and Moselle escorted the Commission into Nancy, where despite general destruction, many famous structures are unharmed. In an important camp of 2500 refugees maintained under the care of the State, we were im- pressed with the difficulty of keeping, protecting, and otherwise caring for non-belligerents in and near the war zone. Prefect Mirman gave the Commission a cordial reception in his home. Du Port Nancy (Pop. 120,000) Oct. 7-8 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 37 Chalons-sur- Through Toule, Bar-le-Duc, Revigny, and Vitry-le- Marne Francois to Chalons-sur-Marne, the Commission pro- (Pop. 28,000) ceeded over the highway, on which the pavement, after Oct. 8-10 ^ fill 1 • two years or neglect and abuse, was everywhere in a condition that would put to shame most of the paved highways of America. It has long been known that French roads are of the best, but the test to which they have been subjected in this region demon- strates beyond doubt a superiority that furnishes a fine example to reduce the many costly American experiments in the United States. Rheims ^^ inspection of the wonderful Heidsick champagne (Pop. 120,000) caves was the only industrial examination possible at ^ ■ ^ Rheims, and the Commission learned what a complete loss of a year's crop means, a calamity of national importance. The day spent in Rheims amidst the pathetic monumental ruins prov- ed a climax to the Commission's tour in the war zone; a visit to the outer fortifications, hurriedly built to meet an emergency from a block of dwellings convenient to the scene of action, gave a clear idea of the character of that action; a walk in the trench communicating with the firing line, a quarter of a mile away, afforded a peep at a rural land- scape, apparently peaceful and untenanted, yet containing two great armies in deadly struggle; altogether a stupendous situation, so unreal, so gruesome, so awful in its contrast as to compel reflections painful in their intensity. ?W' ■F t ''tm ^(m^ f ■" ^^m ' M " w X* .' .*" 1 mM^ Cfi r £ -^--T* t These warped and twisted pipes and machinery illustrate the condition of numberless French industrial plants 38 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Paris The interval between the uneventful arrival of the (Pop. 2,888,000) Commission in Paris and its departure eight days later Oct. 10-17 for England and for home was filled 'with individual and collective activities in interviewing high Governmental officers, committees of associations, and individuals eminent in many lines; in collecting treaties, monographs, maps, official estimates, and reports and in conducting all sorts of inquiries seeking information for this report. Another conference with leading members of the American Chamber of Commerce in Paris helped to establish a line of communication and to formulate plans for future action, which it is believed can be made one of the means of promoting Franco- American trade. A conference with the Central Association for the Resumption of Industry in the Invaded Districts led to a consideration of the many different steps in the process of instituting effective means to a re- habilitation of industry, paralyzed if not completely destroyed. The Belgian Chamber of Commerce in Paris sought a meeting with the Commission; for Belgium, like France, looks to the great neutral nation of the west for aid in the restoration of her industrial activity. The faith in a happy resumption of national existence displayed by this group of distinguished Belgians, was touching; a fervent wish fathered the belief in an early necessity for stocks of machinery and raw material to be so stored as to be readily available for use when peace is declared. The credit required to finance this huge undertaking is predicated upon the moral security of past honesty, and a sane commercial instinct still assured of a quick recuperation. These conferences intimated the relation of the United States to these international situations, and the tremendous responsibility, much more than simply financial, forced upon it by the unique operations of the past two years. A nation of unlimited resources which has become the focus for the gold of Europe cannot avoid the preeminence that this condition implies, and will certainly be compelled to participate to a corresponding degree in the tremendous world problems which the present cataclysm has created. Perhaps the very obviousness of the demands of a foreign trade that cannot be ignored was necessary to awaken a comprehension which will be potent in establishing it on a durable basis. But this comprehension must be widespread and national — our people must be convinced, and, being convinced, they must grasp the opportunity. Ill TRADE AND TARIFF WE CANNOT be too often reminded that trade is largely a matter between persons, not nations, and that where natural or human barriers do not interfere, people will trade the world over wherever they may find it profitable to do so, in spite of differences of language or custom. Probably no one single measure would do more to promote per- manent peace abroad than a European customs union. Practically all trade is based on mutual friendship and confidence. It increases with the growth of these sentiments; whatever tends to weaken or disturb them, very directly decreases trade. Perhaps our manufacturers have not in the past sufficiently borne this in mind, in connection with the extension of our foreign commerce. We give below the figures from 1912 to 1915 covering the total exports and imports to and from France, from our official statistics: To France From France I9I2 $135,388,851 $124,548,458 I9I3 146,100,201 136,877,990 I9I4 159,818,924 141,446,252 I915 369.397,170 77,158,740 In speaking of Franco-American trade, the sharp distinction must be borne in mind between normal conditions and present war condi- tions. The pressing necessity of the French people has led them to purchase great quantities of American goods at prices and subject to terms and conditions which they certainly will not find acceptable in normal times. Our export trade generally has been hampered, as is well known, by a sometimes shortsighted unwillingness on the part of many Amer- ican manufacturers to modify their home methods in any particular. 40 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE even when attempting to enter foreign markets. The refusal to consider pecuHar wants of foreign countries, — to change packing, even such external packing as is absolutely necessary to assure safe trans- portation; the refusal to extend terms of any kind, and insistence upon cash against documents, f.o.b. American port, are not calculated to encourage buyers. The attitude described is the result, apparently, of past indifference to foreign opportunities, the present failure of rapid adjustment to new developments and trade possibilities of un- precedented magnitude. Many of our manufacturers have long enjoyed a peculiarly priv- ileged position in the home market by reason of our great home demand and high tariffs, and too frequently this has resulted in a disregard of the rights and interests of those with whom they deal at home, who have had no choice but to make the most of such treatment. Un- fortunately, some of our manufacturers have, unthinkingly, treated their foreign connections in the same independent way, and the export trade of all of our merchants and manufacturers has been adversely affected in consequence. Failure to deliver at the time specified, or to deliver strictly ac- cording to specifications; failure to deliver perfect merchandise and refusal to adjust claims promptly and to the customer's satisfaction, are not alone to blame. There is a quite common failure to accept and adopt in foreign correspondence that courteous and considerate tone usual in business abroad. There has been much improvement in this and other matters, but much remains to be improved. America has been compelled with apparent reluctance to emerge from her self- contained, isolated position and to occupy her rightful place in world relations; she must do so not on a narrow, provincial, but on a broad, human basis. All civilized nations have accepted forms and standards of intercourse that do not fundamentally differ, and it is not really difficult to adapt one's self to such variants as exist, when the nec- essity for so doing is appreciated. We must be in a position to talk and correspond in foreign languages; if we wish to trade with France, we must be able to speak in French, to correspond in French and in the French manner, and we must give weights, measurements, etc., according to French standards. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 4I Difference of language acts as a great barrier to a thorough, mutual understanding. The United States is in a better position to overcome this difficulty than are most countries, as her citizens are descendants of all the peoples of Europe. We should avail ourselves of the resulting linguistic possibilities afforded us. Nations transacting an extensive foreign business, such as England and particularly Germany, go very far in meeting the wishes of their clients, meeting every demand in regard to the character of the mer- chandise and the nature of the individual and oversea packing and marking, and providing all necessary data to meet foreign customs regulations, which differ materially from our own, no matter how much extra labor is involved. If we wish to hold any large part of such export trade as has been forced upon us by the unprecedented international situation, similar methods must be adopted by America. The question of terms is a most important one. We grant extended terms at home, and must be prepared to grant similar terms abroad. Especially is this necessary under present conditions, if we wish to export to France and Belgium. Many of our manufacturers and mer- chants are deterred, apparently, from entering upon this course by the difficulty they experience in obtaining credit reports from France based on the credit rating system to which they are accustomed at home. Some of our American mercantile agencies have branches in France. It is true they cannot operate in the same manner they do in this country. Local customs do not permit that; but while the information is not given in our usual form, it is not very difficult to gauge its value. Many of the banks in France, that buyers are likely to give as refer- ence, will gladly impart all the information required; they are specially organized to do so. In the meetings with the chambers of commerce, when we had occasion to discuss credits, mercantile information bureaus, etc., we were advised that French mercantile agencies are now being organized, and that an attempt will be made to give credit ratings on a similar basis as ours. It is hoped, too, that our American banks will extend their branches throughout Europe. Such banking facilities would do much to promote our European trade, always far more important than our trade with South America, where our new branches have been of very great assistance to export trade. 42 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Even under conditions as they are, we believe our merchants are over-cautious in opening credits abroad. Our own practice in con- nection with failures has been so loose for many years that we do not realize the strong sense of honor that controls questions of this character in France; it is considered a great disgrace not to meet one's obliga- tions ; it involves loss of civil standing and ineligibility for various func- tions of distinction in connection with commercial life, which are highly valued. French people, their families and friends, go very far in striving to avoid failure, or, in the event of failure, in making good all losses. French commercial laws, too, touching these important matters, are considerably more severe than our own. Our French friends naturally cannot understand why our manu- facturers should be reluctant to accept time drafts on the European buyer when this practice has been the usual one for years in connection with shipments of raw materials from America. We believe there are few countries in which it is safer to grant credit, or make advances, or make loans than France, in spite of the war and all that the war has meant. The French are an exceedingly rich and thrifty nation, careful in money matters, and little given to the spec- ulative activity that prevails in our own country. Their practices, often so different from ours, are different because of their greater con- servation, their greater thrift, and their hesitation in taking unusual risks. In spite of savings banks and the great national investments in foreign loans, the French people as a whole still hoard large sums of money. It is not generally known that the check system for payments between individuals or commercial institutions is practically unknown, even in the large towns, including Paris. When the English army entered France, special arrangements were made by the English banks to have French institutions provide for the cashing of the officers' checks. The opinion was often expressed that the check system is a matter of vital importance to France, because the adoption of this system would be of itself the means of adding millions of francs to bank deposits, and would correspondingly increase the ability of French banks to make loans. Much of the money that is now hoarded could be made available to increase credit and commerce. In matters of this description France can learn much from the United States and other countries and undoubtedly will. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 43 The facts recited emphasize the conservative attitude of the French in money matters which makes them such safe people to deal with. But the question of credit is not the only one affecting our exports. Lack of harmony between federal and state laws adversely affects some of our industrial activities at home, such as railroad transpor- tation, etc. Unfortunately, it sometimes also adversely affects foreign trade. In France, for instance, there is considerable complaint be- cause of conflict between the federal pure food and drug act, regulating the importation and sale of foods and drugs, and the laws of some of the individual states, which sometimes prohibit the sale of products im- ported in conformity with the federal regulations. As a result for- eign merchants have been put to much trouble, and France is tempted to retaliate for what she considers a deliberate, unfriendly inter- ference with trade. She cannot otherwise interpret a state of affairs which, apparently, permits the importation, but forbids the local sale of some of her products. As exporters as well as importers of food- stuffs and drugs, the sooner we establish uniform food and drug regu- lations for all the states, the more this trade is likely to expand to mutual profit. Federal regulation of standard weights and measures which will make it imperative that goods measure and weigh what the labels indicate, is also necessary. On this subject, too, there is sometimes lack of uni- formity between the federal law permitting imports and the laws of individual states regulating sale. Another very important matter affecting our trade with France is the tariff question. Past tariff difficulties between France and the United States led to a continuous reference to the subject on the part of our French friends. They object primarily to the high rates of duty on their products, which they consider excessive, but this was not the only or the chief feature to which they object in our tariff policies. All France is informed regarding the notorious Limoges china case. This unpleasant incident has left a profound resentment in French manufacturing circles, and was frequently used as an illustration of what was found most objectionable in our customs administration methods. The difficulty of establishing the dutiable market value and the unwillingness of our treasury department to accept their invoice value as correct are annoyances; but above all the insistence of our special treasury agents upon the right to inspect private books. 44 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Not the remains of centuries-old Babylon, but of a modern French town the labor costs, the costs of raw materials, etc., is particularly resented. They feel this last to be an unwarranted intrusion upon the private affairs of the citizens of a friendly nation, and they cannot be con- vinced that information of this kind, if given, will not be diverted to improper uses and reach their competitors in the United States. It was sometimes suggested that the United States might to ad- vantage adopt specific duties to avoid such contentious questions. We pointed out that we already have such duties on certain lines, and are likely to have more of them. We also pointed out that in many cases specific rates result in much higher duties being collected on neces- sities than on luxuries, particularly if the specific duties are assessed on weight, as higher priced goods are frequently much lighter than low priced goods, etc. The French repeatedly expressed regret that on almost all articles exported from France to America our duties are exceedingly high. We explained that this was due to the fact that many of them are luxuries, and that, according to the idea that has always governed our tariff legislation, luxuries are appropriately selected as most properly paying the highest revenue. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 45 As the following table shows, the chief exports of France to us are, of course, luxuries: UNITED STATES IMPORTS FROM FRANCE (giving some items exceeding $500,000) I9I4 1915 Automobiles $1,327,428 $990,618 Works or art 22,389,182 7,935,241 Brushes 682,003 312,891 Argals or wine lees 1,310,093 944,907 Glycerine, crude 1,326,885 489,004 Cotton cloth (bleached, unbleached, and colored) . 3,704,545 555-423 Laces 6,645,889 3,565,848 Cotton wearing apparel and mfrs 2,880,602 1,147,579 Earthen, stone, and china ware 1,659,768 1,050,739 Feathers, crude, and for millinery purposes 2,704,949 i ,639,230 Laces, embs., and other mfrs. of flax. . . . 1,174,862 457,573 Fish, except shellfish packed in oil 741,524 455,879 Walnuts 2,756,071 2,769,976 Furs dressed on the skin 647,538 364,019 Glass and glassware 1,217,969 664,442 Jewelryand mfrs. of gold and silver 1,140,030 709,430 Hats and materials 1,042,307 282,217 Hides and skins, except fur skins, raw or uncured 6,418,814 4,041,701 India rubber 1,124,629 284,862 Leather gloves 3,829,933 3,57o,730 Cheese, and substitutes for 1,032,817 737,212 Olive oil 1,512,324 1,215,623 Distilled and essential oils 1,013,867 651,656 Perfumes, cosmetics, etc 1,856,624 1,962,701 Motion picture films and plates 1,000,939 799,621 Cigarette book covers and papers 688,424 784,036 Unset diamonds 1,506,103 517,655 Pearls and parts not strung nor set 3,483,308 600,309 Other unset precious stones 1,317,693 231,786 Grass seeds 1,695,234 2,433,192 46 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1914 1915 Silk fabrics woven in the piece $6,375,806 $3,332,457 Silk laces and embroideries 3,414,722 2,124,917 Silk plushes, velvets, and other apparel fabrics 1,712,134 824,813 Silk ribbons not over 12 inches in width . 1,820,325 1,303,125 Spun silk or Shappe silk yarn 1,295,015 1,580,543 Silk wearing apparel 2,847,884 1,439,039 Brandy, cordials, etc 1,843,400 1,212,007 Sparkling wines 3,923,768 1,503,152 Still wines i, 199-755 795,637 Mushrooms and truffles 968,360 706,074 Clothing wool 1,691,189 354,689 Wool clothes 1,421,882 305,146 Dress goods and wearing apparel 4,182,529 2,709,859 The following table shows chief exports of America to France (Note heavy increase) : UNITED STATES EXPORTS TO FRANCE (giving some items exceeding $500,000) I9I4 I9I5 Wheat 15,385,663 $66,352,832 Horses 31,809,515 Oats 28,098,093 Upland and other cotton 73,497,783 27,771,814 Beef, bacon, ham, pork, and products. . . 978,093 24,436,717 Copper, pigs, ingots, and bars 24,025,715 21,053,789 Wheat flour 63,866 14,222,838 Commercial, automobiles, vehicles, and parts 5,070 13,523,843 Machinery, machines, parts of (all kinds) 5,330,540 10,946,865 Sugar 9,718,974 Harness and saddlery 1,679 6,241,964 Other cars and parts of 99,288 6,008,356 Boots and shoes 340,629 5,085,607 Gasoline and naphthas 3,187,246 5,671,350 Illuminating oil 3,939,940 4,162,265 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 47 1914 1915 Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medicines . . $1,139,423 $3,760,699 Leather, tanned skins, and mfrs. of 768,056 3,441,052 Tobacco and mfrs. of 4,824,475 3,231,252 ^°™ 43,783 3,022,399 Lubricating oils 3,429,850 2,987,462 Copper plate and sheets 1,376,828 2,924,252 Cotton wearing apparel 65,812 2,309,525 Brass articles 53,230 2,176,258 Wire rods and other mfrs. of iron 673 2,158,111 Barbwire, wire, and mfrs. of 12,069 2,084,547 Brass bars, plates, sheets, etc 1,852,297 Surgical appliances, etc 1,678,109 Rubber shoes 22,579 1,254,228 Fii-earms 24,745 1,253,318 Nickel, nickel oxide, and matte 1,583,830 1,168,022 Cotton cloths 1,386 1,023,402 Mowers and reapers 3,827,247 888,157 Horseshoes 884,543 Electrical machinery, appliances, etc. . . . 277,393 623,524 Lumber, furniture, and mfrs. of wood. . . 1,843,961 499,689 Fruits, fresh, dried, and preserved 1,705,732 465,348 Tools 516,517 369,302 Passenger automobiles, vehicles, and parts 919,060 252,909 Oil cake and oil cake meal 1,020,487 212,016 Mineral oil 2,198,947 125,402 Paintings and statuary 610,404 68,533 It will merit study on the part of the tariff commission, whether in all instances, high rates of duty should be charged on luxuries regardless of the country of origin; questions of trade policy are here involved that might possibly overrule the sumptuary principles here- tofore applied in our tariff laws. At the end of all our discussions on tariff questions, we invariably pointed out that America would soon have that highly desirable institution, a permanent tariff commission, and we expressed the hope that through its labors, the complaints of our French customers would be adjusted. We called their attention to the records, however, which 48 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE prove that while our investigations may sometimes appear unwarranted and the decisions of our examiners objectionable, it remains true that customs frauds do occur, with the usual unfortunate result that many honest manufacturers have to suffer annoyance on account of the dishonesty of a few. We recommend to our treasury department that every possible consideration be taken of the sensibilities of our foreign connections. The time may not be far distant, when we will have occasion to ask from others that courtesy and consideration which unfortunately has not always been shown by our treasury represen- tatives abroad. There are always two sides to every question, and it is interesting to note the fact, not generally known, that America is almost the only country that does not enjoy the "most favored nation treatment" on the part of France. As illustrating the tariff situation affecting Franco-American trade, we give below the American rates of duty on certain lines imported from France, and the French specific duties on some of our exports to France. RATES OF DUTY ON IMPORTATION INTO THE UNITED STATES Works of art 15% to 45% Brushes 35% Acids and chemicals various free to 2>^ cent lb. and 25% advalorem Glycerine crude i c. lb. Laces, etc 60% Earthenware 15% to 40% Chinaware 50% to 55% Feathers 20% to 60% Glass and glassware 30% to 45% Silk and mfrs. of 15% to 60% Glass bottles 30% to 45% Mfrs. of marble 45% Cotton wearing apparel 50% Linen wearing apparel 40% Fabrics of flax, etc 40% Perfumes 40c. lb. and 60% advalorem Wine, brandy, etc $2.60 per proof gallon Champagne and sparkling wines. . . .$9.60 per dKDz. quart bottles a a a a a a u a a THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 49 RATES OF DUTIES ON IMPORTATIONS INTO FRANCE FROM THE UNITED STATES (as per law of JANUARY II, 1892, REVISED TO AUGUST, I910) Glycerine 10 frs. per 100 kilo Iron or steel wire lo to 15 frs. Goods of cotton 1300 frs. Surgical appliances 150 frs. Cotton fabric in the piece 150 to 635 frs. " " " Cotton fabric made from dyed or bleached yarn 75% advalorem Knit gloves 900 frs. per 100 kilo Hides and skins from 10 to 75 frs. Boot and shoe uppers 190 frs. Wool fabrics 75 to 225 frs. " " " Boots and shoes of leather 2 frs. 50 to 5 frs. per pair General machinery 15 frs. per 100 kilo Agricultural machinery 15 to 23 frs. " " " Dynamo electric machinery 30 to 150 frs. " " " Electric and electro- technical apparatus 50 to 150 frs. " " " Typewriters 150 frs. " " " Boilers 14 to 27 frs. " " " Refrigerating apparatus 30 to 50 frs. u a a ii a u It a a In the last few decades France has leaned strongly in the direction of protection, particularly of agricultural products, with a view to the possibilitj' of war, and the necessity of being self-dependent regarding food supply in such an event. American raw materials that France needs are permitted to enter at minimum rates, but the great bulk of American manufactured products' are taxed at the maximum rates. France has a maximum and minimum duty, and in almost all in- stances the maximum rates apply to goods coming from America. American machinery of all kinds is particularly at a disadvantage as compared with products coming from Germany. Under the present tariff, American products pay 125 to 150 per cent more duty to enter France than similar products from European countries. It has long been the complaint of American exporters that our tariff legislation has generally neglected a provision putting the United States in a position to negotiate with foreign countries for tariff con- 50 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE cessions. We hope that the tariff commission at a very early stage of its career will make specific recommendations on this matter, as well as on the question whether it is really to the best interest of the United States to impose uniform tariffs on products regardless of the country of origin. The incidence of specific duties can only be accurately gauged by merchants transacting business under them ; we are glad to be able to quote from documents published in this volume, under the heading of "American Chamber of Commerce of Paris", a few examples showing that American manufactured products are assessed considerably more than similar articles imported from other European countries. Percentage of extra tax im- posed on American articles as against those coming from other European countries Dynamo electric machinery 50 Electric technical apparatus 75 Refrigerating machinery lOO Wearing apparel, cotton and wool knit 50 Rubber goods 50 Canned fish lOO Leather goods 100 Pencils 50 Fi-ance heretofore has purchased chiefly raw materials from us and relatively few of our manufactured products. Owing to the treaty of Frankfort, the more favorable geographical position of Germany, and the great care with which the French market has been studied by the Germans, many French wants were formerly supplied from Germany. Whether the proposals of the economic conference of the allies in Paris are finally adopted in full (which seems very improbable) or not, those discussions will surely have some influence on the readjust- ment of trade after the war. It is difficult to believe that England will really depart radically from her pre-war free trade policy; after the war Manchester will be heard from on this subject. For certain prod- ucts, manufactured and otherwise, the nations of Europe depend upon one another; and where raw materials or partially or fully finished articles are urgently needed, it seems improbable that any of the THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 5 1 countries will impose upon themselves added burdens by assessing prohibitive rates. It does appear likely, however, that the various belligerents will buy whatever articles they can from their allies, rather than from their past enemies, and, failing this, they will prefer to purchase them from countries which have been neutral. There may here be opened up quite a new field for products that America has not exported to France. On the other hand, all belligerent and neutral nations, as a result of the lessons of the war, will aim to produce for their own consumption many articles that they have heretofore drawn from beyond their own frontiers. In order to do so in a profitable manner, France will have to modify some of her industrial methods, and this may result for many lines in a surplus of merchandise of a kind not exported heretofore which will become available for inter- national trade. Much of the final outcome, as far as the United States is concerned, will depend upon tariff legislation, both here and abroad. It is impossible to give more than a guess at the prospective inter- national tariff situation after peace is declared. Everything depends upon the duration of the war, the outcome of peace negotiations, and the peace articles themselves which may contain specific stipulations on this topic. It is most fortunate under the circumstances that the American tarifif commission has finally become an established fact. It is evident that the expansion of foreign trade will necessitate a change in our tariff policy. Our industrial position can no longer be viewed exclu- sively from either a high-tariff or a low-tariff point of view, but must be considered with an eye to our international trade situation. It may well be that many articles that are now on a high protective basis should have their rates materially reduced, and that on other lines protection may be necessary in order to create and support industries, the products of which are so essential in time of war that we cannot as a nation afford to be dependent on foreign sources for our supply. Our problems here will be very much the same as those of Europe. It may also become necessary if we are to maintain even in part the exceptional position we now enjoy, to make rates with an eye to reciprocal export advantage. Our foreign outlet is likely to be increas- ingly valued by manufacturers as a counter-balance to the fluctuations of our home demand. Having in mind the great importance of these 52 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE questions and the insistent way in which they may be brought to our attention after the war, the compensation provided for the tariff commission seems too low in view of the very high type of pubHc service required. It is the thought of construction, rather than the reminder of destruction, that uppermost in the thought of the French people ■'"•^Jbcs i^nn Ji H'd. '■ : i: a 'i ../SnoW 1/ ., ,,-,i'£VEyi . ft U.'. 03? 1 -^ ' i 'i 1 ■.4, -.. .1 #' ,-/- ' __.f t^ii > ) ■^ 1 1 ! ./I 7"; Tf I. ; ." aialeArd«rL!lSS ,. ;sJ"t© Baskets __ ^~PU. Ves5j«< , V re fe. J_ - ,rv % -/!t«ueV . KRrivV — -r ^ Iron Works %^ Plate Glass T "^ Chemicals ■ % OLuk //> ?? Fran' J Mannheim ^Y '.':'« J "^Hardware,' Porcelain Paper MIHsM A H KE '2^ \t«S'-'J ?f .;, F^ri^ District fjo^^rWW' iB<; rito^hSW^ Machinery Poper Mills *, ^ y Chemicals », rfO - ..... I o Kariortihe Stuttgart burg ""v.\ Works 'cut at^^!^ t:::^:: , ^ ^^°" paper m«i^ ' tv FurnTt^. ^^^«"=« Hosl'ery Leather Dressing ' ^ ^Z z^ Fash'pns > .. \ li , 1 ' r, il_^ Goods ^fcui "l"-^! ^; /^„i.,Trtv -^1— --T^ ChSllJm ^>1.* »ri, 1 ,,..,...,.„ I f ■"--/Not,.; Vehicles V,l,, I FurnltuTo nosiery uooi."«' - _ , if J! Tanneries*, x/ffi-E" f' IBR \ ■•-.'A •~-^f !NE I Ston Plate ■N . ? '-QOTE D O'E ■cr__ ^Maihlnery U \ S,-!X'^^/ :;oerarn< , , kl.?n%\ lror^\^ ff^ K I™ daonons \ % ^ i. forks « "- 4?"Bflqkr^> -• • "aoh*%, tTltes-'— ' I I Potteries f ^si Ma=|^a. tTlteSnl Burguritly ^nnons ^ '^ Poroi Paper Mills I Kaolin ..,....., ^SWe'/ Cut Stones ^^^^^ * /I J '"f*l A ^^ "^^ H"^ Bibb Koundr^ t- nH^^'^^y^ '7'.\# ^'1"^' Blbb^ns, Arms -ement ^ iRDOGNE, \ J ^ P^f^ j: ^.fxf i A V. , ^« .& »; n jml*) ^ ^ ^ o Linens -. ' „ i g >Sf' S, __,"-J?hospJiates , ^/^^ ^■' Foundry^T ""^ Z.o( ,);GAR6nNE •;' '"■-;..a; VMra^^ -^ T "? \-^'Leathef-' ' ';-_ ^ ^ ^•"^.■. Dressing ^' TAEN-ri E|R ; :fiou)\(>iiiis ,^ ,-' j'Tou'1<)us~ ' /riTfc A;ofJNr .'-1 /•- ^ /.\ ,--, ol I ' La t ^ffi^j 'ironworks' f llier "e am L T DDE -"^Tr^&rbonuc J — V ' ChemlcaT/ 1 >. ^||^\ Products ^^.1^^.^ 4^^ •e® Potteries f -tS*'""'! saji. Jjcrpigoaa SPort Vondrca S B -I RflilUftlcJ- ' ••.(5 I- "iKi I m5^^ ,".('-!■■■ IV INDUSTRY AND PLANT CONSTRUCTION WE VISITED factories in every city included in our trip and had man^^ opportunities to learn from personal inspection that France has within her own frontiers the best examples of modern plant construction and operation. French men of affairs, wishing to study modern industrial plant designing and construction and the most improved manufacturing methods, could profitably make a similar tour. They would find excellent examples to follow, and examples, too, of what should be avoided; they would find inspiration, and obtain much valuable information which could be made serviceable to all sections of their country and will help materially in promoting industrial progress. Xaturall^^ while certain plants are practically perfect, this is far from being true of the usual run of industrial works. Many industries of France had their origin years ago, and in many instances the plants are not located so as to secure the most economical production. In many cases industrial plants are built on sites which are insufficiently provided with railroad facilities. Other plants seem to have been erected in unsuitable localities. Some are suitably located, but additions have been built on without reference to facility of operation or productivity. It is a well recognized principle that no matter how carefully the individual processes within a particular plant are worked out, unless the buildings themselves are arranged for the handling of various processes in a natural sequence, so that each unit of operation can be extended without interfering with other processes and operations, there will be lost motion and waste of time and energy, and consequently a smaller profit. It appeared to us that France has something to learn as to the "economy of waste," i.e., tearing down old plants and replacing them by new buildings, abandoning poorh' located plants and building others in favorable sites, and scrapping antiquated machinery, out-classed 54 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE tools, etc. This must be recognized if production is to be kept on a competitive basis. As a result of the war such steps had to be taken in some cases to supply the armies in the field promptly and con- tinuously and the work was carried out with logical perfection. The new war plants are well located and admirable of their kind; they elicited our profound admiration as models for the industries of France ; nothing better can be found in the United States or elsewhere. We mention this because, while we do not hesitate to criticise where we think it necessary, we do not wish to imply that our own practice is invariably or generally better than what we found in France. Most plants are constructed of solid stone walls, with tile roofs. Many chemical plants, however, have adopted the standard hollow- tile form of construction, with walls covered with plaster, and an approved, modern type of tile roof. This type of construction could hardly be improved upon, and it is an indication that France is awake to the need for modern factory buildings. This type of building is not costly to erect. In some of the thoroughly modern plants which were visited, notably the Haviland plant at Limoges, and the Andre Citroen plant at Paris, we found an effective arrangement and grouping of buildings and evidence of a keen sense of practicability throughout. We further found, in all sections visited, an appreciation of the desirability of the better designed, modern type of structure, arranged and equipped in the latest approved manner. The hope was frequently expressed that factory owners might avail themselves of the demonstrated economy and efficiency of the best American industrial plant construction. There is now a considerable amount of immediate reconstruction under way despite the war and new building prospects are being undertaken. When peace comes, the amount of construction of fac- tories and industrial plants generally will probably be large. This applies both to Belgium as well as France. In France alone, along the battle front, more than four hundred factories have been destroyed; and within the invaded regions plants have been denuded of machinery, tools, raw materials, building equipment, and everything of value. Among the materials and equipment of which manufacturers are in most immediate need are: Rolled steel shapes for quick construction instead of the built- up members that are now used. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 55 Concrete mixing and concrete block machinery. Plumbing and plumbing fixtures. Stock factory sashes and doors. (It is proposed to standardize sashes and doors.) Wired glass. Factory lighting fixtures. Cranes and carrying belts and carriers. Elevators and lifts. Pneumatic riveters. Metal furniture and lockers. Standardized factory hardware. Automatic sprinklers. Vacuum cleaning apparatus and installation. Interplant telephones, telautographs, pneumatic carriers, etc. Safety appliances. Unfortunately we could not visit that section of France which is industrially the most important and the most interesting, the Northern department, which is either in the hands of the Germans or in the fight- ing zone. What we saw in regard to plant construction, distribution of plants and relation to shipping, etc., lay south of a line drawn from Paris to Nancy. In the invaded regions are located mines which formerly produced 68 per cent of the country's output of coal and iron ore, with the factories which naturally accompany them. The important beet sugar industry and connected industries also lie chiefly in that section, as do many of the larger and more important industrial plants, such as spinning and weaving establishments. Since the beginning of the war a number of companies, unable to operate their mills in the North, have found the means and the energy to start new plants in other sections so located that they may ulti- mately benefit from the exceptionally favorable water power situation in the Vosges and Alpine regions. Hydro-electric power is carried 100 kilometers and more from these inexhaustible power stations to Lyons and other cities. This redistribution of industrial plants is not completed, and an industrial survey will probably be made so that the plants may be located where they can operate to the best advantage. The importance of keeping away from the frontier those industries upon which the country may have to depend for her safety in time of war must, of course, be considered. With the shifting of industries 56 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE there will be a corresponding displacement of certain parts of the work- ing population. How far this movement can go with profit, and to what extent industries will re-establish themselves in their old localities cannot be foretold, but it is an undoubted fact that new plants — up- to-date in every particular — are arising in sections in which industry was heretofore rarely found. Our curiosity was aroused in St. Etienne, in Lyons, and other towns by plants which struck us as being almost typically American. In every instance we learned that the companies operating them also owned plants in the United States and frequently in other countries as well. Here the direct contact with our methods had led to almost complete acceptance, and we often heard the hope expressed that after the war American manufacturers and American capital would co- operate with French interests and erect new plants in France. There is disclosed here a large and profitable field for American enterprise which is A\-ell worthy of study. As will be seen by referring to the chapter on Trade and Tariff French exports to the United States have not fallen greatly below the normal figures. This is because most of the merchandise shipped from France to America consists either of luxuries or of high-class necessities, purchases characterized by artistic design or luxury of finish. Few factories making such merchandise were equipped for manufacturing war material, and the Government aimed to keep them in operation in order that the exportation of their products might pay for at least a part of the enormous purchases of American products. The man- ufacturers of Limoges china are making porcelain tubing, etc., for the Government, for use in the chemical works which manufacture muni- tions, explosives, etc., but their exports of china have been fairly well maintained in spite of labor shortage. In some instances companies which have continued to manufacture their usual products have converted parts of their plants for the manufacture of war supplies. In Lyons we visited a dyeing establish- ment which was operating in the usual way, and at the same time turning out partly finished shells. Manufacturers generally have all they can do to keep the manu- facture of their normal products up to the current needs of the country. Nowhere did we see any evidence of accumulation of stocks. The reduced production of the factories usually dependent on export THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 57 Dismaiuled mill in the north ' demands goes to England, the United States, and other countries. Special and successful efforts have been made through the Lyons Fair to bring French products to the attention of neutrals, and we strongly recommend that American industries take steps to make representative exhibits there. With an eye to the future, France is making a careful studA' of the possibility of producing in a large industrial way, goods that they have made heretofore only in small, inadequately equipped plants. Such goods are toys and dolls, small wares, metal and other fancy goods, fabric gloves, and many other lines. The doll and toy industry is attracting particular attention because heretofore French wants were almost exclusively satisfied through importation from Germany and Austria. Dolls and toys are now being produced by improved methods, but not in large quantities, and prices are still somewhat high for export; but there are indications that through improved methods French manufacturers will be able not only to satisfy their home demand but even to become a new factor in the world market. 58 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE All these lines of manufacture will open new fields for the American purchaser. If we wish to increase our exports to France, we must be ready to import correspondingly more than we have done in the past. Trade is a matter of exchange of commodities; we cannot hope to increase our export trade under normal conditions without a proportionate increase of imports from the countries to which we sell. There are two currents of opinion as to the safest principles of pro- duction for France to follow in her future industrial development. One is that French manufacturers should more generally engage in the manufacture of articles "en serie," which means the production in quantities of one kind of finished article and not, as might be sup- posed, the most favorable succession of operations eliminating waste motion and consequently lower in the cost of production. The classic example is the Ford motor car plant. The French have classic examples of their own, however, in certain of their shell plants, which are perfect to the minutest detail. In these plants not only are great quantities of a single article turned out, but the different processes are gone through in orderly sequence with a minimum of waste motion and a perfect automatic checking system that prevents slacking in any part of the operation. The opposing current of opinion is that in many industries it will not pay for plants to enter upon large and continued production of one article, in great masses; that on the contrary the peculiar strength of French industries lies in the fact that their plants are capable of turning out a great diversity of articles, each finished with artistic perfection in a way which other countries are unable to imitate because such excellence is the result of the artistic endowment of the French people. It is admitted that in all industries the plants could be improved, and that a better sequence of operations could be adopted, but it is contended that the production itself should remain diversified as heretofore. Extremists championing this view sometimes even go so far as to oppose the general introduction of machinery, auto- matic tools, and labor-saving devices on the ground that the product would thereby lose some of its artistic qualities. It is reasonable to expect that in those lines in which France intends to supply her own wants entirely, operations "en serie" must be more generally adopted, and this may result in surplus production that could be successfully exported. Generally speaking, however, French THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 59 manufacturers are likely to go further than they have already done in their effort to meet the demand for high grade merchandise made up in particular ways for individual customers, and in relatively small quantities for a high-class trade. France and America are not likely to be serious competitors in the world market because their strength lies in different directions. If American manufacturers often find themselves unwilling or unable to change their products to meet special export conditions, there is a reason for it. Our manufacturing methods are the result of a great, steady home demand for standard products used by almost everyone from one end of the country to the other. Our manufacturers usually care only to export their surplus product, and generally they can only export it profitably as it is; often it would not pay them to make a smaller amount of merchandise in a special way differing from their usual output. Therefore, American manufacturers who can turn out a product which as it stands meets the requirements of foreign trade, are usually so strongly established that they need fear no rival. This is particularly true of such typical American specialties as sewing machines, cash registers, typewriters, etc. Possibly when American manufacturers come to think it worth while to study foreign markets more carefully, they may discover sufficiently large outlets for special export articles and act accordingly. Broadly speaking, however, the fact that French industry has arisen primarily to satisfy home wants, which are not large but very diversified, has also enabled it to meet the varied wants of other countries and to fill relatively small orders for special artistic goods with special imprints and special styles of packing, and to do so at reasonable prices and yet with great profit. In the industrial plants making these diversified products many improvements could be made, and no doubt will be made. The operations must frequently be re-arranged to follow in better rotation but it is doubtful whether France can with safety adopt the principle of manufacture "en serie" as a general proposition except in the case of commodities used by the mass of French people and heretofore not entirely satisfied by French production. This and other developments will depend entirely upon the duration and the outcome of the war, the character of the peace negotiations, and whether as a result thereof the belligerent powers will radically change their tariff policy or will be prevented from so doing by stipulations 6o THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE in the treaties of peace. Whatever the outcome, France has in her war industries perfect examples of industrial efficiency, and this will surely greatly improve her general industrial practice, and may help in part to offset the heavy burdens of high taxation, high labor cost, and the cost of social betterment which we think will be inevitable as a result of the war. A portion of France which knows little of the disastrous war V INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY OUR visits to industrial plants in France included mainl}- some of those in the central and southern portions and a few in Paris. Northern France is the principal region for iron and steel and metal working plants related thereto; but a large part of this region is in the hands of the Germans, or included within the Hnes of the allied armies. Its importance is shown by the reports of the department of public works, which state that 40 per cent of the steam horsepower of the entire country is included in this district. The statistics of coal, coke, iron ore, and steel production are even more striking, as about two- thirds of the entire production of the country comes from this region. Any study of French practice from which the northern departments are omitted must therefore be very incomplete, and no final conclusions can be reached. Some of the plants visited in central and southern France were thoroughly modern and well equipped with the best of machine-tools and satisfactory labor-saving devices. The munitions plant which has been installed in the fair buildings at Lyons was notable in this respect, and there was much to admire in the steel plants at St. Chamond, in the BerHet and Renault auto- mobile factories, and in the steel and gun plant at Le Creusot. The general impression was formed, however, that modern machine- tools and labor-saving devices are not used in France to the same ex- tent as in this country in plants of corresponding importance. This does not necessarily imply a lack of progressive management. The manufacturing conditions in many of the plants are very difficult. The demand which these factories supply is comparatively small, and it is therefore necessary to manufacture a wide range of product instead of concentrating upon a limited standard output. More effort also appears necessary to meet the varying ^■iews of customers as to their real or fancied needs. 