ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 Paul Pomeroy Ives 2d 
 
 IN MEMORY OF 
 
 Paul Pomeroy Ives 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 S 633.D17 1851 
 
 A muck manual for farmers. 
 
 3 1924 003 335 878 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003335878 
 
UCK MANUAL 
 
 FARMEHS. 
 
 BY SAMUEL L. DANA. 
 
 " It is usual to help the ground with muck, and likewise to recomfort 
 with muck, put to the roots ; but to water it with muck-water, which is 
 like to be more forcible, is not practised." — Bacon. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 LOWELL: 
 JAMES P. WALKEE, 
 
 61 Merrimack Street. 
 
 BOSTON, LrrTLE & BBOWN ; NEW YORK, C. M. SAXTON ; 
 
 ALBANY, E. H. PEASE & CO. 
 
 MDCCCLI. 
 
E 71^7 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by Samuel L. 
 Dana, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massa- 
 chusetts ■ 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 THUESTON, TOBRT, AND EHEKSON, 
 
 Printers, Devonshire Street, 
 
TO THE 
 
 CITIZENS OF LOWELL, 
 
 THESE PAGES, THE PITH OF EI&HT LECTURES ON THE 
 
 CHBMISTEY OF SOIL AND MANURE, 
 
 DELITEBED BY THEIR REQUEST, 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR. 
 Lowell, Jan. 1 , 1842. 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 A THIRD edition of the " Muck Manual " is now offered 
 to the public. 
 
 It is hoped, that those who are already acquainted with 
 the work in its previous dress, will find that the announce- 
 ment on the title-page is fulfilled by the revision of the 
 old, and by the addition of numerous pages of new mat- 
 ter. 
 
 To those unacquainted with the former editions, the 
 author would say, that he has in this presented more fully 
 the results of soil analysis, and hopes that he has substan- 
 tiated the position, that there is great uniformity in the 
 chemical constitution of all soil. This is, perhaps, the 
 only result to which soil analyses have conducted. It is a 
 great step. Time will show whether agriculture is to be 
 still further benefited by chemical analysis of soil. Too 
 much has ever been expected from this application of 
 science, and the disappointment which has resulted has 
 led some of the most sagacious and acute agricultural 
 chemists to declare that " soil analysis is more curious 
 than useful." The author cannot subscribe to this opinion, 
 when applied to the vegetable, or organic matter of soil. 
 The state in which that exists is of the highest conse- 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 quence, and the changes which the organic matter of soil 
 undergoes exert the most important influence on agricul- 
 ture. Hence this will be found to contain a fuller account 
 of the organic matter of soil, than either of the preceding 
 editions. 
 
 On the subject of manure, composts, &c., many new 
 analyses have been collected, and with the results of ex- 
 perimental trials of various ammoniacal salts, Eire now 
 presented to the reader. 
 
 The value of nitrogen as a measure for determining that 
 of manures, will be found to be fully discussed in the fol- 
 lowing pages ; and this, with a fuller elucidation of the 
 formation of saltpetre and nitrates in soil, the action of 
 organic soil elements, and the manure analyses, constitutes 
 the most important, and, it is hoped, most valuable ad- 
 ditions to this edition. Respecting the value of peat, 
 swamp muck, &c., the author could easily have enlarged 
 the Appendix, had space been allowed, with new testi- 
 mony similar to that already there offered. On this point 
 the author would refer the reader to the letter to the editor 
 of the " Plough, Loom and Anvil " of the late Hon. 
 Daniel P. King, whose death is alike deplored by the 
 statesman and the farmer. 
 
 One of the author's friends has tried his suggestions re- 
 specting the use of peat, &c. and alkali, through a several 
 years' rotation of crops, side by side with stable manure, 
 and he has assured the author that the results generally 
 were equal. 
 
 Every where, at least in New England, the use of 
 meadow mud, swamp muck, turf, &c., is extending, and 
 among the happiest events in the life of the author, he 
 will ever remember the warmth of gratitude with which 
 many a practical farmer has thanked him, in his occasional 
 rural excursions, for his efforts to improve agriculture, and 
 
assured him of the success with which he had applied the 
 suggestions of the " Muck Manual." 
 
 That work has heen out of print longer thaq has been 
 desirable by the public, if the author may be allowed to 
 draw his conclusion from the repeated solicitations for a 
 new edition. It has been out of print longer than was 
 intended by its author ; but, as he has before said, agri- 
 culture is not his pursuit. Daily, constant devotion to his 
 profession, has allowed him ftagments only of time for 
 the preparation of this edition. 
 
 The author's interest in agricultural chemistry is as 
 warm as ever, and though seldom, of late, he has been 
 before the public as a contributor to those essential ele- 
 ments of correct farming, the agricultural newspapers, he 
 has not been an incurious, or an inattentive observer of 
 what was going on in the agricultural world. 
 
 Not among the least gratifying circumstances relating 
 to this little work, is the fact that it has been well received 
 in England. It has not only been well spoken of there, 
 but its very title has heen adopted, and its chapter on Ma- 
 nures reprinted in Falkner's " Muck Manual," published 
 by Murray, in London. 
 
 For this title, and for the chapter on manures, as well as 
 for the suggestion of the work itself, due credit is given 
 to the American work in the first edition. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the English author omits this 
 in his second edition, and feels compelled to apologize for 
 his " homely title." I shall not disgrace my child by being 
 ashamed of his name. It was good at the christening, and 
 I trust will be thought respectable in manhood. 
 
 S. L. D. 
 
 LoTTELL, August 1, 1851. 
 
PART OF 
 THE PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The Dedication prefixed to this volume shows its origin 
 and object. By an accidental correspondence with Pro- 
 fessor Hitchcock, the Geological Surveyor of Massachu- 
 setts, the author unexpectedly found himself placed before 
 the public as an agricultural chemist. He had no inten- 
 tion of pursuing inquiries relating to agriculture, other 
 than those arising from his researches on the action of 
 cow-dung, in calico dyeing. Attached, as chemist, to the 
 largest establishment of that art in our country, — daily, 
 almost hourly employed in duties connected with it, — 
 he carried forward inquiries bearing upon practical farm- 
 ing in answer only to the many questions asked him by 
 various persons, especially by Prof. Hitchcock, and Mr. 
 Colman, the Agricultural Commissioner of Massachusetts. 
 Their published remarks induced some of the most active 
 and intelligent of his fellow citizens to request of him 
 a course of lectures on agriculture, in the winter of 
 1839-40. Perfectly unexpected as was this request, it 
 was acceded to with great diffidence. Whatever ideas 
 the author may have had on this subject, they assumed no 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 systematic shape till this application, and then the lectures 
 were prepared as they were weekly delivered. The au- 
 thor's agricultural reading had been very limited, and that 
 confined chiefly to the chemistry of farming. 
 
 Perhaps this was no serious loss to his hearers, as the 
 lectures were expected to embody chiefly the author's 
 peculiar views. This circumstance is alluded to, only to 
 explain the reasons why so few references are made by 
 name, to others. The statements were made from mem- 
 ory, from general impressions, called up during the act of 
 preparing the notes for the lectures. Repeatedly urged, 
 the author reluctantly consented to their publication. 
 Throwing off all the dress of a lecturer, and omitting the 
 many details and illustrations befitting the lecture room, 
 the manuscript notes were thrown into paragraphs. While 
 the main drift of the whole was preserved, that the volume 
 might not exceed a readable size, it was condensed, per- 
 haps " even to a fault." The amount of this condensation 
 may appear from the fact, that nearly one-third of the 
 whole course has here been compressed into about thirty 
 pages. In preparing the notes for the press, the author 
 often found it impossible to put his finger upon the pas- 
 sages of all the writers, whose opinions he may have 
 introduced. References to names have been generally 
 omitted, except where the freshness of the results entitled 
 the authors to the humble tribute which such mention 
 could confer. It is hoped that no injustice has been done, 
 by omitting the names of those, whose ideas are embodied 
 in these pages ; ideas which have been so long before the 
 world, that they have become almost common property. 
 
 The remarks relating to the geographical distribution of 
 plants, are drawn up from a paper by Decandolle, published 
 in one of the English journals, from the Bibliotheque uni- 
 verselle de Geneve. In the chapter on the physical prop- 
 
PREFACE. Xi 
 
 erties of soil, the author has derived valuable assistance 
 from a paper by Prof Schubler, of Tubingen, published 
 in the journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Some of the principles of agricultural chemistry laid 
 down by the author in this volume, especially the 1st. 2d 
 and 3d, have been thought to be too broad by some per- 
 sons, especially by a writer in the American Journal of 
 Science, for whose opinion is felt all that profound respect, 
 which exalted science and candor command. Upon a 
 careful review of these principles, it seems to the author 
 that they are true as general expressions of facts They 
 may not be more limited and guarded than they already 
 are, without destroying their force. Less limited than 
 they are, would remove them farther from truth. The 
 first edition of the following work having been wholly ex- 
 hausted within six months from its publication, and large 
 orders remaining unsupplied, a new edition goes to press 
 with fewer additions and improvements than the author 
 intended. It may be observed that this edition is enlarged, 
 it is hoped enriched, by several pages of new matter. 
 Among the principal additions are several articles on ma- 
 nures, and a sketch of the celebrated Mulder's researches 
 on geine, which will be found in the appendix to the fourth 
 chapter. The whole has been carefully revised; a few 
 errors have been discovered and corrected ; a fuller table 
 of contents, and a copious index, the last prepared by the 
 kindness of the author's ingenious young friend, Mr. 
 Samuel Webber, Jr., are added. 
 
 The author would here publicly express his thanks to 
 the editors of the scientific and literary journals who have 
 inserted notices of his work in their publications. He 
 feels under great obligations to the editors of the different 
 agricultural newspapers, for the favorable opinion they 
 
XU PREFACE. 
 
 have, as far as the author knows, universally expressed of 
 this volume. Coming- from all parts of the country, un- 
 solicited, and from writers personally unknown to the 
 author, he deems their opinion the best index of the value 
 placed upon his humble labors by the agricultural com- 
 munity. 
 
 S. L. D. 
 
 Lowell, October, 1842. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Geology of Soil Page 17 
 
 Objects of agricultural chemistry ; objects and nature of agricul- 
 tural geology ; definition of the terms, primary and secondary ; 
 rocks have one common origin ; the terms primary and second- 
 ary soil are useless ; rocks and soil are to be classed by their 
 origin and distribution ; in their origin all rocks are igneous or 
 by fire ; chemical constitution of all rocks similar ; there is one 
 rock and one soil ; chemical constitution of rocks does not 
 affect the vegetation over them ; geographical distributidn of 
 plants ; the laws which govern it ; rocks do not form the soil 
 which covers them ; general uniformity of chemical composition 
 of soil ; proofs of general uniformity of composition ; from 
 Massachusetts soil, 146 specimens, and from various parts of 
 the world, 267 specimens ; remarks on soil analyses, all are im- 
 > perfect approximations only to truth ; the largest portion of soil, 
 least liable to be affected by different modes of analysis ; by any 
 mode, soil divides itself into two portions — soluble and insolu- 
 ble ; several elements in soil often educed by analysis, which 
 should be included in the insoluble portion of soil ; carbonate of 
 lime, too often a product, not an educt of analysis ; potash and 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 soda of soil to be considered generally as combined with the 
 organic matter ; clay, iron, magnesia to be included in the in- 
 soluble Ingredients ; plaster, phosphate of lime, or bone-dust in 
 the soluble ingredients of soil; dvision of elements of soil into 
 soluble, insoluble, and salts of lime ; table of analyses of 413 
 soils from all parts of the world ; principles deduced from this 
 table and its results ; rule for calculating the amount per acre 
 from results per 100 parts of soil ; analyses of vine grown on 
 soils formed from different geological districts. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Chemical Constitution of Rocks and Soils .... 42 
 Different views taken of rocks by geologists, mineralogists and 
 chemists ; farmer takes only the chemical view; nature of agri- 
 cultural mineralogy ; farmer must understand the results of the 
 analysis of minerals ; division of the thirteen substances form- 
 ing rocks, into silicates, metalloid compounds, salts, — explan- 
 ation of these terms ; chemistry of soil ; chemical notation ; 
 the three laws of affinity explained ; constitution of simple 
 miriterals composing rocks ; rocks are masses of silicates ; the 
 whole is divided into three classes only. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Elements of Soil, theik Properties and Chemical 
 Action 59 
 
 The common properties of the bases of silicates ; characters of 
 the class metalloid compounds ; particular description of sili- 
 con, or the base of flinty earth ; composition of granite and the 
 soil which it forms j quantity of alkalies in barren plains ; all 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 soil contains lime, alkali, &c., — enough for any crop grown 
 on it ; action of air and moisture upon soil, produces salts ; 
 origin of sulphate and phosphate of lime in soil ; all soil con- 
 tains these substances. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of the Organic Constituents of Soil Ti 
 