62 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE It is plain to see that this motor factory will not only have to be re-equipped, but totally rebuilt France developed automobile design decidedly in advance of this country, and many of the best features of present practice have been copied from French models. There are, however, no automobile factories in France which appear to be able to compete with the large factories in this country in the manufacture of low-priced cars, and it is probable that the prospective demand would be too small to justify anything like the American scale of production. The same considera- tion would probably apply to many other lines. The inevitable tend- ency, therefore, is to produce a large variety of output with many changes of patterns. The range of manufacture now covered at Le Creusot and St. Chamond would be startling to most American manufacturers. It includes almost all the processes from the ore to the highest grade of finished products of great variety. Such varied production demands the highest grade of supervision, and makes it almost impossible to apply details of efficiency which would be used by the manufacturer who can concentrate his attention upon one line, as Mr. Ford does, for instance, on the production of one simple, standard automobile. The advantage which American manufacturers have in their enormous home market and in the comparative willingness of their THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 63 customers to accept standard designs can be best appreciated by studying the more difficult conditions which their brother manufac- facturers have to meet in all of the smaller countries of Europe. Aside from these considerations, cheaper labor has probably here- tofore diminished the incentive to save by the use of devices which in many cases involve high first cost and a large amount of patience and supervising ability in establishing them in an old plant. All American manufacturers are familiar with the difficulties and prejudices to be met along these lines, and the problems are certainly no easier in France. All of the countries at war, however, must face new labor conditions in the future. Millions of the best young men have been killed, and while the increased use of woman labor is of great value, it cannot fully supply the need. Labor-saving devices and improved machinery will be required as never before, and designs which have been developed under the high labor costs and great production of America will probably receive favorable consideration. The war has already stimulated development along these lines more than many years of peace would have done. The few steel works which are outside the zone of warfare are pushed to their limit of production. Hydraulic forging presses and high-pressure pumping machinery to correspond have been in great demand for shell and gun forgings, and the most efficient types of turret lathes and other modern machine-tools have been ordered from the United States in great quantities. The demand for machinery of this class has passed its maximum, and will no doubt practically cease with the end of the war. Much of this machinery will then be used in ordinary work and thus reduce the peace demand. The value of the lessons of high munitions manu- facture, however, will be seen in increased production along other lines; and French manufacturers will be more ready to discard old machinery when sufficient proof is given that improved apparatus will pay in greater output and economy. No detailed study of this subject was possible. Any manufacturer to whom these general statements may appeal can apply them to his special line of product and reach a fair preliminary conclusion as to his opportunity to help in the rebuilding and development of industrial France. Special inquiry may be made through the channels opened by the Export Association. Much useful information may be obtained 64 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE from the American consuls in France and especially through the Ameri- can commercial attache in Paris, who will be found capable and active in replying to inquiries. If the answers to the inquiries so made are satisfactory, the proper method of developing business will be in most cases to send men to France who understand the language and are thoroughly familiar with their lines of manufacture. One of the best informed Americans whom we met in Paris declared that "The country which expects to export its goods, must first export its men." This statement is probably fully as important in connection with machinery and labor-saving devices as in any other field, for the possible customer must in most cases be taught the best method of application to his business, and be convinced that he is warranted in purchasing new devices from abroad rather than follow technical methods of production. Plenty of time must be taken to lay the foundation of an export business, and no discouragement should be felt if progress is slow. Perhaps the most important element of success is the method of handling the business after it is started. Some serious mistakes in this direction were called to our attention. In one case important machines for shell manufacture were obtained from the United States, but all of the frames broke due to defective castings, and had to be repaired at considerable expense and delay. A fair claim for the cost of repairs was made, and a long correspondence ensued, which had to filter through the general office in London before it reached the American manufac- turer. The claim was fmally allowed, but the narrow method of handling the matter diminished good-will and resulted in the loss of a subsequent order. French manufacturers and railroad men have high business standards, and they are conscientious in meeting their obliga- tions. They expect the same treatment from others, and when it is given, a sure foundation of business friendship will be laid. The cost of coal will always be high in France, as 30 per cent of the supply has to be imported. All practicable methods of steam economy in boiler and engine-room practice should, therefore, be studied. The design of modern French locomotives shows advanced thought in this direction, but some of the stationary plants leave much to be desired. Apparently, superheaters and economizers could be used more ex- tensively with coal surveyors. Apparatus for the routine analysis of flue gases might be found useful, together with recording steam-gauges THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 65 and similar devices to maintain a check upon boiler performance. Increased use of compound engines would apparently be of \alue, and a study might be made of the exhaust steam turbine as a means of securing increased power without additional coal consumption. In some mills the power transmission through bevel gears and complicated belt arrangements indicated a possibility of power saving through a careful application of electric m^otor driving, while in other mills such electric driving has been applied in a very satisfactory manner. The use of machine and drop-forgings could probably be extended with much advantage and economy. Some of the shops could be improved through a more systematic arrangement of machinery to permit the line of manufacture to progress in regular sequence, and thus diminish the cost of handling. The power crane service generally is good, especially at the docks and rail- road terminals, but continuous study of this subject is necessary. Occasional examples of apparent lack of such study were seen. There is apparently a profitable field for inquiry as to the degree of finish which is warranted in many machineshop and forge products. The French delight in good workmanship, and its prevalence is one of the man}' evidences of the artistic genius of the people. In some cases, however, the finish appeared too careful and elaborate for the use to be served. For example, the highest degree of care may well be applied to an aeroplane motor, and those examined by us were models in this respect. The same is true of the rifling and breech mechanism of field artillery, but in some cases unnecessary time appeared to be taken in finishing unimportant parts of a gun carriage or a motor truck. In France as in the United States, improved machinery and labor- saving devices can only secure the greatest economy through standard- ization of the details of production, and in this respect we believe that there is much room for improvement in both countries. Probably the French temperament delights in variety, but automatic machinery, hydraulic forging plants, drop-hammers, flanging presses, and other labor-saving equipment accomplish their best results only when the same article is made in large quantities, thus reducing the cost of dies and permitting ordinary labor to produce a large amount of well- finished product. In all countries variations in the design of machine products are It is evident that new and modern machinery will be needed to rehabilitate this factory THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 67 found which appear almost inexcusable in the careless disregard of cost and increased danger of defective work. Great efficiency is apparently being obtained in some of the French automobile factories in the production of motor trucks for army trans- port, which appear to be models of careful design. On the other hand we were told that in the production of pleasure vehicles the chassis alone is fairly uniform, and various bodies are fitted to suit the taste of the purchaser. This, of course, is fatal to low cost of production. Committees of standardization of engineering details could apparently be formed to advantage, and with the foundation thus established, the cost of production of standard parts could be reduced by automatic machinery, conveying apparatus, and other labor-saving devices to a degree not possible with a varied product. For instance, the splendid method of transporting the material between its various stages of manufacture by means of automatic conveyors in the munitions plant at Lyons was possible only because the product consisted almost en- tirely of a single design of 75-millimeter shells. Information gathered from reliable sources indicates that the textile industry has suffered from the war in perhaps a greater degree than any other, and to restore employment to the many thousands dependent upon the mills for a livelihood, concerted effort will be necessary and large expenditures must be made. The larger propor- tion of textile manufacture, with the exception of silk, is in the war zone in the north of France and western part of Belgium and at the present time the mills are under German control. Many mills are known to have been entirely destroyed, and the others are subject to the fortunes of war. In any event, a large number of mills and much machinery will require replacement, which will include all kinds of preparatory, spinning, twisting, weaving, dyeing, and finishing mach- inery for the different classes of material. The original equipment of the textile mills in this section of France and Belgium was of English, French, and German manufacture. Most of the English and French manufacturers of textile machinery are now making munitions of war, and when peace is restored, they will be obliged to reorganize their plants and will not be in condition to make prompt delivery of textile machinery. This question of delivery will be an important factor, and the out- 68 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE look is decidedly in favor of such American manufacturers as may desire to export machinery. Plans have already been formulated for financing on broad lines the rebuilding of the textile industry, under which the French and Belgian governments will guarantee the bonds or other obligations of the financiers. One plan which meets with much favor is to buy direct from the manufacturers, large quantities of machinery which will be shipped to warehouses and held until required when hostilities cease. On certain lines of standard machines, such as preparatory and spinning machines, this plan would be feasible, but there is a question about the practicability of including machines for special uses with a variety of fittings. A conservative estimate of the extent of the textile industry in the war zone places the number of spindles at about 6 millions, and while the proportion destroyed is at present unknown, it is certain to be very great. Three hundred and thirty factories and mills have been destroyed, throwing out of work approximately 57,633 people and depriving families of workers of support niim^mih-k mir ■I'-s- !if:Ml S),' "rm-f vO^,-.l. 33WA)i »;>^r?/' 1-1 j i 'J' I ■ i ..fill THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1916 Scilly u. " En MAP OF FRANCE SHOWING AGRICULTURE (Crops and Stock) G Rl A N Southamp __ ^^ iBrigJ [l. of Wieht I J \ N E I -. It . r li I »<* ■^ pics Normandes) Pte. d'e®*^™ ^ ' " •"■ St.Ma(hleu _ hrses o 4;', .X^ --"'"SSiiWi'-" •^' ^'«, " P/ffti LEGEND Low Grade Grains (Rye, Oats, Buckwheat) Middle Grade Wheat Crops High Grade Wheat and Industrial Crops ; Wines Stockraising (sheep and common stock of cattle) fl", BHle He tiers Vcu * QaoQage Intensive Stockraising (Thorough-bred Cattle and Horses) / T ''■s_Sable!,. ii'U)onne J^ A Lv J^^.'^^ Low Grade Crops and Stockraising B|jJ High Grade Crops and Intensive Stockraising SCALE 1 : 4,500,000 Kilometers 100 150 200 250 300 1 I I I I Tic i^^imi o c jj A JT 1 Kilometer= 0.621 Statute Miles Statute Miles >0 100 1, 1 I iBorf 1 Statute Mile = 1.609 Kilometers Bchon A- A Y U. Ci ^"nfnndcr Ma ize (,,"84-1 San Se, K '^ -^ Hcst Graveii H:.«t Lonijitudv M ^ Dover Q^ '^oft Boulo^neJ ''-'.t^.H'O^ -^"r-^'.> Antwerp' ^-xX^ ' o Briigi^s Ghen ^fe,aw/ ■ russels __^>^ ^he?tt, Flax, ftjg^l : Ctjlooree, Hops f-'"'"" iiira3<5 ToBacetr f'li IColognc i-5»»»S t OLouvain ] (] /* L.— jO Liege/ |Aix *

sCoblcn >.*2-^ Frankfurt E Cpa > Mannheim ^Y 3 Karisiuhe o Stuttgart llurg Horses f II IR VVhsart "7*i!:!,k/ Mi(n NursotI' 4^ - S \ *. ~ I Nllts VI n e V We , 4 S'.J;m-ff f-emti- ■ETW#, ffflflm-e, X »-^W . Burgundy ^,„^, liamj j//j- "Mi}lM.ur«" i r . Burgun (fH Hops ,,/| ^ ' 1 Wmes ,.,. . ,'^^ /**'\|J |tbcH?r*" ?5?}#H-aZurich ';-^ >!' 4 Jaisi ng ^" "1^^*- Xl"^ fvi^ 4f w Beme R D ^k!^ ' way rt&> f-3tf Lauss^hne^ > 1 ^" ^ ■AREWIi KtLeat CR W^%r ^ |r,^A^ -»j^„it4 Fruits r*; ,A„kF D3 rytng Cheese Jherrle^ »^^ iMMa'* ">^ I ^J&WT) ^ cup/ ^"^ik'- 1 1 ,j*^ht^f» jR ^ ana a, " ■'■ I wAiidi *, Mace 1 *-^^^ o? VAeykrds ..; JToul^jiseC! A B I. V ^^isSl -- -^^o" r Mulberry > -^ Cm»* ^ -(Mulberry Trees ^ H- '^ "^ t-^fc^-yg^g-'^^, ,w (D (Turin .Genoa 785 Ora*^' CttrMBt >? — -Flowery - OilVeS, AlmorufSg ^rlJ| i^"^* CiotnS, "^,, «■«„ ;atarseillei Guile dmLion wSS^^? 1^» Vegetables ;;.'l'll>"- JS Jl, ?. ',/ ■ .\rM>::|.'.. . /- » Olives, Fruits and Jrts i^fcf — ^^69''3< Ve 9 eta b 1 es /> J r 73 J.' J.- A "" ^' ^* ^ CORSICA Rcdfleld-KCfMlrfck-'pt/eTTjCn., Nfw Ynrk ,9\fej^ VI AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY FRANCE is distinctively a country of farms. Its total area is about 133,000,000 acres, of which 98,000,000 acres were returned in 1912 as under crops, fallow and grass, 59,000,000 acres being arable or plowing land. There were also about 25,000,000 acres under forests and 9,500,000 acres of moor and uncultivated land. In 1913 about 15,000,000 acres were under wheat, 10,000,000 under oats, and 3,800,000 under potatoes. In 1914, 16,000,000 acres were under wheat; 1915, 14,000,000; 1916, about the same area. By a law passed in July, 1916, the maximum price of wheat was set at Frs. 33 per quintal. This price was fixed for the duration of the war and for one year after demobilization. Measures are now being contemplated to increase the acreage devoted to the cultivation of wheat. The acreage under vines and the output for 1913-1915 was: Acres Gallons of Wine 1913—3,846,342 986,606,000 1914—3,811,555 1,316,849,000 1915—3,807,982 448,819,000 The total population in 1906 was 39,252,267; the working popula- tion in the same year was 20,720,879, of whom 7,693,412 were females. The occupational classification was as follows: Agriculture and forestry 8,777,053 Manufacturing industries 5,979,216 Commerce 2,002,681 Liberal professions 483,179 Domestic service, etc 1,012,232 Public service, including the army 1,220,154 Mines and quarries 281,027 Fisheries 78,000 These figures show the predominant importance of agriculture. 70 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE It is estimated that the total production of wealth is about 27,000,- 000,000 francs, of which about 12,000,000,000 are attributed to agriculture and 15,000,000,000 to industry. Real property is more split up in France than elsewhere due to the peculiar inheritance laws dating from the Code Napoleon. While it is estimated that there are 5,500,000 farms in France, the average farm area is only 22 acres. In many cases the small holdings of individual farmers are made up of disconnected plowing strips, sometimes a mile or two apart. This extreme division makes difficult the use of agricul- tural machinery. A law has been passed to consolidate disconnected holdings, and the unsatisfactory nature of the present condition is so generally recognized that consolidation is confidently anticipated. If this result is attained, the use of improved machinery on a much larger scale will be possible. Estimating that under existing conditions one-tenth of the total arable acreage could be plowed by tractors, each capable of plowing 250 acres, it would appear that 17,000 tractors would be needed. However, if the land holdings are consolidated, the average individual holding will still be small, and it will be necessary for groups of farmers to arrange for joint plowing if full advantage is to be taken of the change. To this end special facilities were granted by decrees of September, 191 5, permitting groups of seven or more persons to join in purchasing agri- cultural machinery or to have their ground jointly cultivated by special agricultural service companies. Even under present conditions American implements and machinery could be used to advantage, and it is estimated that about 85,000 farms could operate mechanical appliances with profit. Although small farms cannot always be as efficiently cultivated as large tracts, and although, as stated, the importance of connecting separate plowing strips belong- ing to a single owner is recognized, no change is contemplated in the system itself. The purpose is rather to increase the number of small land owners, as it is felt that this class under proper living conditions will be a very important element in the population. In order to promote and increase the arable area and to enable the rising generation to take up small holdings, a special law, known as the agricultural credit law, has been passed. The same motive underlies the societies formed for offering credit to prospective builders of small houses, i.e., wider extension of private ownership on a small scale. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE J I The war has had a far-reaching effect on the agricultural situation, both directly and indirectly. Many farmers have been killed in action, and many others have been incapacitated for hand labor on account of loss of limb or other mutilation; but of these many could operate agricultural machinery. Special prizes have been offered to stimulate the invention of appliances which will assist the mutilated in handling and serving tools and machines. Not only will labor-saving machinery become necessary, but in view of the loss of live stock, both horses and oxen, the importance of tractors becomes manifest. Before the war France exported live stock; she now needs to import, and this is likely to remain the case for some time after the war comes to an end. In 1915 the number of farm animals was reported as follows: Horses 2,227,000 Mules 152,000 Donkeys 332,000 Cattle 12,287,000 Sheep and lambs 13,483,000 Pigs 5,491,000 Goats 469,000 At the outbreak of the war the number of cattle was about 14,575,000 and the number of pigs 7,000,000. According to the statement of M. Ringelmann, who has been the head of the experimental department of farm machinery for twenty years, about 17,200 tractors, 125,000 plows, 10,000 thrashers, and a large number of harrows, cultivators, and other implements will be needed immediately upon the conclusion of the war, and more later. Under normal conditions France is capable of supplying a large part of her own agricultural- implements and machinery, but under war conditions every effort is directed to turning out war supplies, and for some time after the war much will have to be imported. Notwithstanding the scarcity of agricultural machinery and im- proved implements of the latest models, agricultural productivity is very high. Cultivation is intensive, every fertile spot being used. On the larger farms in the North the dwellings and out-houses are said to be well connected and often quite modern in arrangement. In the district where the smaller farms are found, however, the farmers lixe in small villages. 72 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE This promotes social activity, but the Hving conditions are frequently unfavorable, and the arrangements of the buildings, because of the close proximity of the live stock, manure heaps, etc., are unsanitary. In the farming communities the houses are built in rows. Each lot is from 20 to 30 feet wide and from 60 to 150 feet deep; each house, two rooms deep, is built on the street line with a wagon drive through one side of the house to a barnyard directly behind it. The stable is usually a part of the house. In the rear of the barnyard is a one- story or a story-and-a-half farm building, usually erected crosswise and thirty feet behind the rear wall of the dwelling house. These rural communities are without facilities for sewage disposal, and the close proximity of the barns to the houses is not conducive to good health. The houses are usually without cellars, and their un- furred exterior walls are often damp. The windows are small and few in number on account of the window and door tax. There appears to be a deplorable lack of bathing facilities both private and communal. Since 1908, a law for the encouragement of small holdings through cheap housing societies has been in effect. These societies operate under state supervision and support. Their service is limited, how- ever, for individual loans on secured property, including all charges, must not exceed 1200 francs. They generally do not receive the gov- ernment advances directly but through special real estate credit societies, which make the necessary guarantees to the state. The state makes advances to these real estate credit societies at 2 per cent; the loans are made by them to the cheap housing societies at about 3 per cent, and to private individuals at about 33/2 per cent. The annual dividends of the real estate credit societies are limited to 4 per cent . In those farming regions which have been devastated, reconstruc- tion work will be carried out on modern lines, and it is confidently expected that the example will ha^•e a far-reaching effect on the other rural communities. In spite of the small scale on which farming operations are conducted, the social, financial, and agricultural problems are similar to those in America. The establishment of rural credits was provided for by a law of 1910, which has had a good effect, although it has not been as far-reaching as similar measures in Germany and Italy. Under this law, rural banks have been established, and it is hoped that in THE AMERICAN IXDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 73 time there will be one in each rural community. Upon complying with certain state regulations these banks may make loans to agriculturists in their communities to a maximum of 8000 francs for a maximum period of fifteen years to enable them to purchase land so as to bring about the re-arrangement and consolidation of disconnected holdings and to in- crease the number of small land holders. The state makes the grants without interest through intermediate regional rural credit societies, which make advances at the rate of 3 per cent to the rural banks, which in turn make individual loans at about 4 per cent. All such advances must be secured by a mortgage and by a life insurance policy. Rural social societies have been established to provide means of intellectual diversion and to promote a community spirit, and also to disseminate information as to proper living, care of infants, etc. Much remains to be done, however, in the way of providing adequate medical care, nursing service, and rural hospital centres where medical and surgical treatment may be obtained. Local departmental institutions advise the farmers as to the proper kinds of fertilizer and other matters. The railroads also are active in promoting the development of rural communities, through free lec- tures, demonstrations of new agricultural methods and by furnish- ing seed and fruit tree seedlings without charge or at nominal cost. Since the beginning of the war, the farms have been cultivated chiefly by women and by men below or above the military age, some- times with the assistance of soldiers. The military authorities have frequently permitted the use of army horses in agricultural operations, and farms are being cultivated close to the line of battle, the work being done quite often in fields exposed to shell fire ; and in some cases it has been necessary to take action to prevent the reckless exposure of the workers who insisted that it was necessary to plant their crops and to harvest them, regardless of the danger. The crops have fallen short this year from 20 to 25 per cent because of the lack of labor, but principally on account of the lack of nitrates, German potash, etc. Nitrates have been diverted to military purposes, but larger quantities are now available for agricultural use, for the French hold with Napoleon that "soldiers fight upon their bellies," and nitrates are essential in the production of foodstuffs. Potash is found in Tunis in workable quantities, and superphosphates are being 74 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE made from slag. The by-products of sulphuric and nitric acid have been made suitable for use as germicides. Under normal conditions the French obtained a large part of their sugar from Germany. In 1913 there were 577,000 acres in the northern provinces devoted to the cultivation of sugar beets, the annual output being about 700,000 tons. France is a great fruit growing country. The grape and fruit crops are important factors in the agricultural returns, not only as food but also in connection with the production of potable alcohol. The territory now occupied by the invading forces includes some of the most fertile agricultural sections of France, notably those in which sugar beets are raised, and in which are located some of the most important distilleries of industrial alcohol. Some of the sections in which the largest farms are operated are now in German control. Many of the forests have been destroyed, both directly by shell fire and indirectly through the use of lumber by the armies, in the trenches. There is a great demand for imported lumber which will continue for a long time. The necessity for importing lumber, agricultural machinery of all kinds, live stock, and other agricultural supplies naturally leads to the important question of payment for these necessities. If the United States is to get a large measure of this business, it will be nec- essary to provide credit. Credit can be given with more safety in France than in most other countries. Failure to pay a debt is deemed a disgrace, which the whole family will try to prevent. Failures are rare. The responsibility of the rural credit associations is amply pro- vided for by law. We were reminded that our agricultural machinery sometimes is sold in this country on three payments; one after the first, one after the second, and one after the third season, and that while it may become necessary to grant the same concession on ship- ments made to France, the security can be considered at least as good. VII LABOR IN FRANCE as in all the other countries at war the labor question is of paramount importance. It should be borne in mind, that, even in times of peace neither Germany nor France was entirely self-sufficient in the matter of labor. Agricultural laborers from Russian Poland were brought into Germany under special contracts which provided that upon the completion of their work they should be returned home. In France, considerable Belgian labor was drawn upon for agricultural work, and Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese were employed on harbor and railroad construction work, etc. In some of the maritime cities there were large labor colonies of Italians; in Marseilles the Italian population numbered 100,000. Upon the entrance of Italy into the war Italian laborers had to return home and ceased to be available. The calling to the colors of all able-bodied men between 18 and 47 resulted in a shortage of both agricultural and industrial labor. In those plants that were requisitioned for war purposes, such as munition plants and manufactories of military clothing and other supplies, labor was mobilized under military control. Later, arrange- ments were made for the transfer of skilled workmen who had al- ready gone to the front and to certain industries the product of which was urgently needed. In all industries many women were recruited to take the places of the absent men. In some plants from 30 to 50 per cent of the employees are women. In all factories which have re- sumed operations, women are becoming an important factor in increas- ing measure as the nation adjusts itself to the idea of a prolonged war. We had occasion to observe many of these women at work. They appeared intelligent, cheerful, and well. In the steel plants and machine shops we saw splendid specimens of physical vigor and com- petence, — living refutations of the charge of national degeneration, brilliantly refuted in so many other directions as well. Unskilled labor, both for agricultural and industrial work, has been also obtained from the French colonies. Some of the natives of 76 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE North Africa are particularly suitable for agricultural work; and in the industrial plants natives of Indo- China — ^Tonquin and Annam — are being employed as assistants with satisfactory I'esults. The average working day for adult male labor is ten and one-half working hours; usually from 6 or 7 in the morning to 6 or 7 in the evening, with one to one and a half hours at noon and short rest periods in the afternoon. Some of the industries which before the war had a working day of 8 hours, have increased the hours to 9 or 10 as a war measure. Several measures are now before the chamber to establish a ten-hour day for adult labor, and the "English week" (a Saturday afternoon rest for adult workers), but it seems unlikely that this will be done while the war lasts. In plants operating con- tinuously on Government war work the usual arrangement is for two shifts, — day and night. It has been found, however, that this is not a good arrangement for women ; and in some cases even the men produce better results with three shifts of 8 hours each, with an allowance of one-half to three-quarters of an hour for refreshments at the end of each four-hour period. It seems established that women working on a two-shift basis are not as efficient after five or six months as when on a three-shift basis. In some instances the day and night shifts are alternated from week to week; to some extent this is dependent upon the choice of the employees. The general opinion was that the work of the night shift was almost as good as that of the day shift, with a decline of productivity, however, between 2 and 4 in the morning. The so-called repos hebdomadaire, that is, one day of rest in seven — not necessarily Sunday — is still generally observed throughout France in spite of war conditions. In some instances one day is given in eight; and in others one day in ever}- two weeks, sometimes with the first Sunday afternoon off. It is likely that after the Avar one day's rest in seven will become obligatory. Vacations do not seem to be given, and because of the shortage of workers, there has been no en- forced idleness. The natural result of the shortage of labor has been a steady rise in the wage scale, which is still proceeding in all parts of the country, not in a uniform way, but in conformity to the rising cost of living, which \'aries materially in different sections. The cost of living averages one-third to one-half higher than at the beginning of the war, and it is still rising. Certain commodities have advanced as much as THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 11 These women are representative of industrial France to-day 50 and 100 per cent. Generally speaking, the cost of labor has ad- vanced from 30 to 70 per cent; highly skilled work in some instances as much as 100 and 150 per cent. Definite figures indicating the present wage scale in the various industries have not been published. An average for ordinary labor was difficult to obtain. Apparently, women doing work in factories that involves no prolonged training receive from 3.5 fr. to 6 fr. per day, and men of the same class from 5 fr. to 9 fr. per day. Agricultural labor cost is even more difficult to determine on account of the com- plicating factors of free board and lodging; but skilled agricultural labor, such as vine- trimming, cheese-making, etc., is as high as 4 fr. and 5 fr. per day. An inquiry is now being made by so-called "de- partmental salary commissions" into the prevailing rates of wages in agricultural districts, in connection with the law of July 15, 1914, regulating damages to be given workmen for injuries. It is likely that this will have a tendency to establish minimum rates of wages for such labor as unfavorable conditions are revealed. In army work the Government prescribes the wage scale. As in many plants Govern- ment work goes on side by side with the usual operations it frequently happens that there are two sets of wages, one applying to those working 78 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE for the Government and another for those working in the usual way. There is no evidence of any unfavorable result. There is no indication of a decrease in the present wage scale after the war. It is believed that wages will remain substantially at whatever point they may have reached at the conclusion of the war. It remains to be seen at that time to what extent women will remain in the industries. Even before the war women were employed to a greater extent in French industries than in German industries, and it is likely that a large proportion of women will remain in the factories, and that they will be unwilling to give up their new standards of living. Reports of female labor in France are uniformly favorable, in fact, remarkably so. Women are serving generally as motormen as well as conductors on street cars and also on taxicabs. They are also running the carrier motor trucks in factories. French women have shown extraordinary adaptability, and have proven themselves quick learners. In certain forms of work demanding special skill and deftness of manipulation they are even more efficient than men, and command the same rate of pay. "Departmental commissions" charged with the survey of labor conditions since the war, have recommended that wherever female labor is used, the principle should be applied that for the same labor return women should be paid the same wages as men. It has been found that women require less supervision than men, but they do not willingly submit to supervision by women. Much of the munition work is done by the piece, male and female labor being paid on the same basis. In other forms of labor the return is 75 per cent of that of the men, especially where the work is of an exhausting character. Under the stress of urgent necessity it has been found possible to employ women even in the hea\y work of steel plants. We saw women handling shells as they came white hot from the furnace. Women run large machines, such as lathes, etc., which it had been assumed could only be handled by trained mechanics. The great increase of female labor in French factories, especially in munition plants, has led the labor inspectors to exercise greater care in regard to the arrangement of the factories. Many improve- ments have been introduced, which have been of benefit to the workers generally. Special washrooms have been installed; special arrange- ments have been made for the preparation of hot food; dining-rooms and rest rooms have been provided, particularly for those who work at THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 79 The present condition of the famous sugar factory of Dompierre, which after rebuilding will need the latest labor-saving machinery. night, as well as workshop bonnets to prevent the catching of the hair. Arrangements have been made in some factories to obviate the nec- essity of women lifting heavy articles, to prevent that muscular fatigue, so much more injurious to women than to men. In some plants women are allowed to leave their children in the care of trained nurses in creches near the factories. The debt that the French nation owes its women for devoted labor during the war is freely and gratefully acknowledged. In large sections of France the agricultural work is done by women, and men under or over military age. In many instances the women have been entirely dependent on themselves and obliged not only to work on the farms, but also to become familiar with managerial problems. In some in- stances help is received from the military authorities, who supply men and teams, but often no outside assistance is obtainable. It is not anticipated that any difficulty will arise on the return of male workers, since, as a natural result of the war, the available supply of such labor will have been greatly reduced, and the amount of work to be done will be greatly increased. It is hoped, however, that many women will return to the home and marry; and it is anticipated that there Avill be a decided increase in the birth rate. The state will do 80 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE everything possible to encourage such an increase. Various laws are in contemplation to provide for special contributions and special exemptions to large families. A law for assisting large families went into effect March i, 1914. The release of women labor may be facilitated also by employing foreign and colonial labor, which it is hoped will be available again after the war so that French labor may be employed in such industrial and agricultural work as requires skill. For some years prior to the war it was becoming increasingly difficult to obtain apprentices for training in skilled operations. This difficulty has been intensified by the fact that ordinary labor is now being paid higher wages than the apprentices can obtain while learning their trade, so that fewer apprentices are offering themselves. Before the war the average apprentice received from 2 fr. to 4 fr. per day; he now gets 3 fr. to 5 fr., but this advance has not been sufficient to increase the number. It seems unlikely that this condition can be improved during the war. The securing of apprentices for important industrial operations after the war, is one of the urgent problems needing solution, as an insufficient number of apprentices will have a serious effect on the industrial future of France. As a result of the peculiar conditions obtaining in certain lines, labor sometimes remains efficient to a very advanced age. This is notably so in the lace and similar industries so largely carried on in the homes; and also in the tapestry plants of Aubusson, where all ages can be seen at work, — old women of seventy spinning in the same plant where young girls weave the tapestries. Continued service in one institution is encouraged, and the Govern- ment awards so-called labor medals to whomever has worked for thirty years or more consecutively in the same plant, the medal in- dicating recognition by the Government of industrial work faithfully and well done. We witnessed this interesting ceremony in a candy factory in Grenoble. Labor unions, or syndicats des ouvriers (as distinguished from syndicats patronaux, or employers' associations) are very numerous and cover all lines of work, even agricultural work. They are influential in many ways, and serve many purposes, including mutual aid in case of illness or death, and the granting of pensions. In a number of plants visited there was little evidence of unions, chiefly because con- THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 8 1 editions were such that there is no occasion for their activity. This is true of some of the largest plants in France, where the relations be- tween employers and employed have been of the friendliest character from the outset. In the chapter on Syndicates and Cooperative Societies are given data on syndicates of all kinds, including cooperative societies, both of production and of distribution. The general testimony is that all labor, both male and female, has shown itself remarkably effective under war conditions. It is evident that the moral atmosphere pervading France during this heroic struggle, which makes all not at the front anxious to support those on the fighting line, has had a great influence on the working capacity of the nation. These people are not working for wages, — they are working for the security of France. This spirit has a most marked influence on the output, and explains the almost complete absence of strikes or other labor difficulties. In order to maintain the present high efficiency after the war, some form of profit participation or bonus system may be adopted. The condition of home workers has been the subject of careful study by various "departmental commissions" and the Government. A survey has been made of the conditions under which house industry is prosecuted, and it has been found that the sanitary and working conditions are most unfavorable and that the standard of compensation is distressingly low. Investigations have also been made in the lace and various other industries, and the conditions revealed have in many instances resulted in an improvement of wages and working ■ conditions. A general survey covering all labor is in contemplation. Meanwhile, what has been revealed regarding female home workers, especially in the clothing industry, has led to the passing of a law, without a dissenting vote (May 20, 1915), providing for a regulation of the wages and working conditions of this particular class of home workers. This law provides for (i) A minimum wage for time, either by the hour or by the day of ten hours; (2) A minimum wage by the piece, if articles are turned out in quantities, and are only paid for in that way. These minimum wages are established for working people of average ability. It is expressly provided that they have in view the ordinary worker, turning out the usual quantity of work, without special talent which would entitle him to superior pay. The same conditions apply to the minimum piece work prices to be fixed. 82 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Under this act, "departmental salary commissions" composed of workmen, work-women, employers^ and Government officials were established in all the districts involved. The pay of the worker of average efficiency in industrial plants doing the same or similar work was first determined, and upon this basis were recommended the minimum wages to be paid to the home industry workers, ten hours being considered as the average working capacity. The proposed wages will be subject to review by a central commission under the minister of labor. The minimum wage scales will be published, so that they will be accessible to all, and this publicity, it is expected, will result in the readjustment of the salaries of underpaid workers in many other lines. The law will be applied with great circumspection, but it is expected that the final results will be very beneficial. As far as could be ascertained, for lace workers the minimum wage established was 2.5 fr. per day; underwear workers, 2 fr. per day, and cutters of men's and women's clothing, 2.5 fr. per day. It seems likely that similar laws will be made to apply to home workers in all lines of work, male and female as well as children. It was found that some women were earning considerably less than 200 fr. a year in spite of long working days, and that only a small number earned between 400 fr. and 600 fr. a year. Child labor has always been a factor in France. Work begins at an age which, according to our best practice, appears too low. Com- paratively little seems to have been done to keep minors out of in- dustries for which they are not fitted. Many believe that the future of France demands a very serious study not only of this problem, but also of the related problem of ascertaining in what kinds of work women can be most efficiently employed without physical harm to themselves or the next generation. In many plants boys are paid more than girls doing the same work because they come to the plants as apprentices, whereas many of the girls remain only from twelve to eighteen months. We were impressed by the number of cases where girls were working in munitions factories with their mothers, the mothers instructing the daughters and keeping in touch with them during the day. The results were very satisfactory. Children generally work the same hours as adults. In some instances they are under medical supervision, and if they show signs of fatigue, the number of hours per day may be reduced from io>^ to 8 or even 6. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 83 Children enter some industries at 12 years of age, and until they become 18 years old they are protected by a number of laws regulating wages, sanitary conditions, and hours of labor and of rest, etc. Thus, children are not allowed to work on Sundays or holi- days, nor are they permitted to work at night — from 8 o'clock in the evening until 6 in the morning. The employment of children is for- bidden in atmospheres containing dust of any kind, chemical fumes, harmful gases, etc. Protective measures applying to industrial labor in general have not reached the same development that they have attained in the most advanced American states. Many plants visited were constructed according to the best practice regarding light, ventilation, fire pre- vention, exits, etc. However, artificial lighting generally is not sufifi- cient to insure the highest efficiency on the part of the workers. Safety devices and special machinery for the elimination of dust in all forms and of deleterious vapors, excessive humidity, etc., are neither as effective nor as generally in use as in our country. These remarks are based upon the comparison with best American standards, admitting that many of our own industrial plants are deficient in these and other respects. According to our best practice, many of the French regulations affecting the employment of young people in factories should be extended to labor in general, without age limit, the adverse conditions being hardly less unfavorable to adults than to minors. Increasing attention is being paid to the personal well- being and happiness of the workers, now recognized as great factors in production, both as to quality and quantity. The scarcity of labor for industrial purposes and the necessity of keeping up agriculture have called the attention of French men of affairs to the importance of adopting American methods of work and scientific management. They are studying the most economical way of employing labor on the principles laid down by Taylor and de- veloped by Gantt and others. Agricultural laborers and small peasant proprietors form a great proportion of the total working population of France, which is largely an agricultural country. The same considerations which have made the study of scientific management and standard methods of work necessary in industrial plants are now bringing about the study of all forms of agricultural labor and questions relating thereto. 84 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE It is clear from discussions that are taking place in the French chamber of deputies, and from publications by competent authorities on the subject, that France thoroughly realizes the need of great improvement in the housing, sanitary arrangements, and social life in practically all classes of the agricultural population. It is evidently intended that in reconstructing the devastated regions, a demonstration shall be made of what agricultural houses and villages should be, by making proper provision for light and air, sanitation, bathing facilities, playgrounds for the children, recreation and educational centers for adults, and social centers for the women of the farms. The same considerations will surely influence the reconstruction of the small and large industrial centers and cities in the devastated regions. All thinking Frenchmen are coming to realize that if France is to hold her own in the world market, it is necessary to provide not only for a phy- sically well developed race, but for a large increase in the number of the population through a higher birth rate, a reduction in infant and child mortality, a prolongation of the effective period of life, both in men and women, and a deferred and reduced death rate. This realization is likely to show its effect in a general effort to supply the people with a far greater measure of physical recreation and sports than would have been thought possible before the war. French army officers take a real and friendly interest in their men, and they are greatly con- cerned in all these questions. The soldiers who have enjoyed the favorable effects of several years of an active, open-air life will not willingly return to complete physical inactivity and indoor confinement ; they will not willingly live in dwellings in which the number of windows has been reduced to a minimum, as the inevitable consequence of that pernicious survival, a door and window tax. It is confidently expected that after the war there will be a tendency in large cities, such as Paris, for the population to seek less congested areas and to move out into the suburbs for the greater advantages of life in the open air. To facilitate this movement, means of more rapid transit to suburban regions are already being planned. All of these subjects are of vital importance in connection with the labor question in general, and the interest manifested on all sides indicates a realization of what remains to be done. VIII SYNDICATES AND COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN ALL walks of life men associate themselves in France for every sort of purpose. This practice has been productive of the most important results, and we give below some illustrations of the scope of these associations, the character of the operations, the num- ber of their participants, etc., as an indication of the many forms of activity which differ materially from our own. What are known in the United States as trade associations are called syndicats patronaux or chambres syndicales in France; and labor unions are called syndicats ouvriers (workmen's syndicates). According to a law passed on March 31, 1884, syndicates may be combined in great unions. In some cases these unions are composed of syndicates of different trades, in others they coordinate the activities of the syndicates of one region. Some unions act as central directing bodies for syndicates dispersed throughout France. Most of the national unions have their headquarters in Paris. Syndicates and unions operate under regulations provided by various general laws enacted since 1864, which cover not only employers' and workmen's associations for safeguarding trade and trade union interests, but associations for all kinds of purposes; for production or distribution, for mutual aid, etc. In 1912 these regulations were extended to include associations in the liberal professions. The syndical movement has developed rapidly. In 1913 there were 16,510 syndicates with 2,475,077 participants. In 1914 there were 16,713 syndicates with 2,510,283 participants. The employers' syndicates, like the similar organizations in the United States, are concerned chiefly with the furtherance of the interest of their respective industries or trades as a whole, and are remarkably well organized for obtaining trade information and statistics concerning their particular products. Through permanent secretaries and expert officers they act in conjunction with related interests to secure more 86 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE A great deal of machinery will be needed to re-equip this destroyed textile factory favorable insurance and freight rates, reliable credit reports, etc. Most of them support professional schools, lecture courses, laboratories, etc., issue prizes for special work affecting the trade involved, collect libraries of technical works, and frequently undertake social wel- fare work in behalf of their members and the workmen in their plants. Bulletins are issued monthly and annually, and they are of the greatest interest as throwing light on the development of the respective trades. According to the report on industrial and commercial syndicates there were in 1914, 4967 syndicates of employers with 403,143 members, 10,000 of whom were women. These syndicates operate the following subsidiary institutions: THR AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 87 Mutual aid associations 84 Unemployment associations 15 Professional schools and courses 176 Laboratories for experimentation 82 Associations for operations 23 Mutual credit associations 23 Accident associations 40 Cooperative societies of consumers 16 Cooperative societies of production 21 Professional competition and expositions 3 Experimental grounds 21 Associations for publication of different kinds of bulletins, annuals, etc 434 Employment bureaus 357 Assistance for travel 19 1314 In 1914 there were 177 unions of such employers' associations, covering 4092 syndicates with 290,218 members. These unions had established the following institutions: Offices for securing work 6 Professional 17 Mutual aid associations 7 Unemployment associations 2 Professional schools 7 Laboratories of analysis or experimentation 5 Associations of operations 5 Associations for divers publications, bulletins, journals, etc 67 116 The first union of employers' syndicates was the National Union of Commerce and Industry, which was organized in Paris in 1857, chiefly for protecting trade marks, patents, etc., and for jointly prose- cuting infringers. This union has grown steadily in importance. There is also a committee of syndical chambers, and many similar organizations. 