 Number of substances forming plants ; what the organic consti- 
 tuents of soil are ; they are formed by the action of the living 
 plant ; plants draw their inorganic constituents ready formed 
 from the soil ; two great divisions of the elements of soil into 
 the organic and inorganic ; soil composed of either division 
 alone, barren ; of the laws of substitution and replacement, 
 which affect agriculture, organic matter in soil must be under- 
 going change ; fertility depends on chemically induced motion ; 
 of decay and putrefaction ; difference of products of putrefac- 
 tion in free or confined air ; in free air, products are water, 
 carbonic acid, and ammonia ; in confined air, besides these, 
 various compounds of sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon, with 
 hydrogen ; products vary according as the decaying body is on 
 the soil, in the soil, or in the subsoil ; hydrogen always in ex- 
 cess ; importance of this principle ; decay always results in a 
 substance termed geine ; this is a generic name including seve- 
 ral products ; at least seven well defined substances found in 
 geine, viz. : ulmin and ulmic acid, humin and humic, geic, crenic 
 and apocrenic acids ; division of these forms of geine into the 
 hydrogen, oxygen, and neutral groups j of the order of the pro- 
 ducts of decomposition of decaying matter in soil; ultimate 
 products are carbonic acid and water ; crenic and apocrenic acid 
 when pure contain no nitrogen ; no ground for division of forms 
 of geine into nitrogenous, and non-nitrogenous ; all forms may 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 contain nitrogen as ammonia ; geine divided into soluble and 
 insoluble ; characters of the two classes ; how distinguished 
 by their relation to acids ; the organic acid seldom found free 
 in soil ; several bases may be found in combination with one 
 acid forming soluble salts, which contribute to the growth of 
 plants ; detailed account of crenic and apocrenic acids ; two con- 
 stant sources of reproduction of these acids ; of the formation 
 of nitric acid, and nitrates and apocrenates in soil, by transfor- 
 mations of geine ; crenic and apocrenic acids mutually conver- 
 tible ; all the transformations of geine, worthy of study ; geine 
 is essential to agriculture. Appendix to Chap. iv. p. 100; of 
 the chemical history of geine, and recent researches of Mul- 
 der on this subject ; reasons why geine is essential, may be 
 deduced from Mulder's researches. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Or THE MuTtTAL AcTION OF THE ObGANIC AND InOBGANIO 
 
 Elements op Soil 120 
 
 Theoretical and practical fanners both aim at the same object ; 
 the action of the elements of soil to be considered in two ways 
 — 1st, the mutual chemical action of the organic and inorganic 
 parts — 2d, the influence of growing plants on this action; of 
 the importance of salts to this action ; of the action of carbonic 
 acid and the carbonates upon the silicates of soil ; of the modi- 
 fication produced upon this action by the presence of life ; of 
 catalysis or the action of presence, by which life acts ; of the 
 action of mineral manures in agriculture ; their earthy or alka- 
 line part always acts one way ; their acid part produces difier- 
 ences of action ; illustration and explanation of the action of 
 salts or mineral manures ; of the action of nitre ; of lime ; of 
 ashes ; of the composition of leached and unleached ashes. 
 
CONTENTS. XVU 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Mandre 153 
 
 Manures contain all the elements which plants want — are divided 
 into three classes ; choice and determination of a standard of 
 value for manures; nitrogen, geine, and kind of salts determine 
 the value of manure j pure cow-dung the type of all other 
 manures ; its composition and analysis ; yearly produce of 
 salts and geine hy one cow ; the action of manure referred to 
 the joint effect of all its components ; its action due chieily 
 to its ammonia ; origin of this in dung ; of the composition 
 and value of horse-dung ; fermented horse-dung less valuable 
 than cow-dung ; reasons why ; mode of making good yard 
 manure from horse stable-dung ; of yard-manure ; importance 
 of kind of litter; relative value of different straws ; ferment- 
 ation and age ; its effects ou value of yard manure ; long and 
 short, or strong and fat muck ; loss of bulk by age ; statement 
 of composition of yard-manure ; its amount of nitrogen and 
 ammonia ; comparative weights of equal bulks of ox and 
 horse manure ; drainings of manure heaps ; their composition 
 and value ; of the composition and value of human excrement ; 
 analyses of human excrement by Berzelius, and by Fleit- 
 mann ; great amount of phosphates found Ijy the last named 
 chemist ; night-soil, what ; its quality ; how affected by its 
 source ; of hog-manure ; sheep-manure ; of the quantity of 
 manure from 1000 sheep daily; table of composition of ashes 
 of the excrements of pig, cow, sheep, and horse ; relative effect 
 of these manures, and of night-soil ; on what it chiefly depends ; 
 nitrogen expresses the true value of manure ; circumstances 
 which limit and modify this principle ; state in which nitrogen 
 should exist in manure, to become a measure of its value ; ni- 
 trogen must exist as ammonia, or in a combination which 
 readily permits the formation of ammonia ; in salts, the ease 
 b 
 
XVUl CONTENTS. 
 
 with which nitrogen is given up by different salts containing it, 
 affects their value ; time an element in determining value of 
 manure ; ia organic matter, nitrogen effective in proportion to 
 rapidity of decay ; distinction to be noted in salts, between the 
 action of the base, and a nitrogenous acid combined with it j 
 influence of pure salts of ammonia ; their value is almost in 
 direct ratio to their nitrogen , modified by ease of decomposition ; 
 proofs from Kuhlman's experiments; 100 parts nitrogen in 
 manure, whatever its origin, produces in like circumstances 
 like effects ; influence of moist and dry seasons on manare ; 
 ammonia in manure is ordinarily in the state of carbonate ; 
 comparative effects of carbonate and sulphate of ammonia, 
 used as manure ; Jacquemart's experiments with these salts ; 
 proof of the principle that nitrogen determines the value of 
 manure, drawn from effect of nitrate of soda ; nitrogen enables 
 plants to grow more in given time ; general account of its effects 
 in agriculture ; of gadou or Flanders' manure, mode of prepar- 
 ing ; its value and effects ; poudrette, what it is ; preparation 
 of; description of the process for preparing poudrette in 
 France, the birth-place of this manufacture ; suggestions for 
 making poudrette near all large cities and towns ; " animalized 
 black, " what ; cost and value of poudrette ; of the composition 
 and effects of guano ; its actual money value to the farmer ; 
 of the value of the droppings of domestic fowls ; of the compo- 
 sition of fish, flesh, fowl, gristle, skin, sinews, &c. ; they all 
 afford mineral vegetable, and animal salts ; of the composition 
 of the great bulk of animal bodies, fibrine, albumen, caseine ; 
 vegetables afford similar products ; these similar and identical 
 products form proteine ; of its composition and value as a ma- 
 nure ; of the value of sinews, gristle, skin, hair, horns, nails, 
 wool, and feathers ; all animal and vegetable products form 
 two classes, that which does and (hat which does not contain 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 nirrogen ; of the composition and value of bones as a manure ; 
 of fats and oils ; of soot j of the spent ley ; of artificial spent 
 ley ; of liquid animal manures ; of the peculiar principle which 
 gives them their value ; its analysis, composition and action ; 
 of the analysis of cattle urine — its value as a manure ; urine of 
 the horse, sheep, and hog ; of human urine — its value and 
 composition, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Ahtificial Manube and Ieeigation 242 
 
 Of the nature, analysis and composition of peat, swamp-muck 
 and pond mud ; what is wanting to give these the value of cow- 
 dung is alkali ; of the relative value of ammonia, potash, soda, 
 and ashes, which may be used for this purpose ; of the quantity 
 in which these may be added to a cord of peat ; of the compost 
 of peat with animal manure ; of the various' substances used 
 for forming artificial manure with peat, and their relative value ; 
 of the use of peat recently in France ; use of dried peat and 
 ammoniacal salts ; its value compared with poudrette ; of gas 
 liquor and peat ; mode of forming gas or peat poudrette at gas 
 works; of composts without peat or stable manure; of Jauff'- 
 ret's principles of composting ; of the value of different straws 
 for this purpose; of the principles of irrigation ; of the action 
 of pure and impure water ; of the composition of the deposits 
 from freshets ; the nature, action, and value of rain and snow, 
 in agriculture ; "snow the poor man's manure,"^ how far this 
 is I rue; of paring and burning; of turning in green and dry 
 crops. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Physical Properties of Soil 286 
 
 Great differences in soil depend upon physical not upon chemical 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 properties ; physical properties independent of chemical con- 
 stitution ; opinion of Liebig on this subject ; physical characters 
 of soil are dependent on its relation to heat, moisture, consis- 
 tency, and electrical state ; in all these relations, geine acts 
 the chief part ; of the quantity of water produced by the de- 
 composition and waste of geine ; the amount evaporated per 
 acre from this source ; the quantity evaporated from woodland, 
 exceeds the amount of rain which falls ; of the waste of geine 
 caused by this evaporation of water ; of the proportion of 
 carbon which is derived from the soil, and from the air by 
 forest trees. 
 
 Appesdix 301 
 
 Index 315 
 
MUCK MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 1. Ageictjlttjral chemistry aims to explain all 
 the actions of earth, air, and water, upon plants. It 
 refers to all their chemical relations, to the geology, 
 mineralogy and chemistry of soil. 
 
 2. Agricultural geology explains the relations 
 which soil bears to plants, and the manner in which 
 that affects vegetation. 
 
 3. Agricultural geology confines itself to facts. 
 It digs into the earth, observes what composes that. 
 Conversant only with facts, or logical deductions 
 from these, it leaves to geology proper, the vast 
 mass of observations, supported by the highest mod- 
 ern science, which teaches the origin, mode of 
 formation, original condition of our globe, and the 
 successive changes which it has undergone. 
 
 4. The terms, primary and secondary, used by 
 geologists, are almost parts of common language, — 
 yet need to be explained to the farmer. 
 
 5. Large tracts of all extensive countries are com- 
 posed of rocks of a granitic texture. This needs 
 
 2 
 
18 GEOLO&Y OF SOIL. 
 
 no definition. Such rocks having been observed to 
 underlay all others, in the scale of rocks composing 
 the earth's crust, were called primary. It was sup- 
 posed that these were first formed. Out of the 
 ruins of these, no matter when or how rained, other 
 rocks have been made, called secondary. The ruins 
 of the primary rocks have been transported by 
 water, and then gradually deposited layer upon 
 layer. Under immense pressure, these layers of 
 mud, sand, fine gravel, rolled stones, &c. have 
 been hardened into solid rock, and have formed 
 sandstones, slates, or even rocks presenting the 
 crystalline structure or texture of granite, by the 
 action of heat, which the facts of modern geology 
 teach exists in the interior of our globe. 
 
 6. This internal heat is supposed to be the cause 
 of volcanoes, and the primary rocks to have been 
 the ejections under circumstances unknown, of •the 
 melted' mass of the globe; ejections similar in kind 
 to those of modern lava, but greater in degree. 
 
 7. Intermediate between modern lava and prim- 
 itive rocks, and actually passing into either, is a 
 large class of ancient volcanic rocks, called trap- 
 pean ; such are basalt, trap, greenstone and highly 
 crystalline porphyry. 
 
 8. However named and classed arc the rocks of 
 the earth's surface, they have had one common 
 origin, the molten matter of the globe. Hence, 
 having a common origin, their ultimate chemical 
 constituents are similar. If granitic rocks have a 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 19 
 
 certain chemical constitution, then sandstone, slate, 
 &c., having been formed from worn out and worn 
 down granitic rocks, have a constitution chemically 
 like them. 
 
 9. To the agriculturist, the terms primary and 
 secondary, are unnecessary. Equally so are all dis- 
 tinctions of soil based on these terms. 
 
 10. Soil is the loose material covering rocks, and 
 it is supposed to have been formed from their decay. 
 Both are to be classed by their origin. The origin 
 of rocks refers not only to the mode of their first 
 formation, but to their subsequent arrangement. The 
 origin of all rocks, geology teaches, is from the 
 molten matter of the globe. These have been after- 
 wards, in some cases, removed by water, and in 
 part remodified by heat (5). Referring rocks to their 
 origin, they are divisible into two great classes. 
 
 1st. Those formed by fire. 
 2d. Those formed by water. 
 
 11. This division relates both to the origin and 
 distribution. In their origin all rocks are truly igne- 
 ous or from fire. In their distribution they are aque- 
 ous or by water. This is the only division necessary 
 to the farmer. It is the division taught and demanded 
 by agricultural geology. 
 
 12. The first class includes all the highly crystal- 
 line rocks, granite, gneiss, sienite, greenstone, por- 
 phyry ; it includes, also, basalt and lava. The 
 products of volcanoes, whether ancient or modern, 
 agricultural geology places in the same class, in- 
 
20 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 eluding thus all that portion which forms the largest 
 part of the earth's surface. 
 
 13. The second class includes sand, clay, gravel, 
 rounded and rolled stones of all sizes, pudding- 
 stone, conglomerates, sandstones, slates. When 
 these various substances are examined, a large part 
 of sand is found to be composed essentially of the 
 ingredients of the igneous rocks. This is true, also, 
 of sandstone, slate, of conglomerates, of boviflders. 
 
 14. There is a large deposit, or formation in some 
 districts, composed almost wholly of some of the 
 chemical constit\ients of the igneous rocks, united to 
 air. The constituents are lime and magnesia ; the 
 air is carbonic acid, forming by their union, car- 
 bonates of lime and magnesia. Marble, limestone, 
 chalk, belong to this formation. These are not 
 to be ranked as original igneous products subse- 
 quently distributed by water. The lime, originally 
 a part of igneous rocks, has been separated and 
 combined with air, by animals or plants, by a living 
 process called secretion. The modern production 
 of carbonate of lime is still going on, under the 
 forms of shells and corals. Though belonging to 
 neither division, the subject will be simplified by 
 referring limestone to the second class of rocks ; 
 but it is truly a salt, and it will be discussed here- 
 after. 
 
 15. The chemical constitution of all rocks is 
 similar. If rocks are divided into two classes, the 
 first composed of those usually called primary, such 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 21 
 
 as granite, gneiss, mica-slate, porpliyry; and the 
 second class, composed of rocks usually called 
 trappean, as basalt, greenstone, trap, then the great 
 difference in their chemical constitution is this : 
 
 The first, or granitic class, contains about 20 per 
 cent, more of silex, and from 3 to 7 per cent, less 
 of lime and magnesia and iron, than the second or 
 trappean class. 
 
 16. If the language of geology is borrowed, and 
 rocks which present the appearance of layers, or a 
 " stratified structure," are divided into two classes, 
 fossiliferous and non-fossil iferous, or those which do, 
 and those which do not contain remains of animals 
 or plants, it will be found, that the fossiliferous are 
 neither granitic nor trappean, yet are they to be 
 classed with the last, agreeing with these, in con- 
 taining less silica, and more lime, magnesia, and 
 alumina. 
 
 17. The stratified, non-fossiliferous rocks agree 
 in chemical compositjgn with the granitic, and the 
 fossiliferous with the trappean and volcanic. 
 
 18. The trappean and fossiliferous contain the 
 most lime and magnesia ; the granitic and non-fos- 
 siliferous, the most silex. The great difference in 
 chemical composition between the two classes, is 
 produced by lime and magnesia, two substances, 
 which, more than all others, have been thought to 
 influence the character of soil. 
 
 19. The amount of this difference is about from 
 3 to 7 per cent. ; yet notwithstanding this, the gen- 
 
82 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 eral chemical constitution of all rocks approaches 
 so nearly to similarity, that this may be laid down 
 as the first principle in agricultural chemistry, that 
 there is one eock, consequently one soil. 
 
 20. To the farmer, all soil is primary. The 
 question then arises. How do rocks and soil affect 
 vegetation ? As a consequence of the first propo- 
 sition, it may be laid down as the second principle 
 of agricultural chemistry, rocks do not affect 
 
 THE vegetation WHICH COVERS THEM. 
 
 21. This is opposed to the geological doctrine of 
 the times, and may seem to be opposed to the state- 
 ment in section 18. The difference there stated, 
 may be thought to produce corresponding effects in 
 vegetation. This would be true if rocks exerted 
 any influence on soils, due to their chemical con- 
 stitution. A survey of the geographical distribution 
 of plants, used for food, will show that the common 
 doctrine of the chemical influence of rocks on vege- 
 tation, is not so well supported as to be considered 
 an established principle. It is not intended to deny 
 that rocks do, by their physical condition, affect 
 vegetation. Unless it is shown that their physical 
 state depends upon their chemical constitution, the 
 second principle must be admitted as a general 
 truth. 
 
 It has been distinctly avowed by Johnston in his 
 " Lectures," since the appearance of the first edi- 
 tion of these pages, " that where the soil forms only 
 a surface layer of considerable depth of transported 
 
BEOLOGT OF SOIL. 23 
 
 materials, it may have no relation whatever, either 
 in mineralogical characters or in chemical constitu- 
 tion to the immediately subjacent rocks." 
 
 This is the general disposition of soil. It is 
 admitted by the author above quoted, that, in Great 
 Britain, in some counties, and in rearly all the coal- 
 fields, " the general character and capabilities of 
 the soil have no relation whatever to the rocks on 
 which the loose materials immediately rest." 
 
 A distinguished authority in our country. Prof 
 Norton, of Yale, formerly the pupil and assistant 
 of Prof. Johnston, speaking of very fertile soils, 
 says that, these always contain " appreciable quan- 
 tities of some ten or twelve substances. It makes 
 no difference from whence you bring such a soil, 
 from what part of the world it comes, it will in- 
 variably contain these elements in greater or less 
 quantity." (Agr. Address, Northampton, 1849.) 
 Fertile soils are not confined to particular rock for- 
 mations ; they are found overlying all formations, — 
 they are so independent of the rock beneath, that 
 they invariably contain similar elements. Though 
 it may seem premature to place before all who may 
 read this work, the results of analysis, before they 
 have become familiar with chemical names; yet, 
 those here used are so common, that the proof ad- 
 duced may not be misunderstood. 
 
 The analysis of the ashes of plants grown on 
 different geological formations, in soil which is 
 stated to have proceeded from the decomposition 
 
24 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 of the underlying rock, proves how little dependent 
 is the plant on the chemical constitution of the soil. 
 The ashes of the grape vine, grovim on four dif- 
 ferent soils, afforded, 
 
 I. II. III. IV. 
 
 Potash, 34.13 24.93 26.41 37.482 
 
 Soda f . . . 7.59 7.00 S.57 1.330 
 
 Common salt, .... 83 0.58 0.41 1.614 
 
 Lime, 30.28 35.94 31.78 34.344 
 
 Magnesia, .... 4.66 7.12 9.16 1.055 
 
 Phosphate of lime, 15.694 
 
 Sulphate of lime, . . 4.55 4.02 4.13 6.186 
 
 Peroxide of iron, .. 0.16 0.24 0.19 1.564 J^^f'I.t'.'" 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . . 16.35 19.55 16.87 
 
 Silica, 1.45 0.62 2.48 0.725 
 
 In No. 4, all the phosphoric acid is included in 
 the phosphate of lime, and iron. This analysis is 
 by Crasso, the others by Hruschauer. 
 
 No. 1 was grown on soil formed from the debris 
 of quartzose rocks, by the decomposition of gneiss, 
 mica-shist, clay-slate, chlorite, hornblende, quartz, 
 and a little lime. 
 
 No. 2, from soil formed of decomposed limestone, 
 variety called transition. 
 
 No. 3, from soil formed of decomposed mica-slate. 
 
 No. 4, " " " " " porphyry. 
 
 It is evident, that where the soil has not pro- 
 ceeded from geological drift, as in No. 1, widely 
 different geological formations afford all the mineral 
 elements of plants. 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 25 
 
 22. The plants used for food are cultivated on 
 every variety of rock foundation, which the earth 
 presents. Their cultivation is limited neither by 
 granitic nor trappean, by fossiliferous or non-fossil- 
 iferous rocks. Their product varies not more on 
 different than on the same geological formation. 
 Every where, over every variety of rock, the culti- 
 vation of the food-bearing plants repays the labor 
 of the farmer. 
 
 23. Surveying Massachusetts, it is evident the 
 grain crops are not influenced by the peculiar rock 
 formations over which they are grown ; for in this 
 State, with the exception of modern volcanic rocks, 
 all the various formations which the earth presents, 
 are found. Yet no difference in the quality and 
 quantity of crops of rye, oats, barley, wheat, Indian 
 corn, is found, which can be attributed to different 
 geological tracts. 
 
 24. All plants have a natural limit, a peculiar 
 region, in which, unaided by the human race, they 
 flourish and spread spontaneously. The smaller the 
 limit of this natural boundary, the more difficult is 
 the cultivation of the plant, yet we find that the 
 natural boundary is passed, and so plants come to 
 live in an artificial region. There is a natural, 
 and there is an artificial " habitat " or region ; and 
 this last is either horticultural, or agricultural. The 
 first is unlimited, the second is limited by the great 
 external circumstances of temperature and mois- 
 ture. 
 
26 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 25. The extreme north and south limits, which 
 bound the cultivation of the food-bearing plants? 
 are determined wholly by physical, physiological, 
 and social causes. Temperature is the great agent, 
 which limits the agricultural " habitat " of the grain- 
 bearing plants. 
 
 26. The distribution of plants is governed by the 
 two following laws : 
 
 1st. The polar agricultural limits are bounded by 
 lines passing through places of equal summer heat. 
 
 2d. The equatorial limits, by lines of equal winter 
 heat. 
 
 These lines are called respectively, isotheral, and 
 isochimenal. They by no means coincide. They 
 often cut each other at right angles, and generally, 
 from about the 4.5th degree north latitude, they are 
 parallel neither to one another, nor to the latitude. 
 They are often highly curved. 
 
 And now for the proof of these general laws. 
 Beginning with barley, the grain which has been 
 cultivated the farthest north, its fields are found 
 in the extremity of Scotland, in the Orkneys and 
 Shetland Isles, 61 degrees N. ; in the Faroe Islands, 
 between 61 and 62.J degrees N. ; in Western Lap- 
 land, near North Cape, in latitude of 70 degrees; 
 on the borders of the White Sea, in Western Russia, 
 between 67 and 63 degrees, and near to Archan- 
 gel, in Eastern Russia, about 66 degrees ; in Central 
 Siberia, the limit of barley is between 58 and 59 
 degrees N. There are no extended observations 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 27 
 
 of the temperature of the northern, portions of our 
 own continent, and therefore the limit of barley in 
 Northern America is left undefined. But its Euro- 
 pean line will probably define that which will limit 
 grain cultivation in America. 
 
 Tracing a line through the points above named, 
 it is the northern boundary of all the cereals, or 
 grains. A little beyond this line is the boundary of 
 the potato, and the belt between the two, is remark- 
 able. It is the zone between agriculture, and fishing, 
 and hunting ; between races of men, subsisting on 
 animal and on vegetable diet, and those whose 
 chief food is animal. The northern cultivation of 
 barley is bounded, if its course be traced, by a very 
 curved line. Is this determined by geological 
 causes, or do causes purely physical erect a barrier 
 to its further northward advance ? The answer 
 will be found in tracing the temperature of the sea- 
 sons of the different places, through which the limit 
 of the northern cultivation of barley passes. It will 
 be evident that the line of this limit is isotheral, 
 for the mean temperature, Fahrenheit, is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Latitude- 
 
 Tai-oe Isles, '. 61°— 62° 
 
 W. Lapland, 70° 
 
 Russia, at the mouth of 
 the White Sea, . . . 66°— 68° 
 
 Temperature of the 
 
 Year. 
 
 -1-45° 
 -l-33°8 
 
 -1-32° 
 
 Winter. 
 