88 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Big problem in France will be to get the wheels of industry humming again. There are thousands of plants to be rebuilt and equipped with modern machinery One of the most important unions is the great Union of Metallurgical and Mining Industries and Affiliated Industries. This includes the Committee of the Steel Industry of France, the Central Committee of the Coal Mines of France, the Syndical Chambers of the Constructors of Naval Machinery, and the Syndical Chambers of Manufacturers and Constructors of Material for the Railroads and Tramways. The great importance of the interests represented will be readily realized. The organization is elaborate, and its joint action affecting any question connected with any of the interests involved has great influence. Prob- ably no better reports are published than those of this union. Its library is very complete, and the tabulated information issued from year to year as to the state of the industries involved and correlated industries, both in France and abroad, is exhaustive. There are similar, if less powerful, organizations in the building trades, the alimentary and textile industries, etc. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 89 While employers' syndicates were the first in their origin, the de- velopment of workmen's syndicates has been very rapid, and their influence has become a political factor of great importance that at all times commands attention. It is interesting to note that their activities conform in great measure to those of employers' syndicates, although they are concerned primarily with the interests of laboring men. In 1914 there were 4846 workmen's syndicates with 1,026,303 members, 89,354 of whom were women. They operated the following institutions: Mutual aid associations 863 Unemployment associations 633 Professional schools and courses 386 Laboratories for experimentation 4 Associations for operations 76 Mutual credit associations 45 Accident associations 2 Cooperative societies of consumers 88 Cooperative societies of production 25 Professional competition and expositions 35 Associations for publication of bulletins, etc 149 Experimental bureaus 1490 Assistance for travel 557 4353 In 1914 there were 201 unions of such workmen's syndicates, com- posed of 4380 syndicates with 839,331 members. These unions have established the following institutions: Employment offices 140 Professional 296 Mutual aid associations 28 Unemployment associations 35 Associations for travel assistance 141 Professional schools 61 Laboratories of analysis or experimentation 2 Associations for divers publications, bulletins, journals, etc 75 778 90 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE In January, 1914, there were 143 workmen's exchanges, covering 2179 syndicates with 485,404 members. As was to have been expected, sharp opposition developed between the interests furthered by the employers' syndicates and those repre- sented by the workmen's associations. It was early felt that much might be gained by bringing these two opposing interests together for the purpose of jointly studying means for meeting the necessities of each while rendering due justice to both. This led to the formation of mixed syndicates to coordinate as far as possible all activities that might otherwise remain in violent opposition. In 1914 there were 233 mixed syndicates with 51,111 members, 1 1 84 of whom were women. As will be seen from these figures, the mixed syndicates have a small membership; but the movement toward joint action has not been without success, and it is gradually gaining momentum. These syndicates have organized and operate jointly various institutions, similar to those already mentioned, as shown below: Mutual aid associations 55 Unemployment associations 6 Professional schools and courses i"! Laboratories for experimentation 27 Associations for operations 27 Mutual credit associations 9 Accident associations 2 Cooperative societies of consumers 10 Cooperative societies of production 10 Professional competition and expositions 10 Experimental grounds 4 Associations for publication of different kinds of bulletins, annuals, etc 25 Employment bureaus 46 Assistance for travel 3 261 There were in 1 914 only 9 unions of such mixed syndicates, com- posed of 67 syndicates with 9566 members. These unions maintained the following institutions: THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE QI Employment bureaus 2 Professional 6 Mutual aid associations 4 Unemployment associations 4 16 In 1914 there were 6667 agricultural syndicates, with a member- ship of 1,029,727, of which 19,488 are women. There were over 98 unions of agricultural syndicates composed of 7501 syndicates, with a total membership of 1,180,737. In the department of the Seine is the most important national union of agriculturists known, as the Central Union of the Syndicated Agriculturists of France, which includes 2650 syndicates with a membership of 600,000. The importance of agricultural syndicates cannot be exaggerated. They affect every phase of agricultural life, and it is anticipated that after the war their scope will be further broadened, in order to secure for the small landowners of France those benefits of cheap operation through agricultural machinery, etc., which heretofore have been confined to the large farms, especially in the northern regions of France. The present large membership of these agricultural syndicates is likely to be further increased, in view of the great number of the small landholding class, the importance that is attached to the increase of this class, the necessity of improving general living conditions and consequently of improving methods of production and distribution. Since the outbreak of the war a study has been made of the American growers' associations for the joint packing and sale of fruits, especially in California, and it is likely that the methods of standardization and packing employed there will be introduced in France. The agricultural syndicates will be largely occupied with coordinating the efforts of the small farmers. It is also likely that they will be the medium through which a much more careful study will be made than heretofore of the soil conditions and fertilizer needs in different sections. They contemplate the publishing of communal maps showing through colors the sort of fertilizer required for the particular sort of agricultural product that is to be grown. This may lead ultimately to a general agricultural soil survey. All such movements find a ready medium of action in the syndical organizations. 92 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE In 1914 there were 15 popular banks. A particularly interesting development in France affecting pro- duction and distribution, the providing of credit, the building of cheap houses, etc., is found in the cooperative societies. This form of asso- ciation is not uncommon in Europe, but has been carried very far and with very great success in France. The statistics given below are quoted from Government publications and cover only societies that are registered and supply the Government with regular reports cover- ing their operations. Only cooperative societies which wish to obtain Government support in the form of advances at low rates of interest are required to make such reports. There are, therefore, many co- operative societies for which statistics are not available, and the figures given do not show the volume of business. Cooperative societies have achieved such a development in recent years that a federation has been formed, known as The National Federation of Co-Operative So- cieties, for the study and promotion of their interests. According to the reports of the prefects, in January, 1914, there were 450 cooperative manufacturing societies in the different departments, which covered various lines of work in agriculture, mining, foodstuffs, chemical industries, transportation, etc. Of these workmen's associa- tions for production, 419 published statements, indicating a member- ship of 18,284, with a total output of 73,570,500 francs. On January i, 1914, there were 3156 cooperative societies of con- sumption which were also societies of production. Of these, 2988 gave complete statements of their affairs, showing a membership of 876,179 and a total business of 315,212,000 francs. There were 1299 coopera- tive bakeries which supplied bread; 1212 gave their membership as 273,681 and their total business as 65,210,500 francs. Cooperative credit societies can discount, make advances, etc., and in so far as their operations conform with certain Government regula- tions, they are entitled to Government advances at the rate of 2 per cent. In 1912 there were 21,240 mutual aid societies which reported their affairs to the Government. Of these, 19,579 were recognized as insti- tutions of public utility, and were granted subventions accordingly, and 2641 were so-called "free societies," which were conducted without Government aid. These societies had 552,844 honorary members and 4>565,07i regular members, a total membership of 5,117,915. Their THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 93 receipts, covering admission fees, membership fees, fees and contribu- tions of honorary members, gifts, interest. Government subventions (amounting to 12,156,000 francs), totaled 94,590,000 francs. Their dis- bursements were 68,256,977 francs, for sickness, funerals, aid to widows and orphans, pensions for the aged, and operating expenses. The chief activity of these societies has been that of protection against disease. The total number of applicants for help under insur- ance policies in 1912 was 1,823,310. Aid was granted to 25,316 widows and orphans and to 88,528 old men. In 1912 there were 47,681 pen- sioners, who received pensions at the rate of 108 francs per year. The average annual rates were as follows: For Sickness Sickness Insurance Old Age Insurance and Pensions Insurance Francs Francs Francs Men 9.97 15.69 15.95 Women 7.47 12.42 10.40 Children 4.26 5.65 4.04 Peasants living in temporary shelter and refusing to leave the site of their former home r' Mar. 27, 1921 To the West Indies 1 and Central > Mar. 31, 1927 America. J Between Le Havre 1 „ and New York Dec. 31, i937 The final result of all these measures, however, does not appear to have been entirely satisfactory. Since the outbreak of the war, and especially since the beginning of this year, the necessity of building up the French mercantile marine has again imposed itself. The most recent proposal is the one now before the chamber of deputies (introduced January 4, 1916), which provides for Government loans to ship-building enterprises to aggre- gate one hundred million francs, this expenditure to be made during the war and to continue for twelve months after the signing of peace. The aim is to promote private initiative in the building of ships and to induce ship owners to buy ships wherever they can be obtained. France naturally has been greatly interested in all developments calculated to further the rehabilitation or rather the creation of an American mercantile marine. We frequently heard the hope expressed that our merchant ships might become available for Franco-American trade before the end of the war, which the French seem to feel is still a long way off. As is well known, the coal situation is such that France would willingly purchase coal from the United States if the io6 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE transportation costs would permit, and it is felt that America will be in a very much better position than France to provide reasonable transportation for some time to come. ARRIVAL OF SHIPPING IN FRENCH PORTS Loaded Gross Loaded Ves- Gross French Tons sels All Other Tons Vessels Regis. Nationalities Regis. I913 8,167 8,308,165 21,751 26,200,791 1914 6,886 7,277,362 17,062 20,319,964 1915 6,626 6,206,807 20,529 17,729,341 ARRIVAL AND CLEARANCE OF LOADED VESSELS IN THE PRINCIPAL PORTS OF FRANCE Marseilles . . . Bordeaux. . . Rouen Le Havre. . . . St. Nazaire . La Rochelle. Cette Nantes Dunkirk. . . . Cherbourg. . No. of No. of Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage 7,014 13,323,794 5,946 10,255,864 2,272 2,813,082 2,443 3,487,511 2,700 2,285,702 4,078 3,298,534 3,124 5,055,326 2,859 3,239,042 570 854,932 934 1,727,522 586 1,196,515 979 1,616,534 1,124 964,760 1,513 1,290,286 880 747,319 1,360 1,173,569 1,545 2,001,419 1,129 617,036 1,264 5,730,612 611 209,893 :■:'■ HI );* II ' > 1 LijTKjilude ^ f..«fc„ " /rom NOllTM SEA f\<,s\J^^Jlj^] '»'c. BouloKneJ "^ Bruges Ghen " -^ "tussels ■■/>hoi,landI! I •■>.y>. ^Antwerp ^ 1-, ICologne i^ubaix J\ Li6ge^'~|AixWchapelle\ 1 \ ^^jk: . --•itiri ...-iif Frankfurt r'Ar'd e n nes^]^ p Mannheim /itc.M'nufiould .r^'Tl /'m«:" 2^. ff \ mtati'uSilun / ^ „„tar(7g RE' o Stuttgart Ba a. r/^ cAColmnr , Vi'Ad'OI -^>«tej5aSx<»klf, \DlB I N ..Art,,; /.ton y\K .■.,?l i.../-'-7^r-*-'.j S/?-OI|KteT-LateE -llil t-E^^ Efv ,u.f'W' iim:^'}'': „'^:-:tt- r h-~- '- 3 ;> \ !;!»., l';^. uL/OI/AI^ id /!'/;(>• I T T THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE A N Brighl 1. of Wijfht SEPTEMBER- OCTOBER, 1916 ScflJy Is'" En MAP OF FRANCE SHOWING NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS LEGEND Navigable Rivers Canals Projected Canals SCALE 1 : 4,500,000 Kilometers ;o 100 150 200 J U I I = 250 300 —I I 1 Kilometer=:0.621 Statute Miles Statute Miles 1 Statute Mile=1.609 Kilometers \ Charcnton COOm 1 O C J '4 i iT PORT OF BONNEUIL 4liin Bonneuil Chennevieres Ormesson Scule of Kilomdturu ,) I' »Vs< from Dover r^ """t.. ^.hent ICologne M..i,ir,.u|n^^AS-DE CANAL DUJIORD LicgaW (Aix-[la)-ChapclIgk ADOS SEII^E-INFERre, PROJECTED] : CANAL A DKNORDhitf , X Frankfurt •J . .o-«-» ySambre-Oi_^e' '^'tfb ,«.•:■ lAIXEMLillRi ^M A N Mannheim c^EURE v;^ C*/, lobra/63 ^ -/V^ .' o Karlsruhe " Stuttgart ti-aisliur^ 1'..%. ■■-I \\,,;Auxtrr( Cm7al ^ Niuenuiis Cancil "Oanal t; AVil.as"i: I '/ \ .vSTbount .s<-^ /projected '""'-' ''Warseille-rh6ne\ CANAL .,!lI:.Lrt;. PeJiit.id-KenrJncfc -'OdTmCo.. Mew Yo THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE III The traffic is carried in large barges, which are towed by steamers and tugboats having ample engine power to move several barges against the current. The map showing Navigable Waterways, opposite page io8, suggests some of these plans. We understand that further plans for the improvement of the Seine are in process, providing for deepening the channel to 47 feet, and it appears certain that efforts to increase the capacity and economy of operation of this splendid water route will not cease so long as Paris and the territory tributary to it continue to grow. Through the Oise which flows into the Seine about 39 miles below Paris, and its system of canals, water communication is maintained with Northern France and Belgium; and through the Marne, which flows into the Seine above Paris, and the Marne and Rhine canal, another important French industrial region is served, and connection made with the Rhine and the German system of canals at Strassbourg. Through the canal of the Marne and Saone, there is communication with the northern canal system; and through the Rhone, with Lyons and the Mediterranean. Bordeaux is the great southern Atlantic port of France, and the im- portance of its position is indicated by the railroad and navigation maps. Like Rouen it is distant from the sea, being located on the Gironde about 60 miles from its mouth. It is a most important junc- tion point for sea, river, and railroad transportation; and its growth appears likely to be limited only by the extent of the natural resources of Southwestern France and the possibilities of their development. It is the main junction point for the Orleans and the Midi systems of railroads, and is also the southern terminus of the State railroad lines. It has important relations with Spain and Portugal, being on the main railroad artery which connects these countries with the rest of Europe. Bordeaux also has a direct railroad line of the Midi system, and water connections, through the Garonne river and its tributary canal, with the Mediterranean. In the combination of natural advantages of location no other point south of Paris seems to compare with it except Marseilles. Its principal drawback would appear to be its distance from coal supply, but in this it has the advantage of Marseilles in shorter distance from Great Britain. We hope also that it will be 112 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE practicable to furnish coal to Bordeaux's advantage from the southern ports of the United States. We were impressed by the enterprising and progressive spirit mani- fested by the chamber of commerce and the business men of Bordeaux in connection with the great transportation problems of the city. Nothing but the best appears to satisfy them. Detailed study has been made of the river from Bordeaux to the sea, and a channel suitable for ships up to 25-foot draft has been developed by dredging. A large dock system has been built and well equipped with railroad connections, and with power cranes for economical and quick transfer from ships to cars. Plans have been well worked out for extensions of the dock system by means of a ship-canal with tributary marine basins. The Bordeaux people, however, have not confined their activities to their immediate vicinity, but have taken keen personal and financial interest in the development of the entire river front to the sea. The map of the port of Bordeaux indicates the main location of these activities. One of the important works of Bordeaux, which we examined with keen interest, is the system for unloading and conveying coal, raw material for chemical manufactures, and other bulky commodities from the ships to the manufacturing establishments in the locality. It apparently gives the manufacturers which it serves the maximum ad- vantage of their location, and extends these advantages to a large area. It is a fine example of broad-gauge business cooperation. Marseilles is the great Mediterranean port of France, and one of the great ports of the world. It has been of commanding commercial and strategic importance for many centuries. It is the great point of contact between France and the Orient and with the French colonies of Northern Africa, Algiers, and Tunis. It is located near the mouth of the Rhone, and that river and the Paris Lyons and Mediterranean Railroad are its great traffic tributaries. The other large rivers of France, the Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne flow in a large part of their courses through comparatively level country, and have many important branches, but the Rhone is narrowly confined between the central mountains (Massif Central), and the French Alps. Its branches are of minor importance for traffic development, although they are of great importance for the production of hydraulic power and for irriga- tion. The country in the immediate vicinity of Marseilles has an ROYAN P'« de Crave , GinOND^ iPOKroFCAU ^A LESF A TL ANTIC \\!::E VE^ON OCEAN _ _ PAUILLAi EXTENSION OF PORT OF BORDEAUX jer rd£5L2« -" ^ 'A ' ' ' , 'l.-Site aflDrop^V^^ci further -extensions of docks"^^^. -MA'QRAGUE BASIN *ca£?ralue Pass '*" . J- COALING WHARFS — /« -„ Fined -Jo-. American Industrial Commission to~ France September— October, 1916 .,'* PORT OF MARSEILLE SHOWING EXTENSIONS 1916 YEA 100 200 300 ^ LEGEND Harbor Lines and Works under construction Harbor Lines and Works Projected 500 1000 jion to France^ )16 SEILLE der construction DJected THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 11/ commodities which might not move at all under railroad rates. This stimulates the growth of manufacturing communities, which in turn benefit the railroads through an increased volume of passenger and high-class freight traffic. It is important, of course, that improvements in water transporta- tion should be planned along broad national lines rather than for local interest only, and the order of development should depend upon the relative importance of a project to the nation as a whole, unless it be paid for entirely by local funds. In France the energy and a part of the money for large improve- ments appear to be furnished by the local authorities, and especially by the chambers of commerce. The national interest, however, is represented by the minister of public works, whose jurisdiction covers the entire country. The just perspective of local in relation to national interest is also, perhaps, better preserved than with us by the prefects of the depart- ments, who are national officers appointed practically for life by the Central Government. Their duties correspond somewhat to those of the governors of our states, but the method of appointment and tenure of office are almost certain to give them a wider outlook, and enable them to develop plans along proper engineering lines and for a term of years, rather than to attempt to make a brief personal record. RAILROADS Steam railroad transportation in France is divided among six princi- pal lines, the relative importance of which is indicated in the following table: J ., c Locomotive Coal Con- NAME '-'^Lfn'"' «— --P^'- power in Tons ^'914; (1912) (1912) Paris, Lyons and Medi- terranean 6060 3,020,000 1,909,000 Etat 5625 1,964,000 1,507,000 Nord 2384 1,813,000 1,554,000 Orleans 4853 i ,607,000 i ,266,000 Est 3085 1,399,000 1,163,000 Midi 2506 733-000 512,000 Ii8 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The destroyed bridges must be replaced by bigger and better ones before the material necessary for the industrial reconstruction work can be properly handled There are some smaller lines but they are unimportant compared with the main systems. The country appears to ha\'e been practically di^aded among the six principal railroad systems, and the five largest radiate approximately from Paris as a common center. The distribution of territory is clearly shown on the map of Railways. The folly of competitive railroad building was recognized at an early date in France, and with the exception of a few minor routes, each system seems to have been laid down to serve the needs of its territory without other competition than that afforded by the canal system and the coastal steamers plying between some of the principal ports. France maj- be said to form part of a great peninsula of which Spain and Portugal are at the extremit}^ It occupies a strategic posi- tion in the sense that all the rail traffic from Spain and Portugal to the THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE II9 rest of Europe, and from Great Britain, Holland, and Belgium to the Mediterranean Sea must pass over its railroad lines. The Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean, which is the largest railroad in France, is well described by its name. It is the great line which through its connection with the State railroad at Paris connects the English Channel with the Mediterranean at Marseilles. It forms the principal route to Italy via the Mt. Cenis tunnel. It is almost the sole artery of steam railroad traffic in the southeastern portion of France. Its principal line is from Paris through Dijon and the great manufacturing and commercial district of Lyons and through the valley of the Rhone to Marseilles. The Etat, or State railroad, serves mainly the western part of France, and has lines from Paris to some of the principal west-coast seaports such as Cherbourg, Brest, and Bordeaux. This is the only railroad which is owned and operated by the State. Part of the system has been so owned for many years ; a few years ago the State ownership was com- pleted by the purchase of the Quest, whose lines supplemented its own in the western territory. The Nord serves the northwestern portion of France between Paris and the Belgium border, and reaches the English Channel at Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk. The Orleans serves the central portion of France between Paris and Bordeaux west of the central mountain range, or in general the country which is drained by the Loire and its tributaries as the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean follows the Rhone. The Est, or Eastern railroad, as its name implies, serves the country, east and northeast of Paris, and connects that city with the frontiers of Luxemburg, Alsace Lorraine, and Switzerland. This system and the Nord include all the principal lines serving the western battle- front, and their tracks radiating from Paris and connecting with trans- verse lines generally paralleling the frontier, ha\e been a most important factor in distributing and maintaining the Allied armies, while the northern portions of the lines now in the possession of the Germans, of course, perform an equally important function for the latter. The Midi is the smallest of the six principal French systems and the only one which does not reach Paris over its own tracks. It serves the southern portion of France between Bordeaux and the Spanish frontier. It is closely operated in connection with the Orleans s\'stem. 120 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE and furnishes the only hne through which rail traffic can cross the Spanish frontier. This it does at two points, one on the Atlantic and one on the Mediterranean coast, as the intermediate barrier formed by the Pyrenees has not yet been pierced. With railroad systems having a monopoly in their respective regions, government regulation would appear to be CAen more necessary than in the United States, and this fact has not been overlooked. One of the leading railroad managers, when questioned on this subject, de- clared that government regulation extended to all the elements of finance and operation, and that the railroad men of France had always worked under close regulation and knew no other system. The im- mediate regulating authority is the department of public works, at the head of which is a cabinet minister. This department also con- trols the administration of the State Railroad and the canal s\'stem. The gauge of the French railroad is the English standard, 4 feet, 8} 2 inches, which is the standard throughout Europe, except in Spain, Until this bridge near Laferte is rebuilt, transportation of heavy materials must naturally be delayed THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 121 Portugal, and Russia which have 5 feet. The general construction and equipment conform more to the English than to American types. Four-wheeled freight cars are almost universal; the track connections at terminals and factories are adapted for them, and are frequently fitted with small turntables and transfer-tables to facilitate distribution in any direction. The capacity of these cars seldom exceeds 20 tons, and hand brakes onl^' appear to be used. The design is extremely simple. The passenger equipment also follows the English design with its compartments, and with corridors on the principal trains. Spring buffers and screw-couplings are standard as in England. Westing- house automatic brakes appear to be used on all passenger equipment. In many cases passenger cars for local service have 4 wheels only as compared with the minimum of 8 wheels in American double-truck construction. Heavier passenger cars have 6 wheels, and the latest types designed for through passenger service have double four-wheel trucks similar to those in use in the United States. No comparison was made of the weight of cars, but it is safe to say that the French cars are decidedly lighter per passenger carried than modern American cars, and therefore require lighter locomotives, less fuel, and lower cost of maintenance of track and equipment. The cars, however, do not ride as easily as those in the United States, and in general are less suitable for long journeys. The long distance be- tween the car bodies, necessitated by the use of spring-buffers, leads to a design of vestibule and bridge arrangement between corridor cars which is much less comfortable and satisfactory than that used in the United States. A great variety of locomotives are in service, probably because locomotives are kept in service for a much longer period than is custo- mary in America. There is but little indication of increase of length and weight of freight trains, such as has in America forced the discard- ing of light locomotives and the substitution of the heavier types which the tracks and clearances will permit. The latest patterns of French locomotives are, however, as heavy as the authorities consider safe for tracks and bridges, and on the Orleans line "decapod" locomotives (10 driving wheels) are being used. The weight on the wheels, however, is less than that placed on 8 driving wheels in the United States. The high cost of coal appears to have forced the consideration of fuel economy much more than on American railroads. This has led 122 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE to the extensive use of compounds of the balanced type which are necessarily of complicated design. Superheaters are used on many of these locomotives, thus giving nearly the last degree of coal economy obtainable in the present state of the locomotive-building art. The additional economy secured by the balanced compounds compared with simple engines equipped with superheaters was stated to be lO per cent. Against this, however, must be charged the heavy expense of frequent renewals of the crank axle, which is the weak point of the compound design. A feature of advantage not generally considered in the balanced compound locomotive is the diminished strain on the track. In the ordinary simple locomotive, balance-weights are cast in the driving-wheels to equalize partially the inertia of the moving parts of the pistons, crossheads, etc., and make the locomotive ride easily and run steadily. These reciprocating balance weights, as they are called, effect a horizontal balance only; vertically they are unbal- anced, and cause waves of varying pressure upon the track with each revolution of the driving-wheels. In some cases of especially defective balance, this has been the cause of bent and broken rails. It has been the aim of designers to minimize this evil effect upon the track as much as possible, and the French balanced compounds represent the most successful effort which has been made in this direction. It is fair to say, in fact, that for scientific locomotive design, consistently carried out, no country has surpassed France. The United States is especially indebted to France for the "Mallet" locomotive, which was invented by Anatole Mallet of Paris. The necessity of moving freight at minimum cost has become paramount in the United States, and the high-capacity freight car and long train have been the principal factors in the great improvements of recent years. With the large main-line freight locomotive came the need of a new type for mountain grades, and M. Mallet's design as used on the St. Gotthard line in Switzerland was followed by the construction of hundreds of these locomotives in the United States. In the construction of locomotives, France appears to be short of capacity. Many of the most recent ones, although of French design throughout, have been built in Germany, and many are now being im- ported from the United States to meet the exigencies of military service. Large capacity freight cars seem to have made but little progress in France. A few large 8-wheeled freight cars ha\'e been recently THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 23 built for ore and coal traffic to serve such works as the steel plant at St. Chamond; and it is possible that this is the beginning of a move- ment for increased car and train loads such as has resulted in the great economical improvement in the United States. There was but little to confirm this suggestion, however, in our talks with French railroad men, who appear to believe that the present type and capacity of cars are well adapted to the traffic needs. It must be kept in mind that traffic conditions in France are radically different from those in the United States. The distances are short, the proportion of coast line is far greater; there is an abundance of good harbors promoting trans- portation by coastal vessels; and the inland transportation by rivers and canals is of great relative importance. Railroad transportation, therefore, is largely a question of local distribution, and the cost of hand- ling at terminals becomes a great portion of the total. In this respect the four-wheeled freight cars have apparently some advantage; they are easily moved by men or horses to any point in warehouses or shops; they have a minimum amount of dead weight, and in case of a large variety of small shipments, they probably load to better advantage than larger cars. It is certainly a complex problem to determine the extent to which American railroad practice might apply economically. Several instances of double-heading of freight trains with two small locomotives were noticed where it would appear that economy would result from the use of a single large locomotive, such for instance as the Paris-Lyons-Orleans "decapod." Conditions on the French rail- roads are, however, far from normal. There is a shortage of rolling- stock because of military requirements, and every locomotive and car is pressed into ser\ice whether well adapted to the particular use or not. The absence of power-brakes on freight trains is notable, compared with their universal use in the United States, but the cost of equipment of four-wheeled cars with such brakes would be very great per ton of capacity compared with our freight equipment. No study was made of the signalling system, but the impression was formed that the capacity of main lines might be increased as neces- sity required by the use of automatic signals operated by electric track circuits and thus postpone the need of additional tracks. Necessity has compelled the development of this type of signalling apparatus in the United States more than in any other country, and it is possible that this experience ma>- be of service to France. 124 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The French railroads are notable for their control of train speeds. All locomotives are equipped with autographic speed recorders so that the movement of every train is charted; and the charts are carefully examined so that any tendency of the drivers to run too slowly on one part of the road and recklessly on other parts may be checked. Maxi- mum speeds are established and insisted upon. The railroads in the United States may well study French practice in this respect. It is to be regretted that our trip did not permit a study of track conditions. The lines in general appear to be well planned from a civil engineering standpoint, as might be expected, for the French are unexcelled as road builders. Careful attention appears to have been given to the essentials of drainage, ballasting, and the layout of curves and grades. Notable variations in track design appear on different lines. On the Paris-Orleans line, for instance, between Paris and Bordeaux, the English pattern of track with cast-iron chairs and double- headed rails is used. On the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean and the Eastern railroads, however, long stretches of line are equipped with T-rails and screw-spikes, equal in all respects apparently to the best American practice. It would be of interest to compare the statistics of rail breakage with those of the United States. The breakage in France should be at a minimum, as the conditions all appear to be favorable to rail durability. Compared with the United States and Canada these conditions are lighter wheel weights, better control of speed, freedom from flat-wheels caused by excessive braking on freight trains, lighter and better balanced locomotives, and perhaps most important, less severe winter conditions than in the northern parts of the United States. Steel rails, as developed in the best mill practice to meet the extremely severe conditions of service in the United States, ought to give good results on the French railroads in wear and freedom from breakage. The permanency of construction of the French lines is indicated by the number of stone viaducts of beautiful design and construction which practically eliminate maintenance expense. We understand that the French railroads performed their part effectively in mobilization and subsequent transportation of troops and supplies, and statements made by business men outside of railroad circles indicated that there was freedom from military train delays ''MmVf JIHT sf^-^^l C',''' ■■;,!! .S'- ! fl.'*'''' '■ ..i'i'i u:,?;!'-"' o. ,f:^row?rrr' ,1 ! .li.,...- •■' •.oa^{!'i''v . ■ . {il>i),(K)i--! Loiifjitude SS,^_____^ NOUTir ,SiVlHu6hin):aX^r5v2||t:'^-'t^--''('HOLLANDl! o Bruges Gh^ - i6ubaix /| Licgc/'~H^4ci'»P«"«^ ^Cologne sCoblen v-^r^ Jrankfurt .^ iraliujir / Jf' I ^Mannheim N '-'^ P J.TllionvillJl a J i^tuttgart JBa^a , u fst^urg i'^' 'I .-sti,,: f\'< Plat'. Basle;% I ^Cx, 'Ij<1IK \y / 'X'A'- . t£ riLau9.ihnc ' ^ <- — s,^ | -, Jt.dlaud Le Puy >J -^ ." ne/.itr\ >>>^^_a,m' ■^ *FV.H Vcnilred ^iT"*^ Gol/c di( 31 E 1- 1,1 J.;C. "Nice Marseille r Li oil ,> r T B K K A y E J ^ S E A CORSICA '\ r^. :^a^- ;i '^:>- ^ ■ ^^.^r-st^w-w :/ / -■< H% .>•" 7- ,/ i; THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 25 during the mobilization period. Such a record reflects a high degree of operating efficiency. Of course, war uses of railroads are always in mind in European countries. The covered freight cars are labelled with their carrying capacity of men and horses, and the laws provide for complete Government control of railroad administration under war conditions, thus making the officers and employees practically part of the army and subject to discipline when mobilization is ordered. The five largest railroad systems, centering as they do in Paris, contribute to effective cooperation with each other and with the Government under both peace and war conditions. Interchange at Paris appears to be well provided for by means of two belt lines, one within the old fortifications, and the other se^-eral miles distant from Paris. The war functions of this outer belt line are well stated in the following extracts from the Railway Age Gazette of December 8: "The City of Paris today without question furnishes the best example in the world of railroads centering in a big city properly organized for harmonious cooperation in war time. It has taken the war to prove this fact, as well as the value of such railway organization. It is not too much to say, in the light of recent information, that with- out the co-ordination of the systems about Paris, Verdun certainly could not have been kept supplied with artillery, munitions and troops, and, in short, could not have been held. It has long been patent that but for the railways making possible quick movements of troops early in the war, Paris would herself have fallen. Like all efficient bodies, there is nothing complicated about the French railway arrangement of lines. A glance at a railway map of France tells her railroad story. The six systems radiate, like the spokes about the hub of a wheel, from Paris, which is the heart of France's business activity. "A glance at the map also shows how well the railways about Paris are connected and provided with terminals to prevent the congestion of troops or of freight, and also how admirably each terminal fits into the general scheme. Each of the big lines has a central passenger station near the center of Paris, with freight and engine yards a little further removed from the passenger station, and finally, car yards and shops just beyond the city suburbs. "The six lines, 25,000 miles in length, that handle the transporta- tion of a nation of 40,000,000 people are able to work together as a 126 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE single unit by means of a little bit of double track, 75 miles long, that circles Paris at an average distance of 10 miles. This strategic railway, to-day, so important in peace times, was all but unknown to the traveler. "It took the war to prove the right of the la Grande Ceinture to exist, and that right it has proven a thousand fold. If the little road hadn't been laid with the heaviest of steel rails on the best of road beds, it would months ago have been in need of rebuilding, and perhaps thereby wrought disaster to French arms on the wide battle front 80, 100 or 150 miles away. " Practically every military train arriving from the south of France, via the Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean Railway, has been directed to the tracks of the Northern Railway and thence to the front via the Cein- ture. Countless thousands of troops and tons of military freight have passed this way. Before the Verdun counter-offensive of the French, trains passed on this way day and night, and passed in opposite direc- tions, each track of the Ceinture being used. Between the loth and 13th of June, for instance, 142 trains of 40 to 50 cars each passed this way." There are indications, however, that the railroads are not ade- quate to the task of handling both civil and military traffic satis- factorily, and it would be unreasonable to expect them to be. The result is that ordinary traffic has to suffer, and we believe that some plants are now running at reduced capacity because of lack of trans- portation facilities rather than because of shortage of labor. The principal trouble appears to be shortage of cars. It is stated that a great number of cars used in international traffic between France and Germany were held in Germany before the beginning of hostilities, and to this shortage is added that occasioned by the great demands of military munitions, equipment, and food supply. There is probably some shortage of heavy locomotives. We saw, however, large numbers of unused Belgian locomotives, which had been run across the fron- tier when the invasion occurred. The extent to which the French railroads will need to be rebuilt after the war, and the requirements of material from this country for that purpose, are subjects upon which there will be much difference of opinion. A study of the railroad conditions from this point of view would require a commission of experts devoted entirely to this subject. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 27 All that can be said here is that we saw no evidence of railroad exhaustion, and the indications are that the deterioration is but little more than that which occurs to American tracks and equipment during industrial depressions, when maintenance is deferred as much as possible. If this be true, the railroads can perform their functions fairly well for a long time to come, and after the war can repair and rebuild as financial policy or industrial activity demands. The relief from war requirements will no doubt be very great, and large numbers of men from the disbanded armies will be available for railroad equip- ment and track repairing. Temporary work can sometimes be made to last a long time on a railroad. For instance, a "slow order" over a trestle or over a stretch of doubtful track will satisfy the requirements of safety. France has been noted for the high speed of many of its passenger trains. These schedules have been lengthened under war conditions, and all unnecessary train service has been discontinued. The same policy will no doubt be followed to some extent after the war, to permit France to rebuild as fast as possible with her own men and material, exactly what we would do under the same circumstances. Another consideration must not be forgotten. This is largely a war of mechanism of steel products, and of machine shop output in the form of munitions, and it has resulted in great over-extension of manufacture along these special lines when measured by peace re- quirements. When the war ends, this shop capacity and the vast labor supply operating it must be turned into other channels, and they will probably show greater results in repairing and rebuilding than is now generally realized. What the United States may be required to furnish are the special machines and equipment necessary to place factories quickly on a basis of peace production, together with the minimum amount of raw material needed to get the work well started. The great problems for France after the war will be to pay the interest on the foreign debt, and to avoid any increase of that debt. She will therefore expect to pay us for the materials she purchases through sales to us of her own special products, and only to the extent to which we are willing to cooperate can we expect to secure permanent business from her. We should also bear in mind that the war has stimulated enthusiasm and efficiency 128 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE to the highest degree in the warring nations in all the things which contribute to national defense. The United States has had no such stimulus, and the difference will be reflected in costs of production, which in many lines will be unfavorable to us. In some directions, however, our enormous production and natural resources make the cost of labor of minor importance, and a large business during the reconstruction period may come to us in detail parts for locomotives and cars, such as axles, journal boxes, wheels, and tires. We believe that there is no good reason why chilled cast- iron car wheels should not be extensively used in freight service on the French railroads. They have made a good record under extremely difficult conditions in the United States and Canada, and they ought to give good service and show great economy under the easier conditions in France. In track material we could probably furnish rails to good advantage until the French, Belgian, and British mills are able to produce them in sufficient quantity. Probablj^ considerable business in creosoted ties could be obtained, as tie renewals will be one of the most pressing needs of railroad reconstruction. We have no doubt that the economies to be effected by the stand- ardization of railroad material will be carefully considered by the French engineers. Since Paris is the center of railroad administration, it is easy to form standardization committees for the principal elements of construction. The economical results would probably be radical, and we should not be surprised if France would give the world a great object lesson in this respect as she has in so many others. Our study of transportation in France led us to think somewhat of international transportation conditions. Free transportation is now handicapped through the difference of gauges, for as stated above, Spain, Portugal, and Russia have wider gauges than the other coun- tries, which make it impossible to secure the interchange of freight cars that is desirable, or the operation of through passenger trains. In this respect the enormous advantage of the United States and Canada, with uniform gauge and interchangeable equipment through- out their vast extent of territory, is apparent. We understand that military strategic considerations have led to the difference in gauge, especially in Russia, but it is difficult to see why this influence should be permanent. Our study of conditions in THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 129 Europe indicate strongly the dependence of each nation upon the others. Each has some form of production or natural resource which the others need, and we believe that the utmost freedom of trans- portation and the abandonment of arbitrary restrictions to trade will not only be of commercial advantage to each country, but will also be the strongest factor in the maintenance of permanent peace. The reconstruction of bridges and the replacing of railroad lines are two vital neces- sities in the devastated regions New factories, new enterprises are now being planned to replace these skeletons of the past; the work this calls for and the materials necessary are so great as to stagger the imagination XII HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER THE importance and value of hydro-electric power (power gen- erated by water and transmitted to and distributed at distant points by electricity) are thoroughly understood and appreciated in France. Indeed, no other country has undertaken such a compre- hensive and exhaustive study of the water-powers available in various parts of the country. This art is one in which France was a pioneer and in whose development she is still taking an important part. The possibility of obtaining power from the energy available in the water of mountain streams must be of great interest to a country which produces only a portion of the fuel it consumes and has to supplement its own production by importing coal from other countries. Further- more, there are numerous places where water-power can be developed in considerable amounts in the Northern and Southern French Alps, in the Vosges and Jura mountains, and in the Pyrenees. The aggre- gate of this power is estimated at from 6,000,000 to 10,000,000 H. P. It is estimated that about 75 per cent of the total coal consumed, or about 45,000,000 tons, is used for producing steam for generating mechanical power, aggregating about 12,000,000 H.P. This corre- sponds to about 3,750,000 tons of coal per year for each million H.P. of steam-power capacity, so that the full development and utilization of 6,000,000 H.P. of water-power would, theoretically, more than make up for the entire coal shortage in the whole country. The Commission had the privilege of visiting the very interesting region where water-power abounds, — the so-called "white coal region" in the Eastern part of France, on the western slopes and watersheds of the Alps, and the Jura mountains, where French scientists and engi- neers found both the incentive and the opportunity for wonderful pioneer work in hydro-electric power development and transmission. Before 1827 the only forms of water-motor in general use were "old- fashioned water-wheels," now of historic or pictorial interest only. In 1827 a prize was offered by the Societe d' Encouragement for an im- 132 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE proved water-motor. The prize was awarded to Fourneyron, for his celebrated water-motor, the first hydrauHc "turbine." The wonder- ful perfection of this invention is sufficiently shown by the fact that the Fourneyron turbine is still being made extensively to-day, with but little modification. Moreover, Fourneyron had made such im- portant contributions to the problem of securing proper speed-regulation and high efficiency at varying loads and with varying amounts of avail- able water that most of his methods and expedients for attaining these objects are still utilized in many cases. Fourneyron's invention led to rapid development in water-motors of turbine type, as the result of which it became possible to produce water-motors of greatly increased power-capacity, occupying much less space, and, to use such motors for developing power from water-falls of much greater height and vol- umes than had been hitherto possible. The development of turbines suitable for producing large amounts of power, especially from high waterfalls, was slow; for more than 50 years after the advent of the turbine there was little, if any, demand for such turbines. During all that time the only method of power-transmission known to the world was that of mechanical transmission by means of shafting and belting, for very limited distances and in limited amounts. Under such circumstances, it was necessary either that the power should be developed very near the works where it was to be utilized, or else that the works should be located very near the place where the power was to be developed. In most cases, turbines of large power and suitable for high heads were not necessary, for it was more practical to use a greater number of smaller turbines. In the majority of cases, no attempt was made to utilize either the full flow or the full head of the stream. The result was that, usually, a great portion, often the greater portion, of the available power, was not utilized. As is well known, it was only after the advent of electric power- transmission that there arose a demand for large prime movers for both water and steam power. Even as late as 1875 a hydraulic tur- bine or a steam engine of 300 or 400 H.P. was considered a very large power-unit. At the present time hydraulic turbines of 20,000 H.P. and steam turbines of 75,000 H.P. are no longer considered extraordi- nary. The highest development and most important applications of hydro-electric power have resulted from progress in two important respects; namely, increase in the height or head of waterfall utilized THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 33 for producing power, and increase in the electrical pressure or voltage utilized on the electrical transmission line. Efforts to develop the hydraulic turbine were made by Fourneyron as early as 1840, and in 1850 by another prominent French hydraulic engineer, Gerard, the inventor of the turbine of that name. The highest falls to which these men attempted to adapt turbines are said to have been of "over 100 meters" (328 ft.). The practical results do not appear to have been satisfactory. It was recognized that hydraulic turbines would need to depart considerably from the standard types of Fourneyron and Gerard, in order to meet the requirements for high heads. The "reaction" type of turbine had been highly developed; but the "impulse" type needed further development. A most interesting contribution to the evolution of the turbine was the invention, in 1867, of a new, highly practical, and efficient form of "impulse-turbine" by M. Aristide Berges, a French engineer, proprietor of a large factory devoted to the manufacture of wood-pulp and paper, located at Lancey (Department of Isere), near Grenoble. M. Berges attacked the problem of utilizing the power obtainable from a near-by waterfall of 200 meters (656 ft.) as a source of mechanical power for his wood-pulp works. His experiments and tests led him to design and construct a turbine of an original type, which was put in permanent operation in 1869. This turbine, which is now preserved in a museum at Lancey, utilized the full head of the fall. In 1873, after this turbine had been giving satisfactory results for four years, M. Berges installed a second turbine, designed to utilize the water from a fall of 500 meters (1640 feet). This turbine was remarkable, not only for the high head under which it could operate, but also for the great power that it could develop (800 H.P.), which entitles it to rank among the largest hydraulic turbines of that per- iod. It was, moreover, remarkable, that, as a hydraulic turbine of the "impulse" type, its design, construction, and operation embodied substantially the same principles as appeared twenty to twenty-five years later, in the steam turbine of the "impulse" type. At the 1889 exposition in Paris, M. Berges exhibited one of the early turbines made by him, and he announced that he was designing a turbine equipment for developing power from a fall of 1718 meters (5635 feet). This is perhaps the highest head that has been proposed for utilization by means of any form of water-motor. A "tour de force" 134 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE of this character was not an impossibility with the Barges type of "impulse" turbine. The American Commission visited the Berges works at Lancey, by invitation, and saw several Berges turbines in operation, including one installed over 40 years ago, which is still doing satisfactory service. The vicinity of Grenoble was the scene of the first scientifically conducted tests of long distance electric power transmission. Those tests, which were made at different periods between 1880 and 1883, were conducted by an eminent French physicist and engineer, M. Marcel Deprez, to determine, by practical trial, under diversified condi- tions, the amount of power which could be transmitted, the losses of transmission, the limitations as to distance and commercial feasibility, and incidentally to find ways of improving the apparatus used and the results obtained. While economy of transmission dictated the use of the highest possible voltage on the transmission lines, the conditions attending the distribution of electric power at the receiving end of the transmission line, and the necessity of avoiding all danger of harm to persons and property, introduced new problems, calling for means of reducing the voltage of the electric current "distributed" to the consumers. There was needed a satisfactory system of "low-voltage distribution." This was furnished by the development of the "transformer" during the last decade of the nineteenth century. This period marks the begin- ning of the rapid development of hydro-electric power in all parts of the world. In September, 1902, a "White coal" or water-power congress was held at Grenoble. From statistics presented at that congress, it ap- peared that the water-power already developed in France, aggregated about 200,000 H.P. With a view to stimulating the development of water-power in all parts of France, a resolution was adopted, request- ing the Government to take steps to make a survey of the available water-powers of France. In 1903, the Government created a Commission for Large Water- Powers, which was entrusted with the work of estimating the hydraulic resources of France. This Commission has already studied a certain number of the basins in the Alps and in the Pyrenees, from the geo- graphical, meteorological, and hydrographic points of view. The re- sults of these researches are published regularly. Six volumes have THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 35 already appeared for the Alps and two for the Pyrenees. The Com- mission has also published some very useful maps, giving data regarding the hydro-electric plants in the region of the Alps. A second water- power congress, organized by an association of water-power owners, was to have been held at Lyons in September, 1914. It was, of course, postponed. As in the case of all large industries in France, the water-power industry has its "get-together" organization, which includes all con- cerns interested in water-power, electro-metallurgy, electro-chemistry, and "all the industries related thereto." The association is really composed of three distinct groups of industries, each of which has its council or board of directors; the first group, composed of concerns engaged in "electric power transmission and distribution," contains 54 member-companies; the second group, composed of concerns en- gaged in "electro-metallurgy and electro-chemistry," contains 24 mem- ber-companies; the third group, composed of "sundry and miscellaneous concerns", contains 30 member-companies. There is a general council, of not less than 12 nor more than 35 members, elected at the annual meeting from representatives of all three groups of member-companies. Continuity of policy in the council is secured by electing the members for three years and changing only one-third of the total number each year. The council members elected from each group of member- companies also form, by themselves, a corresponding "section" of the council. Each of the three sections of the council must meet at least six times each year, to consider matters ot special interest or importance to that section. Its decisions and resolutions are subject to approval and review by the general council. The statutes (by-laws) of the association are similar to those of other French industrial associations or syndicates. They are a model of their kind. A practical means of securing cooperation and exchange of information and ideas between this and other similar industrial asso- ciations is to have the same person serve them all in the capacity of general secretary, whose office is the information bureau for all the associations and their various sections, and also as a place in which all their meetings are held. The work done by the Water-Power Commission enables a fairly close estimate to be made of the water-power available in the region of the Alps; but it is difficult to make any estimate of the water-power 136 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE available in the rest of France. An official estimate, made under the direction of the Water-Power Commission five or six years ago, gives the following approximate figures: Low Water Average Flow Water Flow HP HP Northern Alps, (Haute Savoie, Savoie, Isere, Hautes Alpes) 1,000,000 2,000,000 Southern Alps 1,300,000 2,600,000 Central Alps, Vosges, and Jura Aiountains 900,000 i,8oo,ooo Pyrenees and elsewhere 1,400,000 2,800,000 4,600,000 9,200,000 Another, more conservative, estimate gives an aggregate of 4,500,- 000 H.P. for low water, and 6,000,000 H.P. for mean water. The official annual (1914-1915) report of the Water-Power Associa- tion, states that the aggregate power-capacity of all the water-powers owned or exploited by the various power companies belonging to that association is 660,000 H.P. Of this total, 412,000 H.P. represents power transmitted and distributed for general lighting and power pur- poses in cities, towns, and villages; the rest (248,000 H.P.) is power con- sumed by electro-metallurgical and electro-mechanical industries. The distribution systems owned by the power companies belonging to the association constitute a network of 16,200 kilometres (10,066 miles), of which 13,400 (8325 miles) are overhead lines and the rest, 2800, (1740 miles) are underground lines. These systems supply electric current for light and power to communities aggregating about five mil- lions of inhabitants. The capital investment represented by these plants exceeds 600,000,000 francs. The greater number of these plants are located in the region of the Alps. As there are also many water-powers, both in the Alps and elsewhere, which are operated by companies and individuals who are not members of the Water-Power Association, the figures given for power developed are presumably too low for the whole of France. According to statistics prepared by the Water-Power Commission, the total installed power capacity in the eastern regions alone exceeds the total given above. The official figures, for December 31, 1915, show the following results : THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE I37 HYDRAULIC POWER CAPACITY INSTALLED IN THE REGION OF THE ALPS Power Used For "■ P' P^''-p<;^^^';t °^ Light and power 291,000 39.4 Electro-metallurgical works. . . 255,000 34.6 Electro-chemical 147,000 19.9 Electric traction 16,000 2.2 Paper mills, saw mills, etc 23,000 3.1 Various industries (Lime and cementworks, spinning, etc.) 6,000 0.8 738,000 100. o Of the above total, the basin of the Isere river furnishes 427,000 H.P. and the basin of the Durance river, 112,000 H.P., the rest (199,000 H.P.) being furnished by the basins of the Rhone and other streams. In this region there are now power-plants under construction or contracted 100,000 H.P. ; water-powers contemplated 700,000 H.P. The Commission saw evidence of great activity in further develop- ments of water-power, many of them of considerable magnitude and importance, at various points in the "white coal" district. The mem- bers were given the opportunity to see several power-sites where the construction of dams, intake and discharge canals, power-station build- ings, transmission-lines, etc., were under construction. In addition to the projects now in process of realization, there are many more that are in contemplation for the future. There is no longer any hesitation to utilize falls of 1000 to 2000 meters (3280 to 6560 feet) in height, in one station, instead of doing it in a number of steps or stages, with a dam and a power-station at each stage, in order to reduce the working head and pressure at each stage ; and tur- bines of 10,000 to 20,000 H.P. are coming into use. The highest fall developed in France is at Orlu on the Ariege river, where the fall is 940 metres (2983 feet.). The important Durance project aims at the utilization of the water of the Durance river in the Southeastern part of France, at a point about 200 kilometres (124 miles) from Marseilles. The project is in the hands of a syndicate known as the "Societe pour la Regularisation de la Durance," composed largely of people who are al- ready interested in many of the large water-power companies owning plants in the region of the Alps. 138 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The dam will be located at Serre-Poncon. It will have a height of 85 metres (279 feet) above mean low water, and of 127 metres (417 feet) above the rock-foundation. The storage-reservoir produced by this dam will hold 600,000,000 cubic metres of water. The power available will range from about 70,000 H.P. in summer to somewhat less than 50,000 H.P. in winter. The power-station, which will be installed near the dam, will comprise 8 units of 10,000 H.P. each. The greater portion of this power will be utilized for electro-chemical products, especially for making cyanamide and other nitrogenous substances, and also for electro-metallurgy. The estima- ted cost of this power-development is 361,000,000 francs. The Rhone is the outlet of Lake Leman (sometimes called the "Lake of Geneva"), which constitutes an enormous storage reservoir. In the Swiss portion of the Upper Rhone, extending from Geneva to the French frontier, a distance of about 18 kilometres (11 miles), the city of Geneva itself has been active in developing water-power. On the French side of the frontier, the Rhone runs through deep gorges and over many falls, which, in a distance of 23 kilometres (14.3 miles) from the frontier, make an aggregate drop of from 67 to 69 metres (220 to 226 feet), according to the season of the year. The volume of water, which is already increased by the water emptied into the Rhone by the Arve, near Geneva, is still further increased by the water of a second stream, the Valserine, which empties into the Rhone at a point about 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) below the frontier. The mean flow of the stream, at Genissiat, a place situated 23 kilo- metres (14.3 miles) from the Swiss frontier, is about 300 cubic metres (79,260 gallons) per second. The utilization of this volume, with the full drop, taken at an average of 68 metres (223 feet), would represent a useful power of over 200,000 H.P. It would seem, therefore, that this portion of the Rhone presents the opportunity for one of the largest water-power developments in France. The possibilities of the French Upper Rhone as a source of water- power attracted attention as early as 1871, or long before electric power transmission was even dreamed of. At that date, an English company obtained authority to build a water-power plant at Belle- garde, about 14 kilometres (8.7 miles) from the Swiss frontier, with the right to utilize an average fall or drop of about 12 metres (39.4 feet), and a volume of water of 60 cubic metres (15,852 gallons) per second. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 39 which was estimated to represent a useful power-capacit;^' of about 6400 H.P. The originators of the project intended to transmit power mechanically but the scheme was a financial failure, because there was not enough demand for the power thus made available. The power plant lay practically idle until interest in it was revived after the prob- lem of power transmission had been solved by the aid of electricity. Various projects have been proposed for the development of water- power on the French Upper Rhone. One project is based upon the plan of utilizing a fall or drop of about 20 metres (65.6 feet) which would mean a power capacity of 20,000 to 40,000 H.P. Another aims at the utilization of a fall of 21 metres (68.9 feet) which would give a somewhat increased power capacity. A third plan aims to utilize, by means of a single dam and at a single power-station, the whole of the energy obtainable from the stream between the Swiss frontier and the village of Genissiat, situated 23 kilometres downstream. Although a considerable amount of water-power has already been de\eloped in this region, there is still much to be done there. The lack of market for power has been the principal drawback, but it may prove possible to develop electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical industries which would utilize a great portion of this power. Since it has been demonstrated in America that very high transmission-voltages (100,000 to 140,000 volts) are practicable, the radius of territory which can be reached and served by long-distance electric power is so much increased that even places like Bordeaux come within the range of the power obtainable from the Pyrenees. A great increase may be expected in the amount of water-power developed in the region of the Pyrenees in the next few years. The streams in the hills of Normandy- and Brittany, properly developed, under modern methods, can be made to yield power in small amounts, which, however, would be only of local interest and importance. The plans in process of execution and in process of preparation indicate that the aggregate power de\eloped in France will reach 1,500,000 H. P. in the next two or three years. This will be still less than one-third of the estimated total power available during the periods of lowest water; yet it will be the equivalent of five or six millions of tons of coal per year. In France, where the soil is not arid to any extent, the utilization of water for irrigation purposes is of secondary importance. Never- 140 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE theless, in certain regions, notably in the Southern districts, in Pro- vence, irrigation is capable of producing great results. There is interesting work to be done there by the irrigation engineer in adapting the plans and methods which have proved successful in the arid regions of the United States. The existence of nearby and cheap sources of electric current supply in the "white coal" region has made itself evident in facilitating and increasing the use of electricity for lighting and power in the towns and villages of the region itself, and also of neighboring regions. In many places the low cost of electric current has made it possible for even the farmers to utilize it for lighting and power. The facility with which the power can be distributed to families and small workmen's associations has led to the establishment of small home factory plants, not only in the village communities but even in cities like Lyons and St. Etienne and similar industrial sections; in this way giving a new impetus to home industry to counterbalance the concentration of many hands in large factory plants. It is not in the small communities alone that there has been a great increase in the use of electricity. Indeed, one of the most striking examples of such increase is to be found in the city of Lyons, the third largest and the most important industrial city in France. The manner in which the consumption of electrical energy has grown in that city, as traced by the statistics, shows how greatly reduction in the cost and improvement in the quality of service may stimulate the consumption. The total electrical energy consumption in kilowatt-hours, supplied by the electric plants of the Lyons Gas company, has increased from 399,100 kilowatt-hours in 1897 to 35,400,000 in 1915, or, at the end of 18 years, it was over 90 times greater. Surprising as this growth is, there is still greater surprise in finding that 88 per cent of it occurred in the last 5 years of that period. Up to 1910, the annual increase in number of patrons or in total consumption was low. In April, 1910, the company made an important reduction in rates, in anticipation of the completion of its new power-station, which was put in operation in 1911. The effect of these measures on the number of customers and on the total consumption was apparent in the total consumption for 1910, which showed an increase equal to that noted during the 4 previous years. At the end of 19 15, the total consump- tion was over 8 times that for 1910, and 5 times that for 1911. XIII MINING AND METALLURGY THE mining industries of France are quite diversified, but produc- tion is small except in the case of iron ore, in which France holds a commanding place. The distribution pf mineral ores other than iron is about as follows: Gold, from Maine-et-Loire and Creuse Silver, lead, and zinc, from Ardeche, Gard, Lot, Hautes-Pyrenees, and Tarn Arsenic, from Aude Copper, from I'Ariege and I'Aveyron Iron pyrites, from Rhone Manganese, from Saone-et-Loire, Hautes-Pyrenees, and Aude Antimony, from Mayenne, Haute-Loire, and Cantal Tungsten, from Haute-Vienne. The number of workmen employed in these mines, not counting iron mines, was 7200 in 1912, with an average daily wage of about 5 francs for underground workmen, and 4 francs for surface workers. The output of metallurgical plants in 1912, other than iron and steel, is given in the table below, but we are not informed as to what propor- tion of the product, if any, is made from imported raw material: Kilograms Gold 2,797 Silver 63,736 Tons Lead 31,086 Zinc 62,651 Copper 11,907 Nickel 1,725 Aluminum. . , 10,200 Antimony (regular and oxide) 5,406 Manganese (siHco-manganese) 1,613 In 1912 there were 54 of these plants with 8966 workmen. 142 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The consumption of miscellaneous metals in 191 2 was as follows: ™ Per Cent of Production '■ °"^ To Consumption Lead 122,400 25 Zinc 49,800 126 Copper 101,400 12 Tin 1 ,960 o Nickel 3,680 60 Antimony 2,860 189 Aluminum 3,670 278 Mercury 200 o Bauxite, the material from which aluminum is made, is mined near the Mediterranean coast. The production in 1912 was 259,000 tons, of which about 143,000 tons were exported. The production of aluminum in 191 2 was 10,200 tons, and appears to be greater than that of any other country except the United States, 22,000 tons (1911), and Austria, 11,700 tons (1911). The center of aluminum production is the Grenoble district, which has a large amount of hydro-electric power available from the tributaries of the Rhone. Nearly 92 per cent of the aluminum is produced in this region, and the remainder near the Pyrenees. The raw material and the water power used in the manufacture of aluminum are reasonably near each other in Southeastern France. The prospects for growth in this industry appear to be favorable, as there is much undeveloped water power, and the exports of bauxite indicate an abundant sur- plus of raw material. There is an ample supply of raw material in France for cement manufacture. This is indicated by cement exports of 246,000 tons in 1912. It has been assumed by some that France would need to im- port large quantities of cement for reconstruction after the war, but it would appear that the country can supply its own needs. We think, however, that modern cement-making machinery may be required to some extent, and that the United States, from its experience in enormous cement production, may be best fitted to supply that need. The production of phosphate of lime in the French colony of Tunis THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 43 is second only to that of the United States. The total world produc- tion of 191 2 was as follows: Tons United States 3,216,000 i Tunis 2,050,000 } ;^ Algeria. . . . 207,000 / { France 313,000 ) France ( Algeria. . . . 207,000 ) 2,570,000 Belgium 600,000 All other countries, about 525,000 6,911,000 About 704,000 tons of the Tunis phosphate was sent to France in 1 91 2. The value of this production to the agriculture of France and other countries of Europe is obvious. This is one of the materials which was suggested to us as suitable for return freight for coal-carrying vessels from the United States, but in view of the large deposits in our southern states, the plan appears doubtful. Iron Ore. We have only been able to obtain reliable figures up to 191 2, and give them as an approximate index of the production of the country and to show the geographical distribution of the ore bodies. The total production in 1912 was 19,160,000 tons, of which 16,- 350,000 tons came from the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle. The number of workmen employed in the extraction and prepara- tion of iron ore was 24,300, at an average daily wage of 6.27 francs. The total wages paid in 1912 was 39,811,300 francs. The average price of ore at the mines was estimated at 4.85 francs per ton, or a total of 92,875,000 francs for the entire amount. This production exceeded the previous year by over 16 per cent. The pure ore is found principally in southern France near the Pyrenees, the medium ore largely in western France, and the phos- phoric ore, which is o\er 90 per cent of the production in northern France, near the Lorraine frontier. The ownership of this rich iron ore region is divided between Germany, Luxemburg, and France. The great value of Lorraine to Germany lies in its supplies of iron ore and coal, which give it second place in the world's production. 144 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Iron and steel men in France and others connected with the Gov- ernment beUeve that war between France and Germany will not end until the valuable mineral deposits taken over by Germany after the Franco-Prussian war shall have been restored. Other rich deposits in the departments of Calvados,. Manche, and Orne in some instances contain 45 to 50 per cent metallic iron. The consumption of iron ore in 191 2 was as follows: Tons From France 10,826,000 From Algiers 39.000 From other foreign countries 1,416,000 12,281,000 Three classes of iron ore production are reported : Pure ore, containing less than .075 per cent Tons of phosphorus 420,000 Medium ore, containing from .075 to 1.70 per cent of phosphorus 1,269,000 Phosphoric ore, containing more than 1.70 per cent of phosphorous 17,471,000 Total 19,160,000 We were informed that the production of the French Lorraine region has continued to grow rapidly since 191 2, and has reached 20,000,000 tons, or 22 per cent more than the figures previously stated. We were also informed that the production in the German Lorraine region had exceeded that figure. The principal mining districts in the Lorraine region are Nancy, Longwy, and Briey, and the last two are now on the German side of the battle line. The Nancy district has been severely contested, and it appears to be part of the German strategy to get control of as much as possible of the coal and iron regions. Verdun and the point of the St. Mihiel salient are but a few miles west of Briey and Nancy, and the gigantic efforts to capture Verdun are thought by some in France to have been inspired principally by the desire to secure a firm hold on all of these great iron regions. Briey, situated about midway between Longwy and Nancy, appears to be the great center of production, as THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 45 four of the mines in this neighborhood produced 5,600,000 tons in 191 2, or about 30 per cent of the entire output of the country. The possession of such mines in a war in which the demand for steel is so great, is worth more than thousands of square miles of ordin- ary territory. The following table gives the production of the principal iron ore countries in 1908 as compared with 191 2: 1908 1912 Increase Per Cent United States 34,330,000 60,440,000 76 Germany 18,430,000 27,000,000 46 France 10,050,000 19,160,000 91 Great Britain 15,270,000 14,010,000 *8 Spain 9,270,000 9,130,000 *2 Sweden 4,710,000 6,700,000 42 Luxemburg 5,800,000 6,500,000 12 *Decrease It will be seen that the rate of growth in France was twice that of any nation except the United States. It is exceeded only by the French colony of Tunis, in which the production increased from 148,000 tons in 1908 to 478,000 tons in 1912. The table also illustrates the great importance of the iron region along the Lorraine frontier, for it is this general region which furnishes the principal part of Germany's production and all the production of Luxembourg. It is therefore by far the most important iron ore pro- ducing region in Europe, and one of the richest in the world. The production of this section has had a remarkable effect upon the export of iron ore by France, which from an even balance of exports and imports in 1907 grew to an export excess of nearly 7,000,000 tons in 1912. The total exports in 191 2 were 8,324,000 tons, and their destination is given in the following table: Tons Belgium 4,673,000 Germany 2,798,000 Holland 604,000 Great Britain 216,000 Switzerland 20,000 Italy 12,000 Other countries 1,000 146 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The handicap under which this region of France suffers appears to be the scarcity of coal within its own borders. The nearest impor- tant suppUes are in Belgium and the Lorraine and Saar regions of Germany. In 1912 France imported about 17,000 tons of coal and 2,800,000 tons of coke, of which Great Britain supplied 48 per cent, Germany 30 per cent, and Belgium 20 per cent. Probably the coal and coke supply for steel making comes largely from the two latter countries, and in this connection the northeastern canal system of France is of much importance, as exemplified by the appearance of the Marne and Rhine canal at Varangeville and St. Nicholas du Port near Nancy. It is capable of handling the heavy freight incident to a metallurgical region to good advantage, as an examination of the statistics of its traffic proves. Germany no doubt has a decided advantage in the present state of the war on the Western front, in the possession not only of its own coal and ore supply, but in addition the coal of Belgium and the most important part of the ore supply of France, together with the industrial and metallurgical plants which cluster around such favorable manufac- turing centers. The distribution of the raw material for steel making in this region between France, Belgium, Germany, and Luxembourg calls attention to their mutual dependence in times of peace. No doubt there are many men on both sides of this frontier who, before the war, did all they could to promote direct and friendly trade relations between these countries, and the necessity for the resumption of such relations will, we believe, appear quickly after the war ends. It seems essential that the regions of great natural resources such as this should be developed in an unselfish political and industrial spirit if bitter trade jealously between the adjacent countries is to be avoided and permanent peace secured. The French have gone far in developing commercial cooperation within their own border, and in that inter- national cooperation, so necessary for the future, they will surely take a leading part. The iron mines of the French colony of Algiers appear to be of increasing importance. The ore is reported as pure, or low in phosphorus. All of the Algerian ore is exported, the distribution in 191 2 being as shown on the following page: THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 47 Tons Great Britain 766,000 Holland. 343,000 Germany 57, 000 France 39, 000 Austria-Hungary 30,000 Other Countries 5,ooo 1,240,000 Algerian ore to the United States has been suggested as return freight for vessels carrying coal to Marseilles and other Mediterranean ports, and the suggestion is worthy of consideration by those steel works near the Atlantic coast which now import ore from Cuba and elsewhere. The distribution of steel making in 191 2 was as follows: Northern Districts: Tons Tons Per Cent Meurthe-et-Moselle 2,195,173 50 Nord 850,606 Ardennes 142,391 ) 1,244,527 25 Pas-de-Calais 151,530 Loire Districts: Loire 241,209 Saone-et-Loire 201,397 j 442,606 10 The remaining production of about 664,000 tons, scattered through 22 departments of France, makes a total production for all districts of nearly 4^ million tons. The works of Le Creusot and St. Chamond are in the Loire district. The ore in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department, or Lorraine region, is too high in phosphorus content to permit of its use in the ordinary acid Bessemer process. All the steel in this district is reported as made by the Thomas basic and Martin open-hearth processes. We did not have the opportunity to visit any of the steel works in this region, but understand that one of the principal processes used is a basic Bessemer which has apparently been tried but little in this country. A comparison of American and French practice in the use of high phosphorus ores may be of much value to each country. Here again it } 148 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE should be noted that the enormous production of the United States, the degree of speciaHzation in much of the mill practice, and the search for labor-saving devices made necessary by the high cost of labor, has developed improved methods which France, with her reduced labor supply, may find of advantage. The use of steel furnaces heated by electricity instead of coal gas is increasing in the regions of cheap hydro-electric power. This process was used principally for the manufacture of the highest grades of special alloy steel. It can produce steel of higher quality from a given grade of material than any other process, and at a reasonable cost wherever water power is available. Another startling example of the necessity for new industrial equipment XIV COAL THE normal French coal production is about 40,000,000 tons per year. This may be compared with the output of other countries in 1912 (coal, anthracite, and lignite), which was as follows: Tons Belgium 22,972,000 Austria 42,000,000 Germany 255,800,000 England 260,416,338 United States 495,922,000 Since the outbreak of the war, the production in France has fallen as shown below: Tons I9I3 40,000,000 I9I4 30,000,000 I915 20,000,000 This decline is due to the occupation of the Northern coal mine regions by the Germans. Before the war, French coal consumption averaged 60,000,000 tons per year. The normal shortage of 20,000,000 tons was made up through importation. England supplied about 13,000,000 tons; Germany 3,500,000 tons; Belgium 3,500,000 tons; and other countries 300,000 tons. Since the outbreak of the war, the fall in production has been accom- panied by a fall in consumption to 40,000,000 tons, leaving the coal shortage as before, or 20,000,000 tons. In 1914 there were imported into France 15,430,000 tons, of which 10,759,000 tons came from Eng- land, and in 191 5, 19,067,000 tons, almost all from England. 150 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Under normal conditions, the average price of French coal at the mines has fluctuated between 10.8 fr. and 15.8 fr., as shown by the following table: Francs 1893 1 149 1906 10.84 1908 15-84 I9IO 14.50 I912 15-51 The price of English coal always has been somewhat higher than that of French coal owing to its superior quality. The rise in the price since the war has been very great. At present there are two classes of prices: the coal from French mines is sold at from 25 fr. to 45 fr., according to quality and condi- tions; the coal from foreign sources is sold at 150 fr. and above. The low prices for domestic coals are paid by French concerns which have long-term contracts. Certain concerns in Limoges, for instance, informed us that the prices at which they obtained their limited supply had not been materially increased. Before the war, the prices obtained for domestic coal practically governed the price paid for imported coals. The important reduction in output, resulting from the invasion of Northern France, brought about new and anomalous conditions that soon caused an important difference between the prices of domestic and imported coals. In the case of domestic coals, the tendency to rise in price with increasing scarcity was checked in two ways: first by action of the mine operators, who voluntarily restricted themselves to an increase of about 25 per cent; second by the Government, which did all in its power to keep down the prices and to equalize them throughout the whole country, by its monitory influence and also by encouraging increased activity and output of existing mines and the reopening of abandoned mines. There were several important causes of the advance in the price of imported coals independently of the price of domestic coal: first, the shutting offfof the Belgian and German supply from the seas de- creased the available sources and left England practically alone as a source of supply for the increased demands of France, Spain, Italy, THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 151 and Greece; second, the war itself increased greatly the coal require- ments of the allied nations; third, the increase in demand for English coal coincident with increased labor difficulties and greatly augmented cost of mine working; fourth and most important, the cost of transportation by water, resulting from the great losses in ship ton- nage caused by the war, reached figures which were greater than the cost of the coal itself. Under these extraordinary circumstances English coals could no longer be imported at a price competing with or governed by the price at which domestic coals could be produced. It was necessary to make up the shortage. The ordinary law of trade was upset, for the prices asked for im- ported coals would have caused the price of domestic coal to rise in sympathy, had it not been for the individual and Governmental action already referred to. Thus while the price of French coals reached the limiting figures, the price of English coals, in response to conditions of supply and demand, continued to rise until it was 300 per cent higher than the maximum French price. The engines of destruction have exacted heavy toll in this once thriving town 152 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE In 1914 imported coal at French port cost 32 francs per ton, in May the cost reached 122 francs, and it has steadily risen ever since. As might be expected this situation, which is contrary to all eco- nomic laws, causes much trouble and dissatisfaction among the con- sumers; and the Government has proposed a bill providing for an equalization, after the war, of the prices paid by consumers for domestic and imported coals. Of the total imports of coal about 1,000,000 tons are discharged at Le Havre or shipped up the Seine to Rouen, and taken thence by canal boats to Paris for distribution by rail. Most of this coal comes from Cardiff, and the prices at Le Havre may be taken as an indication of the conditions in other markets in France. Previous to the war, freight rates from Cardiff to Le Havre averaged 4s. 3d. or $1.06; in 1916 the rate was 25s. or $6.25. The following increases in coal prices at Le Havre are said to be typical: Before Jan. i, Dec. 31, Coal for Navigation and Industries: ^^''^^^ '^is 1915 Cardiff (steam) or Monmouthshire . . $5.16 $7.28 $11.17* Newcastle : Steam 4.79 6.92 12.14 Gas 4.31 6.68 10.93 Bunker 4,06 6.39 11.90 Coal for Domestic Use: Cardiff 10.80 14.08 20.45 Newcastle 9.55 12.73 i9-30 Anthracite 13-89 16.01 27.02 *$II.4I for Monmouthshire Before the outbreak of the war, the retail price of anthracite coal at Le Havre was 70 francs per ton ($13.51); at the end of 1915 it was 140 francs ($27.02), and other qualities of coal advanced in proportion. The problems of coal importation must be considered from two points of view, viz., during the war, and after the war. Under normal conditions the quantity of coal imported from the United States has been insignificant, although the possibility of devel- oping the trade had been studied repeatedly. Since the outbreak of the war the American coal question has again arisen because of the German occupation of the northern sections of France, as a result of THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 53 which 68 per cent of the coal supply of France is in the hands of the enemy. Some of the French railroad companies have ordered Amer- ican coal, but not in large quantities, and some American coal has been brought over for industrial purposes as well. The possibility of bringing over a large supply of coal from America depends chiefly on the freight situation. The present trans-oceanic freight rates are practically prohibitive. Under the conditions pre- vailing at the time of the Commission's visit, it would have been necessary to secure an ocean freight rate of less than $15 per ton, in order to render practicable the importation of American coals, whereas the ruling rates were about double that figure. There were rumors of the intention of the Government to impose a tax on freights from England to France, in the hope that this might lead to a reduction in the freight rate. Any such reduction, by caus- ing a drop in the price of coal imported from England, would require a further reduction in trans -Atlantic freight rates if the United States is to compete successfully with England. From information obtained from officers of the Gomite Central des Houilleres de France (Central Association of French Coal Mines) and from other reliable sources, it would appear that the outlook for coal shipments from the United States during the war would become en- couraging only if the trans-Atlantic freight rate should be reduced to approximately $10 per ton to the Atlantic ports and $12 per ton to the Mediterranean ports. The Commission heard of'several important contracts that had been made with American companies for large quantities of coal to be delivered over a period of five years, deliveries to begin in the latter half of 1 91 6. In every contract there was provision for a forfeit for non-fulfilment; the forfeits were paid, as the transportation costs rose far beyond what was anticipated when the prices were agreed upon. The present prohibitive freight rates on American coal are due not only to the lack of ships, but also to the fact that it is difficult to obtain suitable return freight from France; for French exports consist prin- cipally of fine goods of high value and small bulk. It was suggested that perhaps the following building materials and ores might supply the return freight needed: Alpha — (Not to be confused with alfalfa). This is a low-growing, palm-like plant, which is found in Algiers in large quantities. It is 154 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE convertible into pulp suitable for the manufacture of the highest quality of paper. The material can be had the whole year around. The annual production is now about 117,000 tons, most of which goes to England. A great deal more could be secured for American con- sumption, and the matter is well worthy of further study. Shipment is made via the port of Oran, and the cost is 70 fr. per ton, f.o.b. Oran. The freight from Oran to England was quoted at 12s per ton, but under present conditions, freights are subject to great fluctuation. Bauxite — ^This is an aluminum ore, named after Les Baux. It is found in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, which produced (1912) 6500 tons per year; in I'Herault, 46,000 tons per year; in Var, 203,000 per year — a total of 255,500 tons. Large quantities could be mined in Southern France. Pyrite — From Algiers. Tiles — For roof, floor, and wall covering. The supply would be considerable, the availability depending upon freight and tariff con- ditions. Bricks — The remarks as to tiles apply. Marble — Since the outbreak of the war it has been found, how- ever, that practically every marble heretofore imported by the United States can be duplicated by American quarries. Roofing Slate — Dependent upon freight and tariff conditions. Caen and Other Building Stone — It is asserted, however, that a building material, almost identical, can be obtained from Texas more cheaply than this material could be imported. It is not impossible that as available shipping becomes greater and correspondingly cheaper, it may become profitable to ship American coal to France, even in the absence of bulky return freight, as long as the war lasts and perhaps afterwards. The cost of coal production in Western Europe, which had been nearly constant for some years before the war, has risen materially; and competent persons consulted by the Commission expressed the opinion that the cost of production after the war will remain mate- rially higher than it was, because labor constitutes such a great part of the cost of mining, and it is likely that labor will be higher after the war. This would be conducive to the importation of American coal were it not for the fact that the cost of production in America is also rising, and may, in fact, increase more here than in Europe. Never- THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 155 theless it is possible that foreign coals will be better able to compete with domestic coals after the war. The information gathered shows that much depends on whether the reduction in freight from America to France will be great enough and rapid enough to take advantage of the rise in cost of production of European coals. Such a reduction is possible. The chances of success are better with high-priced coals like anthra- cite, for practically no anthracite coal is produced in France. It is now imported from Wales, but the demand is small. France needs gas coal and coke. There would seem to be a future for the sale of gas coal, the consumption of which amounts to several million tons per annum. Gas coals must have special qualities; they must have a low ash content and a certain amount of volatile matter. The best gas coals are found in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Some years before the war a French commission of gas engineers and specialists came to America to determine the possibility of obtaining a supply of gas coal from America, but it found that although the cost This heap of wreckage represents what is left of a thriving silk factory 156 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE of production was lower in America, the difference was more than con- sumed by the cost of ocean transportation. It does not seem that American cokes are hkely to compete suc- cessfully with Belgian and German cokes, which are of excellent qual- ity and available at relatively low cost. The production and consumption of coke in 19 12 was: Tons Production 3,667,000 Imported 2,789,000 6,456,000 Deducting exports 197,000 Total consumption 6,259,000 The total area covered by French coal mines is 300,000 hectares (741,000 acres). The mines, which are of medium size, are worked under 300 concessions. The geographical distribution is shown on the map of Industries and Industrial Resources. The largest coal basin is Valencienne, which covers 130 hectares (321 acres) in the department du Nord, and le Pas-de-Calais, which supplies 23,000,000 tons or nearly three-quarters of the entire French coal production. The output of the other basins is: Tons Loire 4,000,000 Bourgogne et Nivernais 2,400,000 Gard 2,000,000 Tarn et Aveyron 2,000,000 There are other small mines in Auvergne, Bourbonnais, the Alps, etc. The consumption of coal in 1912 was distributed as follows: Per Cent Metal industry 18.7 Railroads 14.7 Mining industry 8 Gas industry 7.4 Merchant marine 2.6 Household purposes 19.2 Sundry 29.4 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 157 The industrial regions of France are supplied from the Valen- cienne basin. The other basins are not as favorably located, and as a result about two-fifths of the French departments imported their coal from foreign countries before the war. The coal mines are in the hands of old and powerful companies, which have at their service the best technical talent available, drawn from the Ecoles des Mines of Paris and St. Etienne, mining schools which are known throughout the world. There are special training schools for miners at Douai and Alais. Everything that can be done in a technical way to increase the supply is being done. The miners are highly trained, for the work frequently descends from father to son. The boys begin work at 13 years of age. They select the coal, but do not descend into the pits before their 1 6th year, at which time they earn 2 francs per day. The girls begin work in the "breakers" at 14, and usually continue work until they get married. (In America this work is done entirely by boys.) About 90 per cent of the work is done by pick and shovel and very little by mechanical means. The normal wage scale is between 3.5 and 6 francs per day, according to the character of the work and the skill of the laborers. The estimated average wage is 5 francs per day. The number of men employed is normally 200,000 (in 191 5 only 46,000), and the total wages paid annually, 300,000,000 francs. The additional labor obtainable from year to year has not been sufficient to work the mines to their capacity. It is difficult to enlist new labor in spite of the favorable working conditions. French mining companies do all kinds of welfare work. They pro- vide workmen's houses at low prices, and make provision for gardens, dispensaries, schools, libraries, social centres, etc. Everything has been done to encourage the organization of cooperative societies to provide supplies. It is stated that 40,000 workmen's houses have been built and rented at 5 to 8 francs per month. Provision has also been made for insurance against sickness and accidents, and for pensions; con- tributions are made by the companies as well as by the workmen, and subsidies are also granted by the Government. Devastation in the city of Rheims, showing the ruined cathedral in background XV CHEMICAL INDUSTRY UNDER war conditions the chemical industry has completely changed and increased in importance, but in many cases the best operating practices have not been adopted on account of the pressing demand for immediate production. Few plants were visited, and statistics of production could not be obtained on account of Government regulations. We gathered the impression that the war had convinced many manufacturers that they were operating on altogether too small a scale for economical production, and that if they are to compete with German manufacturers after the war they must encourage the com- bination of some plants and abandon those which are old and in- efficient as well as those which are unfavorably located as regards railroad facilities or means of distribution of finished products. Such admissions were made by those best qualified to judge, and books expressing such opinions have been published by some of the best advised chemists in France, notably in the monthly bulletins of the Societe d' Encouragement pour 1' Industrie Nationale. The tendency appears to be to erect permanent buildings which compare favorably with our best types in America. Insuffi- cient consideration has been given, however, to possible plant expansion. France had been a heavy purchaser of chemicals from Germany prior to the war. There is now a general disposition to seek American sources of supply, but it was intimated that if the United States is to compete with Germany in this respect, the American manufacturers must closely study French conditions. The French are perfectly candid in their statements that in many instances the German chemical manufacturers were better informed as to their probable requirements than they were themselves. Some economists have gone so far as to intimate that the ultimate success of American trade development l60 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE with France will depend upon the proper distribution throughout the country of American representatives, conversant with the French language and thoroughly familiar with the chemical trade. Men of wider range of knowledge than those usually assigned to such tasks must be employed by the American manufacturer. The French Government recognizes the benefits derived by the German manufacturers from the privileges they enjoy in the industrial use of denatured alcohol, and legislation has been proposed which will undoubtedly place the French chemical manufacturers on a more satis- factory basis. Further reference to this subject will be found in the chapter on Alcohol. Considerable attention is being given to the important subject of chemical education. The French recognize that they are backward in the technical branches of their educational work, and that they compare unfavorably with Germany and Switzerland in number of trained chemists. On a unit-population basis Switzerland has 300 chemists, Germany 250, while France has only 7. According to the statement of a professor of one of the universities in Paris, the present inferiority of the French chemical industry is due to: 1. Lack of standard factory methods. 