 -1-39° 
 
 -|-21°2 
 
 -|-10°2— 8°8 
 
 Summer. 
 -I-5P 
 -|-46'2 
 
 -l-46°3 
 
 Casting the eye on this table, it is evident that 
 the annual and the winter temperature have little 
 
28 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 influence on the barley limit, and that a mean 
 summer temperature from 46° to 47° is the only in- 
 dispensable physical condition to the cultivation 
 of barley. On the Atlantic islands, a mean tem- 
 perature from 3 to 4 degrees higher is necessary, 
 which compensates for excessive humidity. It is 
 remarkable, that all the cereals have failed in Ice- 
 land, though its mean temperature is above that 
 necessary for barley. Nor is this owing to its 
 geological structure. In that it agrees with the 
 fertile shores of the Mediterranean. It is volcanic. 
 So far as nitrogen, carbonic acid, and ammonia, 
 may be supposed to be evolved from the earth, and 
 to contribute to the growth of grain, Iceland should 
 equal fertile Italy. But such is not the fact, and it 
 goes to prove that rocks affect very little the crops 
 grown over them, even when the great physical 
 element, temperature, is as high as is necessary. 
 That grains fail in Iceland, is due to the excessively 
 tempestuous rains with which that country is visited. 
 If then the limit of barley is defined by an isotheral 
 line of 46J degrees in Europe, that will also 
 limit its cultivation in America. So far as obser- 
 vation has extended, this is true, and the line of 
 boundary is equally curved, and winding. If a 
 similar table for the limit of wheat is constructed, 
 by drawing a line through the most northern places, 
 where this grain has been cultivated, the physical 
 conditions essential to its cultivation will be found 
 as follows : 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 29 
 
 Year. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 +46=3 
 
 +57°3 
 
 +36''5 
 
 +39=5 
 
 +59° 
 
 +23=5 
 
 -t-SQ'S 
 
 + 59° 
 
 +23°5 
 
 +38° 
 
 +60°8 
 
 +15''6 
 
 Mean Temperature, Fahrenheit, of the 
 Latitude. 
 Scotland, (Inverness) 58° 
 Norway, (Drontheim) 64"" 
 
 Sweden, 62" 
 
 St. Petersburgh, . . . 60°25 
 
 North latitude 64 degrees, appears then, to be the 
 utmost limit of wheat. It is evident by inspection, 
 that this is not determined by the cold of winter ; 
 for spring wheat would not be affected by it ; and 
 even if sown in autumn, in these far northern 
 regions, the seeds would be effectually preserved 
 from the rigors of winter, by that thick mantle of 
 snow, which becomes thicker and more lasting 
 towards the north. The temperature of the air 
 exerts no influence on seeds of plants buried under 
 snow. Nor does the mean temperature of the year 
 exert any effect ; it is seen ranging 9 degrees, while 
 the summer temperature varies only 3:^ degrees. 
 The summer temperature alone defines the limit of 
 northern wheat cultivation, and this is an isotheral 
 line of 57.4 degrees. Yet it is found that there are 
 places, where, as in Russia, the mean of spring 
 and autumn, both depending on that of winter in 
 part, are too low to allow wheat to be raised under 
 this line of 57.4 degrees. In truth, the relation of 
 climate to cultivation cannot be accurately deter- 
 mined without observations on the mean tempera- 
 ture of the days which elapse between sowing and 
 harvest, and to this point the philosophic farmer 
 should direct his attention. In our country, the 
 
30 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 isotheral line of 57.4 degrees, starting from Labra- 
 dore, 51 degrees, and passing between Hudson's 
 Bay and Lake Superior and Huron, 50 degrees, 
 then turns north and approaches 58 degrees. At 
 Cumberland House, 54 degrees north, Capt. Frank- 
 lin found fields of barley, wheat, Indian corn. When 
 the line approaches the Pacific ocean, it turns more 
 southerly to compensate the increasing humidity. 
 As the limits of barley mark the boundary between 
 the races of shepherds and hunters and fishers, and 
 thus presents itself in a moral view, so the limit of 
 wheat becomes interesting, from coinciding in some 
 parts with that of fruit trees, as apples and pears, 
 and also with that of the oak. The whole aspect 
 not only of agriculture, but also of the orchard and 
 forest, changes at once on approaching the isotheral 
 line of 57.4 degrees, the northern limit of wheat. 
 It would be easy to extend these remarks to rye, 
 still the staple food of a large part of the popula- 
 tion of Europe, and to oats, little used for food for 
 man out of the " land o' cakes," yet growing in 
 Norway, as high as latitude 65 degrees. Each of 
 these grains has a distinct isotheral line parallel to 
 that of wheat and barley. Indian corn and the po- 
 tato have each its isotheral line. Turning to the 
 equatorial limits of the grains, it will be found, that 
 extreme heat arrests their cultivation. Observations 
 in these regions, and experiments performed by 
 profound vegetable physiologists, confirm this state- 
 ment. They have proved that the seeds of the 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 31 
 
 food-bearing plants, even after germination has be- 
 gun, can support greater degrees of drought and 
 heat, than ever occur in the hottest climates. The 
 grains all germinate in the soil of a temperature from 
 104 to 105 degrees, and require at least from 116 
 to liiO degrees to arrest this process. Barley ceases 
 to germinate at the lowest temperature. After bar- 
 ley, follows wheat, then rye. Indian corn endures 
 the highest heat, viz., 120 degrees, before its germi- 
 nation is arrested. The grains flourish under a 
 mean annual temperature of from 77 to 80^ de- 
 grees. Defining their equatorial limits, they are 
 bounded not by lines of equal summer, but equal 
 winter temperature ; the reverse of their polar 
 limits. Hence, climate, always determines the 
 sowing season. In Bengal, wheat, barley, oats, are 
 sown in October, and harvested in March and April, 
 while rice and maize are sown in May, to be har- 
 vested in October. It is this line of equal winter 
 temperature, or rather that of the coolest months, 
 which allows the grains to be cultivated in many 
 places within the torrid zone, and the line of 68 to 
 70 degrees, Fah., which constitutes the tropical 
 limit of wheat culture, varies between 20 and 23 
 degrees of latitude. The other grains enduring from 
 5 to 7 degrees lower temperature, are found in 
 higher latitudes. 
 
 27. The wide belt of our globe, comprised within 
 these limits, extending from 20 to 70 degrees north 
 latitude, presents every variety of geological struc- 
 
32 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 ture ; yet, nowhere, in all this space is the quantity 
 or quality of crops affected, by the chemical na- 
 ture of the underlying rocks. 
 
 28. A similar principle governs the growth and 
 cultivation of the grain-bearing plants on mountains. 
 Their limits are found at heights, which correspond 
 to the latitude which marks the isotheral line. In 
 the Swiss Alps, the grains cease growing at the fol- 
 lowing heights. 
 
 Wheat at 340;t ft. corresponding to lat 64 deg. 
 Oats " 3500 " " f 65 " 
 
 Rye " 4600 " " " 67 " 
 
 Barley " 4800 " " " 70 " 
 
 This shows a beautiful correspondence between 
 latitude and altitude, and leads a step farther in the 
 proof of this principle, that rocks do not atfect the 
 vegetation which covers them. 
 
 29. The space which has thus been surveyed, 
 presents, amid great variety of rocks, a singular 
 similarity in chemical composition of the soil. These 
 facts lead to the third principle of agricultural chem- 
 istry, ROCKS HAVE NOT FORMED THE SOIL VSTHICH 
 
 IMMEDIATELY COVERS THEM. 
 
 30. Every where, with the exception of the tops 
 of some mountains, the rocks of the globe are cov- 
 ered, from a few inches, to some hundred feet in 
 depth, with gravel, sand, clay, rolled stones, some- 
 times alternately with each other, sometimes in 
 confused heaps. The best attested and most uni- 
 versally admitted fact of geology, is, that the loose 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 33 
 
 materials of our globe have been transported, from 
 a few, to many hundred miles from their original sit- 
 uation» With a few exceptions, the soil, which now 
 covers rocks, has been derived from places distant, 
 and from rocks distinct, from those on which it now 
 reposes. This is peculiarly true of soil on limestone 
 districts, which does not contain more lime than the 
 soil reposing on granite. 
 
 31. Transportation of soil is a fact so well estab- 
 lished, that it needs only to be mentioned. There 
 has been a universal mingling of the loose material, 
 soil, derived from worn down and mingled rocks. 
 
 32. The same uniformity of chemical composi- 
 tion characterizes soil, which characterized rocks ; 
 that is, great similarity, but not identity, and it is on 
 limited patches only, that soil partakes decidedly of 
 the character of the underlying rocks. 
 
 33. The extensive analyses of soil, executed by 
 the geological surveyor of Massachusetts, taken 
 from every variety of rock formation, present a 
 remarkable uniformity, both of chemical consti- 
 tution, and mineralogical composition of the earthy 
 ingredients. In one hundred and forty-six soils of 
 Massachusetts, the combinations of lime, clay, iron, 
 &c., estimated as in the state of bone-dust, are 
 
 per 100 parts, 0-859 
 
 Similar matters in the state of plaster f 
 
 are per 100 parts, ^ 
 
 The surveyor suggests the subtraction of ^ from 
 the amount representing matters allied to bone-dust, 
 3 
 
34 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 to reduce that to pure bone-earth. A less amount 
 should be allowed in the matters allied to plaster. 
 If 31 per cent, be deducted from the sum of the 
 plaster and bone-dust, the result is, 1.851. 
 
 Lime, in the state of marble or limestone, was 
 found in fourteen of one hundred and forty-six 
 soils. Except in limestone regions, the natural 
 existence of lime in the state of marble or challc 
 in soil is very questionable. Adding its average 
 amount as found in the soil of Massachusetts, viz., 
 0.916, the result is, — lime in various forms, — 
 2.047, fine earthy matter insoluble in weak acids, 
 89.305. What is true of the soil of Massachusetts is 
 true of all soil — great similarity of its mineral con- 
 stituents, both in kind and proportion. This is the 
 truth, deducible from the average results of analyses 
 of soil from various parts of the world. But it may 
 be said that the above numbers have been deduced 
 from the results of the examination of a very limited 
 portion of our country ; that the analyses have been 
 conducted by a new process; that the soil examined 
 rests chiefly on granitic rocks, and has been thence 
 derived. Had the field been wider or the process 
 different, the results would have been different. 
 
 All analysts, from the earliest times, have found a 
 very large per centage of soil insoluble in acid or 
 alkali. The object of chemists has been, by the 
 aid of water and weak acids, by the gentlest means 
 to separate the elements of soil. Others have used 
 fiercer means, and have attacked the insoluble por- 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 35 
 
 tion of soil, by means common to the analysis of 
 intractable stones, by fusion with alkali, followed by 
 treatment with acid. By either mode the mineral 
 part of soil is separated into two general divisions, 
 into soluble and insoluble portions. 
 
 This is to be observed of all soil analyses, by 
 whomsoever or howsoever made, that while all are 
 imperfect approximations only to truth, yet the inso- 
 luble ingredients are the substances which from their 
 chemical constitution are least affected by the vari- 
 ous modifications to which soil analyses have been 
 subjected. Whatever modes may have been used, 
 in all, the insoluble substances make up the great 
 bulk of soil presented in the per centage result, as, 
 " silica, silicious residuum, sand and clay, insoluble 
 mineral matter, fine earthy matter, sandy residuum." 
 
 In the analytical results, alumina, or clay, oxide 
 of iron, or iron rust, and magnesia, are frequently 
 stated in separate amounts. These substances have 
 been educed by analysis from their combinations, yet 
 are they for the most part a portion of the insoluble 
 compounds variously designated above, and should be 
 included in that class. The " aluminous residuum," 
 or clay, is certainly an earthy compound only. 
 
 Lime generally exists in the state of plaster, or 
 bone-dust, or sometimes as limestone. In truly cal- 
 careous or limy soil, lime may form several per 
 cents. But such soils are the exception, not the 
 rule, of the earth's covering. It is soil in its uni- 
 versal features to which attention is here directed. 
 
36 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 Lime has been very often, perhaps generally, sepa- 
 rated from its earthy combinations, and has been 
 separately stated as carbonate of lime in soil ; as 
 such, it has been too often a product, not an educt 
 of analysis. 
 
 So, too, of potash and soda, when these exist in 
 other forms than as common salts, they are usually 
 in soil in combination with its vegetable matter, and 
 are to be considered with that element. 
 
 These considerations authorize the inclusion of 
 clay, iron and magnesia in the insoluble division of 
 soil, while the bone-dust and plaster, naturally ex- 
 isting and soluble by the aid of natural water, or 
 more easily by rain water, are to be included in the 
 soluble portion. 
 
 Bearing this division in mind, let the examination 
 of soil be extended to other districts of our country, 
 where the soil resting on an immense field of lime- 
 stone, underlaid by the rocks which were referred 
 to (16) as fossiliferous, has been examined by the 
 process applied to Massachusetts soils — yet with 
 such modification as to procure a portion of clay, 
 iron and magnesia separately from the insoluble 
 substances. 
 
 Fifteen soils, from Wisconsin and Iowa, gave per 
 100 parts — 
 
 Insoluble in weak acid, . . . 82.500 
 
 Clay, iron, magnesia, . . . 5.600 
 
 Adding these, the sum is . . . 88.100 
 
 Lime in various forms of limestone and plaster, 1.S60 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 37 
 
 The soil of these immense regions shows not so 
 intimate a relation to the underlying rock as do the 
 soils of New England. These western soils are 
 convincing proof of the third principle (29). 
 
 But the same proof of the independence of soil 
 and of its uniform composition, is afforded by the 
 results of the examination of the continental Euro- 
 pean soils. Forty-eight soils, from Germany, Hol- 
 land, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia, by a process 
 very different from either of those which had been 
 used in the analyses above stated, by an acute and 
 intricate mode of operation afforded 
 
 Insoluble, 
 
 87.053 
 
 Soluble clay, iron, magnesia, 
 
 5.853 
 
 
 92.906 
 
 Lime in various forms, — as plaster, bone- 
 
 dust, limestone. 
 
 1.660 
 
 Taking these several results, we have 
 
 
 Soils. Insoluble. 
 
 Forms of lime. 
 