2. Insufficient general knowledge. 3. Lack of technical education. 4. Banking conditions. In the readjustment period after the war, it is probable that a number of Frenchmen will present themselves for post-graduate work and study in our American colleges having chemical engineering depart- ments. The business men of France, as well as those financially interested in the chemical industries, appreciate more fully than ever that chemists with only a theoretical knowledge are not competent to serve as plant managers. Men holding such positions must also be thoroughly familiar with engineering matters. It must be admitted, however, that the experience of intensive chemical manufacture in war time has shown that French chemists, when given responsibility, have developed accordingly. It is realized that the former common practice of confining the chemist to mere analytical work must not be reverted to if efficiency is to be maintained. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE l6l The more progressive manufacturers appreciate the importance of the development of industrial research laboratories such as have proved so profitable in Germany as well as in the United States. In addition to the standard monthly chemical periodicals, there have recently been established journals devoted especially to industrial chemistry. The aim of these journals is to publish articles of special interest to chemical engineers confronted with factory troubles. Pub- lications such as these should be encouraged. A general association, made up of research and industrial chemists, with a journal of its own would do much toward the elimination of petty jealousies now existing between the several small groups of chemists distributed throughout the country. It is apparent that many of the chemists throughout France are not familiar with the best thought and practice of their own country, due, in the main, to the lack of a satisfactory medium for distribution of such information and lack of travel and free inter- course. In the United States, it has been found possible to dissemi- nate information as to such matters to the advantage of all without disclosing the secret processes of particular industries. Under the respective headings given below, will be found some general information obtained from those interested in the respective industries through a brief survey of the more important branches of the chemical industry. Dyes — ^After the war France will be in a better position than before to manufacture economically many of the chemicals used in large quantities in the dye industry. The French commission appointed to survey this industry, in its report in the July-August issue of the Bulle- tin of the Societe d'Encouragement pour I'lndustrie Nationale, declared "that more coke ovens will be required if this industry is to be placed on a satisfactory commercial basis. It is also stated that agreements must be made with other countries for a steady supply of inter- mediates." The development of this industry, however, brings up for discussion the question of patents and tariffs, and due consideration must be given to the fact that until the outbreak of the war Germany had enjoyed an exceptionally favorable position as regards French duties. Under this condition the French dye industry could not be properly developed. Some consideration has already been given at the Allies' economic conference in Paris to the idea of combining with the British dye industries to work to a common end, with the view of 1 62 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE establishing a definite policy of action for the complicated conditions which must arise after the war. Although too much confidence is not placed on plans for future action, it is thought that a tariff plan approved by the Allies will be better than the drifting policy France has followed in the past. It is conceded that for some time after the war there will be oppor- tunity for the sale of considerable quantities of American dyes in France, because it is to be expected that time will elapse before the newly equipped chemical plants will be capable of furnishing more than a part of the requirements of France and her colonies. The difficulties arising out of the development of a thoroughly coordinated dye industry under present conditions are admittedly serious. In 19 1 2, France manufactured coke equivalent to 3,925,000 tons of coal and purchased coke equivalent to 2,847,000 tons of coal. This represents a total coke consumption in the metallurgical industries equivalent to 6,772,000 tons of coal or a total tar production of 505,250 tons. It is estimated by one of the foremost industrial chemists in France that by the use of the standard German practice they could have obtained a yield of 53,177 tons of benzol or four to five times the quantity obtained during 1915. It is further estimated that by the adoption of the standard method of washing illuminating gas there would be 24,000 tons of benzol available from the 5,000,000 tons of coal used in the gas industry, which would make a total benzol pro- duction of about 76,500 tons. On the same basis of calculation there would also be available 31,000 tons of naphthaline and 3100 tons of anthracene. Electro-chemical Industries — ^There has been great activity in the electro-chemical industries, which have aroused popular interest outside of the chemical profession. In the French Alps alone the power development since the war started has increased from 500,000 to 1,000,000 H.P. and further extensions are planned, but there are no figures available to determine what percentage of this increase has been for the chemical industries. Many new lines of manufacture have been started, some of which are fairly established. Many, however, will have to be closely investigated, as under existing conditions of operation, cost has been sacrificed in the interest of larger and more rapid production. At one electro-chemical plant visited by the com- THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 63 mission, magnesium, sodium, and aluminum were being produced, as well as sodium hydroxide, compressed oxygen, etc. Atmospheric Nitric Acid — ^We were informed that extensive de- velopments have been made during the past two years in the man- ufacture of nitric acid from the air. The Government authorities are fully aware of the importance of the permanent development of this industry on a sound, economic basis, inasmuch as upon it are dependent the fertilizer trade and the manufacture of dyes and explosives. No plant was visited and little information was volunteered. Professor Fleurent, in his book entitled Les Industries Chimiques en France et en Allemagna, published by the Conservatoire Nationale des Arts et Metiers (1916), gives an interesting discussion on the following processes for the manufacture of nitric acid and nitrogen fertilizers from atmospheric nitrogen: Birkland, Schdnherr, Pauling, Serpek, Haber and Cyanamid. French chemists have given close study to the Serpek method of manufacture of nitric acid from the air. In this process bauxite is used. If it can be worked out on a satisfactory basis, it will connect the nitrate industry with the very important aluminum industry. As regards Cyanamid manufacture, the production in France is small in comparison with other countries. The following figures have been collected by the International Institute of Agriculture. Metric Tons Made 1912 1913 France 5,ooo 7i500 Germany 22,000 24,000 Canada 32,000 48,000 World's production 105,000 155,000 More recent figures indicate that the world's production in 1916 was approximately 210,000 metric tons. The bulk of this is attributed to Germany, owing to the fact that that country has had to depend on artificial nitrates, which was not the case in France. Pharmaceutical Chemicals — ^Those interested in the manufacture of pharmaceutical chemicals are fully cognizant of the fact that through lack of initiative they have allowed the control of this branch of the industry to go to Germany. 164 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The French law does not permit patenting any particular phar- maceutical composition, and it is claimed that the French tariff has encouraged German manufacturers in the manufacture of these prod- ucts. A program for the manufacture of pharmaceutical chemicals and synthetic perfumes has been outlined which ought to do much toward placing these industries on a more permanent basis. The French perfume manufacturers consider that on account of climatic conditions, they should have no difficulty in maintaining the lead in this line. M. Justin DuPont estimates that France exports annually perfumes to the value of 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 francs. Sulphuric Acid — ^The demands of the war department for sulphuric acid have been such as to insure for France entire independence in the supply of this commodity for a long time to come. The largest plants are located in the south of France. Paper — ^The commission visited two of the more up-to-date paper mills of central France at which all grades of paper were being made, from the coarse Manila paper to the finer grades of writing paper. This plant was operating under water power. The principal woods used were spruce, birch, and poplar. Part of the plant was devoted to the sulphite process. It appears that France is independent of foreign sources of supply of paper. Cement — No Portland cement plants were visited, but we were advised that France had sufficient manufacturing capacity for her own requirements and for those of her colonies. Conferences with several members of the chambers of commerce interested in this industry indicated that much of the present cement equipment would have to be replaced by equipment of larger capacity. This will un- doubtedly afford an opportunity for the sale of American cement machinery. Refining Sugar — On account of Government regulation, all refineries sell sugar at a fixed price. The single refinery visited by the commission was working on a Government order. The by- product, molasses, is used largely for the production of road materials. France in 1903 had 296 factories with an output of 1,080,000 tons of raw sugar, equivalent to approximately 6,315,300 tons of beets. The country stands second to Germany in its development of the beet sugar industry, as shown by the following statement: THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 165 Germany In France Tons In Germany Tons Yield of Sugar per 100 Kilos of Beets Annual Con- sumption per Head 1840 22,784 14,200 5.9 kilos 2 . 5 kilos 1850 62,165 53,300 7 3 " 3.1 " i860 126,480 126,520 8 6 " 4-3 1870 282,136 186,000 8 6 " 4.7 " 1890 750,000 1,336,000 12 5 " 8.5 " 1903 1,080,000 1,921,000 14 4 13 " 1905 .... 1,605,000 14 9 " 14.9 1906 730,000 2,400,000 14 7 " 17.0 " 1909 807,500 2,037,400 16 3 " 19.5 " In 1908, there were approximately 38,000 employees occupied in the French beet sugar industry for a period of two months at an average wage of 4 francs per day. The area under cultivation in 1907 was 210,000 hectares. This was increased in 1910 to 235,000 hectares. In the period 1 903-1 904, the manufacturing tax on beet sugar was reduced by 40 per cent, and the consumption increased 61 per cent. In Germany, there was a 33 per cent reduction in taxation, with an increase in consumption of 60 per cent. The development of the beet sugar industry throughout the world is shown by the following statement: 1866 1878 1887 1893 1899 1901 1911 1913 1915 In 1909-1910, cane sugar again took first place, constituting 53.5 per cent of the total world production of 15,000,000 tons. Butter Substitutes and Table Oils — ^At Marseilles there is an extensive production of a number of butter substitutes and table oils, oduction of Sugar — Cane and Beet — -In lbs. Percentage Represented By Beet Sugar 4,579,000,000 30.7 7,266,000,000 43-7 11,375,000,000 53-8 14,501,000,000 53-0 17,942,000,000 62.6 21,757,000,000 62.5 38,083,000,000 50.4 40,788,000,000 49-3 40,998,000,000 44-9 1 66 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE which are sold under various trade names. These are bought by the poorer classes for table use as substitutes for the more costly butter and olive oil, and also by the hotels for culinary purposes. Copra, palm kernels, and peanuts are the crude materials used in these refineries. The refining is carried on under very strict inspection, and numerous government investigations have been made to determine the nutritious properties of these products. Petroleum — ^The petroleum industry is on such a small scale that it cannot be compared with the American petroleum industry. Prior to the war, the bulk of the crude oil was obtained from Russia. The replacement of this supply by American crude oil has required con- siderable change in refining practice. The refining equipment, on the whole, is of small type and of antiquated design. The urgent war demand for motor fuels have necessitated an intensive study to de- termine the relative value of gasoline mixtures which are termed "essences," and much valuable information has been collected, which will be available in times of peace. Given below are the official figures of receipts of American petroleum at the port of Marseilles during the past five years : Tons 191 1 18,302 1912 21,657 1913 24,700 1914 18,874 1915 33-902 Porcelain — In the Limoges district, several of the porcelain factories have been turned over entirely to the manufacture of chemical-ware for the department of war. The initial difficulties of this new line of manufacture have been overcome and chemical-ware equal to the best English and German grades is now produced. Celluloid — France has been a leading nation in the manufacture of celluloid for years. This special industry is now at a standstill as the war department has called upon all manufacturers to turn out their product for the national defense. Soda — ^The soda plants, many of which are located in the south of France, have been taxed to capacity during the past two years. This is also true of the chlorine industry, these heavy chemicals being made on a scale many times greater than ever before. XVI ALCOHOL At the very beginning of the great war Russia made a signal and /-\ noble appeal to the social conscience of the world, second in ■*- -^ importance only to her equally far-reaching call for the first Hague Peace Conference. The sweeping edict of the Russian Government forbidding the manu- facture and sale of spirits throughout the Empire — accepting the inevitable, immediate fiscal loss in order to secure the greater efficiency and health of her people during and after the war — startled the world and definitely disposed of the idea that revenue considerations may outweigh the demands of social welfare. It made operative at one stroke the consensus of expert world opinion on the dangers of alcoholism, and accelerated the anti-alcohol movement in all civilized countries. The first action of France was to forbid absolutely the sale of all spirits in the war zone, and to prohibit treating. In March, 1915, the manufacture and sale of absinthe, and similar products containing deleterious aromatic essences, was forbidden; followed in November, 191 5, by measures to prevent any further increase in the number of retail dealers, of which there are said to be 490,000. In the same month the retailing of spirits to women and to children under 18 was abso- lutely forbidden, as was the sale generally before ii A. M. Unfor- tunately, the sale of so-called aromatic wines containing less than 18 per cent alcohol and of sweet liqueurs containing less than 23 per cent, both much favored by the public, remained unrestricted. In December, 1916, the sale of all spirits was definitely prohibited in spite of the vigorous protest of the liquor interests, as powerful in France as elsewhere. It must be borne in mind that a sharp distinction is made in France between spirits and wines and beers. Wines are a regular part of the army rations, and are served not only at the front, but also in all Govern- ment munition plants in which labor is mobilized and under military control. 1 68 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE French medical opinion is evidently not opposed to the moderate use of good, natural wines, of which France has a plentiful supply. It is against the use of artificial wines and against natural and artificial spirits generally, although well made and aged natural spirits are con- sidered least harmful, and if used in moderation are not unqualifiedly condemned. The greatest danger lurks in the artificial spirits made from industrial alcohol by the addition of harmful essences, often used to disguise the bad taste of insufficiently rectified alcohol, and the enormous con- sumption of natural spirits distilled by farmers and other private individuals under an exemption from excise duties known as "the privilege of distilling private growth." These spirits are often made without sufficient care and in antiquated apparatus by these private distillers. The product is frequently of poor quality, and is sometimes consumed by all members of a family and given to laborers in part payment for services rendered. Undoubtedly it also enters clandestinely the general market. There are over a million families which enjoy this singular privilege of making their own spirits, and legislation will be necessary to restrict and finally abolish it. In some sections, probably as a result of this privilege, a good deal of liquor has been consumed by women; under the stress of war conditions, however, the health of women has improved, because work in army supply factories has necessitated more temperate habits, and also be- cause economic independence has tended to lessen the desire for spirits. The ravages of alcoholism are undeniable. According to official statistics the consumption of spirits per head of the population is about 4^ liters per year; and it is said that France is the most alcoholic country in the world. Naturally, the use of alcohol is not everywhere excessive, but some provinces are notoriously affected, such as Normandy and Brittany, and also some cities, such as Paris, Amiens, Le Havre, Caen, Rouen, and Boulogne-sur-Mer, where the quantities said to be absorbed by certain individuals appear incredible. The connection between alcohol and criminality and alcohol and juvenile delinquency, is overwhelmingly established, as is that between alcohol and neurasthenia, insanity, tuberculosis, etc. French medical records appear conclusive on all these points, as they are on the deplor- able result in general degenerative changes made manifest in the THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 69 rejection of recruits for military service and the difficulty experienced in treating wounds received in action. In certain harbor towns the excessive use of alcohol by laborers makes them unable to put in a full, effective day's work, and so congests traffic. It is said that the laboring class spends about 1,400,000,000 francs per annum for harmful drink. It is admitted that legislative action will not in itself suffice, and an active social campaign against the abuse of alcohol is everywhere manifest. Manufacturers now placard their workshops, calling attention to the evils of intemperance. Social habits must be gradually changed ; - the use of the aperitif before meals must be given up; the use of liqueurs and so-called fine champagne after meals be discontinued; and last, not least, the life of the masses be made more bearable. To this end living conditions must be improved; the taste for sports cultivated; and means and spaces provided for playing games, for communal entertainments and mental stimulation. The hazards of life also must be provided against through an extension of the operations of mutual aid societies and old age and other insurance. There seems to be no occasion for an absolute prohibition movement in a country where the people raise good and cheap natural wines and make wholesome beer. While French medical opinion appears to be unanimous as to the harmful effects of spirits, the use of wine in moderation is not only approved, but frequently recommended. There are certain wines that are credited with distinctly favorable medical effects. It is not uncommon in France for children to drink what is called "reddened water" with their meals, i.e., water containing a little red wine; and adults commonly dilute the wine about half and half. To people who are accustomed to take their wine in this form regularly, but in great moderation, spirits have no appeal. In fact, one sees very few intoxicated people amongst the better classes; drunkenness is frowned upon as an offense against good taste. Much may be expected from a national educational campaign coupled with the social action outlined and supported by radical leg- islation to restrict and eradicate gradually the abuse. No country grows so many products suitable for distillation as France. Broadly speaking, she produces in addition to wines, natural 170 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE spirits, made through the distillation of wine, apple or pear cider, marcs and lees, and fruits and berries; industrial alcohol, made from beet roots, molasses, and farinaceous grains. WINE in both quantity and quality is one of the famous products of France. Wine growing is one of the great agricultural activities, but recurring periods of over-production have gradually reduced the area cultivated. In 1881, 2,700,000 hectares were covered by vineyards; in 1914 the area under cultivation was 1,525,000 hectares. The reduc- tion in area, however, was in part offset by the increased return per hectare due to better methods of cultivation. In 1909 there were about 1,560,000 wine growers, of whom 1,170,000 worked less than one hectare; 338,000, from one to 5 hectares; 45,000, from 5 to 20, and only 10,000, more than 20 hectares. Wine growing is very general in France; there being only eight departments where no wine is grown at all. In the Alps, the Jura, and the Vosges the in- dustry has become less important, while in the southern part of France it has been increasing. From 1907 to 19 13 an average of 51,000,000 hectoliters of wine was produced per year, which represents one-third of the world production. About half of this amount was produced on the shores of the Mediterranean. The average annual value of wine production from 1907 to 1913 was 1,259,000,000 francs. The best known wine regions are those of Bordeaux and Rheims. We visited the famous cellars at both places, where wine is treated according to the most improved methods, the result of centuries of experience, by specially trained experts, to be finally shipped all over the world. On account of the lumber shortage, there is likely to be a great demand for American staves and hoops, for wooden vats, and for bungs and spigots. It was intimated that the importation of glass bottles might be a possibility. Wine is also produced in Algiers and even in Tunis. In 1912, 160,000 hectares were under vines in Algiers, and the total production was 7,700,000 hectoliters of wine, the great bulk of which went to France. The home consumption of wine is very great. From 1903 to 191 2 it averaged 57,000,000 hectoliters per year, or one and one-half hecto- liter per inhabitant. In spite of this great home consumption, and the exportation of wine, there has been a steady tendency toward over- production, partly as a result of the manufacture of artificial wines. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE I71 and special regulations have been imposed upon the production of the artificial variety. NATURAL SPIRITS are transformed from whatever wine cannot be consumed or exported. If all countries resort to special legislative measures at home to combat the abuse of spirits, each must face the prospect of the decline in the export of spirits, and great producing countries must provide accordingly for an economic readjustment which appears to be inevit- able. This is peculiarly true of a great alcohol producing country such as France. There are certain famous sections that grow wine for the express purpose of manufacturing natural spirits. Cognac, armagnac, etc., are known all over the world; but natural spirits are not only made from wines, but from various other materials as well. The value in francs, of the total agricultural products consumed in the making of natural spirits is given as follows: Wine 21,000,000 Apple or pear cider 17,700,000 Marcs and lees 6,900,000 Fruits 8,600,000 From the colonies, sugar cane, etc 12,763,000 The above figures do not include cost of distillation, and particularly do not include the heavy increase in value due to the use of a high quality of raw material, or to aging and maturing. The highest types of cognac, if of great age, may cost from 900 to 2500 francs per hectoliter. These spirits are disposed of in two ways, by home consumption and by exportation. The home consumption is not exactly known, because much is produced by the consumers themselves in private stills, free from excise taxation and control. Apparently about 49,000 hectoliters of spirits of wine are consumed, and 155,600 hectoliters of natural kirsch and rum. The export figures for spirits of wine have steadily declined. In 1913 only 81,000 hecto- liters were exported. The exportation of kirsch is only 219 hectoliters. It is interesting to note that in spite of the great production and exportation of spirits, an average of 188,000 hectolitres, valued at 22,- 303,000 francs, was imported each year between 1907 and 1913. 172 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL is produced by 362 plants in France from beet roots, molasses, or grains. The industrial distilleries are operated on a large scale according to the most improved methods, and a large part of the raw material is imported. The agricultural dis- tilleries use the produce of their own or that of neighboring farms. Many of the latter are worked on the cooperative principle. The average annual production from 1907 to 191 3 was as follows: Made From Hectoliters Grain 5i5-7o8 Molasses 496,126 Beet roots 1,279,596 2,291,430 The value, in francs, of raw material used was: Grain 27,143,118 Molasses 17,488,441 Beet roots 44,097,068 ,728,627 The grain was generally imported, about one-fifth of the molasses was produced at home, and all of the beet roots were home produced. The value of this industrial alcohol at 45 francs per hectolitre of 100 per cent alcohol was: Made From Francs Grain 23,206,860 Molasses 22,325,670 Beet roots 57,581,820 103,114,350 These figures are deceptive, however, for unfortunately 57 per cent of the total production is used to manufacture all kinds of artificial spirits for human consumption, the selling value of which is increased enormously through simply adding aromatic flavors, bottling, labelling, etc. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 73 The value of the by-products in industrial alcohol manufacture was : Made From Francs Grain 5,930,642 Molasses 1,786,000 Beet roots 3,198,900 10,915,632 These by-products are used for fattening cattle, a special industry in the north, the manufacture of soaps, and other purposes. The northern provinces are the greatest producers of industrial alcohol in France. One-fourth of the total production of grain alcohol and one-third of the beet root alcohol comes from the department du Nord. It is interesting to note that of the total of 2,967,000 hectolitres of industrial alcohol produced in 1912, more than half, 1,591,000, came from the invaded regions. Industrial alcohol is used for the manufacture of artificial spirits and also for industrial purposes proper. Artificial spirits are made in quantities from industrial alcohol by the simple addition of various flavoring ingredients, many of which are now recognized to be exceed- ingly harmful. Industrial alcohol is also used to increase the volume of natural spirits, and some is used in the manufacture of vinegars, perfumes, certain pharmaceutical products, etc. DENATURED ALCOHOL is the form of alcohol in largest in- dustrial use. Alcohol is denatured by adding ingredients which give it a strong characteristic odor, intended to make its use for drinking purposes impossible. Certain formulae are prescribed by the Govern- ment, which vary in some instances to meet specific needs. The stand- and denaturant is 10 parts of wood alcohol and one-half part of benzine added to each 100 parts of 90 percent alcohol. The Government allows manufacturers a rebate of 9 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol as a compensation for the cost of denaturing. This rebate is recovered by the State through the imposition of a special tax upon such industrial alcohol as is used for manufacturing spirits for drinking purposes. The uses of denatured alcohol are varied ; it is used for lighting and heating, for the manufacture of varnishes and polishes, and a variety of chemical products, such as artificial silk, chloroform, etc. Its 174 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE important use at the present time is in the manufacture of ethers and explosives. In 1913, 70 per cent of the denatured alcohol produced was used for heating and lighting purposes, and 23 per cent for the manufacture of ethers and explosives. From 1907 to 1913 an average of 2,291,000 of industrial alcohol was produced each year, and used as shown below: Hectoliters Used in manufacture of spirits 1,180,000 Denatured 650,000 Exported 243,000 Used in manufacture of wine 72,000 Converted into vinegar 40,000 Used for the manufacture of perfume 30,000 Thus it appears that over half of the production of all so-called industrial alcohol is used in the manufacture of spirits for human consumption. An interesting fact is that industrial alcohol when transformed into spirits for consumption doubles its value by the time it reaches the wholesale dealer, and increases in value about twenty-two times by the time it reaches the final consumers. The importance of increasing the industrial uses of alcohol cannot be exaggerated in view of the large place it fills in disposing of agricul- tural products of all kinds. Unfortunately the consumption of alcohol for drinking purposes is now far greater than its use for industrial purposes. About 1,606,000 hectoliters are consumed per annum, which is equivalent to 4 liters for each person. From the economic point of view there are to be considered 1,560,- 000 wine growers, about 1,000,000 cider producers, 14,641 professional distilleries, 2064 private distilleries working under control of the State, and about 1,090,000 private distilleries free from State control. The commercial distribution of alcohol in all its forms employs about 32,000 wholesale merchants and 480,000 retailers. It has been pointed out to those who appear unduly concerned as to what would happen to the families dependent upon the retailing of spirits if this source of livelihood were withdrawn, that the selling prohibition might not permanently harm their interests. As in other countries, liquor dealers are likely to serve "soft drinks", tea, coffee, THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 75 etc. It seems likely that many of the plants that have heretofore made artificial drinks of an intoxicating character, will turn to making soft drinks, and when this demand has been satisfied, there are other uses to which these factories can be put, such as the production of canned goods, etc. This has been the tendency in our own prohibition states. An important factor in connection with the readjustment of economic interests will probably be a rise in real estate values, owing to improved neighborhood conditions resulting from the suppression of disorderly elements. This has been a very marked result in some of our states, and has sometimes enlisted the real estate interests in favor of the prohibition movement. Reform movements have tended to impose higher excise taxes on spirits, as high as 500 francs per hectoliter. License taxes and special "surtaxes" on aperitifs, aromatic wines, vermouth, liqueurs, etc., re- cently proposed at 100 and even 150 francs per hectoliter, are also im- posed, and local octroi taxes (town entry taxes) are heavy. Octroi taxes are a survival from the middle ages, and will no doubt be entirely abolished before long. Meanwhile, they serve a good purpose in this particular connection by tending to restrict the sale of spirits by ad- vancing their cost. Recently a State monopoly of alcohol has been advocated for the purpose of stabilizing the price of alcohol for industrial purposes over five-year periods, by equalizing the normal rise and fall in cost of pro- duction by a fluctuating excise tax on potable alcohol, the Govern- ment prices to industrial consumers to be fixed with reference to the selling price of benzol, petroleum, gasolene, etc. It is also proposed that a study be made of the possibility of bringing about a greater demand for industrial alcohol through the introduction of special appliances. u o XVII SOCIAL WELFARE SOCIAL WELFARE has long been a subject of active interest in France. The term prevoyance sociale or "social foreseeing" is especially appropriate. We saw many examples of social welfare work in connection with the manufacturing plants, such as special housing for the employees of the great plants at Sochaux, Lancey, and Le Creusot; and the hospital and orphanage at Le Creusot. We were particularly struck, on the other hand, by the small amount of atten- tion paid to safety devices and sanitation in the shops, and by the almost complete lack of provisions for recreation of any sort for young and old. Many companies give pensions to their employees, but all are required to contribute to the support of State pensions. Over 8,000,000 people in France are pensioners or paying premiums. The old age pension law, which is dated April 5, 1910, provides for a minimum annual charge of 9 francs a year for men, 6 francs for women, and 4.5 francs for persons under 18 years of age. The employers contrib- ute a like amount. Many individuals pay more premiums than the minimum amounts, but the companies pay the minimum rates. The normal pensionable age originally began at age 65, but it was subsequently reduced to age 60. However, any one who so wishes may keep on working to age 65, thereby increasing his pension from his own and his employer's premiums. The contribution of the employer is borne by himself exclusively, and cannot be charged to the employee. At age 60 the State pays a contribution of 100 francs a year toward the pension, and this contribution is augmented by a 10 per cent bonus for every insured man or woman who has raised at least three children to the age of 16 years. For a woman the birth of each child counts as one year's contribution. For a man two years' military service counts as two annual premiums. Every insured person can anticipate his pension from age 55 on, but in that case the State's contribution will also undergo a proportionate reduction. 178 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Persons having salaries in excess of 3000 francs are not compelled to insure themselves against old age, and those whose salaries reach that figure cease to participate in the list of the insured, but by making their annual payments they retain whatever rights they may have acquired. In addition to the State pension service there are many mutual benefit societies with several million members. These societies insure against old age, unemployment, disease, disability incident to child- birth, accidents, etc., and receive various sorts of aid from the State. Life insurance is on about the same basis as it is in the United States, and would appear to be held by about the same class and number of people. For the wage earners, however, the old age pen- sion takes its place. Several of the large plants, such as that at Le Creusot, have special alms houses for their employees where the aged and indigent are taken care of at company expense. In every department and city and in many of the communes, there are public alms houses where the aged are well cared for. The mutual benefit associations and a number of special benefit societies take care of members who are temporarily out of work. There are also special forms of insurance which are commonly used to the same end. As a rule, however, the employers aim to keep their per- sonnel intact just as far as possible, even though it may have to be done at a loss to themselves. In a number of plants, such as that at St. Chamond, we found that the same families had continued in ser- vice for a number of generations. Insurance against sickness is governed by the same principle as old age and unemployment insurance. There are a number of benefit societies which insure their members, and employers also generally give their employees whole or part pay throughout the period of their absence from the factory on account of sickness. At St. Chamond and at the munitions plant at Lyons, a well-equipped emergency hospital is conducted as an integral part of the plant. At Lyons, where there are 12,000 employees, several hundred minor injuries a day are treated, but in the 21 months since the opening of the plant there were only about 100 serious injuries and 11 deaths. Most of the injuries were said to be due to carelessness or inexperience on the part of new employees. Many companies have a doctor either THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 79 in the plant or immediately available, but almost nowhere did we see first-aid kits and the posted instructions in first aid that are common in American plants. A large field here offers itself to American manu- facturers of first-aid kits. In the war-hospital service it is admitted that the American ambulance and hospitals are the models M'hich are being followed by the French. While we are not qualified to express an opinion on the hospitals or hospital equipment, we are informed that it is felt that much work must be done in France in order to estab- lish their national hospital service on a basis adequate to the public needs and in conformity with the best modern practice. Nothing would be more welcome than offers of service in that direction, and we recom- mend that those of our manufacturers who are interested study the possibilities in France. While in many instances we saw special safety devices for the protection of the workmen, their use did not appear to be as general as it is in the United States. It was noticeable that on American machines the safety devices were an essential part of the apparatus, due to the fact that public sentiment in the United States is more insistent in regard to protective measures than is the case in France. In the matter of fire protection, particularly in the use of slow-burn- ing or fire-proof construction, the practice was uniformly excellent, but while the exits were usually fireproof they were often badly placed and inadequate in capacity. Sprinklers seem to be coming into gen- eral use, and a number of plants have already installed them, although in many places where they are particularly needed, they are as yet unknown. Our American sprinkler systems would be of interest. In various places we were told that while the workers had been sup- plied with masks to protect their faces and eyes, and other protective appliances, unless they were watched, they would neglect to use them. Certain plants, like the munitions plant at Lyons and others, con- formed favorably with the best American practice in protection against accidents. Whenever we mentioned specific American devices, great interest was shown, and there can be no doubt that many appliances would be adopted if they were called to the attention of French man- ufacturers. From the standpoint of providing adequate light and ventilation the recent factory construction which we saw in France is good. The current type of one-story building is a great shed with saw-tooth l80 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE roof and north light; and for multiple story buildings, a light, open construction with large windows. Ventilation has not been given suffi- cient consideration, and sometimes, even in the most modern factories, the air is not conducive to efficiency. Generally speaking, the sanitary arrangements in the plants are not entirely adequate, but on the other hand we saw examples of the best type in the Perrin glove factory at Grenoble and in the Giron Freres ribbon factory at St. Etienne, both of which give evidence of familiarity with American methods. In these factories a feature was also made of rest rooms and of ventilated lockers for the employees, both of which have become standard in American factories. The common towel, the common drinking cup, and the common wash basin or trough are in general use. This is an unsafe practice in view of possible infection, and one which must be discontinued if the health of the working people is to be conserved. In few of the factories did we find seats or stools near the machines where the operators, particularly the women, could rest. It has been the experience of American factories that such seats have added ma- terially to the efficiency and health of the workers. Artificial lighting, despite the enormous amount of night work that is being done, is in general unsatisfactory. It has been found in the best American factories that the scientific study of the kind, amount, and direction of lighting has a material effect on the quality and character of the work turned out. Our best standard factory lighting fixtures will, we think, find ready appreciation. In certain factories which manufacture highly poisonous materials, such as picric acid, mellinite, etc., we found men and women working without protection from the poisonous dust and fumes which threaten almost unavoidable danger of permanent damage to health. This is needless exposure in view of the modern devices available for use in the manufacture of material of this kind. It is every Frenchman's ambition to own his own house and garden plot. The tendency everywhere is to get away from apartments into the country where one can spread out. Various manufacturing com- panies have built houses for their employees near the factories. These houses are generally reasonable in price and thoroughly permanent in construction; and in most cases they are built to sell rather than to let. There is always a good garden. In general, the tenants pay about THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE l8l one-sixth, or at most one-fifth, of their income in rent instead of one- fourth, as is the rule in America. The rents in general run between $5 and $io per month for a house with three to five rooms and a good- sized plot. Much model housing has been done recently in connec- tion with factories, usually under the direct patronage of the company itself, as at Le Creusot; but in several places, such as St. Chamond, and at the Berges paper mills at Lancey, excellent houses are being put up by private companies. At Lancey, the houses are all of ma- sonry construction, with tiled roofs and with cellars. They have three or four rooms, and are planned so that additions may be made as desired. A garden plot of about twelve feet square goes with each house. Such houses sold for 5500 francs, and certain others were rented at 18 francs per month. The mobilized soldiers in the munitions plants like those at Le Creusot, St. Chamond, and Lyons are housed in large measure in specially built barracks, each with sleeping quarters for 30 to 100 men. As a rule they are well ventilated and reasonably sanitary, and have common dining, bathing, and recreation rooms. Food and lodging are provided at 3.5 francs a day. At the Lyons plant a gen- eral restaurant is operated by the company in the plant, where good dinners, including wine, are furnished at 1.5 francs. Even in the most modern French hotels and apartment houses, there 'are insufficient facilities for bathing. Where bath rooms exist, they are neither very practical nor attractive in their equipment. American fittings have recently been introduced, and there is undoubt- edly a big future for them. It is the universal custom of the French, in city and country, in winter and summer, to sleep with closed windows. It is generally recognized by French physicians that the prevalence of [tuberculosis is due in large measure to this fatal habit. French houses generally have an inadequate number of windows, with the result that there are too many dark rooms. This is largely due to the archaic tax of 2.5 francs on each door or window. The idea of physical recreation as a necessity is accepted as a commonplace in America and England. Most cities, towns, and vil- lages throughout both of these countries have regularly equipped play- grounds, where healthful exercise can be taken and where play is organized with a view to making recreation both beneficial and attract- 1 82 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE ive to the children. Emphasis is placed on the awakening of a sense of responsibility, self-control, and appreciation of the value of team work and leadership. The effect in cutting down juvenile delinquency is everywhere acknowledged. This conception of recreation seems to be almost unknown in France, if we except a few pioneers. The waste of the great war has brought out the necessity of doing everything possible for the upbuilding of the coming generation, and attention may well be given to this problem. Only recently does the idea of sport appear to have been taken up in France. It is only within the last few years that football, tennis, rowing, yachting, etc., have become popular; and it is hoped that they will appeal to greater numbers of the people. An interesting field is open to American dealers in sporting goods. In the care of children, particularly in the first year or so after birth, a considerable movement has recently been inaugurated. A number of nursing institutions have been opened where the art of taking care of children is taught to mothers, and a number of creches have been opened for babies and young children throughout France. Kindergartens are also beginning to be common. The kindergarten and orphanage at Le Creusot is a particularly striking example. House owners cultivate the gardens behind their houses. Like the tenement-house dwellers, they also raise vegetables and flowers on every spare piece of ground within walking distance. They do this because they love the work and because it enables them to cut down the cost of living. To meet this need there are many workingmen's garden societies, which take plots and cut them up into small lots for gardening use. This provides what is virtually the one advantageous form of recreation in which young and old currently indulge. There has been a strong movement in France of late to build gar- den suburbs and garden cities, following the idea of the communities which have been so successful in England. The society which is pro- moting this type of housing is interested in 20 to 30 villages and sub- urbs of this type. Public markets are a feature of every city and town. They are almost always in the open air in the centers of cheaper residential dis- tricts. They have had a certain effect in keeping down the cost of food-stuffs, and they also permit greater ease of inspection and so tend to keep the quality of foods up to standard. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 83 Cooperative societies, composed of industrial or commercial workers, are common throughout France even in comparatively small towns. In towns of a thousand inhabitants there are often several such socie- ties; one for food-stuffs, one for wines, one for medicines and medical supplies, and one for dry goods. According to reports they are all conducted on a solid basis. Their general method is to charge for their commodities a trifle less than the current market prices, and then divide the surplus among the members in proportion to the amount bought during the year. As a result, in return for the $2 or $5 initia- tion fees, the members may buy their goods at from 5 to 15 per cent less than at private stores. Cooperative stores among workers of large industrial companies often receive from the company a certain proportion of their working capital. In St. Chamond, however, it has been the policy of the com- pany to keep away from paternalistic ideas and to leave cooperative efforts exclusively to the initiative of the employees. Since the beginning of the war Lyons and other cities have opened large municipal kitchens where suitable, nutritious foods are sold at cost or less to all who apply. At Le Creusot the company sup- plies coal currently to its employees at before-war prices, despite the fact that such companies are now paying $30 to $35 per ton for their coal. The community or social center, which is becoming so common in America and England, is almost unknown in France. The nearest approach to it which we could find was in the common rooms in certain model tenements and lodging houses in Paris. The principle of the community center is to provide attractive rooms in which the people may come together for common amusements and interests. In America community centers are being established in the public school houses, in the rooms which are used during the day for educational purposes. We heartily concur in the suggestion that was made to us on several occasions in France that it is most important that a general survey of social welfare conditions be made throughout France, and also that careful attention be given to the social welfare movement in other countries. With the facts thus brought out, it would be possible to present the needs in the order of their relative urgency. Great quantities of steel, cement, lumber, glass, sash, and doors will be needed in the reconstruction of thousands of towns and villages XVIII CITY PLANNING FRENCH cities, towns, and villages are rarely ugly or even mo- notonous, and many are most charming — just the opposite of the rule in America, where sordidness in cities and towns abounds. But strangely enough, little thought seems to have been given in France to making towns healthier or more efficient. In America we have found that town dwellers are robust, full of energy, and fresh in their ideas in proportion as they have facilities for recreation. The health, moral fibre, and citizenship of the rising generation depend on the character of play open to the young. France, alone among the great nations, has neglected this problem; yet it is obvious that no stone must be left unturned to make the most of the rising generation in France. Since the beginning of the war there has sprung up a strong city- planning movement, led by the Institute of City Planning (Institut des Architectes Urbanistes) , of which M. Eugene Henard is president. This institute was founded a year ago, and its members are interested in the proposed general city planning bill, known as the "loi Cornudet." We were impressed by the effects of this movement in the official rebuilding plans for Rheims and other ruined towns, in the expro- priation of unsanitary quarters in Limoges and Marseilles, and in the great port and canal work at Marseilles, Bordeaux, Rouen, and Le Havre. The Cornudet bill, which has already passed the chamber of depu- ties, provides not only that all damaged villages, towns, and cities shall be reconstructed along the lines of the most approved modern planning, but also that every community shall have a plan to which all changes or additions shall be made to conform. This planning will be done by local commissions, controlled by authorities in the depart- ments and at Paris, who will assure the general application of the best practice in city planning. Prefect Mirman of the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle declared that the application of these principles in reconstructing the devastated region will have a beneficial effect 1 86 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE on the whole country, and that it would result eventually in the re- planning of the old unsanitary and inconvenient parts of all existing cities and towns. A most important factor in avoiding waste and cutting down the cost in a business or manufacturing plant is the relation of the plant to the transportation system of the city; whether the plant is near the freight terminals and whether it has a direct rail or water approach. A number of factories which we saw had rail sidings, and in some plants there was a perfect system of internal rail distribution. Nowhere did we see a factory or mill that had a direct water ap- proach of the type which is so common in America and to some extent in England. Everywhere water-borne goods had to be hauled by truck from the boat to the factory. On the other hand, at both the rail and water terminals the handling devices — derricks, cranes, and traveling cranes — were of good design, and they were found in large numbers. But light auto-carriers, such as we find in so many of our American terminals because they have so much mobility of use, were almost entirely lacking in France. We saw, however, such a carrier at the Andre Citroen plant. We were particularly impressed by the use of electric street cars for hauling freight between the terminals and the factories in the dead hours of passenger service. We found that the service which had recently been inaugurated at Marseilles carried goods for lo cents per long ton mile, which is one-half to one- quarter as much per ton mile as they could be hauled for by horse or auto-truck. We found a similar service at Belfort. Before the war there were between 25,000 and 30,000 auto-trucks in France. They were very largely French machines of heavy and excellent construction. Since the war a great many light American machines have been introduced, particularly for use as ambulances, and they have proved so popular that it is expected that there will be a big demand for light American trucks as well as pleasure cars after the war. The same applies to parts and fittings, including tires. The trucking roads are generally excellent as to surface, grade, and width; small granite blocks of modern specification being generally used in the industrial parts of cities. We were impressed by the fact that loading and unloading were done within the plants, which pre- vented an undue congestion of the roads. Almost everywhere the plants have plenty of ground in which to spread. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 87 Employees generally walk to and from their work. It is only in the largest cities that the employees ride upon surface cars, and even there the common tendency is to locate the factories on the outskirts so that the employees could live nearby. Even in a small town like St. Chamond we found very few employees going back and forth by street car or train to the neighboring large city of St. Etienne. At the great munitions plant in the old fair ground buildings at Lyons, how- ever, a great majority used the surface cars. Groups of employees were dismissed at different hours, so that the use of the street car system would be more nearly normal. The usefulness of the street car system was generally greatly enhanced, particularly in rush hours, by the use of one, two, or even three trailers. There were also special reduced fares for workingmen. We saw very little "commuting" in trains by factory employees; the general use of nar- row-gauge electric street car lines obviated that necessity. Bicycles are used by many of the employees, some, as in the Japy and Peugeot factories near Montbeliard, riding three or four miles each way. In 1913 about 3,000,000 bicycles were owned in France, as against only 75,000 automobiles. Here is a large field for American bicycles. The employees live in individual, isolated houses, or, if that is im- possible on account of the cost of land, in houses in town. Only in large cities do they live in tenements. In general, the plots were wider and deeper than those we are accustomed to in America, and there is often enough room for a small garden. The residence streets have no distinctive characteristics; they are no wider or narrower and they have no more shade trees than other streets. There is comparatively little privacy. Stores are scattered everywhere. In short, there is no attempt at zoning, which is being introduced in all of our cities. The danger from fire appears to be small, so much so that notwith- standing the small and inadequately equipped fire companies the fire loss is less than one-tenth of what it is in the United States. Rarely does one hear of loss of life in a fire. This is not due to the building laws, because there are none in our sense. Masonry construction is the rule; even the floors and partitions contain very little wood, for wood is scarce and expensive, while masonry is cheap. Almost every building is constructed under the eye of an architect, and the archi- tects as well as the contractors are responsible for ten years for any 1 88 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE damage to the building. Furthermore, if one building catches fire from another building, the owner of the first building is responsible. In the towns which were burned in the war zone, it was necessary to set fire to each house separately. We were told in the city of Grenoble that there had been virtually no fire in thirty-six years. Despite the war remarkable work is being done in clearing out unsanitary areas in the older cities. In Limoges, for example, the buildings on an area of about five acres are being demolished and re- placed by new open buildings on broad, sunlit streets. In Marseilles, fourteen acres in the very center of the city are being expropriated and rebuilt in the same way. This is costing the city about 44,000,000 francs, but the work is going on despite the war because it is believed that it is particularly important that the next generation should grow up under the best possible circumstances. Many of the streams are liable to overflow their banks. The plans which were made for preventing floods of the Seine in Paris have never been carried out, although it is obvious that a scientific combi- nation of flood prevention and drainage and irrigation systems would add immensely to the fertility of the fields. In the matter of street accidents France has a remarkable record. We were told that in Paris there is one death a month from street acci- dents, as against 54 in New York with nearly double the population. It is not because the vehicles run more slowly, or because the traffic regulations are better, but because of the general use of islands of safety and because of the fact that the French Government holds all parties to any accident equally responsible. The fact that corners of the buildings at most street intersections are cut ofT so that a vehicle entering from a side street may be seen, also tends to keep down the number of accidents. All French cities have stringent regulations as to the minimum sizes of yards and courts; also as to heights of buildings in relation to the streets on which they face, but in every case they are uniform through- out the city. We found few dark living or sleeping rooms of the type that is so prevalent in the densely built-up portions of New York and Bos- ton; and dark interior rooms are uncommon. The common type of building is two rooms in depth from street to court. In many cases the number of people per room is limited, and in some cases the num- THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE VilledeReims 189 .1 i^ ij n New plan of city of Rheims ber of houses or families per acre is limited as in England, where the maximum is twelve houses per acre. Except in the mountainous regions the water supply is not par- ticularly good. The water is usually taken from some large river nearby and filtered. It is often unpalatable, and everyone who can afiford it buys bottled water, of which there are many varieties. There is little typhoid however; less proportionately than there is in America. In the matter of sewer systems and sewerage disposal, we gained the general impression that France was not advanced. Only recently has much thought been given to the working out of complete sewer systems. In a number of cities, such as Lyons and Limoges, complete plans have been worked out, but on account of the war or for other reasons they have not been carried into effect. In many cases the Government health authorities have required the installing of disposal 1 90 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE and purification plants, but on account of their cost few have been built. The law requires that every house shall have a septic tank in the basement so that only the effluent will go into the sewers. We found, however, that where there is a septic tank it is not always used, everything being taken directly into the sewer. In the older sections of cities the sanitary conditions are often very bad, everything being col- lected in cisterns in the cellars and removed at night. The French methods of refuse and garbage collection and street cleaning are characterized by thoroughness. Refuse and garbage are usually collected and disposed of by private contract. Rarely did we see either in the street. Even the most out-of-the-way streets are remarkable for their cleanness; very different from even the main streets in many of our American cities. This is due, first, to the smooth pavements which are always in good repair, and second to the con- stant flushing of the streets from sill cocks in the curbs and the use of willow brooms to sweep the water across the streets. The vehicles which carry away refuse, garbage, and street cleanings are covered, and rarely give off objectionable odors. Refuse is not dumped on vacant lots or used as fill, as is the common practice in the United States. The public markets are a great feature of all the French cities and towns. They are scattered generally throughout the residential quar- ters of the city, usually in the form of an open square, with a number of small stalls which are leased to small dealers. They are being grad- ually supplanted by municipal wholesale auction markets. The playground is almost unknown in France. There are many open spaces, public squares or triangles ; usually with large trees grow- ing in them; occasionally with lawns and flowers and statues; often with a few park benches about. There is a certain amount of open space about most of the schools, usually quite small, however, and unattractive. There are certain open lots on the outskirts of the cities and towns that are available for use as play fields, and, of course, there are the larger parks, of which Paris and various other cities are so proud. However, not only do none of these places invite wholesome, natural play on the part of the children, but in many cases play is actually discouraged or even forbidden. In England and America we demand a minimum of 30 square feet of play space per child, and as much more as the cost of land permits. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE I9I We provide all sorts of interesting apparatus and games to appeal to the children, and it is likely that American apparatus would find a ready sale in France. We find that small children will not go more than one-eighth to one-quarter of a mile to a playground, and there- fore we place these playgrounds wherever possible within at least a half mile of each other. The playgrounds and playfields for larger children are farther apart. On the other hand, there is one feature of recreative physical life which is carried much further in France than in America, and that is the development of the private garden. Not only are all of the back lots under cultivation and very neatly and attractively kept, but all of the vacant lots in the cities, and a great deal of the land in the outskirts of the cities and towns is used for the raising of vegetables or flowers. These gardens have a distinct recreative as well as economic value, but they do not make playgrounds any less necessary for the development of the children. The means of getting about the cities and towns are generally adequate. Taxicabs and horsecabs are numerous and reasonable in cost. Transit lines also exist in great numbers, and there are many cross-country lines between towns. They are usually narrow-gauge, and operate sometimes with electric and often with steam power. Trains of as many as six or seven cars are common. In the cities trailers are common, and there are two classes; thus it is possible to go from one part of a town to another quickly and cheaply. The same applies to the motor bus service which has replaced the old horse busses, and which gives mobile service generally in the larger cities. In Paris rapid transit lines, both subway and elevated, reach nearly every part of the city and its surroundings with low fares, frequent service, and almost universal transfers. The transit lines generally have a distinct advantage from the point of view of comfort over those in America, for when the prescribed accommodations are filled, no further passengers are allowed aboard. Most of the motor busses, street cars, and even the "commuting" train services, have seats in the open on the upper story, and during most months of the year they are greatly used. The light American automobiles, which were hardly known in France before the war, are rapidly becoming very popular, and the same is true of the various American automobile fittings. The pursuit of beauty and agreeableness in surroundings is gener- 192 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE ally recognized as being a valid reason for the exercise of the police power in France. Everywhere we were charmed with the streets and open spaces, and the buildings and their settings. Almost every street or open space provides a good picture. Almost never are the streets laid out with that rectangular sameness that is characteristic of so many American cities. Everywhere a feature is made of trees and flowers; of beauty in the design of street fittings, such as lamp posts, trolley poles, fountains, statues, watering troughs, and even adver- tising signs. We saw few ugly billboards, for advertisements are posted on cylindrical kiosks of good design along the wider streets. Houses are usually built directly on the street line, and while the streets are often picturesque, they are not as beautiful or as healthful as they might be if the buildings were to be set back from the street. Boulevards and small parks are generally distributed, while the larger parks are within the reach of all, and most charming in their layout. The fact remains, however, that the cities of France are be- hind those of other countries in their provisions for future parks. The cities now rely largely on their inheritance from the past, which is proving inadequate for the growing population. Unless the subject is seriously considered in the near future, the next generation is sure to suffer materially for lack of breathing spaces. A feature in which the French parks differ from those in America is in the use of architectural features and even public buildings in the parks. In America there exists a strange fetich that public parks must not be encroached upon by any sort of structure, and yet as we look about the French parks we find that a great deal of their charm lies in the contrast of architectural features with a setting of nature. The development of the waterfront and the design of bridges is uniformly excellent in France; strikingly in comparison with what is common in America. The quays, with the lower level used for shipping purposes, and with the upper level, bordered with trees, used as a public promenade, are to be commended. Nearly every city and town in France has an ordinance regulating the height of buildings. These ordinances usually regulate the height of buildings in proportion to the width of the street and provide for a virtually uniform cornice line. In a number of cases, such as the Rue de Rivoli in Paris, even the architectural design of the cornice and the building materials are made uniform. Rarely do we see that great THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 93 variety of architectural styles to which we are so accustomed in our American cities. The result is that the streets in France have an orderliness and repose that proves most gratifying. France takes great pride in her public buildings, and few are with- out considerable architectural merit. This applies not only to the administration buildings, but also to the local police and fire stations, courts and jails, and even hospitals and alms houses, which are gener- ally well designed for their purposes, and built with a view to expan- sion as the city grows up around them. As a rule they are well dis- tributed both as to accessibility and convenience. The public buildings are almost always well located and well set among their surroundings, which makes them count for their full value, instead of being lost among other buildings, as is so often the case in America. Various cities are making extensive plans for their growth. In Paris there is a special bureau of the department of the Seine devoted to city planning and architecture. This bureau is making comprehen- sive plans for the future development of Paris and surroundings, and all matters which affect the plan of Paris come under its jurisdiction. It is most fortunate in having an advisory commission of leading archi- tects, engineers, and others. In a number of cities, as Lyons, Mar- seilles, Grenoble, Limoges, and Bordeaux, we found the engineers looking far ahead in their plans. Among the articles which are needed in connection with city plan- ning are: (i) Playground apparatus, (2) Road rollers, (3) Road binders and machinery, (4) Refuse and garbage disposal outfits, (5) Water purifying apparatus, (6) Carrier trucks, (7) Electric street car trucks and machinery, (8) Refrigerating apparatus, (9) Plumbing fixtures for public comfort stations, (10) Sightseeing motor-busses, (11) Light auto-trucks, (12) Light pleasure cars, (13) Light taxicabs, (14) Struc- tural steel shapes for bridges, etc. c jS ^ bo M C ^•^ T3 15 a c o .l=-o o S 1- T3 (U bo ^ C V bo'o rt O XIX HOTEL AND RESORT INDUSTRY IT IS estimated that there are a billion francs invested in 25,000 hotels in France, exclusive of the "palaces." Before the war American travelers alone spent two billion francs in France annually. The hotel industry is one of the greatest industries of France. Even prior to the war the great French touring agencies, such as the Touring Club of France, the Automobile Club, and the senate and deputies committees on touring recognized that the number and service of the French hotels were inadequate, except at the great health resorts and watering places. It is a fact well known by the leaders in the hotel industry in France that the existing hotels, even the most modern, do not provide many of the attractions, appointments, and surroundings to which Americans are accustomed in the hotels of their own country. Many of these conveniences and devices for comforts add little to the total cost of the building, but they do add materially to the renting value of the accommodations. It is estimated by the hotel committee of the Touring Club of France, of which M. Leon Auscher is chairman, that to be ready at the end of the war, it is necessary to undertake immediately, between 500,000,000 and 600,000,000 francs' worth of construction, enlargement, and reconstruction of hotels. The hotel business will be one of the first to recover after the war, and to be placed on a substantial paying basis. Various national bodies are thoroughly alive to the seriousness of the problem confronting the hotel industry. The Touring Club of France has begun a comprehensive campaign of publicity through its 130,000 members to acquaint the world with the movement to in- augurate a first-class hotel system in France, and also to invite capital to take part in it. The French Government, through the senate and the chamber of deputies, is giving its support. The chamber of com- merce and the societies for local enterprise (syndicate d'initiative) are taking an active part in the work. The railroads, which are vitally 196 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE interested in the problem, are bending every energy to the campaign of pubhcity and to the provision of adequate faciUties. A national association of hotel operators and maitres d 'hotels, which has been formed recently, has under consideration problems confronting the hotel industry. These bodies have studied the problems in detail and have plotted and tabulated the hotel needs of each town or district, and they have ready at the disposal of all who may be interested, a vast fund of disinterested, detailed information on the subject. At Besancon, for example, in the Haute Savoie, the mayor, the chamber of commerce, the society for local enterprise, the Touring Club, and the railroad, are cooperating in working out a plan for a group of hotels with park, recreation, and sport features to be shared in common. Immediately before the war an attractive, sight-seeing boat service was opened on the Rhone between Lyons and Avignon. This, it is expected, will be the forerunner of many similar river and lake services. A number of auto-bus services have been already put into operation throughout the scenic parts of France, and many more will be estab- lished immediately after the war. The fine character of the French roads, together with the charm of the country, adds much to the delight of this form of travel. Similar services are planned for trips along the battlefront from Switzerland to Holland. For some time an active campaign has been carried on to make known the scenic charms of France. This has been conducted by the Touring Club of France, the Automobile Club, the railroads, and other associations by means of posters, brochures, photographs, lantern slides, motion pictures, etc., and a similar campaign is to be conducted in the United States. In formulating the plans for the new development, we understand that it is intended that each district is to be studied from the stand- point of its peculiar attractions so as to determine the most desirable sites for hotels and the probable character of the clientele, as well as the income and returns which can be made upon the investment. There is reason to believe that a parent promoting and financing company will be formed, and that this company will make a careful survey with a view to determining on a number of hotel circuits. This parent company will secure the necessary capital and fix upon the char- acter and decide upon the plans of each building. Smaller local companies will be formed to build and operate one or more hotels in THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1 97 a given district, turning to the parent company for part of the capital and for plans and data, and raising the balance of the capital locally as far as possible. The hope has been repeatedly expressed that a considerable proportion of this capital might come from America. It is being found generally in the industrial world that cooperation and the exchange of experience and ideas is more important than competition. This is particularly true in the hotel industry, where the satisfied client, passing on from one hotel proprietor to another, helps the entire hotel business. In this connection we might suggest that a commission of hotel operators, financiers, and architects be sent to the United States to gather data, plans, figures, and methods of administration and operation that might be applicable in helping to solve the problems in France. We are particularly interested in the steps which we understand are to be taken by the Touring Club of France and the railroads to centralize advertising and publicity, for we feel that in the interest of effectiveness and economy, such work should be handled through one organization. We believe that a centralized publicity bureau should have branch offices in all of the leading cities of the world, from which could be disseminated interesting, practical information about hotels and the facilities for travelling in France. Realizing the enormous amount of staple materials that are bought currently in small quantities by individual hotels, we think that special study might well be made of the saving that could be effected by organizing a central purchasing department in a parent company, through which each hotel could buy equipment, furnishings, food- stuffs, etc., at bulk prices. This study might also include a consider- ation of the savings that might be effected by building a number of hotels at the same time under one general contract. After a sojourn at a hotel no matter how good it may be, the traveller, perhaps because he has exhausted the interest of the region, perhaps on account of a change of season, is ready to move. He is likely to go to hotels that have been particularly recommended to him. A proprietor who is interested in the success of a number of hotels would be in a position to recommend just the sort of hotel that would suit the needs of his patrons. This would tend to sei-ve the double purpose of keeping the traveller in the country and of benefiting the 198 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE combined hotel interest. This idea seems especially feasible in France, because of the great contrasts in scenery, as between the plains of Brittany and Normandy and the mountains of the Alps and the Pyrenees, or between the summer watering places along the English Channel and the winter watering places on the Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay. The same principle might well be worked out in the case of the motor tourist, who would be recommended to another first-class hotel in the same series as a terminus for each day's run. In many localities we found health resorts and watering places already developed in a most interesting and attractive manner, but we are constrained to concur in the belief that there are many other spots in France of equal natural charm, where similar establishments might well be developed. The recent movement to introduce various sport and recreational features in connection with hotels is especially commendable. We believe that there are decided possibilities in the introduction, as at La Bourboule, of more features for general enter- tainment, such as motion picture shows, theatres, music and dance pavilion, billiard halls, bowling alleys, racquet courts, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling greens, etc., also in the exploiting of the excellent opportunities for fishing and shooting. There seem to be possibilities in the more general establishment of garages with cars for hire in connection with the hotels. We feel that the practice of sending abroad each year a certain number of young men to study hotel industry is very much worth while. Such men become qualified to teach the hotel trade in all its phases in the training schools, which are now being established in France. By means of such schools France can recruit continuously an efficient hotel personnel from among its own people. A study of the best American standard practice in heating and ventilating, in electric installation, and in elevator service could be made to advantage in the interest of economy and efficiency. A study of the American type of rough plumbing and fixtures, including the dis- position and planning of bathrooms and barber shops as well as a study of the best standard practice in kitchen and laundry layout and equipment would be of great assistance in planning the new hotels in France. The best standard types of hotel hardware, and American methods of hotel office service, with its mechanical aids to efficiency, might also be worthy of investigation. XX EDUCATION-GENERAL AND TECHNICAL THE importance of education as a factor in national security and national prosperity is recognized by the leading men in France, who are planning modifications and extensions of the present educational system with a view to promoting the best interests of her people in the widest sense. It is recognized that education has many aims, but that particularly the elementary phases of training which reach all children are of the utmost importance in preparing the rising generation for the most efficient life possible. The paramount import- ance of teaching correct living and not merely imparting knowledge, either academic or vocational, was frequently emphasized, for it is difficult to make the mass of the people of mature age accept the teachings of modern hygiene and sanitation which in some instances run counter to deeply ingrained personal and social habits. The modern state accepts the duty and charge of providing primary education for all, and it is felt that France must also accept responsi- bility for the physical health of its people, and that to do so effectively it must work toward it as soon as the children enter the public schools ; if possible, of course, before that. Medical examination will be pro- vided; teeth, eyes, etc., cared for; and health inspection is likely to become as regular as the visits of the academic inspectors. It is hoped that what the children learn may react favorably upon the adults at home, and that the State will in this way be able to accelerate what is now realized to be one of the most important modern movements — the conservation of human life and energy for a period far beyond what has been thought possible. On this subject, as on so many others, the war has been a great object lesson. The enlistment of all men between i8 and 47 has made it necessary for older men, who under normal conditions would have gone into retirement, to remain at the head of affairs; and it is certain that one result of the war will be to prolong the active period of life for most Frenchmen for some time to come. A change in the prevailing 200 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE attitude on this subject seems inevitable; for it must be remembered that views as to the length of the efificient period of life have been different in France from our own. The prime importance of physical health is attracting general attention. It is believed in certain circles that too much weight has been given to academic training — ^book-learning — and not enough to training for life, to vocational training, and to technical training in its broadest sense. The remarkable health prevailing in the French army, the extraordinary beneficial effect on the recruits of living in the open air, even under the adverse conditions inseparable from trench warfare, has impressed all France with the importance of physical culture, and all matters promoting it. Different lines of investigation, such as the study of alcoholism, tuberculosis, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminology have pointed to the necessity of rendering the people healthier and happier if national efficiency is to be maintained and improved. French schools lack playgrounds and games, in our sense of the terms, both for boys and girls, and games are hardly indulged in at all by men and women of middle life. A few years ago training schools were started in several French cities, especially at Rheims, for the preparation of candidates for the Olympic games. What was accomplished in developing athletes was remarkable, but as in so many lines of endeavor in France, the main effort was directed toward training the exceptionally endowed, whose numbers are necessarily limited. In many lines the best modern theory and practice are described in books written by men of superlative ability, but these works appear in very limited editions; the conclusions and particularly the practical applications resulting from them often fail to reach the active workers, who would respond to new ideas if they were properly brought to their attention. There is, perhaps, too sharp a cleavage between the intel- lectual classes and those struggling in the rough and tumble of modern life, and, perhaps, too, higher primary education is not given to a sufficient number of children. It is recognized that what is needed in body-building, in academic training, and in technical training is to make the average individual as effective as his natural endowments will permit, and to secure for the state more efificient service by providing properly trained inter- mediate grades between the exceptionally endowed leaders and the THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 201 mass of men of varying capacities, who under modern conditions have to carry out the work planned, developed, and coordinated by such leaders. The urgent necessity of providing better training for the rank and file, so that the work may be done well and with a minimum of waste effort is particularly realized. Leaders are not lacking in France, but many sub-chiefs, technical managers, assistant managers, foremen, etc., must be provided, with the training and the energy that are indispensable under modern com- petitive conditions. The prevailing educational facilities of France, apparently, do not produce a sufficient quantity of this class. It has been said, for instance, that for a given unit of population, Switzerland has 300 technical chemists, Germany 250, and France only 7. While education in its narrow sense in public schools can be continued with great difficulty after the 13th or at best the i6th year by the mass of the population, provision must be made that those children who go to work after 13 may have supplementary teaching until their i6th year, certain hours of the week being designated by law for that pur- pose. To improve present conditions the public schools must be made available for adults of both sexes by lectures on subjects of both local and general interest. Public theatres, concerts, and museums are much more numerous in France than they are in most European countries, but they, nevertheless, remain insufficient for the intellectual needs and stimulation of the people, and are not available in the country districts. The American night school system and the courses given in the United States for adults on a great variety of subjects under the super- vision of state and municipal boards of education could probably be adopted throughout France with great advantage, and our system in this regard is well worthy of their study. In New York City this form of instruction, which appeals to adults of both sexes, is very highly developed. Underlying all these questions is the importance of pi'oviding for the physical and mental well-being of all classes of the population. To a government the object of which is the general welfare, happiness must be considered a great national asset. Whatever is missed results in a lowering of personal efficiency and a loss to the whole nation. In an interesting report on the alcohol situation in France, it is specifically declared among other things, that the misery of some of the classes. 202 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE the monotonous hopelessness of their Hves, makes them resort to drink as a refuge, and that it will be difficult to eradicate the curse of alcohol- ism and drugs merely through prohibition laws unless steps are taken at the same time to secure better living conditions. General education in France is in the hands of the State. All pubHc and private schools, from the lowest to the highest, are under the juris- diction of the minister of instruction. They are controlled by a superior council, educational bureaus, and a body of inspectors; the inspectors acting directly under the authority of the minister of instruction. In an educational way France is divided into 17 circumscriptions, called academies, each with an academic council, elected by and from the teaching body, and subject to a rector, appointed by the minister of instruction. These councils deal with all grades of instruction. Since 1882 instruction has been obligatory for all children between 6 and 13 years of age. Since 1881 instruction has been absolutely free in all primary schools. In 1912-13 there were enrolled in infant schools, so-called "maternal schools," 608,315 pupils, and in primary and higher primary schools 5,669,000; of these about 1,000,000 were in private institutions. The total cost of tuition was about 225,000,000 francs. The primary schools are intended for the mass of the population; those whose tuition ends at the 13th year or who, if a somewhat more complete education seems needful, pass through the higher primary schools. In these schools, in which the tuition runs from the 13th to the i6th year, the purpose is to impart a more general culture than can be given in the primary schools, aside from vocational training, but at the same time the training is usually adapted to local conditions, fitting those taking it either for special agricultural work or for the commercial and industrial pursuits prevalent in the locality. Where it has been found impossible to establish higher primary schools, the usual primary edu- cation is completed by supplementary courses in the ordinary primary schools. This is to meet the evident need for more complete instruc- tion. In 191 2 there were enrolled in such higher primary schools and supplementary courses 106,564 pupils; about 56,000 boys and 50,000 girls. Compared with the total school population these figures seem low. The public school buildings we saw appeared neither modern nor attractive. The setting of the buildings is poor, and there is usually a lack of trees, grass, and flowers. Little attention has been given. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 203 apparently, to providing recreation space. In America we have come to feel that too much attention cannot be given to such matters. We noticedth at, in general, schools were on the quieter and safer side streets and not on the main streets. Secondary instruction is not compulsory and is given by the State in lycees or by communes in communal colleges, and also by private individuals and associations in "free schools." Since 1886 the law has provided for the freedom of private schools, subject, however, to the supervision of the school authorities. The course of study in all these secondary schools is substantially the same, and extends over 7 years; 4 in the "first cycle" and 3 in the second. In the second cycle 4 optional courses are provided ; Latin and Greek. Latin and science. Latin and living languages. Science and living languages. The first two correspond roughly to what are known in Germany as gymnasia, the second two to what are known in Germany as "real schools." In 1 913 there were 112 state lycees in France with 62,000 pupils and 231 communal colleges with 37,000 pupils; there were 54 lycees for girls with 23,000 pupils, and 84 communal colleges for girls with 13,000 pupils. The cost to the State of secondary education is about 50,000,000 francs, of which 5,000,000 go for scholarships and prizes for scholars of the State schools. In mathematics and in the whole line of pure and applied science France has long been recognized as one of the leading nations, and her great schools of advanced study are world famous. France has always been remarkably successful in training the exceptionally endowed ; and it is generally recognized that the technologist or engineer who has received his education in France has a broad knowledge and a good command of his subject. Such men show originality and resource, and make good leaders. On the other hand, it is not infrequently said of some of the schools of the arts that they tend to preserve the great traditions of the past to the detriment of originality; that too many of those who graduate from them, instead of initiating new lines of thought and constructive work, continue to follow the old examples they have been taught to 204 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE study and imitate; that the graduates are, perhaps, overburdened with the knowledge of past beautiful adaptations of means to ends, and that too rarely men of ability emerge from the great applied art schools to present new theories and to embody such new conceptions in beauti- ful, modern forms adapted to modern needs. The tendency toward decentralization has steadily grown in France, and it is manifesting itself in different directions. It is likely that as a result of the war this tendency will become more marked. It will be more generally admitted that originality, initiative, and the discovery of new lines of endeavor necessarily arise in individuals, and that an important function of the State is to regulate and coordinate such individual efforts for the best interests of all. Freedom of instruction was established in 1875 S-i^d confirmed in 1880, but the right of granting degrees was reserved to governmental faculties. The law of 1896 provided for the creation of Government universities consisting of different faculties, subject to the general Ruins of the buildings of the Rheims University THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 205 council of the faculties, — the faculties of law, of medicine, of sciences, and of letters. The faculties are distributed as follows : Law Medicine Science Letters Paris Paris Paris Paris Aix Bordeaux Bordeaux Bordeaux Bordeaux Caen Caen Dijon Dijon Dijon Grenoble Grenoble Grenoble Lille Lille Lille Lille Lyons Lyons Lyons Lyons Montpellier Montpellier Montpellier Montpellier Nancy Nancy Nancy Nancy Rennes Rennes Rennes Poitiers Poitiers Poitiers Toulouse Toulouse Toulouse Toulouse Algiers Algiers Algiers Algiers Clermont Clermont Besancon Besancon Marseilles As will be seen from the above table, 8 of the above institutions are, properly speaking, universities. There must be added to the faculties mentioned, the preparatory schools of medicine and pharmacy, of which there are 15; and the high schools of pharmacy and the high schools of pharmacy and medicine, of which there are 8. In 1914 the total number of- students in government universities was as follows: Law 16,465 Medicine 8,533 Science 7,330 Letters 5,585 Pharmacy i,337 Preparatory schools of medicine and pharmacy 1,787 Of this number 6188 were foreign. 42,037 206 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE It is complained that too many lawyers are graduated for the public good; that there are too many lawyers in the legislature; that the legally trained mind with its regard for precedent, its hesitation at venturing into new fields, is not the type of mind that France most needs at this time; that what is needed is will to venture, readiness to take reasonable chances, willingness and courage to learn by experience, adverse or otherwise, and a readiness to exploit the unknown. The State faculties confer the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor. In addition to the State faculties there are the " free faculties " at Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyons, and Marseilles, where theology, letters, agriculture, social and political sciences, etc., are taught in addition to the other university courses. France has admirable technical institutes of the highest rank, such as the Polytechnical School, the School of Bridges and Highways, and the School of Mines, in Paris as well as St. Etienne and other cities. These schools are in reality postgraduate schools, intended primarily for the training of engineers for Government service after the}' have already received scientific and technical training of a high order else- where. The admission requirements of all these national schools are extremely high; they correspond in general to postgraduate study of even higher grade than would be required in the United States for the degree of doctor of philosophy or doctor of science. Besides these national schools there are other postgraduate schools in Paris, such as the Superior School of Electricity. The courses at this school are of one year's duration only, and are intended for men who have received a complete and thorough scientific, technological, or engineering training at the great national polytechnical schools or at some first-class engineering school, and who are, therefore, prepared for advanced and intensive study. In addition there are 6 national schools of arts and crafts, at Aix, Angers, Chalons, Cluny, Lille, and Paris. The purpose of these schools is to educate not only mechanical engineers of the highest type, but also to train foremen, heads of manufacturing works, etc. There are 2 schools for watch-making at Cluses and Besancon, 4 national profes- sional schools, 20 practical schools of industry, 35 schools of special industries distributed in the respective industrial districts; 15 municipal professional schools in Paris, and 370 private industrial schools in THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 207 different parts of France, with about 90,000 pupils. In spite of all these institutions, the general complaint is of the lack of technically trained men in many industries. Schools of Hydrography, of which there are 16, and a High School of Navigation provide for the training of officers for the mercantile marine and issue licenses accordingly. Higher commercial training is provided by 12 high schools of com- merce, with about 600 pupils, under the jurisdiction of the ministry of commerce, and a School of High Commercial Study in Paris, managed by the Paris Chamber of Commerce. There are 37 practical schools of commerce and industry, of which 12 are for girls. These schools were established in 1892, and are to provide skilled workmen and competent employees for the various branches of industry and commerce. The commercial courses comprise foreign languages, bookkeeping, ste- nography, typewriting, etc. There are 3 national agricultural schools at Grignon, Rennes, and Montpellier; 46 practical schools of agriculture, dependent upon the ministry of agriculture; a school of forestry at Nancy, a veterinary school at Alfort, besides many local agricultural schools in different sections of France. The communal schools in the agricultural districts also give special attention to the agricultural requirements of their pupils. It is not necessary to refer to the great art schools of France or to the great conservatory in Paris. They are known the world over, as are the schools of higher study, such as the College of France, the Sor- bonne, the School of Charts, etc. The above presents merely a general outline of the educational facilities provided. As already stated, we retain the impression that there is a strong movement a,way from the purely academic curriculum in the education of the people, toward a more technical and imme- diately practical form of training ; there is also a decided belief that too little attention has been paid to the requirements of those of only average ability. In the lower levels of industrial work there is a distressing lack of applicants for training as apprentices, but there is also a lack of properly trained foremen who are sufficiently grounded in the arts and sciences and in technology. This is true not only of those technical branches of industry which are practically concerned with metallurgy, chemistry, and similar technical work; it is also true of agriculture, 208 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE commerce, and those innumerable industries in which France excels by reason of the artistic endowment of its people, — -those industries which appeal to the artistic appreciation of the refined the world over, and have led to that large production of luxuries which have almost become the necessities of civilized life. Upon the export of these, France depends in large measure to maintain her balance of inter- national trade. While the centralized system of education provides for training in many directions, there are also a number of schools for special training to be found throughout the country, supported either by private con- tributions or by the cities or communities in which they are located and by chambers of commerce. Where the need for special technical training makes itself strongly felt, it usually takes form in suitable training establishments. In the region of the Dauphine, for instance, there is an institute of electrical technology, a paper-making school, an institute for commercial teaching, and a special glove-making school, with reference to the needs of the industry at Grenoble. At Vienne there is a technical school which gives special reference to the manu- facture of wool threads and tissues. In the region of Le Puy-en-Velez, which is the great center of handmade lace in the south of France, there is a school for the improvement of home lace-making. Here, as in other similar institutions, we found that the opportunity was in- variably seized not only to teach the particular trade, but also to instruct the girl workers in housekeeping economy, as well as personal and family hygiene. This has been of considerable value in promoting the best interests of the community, for on returning to their families these girls in turn become teachers not only of lace making but of many other important matters as well. In this particular school, which is supported by the lace industry, the learners are lodged and boarded free, and there is no charge for tuition. As illustrating the tendency of private initiative to assert itself in meeting specific requirements, let us instance the school at Besanson for the training of family servants. In this school the necessary knowledge is acquired for the complete management of a household, and all hygienic questions touching the welfare of the individual and the family; in practice, it has become a preparatory school for marriage. This school has been so successful that an extension of such schools to other regions of France appears inevitable. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 209 The hotel industry in France is of such great importance that trade schools have been established for the training of hotel workers. The object is not only to train minor employees in the proper exercise of their functions, but also to promote economical management, and to secure well trained French help for the hotels in France, in order to make them independent of foreigners. Besides the many special schools established through the action of private individuals or of communities and cities, much tuition is pro- vided by certain of the great industrial establishments such as that at Le Creusot, the great mining companies, and others. This training is frequently very complete, and in some instances, includes technical training of the highest kind. In conclusion, we wish to refer to the great advantage that would accrue to both countries if a regular exchange of professors between France and America were provided and arrangements also made for an interchange of students in order to promote a mutual understanding. Some of the French universities outside of Paris have made special efforts to attract foreigners, and are very desirous that American students should attend in greater numbers. Grenoble, for instance, has a special course in French for students of foreign nationality. They have a vacation course and also a special course to be completed in one year. The vacation course is given from July i to October i8, the fee for the course being 75 francs. Students taking this course, if properly qualified, will receive a certificate of French studies, and such students as have adequate knowledge may obtain a certificate of the French language. Everything possible is done to make the stay of foreign students in Grenoble profitable, and there is a special committee to provide for proper living facilities, excursions, social life, etc. This is only one of the university towns, however, that might profitably be visited by American students. It is the one that has so far been most successful in attracting foreigners, which is partly due to the excep- tionally favorable location of Grenoble. There are other university towns apart from Paris that students could frequent with profit. We were interested to learn of a definite plan to send young French- men to America for general business training in our great banks and industrial institutions. Industrial plants and residents suffered alike in this town XXI DEVASTATED REGIONS A T THE beginning of October we entered the war zone near Belfort, L\ where the destruction by bombardment was comparatively -*- -^ slight. It was not until we reached St. Die that the destruc- tion became general. It was severe in Raon I'Etape and Baccarat. Rambervilliers, the next town we visited, was hardly touched, but Gerbeviller, just beyond, a place of 2000 inhabitants, was almost completely destroyed. Then followed a succession of completely de- stroyed towns and villages, although the larger towns, such as Lune- ville and St. Nicholas le Port, did not suffer badly. Nancy showed a great many isolated instances of destruction, due to intermittent bombardment. From there to Chalons-sur-Marne we passed through a succession of cities and towns, some of which like Revigny were com- pletely destroyed, while others like Bar-le-Duc, Void, and Toul were only partially damaged. Rheims was about 25 per cent destroyed. The part of the war zone which we passed through constitutes only a small part of the total devastated areas in France. To indicate the extent of the damage, we can do no better than quote from a report which the minister of the interior sent to the prefects of France in July, 1916. The data which were collected by M. Bluzet, who has charge of the work of rehabilitating the devastated regions, do not include the 2554 communes still held by the Germans, or the 247 communes still under fire and not open to investigation. Seven hundred and fifty-three towns and villages have been in part or wholly destroyed. In these 753 towns, 29,594 buildings have been damaged and 16,669 completely destroyed. Of these 15,300 are in the department of Pas-de-Calais. In the department of the Marne over 15,000 have been damaged or destroyed- Other damage was done in the depart- ments of the Meurthe-et-Moselle, the Nord, Vosges, and Meuse. In 148 towns over half of the buildings have been completely destroyed, while in 74 towns 80 per cent have been destroyed. In- 212 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE eluded in the number were 221 city hails, 379 schools, 306 other public buildings, and 331 churches. Factories and mills to the number of 330 have been destroyed, throwing out of work approximately 57,633 persons, and depriving the families of the workers of support. According to official reports, nearly 5 million acres of France are now in the hands of the Germans, or about 4 per cent of the total area of the country. Four cities of over 100,000 inhabitants, Lille, Roubaix, Nancy, and Rheims, are either occupied by the Germans or under fire. The population in this invaded district is about twice as dense as the average in France. In 1 91 2, 50 million dollars' worth of cereals, or 10 per cent of the total production were raised in this region. The textile products of Roubaix alone amounted to 300 million dollars. The importance of the invaded regions is indicated by the figures shown on the opposite page which represent the output under normal conditions. All that is left of a large factory in a completely destroyed town THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 21 3 Two-thirds of the coal mined in France, valued at about 85 mil- lion dollars. Eighty per cent of the iron ore, to a value of 16 million dollars. Three hundred thousand long tons of iron, or three-fifths of the total, 2,100,000 tons of steel, or two-thirds of the total, and 3,462,000 tons of cast iron, or 68 per cent of the total. In 19 1 3 it is estimated that nearly a billion dollars' worth of agri- cultural products were raised in this region. On November 27, 1916, the minister of the interior announced the result of an investigation into the amount of materials destroyed or rendered useless by the destruction of buildings. The list includes 790 communes, but excludes the 2500 communes in the hands of the Germans and 250 still under constant fire. Masonry destroyed 4,680,000 cubic yards Stone masonry destroyed 2,080,000 " " Bricks 543,060,000 Lime 297,000 long tons Sand 1,345,500 cubic yards Sun-baked brick work 5i3>500 " " Lumber 191,646,000 board feet Trim and finish 63,180,000 " " Structural iron 27,300 long tons Hardware 5, 000 " " Terra cotta tiles 91,000,000 Slates 32,700,000 Relief work on a large scale is being carried on by the French Government under the direction of the minister of the interior and the minister of labor; the prefect of each department affected is en- couraged to do everything he can to take care of his people. The minister of labor is providing work for all who need it, and the senate and chamber of deputies are devoting a great deal of attention to granting the necessary appropriations and authority not only for immediate relief, but also for the permanent reconstruction of the destroyed districts. Since the first weeks of the war English Quakers have been active in relief work, chiefly in the departments of the Marne, of the Meuse, and of the Meurthe-et-Moselle, and their example has gone far to 214 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE determine the character of most of the reHef work done, even by the Government. It is well, therefore, to note the statements given in a recent ofificial report on their work. Doctors and nurses took care of the sick and looked after the babies and their mothers. The children were taken to school; the boys were taught trades and the girls were provided with sewing work. Furniture, especially beds and bedding, was provided. The cost of this was shared by the French Government. Special attention was given to the reconstruction of houses, of which 400 have been built in the Marne and Meuse. The Quakers themselves did the work, aided sometimes by French masons, and the Government furnished the materials. Most of the houses are made so that they can be taken down and set up on another site. Chickens, rabbits and seeds, representing a cost of $3500, have been distributed to families reestablished in 31 villages, and 250 acres have already been sown. Agricultural implements worth $18,000 have also been distributed. At Bar-le-duc an embroidery school has been opened, and at other places hospitals and places for convalescents have been provided. At Chalons these Quakers have a lying-in hospital, where over 300 children have been born since the beginning of the war. They have taken care of over 5000 people in their conval- escent hospitals, and have distributed over 120,000 bundles of clothing. According to an ofificial statement there are in France to-day 928,000 refugees driven away from their homes, half of whom are under 16 years of age. Of these 123,000 are Belgians. There are prob- ably 120,000 others who were not recorded because they were self- supporting. By the end of the second week of the war the minister of the interior had already moved 25,000 people away from the danger zone, and during the next two weeks 115,000 more were moved. At first the refugees were sheltered in any available vacant buildings, but by September, 1914, the Government required that every family that was not directly affected by the war should take care of some of the refugees at the expense of the Government. In general, the Govern- ment fixed a pension of 1.25 francs a day for each adult, and 50 cen- times a day for each child under 16 years of age. Wherever possible, work was provided. At Nancy, Prefect Mirman showed us large barracks in which 2500 refugee families, mostly peasants from around Verdun and Pont- THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 21 5 i-Mousson, were being cared for. As far as possible families were given separate rooms, but many dormitories contained half a dozen families each. Refugees are taught to be clean. The girls learn housekeeping, cooking, and the various household arts, and the boys a trade. Facili- ties for recreation are provided, the effect of which, it appears, has been to reduce the amount of supervision necessary. Despite the high cost of coal and supplies, the daily cost of caring for the refugees is only 1.05 francs per person. The French Government has appointed an inter-ministerial committee of which M. Leon Burgeois, minister of state, is chairman. This com- mittee, which is composed of various members of the cabinet and a number of senators and deputies, is working out a program for rehabili- tation of the invaded regions. M. Bluzet, inspector general under the minister of the interior, is in charge. We give here a few excerpts from a letter addressed by Premier Briand to President Poincare on May 8, 1916, and quoted in the first report of the inter-ministerial committee. "The payment of damages will hardly take care of the pressing needs of the invaded regions, especially when it comes to the reconstruction of the destroyed buildings. The same applies to the replacing of the tools used in industry, commerce, or agriculture. Cer- tainly, the State ought not to substitute itself for the individuals, but it evidently would be falling short of its duty if it failed to encourage or even to aid private initiative. The minister of the interior with the help of the military authorities is providing temporary shelters and repairing the less damaged houses as far as possible. The minister of agriculture is distributing seeds, fertilizers, tools, and live stock. The minister of commerce and industry is trying to take care of machin- ery and tools, and the minister of labor is providing work for the needy. Therefore, the work of this committee would seem to be chiefly one of reconstruction of buildings, with a view to 'aesthetics and hygiene.' The committee counts on collaboration from private individuals and organizations. The committee does not wish to replace any private effort, but rather to cooperate with it. "The committee is divided into nine sections and subcommittees as follows: I. The reorganization of various official administrations and ser- vices. 2l6 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 2. The reconstruction of means of communication and other local necessities. 3. The organization of the return of refugees, including the pro- viding of homes for them. 4. The reconstruction of towns and villages, including matters of hygiene and aesthetics. 5. The reconstruction of destroyed buildings. 6. The restoration of agriculture. 7. The restoration of industry, including the providing of raw materials. 8. Ways and means. 9. Judicial and legislative questions." Meanwhile the prefects of the invaded departments are given virtually a free hand to do whatever is needful to take care of the refugees and others. They spend what is necessary and send in their bills to the Government at the end of each month. Early in the war the Government set aside 300,000,000 francs for immediate relief. One of the most interesting features of this reconstruction work is the model emergency farm homes now being built at Gerbeviller. We were shown about 30 houses for one family each, with the Type of new houses which have been built in Gerbeviller for the dispossessed THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 217 Recent development in modern housing for employees in Le Creusot farms, stables and out-buildings as a part of the group. These houses are about 25 x 35 feet and contain a living room and two bedrooms in front and a stable behind. They are constructed largely of wood at a cost of about 5500 francs. For the present, refugees are charged a minimum rent of one franc per year. The houses for artisans are built in rows with asbestos shingles on the side walls and roofs. They cost only about 2700 francs per family. Prefect Mirman also showed us the interesting work which is being done by Miss Daisy Polk of California at Vitrimont, a farming village of 250 inhabitants. The town was completely destroyed, but 160 of the inhabitants have returned and reestablished themselves in temporary shelters. With the cooperation of the prefect. Miss Polk is trying to rebuild the town with its original character as far as possi- ble; the same alignment of the streets and the same fagades. But everywhere she is aiming to improve the hygiene and comfort of the houses by putting in better sanitary arrangements and making larger windows. Most important of all, she is teaching the inhabitants habits of cleanliness. The great difficulty is in getting laborers, although she already has 50 at work. A most remarkable document, the Desplas bill, was introduced in the chamber of deputies in September, 1916. In the preamble it sets 21 8 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE forth that while in all previous wars governments have disclaimed responsibility for damages caused to individuals, they must now assume such responsibility, and every person in France should con- tribute his share toward repairing the damage. This bill aims to pro- vide the method of awarding these damages. No limit is placed as to the total amount that shall be spent. In general the bill pledges the Government to pay the owner what it would have cost to repair his damage or reconstruct his building with materials and labor reckoned at rates current at the time the damage took place. If the cost of replacement is greater than the amount of the award, because of the advanced rates of materials and labor, the owner will have to pay the excess. As this excess amounts to probably 50 per cent or more, a great deal of outside private help will be necessary. The Cornudet bill was passed last spring by the chamber of deputies and is now before the senate, where its passage awaits action on the Desplas bill. This bill is described in some detail in the chapter on City Planning. Therefore, it is necessary to state here merely that it pro- vides for general city planning of the most approved type, not only for the devastated regions, but throughout France. A number of special sections apply to the immediate reconstruction of destroyed towns. The numerous problems involved in reconstruction are and may be divided into two main classes: I. The necessity of rebuilding the devastated agricultural villages and towns. Our attention was called to the fact that this work is to be done as far as possible with a view to standardizing all the materials such as window sashes, doors, hardware, wired glass, plumbing and lighting fixtures, cheap furniture, cooking utensils and house furnish- ings of all descriptions, etc. Window sashes, doors, hardware, wired glass, plumbing and lighting fixtures will be used in large quantities, and it seems likely that bids will be asked for these items at an early date. There must also be a general replacement of all sorts of agri- cultural tools, implements, agricultural machinery, seeds, fertilizers, etc., and in a great measure stock will have to be imported for breed- ing purposes. In bidding for any of this material, it will be necessary to bear in mind the types and styles peculiar to France in each of these lines, because the people will not willingly accept American sub- stitutes. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 219 2. The Northern section of France is chiefly an industrial region, in which are concentrated most of the important industries of the country; and as much of this section is still in the hands of the Ger- mans no accurate estimate can be made of the damage done. It is likely, however, that many of the industrial plants will have to be rebuilt and much of the machinery will have to be replaced. The mat- ter is of such transcendent importance that a special society, known as the Central Committee, has been formed for the rehabilitation of this section. In a separate chapter reference is made to an interview with members of this committee, and quotation is made from their memorandum to us covering the necessary operations as well as the materials that are chiefly involved. Not the least important question connected with the supplying of the necessary industrial material is the order in which required supplies will be delivered. It is realized that it will be very much more difficult to obtain delivery on some varieties of this material, and there is no doubt that advance orders will be placed in spite of the lack of definite information as to the quantities that may be necessary. Type of industrial housing provided by a large paper mill in France Grim and silent walls tell of a city that has passed, but also of the greater one to rise from its ruins An industrial plant totally destroyed by shell-fire XXII THE CENTRAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE RESUMPTION OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY IN THE INVADED REGIONS FROM the very outset the problems resulting from the reconstruction work which will become necessary in the devastated and invaded regions, has had the most careful consideration of the national legislature, extra parliamentary bodies, and many private associa- tions. The most representative and powerful private body is the one referred to in the title. It is officially recognized by the Government. The Commission saw a large section of the devastated country, and feels keenly that no better proof of American friendship for the French nation could be shown than by furthering the efforts of this and other organizations to the fullest possible extent, so that France may re- cuperate quickly from the adverse efifects of her heroic struggle. We had an opportunity to discuss with leading members of this organization the various questions arising in connection with their vast undertaking, the scope of which is indicated in the letter of September 14, which follows: Mr. President and Members OF THE American Commission to France Gentlemen : In order to comply with the wish expressed by several members of your Commission we have concluded that it would be of value to complete and to define the short outline we gave you at our interview of September 8th, re- garding our important association, and the Central Purchasing Bureau which it has founded. As you will see from the Documents Nos. i and 2 attached, our Association was organized during the year 191 5 with the purpose of studying from the indus- trial point of view the problems which will arise in connection with the resumption of work in the industrial plants of the invaded regions, immediately after their liberation. This Association which consists exclusively of men of affairs from the invaded regions has in its management the best qualified representatives of the great Industries, and its connections comprise all industrial enterprises (See Document No. 3). 222 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The Association is assured of the support and the cooperation of the French Government for the. economical rehabilitation which it has undertaken. As was indicated to you successively at the interviews in the National Association of Economical Expansion by Mr. David-Mennet, President of that Association, and then by Mr. Charles Laurent, our President and finally by Senator Touron, Vice-President of the Senate and one of the best qualified of the representatives of the invaded regions. The support which can be given us by American industries in our undertaking is at once a practical one and a moral one. In order to attain one of the needs which we have in mind, our Association — which according to French Law cannot undertake commercial operations so-called — has created for that particular purpose a Society called the Central Bureau of Industrial Purchases for the Invaded Regions (See Documents Nos. 4 and 5). This company will undertake — according to an understanding with the French Government — to provide what is industrially needed for the starting of the various industrial plants and before all to go ahead with the arrangements for a purchase of supplies of raw materials, tools and other articles and materials necessary for the resumption of work. To begin with it is particularly necessary — aside from raw materials — to provide tools, laminated copper, copper wire, leather and leather belting, oils, rubber and accessory material, which will run into big sums. As was explained to you by Mr. Pinot, Secretary General of the Committee of Iron Works of France, and Mr. J. Delattre, the General Representative of our great Association, the question of credit and terms of payment, which our Central Buying Bureau may be able to obtain in the United States, will play a very important role in the purchases which we have to make abroad, especially the acceptance by the American Manufacturers in payment or as guarantees, of French non-transferable treasury notes, would greatly affect the amount of business that we could eventually transact with the United States, while at the same time promoting the resumption of the industrial operations of our factories. Your attention was at the same time called in these interviews to the necessity of favoring the purchases and orders which may be made for the industrial people of the invaded regions by granting to them the preference in the filling and deliver- ing of their orders, out of a consideration of the misfortunes which they have suffered and as an expression of interest on the part of the manufacturers and merchants of the United States which will be very much appreciated; they do not only ask this as customer, but as severely tried colleagues. The importance of our group and the moral guarantees which are represented by the Central Bureau of Industrial Purchases for the Invaded Regions, of which it is a branch, must be manifest to you. In centralizing, in this way, all the purchases — in order to secure the best possible service to the merchants and manufacturers of the invaded regions^we have aimed at the same time to establish a solid organization and a method of securing for those with whom the Central Bureau will establish relations, guarantees which they might not otherwise find in dealing with each of the manufacturers separately. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 223 It is not necessary to add that the aim which the Central Bureau is following is entirely disinterested. The By-Laws indicate it sufficiently. It also goes without saying, as was said by Senator Touron, that the Central Association will willingly put the American manufacturers in touch with those of its members who desire to obtain offers of services in order to buy specialized material and heavy machinery which the Bureau could not supply them with or buy for its own account, and the Bureau will gladly transmit to its members cases arising where the proposition would seem to them to be of interest within the limits of our by-laws. It seems necessary in concluding to insist again on the practical results that American industry is likely to secure in connection with the rehabilitation of the invaded regions if it will enter into the idea which we have above expressed by accepting settlements for purchases made with delays, or subject to conditions of payment such as will permit the manufacturers of the invaded regions who have suffered so severely by the war, to purchase from them, subject, of course, to the necessary guarantees. We shall be very glad to receive in this respect any proposition or recommenda- tions that the Honorable Members of the American Industrial Commission or those whom they represent have to make. Please accept, Gentlemen, our most distinguished consideration, The President of the Board of Directors, Charles Laurent The documents referred to as Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are on file at the offices of the American Manufacturers' Export Association, 160 Broadway, New York. Document No. i is composed of the usual by-laws. The objects of the association are given as follows : The society will in every way possible further the securing of all tools and stock necessary for the reestablishing of the industries in the invaded regions. It will provide the necessary labor. It will secure for the industrial interests in the invaded regions the prompt payment due them as indemnities, etc. Furthermore, it will study and find means to facilitate loans in order that operations may be resumed as quickly as possible. Document No. 2 gives the names of the board of directors, which comprises the most prominent industrial men in France. Document No. 3 gives the following list of principal industries in this section: 224 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 1. Textile Industries Wool and washing combers Wool combed and twisted spinners Wool carded spinners Tissues of wool spinners Cotton twisted spinners Cotton tissues Flax spinners Hemp spinners Jute tissues and jute spinners (sacks and cloth of jute) Cloth tissues and underwear manufacturers Furniture spinners Carpet manufacturers Hat manufacturers Blanket manufacturers Felt manufacturers Sewing thread manufacturers Tulle manufacturers Embroidery and lace passementerie manufacturers Sizing, dyeing, and bleaching of cloth Rope and string manufacturers Silk spinners (Rheims and Roubaix) Manufacturers of shoe, corset, and other laces Conditioning bureau Mechanical treatment of wool and cotton Waste Wholesale outfitters 2. Mines, Metallurgical, Mechanical, and Electrical Construction Automobile manufacturers File and wool manufacturers Wire works (different metals) Bolts manufacturers Nails, tacks, and screws Chain and cable manufacturers Electric motor manufacturers THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 225 Electrical machinery, large and small Lamp manufacturers Steel, copper, aluminum, and iron tube manufacturers Locksmiths Sheet iron works Boiler makers Agricultural machines Iron foundries (rough casting and mould casting) Copper, bronze, aluminum, zinc, platinum, nickel, and lead foundries Machine-tool makers Railroad material, iron, tramways (stationary material and rolling stock) manufacturers Coal mines Iron mines Steel works and forges (rough and special steel) Rolling mills (large rails and sheet iron) Heating appliance manufacturers Metal balls and metal cushion manufacturers General mechanical construction (type of Cail and Fives, Lille) Textile machine construction Wood working machines Public lighting societies Steam machine construction Electric plants for distribution of power Tramway companies Cog-wheel manufacturers Mould and die manufacturers Spring manufacturers Automobile detached parts manufacturers Horseshoe manufacturers Iron framework construction Agricultural Industries Sugar refineries and mills Oil mills Distilleries Starch mills Breweries Chicory manufacturers Flour mills Manure manufacturers 226 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Starch and farina manufacturers Chocolate manufacturers Manufacturers of ahmentary paste 4. Miscellaneous Industries Plate and window glass and glass bottle manufacturers Mirrors and crystal makers Chemical products manufacturers Dyestufif manufacturers Paper manufacturers Printing establishments Manufacturers of belting, tanneries Rubber manufacturers Shoe manufacturers Makers of cases, boxes, boards, mechanical sawmills Traveling articles, makers of Tincture manufacturers Makers of mosaics and porcelain for building purposes ; also art porcelain Enamel works Public and private works contractors Manufacturers of explosives Petroleum refineries Transportation by land and water contractors Roofers, straw hat makers Button, brush, and toy manufacturers Makers of cooperages, large and small Carriage builders Celluloid manufacturers Potteries General store and warehouse contractors Document No. 4 gives the articles of incorporation and also the by- laws of the Central Bureau of Industrial Purchases for the Invaded Regions, and indicates its capital at one million francs. Document No. 5 is a report of the organization meeting. The men in this board of directors are as prominent in the industrial world as those of the Central Bureau, their directorship being in part the same. XXIII BELGIAN RECONSTRUCTION UPON our arrival in Paris we received a request from the Bel- gian Chamber of Commerce in Paris for a meeting for the purpose of discussing the stupendous problems involved in the reconstruction of Belgium after the war. The meeting took place on October i6, 1916. The Belgian Government and the leading men of that most unfortunate country are profoundly concerned as to the period that will immediately follow the conclusion of hostilities. It is considered imperatively necessary to study now all problems in- volved in reconstruction work, in order that there may be no delay in providing the people immediate means for obtaining a livelihood. It is a most difficult problem because little is definitely known. Only a rough estimate can be made of what will be needed in the way of capital, in order to rehabilitate different industries, not to mention the rebuilding of houses, plants, and destroyed cities, restock- ing of farms, and providing fertilizers, seeds, etc. As far as raw ma- terials are concerned, an approximate figure can be arrived at by tak- ing as a basis the normal production of the various industries in ques- tion. This is felt to be particularly important because some kinds of raw material will be much more difficult to obtain than others, and will increase in cost more rapidly. The most favorable order in which to make purchases has therefore to be considered. In view of the general situation in Europe, it seems self-evident that a very large part of what is imperatively needed, including financial support, will have to come from the United States. It is known that some European countries have made purchases, anticipating their wants long before the cessation of hostilities, and that arrangements have been made for deliveries immediately after the conclusion of peace. This involves the important question of transportation facili- ties. While the United States is making efforts to rehabilitate her mercantile marine, or properly speaking to create one, it is doubtful whether sufificient tonnage can be made available to supply all demands. 228 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Nothing short of rebuilding will give life to this plant Belgium is deeply concerned by this problem, and has in contempla- tion the establishment of a steamship line to be known as the Royal Belgium Lloyd, in order to provide shipping facilities. The substance of our interview with the Belgian Chamber of Com- merce above referred to is contained in a letter, dated October 17, 1 91 6, from which we quote as follows: "Confirming the substance of our valuable interview with your Commission on the i6th inst., we beg to submit an epitome of the im- portant and urgent questions connected with the industrial situation of Belgium after the European war, derived as follows: "We have, in a report to our (the Belgian) Government about six months ago, called special attention to the following points, viz. : "i. The financial and industrial situation of the principal Belgian industries after the departure of the invaders. "2. Their most urgent needs in raw material for the manufactured articles they are wont to produce. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 229 "3. The labor indispensable for the reconstruction of the work- shops and other necessary buildings. "4. The re-assortment of machine and other tools and plants which have, to such an enormous extent, been arbitrarily carried away, stolen, or destroyed by the enemy. "In concluding that report we remarked that the United States will be the country where there appears to be the best chance of find- ing what will be necessary as regards machinery, tools and raw mate- rials drawn from other parts of the American Continent, besides the adequate financial resources to carry out such a programme while the war lasts and possibly after its conclusion. "The resolutions of our Chamber on the subject were to the fol- lowing effect: "i. That the suggestions mentioned in the Report were to be recommended to the consideration of His Majesty's Government. "2. That these suggestions should form the object of deliberations, the urgency of which is sufficiently evidenced by the very serious situation which is shown to be impending as soon as the war comes to an end. "Consequently, we suggested an appeal to the principal associa- tions of the great industries of your country, in order to help Belgium to resume its industrial and commercial position after the war. "It is believed, from conversations with American bankers of high standing, that financial arrangements can be made in such a manner as will practically ensure such purchases to be equivalent to cash transactions, thus doing away with any addition to the manufacturers' net prices for remuneration on account of financing and commission charges. The specifications of the various raw materials, machinery, tools, etc., would, we expect, be drawn up by our Government, or their nominees. In drawing up these specifications, we shall bear in mind that preference in chronological order should be given to those pur- chases for which it will take more time than for others to be executed. "We shall transmit all the foregoing with the other information given us, to the Belgian Government, with whom we are, for the pur- pose, in correspondence and to whom we shall not fail to report the friendly way in which you have received our appeal on behalf of the Belgian Industries and their restoration to their pre-war prosperity." 230 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE The president of the Belgian chamber of deputies made an address depicting the desolation of his country and the almost hopeless condition of its people, with a special plea for the most far-reaching concessions by manufacturers and men of affairs in the United States, in order that further acute suffering may be avoided after the declaration of peace. An entire country-side laid waste XXIV THE LYONS SAMPLE FAIR THE LYONS FAIR will become a permanent institution. The Idea was conceived in 191 5 by M. Herriot (mayor of Lyons for eleven years and senator of the Rhone department for four years), now a cabinet minister. The first International Fair was held in March 1916, and the following countries were represented by exhibits: Great Britain, Italy, Russia, Canada, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, France, and United States (one firm only). In 1916 more than 1300 firms exhibited, representing the following trades: automobile; automobile accessories; agricultural machinery; fertilizers; chemical products; electrical appliances; gas appliances; toys; leather goods; celluloid articles; clothing and lingerie; books, stationery, and printing; mining tools; furniture in wood, iron, and steel; silk; jewelry; alimentary products; and furs. The total amount of French and foreign orders booked and delivered in 1916 was $10,000,000, while more than $8,000,000 of additional French orders were refused, due to lack of facilities for turning them out in a reasonable time. As will be seen from the accompanying photograph, the Fair is located on the Rhone Boulevards, which extend for six miles on both banks of the river through the city of Lyons. Last year additional space was provided in several of the new public buildings, placed at the disposal of the committee by the mayor. The arrangement of the exhibitors' stands was quite unlike that at fairs held in the United States. Each stand is complete in itself, and is set up to resemble a small shop and office, the average size being 13 by 13 feet and about 10 feet and 10 inches high. The average charge for a stand for the two weeks of the fair is about $110, not including fittings or furnishings, which are provided by the exhibitor. A certain number of half stands are provided at a charge of $70. There is also an allotment of space called the "Gallery of Minor Industries" specially intended for inventors, providing a space 2 feet 8 inches wide and 11 feet high for each exhibitor at a cost of about $26. All space required must be reserved and exhibition fees paid on or before De- cember 31; otherwise the Fair Committee will not guarantee allotment, and firms registering' after that date are omitted from the official catalogue which is issued in January. Lyons is preparing for a very large exhibit, to be held for two weeks — ^beginning March i and ending March 15, 1917- The United States will be represented by manufacturers of automobiles, machine- tools, agricultural implements, tractors, plows, hardware, concrete mixers, fountain pens, and many other lines. Since December 31, 1916, many applications have been received. It is doubtful if the Fair Committee will be able to allot additional space, and it is feared that more exhibitors will have to be be refused than last year, when 300 applications had to be declined. The Committee issues an official catalogue to all exhibitors and mariufacturers and buyers in allied and neutral countries interested in the goods exhibited. In these catalogs the firms exhibiting are indexed according to name and classified under trade; and there is a cross reference index which enables any exhibit or 232 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Type of permanent exhibition booths at the Lyons Fair article to be readily found. Attractive invitation cards are furnished at cost for distribution by the exhibitors. Upon request the Committee will furnish a list of local firms, which supply furniture and accessories at very moderate rates. To encourage exhibitors the French Government will admit exhibits, duty free, through bonded warehouses. All goods exhibited must be insured. The premium charged is moderate and covers the exhibit from time of leaving point of origin until its return after the fair. The American Express Company, 65 Broadway, New York City (Mr. James Thane, General Export Freight Agent), will quote rates and arrange for delivery of exhibits to Lyons. In 1916 the P. L. & M. Railway made no charge to exhibitors for returning their goods over its lines after the Fair, and it is believed it will do the same this year and possibly grant other privileges. In addition to the hotels, the Fair Committee has compiled a list of places providing board and lodging for those desiring private accommodations. Mr. George B. Van Cleve of 1790 Broadway, New York, Chairman of the American Committee, will be pleased to give any information concerning the Lyons Sample Fair upon application. Mr. Emil Garden, 21 Park Row, New York, is Special Representative of the French Committee in New York. It is well to remember that this is strictly a business man's Fair; there are no amusements of any kind provided on the grounds, but each exhibit is a manufac- turer's office and workshop — -up-to-the-minute — ready to discuss business in all its phases and to encourage Franco-American trade relations. XXV BIBLIOGRAPHY Note: — This Bibliography is not complete. It is merely suggestive of media by which those interested may keep in touch with current experience, ideas and accomplishments. The entries follow as far as possible the order of chapters in this book. Annuaire d'Adresses des Fonctionaires du Ministere des Travaux Publics, Des Chemins de Fer, De la Navigation, Des Mines, de I'lndustrie, et des Banques, — by Marande et Moreau, Pub. Ministere de Travaux Public, Paris, 1916, — ^466 pp. 111. Atlas General, Vidal-Lablache, — Pub. Armand Colin, Paris, 1916, — 200 pp. 111. in colors. Les Causes et les Consequences de la Guerre, — by Yves Guyot, Pub. Alcan, Paris, 1916,-300 pp. Notre Avenir, by Victor Cambon, — Pub. by Payot & Cie., Paris, — 1916, — -280 pp. Les Methodes AUemandes d'Expansion Economiques, — by Henri Hauser, — Pub. Armand Colin, — 1916, — 300 pp. Year Book for 1916 of American Chamber of Commerce in Paris, — 3 rue Scribe, 175 PP- Statesman's Yearbook, — yearly, — pub. Macmillan & Co. La Commission Industrielle Americaine a Marseille, — by Chambre de Commerce de Marseille, — Pub. Barlatier, Marseille — ^1916, — 22 pp. Bulletin du Ministere du Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale — Monthly Bulletin, — Pub. Berger-Levrault, — 23rd year, — 100 pp. Bulletin de la Statistique Generale de la France, — ^Quarterly, — Pub. Felix Alcan, Paris, — ^5th year, — 100 pp. Bulletin de la Societe d' Encouragement pour I'lndustrie Nationale, — Bi-monthly, — Editors: Hitier and Toulon, — Pub. by the Society, Paris, 114th year, — 330 pp. 111. Le Journal des Chambres de Commerce Frangaises et Etrangeres, — semi-monthly,^ Editor, Geo. Gerald (depute), — Pub. 16 rue de I'Arcade, Paris,— First year. Moniteur OfiSciel du Commerce, Renseignements Commerciaux, Industriels et Maritimes, — Every Thursday, — Office National du Commerce Ext6rieur, 3 rue Feydeau, Paris, — 32nd year. Documents Statistiques sur le Commerce de la France, — Monthly, — Ministere des Finances Direction Gendrale des Douanes, — I'lmprimerie Nationale, Paris. Bulletin de Statistique et de Legislation Comparee, — Monthly; Ministere des Finances,— I'lmprimerie Nationale, 87 due Vielle du Temple, Paris, — 40th year. Bulletin de la Chambre de Commerce de Paris, — every Saturday,— Hotel de la Chambre de Commerce, Place de la Bourse, Paris. 234 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Journal des Economistes, every month, — Ed. Yves Guyot, — Libraire Felix Alcan, io8 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris, — ^75th year. L'Economiste Europeen, every Friday, — Ed. Edmund Thery, — 50 rue St. Germain Paris, — 25th year. La France Economique et Financi^re, — ^every Saturday, — Ed. Raoul Binet, — i rue Mehul, Paris, — 15th year. Commerce et Industrie, Revue Pratiques des Methodes Modernes en Affaires, — monthly, — Ed. Jules Lepain, — 29 Boulevard des Italiens, Paris, — lOth year. Le Monde Economique, — weekly, — Ed. P. Beauregord, — 37 rue Joubert, Paris, — 26th year. Federation des Industriels et des Commercants Francais, — monthly, — Boul. Haus- mann, Paris, — 3rd year. Chambre des Negociants Commissionaires et du Commerce Exterieur, — monthly, — • 18 Rue de Paradis, Paris, — 25th year. Mercure, Bulletin Officiel de la Federation Francaise du Commerce International, — monthly, — Ed. E. Plagnes, 15 rue de la Chausee d'Antin, Paris, — 3rd year. L'Exportateur Francais, — weekly magazine, — Editor, Maurice Ajam, — Pub. i Rue Taitbout, Paris, — First year, — 100 pp. 111. Documents Statistiques sur le Commerce de la France, — monthly magazine, — By direction Generale des Douanes, Ministere des Finances, — Pub. Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, — 208 pp. "Le Commerce de la France avec les Pays Etrangers" in Bulletin de Statistique et de Legislation Comparee, — Pub. Ministere des Finances, — ^1916, — 50 pp. Traite Pratique de Legislation du Batiment et des Usines, — -by E. Barberot, — Pub. Ch. Beranger, Paris, — 1909, — -1625 pp. 111. Traite de Constructions Civiles, — by E. Barberot, — Pub. by Ch. Beranger, Paris, — 1912, — 1158 pp. 111. L'Effort Agricole de la France pendant six mois de la Guerre, — Pub. by Ministere de I'Agriculture, — ^1915, — 140 pp. Le Credit Agricole, 3 volumes, — Pub. Ministere de I'Agriculture, Paris, — 1916, — 100 pp. Bulletin de la Societe des Agriculteurs de France, — monthly, — 8 rue d'Ath^nes, Paris, — 30 pp. 111. Articles on "Culture Mecanique" in Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement pour rindustrie Nationale for September, 1915, — 44 rue de Rennes, Pari? Culture Mecanique, — by Max Ringelmann, — Pub. Librairie Agricole de la Maison Rustique, Paris, — 1913, — 2 vols., 300 pp. 111. Lois concernant la Reglementation de Travail, — Pub. Berger-Levrault, Paris, — ■ 1914, — 220 pp. Salaires et Cout de I'Existence (up to 1910) in Statistique Generale de la France, — Pub. by Ministere du Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale, — 191 1, — ^500 pp. Annuaire des Chambres Syndicales du Materiel de Guerre et de la Construction Navale, — Pub. at 7 rue de Madrid, Paris, — 1915, — -500 pp. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 235 Syndicats d' Initiative et Groupements Analogues, — Pub. by Touring Club de France Paris, — 1916, — 4 pp. Statistique du Port de Marseille, — -Pub. by Barlatier, Marseille, — 1915, — 91 pp. 111. Cahiers des Charges, Port de Marseille, — Pub. by Barlatier, Marseille, — 1916, — 60 pp. 111. Chambre de Commerce du Havre, 1802- 1902, — Pub. by Auguste Godefray, Le Havre, — 1903, — 282 pp. 111. Daily Consular and Trade Reports "France," — By A. M. Thackara, — March 27, 1916, — 20 pp. Chambre Syndicales des Fabricants et Des Constructeurs de Materiel pour Chemins de Fer et Tramways, Annuaire, — Pub. at 7 rue de Madrid, Paris, — 1914, — -782 pp. Roads and Pavements, — By Ernest Flagg, — Pub. Same, N. Y., — 1910, — 44 pp. 111. Street Paving and Maintenance in European Cities, — ^By Henry W. Durham, — Pub. City of New York, — ^1913, — 450 pp. 111. Acces de I'Etang de Berre k la Navigation Maritime, — -By H. Giraud, and adopted by Chambre de Commerce de Marseille, — ^Pub. Barlatier, Marseille, — 1916, — 14 pp. 111. Notice sur le Port of Rouen, — ^By M. M. Babin, Goblentz et Lorton, — Pub. Lecerf Fils. Rouen, — 1913, — 14 pp. The Port of Bordeaux, — By Chambre de Commerce de Bordeaux, — ^1916, — ^10 pp. 111. Le Canal de Marseille au Rhone, — ^by M. Bourgougnon, — Pub. A. Dumas, Paris, —1915,-130 pp. 111. Statistique de la Navigation Interieure, — Pub. by Ministere des Travaux Publics, Paris, — 1914. "Houille Blanche;" Guide Industriel du Dauphine, — By Chambre de Commerce de Grenoble, — -1916, — 40 pp. 111. Album de la Chambre Syndicale des Forces Hydrauliques, 2 volumes, — -Pub. by Ministere des Travaux Publiques, Paris. La Houille Blanche, — By Henri Cahen, — Pub. Arthur Rousseau, Paris, for the Mus^e Social, Comite des Forges de France, Annuaire for 1914-1915, — 1500 pp.^Also special bulletins and reports on all subjects such as Mines, Metallurgy, Coal, Power, etc. Les Charbonnages Francais,— By H. de Peyerimhoff,— Pub. Arthur Rousseau, Paris,— 1913,-30 pp. Coal Resources of the World,— Edited by Wm. Mclnnes, D. B. Dowling and W. W. Leach,— Pub. Morang & Co., Ltd., Toronto, Canada,— 1913,-760 pp. m 2 vols. 111. Rapport sur le projet de loi sur le Regime de I'Alcool fait par une Commission de la Chambre des Deputes, avril, 1916,— By M. Tournan,— Pub. I'lmprimene Nationale, Paris, — 280 pp. 236 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement pour I'lndustrie Nationale, — By Hitier and Toulon, — Pub. by Society, — Jan. and Feb. 1916, — 40 pp. Bulletin de la Statistique Generale de la France, — -By L. Duge de Bernouville, — ■ Pub. Felix Alcan, — April, 1914, — ^4 pp. Bulletin du Ministere du Travail, — Pub. by Berger-Levrault, — Nov. -Dec, 1915. Les Habitations k Bon Marche en France et a I'Etranger, — By Charles Lucas and Will Darville, — Pub. La Construction Moderne, Paris, — ^650 pp. 111. Les Habitations a Bon Marche, — By Jules Siegfield, — Pub. Felix Alcan, — ^1914, — • 78 pp. Le Musee Social Directory, — By Bibliotheque du Musee Social, — ^Pub. Arthur Rousseau, Paris, — 1914, — 90 pp. Revue Pratique D'Hygiene Municipale, — Monthly Magazine, — Pub. Berger Levrault, Paris, — nth year, — 50 pp. Brochures published at intervals by the Societe Franfaise des Habitations k Bon Marche, — 9 rue de Solferino, Paris. Memoires et Documents, — By Le Musee Social, — ^Monthly, — ^Pub. A. Rousseau, Paris, — 4th year, — 50 pp. Recueil de Documents sur la Prevoyance Sociale, — Monthly, — By the Ministere du Commerce and the Ministere du Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale, — Pub. Berger-Levrault Paris, — ^50 pp. Brochures published monthly on social questions, — by G. Delmas, Bordeaux, — ^3rd year, — 40 pp. Bulletin du Ministere du Travail et de la Prevoyance Sociale, — ^Monthly — 'Pub. Berger-Levrault, Paris, — 23rd year, — 150 pp. Les Jardins Ouvriers, — By A. L. Gravier and H. Latiere, — ^Pub. Lucien Laveur, Paris, — 1907, — 475 pp. 111. Books published by the Association des Cit6s Jardins de France, — 11 rue Male- branche, Paris. Etudes sur les Transformations de Paris, — By Eug. Henard, — ^Pub. Libraires Im- primeries Reunis, Paris, — 1903, — 335 pp. 111. Commission d'Extension de Paris, Considerations Techniques Preliminaires, — Pub. Prefecture du Department de la Seine, Paris, — 1913, — no pp. 111. Commission d'Extension de Paris, Apercus Historiques, — Pub. Prefecture du De- partment de la Seine, Paris, — 1913, — 250 pp. 111. La Plus Belle des Industries; I'Hoteliere Francaise, — By Leon Auscher and L. Baudry de Saunier, — Pub. Comite de I'Hoteliere du Touring Club de France, Paris, — 1916, — 43 pp. Chambre Touring Club, — Pub. Touring Club de France, Paris, — 1910, — ^47 pp. 111. I'lndustrie Hoteliere, — Bi-weekly Magazine, — Pub. Association Syndicale de I'lndustrie Hoteliere, Annecy, — 13th year, — 12 pp. Touring Club de France, — Monthly Review, — Pub. Touring Club de France, Paris, — 27th year, — 36 pp. 111. Local Illustrated Guides published at intervals by all of the Railroads. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 237 Brochures published at intervals by all of the Watering Places and Thermal es- tablishments. Program d'Enseignement Hotelier,— Pub. Touring Club de France Paris— IQ16 30 pp. Rapport sur la Reparation des Dommages causes par les faits de la Guerre,— By M. Desplas, depute,— Pub. Chambre des Deputes, Paris,— 1916,-350 pp. Comment Reconstruire nos cites d^truites,- By Agache, Auburtin et Redont,— Pub. Armand Colin, Paris,— 1915,-250 pp.— (contains full "Loi Cornudet"). Commission d'Etude pour les Reconstructions Rurales dans les Regions devastees par la Guerre,— By the Societe des Architectes Diplomes, Paris,— 1916,-105 pp. La Question de la Reconstruction des Villes et Villages Detruits par la Guerre,— By the Societe Francaise des Habitations a Bon Marche, Paris,— 1916, — 135 pp. La Reparation des Maisons endommagees par la Guerre,— By A. Godin,— Pub. Berger-Levrault, Paris, — 1916, — ^65 pp. Guide Pratique pour la Reconstruction, I'Extension, I'Amenagement,— By Eug. Couterand, — Pub. La Construction Moderne, Paris, — 350 pp. Reparation des Dommages causes par la Guerre, — By L. Armbuster, — Pub. Berger- Levrault, Paris, — 1916, — 270 pp. Bulletin de la Societe Francaise des Habitations a Bon Marche, Nos. 3 and 4 for 1916, — By Georges Risler, — ^Pub. The Society, Paris, — 1916, — 11 pp. *Publications dealing with France of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce of the Department of Commerce at Washington, D. C. are given in the following list: SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES No. Leather and Boots and Shoes in European Countries 14 Lace Industry in France and England 23 Manufacture of Woolen, Worsted, and shoddy in France and England 25 Machine-tool Trade in Germany, France, Switzerland, Italy, and the United Kingdom 26 American Agricultural Implements in Europe, Asia, and Africa 28 Flour and Wheat Trade in European Countries and the Levant 30 Industrial Conditions in Europe 38 Shoe and Leather Trade in France and Switzerland 57 Foreign Credits 62 Electrical Meters in Europe 66 Edible Oils in the Mediterranean 75 Production and Use of Denatured Alcohol in Principal Countries 77 Commercial Laws of England, Scotland, Germany, and France 97 Commercial Organizations in France 98 Cottonseed Industry in Foreign Countries 99 Navigation Laws 114 Government Aid to Merchant Shipping 119 *In completing our report we have had frequent occasion to refer to the publications of the Bureau of Domestic and Foreign Trade of the Department of Commerce, and we cannot too strongly recommend the value of these reports, which we think our Foreign Trade Merchants would do well to study with care. The valuable information contained in them does not seem to be sufficiently known. 