 146 Massachusetts, . . . 89.305 
 
 2 047 
 
 15 Wisconsin and Iowa, . . 88.100 
 
 1.860 
 
 48 European, ... 92 906 . . 
 
 1.860 
 
 209 3)270.311 
 
 3)5.767 
 
 Mean, 90.103 
 
 1.922 
 
 Excluding that form of lime whose existence as 
 limestone naturally in Massachusetts soil is very 
 questionable, the lime in her soil would be repre- 
 sented by 1.851. The average of the forms of lime 
 would then be in the above 209 soils, 1.857, which 
 is only 0.006 more than that of Massachusetts, while 
 
38 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 the insoluble portion of her soil is actually very- 
 near the mean of the whole. 
 
 But if the comparison is to be made with other 
 soils, the limestone is to be retained. Other soils 
 have this element included in the result of their 
 analyses ; and it is with the like exceptions, as liable 
 to be there misplaced as in the soils of Massachu- 
 setts. Retaining, therefore, all the lime, a still 
 wider examination will show the great uniformity in 
 chemical composition of all soil.- 
 
 The results may be tabulated as follows, dividing, 
 as has been explained, all soil into insoluble, soluble, 
 and forms of lime. The soluble includes clay, "iron, 
 magnesia,, the forms of lime, plaster, bone-dust and 
 limestone. 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 39 
 
 1 78 as carbonate of lime, 0.60 
 
 phosphate, 2.32 sulphate of lime 
 
 .86 of these soils soluble in 
 weak acid. 
 
 Carbonate of lime. 
 
 Carbonate of lime. 
 
 0.60 dissolves in water. 
 80 dissolves in water. 
 
 8 soils have carb. sulph- & phost 
 
 of lime. The average of the carh 
 in these is 5.2U9. The average of 
 the sulph. and phost. is .933. 
 14 only have carb. of lime be- 
 sides phost. and sulphate. 
 
 ■aij'Buoqj'Bo JO 
 an'Bqo ' Ja^sieid 
 'isnp-auoq jo 
 uuoj m araii 
 
 •Rog aiqnpg 
 
 1.170 
 .594 
 1.012 
 4.700 
 3.160 
 1.860 
 2.800 
 2.020 
 2.091 
 .020 
 6. 
 
 .912 
 2. 
 
 2.824 
 
 1.430 
 1. 
 1. 
 
 6.120 
 .985 
 
 1270 
 
 2 470 
 1.375 
 
 1.860 
 
 ei 
 
 7.700 
 5.874 
 6.981 
 
 .730 
 5.600 
 7.000 
 33.300 
 73.250 
 4.860 
 17. 
 
 26.2g2 
 22.300 
 
 11.540 
 
 18.000 
 11.500 
 7.200 
 8.920 
 
 23.600 
 
 20.200 
 10.075 
 
 6.853 
 
 ■nog 
 
 aiqnpsai 
 
 75.960 
 82.720 
 87.953 
 83.060 
 86.430 
 82.500 
 81.400 
 47.390 
 17.050 
 83.400 
 73.000 
 67.660 
 43. 
 
 79.295 
 
 85.660 
 76.000 
 84.880 
 85.466 
 81.400 
 
 64.eoo 
 
 54.800 
 80. 
 
 87.053 
 
 89.305 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Mississippi, alluvial, 100 m. above N. Orleans, 
 
 Mud of the Rhine, in freshet, . 
 
 Senegal, 
 
 Coromandel, sandy and mixed soils, 
 
 Java,' 
 
 Batavia, . 
 
 Russia (Tachornoizem), its best black and 
 most fertile soil, 
 
 Chinese tea soil 
 
 Assani tea soil, 
 
 English soils, highly cultivated, 
 
 " " Sutton, in Norfolk, . 
 
 " " clay soils, from new red sand- 
 stone, .... 
 
 mould 
 
 " Yorkshire, lower magnesian limestone, 
 Germany, Holland, Belgium, Hungary, Bohe- 
 mia, 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 ^ . 
 .2 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 C. T. Jackson, 
 C. T. Jackson, 
 
 C. T. Jackson, 
 Hitchcock, . 
 Whittesly & Randall, 
 
 D. ». Owen, 
 C. T. Jackson, 
 Silliman, Jr. . 
 MuU^r, 
 Laugier, 
 Plagne, 
 Sprengel, 
 Sumner, 
 Payen, 
 
 Hermann, . 
 
 Piddington, . 
 Piddington, . 
 Davy, 
 Playfair, 
 Fownes, 
 
 Fownes, 
 
 Spencer, 
 Sprengel, 
 
 1 
 
 146'nitchcock, . 
 
 •pamuTBxa; 
 snog JO -ON 
 
 .JH -SH C~ lO Tj< in rH rt rt in N ^ rs rt n r-*.-linMP3 rt r^ LO 
 
40 
 
 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 
 
 The whole number of soils comprised in the 
 above table is 413. 
 
 Deducting the 14() soils of Massachusetts, ) 
 the remaining 267 give an average of 5 
 
 By adding the soluble and insoluble, the ^ 
 
 result is, 5 
 
 while )4G Massachusetts soils contain . 
 
 The sum of the whole 413, 
 
 And the average is 
 
 87C37 
 89 305 
 
 Salts of 
 lime. 
 
 2.047^ 
 4.122 
 
 2.061 
 
 This examination proves that the 146 soils of 
 Massachusetts represent very fairly the average 
 mineral composition of the soil of the globe. 
 
 The results of chemical analysis stated per cent, 
 to two or three places of decimals, give the farmer 
 no idea of the quantity of any element in an acre, 
 at the usual depth of cultivation. A simple rule 
 will make this amount evident. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of dried soil is as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Silicious sand, . . . 111.3 pounds. 
 
 Calcareous sand, . . . 113.6 
 Sandy clay, .... 97.8 
 
 Loamy clay, .... 88.5 
 Stiff clay, .... 80.3 
 
 Slaty marl, . . . . 1 12. 
 
 Fertile mould, . . . 68.7 
 
 Common arable soil, . . . 84.5 
 
 The average is 94.58, which in the ordinary wet 
 state becomes 126.6. Multiply 43560 by the weight 
 of a cubic foot of soil, and divide the product by 12, 
 the quotient is the number of pounds per acre at one 
 inch deep. 
 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 41 
 
 Read the results of analyses stated in 100 parts, 
 decimally, as whole numbers, and consider each 
 ingredient as so many pounds in every 100,000 lbs. 
 of soil. 
 
 Multiply any ingredient by the number of pounds 
 in one inch deep, and cut off the five right hand 
 figures ; the remainder is the number of pounds of 
 that ingredient per acre, at one inch deep. 
 
 Let it be required to know how many pounds of 
 salts of lime are contained in eight inches deep of 
 a soil which weighs 12fi.6 pounds per cubic foot, and 
 contains 2.047 of salts of lime in 100 parts. 
 
 43560 X 126.6= 5514096 pounds per acre one foot deep. 
 5514696 4- 12 = 45955S pounds " " one inch deep. 
 459558 X 2.047= 940776636. 
 Cutting off five figures, leaves 9407 pounds at one inch deep. 
 8 
 
 7525(1 " at eight inches deep. 
 
 It is to be remembered that this immense quantity 
 is that contained only in the finer portions of the 
 soil ; there yet remain about eighty parts in every 
 hundred of soil as undecomposed silicates, ready to 
 yield their lime to the wants of agriculture. 
 
 Tried by the above rule, the smallest quantities 
 which the chemist obtains in his analysis become 
 tons per acre, and that which is too small to be 
 weighed by any balance, the " trace " only of an 
 element rises to an amount which astonishes by its 
 magnitude. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF KOCKS, AND SOIL. 
 
 34. The geologist, the mineralogist, the chemist, 
 each views rocks with a different eye. The geolo- 
 gist regards the rocky mass ; the mineralogist, the 
 simple minerals composing the rock ; the chemist, 
 the simple elements which compose the minerals. 
 
 35. Elements are substances which have not as 
 yet been proved to be compound, as oxygen and 
 hydrogen among the gases, or iron or lead among 
 metals. Minerals are called simple which have cer- 
 tain definite, external, physical characters, though 
 they may be composed of several elements. Rocks 
 are called compound, which consist of several simple 
 minerals, as granite, which consists of quartz, fel- 
 spar, and mica. 
 
 36. The only point of view which the farmer 
 takes, is that of the chemist ; his pole-star is " fruit 
 and progress ;" and his philosophy, guided by this, 
 teaches the nature and mode of action of the several 
 elements of minerals. Without a knowledge of the 
 chemical constitution of minerals, the science which 
 classifies and labels these is useless. The mineral- 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 43 
 
 ogist merely names his mineral, labels it, and places 
 it in his cabinet ; yet a farmer must know a few of 
 these names, and talk to the mineralogist in terms 
 which he can understand. He must give to the 
 assemblage of elements which composes a mineral, 
 that name which the mineralogist bestows on the 
 assemblage of external characters, which determines 
 the species. 
 
 37. The mineralogy of agriculture is no more 
 than this, that the farmer be able, ever to connect 
 with a certain name, a certain chemical composi- 
 tion. Hearing mica (which is isinglass,) named, he 
 immediately connects with that, the chemical prop- 
 erties which belong to the species, as he would con- 
 nect with the term isinglass, the physical properties 
 of that substance ; such as transparency, divisibility 
 into thin plates, which are flexible and elastic. 
 
 38. The amount of this mineralogical knowledge 
 is very limited. Seven simple minerals compose 
 all rocks, viz : quartz, mica, felspar, hornblende, 
 talc, serpentine, carbonate of lime. Other minerals 
 are found in rocks, but these seven compose all 
 those termed geological formations, and which form 
 the crust of the globe. 
 
 39. The chemical constitution of rocks, the na- 
 ture, properties and relations of their elements, 
 prove to be of the highest value, when it is known 
 that the elements of these seven minerals are also 
 the earthy part or ashes of all plants. The farmer 
 should therefore be so far a chemist, as to understand 
 
44 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 the results to which the analysis of minerals con- 
 ducts. 
 
 40. The number of elements which chemistry 
 has detected is sixty-two ; probably sixty-three. 
 All are either metalic or unmetallic. Of these, 
 some are gaseous, others earthy, others combustible. 
 The last are also called metalloids, by which term 
 they are designated in these pages. 
 
 Of the simple or elementary bodies, thirteen 
 chiefly compose all rocks, and the mineral portion 
 of soil. Six of this number are unmetallic and 
 seven are metallic substances. 
 
 The unmetallic are : 
 
 
 The metallic are : 
 
 1. Oxygen. 
 
 2. Hydrogen, 
 
 3. Silicon. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 4. Carbon. 
 
 4. 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 5. Sulphur. 
 
 6. Phosphorus. 
 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 Ferrum. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Manganesium 
 
 Restricting the term metalloids to the 3d, 4th, 
 5th and 6th unmetallic substances in the above list, 
 the other two stand out distinctly, separated by their 
 want of properties common to the remainder. They 
 stand each alone, being wholly unlike each other. 
 These are oxygen and hydrogen, known in their 
 uncombined or free state only as gases, whose union 
 produces water. It is as a part of water that hydro- 
 gen enters into the composition of rocks. It is 
 comparatively of little importance. 
 
 Not so with oxygen. No other known substance 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 45 
 
 has such a wide range of affinities. Its combinations 
 produce a change of properties in the several ele- 
 ments above enumerated, vifhose names end in um, 
 by which these are converted into substances whose 
 common name reveals their well known charac- 
 ters. 
 
 41. With the metalloids, oxygen forms acids, and 
 with the metals, oxides or earths, rarely acids. 
 
 OXYGEN, 
 
 
 with silicon forms silicic acid 
 
 with potaasimn 
 
 fonns potash. 
 
 " carbon " carbonic " 
 
 " 
 
 sodium 
 
 " soda. 
 
 " sulphur " sulphuric " 
 
 (C 
 
 calcium 
 
 " lime. 
 
 " phosphorus " phosphoric " 
 
 " 
 
 magnesium 
 
 " magnesia. 
 
 
 
 aluminium 
 
 " alumina, or 
 clay earth. 
 
 
 
 ferrum 
 
 " iron oxide 
 or rust 
 
 
 (C 
 
 manganesium 
 
 " manganese 
 oxide. 
 
 42. The oxides or earths are termed bases. Pot- 
 ash, soda, magnesia, are termed alkaline bases ; the 
 others, metallic bases. Acids and bases unite and 
 form salts in rocks or soils. Metalloids also unite 
 with metals and form a class of compounds of great 
 importance in agriculture. These may be termed 
 metalloid compounds when speaking of such agricul- 
 turally. 
 
 43. It is seen, therefore, that the elements com- 
 posing rocks are reduced to salts and metalloid 
 compounds. 
 
 But the peculiar character of the salts formed by 
 silicic acid, will be easier understood by separating 
 these from the others, and studying them under the 
 name of silicates. These form the great bulk of 
 the earth's crust. The distinguishing character of the 
 
46 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 silicic acid salts is either a crystalline appearaaee, 
 with the transparency and lustre of glass, united to 
 the hardness of flint, or opacity, with the stony and 
 earthy look and common characters of mineral sub- 
 stances composing rocks. The compounds of silicic 
 acid would be hardly recognized as salts in the 
 common and popular sense of that term, with which 
 is associated the ideas of softness and solubility. In 
 the opinion of some chemists of the highest authority, 
 silicon, or silicium as they term it, is a metal. Its 
 combination with oxygen produces an acid. Hence, 
 perhaps, its salts derive their peculiarity. Silicic 
 acid is a metallic acid, which forms with bases, sili- 
 cates ; these are generally insoluble in water, or 
 soluble by the aid of an excess of alkali. Carbonic, 
 sulphuric, and phosphoric acids are metalloid acids, 
 which form with bases, salts, in the ususl sense of 
 the term. Nor is silicium, if a metal, the only one 
 of the class which acts as an acid, combined with 
 oxygen. Alumina acts so occasionally, so does 
 manganese, so does iron. 
 
 44. The elements of water being included in sili- 
 cates and salts, all the substances which compose 
 rocks may be divided into three sections ; a. silicates, 
 b. salts, c. metalloid compounds. 
 
 45. The elements which compose silicates may 
 be enumerated in pairs, as a help to the memory — 
 
 The alkalies — potash and soda. 
 " alkaline earths — lime and magnesia. 
 " metallic acids or earths — silex and alumina. 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 47 
 
 2 alkalies, 2 alkaline earths, 2 metallic acids. The 
 last have all the characters of earths, and silica, 
 whose acid properties were first noticed by Smithson, 
 was and is still called the earth of flints, while alu- 
 mina is known as the earth of clay. 
 
 46. The terms, salt, silicate, and metalloid com- 
 pound may need a further explanation. Pearlashes 
 and vinegar are well known substances. One is an 
 alkali, the other an acid. Pearlash has the alkaline 
 properties of a bitter, burning taste, the power of 
 changing vegetable blues to green, and pinks to 
 blues. Vinegar has the acid property of sour taste, 
 of causing a hissing or effervescence, when poured 
 on pearlash. This action ceasing, there are neither 
 acid taste nor alkaline properties. The characters 
 of the vinegar and pearlash have disappeared. These 
 substances have united ; they have formed a new 
 substance called a salt. Their properties are neu- 
 tralized, and lost in the salt. This is no longer either 
 pearlash or vinegar. 
 
 47. The fact to be observed in the action (46) is, 
 that an acid and alkali mutually neutralize each 
 other. The vinegar is said, in this case, in common 
 language, to "kill" the pearlash. So soda, potash, 
 lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese would all be 
 killed or neutralized by vinegar ; they would all be 
 dissolved by it, and lose their distinguishing charac- 
 ters. In either case, a neutral salt would be formed. 
 Such a class of salts, is termed acetates, being 
 formed of alkalies, alkaline earths, or metallic oxides 
 united with acetic acid. 
 
48 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 48. Silex or silica, or the earth of flints, as it has 
 been called, is in its pure state a perfectly white, in- 
 sipid, tasteless powder. In various combinations of 
 minerals, it unites with the bases, (41), forming 
 neutral salts, termed silicates, from the silicic acid. 
 Thus is formed, as in the case of vinegar, or acetic 
 acid, (47), a large class in which are found silicates 
 of soda, of potash, of lime, of magnesia, of alumina, 
 of iron, and of manganese. This class forms the 
 great bulk of all rocks and soil. 
 
 49. The seven substances last mentioned (42) are 
 all metals united to oxygen. They are metallic 
 oxides. If the oxygen is removed, and replaced by 
 carbon, sulphur, phosphorus or silicon, combinations 
 are formed, called sulphurets, carburets, phosphurets, 
 siliciurets. 
 
 50. Metalloid compounds are combinations of 
 metalloids with metajs, in their pure, or unoxidated 
 state. 
 
 51. Salts are combinations of metalloids with 
 oxygen, and the metals in their rusted or oxidated 
 state. 
 
 52. The formation of carbonic, sulphuric, phos- 
 phoric acids, has been explained (41). When these 
 acids unite to the bases, salts are formed, called car- 
 bonates, sulphates, phosphates. 
 
 53. Hence, when a substance is named, for ex- 
 ample, sulphate of lime, a definite idea of the nature 
 of this is conveyed. It is, on the principles stated, 
 at once known to be a salt, that is a sulphate, that is. 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 49 
 
 sulphur and oxygen united to lime. So too phos- 
 phate of lime is seen to be a salt of lime. 
 
 54. If the thirteen elements, which enter into the 
 composition of rocks, had each an equal tendency to 
 unite with the other; or, in other words, if their 
 affinities were mutual, then there would be as many 
 different combinations as it would be possible to form 
 with thirteen different substances. If tliese com- 
 bined in all proportions, then the possible number of 
 combinations would be infinite. 
 
 55. This can never be. Affinity is not equally 
 powerful. There is election or choice among the 
 particles of inanimate matter. When the Creator 
 impressed this property upon matter. He also limited 
 its combinations. He assigned to each element 
 power to combine with other elements, only in fixed, 
 definite, invariable proportions. He gave to each 
 its form, weight, and measure. And thus were lim- 
 ited, the number of combinations, and the propor- 
 tions fixed, in which these combinations should ever, 
 from the dawning, to the end of time, occur. The 
 Genius of modern chemistry, has taught, that all 
 bodies combine only by infinitely small particles. 
 Holding her balance over invisible elements, she 
 has taught that each can be weighed. 
 
 It is the relative, not the absolute weight, which 
 chemistry determines. The mode may be thus il- 
 lustrated : Take 9 lbs. of water, pass its steam over 
 a known weight of pure iron turnings, heated red 
 hot in an earthen tube. No steam escapes from the 
 4 
 
50 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 tube,, only air which may be inflamed and burned. 
 It is hydrogen gas, one of the constituents of water. 
 That liquid has been decomposed. What has 
 become of its oxygen .' It has united with, and oxi- 
 dated the iron. What proportion of the 9 lbs. of 
 water did it form ? 8-9ths. If the iron is weighed, 
 it will be found heavier in proportion of 8 lbs. for 
 every 9 lbs. of water evaporated and decomposed. 
 Whatever is the proportion of water used, 8-9ths are 
 oxygen. Deducting from the 9 lbs. of water, 8 
 oxygen, the balance 1 is hydrogen. These are re- 
 spectively the weights of their combining propor- 
 tions. Chemical theory supposes combination occurs, 
 only by the ultimate, indivisible particles or atoms of 
 matter. Hence, the combining number is the rela- 
 tive weight of these atoms, referred to some one as 
 unity. In these pages, hydrogen is considered as 
 1, or unity. As the atoms may be thus expressed 
 by numbers, it is customary, in referring to chemical 
 compounds, to speak only of the number of atoms, 
 in which each element enters into their composition. 
 The modern system of chemical notation, substitutes 
 for the name of the elements its first, or two first 
 letters, and writes after it the number of atoms, ex- 
 isting in any compound, as the powers of roots are 
 expressed arithmetically by exponents. Where only 
 single atoms combine, their exponents are omitted. 
 Thus, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen ; then water is 
 H O, that is, one atom each of hydrogen and oxygen. 
 C is carbon, O oxygen ; then C O^ is carbonic acid, 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 51 
 
 that is, 1 carbon and two of oxygen. The combin- 
 ing number of carbon is 6, and of oxygen 8, then 1 
 carbon = 6, and 2 oxygen (8X2) = 16. Then 
 the atomic number of carbonic acid is 22, (6 + 16 
 = 22.) One little conversant with chemistry is apt 
 to confound the combining number with the number 
 of atoms, especially when the first is called " atomic 
 number." A distinction is to be here remembered, 
 the atomic number is one thing, the number of atoms 
 another. When it is said, that water is composed of 
 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen, by weight, 
 an ultimate fact only is expressed. When it is said 
 that water is composed of an atom of oxygen united 
 to an atom of hydrogen, we express a theoretical 
 opinion. The difficulty lies, in understanding how 
 water can be both a combination of 1 to 1, and of 1 
 to 8 ; that 9 of water can yet be only composed of 1 
 to 1. This discrepancy vanishes, where the distinc- 
 tion is remembered, between the combining or atomic 
 number, and the number of atoms. Water is an 
 example, where single atoms are united. But cases 
 continually occur where the combining number of 
 one body unites to more than one combining propor- 
 tion of another. In this case, as the atoms are indi- 
 visible, combination can occur only, by twice, thrice, 
 &c., the quantity of that of the first compound ; for 
 instance, 1 carbon may be combined with 1 oxygen, 
 forming oxide of carbon, or with 2 of oxygen, and 
 form carbonic acid. There is, and can be no inter- 
 mediate step. Having determined the combining 
 
52 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 atomic number of oxygen, that of all other bodies 
 may be found by determining how much of each is 
 necessary exactly to unite with 8 of oxygen. For 
 instance, the iron used in the experiment of decom- 
 posing water, increases in weight ; if it is all equally 
 oxidated, it is found to increase 8 lbs. for every 28 
 lbs. of iron used. If, therefore, 28 lbs. of iron are 
 used, and 9 lbs. of water, the iron may be wholly 
 oxidated by the 8 lbs. of o.xygen of the water. 
 Deducting this from the total weight of the oxide of 
 iron, 36 lbs. the balance is the combining or atomic 
 weight of iron. The sum of 8 -|- 28 = 36 is there- 
 fore the atomic weight of oxide of iron. The atomic 
 weight of all compounds is the sum of the atomic 
 weight of their constituents. The number of atoms 
 in any compound, whose proportional constituents 
 by weight are given, is found by dividing each by 
 its respective atomic weight. For instance, the 
 composition of carbonic acid above, gives in 22 
 parts, 6 of carbon, and 16 of oxygen. Each divided 
 by its atomic weight, gives 1 carbon, 2 of oxygen, 
 := 22 of carbonic acid. So in a compound of seve- 
 ral elements, having their proportions per cent, 
 given, each divided by its atomic number, gives the 
 relative proportion of the atoms. These reduced to 
 simplest terms, and aiRxed to the letters or symbols 
 of the elements, constitute what is called the chemi- 
 cal formula of this compound. 
 
 Three laws discovered by multiplied observation, 
 confirmed by repeated experiments, govern all 
 chemical science. These laws are : 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 53 
 
 1st. Bodies combine only in definite proportion. 
 
 2d, " " " multiple proportion. 
 
 3d. " " " equivalent proportion. 
 
 These are the laws of chemical combination. 
 The atomic theory attempts to, and does account 
 for them. Once admit the principle, that bodies 
 combine only by indivisible atoms, these laws fol- 
 low as consequences. If bodies only unite by 
 atoms, atom to atom, their composition must be 
 definite. If a body unites an atom to two or more 
 of another, then as atoms are indivisible, the second, 
 or other added portion, must be a multiple of the 
 first, by a whole number. When bodies unite in 
 proportions which imply half atoms, it is because 
 union has occurred between two ato^ns of one, and 
 three atoms of another, as iron may unite with oxy- 
 gen so as to be seemingly a compound of 1 iron to 
 1^ oxygen. Truly this is a compound of 2 iron to 
 3 oxygen. Alumina always oxidates itself in this 
 proportion, but it will simplify our views to consider 
 it as uniting atom to atom. Again, if bodies unite 
 only by atoms, the atom of one may be replaced by 
 that of another ; or, which is the same thing, the 
 combining proportion of one may replace the com- 
 bining proportion of another, for they are equivalent 
 to each other. One body may be thus successively 
 united to others, in doses which represent their 
 atomic weights. 
 
 56. Calculating on this fixed principle, that the 
 combining weight of any substance is the quantity 
 
54 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 necessary to unite with 8 of oxygen, it is found, 
 
 that the proportions in which the bases of silicates 
 
 combine, are 
 
 8 oxygen, 8 silicon = 16 silica, 
 
 8 " 10 aluminum = 18 alumina, 
 
 8 " 20 calcium = 28 lime, 
 
 8 " 12 magnesium = 20 magnesia, 
 
 8 " 40 potassium =48 potash, 
 
 8 " 24 sodium = 32 soda, 
 
 8 " 28 iron = 3fi oxide of iron, 
 
 8 " 28 manganese = 36 oxide of manganese. 
 