238 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE SPECIAL CONSULAR REPORTS. Cordage and Twine in Foreign Countries 45 Optical-goods Trade in Foreign Countries 46 Cocoa Production and Trade 50 Foreign Trade in Denatured Alcohol 51 Foreign Salt Market and Industry 52 Foreign Markets for Motor Vehicles 53 Foreign Trade in Canned Goods 54 Foreign Trade in Musical Instruments 55 Foreign Markets for Railway Supplies 60 Foreign Markets for American Fruits 62 Cooking and Heating Stoves in Foreign Countries 63 Tobacco Trade of World 68 Foreign Markets for Coal 69 Some Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry in Europe 71 Paper Trade of World 73 Foreign Trade in Buttons 75 TARIFF SERIES Customs Tariff of France 25 Supplement to Tariff of France 25A In addition to the foregoing, the following named periodical publications of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce contain material with regard to France: Commerce Reports (daily) — ^Contains current reports from consular officers, commercial attaches, and commercial agents. Supplements to Commerce Reports — Contain each year the annual reports of American consular officers in France on the commerce and industries of their respective districts. Commerce and Navigation (annual) — Contains detailed statistics of the trade of the United States with each foreign country. Statistical Abstract (annual) — Contains commercial and financial statistics of the principal countries of the world. Note: — In the French edition of the report there is added a list of current American magazines and books dealing with Industry and Trade. APPENDIX REPORTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE IN PARIS MADE AT THE REQUEST OF THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE EXPORTATION OF AMERICAN COAL TO FRANCE IN ordinary times the annual consumption of coal in France is about 60 million tons, of which about 40 millions are produced within the country. The 20 million tons imported, according to the statistics of 1913, were from the follow- ing sources: Great Britain 13,000,000 Belgium 3,700,000 Germany 3,500,000 Other countries 300,000 20,500,000 It will be seen that 300,000 tons coming from other countries is a pretty small portion of what France habitually imports, but even in this small portion the United States had no part. As a matter of fact the United States has not been in the habit of supplying any coal at all to France. About four steamer loads were sent in June 1914, amounting in all to 34,000 tons; and it is said that the total for the year 191 5 was 200,000 tons. Such quantities can, of course, not be considered. The interesting question which arises is, why the United States, a coal producing country, should not be able to enter the French market, for the kind of coal pro- duced in America is in every way adapted to the needs of France. An examination of the subject reveals two reasons; prohibitive freight rates asked by foreign steamers, and the absence of colliers. No other reason is neces- sary and none can be more striking. If the United States desires to export coal to France, the difficulty of transportation must be overcome, and American coal carrying boats must be supplied. This is in reality a part of that vital question relating to the American Merchant Marine. Great Britain supplies the greater part of the foreign coal used in France (13 million tons, out of 20 million in 1913). Great Britain is nearer, has the steamers, and easily controls the freight rates. It has been said that one difficulty in the way of exporting American coal to France was in finding return cargo for the steamer. This is not, however, a serious draw- back, for it is believed that were the exportation to France to become general, return heavy freight suitable for such steamers would easily be found. Another point to be considered is : were the difficulty of transportation overcome, would there be any particular advantage in entering the French market? Here it 240 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE is believed that the United States would have an advantage in that the organization of the coal industry is so highly perfected, it could adapt itself to the special needs of French consumers. For example, the manufacture of briquettes from the higher grades of coal would find a large use by the French railroad companies. This would utilize a by-product (coal dust) from which American producers at present derive little or no profit. The difficulty of transportation is indeed a serious one, but if there is a determina- tion in the United States, as we believe there is, to create an adequate merchant marine, this difficulty will then disappear. This Chamber, therefore, believes that the exportation of American coal to France is well worth serious consideration by American coal producers, for it is certain that for some time after the war France will not be able to produce the usual 40 million tons per annum, her coal fields in the north having suffered much damage from the war. This Chamber, therefore, recommends that this subject be brought to the attention of American coal producers, that they study the requirements in France, and be in a position to meet them when the question of transportation will have been solved. CREDIT AND BANKING FACILITIES Among the reasons why the export trade of the United States with France has not attained its full development is the reluctance on the part of American manu- facturers to extend the necessary credits. Their indifference to this subject is difficult to comprehend, for in no country is the credit system so highly de- veloped as in the United States. The American Chamber of Commerce has witnessed many cases where French merchants have sought to purchase goods in the United States, and have been put in contact with American manufacturers, but with no result, because the latter have tersely stated their terms as "cash against documents f. o. b. New York." Time is required for goods to reach their destination, and they are often not sold for some time thereafter; again much of the merchandise which France imports from the United States is either raw material or intermediate products which must be converted into manufactured articles. To exact payment in advance or against bills of lading would be a great hardship to French importers, and would seriously hamper trade. When business has been so successfully developed in the United States upon the principal of extended credit, why should not American manufacturers follow the same principle in their trade in foreign countries? Extending credit can be done in such a way that it in no manner prevents the American seller from receiving cash for his goods; in other words, if the seller in- stead of demanding cash payment upon delivery of the goods f. o. b. at an American port, will draw a three months' draft on the European buyer or on such a bank as a European buyer may indicate, he can immediately sell or discount his draft and so get the cash for his goods; although he still remains responsible for the final payment of the draft. For raw products such as cotton, etc., this has always been done. Now, however, the manufacturers, thinking that France is at war, do not want to take any risk and exact the terms f. o. b. This will not do after the war; if manufacturers desire foreign business, they must do it on the same basis as that employed by the dealers in raw materials — either draw at 90 days direct on the purchaser or ask the purchaser to give the name of a bank through which the trans- action can be effected. An excellent example of the wisdom of extending credit is found in the history of the American Agricultural machinery industry, established in France more THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 24I than fifty years ago. Probably no American product has had to contend with so great a disadvantage under the French tariff as agricultural machinery ; but, despite the high tariff, and despite the fact that the purchasers are dependent for their resources upon crops, this line of business has grown to immense proportions, and would never have been introduced, much less developed, had it not been that ample and judicious credit has at all times been extended. The losses in this line have been carefully estimated, and on a total business of from 80 to 100 million francs per annum there is less than one-half per cent loss. It goes without saying that credit should not be extended to purchasers in the foreign market any more than it is to purchasers within the United States, without satisfactory information as to business standing and reputation; but the means of obtaining this information are at hand. The great American mercantile agency, R. G. Dun & Co. has offices all over Europe, other continental companies of reputa- tion exist, and the large French banks are all organized to give the most accurate accounts of business standing, so that no merchant need be without full knowledge of facts relating to the standing and integrity of those with whom he wishes to deal. With respect to French merchants and business men, a marked national char- acteristic should be taken into account. Business integrity in France is very high; the French have an established reputation for honesty and scrupulousness in keeping their engagements even among classes where this might least be expected. Statistics show that the percentage of business failures in France is very much less than in the United States or in many other countries. The reason for this is again to be sought in a national characteristic. Failure in business is looked upon by French people as a family disgrace. If a man finds himself in business troubles he can almost invariably count upon assistance and even sacrifice on the part of his own family or friends. Many instances can be cited where persons who have met with business reverses have, under the most trying circumstances, entirely kept their business obligations and have reimbursed those who came to their assistance. Many American firms after doing business in France for a number of years can testify to the fact that they have never lost a dollar from a bad debt. It is certain that after the war there will be great need of financial assistance from the United States, to aid in the rehabilitation of French industry. The National City Bank of New York fully appreciated the situation and has set out to help exporters. Other large American banks are equally ready. The cooperation of these financial organizations with American manufacturers interested in the French market will certainly develop a rational plan which will increase the export business of the United States to this country. What this Chamber desires to emphasize is, first, that judicious credit is a necessary factor in the development of our trade, as the history of the agricultural machinery industry hasfuUy proven; second, that adequate means exist for American manufacturers to inform them- selves as to the standing of French merchants; and third, that the general reputation for business integrity among the French and the very small percentage of business losses are evidence that American manufacturers can safely accord liberal credits if they take ordinary precautions. PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INDUSTRIAL] DESIGNS AND PATTERNS It is a matter of profound regret that, up to the present time, there has been no adequate means of protecting property rights in industrial designs and patterns n the United States. For many years the American Chamber of Commerce m 242 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Paris has seen the evil effects which have resulted from this state of affairs, and has given much study to the subject. The fact that the United States does not participate in the European International Agreement exposes the American author of a design or pattern to the consequences of imitation by persons in Europe. Again, the fact that, up to the present time, no federal law bearing on this subject has been enacted in the United States, leaves the European and particularly the French author of industrial designs at the mercy of unscrupulous persons in America. The principal European countries have laws on this subject; the law of France, passed in 1909, being generally recognized as the best. In addition to this, however, the European countries adhere to an International Agreement which, in practice, has given entire satisfaction. The only protection offered in the United States at the present time is by taking out a patent (see Section 4229 of the Revised Statutes and also Section 4933), but this is not practical to do because of the nature of the formalities, the length of time required, and the great expense. Industrial designs, for example those of laces, textiles, etc., cannot be compared to inventions. They do not require protection for a great length of time because they are matters of fashion; but what they do require is to be quickly registered under a system which will protect them for one or two seasons, and at a nominal cost, because of the large number of designs to be protected. The International European Agreement referred to takes these conditions into account, and has succeeded in giving adequate protection to manu- facturers and owners of designs. It is, of course, understood that any owner registering .designs under the agreement must defend his case in the Courts, at his own expense, should his design be copied. But the fact that he has registered the design is a great help to him in this defense, and practically has the effect of pre- venting persons from copying his work. For some years this Chamber has striven to impress business organizations in the United States with the importance of legislation on this subject, for the extent to which French industrial designs have been copied in the United States and the loss which French manufacturers have borne in consequence has been the cause of great irritation here, and unless corrected will be a disagreeable element in any commercial treaty negotiations which will take place in the future. The American Chamber of Commerce in Paris is gratified to see that this subject has at last claimed the attention of Congress. A bill H. R. 17290 was introduced some time ago by Mr. Morrison of Indiana, which would seem to be a solution of the difficulty. This Chamber wrote a letter (copy of which is annexed to this report) on November 2nd, to the Chairman of the Committee on Patents of the House of Representatives, endorsing the bill. The Chamber, therefore, earnestly recommends that the American Industrial Commission to France and the American Manufacturers' Export Association endeavor likewise to use their influence to support the measure. Paris, November 2nd, 1916 To THE Honorable Chairman of the Committee on Patents, House of Representatives, Washington. Sir: For many years, the American Cliamber of Commerce in Paris has deplored the lack of adequate protection of property rights in industrial designs and patterns, and has often received complaints from French manufacturers whose designs had been ruthlessly copied by unscrupulous persons in the United States. From the point of view of justice, which will certainly be upheld by every honest American manufacturer, as well as from the point of view of expediency, our country should furnish requisite means for the author or proprietor of a new and original surface design to protect his rights therein. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 243 Textile and other industrial designs differ from works protected by copyright in that they, being objects of fashion, do not exact protection for a long period of time, but do require it to be easily and quickly obtained and at a low cost. For this reason, the only protective means offered under Ameri- can law — that of obtaining a patent (Section 4229 Revised Statutes) is very much more cumbersome than the French system, requiring more time and being more expensive. The introduction in the House of Representatives of H.R. 17290 by Mr. Morrison of Indiana, is aproof that this difficulty is recognized and will be removed. We believe that the provisions of this bill are in principle correct and would accomplish the much desired object. Moreover, the removal of this evil will have a beneficial reaction upon the foreign commerce of the United States, for it will eliminate one of the causes of irritation among French manufacturers which we have witnessed for a long time. The American Chamber of Commerce in Paris desires to support the bill and sincerely hopes that your honorable Committee will succeed in obtaining its enactment into law. Respectfully yours, (Signed) Walter V. R. Perry Vice-President. AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE In a memorial addressed to Congress by this Chamber, in June, 1912, on the subject of the American Merchant Marine, the following two statements were made: "It is estimated that over six hundred million dollars are annually paid by the people of the United States to foreigners for the carrying, marine insurance, etc., of our foreign trade, instead of being expended upon American labor and enterprise." "A conflict, industrial or international, involving one or more of the great maritime nations of Europe would inevitably arrest and paralyze our great foreign trade through lack of American or neutral vessels for its transportation, thus causing widespread suffering and distress throughout our land." In principle, these statements were just as true a generation ago as they are to-day, but the advocates of the American Merchant Marine have never been able to impress them upon the American people. The war, however, has aroused our country to a realization of the consequences of this indifference, and reveals the spectacle of a great industrial nation with no means of transportation of its own. It has produced in the United States, a neutral country, the most gigantic example of commercial stagnation the world has ever witnessed. The congestion of freight in American ports and along the great railway lines now serves to impress this forcibly upon the minds of merchants and exporters, who have at last learned that no commercial nations can afford to be entirely dependent upon others for the carrying of its merchandise. It is evident that the United States is now determined to create a merchant marine, and no doubt revise our navigation laws. Legislation is required, but it should be non-partisan legislation, under the guiding influence of our great business organizations having the foreign trade of the country at heart. There should be no loss of time by the disagreement of different plans or the conflict of opposing interests. Special interests and political influences would be damaging elements, and would defeat any rational plan. This Chamber recommends that the American Manufacturers' Export Associa- tion and others which exist to foster foreign trade, unite to obtain from Congress prompt, non-partisan legislation, which will provide for the creation of a merchant marine and assure its rapid development in the future. 244 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE FRANCO-AMERICAN TARIFF RELATIONS During the year 191 3 — ^the last year of normal interchange — -the total value of France's importations from all countries was 6,508,380,000 francs, of which 870,779,000 came from the United States. If we take into account only manu- factured products, which are generally considered to measure the commercial de- velopment of a nation, we find that of a total value of merchandise imported by France from all sources amounting to 1,650,269,000 francs, the United States only furnished 112,465,000. These figures are startling and rouse at once in the mind the inquiry as to why our country, the greatest manufacturing country in the world, should only have supplied France with less tharl 7 per cent of the manu- factured goods she imports? The answer to this question must be sought in the Franco-American Tariff Relations. The plain truth is that the provisions of the French tariff are almost a complete barrier to American products, and the seven per cent merchandise from the United States which succeeded in entering the French market, did so only because of its absolute superiority of manufacture. Investigation, however, must not stop here; the provisions of the French tariff, while the immediate obstacles in the way of our export trade, are themselves the direct consequence of our own tariff policy. It is an economic fallacy to assume that the tariff affects only the imports of a country; it reacts powerfully upon the country's export trade, and its influence is unmistak- able. If, then, we would solve this problem we must determine wherein the tariff law of the United States tends to hamper our trade with France. The French tariff provides two schedules of rates — maximum and minimum. American raw materials necessary for French industry are permitted to enter at minimum rates; but the great majority, perhaps 85 per cent, of manufactured products from the United States are taxed at the maximum rates. It would almost seem that the maximum tariff existed solely to be applied to America, since every European country of any consequence and a large number of oversea countries, enjoy the minimum rates. Up to as late as 1908, American manufacturers were almost in total ignorance of this fact; and although since that time, through the persistent efforts of this Chamber and the visits of various commissions of inquiry, they have become aware of the fact, they have not as yet taken any step to enable our Government to obtain for them the treatment to which American products are justly entitled. The enactment of the Payne-Aldrich law in 1909 produced a remarkable effect in France, because the second section of that law provided for an increase of 25 per cent duty to be applied to the products of any country which discriminated against the United States. In the revision of the French tariff the following year, account was taken of this, and negotiations between the two countries led to a special law in France making concessions on some American manufactured articles enumerated therein. (See Chamber's Bulletin No. 82, copy of which was given to the Commission). These concessions having been accepted by the United States, and the menace of the second section of the Payne-Aldrich law having been thus averted, matters assumed the usual course and no further attempt was made to remove the still existing discrimination in the French tariff against American products (See list annexed). Up to the outbreak of the war there was, therefore, no sign and little hope of our country obtaining the treatment of the "most favored nation," for which this Chamber has striven for so many years; yet this is what must be obtained if the export trade of the United States is to reach its full development. The French tariff having a double scale of rates furnishes a basis for negotiations which enables the Government to grant or to withhold concessions. Again it is THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 245 flexible and can be modified witiiout recourse to legislation. During a period of 18 years, from 1892 to 1910, there was no general revision; but during that same period the process of evolution by means of Presidential decrees adjusted the tariff to the changing conditions of the country. The complete revision of 1910 was due to a desire to advance rates generally, and also to provide classification for many new articles imported. The French tariff is also founded on the principle of specific duties, which practically eliminates all disagreement between customs officials and importers. These essential characteristics are found in the tariffs of all the great European countries and form a common ground for reciprocity in international commercial agreements. On the other hand the tariff of the United States is radically different in principle, possessing none of the above mentioned characteristics. The persistent maintenance of its present form would render reciprocity with other nations im- possible. The American tariff has but one scale of rates, which applies equally to the im- portations of all countries. This may appear on the surface to be very just, but it has the serious disadvantage of leaving the United States without anything to offer in exchange for concessions desired. The American tariff law is inflexible, with no provisions for necessary modification; it must be enforced as enacted whether it meets the needs of the country or not. It is, therefore, changed periodically by a revision from beginning to end, which throws the business of the country during the period of revision into a state of uncertainty and confusion. Another radical difference from the recognized principle of other tariffs is the maintenance of the ad valorem regime. The evils inherent in this system have thus far resisted every effort to remove them. Under-valuation is not only possible but thrives under the ad valorem system of duties, and the unscrupulous importer thus has an advantage over his honest competitor, to the serious injury of the latter's business. The ad valorem system raises the question of marked value which despite all efforts has never yet been and never can be justly determined. Attempts to establish the real market value have led to an organized inquisitorial search to obtain costs of manufacture; and such investigations made in France have done more to breed ill-feeling between French manufacturers and our own people than anything else. The application of our tariff is so comphcated that the Treasury Department is obliged constantly to instruct its customs agents in matters of interpretation, and these decisions have multiphed to such an extent that the French exporters to-day can rarely know with certainty what duty will be applied to his shipment when it enters the United States. It is well known that the applica- tion of our tariff results in thousands of litigations every year, while in France a disagreement between the customs authorities and the importer is an exception. The burden of complaint which French manufacturers and exporters make against the tariff policy of the United States is not against the high rates of duty, but against the uncertainty of their interpretation, the arbitrary application of the law by under customs officials, and the inquisitorial practice of making investigations relating to selling prices in Europe and the cost of manufacture. When the dif- ficulties above described shall have been overcome, the obstacles to our export trade with France will disappear, and the United States will readily obtain the same treatment which France accords to other nations. 246 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE RECOMMENDATIONS The American Chamber of Commerce in Paris earnestly recommends the main- tenance of a permanent non-partisan Tariff Commission composed of men of recognized capacity and integrity, in order that the necessary changes in the tariff may be effected gradually and scientifically, thus avoiding the general upheaval of business caused by periodical and costly revisions of our tariff from beginning to end. The Chamber recommends that until the American tariff can be brought nearer in principle to the dual tariffs in Europe means be taken which will enable our Government in the negotiation of a commercial treaty with France, to have some- thing to offer in exchange for concessions. Again, that so far as may be possible the principle of specific duties be sub- stituted for the ad valorem regime, thereby rendering the just collection of duties a matter beyond dispute and removing the possibility of under-valuation. Finally, that the Treasury Department endeavor by every possible means to prevent arbitrary action on the part of customs officials, which is creating so much discontent among French exporters and is certain, if continued, to react unfavorably in future commercial negotiations. The American Chamber of Commerce in Paris sincerely hopes that the American Manufacturers' Export Association will find in the valuable fund of information gathered by the members of the American Industrial Commission to France full justification of this Chamber's view of the Franco-American situation, and that that honorable body will be inspired to unite the efforts of all other organizations interested in our foreign trade to accomplish the end so much desired. DISCRIMINATION IN FRENCH TARIFF AGAINST AMERICAN GOODS One of the chief impediments to the extension of American trade in France, is, without doubt, the fact that so many articles are subject to the general, or maximum, import tariff rate, whereas competing goods, from Germany, Great Britain, and, in fact, practically all European countries, benefit by the minimum rate. Among the articles the hardest hit by this discrimination against American goods are hydraulic engines, pumps, and ventilators, which, when imported from the United States, pay 150 per cent more duty than when imported from European countries. Dynamo-electric machinery from America pays 50 per cent more duty and electric and electro-technical apparatus pays 57 per cent more if of American origin. All these three categories will be in great demand after the war, on account of the hydro-electric development in France. Another striking instance is refrigerating machinery in which America excels, but on which an average of 900 per cent more duty must be paid. The result of the extra tax is seen in the import figures for 1912 which show only 10 tons coming from the United States. Taking another branch of industry, wearing apparel, it will be seen that cotton knit goods pay 50 per cent more, woolen knit goods likewise 50 per cent more and silk knit goods 25 per cent more when imported from America than similar goods manufactured in European countries. In yet another category, glass and crystal ware, American goods must pay 50 per cent and even more additional duty. In the important class known as "rubber goods" America is also handicapped to the extent of 50 per cent. THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 247 The following table will show some of the more important classes of goods on which America is obliged to pay a considerably higher rate of duty than that im- posed on similar articles of European origin: „, c r- , Percentage of Class of Goods Extra Duty on _ American Articles rortable and semi-portable steam engines 50% Hydraulic engines, pumps, and ventilators 150% Weaving, knitting, and spinning machinery 50% Presses and machinery for printing 50% Machinery and accessories for printing trade 50% Sewing machines 43% Dynamo-electric machinery 50% Electric and electro-technical apparatus, average 75% General machinery, milling, hoisting, etc 50% Complete apparatus, not specified 50% goiters.... 50% Ketrigerating apparatus, average 100% Cotton knit goods 50% Woolen knit goods 50% Silk knit goods, average 25% Glass and crystal ware 50% &° over Rubber goods, average 50% Other articles for which there now exists a considerable demand may also be cited: Ham and salted meats, a\-erage 50% Cheese 133% Canned fish 100% Canned vegetables 50% Slates for writing or drawing 50% Special steel, average 50% *Chemical products, average 50% Pencils 50% All yarns, except manila hemp and New Zealand flax 50% Fabrics, embroideries, and clothing of all materials, average . . 50% Shoes, average 50% or i franc per pair Leather gloves 100% Transmission belting 50% Imitation jewelry 50% Watches and chronometers 100% to 800% (a) * Chemical products, certain lines, such as oxide of tin, pay 50 francs per 100 kilos, while most favored nation clause provides for free entry. (a) Cheap watches pay Frs. .4 as against Frs. 0.50 or Frs. .5 as against Frs. 0.75. INDEX NOTE — Hyphenated figures mean that the subject is consecutive on these pages or in general is continuous. Starred items indicate present commer- cial needs of France as detailed on one of the pages cited after the star. A FACE Absinthe. . 167 Accidents 77, 157, 178-9, 188 Acids 22, 47, 48, 74, 163-4 Aeroplanes 24 *Agriculture 29, 49, 69, 70-7, 79-80 — 83, 91, 171, 214-5 Aisne 109 Aix 205-6 Alais 157 Alcohol 74, 160, 167-75 Algiers- 112, 143-4, 146-7, 154, 170 Aims-Houses 178 Alpha 153-4 Alps 55, 134-7, 162, 170 Alsace 35, 119 Aluminum 141-2, 163 *Ambulances 22, 179, 186 America, Name 13 Amer. Ambulance 22 Amer. Chamber of Commerce . 21, 38, 239-47 Amer. Industrial Commission i, 8, 7, 13, 16, 38 Amer. Manuf. Export Assn. ... 8, 10, 13, 63 Amiens 168 Angers 205-6 Annecy 33 Anthracene 162 Antimony 141-2 Antwerp 104 Aperatifs 169, 175 Apples 170 Apprentices 25, 80 Architects 187 Ardeche 141 Ardennes 147 Argals 45 Argiege River 137 Ariege, L' 141 Aries 12, 30, 114-15 Armagnac 171 Arsenic _ . 141 Art, Works of 45, 47, 48 Artaud, Adrien 31 Arve 138 Associations 85-93 Aubusson 26, 80 PAGE Aubussonnaire, L' 26 Aude 141 Auscher, Leon 195 Austria 57, 142, 149 *Automatic Sprinklers 55, 179 *Automobiles 22, 26, 35, 45-6-7, 61-2 — 67, 107-8, 186-7, 19I1 196 *Auto-Trucks 186, 193 Auvergne 27 Avignon 198 Avreyron, L' 141 Aviation 24 B Baccarat 211 Bacon 46 Banking 41-2, 72-3, 92, 240-1 Barb-Wire 47 Barges, Aristide 133-4 Bar-le-Duc 37, 211, 214 Bartholdi 35 *Bath-Room Fittings 181 Bauxite 142, 154, 163 Bayonne 95, 109 Beef 46 Beers 167, 169 Beet- Roots 170, 172-3 Beet Sugar 55. 74. 164-5 Belfort 35, 186,211 Bellegarde 138 Belgian Chamber of Commerce . 38, 227-30 Belgium, Credits 38 — German Occupation 227-30 — Imports and Exports 41, 145-6 — Industries 67-68, 143, 149, 156 — Labor 75 — Reconstruction 38, 67-8, 227-30 — Refugees 214-6 Belting 55. 65, 127-8, 222, 245 Benzol 162-175 Berges, Aristide 133-4 Besancon 25, 34, 196, 205-8 Bibliography 233-8 *Bicycles 187 Birch 164 Births 79-80, 84, 177-8 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 249 Bluzet, M 211 Boilers 49, 247 Book Covers, Cigarette 45 Boots 46-49 Bordeaux 17-9. 95, loi, 103, 106 — 109-1?, 170, 185, 193, 205 Boston 188 *Bottles 48, 170 Bouches du Rhone 156 Boulevards 192 Boulogne 109, 119, 170 Bourboule, La 26-27 198 Bourdeley, M 27 Bourdounais 156 Bourge d'Oisans 33 Bourget, Le 24 Brandy 46, 48 Brass 47 Brenier, Henri • • • 30 Brest 109, 1 15-6 Briand, M 215 Bricks 154 Bridges .... 108, 117, 119, 128-9, 192, 206 Briey 144 Briquettes 240 Brittany 139, 168 Brushes 45. 48 *Building Equipment 54 * — Materials 54 — Stone 154 Buildings. 72, 92, 157, 182, 187-8, 192-3, 215-9 *Bungs 170 Burgeois, Leon 215 Business Failures 42, 74, 241 Butler, J. G 9 Butter Substitutes i56 Buttons 238 Caen 109, 168, 205 Caen Stone 154 Calais 108,119 California 91 Calvados I44 Canada 163 Canals 103, 110-6, 137, 146 Canned Goods 18, 50, 247 Cantal I43 Cardiff 152 *Carriers 55i 186 *Carrying Belts 55 *Cars 46, 117-127 Cash Registers 59 Cattle 71. 74. I73. 215 Celluloid 166 *Cement and Machinery .... 137, 142. 164 Central Assn. for Resumption of Industry in the —Invaded Regions 38. 221-6 Central Bureau of Purchases .■ . 222-3, 226 Ceramics 32 Cereals 212 Cette loi, 106 Chambers of Commerce . 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 27 — ■ •28,30,31,33,34,38,95-98,102-3,112-4 Chalons-sur Marne . . . .37,208,213,216 Champagne 37. 48. 169 Charlannes 27 Chateau Chavagnac 27-8 Cheap Housing Societies 72 Check System 42 Cheese 45, 247 Chemicals 22, 47, 48, 159-166, 247 Chemistry 135-9, 159-166 Cherbourg loi, 106, 109 Chickens 215 Children 79, 82-3, 182 China Ware 20-2 Chlorine 166 Chloroform 174 Chronometers 247 Cider 170, 172, 174 Cigarette Papers 45 City-Planning 185, 194 Clearing House, Franco-American ... 10 Clermont 205 Clermont-Ferrand 27 Clothing 46, 48, 50, 247 Clubs 33 Cluny 206 Cluses 206 *Coal, Austrian 149 — Belgian 146, 149-151, 239 — English and Welsh . . . 149-153, 155, 239 — French 25,55,64, 110-112, 114-5, 121-2, 127-8, — . . 139, 144, 149-157. 162, 183,213, 239-40 — German 146, 149-150, 239 — Italian 115-6 — United States . 105, 115-6, 147, 152-5, 239-40 Coffee 47 Cognac 171 *Coke 61, 142, 146, 155-6, 161-2 Col-de-la-Chipotte 35 Comite Central des Houilleres 153 Comite d'Action Economique 000 Commerce, Chambers of . . . . See Chambers — Courts of 98-9 — Number Engaged in 69 — Tribune of 102 Commission for Larger Water Power . . 134 Commission on Rural Reconstruction 215-6, 219 Community Centres 183 Compressed Oxygen 163 ♦Concrete Mixing Machinery 55 Conflict of Laws 43 Consuls 64 ♦Cooking Utensils 218 Cooperative Societies 85-93, 183 ♦Copper 46, 141-2. 222 250 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Cordials 46 Corn 46 Cornudet Law 185,218 Cosmetics 45 Cost of Living 76, 182 Cotton 24,47-51,247 — Seed 47 Courts of Commerce 98-99 *Cranes 55. 65 Creches 79, 182 Credits .... 21, 38, 41, 43, 74, 222, 240-1 Creuse 143 Creusot, Le. 33, 62-3, 147, 177-8, 180-3, 208-17 *Crude Oil 24, 166 Crystal Ware 246-7 Cuba 147 Cultivators 71 Customs Union 39 Cyanamid 138, 163 D Damour, Maurice 7. 13. I7 Dams 137-9 Degplas Law 217 Delattre, J 222 Departmental Salary Commissions . . 82, 180 Department of Commerce and Industry . 234 Deprez, Marcel 134 Designs, Industrial 241-3 Devastated Regions. 35-8, 67, 84, 185, 211, 226 — Illustrations. 34, 36, 37, 44, 52, 57, 62, 66, 68 — 79, 86, 88, 93-4, 100, 117, 119, 121, 130 — .... 176, 184, 194, 204, 210, 228-230 Diamonds 45 Dieppe 109 Dijon 205 Disease 93 Distilleries 174 Dolls 22, 25, 57 Domestic Service 69 Dompierre 79 Donkeys 71 *Doors 55, 84, 181, 218 Dordogne River 27 Douai 157 Douglass, E. V 9 Doumergue, M 18 Dress Goods 46 Drop Hammers . ' 65 Drugs 43. 46 Dun and Co., R. G 239 Dunkirk 95,101,106,109 Durance River 114-S. I34 *Dyes and Dyeing 46, 67, 161-3 Dust in Factories 182 Dynamo — Electric Machinery . 49-50, 246-7 E Earthen Ware 45. 48 Economic Conference 50, 161 Education 157. 207-9 Elastic Webbing 24 Electric, Machinery ... 23, 47, 49-50, 247 — Power 131-40 — Street-Car Trucks 193 Electricity 131-40 Electro-Chemistry 162 — Metallurgy 135-9 — Technical Apparatus 246 *Elevators 55 Embroideries . . - 45-6, 247 Employers' Associations 80, 85, 93 —Liability 77 Enamels 26 Engines 64, 65, 130, 246 England, Imports and Exports . 41, 105, 112-3 — 127-8, 146, 150, 153-4, 246 — Industry 67, 145, 149 — Merchant Marine 21 —Tariff . ' 50 Enjoiras, M 27 Essential Oils 45. 47 Etang de Berre 114-5 Ethers 174 European International Agreement . . 242 Experimental Dept. of Farm Machinery . 71 Explosives 163, 174 Factories 53-68, 75-84 Failures, Business 42, 74, 241 Fairs 18, 231-2 Farquhar, A. B • . . . . 9 Farms 69-74 Feathers 45. 48 Fellatin 26 *Fertilizers 91,215,218 Finishing Machinery 67 Firearms 29, 47 Fires 179, 187, 188 *First-Aid Kits 179 Fish and Fisheries ... 45, 50, 69, 179, 247 Flanging Presses 65 Flax 45. 48 Floods 188 *Flour 32, 46 Foods 43 *Foot-Ball 182 Ford, G. B 9 Ford Motor Car Plant 58 Forests 69, 74 *Forging Presses 63, 65 Fourneyron, M 1 19-20-21 France See Details — Area 69 — Commercial Integrity 42, 74, 241 — Credits . . . 21,38,41,43,74,222,240-1 — Exports .... 39, 102, 104, 145, 154, 164 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 251 France, continued — Exports to United States 24, 28-9, 32, 43-7 — 48. 58. 164, 239 — German Occupation in, 55, 67, 74, 119-21, — 126-7, 146, 149-50, 152, 211-2 — Imports from United States . 24, 28, 39-41 — 43. 49-50, 64, 74, 152, 239-40 — Other Countries . 74, no, 143, 147, 159 — Merchant Marine 101-9 —Needs 24,32, 54-5, 63-5, 70-1, 74, 126-7, 142 — 155, 162, 164, 170, 181-2, 186, 193, 218, 222 — (See starred items in index) — Population 69 — Scenic Beauties 26, 196, 198 — Tariff . . 10, 48-50, 161-2, 164, 238, 244-7 — Trade Complaints . . 20, 24, 43, 47, 48, 64 — War Conditions See War Freight Cars 123-127 French Federation of Manufacturers . . 20 Fruits 18,47,74,91,238 *Furniture 47. 55, 218, 227 Furs 45 *Garbage and Garbage Outfits . . . 190, 193 Gard 143 Garden, Emil 230 Garden Cities 182 Gardens 180, 182, 187, 191 Garonne 18, 103, 111-2 Gas 140, 162 Gasolene 46, 166, 175 General Franco-American Society ... 19 Genissiat 138 Geneva 138-9 Gerard, M 133 Gerardmer 35 Gerbeviller 36-7,211-2,216 Germany, Exports , 41, 49-50, 57, 67, 72, 74 — 104. 122-3, 146, 149-50, 159. 246 — Industries . . . 78. 143-7. 156, 159-61, 164-6 — Territorial Occupation . 55,67,74,119-20-1, — 126-7,146,149-50,152,211-2 Germicides 74 Gironde 17, 18, 111 Glasgow 104 *Glass 45. 48. 55. 218, 246-7 Gloves 45. 49. 57. 208, 247 Glycerine 32. 45. 48-9 Goats 71 Gold 104, 141 Golf 27 Grade Crossings 108 Grains 170, 172-3 Grapes 74. 170 Grave, La 33 Great Britain See England Greece 151 Grenoble . 32, 133-4, 142. 182, 187, 193, 205, 209 Grignon 207 Guestier, Daniel i8 Gulf de Fos 114-5 Guns 28-9 H Ham 46, 247 Hamburg 104 Harbors 101-6, 108-20 *Hardware 55, 218 Harness 46 Harrows 71 Hats 45 Haute-Alps 135 Haute Loire 141 Haute Pyrenees 141 Haute-Savoie 135 Haute Vienne 143 Havre, Le 101, 106, 109-11, 168, 185 Hay 47 Health 32, 75. 80, 83-4, 157 — 177-83,188,200,208,217 — Resorts 26, 195-198 Heights of Buildings 188, 192 Henard, Eugene 185 Herault, L' 154 Herr, E. M 13 Herriot, M 229 Hides 51 Highways 107-8, 206 Hoggson, N. F 9 Hoisting Machinery 23 Holland 145, 147 *Hoops 170 Horse Power 61, 114-5, 131-9. 162 Horse-Shoes 47 Horses 46, 71 Hospitals 178, 179 Hotels 26, 195, 198, 209 Hours of Labor 76,82-4,157,177-9 Houses . 33,72, 92, 182, 187-8, 192, 215-217 Hydro-Electric Power 55, 129-137 I Illuminating Oils 46 Imitation Jewelry 247 Industrial Designs 241-3 Inheritance Laws 70 Institut des Architectes Urbanistes . . . 185 Insurance 93. I57. 177-78 International European Agreement . . . 242 Inter-Ministerial Committee . . 215-6, 219 Inventions 71, 129-30 Iron . . .47,49.55.61,141.143-7.213.238 Irrigation 1 12-5, 140 Isere I33-I35 Islands of Safety 188 Italy 72. 75. 115-6-7. 145 150 252 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE Jewelry 45. 247 Jura Mountains 131, 135, 170 Jusserand, Ambassador 13 K Kindergartens 182 Kirscii 171 Kitchens, Municipal 183 Knitting Machinery 247 Labor 75-84 — Accidents 77, 157, 178-79 — Agricultural 69, 75, 77, 79-80, 83 — Alms Houses 178 — Barracks for Employees 181 — Child Labor . : . 82-3 — Day of Rest 76 — Departmental Salary Commissions . 83, 180 — Dust in Factories 83, 180 — Employer's Associations .... 80, 85, 93 — Employers' Liability 77 — Factories 53, 68, 75-84 * — First Aid 1 79 — Hospitals 178-79 — Hours of .76, 82-3 — Houses for Employees .... 157, 180-1 — Insurance 157, 177-8 * — Labor- Saving Devices 25, 58, 61, 63-5, 67, 71 — Lighting in Factories 83, 179-80 — Medals 33, 80 — Mining 141, 157 — Minimum Wage 77, 82-3 — Mutual Benefit Societies 85, 93 — Pensions 80, 93, 157, 177 — Poisonous Fumes 83, 180 — Repos Hebdomadaire 76 — Rest Rooms 180 * — Safety Devices .... 55, 79, 83, 173, 178 — Sanitation 75, 80, 83-4, 177-80 — Sickness 157, 178 — Social Welfare . . 29, 78, 83, 157, 177-183 — Soda 166 — Sugar Industry 165 — Syndicats des Ouvriers 80, 85-93 — Syndicats Patronaux 80, 85-93 — Unemployment 76 — Unions 80, 85-93 — Ventilation in Factories . . . 83-4, 179-81 — Wages 76-78, 80-2, 143, 157 — Women . 23, 29, 63, 73, 75-82, 157, 168, 177 — Workingmen's Cooperative Assn. . 26, 80-5 — Workingmen's Garden Societies ... 182 *Labor- Saving Devices . 25, 58, 61, 63-5, 67, 71 Labourboule . 26-7, 198 Laces .... 28, 45-6, 48, 80, 82, 208, 241-3 Lafayette 18, 27-8 Lake Leman 138 PAGE Lambs 71 Lancey 33. 133. 177. 180 Language 41, 160 *Lathes, Turret 63 Laurent, Charles 20, 222-3 Laurent, Theodore 29 Laws .... 42-3, 70, 72, 83, 185, 217, 241-3 Lead 141-2 *Leather 45. 47. 49-50. 222, 247 Lebon, M 20 Lemaistre, F. J 9 Leverdier, Georges 24 *Lifts 55 Lighting 85, 140, 181-3 * — Fixtures 55. 218 Lille 95, 205-6, 212 Limoges . 20, 24-6, 43, 54, 56, 185, 188-9, I93 Linen 24, 48 Lingerie 24 Liqueurs 167, 175 *Live Stock 73,74,173,215,218 *Lockers 55, 180 *Locomotives 64, 121-2-3-4, 126-7 Loi Cornudet 185 Loire 112, 115-6, 119-21, 147 Longwy 144 Lorraine .' 143-7 Lot 141 Lubricating Oils 46 *Lumber 24, 32, 47, 74, 170 Luneville 35, 211 Luxemburg 143, 145-6 Lyons 25,29,55-6,67,95,140,178 — 183, 187, 189, 193, 205-6, 231-2 M MacArthur, J. R 9 *Machine Tools 61, 63 *Machinery23,46-7,49,55,57,6i,74,2i8,220,240-i Magnesium 163 Mailloux, CO 9 Maine-et-Loire . . 141 Mallet, Anatole 122-123 Manche 144 Manchester 50 Manganese 141 Maps See Details — Agriculture opp. pp. 68 " 112 " 102 52 32 116 106 " no 124 — Bordeaux — Havre, Le — Industries — Itinerary — Marseilles — National Highways — Navigable Waterways — Railroad — Rouen Marble 48, 154 Marcs and Lees 170- 1 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 253 Markets 182, 190 Marne 109,211,213-4 Marseilles 25,31-2,75,95,101,102 — 106,109,112-4,185-8,193,205-6 Mascuraud, M 20 Matte ^y Mayenne i^i Measures, Weights and 40, 43 Meats 247 Medals for Labor 32-80 Medicine 47 Medoc ig Mennet, M 20, 222 Mentone 22 Mercantile Agencies 41,241 Merchant Marine See Details —Belgium 230 — England 21, 239 — France 101-6 — United States. 21, 24, 102-6, 227, 239-40, 243 Mercury 142 *Metal Furniture and Lockers 55 Metal Goods 55-57 Metallurgy 135-9, 141-48, 162 Meurthe-et-Moselle . . . 147,185,211,213 Meuse 211, 213-4 Millinery 45-6 Milling Machinery 247 Mineral Oil 47 Minimum Wage 77, 81-2 Mining 69, 141, 148, 157 Miramas 31 Mirman, M 36, 185, 214 Molasses 30, 164, 170, 172-3 Montbeliard 35 Mont Dore 27 Montpelier 95, 205-6 Mortgages 75 Motion Picture Films 45 *Motor-Buses, Sight-Seeing 193 Mowers 47 Mules 71 Munitions 29, 35, 54, 56, 61 — 63,67,75,78,82, 167 Mushrooms 46 Mutual Aid Societies 85-93 Mutual Benefit Societies 85-93 N Nancy 36, 144, 205, 211-2, 214 Nantes 95, loi, 106, 109, 115-6 Napoleon 70, 75, no Naphthaline 162 Naphthas 46 Natanson, Thades 29 National Assn. for Economic Expan- sion 19, 20-2, 222 National Feder. of Cooperative Societies 92 Neutral Nations 51 47. I Xew York Nice Nichols, W. W Nickel Nickel Oxide Nitrates Nitric Acid 74, Nord 147, Normandy 139, 188 109 8,9 41-2 47 73 163 211 168 O Oats . . Oil Cake *Oils . . Oise . . 46, 69 47 24- 32, 45-7. 166 109, III Old Age Pensions 93 Olive Oil 45, 166 Olives 000 Oran Orlu Orne Oxen 154 137 144 71 Oxide of Tin 247 Oxygen 163 Paintings 47 Paper 132, 137, 154, 164, 208 Paris 19-23 Parks 190, 192 Pas de Calais 147-2 11 Patents 87, 164, 242 Patterns 241-3 Pauliac 109 Paving 37, 107-8 Pearls 45 Pears 170-1 Pencils 50, 247 Pennsylvania 155 Pensions 80,93,157,177 Peret, M 20 Perfumes 48, 164, 174 Periodicals 164 Perry, Walter V. R 243 Petroleum 164, 175 Pfeiffer, CO 9 Phare, Le 22 Phosphates 142-3 Phosphorus 144-7 Pigs 71 Pinot, M 222 Plant-Construction 53-6o Playgrounds 181, 190 * — Apparatus for 191, 193 Pleasure Resorts 26, 195-198 Plows 71 *Plumbing Fixtures 55, 193, 218 Plushes 46 254 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE *Pneumatic Carriers 55 * — Riveters 55 Poincare, M 215 Poitiers 205 Poisonous Fumes 83, 180 Poland 75 Polishes 173 Polk, Daisy 35, 217 Pont-cl-Mousson 214 Poplar 164 Population of France 69 Porcelain See China Pork 46 Porte Vendres 109 Ports 18, 23-4, 108, 117 Portugal 128-9 Potash 73 Potatoes 69 Precious Stones 45 Printing Presses 247 Prizes for Inventions 71, 127-8 Professions 69 Property Rights in Designs 241-3 Provence 30, 140 Public Buildings 192-3 Public Service 69 *Pumps 63, 246-7 Pure Food and Drug Act 43 Puy-en-Velez, Le 27, 208 Pyrenees .... 127-8, 131, 134-5, 139. ^4- Pyrites 142, 154 Quais 192 Quakers 213-4 Quarries 69 R Rabbits 208 Railroads . . 73, 111-128 * — Cars 126-7 Rambervilliers 211 Raon I'Etape 35,211 Real Estate Credit Societies 72 Reapers 47 Recreation 181-2 Reeves, Harrison 9 *Refrigerating Machinery. . 49-50, 193, 246-7 Refugees 214-219 Refuse and Refuse Outfits 190, 193 Regional Societies of Rural Credits . . 72-4 Relief Work 213-219 Remiremont 35 Rennes 205-6 Repos Hebdomadaire 76 Resorts 26, 195-198 Rest-Rooms 180 Revigny 37, 211 Rheims 35, 37, 158, 170, 176, 185 — 189, 192, 199, 204, 211-2 Rhone 112-5, 137-9, 141 Ribbons 24, 28, 46 Rimailho, Colonel 29 Ringelmann, M 71 Rivers 17, 18, 27, 109-117, 133-9 '*Riveters 55 Roads 37, 107-8, 185 * — Binders and Machinery for 193 * — Rollers for 193 Rochelle, La 95, loi, 106, 109 Romanche Valley 33 Roofing Slate 32, 154 Roubaix 212 Rouen. .23, 24, 95, loi, 102-6, 109-12, 168, 185 Rove Tunnel 1 14-15 *Rowing 180 Royat 27 *Rubber 22, 45, 47, 50, 246-7 * — Thread 24 Rum 171 Rural Credits 72-3 Rural Social Societies 73 Russia 128-9, l66-7 Saar Region 146 Saddlery 46 *Safety Devices 55, 79-83, 173, 178 Sague, J. E 9 St. Chamond. 29, 61-2, 147, 178, 180, 183, 187 St. Die 13, 35, 211 St. 6tienne .... 28, 56, 140, 180, 187, 206 St. Georges d'Aurac 27-8 St. Leonard 35 St. Louis de Rhone 109 St. Malo 95, 109 St. Mihiel 144 St. Nizaire loi, 106, 109, 115-116 St. Nicholas du Port 36, 211 St. Pierre de Chartreuse 33 Salted Meats 247 Sample Fair 231-2 Sanitation . ... 32, 75, 80, 83-4, 157, 177-83 — 188, 200, 208, 217 Saone iii Saone-et-Loire 141-147 *Sashes 55 Savoie 136 Saw-Mills 137 Scenic Beauties of France .... 26, 196, 198 Schneider & Co 34 Schools 157, 199-209 Seaports .... 18,23-4,101-106,108-117 *Seeds 45> 73, 214-5, 218, 227 Seine 109-112, 188 Serre Poncon 138 Sevres 22 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE 255 49 74 Sewage 72, 189-190 Sewing-Machines 59, 247 Sheep yj Shells 64 Ship-Building 105 Shipping 18, 23-4, 101-106, 227-28 Shoes 46-7, 49 *Sight-Seeing Motor Buses 193 Silk 25, 28-9, 46, 48, 173, 246-7 Silver 45- 141 Skins 45.6 Slag olate 21"^ Slates, Writing 247 Slums 188 Soap 32 Sochaux 177 Social Centres 183 Social Welfare ... 29, 78, 83, 157, 177-183 Societe I'ficlairage Electrique 29 Societies, Cooperative 85-93 Soda 166 Sodium 163 Sodium Hydroxide 163 Soldiers 73, 84, 180, 199 South America 41 Spain 145, 150 ♦Spigots 170 Spinning 55. 67, 80, 137, 247 *Sporting Goods 182 ♦Sprinklers 55, 179 Spruce 164 Stables 72, 217 Standardization . . . 55, 67, 91, 127-8, 218 State Laws 43 Statuary 47 ♦Staves 170 Steam 61, 129 Steam Gauges 64 Steamship Lines 101-6 *Steel 34-5, 54, 61, 63, 75, 78 — 126-7, 146-48, 193. 238, 247 Stone 154 Stone-Ware 45 Stoves 238 Street Cars 186-7, 191 Street Cleaning 190 Streets 187-8, 192-3 Sugar 46, 55, 74, 164-5 Sugar Beets 74 Sulphites 164 Sulphuric Acids 74, 164 Superphosphates 73 Surgical Appliances 47, 49 Switzerland 113-4. 138, 145, 160 Syndicates 32, 80, 85-93, '37 Tancarville Canal no Tapestries 26, 80 Tariff, of England 50 —of France . . 9, 48-9, 161-2, 164, 238, 244-7 — of United States 9, 20-1, 28, 43-4, 47-51, 244-7 Tarn 141, 156 Tavernier, President 28 Taxicabs 191 Technical Education 201 ♦Telautographs 55 ♦Telephones gg ♦Tennis 182 Texas Textiles 67, 68, Thann 156 241-3 35 Thrashers 71 Ties Tiles Tin . 32, 129 154 142 Tobacco 47 Tonquin 76 *Tools 47,58,61,63,215,222 Toul 37, 211 Toulon 109 Toulouse 95, 205 Touring Club of France 195, 198 Touron 20 222 Toys 57 ♦Tractors 70-1 Trade-Marks 87 Transmission Belting 128-9, 247 Treaty of Frankfort 50 Tribunal of Commerce 95 ♦Trucks 193 Truffles 46 Tuberculosis 181 Tungsten 141 Tunnels 116 Turbines 65, 131-9 ♦Turret Lathes 65 Twisting Machines 67 Typewriters 49, 59 Typhoid 189 U Ugines 33 Unemployment 76 Unions, Labor 80, 185-193 Uniform Laws 43 United States, After the War 10, 38, 56, 58-9, 129 — Conflict of Laws 43 — Exports to France 24, 28, 39-44, 48-51, 58, 64 — .... 74, 152-3, 159-166, 222 239-40 — Federal Regulation 43 — French Needs . . See starred items, index — Imports from France . . 24, 28-9, 32, 43-48 — 57, 58, 166, 237 256 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION TO FRANCE United States, After the War, continued — Merchant Marine. . . .21, 24, 102, 106 — 227, 239-40, 243 — State Laws 43 — Tariff . ... 10, 20-1, 28, 43-4, 47-51, 244-7 — Trade Details .... 20, 24, 28, 40-42, 64 Uppers 49 Uriage-les-Bains 33 Vacant Lots 191 *Vacuum Cleaners 55 Valencienne 156 Valserine 138 Van Cleve, George B 232 Var 154 Varnishes 173 *Vats 170 Vegetables 18, 247 Vehicles 46-7 Ventilation 83-4, 179-181 Ventilators 246 Veran, M 30 Verdon, Le 17 Verdun 124-6, 144, 214 Vermouth 175 Vienne 208 Vinegar . 174 Vitrimont . 35-6, 217 Vitry-le-Frangais 37 Void 211 Voiron 33 Vosges 55,131,135,170,211 W Wages 76-78, 80-2, 143, 157 Wales 152-157 Walnuts 45 War Conditions in France .... See Details — AftertheWar 9,26,31,50-58,63-69,71-2, 78- 84, 103, 126-7, 142, 159, 166, 195, 199, 227 —Before the War 54, 67, 71, 76, 80 — loi, 126-7, 149-53 — During the War . .22-5,29,33-39,54-6,67 — 69, 84, 98-108, 1 19-21, 126-7, 144-53. 164-6 — 183-5, 21 1-226 (see also Devastated Regions) Warren, E. A 9 Watches 25, 34, 247 Water Falls 131-9 — Motors 131-9 —Power 33,55.114-5.131-9 — Purifying Apparatus 193 — Supply 189 — Transportation 108-117 Wearing Apparel 46, 84, 50, 246-7 Weaving 29, 30, 67, 80, 247 Weights and Measures 40, 43 West Virginia 155 Wheat 46, 69 Windows 72, 84, 181, 217 * — Sashes 55. 218 Wines 18, 37, 46, 48, 69, 167-75 — Lees of 45 Wire 47-49. 222 ♦Wired Glass 55. 218 Women, Working 23, 29, 63, 73, 75 — 82, 157, 168, 177 Wood 47 —Pulp 133 Wool 46, 49, 246-7 Workingmen's Cooperative Assn.. . . 26, 80-5 Workingmen's Garden Societies .... 182 *Yachting 182 Yarn 46, 247 Yvonne 109