 When any of these oxidated substances unite to 
 an acid, it is only in these proportions. The num- 
 bers are equivalents — that is, 48 of potash are equal 
 in saturating jjower, to 32 of soda, or 28 of lime. 
 All equivalents, entering into the composition of 
 soil, contain the same quantity of oxygen. Hence, 
 if from each of the above numbers in the third col- 
 umn, 8, the constant quantity, is deducted, the re- 
 mainder represents the equivalent of the respective 
 pure metals, which chemists represent by the ter- 
 mination in um or ium ; and hence are formed, 
 potassium, sodium, &-c. (40), (41). 
 
 57. The equivalent of sulphur is 16, adding 3 
 oxygen = 24 parts, sulphuric acid is formed = 40. 
 
 The equivalent of phosphorus is 32, adding 5 
 oxygen := 40 parts, phosphoric acid is formed. The 
 equivalent of carbon is 6, adding 2 oxygen =16 
 parts, carbonic acid is formed. 
 
 Hence, the equivalents of these acids are 40, 72, 
 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 55 
 
 22, numbers produced by adding the proportions of 
 oxygen, to the respective bodies. These acids com- 
 bine, in their above equivalent proportions, vi^ith 
 the bases of silicates, forming neutral salts, or with 
 two or more proportions of acid form super-salts, or 
 with a larger portion of base, form sub-salts, and 
 thus form fixed and invariable compounds. Sul- 
 phate of lime is, therefore, in proportion of 28 of 
 lime to 40 of acid. Carbonate of lime, 28 of lime 
 to 22 of acid. Phosphate of lime has a larger pro- 
 portion of base, 3 parts or 84 of lime to 72 of acid ; 
 this is bone earth, so called ; and the equivalent of 
 each of these salts is the number produced, by 
 adding that of the lime to that of the acid. 
 
 58. If sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, are 
 united to the bases (40), combination can take place 
 only in the equivalent proportions. It is thus evi- 
 dent, that soil, consisting of silicates, metalloid com- 
 pounds, and salts, is a fixed, unvarying, chemical 
 combination of these substances, though mixed in 
 proportions, somewhat varied by local causes, yet 
 presenting, in the mass, a great similarity of com- 
 position. When the subject of the composition of 
 the vegetable portion of soil is discussed, the value 
 of a slight knowledge of chemical notation and of 
 combining proportions, will be manifest. It is not 
 to be neglected, however unconnected it may seem 
 with practical farming. The doctrine of chemical 
 equivalents is important to the farmer, even if he 
 pursues it no farther than to understand and remem- 
 
56 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 ber the combining proportions of a few substances, 
 known to him only by name ; such are the common 
 acids, oil of vitriol, aquafortis, spirits of salt, or sul- 
 phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids ; the usual alkalies, 
 ammonia, potash, soda, lime ; acids and bases, which 
 combine only in their equivalents. It is sometimes 
 remarked, in agricultural experiments v^fith different 
 salts, that equal quantities, if correct comparative 
 trials are to be made, should be used. The doctrine 
 of equivalents teaches not an equal, but an equiva- 
 lent portion — that is, 28 of lime are equal to 48 of 
 pure potash. It may assist the memory here, and 
 furnish a good " rule of thumb," to recollect, that 
 the three alkalies, ammonia, soda, potash, are to 
 each other, as 17 : 32 : 48, or as 1:2:3, nearly. 
 When the subject of manures is considered, the 
 doctrine of equivalents will be found important, in 
 determining their relative value. Though the num- 
 bers here used are those of some chemists of high 
 authority, they are not all universally admitted. 
 They have the convenience of being small whole 
 numbers. They are readily retained in the memory, 
 and simplify the subject, by freeing the calculation 
 from multiplication and division of fractional equiv- 
 alent numbers. They are easily apprehended, and, 
 for all practical agricultural purposes, correct. 
 
 59. Viewed by the light of chemistry, rocks are 
 masses of silicates. The simple minerals compos- 
 ing rocks are truly only silicates in fixed proportions. 
 The simple minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, horn- 
 
CHEMISTKY OF SOIL. 
 
 57 
 
 blende, talc, serpentine. Their composition is pre- 
 sented in the following 
 
 TABLE OF CONSTITUTION OF SIMPLE MINEEALS. 
 
 Felspar 
 
 Mica, grey 
 
 *' brown 
 
 Hornblende, — including trap 
 
 rocks 
 
 Talc 
 
 Serpentine 
 
 fifi.75 
 50.82 
 40.06 
 
 45.69 
 
 58.2 
 43.07 
 
 17 50 
 2133 
 22 40 
 12.18 
 
 25 0.50 
 
 12.00 
 9.8G 
 4.50 
 
 water. 
 12.75 
 
 18.79 
 
 33.2 
 40.37 
 
 a p S 
 
 .75 
 9.08 
 1.79 
 
 4.fi 
 l.Il 
 
 In each, the silex acts as an acid. This is not 
 only the most constant, but the most abundant in- 
 gredient of rocks. Next is alumina. The average 
 quantity of these elements in the most important 
 rocks, is silica 62.79, alumina 25.15 per cent. 
 
 60. In each simple mineral, the bases (41) being 
 combined with silica, a compound, or silicate is 
 formed. In this case, the few simple minerals form- 
 ing rocks, may be arranged in three classes, and it 
 will be perceived, that, notwithstanding their great 
 variety of external appearance, their ultimate chem- 
 ical composition resolves itself into classes of double, 
 or simple silicates, in which silicate of alumina is 
 united with potash, or lime, or with magnesia, form- 
 ing thus three classes only of simple minerals, which 
 compose rocks and soil. 
 
 1st. Silicate of alumina and potash forms felspar 
 and mica. 
 
 2d. Silicates of alumina and lime with magnesia 
 form hornblende. 
 
58 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 
 
 3d. Silicate of magnesia forms serpentine and 
 talc ; and silica almost pure, is quartz. 
 
 61. The iron and manganese in the table (59), 
 are regarded as accidental mixtures of silicates of 
 these metals. Silicate of soda is often present in 
 place of potash, and this constitutes an extensive 
 variety of the felspar family. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE MINERAL ELEMENTS OF SOIL, THEIR 
 PROPERTIES, AND CHEMICAL ACTION. 
 
 62. The bases of the silicates have common 
 properties, which are : 
 
 1st. Alkaline. Whatever may be our idea of the 
 effect of an alkali, as exhibited by potash or soda, 
 the same in kind, but in degree less, is exhibited by 
 lime, magnesia, and alumina. Placing potash as 
 the type of alkaline povi^er, the same povvfer in a 
 decreasing order is found in lime, magnesia, and 
 alumina. 
 
 2d. They are, most of them, soluble in water. 
 Potash stands here also first, and the solubility de- 
 creases in lime, magnesia, and totally disappears in 
 alumina. This may have some connection with the 
 fact, that, widely diffused as it is in all soil, it is very 
 seldom found in plants. 
 
 3d. They exhibit great affinity for carbonic acid. 
 The order of affinity is potash, soda, lime, magne- 
 sia ; alumina, if it possesses it at all, exhibits it only 
 feebly. The alkalies form soluble, and the alkaline 
 earths, and alumina insoluble compounds with car- 
 bonic acid. 
 
60 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 4th. They have all great affinity for water, com- 
 bining with it, and forming what are called 
 hydrates. Potash parts not with this chemically 
 combined water, by any heat which has been pro- 
 duced ; lime and magnesia give up their water 
 readily, at a red heat : alumina requires, for this pur- 
 pose, a full white heat. This is the only case, where 
 alumina stands next to potash. 
 
 5th. They are all fusible, in the order of potash, 
 lime, magnesia, alumina. 
 
 6th. They have already been described as defi- 
 nite combinations of metals, and oxygen (56). The 
 same law governs their combinations with water. 
 Such compounds are termed hydrates, from " udor," 
 water. Water is a compound of eight parts of oxy- 
 gen, and one part of hydrogen, forming one part 
 of water, whose equivalent is 9. Taking the num- 
 ber representing the base (56), or rather the basic 
 oxide, the equivalents of the hydrates are obtained 
 by adding to each, 1 part = 9 of water. Thus — 
 
 Potash, 48 united with 9 water, forms 57 caustic potash. 
 
 Soda, 32 " 9 " " 41 " soda. 
 
 Lime, 28 " 9 " " 37 " slacked lime. 
 
 Magnesia, 20 " 9 " " 29 " magnesia. 
 
 63. The same law pervades all these various 
 combinations. There are strong resemblances in 
 the alkaline family, which show their relation, yet 
 each is marked with its individual peculiarities. 
 Alumina stands alone, and seems a natural link, 
 connecting the silicates with the metalloids. 
 
 64. The gradual passage of the characters of the 
 
PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 61 
 
 metallic elements of the silicates, into that of the 
 metalloids, is to be observed. The first show alka- 
 line powers by combining with oxygen. Exhibited 
 in the highest degree by potash, and lowest in alum- 
 ina, which shows both alkaline and acid properties. 
 By the last, it is allied to silicon, sulphur, phos- 
 phorus, carbon. The three last are so well known, 
 that they need only to be mentioned. 
 
 65. The metalloids have common properties. 
 
 1st. They all combine with the pure base of sili- 
 cates (46), and form siliciurets, phosphurets, carbu- 
 rets, sulphurets. Thus are formed carburet of iron, 
 or plumbago, sulphuret of iron, or iron pyrites, sul- 
 phuret of potassium, or liver of sulphur. 
 
 2d. They chemically combine with each other. 
 Thus are formed sulphuret of carbon, and sulphuret 
 of silicon. 
 
 3d. They all form acids, by combining with 
 oxygen. Thus are formed sulphuric, carbonic, 
 phosphoric, silicic acids (41). 
 
 66. While the metals combine with oxygen only 
 in one proportion, to form alkalies, producing it al- 
 ways, for each, of one uniform strength, the metal- 
 loids combine with different proportions, and form 
 acids of different strength. The rule followed in 
 naming the acids, is, first, that each is called after 
 the substance forming . it, the metalloid having ous 
 added to it to designate the weaker, and ic, to desig- 
 nate the stronger acid ; thus : 
 
 Sulphur 16 -(- 2 oxygen = 16 is sulphurous acid. 
 " 16 + 3 " = 24 is sulphuric acid. 
 
62 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 So are formed phosphorus and phosphoric acids. 
 Silicon forms but one acid, the silicic. It is the 
 only member of its class which requires a detailed 
 notice of its properties. 
 
 67. Silicon, the base of the earth usually called 
 silex or silica, forms, next to oxygen, the largest 
 part of all rocks and soil. It has been already 
 noticed (64), how the earthy character gradually 
 increased from potash to alumina; and how this 
 last connected itself with the metalloids, and in the 
 first member of this series, the earthy character ap- 
 pears fully developed when united with oxygen. It 
 is the earth of flints, it is pure rock c.rystal, it is 
 common quartz, agate, and calcedony, and cornelian. 
 All these are silicon acidified by oxygen, hence 
 called silicic acid. It is this which forms, with pot- 
 ash, the hard coat of the polishing rush, the outer 
 covering of the stalks of grasses. Wheat, rye, oats, 
 barley, owe their support to this covering of silica. 
 It cases the bamboo and rattan with an armor of 
 flint, from which may be struck sparks. Entering 
 into the composition of all soil, and hard and un- 
 yielding as it appears, forming not only the solid 
 rock, but the delicate flower, which that supports ; 
 forming combinations with the metals of soil whose 
 gradual decomposition is the birth of fertility, silicon 
 demands a detail of its properties, commensurate 
 with the high functions it performs. 
 
 68. Silicon, in the purest state, yet obtained, is 
 a dull, brown powder, soiling the fingers. It dis- 
 
PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 63 
 
 solves in fluoric acid, and in caustic potash. Heated 
 in air or oxygen gas, it burns vividly, and is partly 
 converted into silica. Heated in a closed crucible, 
 it shrinks very much, but does not vaporize. Heat 
 has altered all its properties. It has become a deep 
 chocolate color. It sinks in oil of vitriol, one of the 
 heaviest of fluids ; it will dissolve in no acid, except 
 a mixture of nitric and fluoric ; caustic alkali has no 
 action on it, nor will it burn in the intensest flame 
 of air or oxygen gas. No other simple substance 
 is so changed by heat. The only substance exhibit- 
 ing analogous properties, is carbon. 
 
 Silicon burns in vapor of sulphur, and forms sul- 
 phuret of silicon. This easily dissolves in water, 
 sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and silica remains 
 in solution. These are facts of the highest impor- 
 tance in agriculture. 
 
 t)9. Whether heated or not, silicon is oxidated 
 when heated with dry potash, and converted into 
 silicic acid. In its pure state, this is a rough, gritty, 
 tasteless powder. When heated, it runs like red- 
 hot ashes, and the lightest puff" blows it away. It is 
 not melted in the strongest heat of a wind furnace. 
 Silicic acid exists in two states, soluble, or insoluble 
 in water. It is perfectly insoluble, after having been 
 heated red-hot. Sulphuret of silicon, as has been 
 noticed (68), dissolves in water, and gives silica, in 
 solution. If this is evaporated, a jelly-like, sizy 
 mass is obtained, which may be again dissolved in 
 water. Acid, added to the solution, when evapo- 
 
64 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 rating, renders silica insoluble. Alkalies, boiled 
 with insoluble silica, render it soluble, no change 
 occurring in the alkali. These singular changes, 
 are due, probably, to a new arrangement of the par- 
 ticles of silica, produced by that power called cata- 
 lysis, or the action of presence, that is, by the pres- 
 ence of a third body, taking no part itself in the 
 action, but simply influencing the changes which 
 occur. 
 
 70. Soluble silica exists in some minerals, and is 
 produced when a silicate is melted with an alkali, 
 and dissolved in dilute acid. It is in consequence 
 of this ready solubility of silica, that a small quan- 
 tity is contained in all natural waters ; associated 
 with alkaline carbonates in mineral springs, it is 
 often an abundant product. 
 
 71. The general properties which silicic acid ex- 
 hibits in its combinations, are these : 
 
 1st. All its compounds, with excess of alkali, are 
 caustic, and soluble in water. Those with an ex- 
 cess of silica, are mild and insoluble. Glass is an 
 example of the last, and so are the rocks. Green 
 bottle glass is but a fused rock, a mixture of sili- 
 cates of potash, soda, alumina, lime, magnesia, and 
 iron. These are the silicates which have been al- 
 ready enumerated (60), as composing rocks ; and 
 the amount and origin of these several elements of 
 soil can now be conveniently understood. This is 
 practical ground, and shows the value of chemical 
 analysis of rocks. Whatever opinion respecting 
 
PKOPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 65 
 
 their origin is adopted, and whether or not granite 
 is supposed to have produced the soil above it, or 
 •'that it is only overlaid by granite drift, it is evident, 
 from the table (59), that all granite rocks contain 
 lime and alkali. These will be in proportion to the 
 mica and felspar, for granite (35) is composed of 
 these and quartz. 
 
 72. The composition of granite, composed of two- 
 fifths quartz, two-fifths felspar, and one-fifth mica, 
 is in every 100 parts, — 
 
 Silex, 74.84 
 
 Alumina, 12.80 
 
 Potash, 7.48 
 
 Magnesia, ..... .99 
 
 Lime, .37 
 
 Oxide of Iron, .... 1.93 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, ... .12 
 
 In every 100 lbs. of granite, 7J lbs. of potash, and 
 f lb. of lime. Differ, as opinions may, about the 
 how, and the why, of the operation of lime and 
 alkali, it is evident, that unexhausted and exhaustless 
 stores of these substances are already in barren pine 
 plains. 
 
 73. Let it be supposed, that these are formed of 
 the drift of granite, composed as stated (72), and 
 the amount per acre of lime and alkali, taking the 
 soil only six inches deep, would be as follows. The 
 cubic foot of such soil weighs about 90 lbs. or at six 
 inches deep, 45 lbs. The acre at this depth, con- 
 
 5 
 
66 ALKALIES IN SOIL. 
 
 tains 21,780 cubic feet, which will aiford 3626 lbs. 
 of lime, and 73,311 lbs. of potash, or nearly a ton 
 and a half of lime, and thirty-six tons of potash. 
 
 74. The lime in such a soil, would be enough to 
 supply that contained in a crop of rye, at 20 bushels 
 per acre, for 7400 years ; for at 20 bushels per acre, 
 and at 50 lbs. per bushel, each acre would afford 
 1000 lbs. of grain, which contain nearly J lb. of 
 lime, or 0.49, (Schrceder,) dividing 3626 by this, the 
 quotient 7400 is the number of years the lime would 
 supply the grain. Wheat will not differ much from 
 rye, and if the time is diminished, by the amount of 
 lime contained in the straw, it will be seen that the 
 actual amount of lime and potash, in what is called 
 poor soil, will hardly begin to diminish at the end of 
 a long lease, cropping every year 30 bushels of 
 wheat. Allowing thus, for example, the proportion 
 of straw which such a crop would afford, to be about 
 5000 lbs., and this is not far from the truth ; the 
 straw gives 4.40 of its weight of ashes, or 220 lbs., 
 of which one-fifth is soluble in water, and one-half 
 of that dissolved is potash. The spent ashes, or that 
 part not soluble in water, contains 5.80 per cent, of 
 lime. On these data, an acre of wheat straw, or 2J 
 tons will give 220 lbs. of ashes, containing 22 lbs. of 
 potash, and 10 lbs. of lime. The potash will last at 
 this rate for the straw, over 3000 years ! It will be 
 hereafter shown, that when the lime fails, the crop 
 will not. 
 
 Since the first edition of this work appeared, 
 
ALKALIES IN SOIL. 67 
 
 numerous ash analyses of rye have been made by 
 the first chemists and analysts of the day. Calcu- 
 lating the lime in rye on the average of these results, 
 1000 lbs. of grain vi'ould give 23 lbs. of ashes. Of 
 this amount, 1.145 lb. is lime ; and even at this rate 
 the grain of 20 bushels of rye per year, from an 
 acre, vi^ould exhaust the soil of lime in the first six 
 inches from the surface, only in 3166 years. Allow- 
 ing 4(100 lbs. of straw annually, the lime in this is 
 11.25 lbs., equal to 322 annual crops, or the lime 
 would last for the grain and straw 293 years. 
 
 75. Were similar calculations extended to soil 
 supposed to be formed of any other rock, the amount 
 of lime and alkali would still be seen to be almost 
 inexhaustible. And whether rocks be supposed or 
 not, to form the soil over them, it may be established, 
 as the fourth leading principle of agricultural chem- 
 istry, THAT SOILS CONTAIN ENOUGH OF ALL THE 
 MINERAL ELEMENTS, TO GROW ANY CROP. 
 
 76. These elements do not exist in soil, free ; 
 they exist as silicates, or salts, compounds regulated 
 by the unbending laws of aflanity, and fixed as are 
 the laws of gravitation. The decompounding of 
 these combinations, or the gradual decay of rocks 
 and soil, takes place also by similar laws. Gradually 
 acted upon by the carbonic acid of the air, the 
 agency of growing plants, the action of various salts, 
 formed by metalloids in atmospheric exposure, the 
 silicates yield to new affinities. The alkalies, freed 
 partially or entirely from the embrace of silica, 
 
68 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 dissolve, and are borne seaward ; the silica itself is 
 dissolved by the water used for drink ; the insoluble 
 alumina, still combined with a portion of potash and 
 silica, remains, forming the great mass of clays, or 
 mixed with granitic sand, forms loam. 
 
 77. Felspar, mica, hornblende, are constantly 
 acted upon by air and moisture. This action is 
 chemical. It is twofold. 1st. The action of the 
 carbonic acid of the air, or of carbonates, upon sili- 
 cates. The potash, or alkaline part of the silicate is 
 by this means separated. The mineral, no longer 
 held by the bond which had united its components, 
 falls into dust. The silica, lime, alumina, magnesia, 
 thus form the finer portions of soil. In obedience 
 to a well established fact, in chemistry, the seem- 
 ingly insoluble silica, and alumina, and magnesia, 
 in the very moment of their disunion, are each solu- 
 ble in water. They may then be taken up by 
 plants, or, dissolved by various acids found in the 
 soil, form salts. 
 
 78. The second mode of action, of air and mois- 
 ture, is upon the sulphurets, the phosphurets, and 
 siliciurets. The action of air upon all these is, to 
 oxidate, both the metallic and the unmetallic element. 
 In a word, the metalloid compounds, by air and 
 moisture, become salts ; the unmetallic part becom- 
 ing acid, and the base an oxide, which combine, 
 
 79. The fact most important to the farmer, in these 
 changes is, that these compounds are continually, 
 in all soil, becoming salts. Whenever iron pyrites. 
 
ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 69 
 
 or sulphuret of iron, is found, and it is very widely 
 diffused, exposure to air and moisture acidifies the 
 sulphur, it forms oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid. 
 This immediately combines with iron, and forms 
 copperas, or sulphate of iron, or with alumina, form- 
 ing alum, or with lime, forming plaster of Paris, or 
 with magnesia, forming Epsom salts ; all these are 
 salts, and liable to be decomposed, by any free alkali? 
 which may be produced, by the decomposition of 
 silicates. 
 
 80. Among the most abundant salts in soil, arising 
 from the actions (79), are those which are very in- 
 soluble in water, and not liable, therefore, to be 
 drained off, when not required by plants. These are 
 sulphate of lime, and phosphates of lime, and of alu- 
 mina, and iron. The sulphate of lime is partially 
 soluble, and hence, is found in all river and spring 
 water ; but phosphates are more insoluble, and are 
 always found in soil. 
 
 81. That sulphate of lime might possibly exist in 
 soil, has been admitted by all who understood the 
 actions (79), and adding to this the fact, of the 
 gradual decomposition of the silicates, by carbonic 
 acid, the function of sulphate of lime in soil was 
 easily admitted. The double silicates of lime and 
 potash are universally diffused, and in the order of 
 affinities, sulphates of alkalies, and of lime, result. 
 
 82. It is not so easily understood, how phosphate 
 of lime should exist in soil. The true source, both 
 of sulphate, and phosphate of lime, and of the solu- 
 
70 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 bility of silica, is yet to be detected, by exact chemi- 
 cal analysis. It is to be looked for in the sulphu- 
 rets and phosphurets of silicon, which probably exist 
 in rocks. The action of sulphuret of iron, as ex- 
 plained, would demand its universal diffusion, to 
 account for the presence of sulphate of lime. Sul- 
 phuret of iron must either now exist, or have ages 
 ago existed, as widely diffused as the silicates. But 
 though common in rocks, its presence as a sulphu- 
 ret will not account for the quantity of sulphate of 
 lime found in soil. Vast quantities of this salt are 
 annually borne off in crops ; while at the same time, 
 a large portion of that hardest, and, as is generally 
 supposed, utterly insoluble earth, silex, is withdrawn 
 by every plant which grows. How is this rendered 
 soluble ? 
 
 83. This question may be answered, if it be ad- 
 mitted, that a portion of the silica of rocks exists as 
 a sulphuret of silicon. The action of air and moisture 
 upon this, will be understood by reference to section 
 68, where it is stated, that sulphuret of silicon is de- 
 composed by water. The sulphur, in this case, is 
 evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen gas, the silica 
 deposited, and in this state is abundantly soluble in 
 water. The sulphuretted hydrogen would act on 
 the lime of the silicates, and gradually sulphate of 
 lime would be formed. Here is an abundant source, 
 not only of the solubility of silica, a point always of 
 difficult explanation, in vegetable physiology, but 
 also of the production of sulphate of lime. 
 
ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 71 
 
 84. Similar remarks are applicable to the pres- 
 ence of the phosphates of lime, and iron, and alumina 
 in soil. Phosphate of lime is not a very abundant 
 ingredient in rocks, except in certain localities ; yet 
 its occurrence is too rare to account for the vast 
 amount of phosphate of lime in soil. The phospho- 
 rus possibly exists in combination with silicon, as 
 phosphuret of silicon. The effect of air and mois- 
 ture on this, has already been explained, and ac- 
 counts for the production of phosphates in soil. 
 Similar remarks are applicable to the source of the 
 chlorides or muriates ; for instance, common salt in 
 the potash of commerce. May not their source be 
 in chloride of silicon .? These are conjectures, but 
 conjectures only, because, refined as modern chemi- 
 cal analysis is, it may not be so delicate as to detect 
 the possible combinations, which nature presents in 
 silicates. What is the source of that phosphoric 
 odor, produced by the friction of fragments of. pure 
 quartz on each other ? If not due. wholly to electri- 
 cal excitement, may it not arise from the presence 
 of phosphoric elements? The elements are Pro- 
 tean, and assume new dresses, by the very processes 
 adopted to unfold them. Whatever may be their 
 origin, their constant presence leads to this fifth 
 principle of agricultural chemistry, all soil con- 
 tains SULPHATE AND PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 
 
 85. This principle is of the highest importance in 
 agriculture. The author of these pages stated the 
 fact to the Geological Surveyor of Massachusetts, in 
 
72 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 1837, and it was published in his report. Slowly- 
 admitted at first, the fact that phosphates exist in all 
 soil, has been established by the widest observations. 
 Its proofs are both chemical and agricultural. The 
 chemical proof is found in the extensive analyses of 
 soil, contained in various Geological Eeports, espe- 
 cially those of Massachusetts, published within a 
 few years. Since the first edition of this work, 
 phosphoric acid has been found in basaltic and horn- 
 blende rocks. 
 
 86. The agricultural proof may be stated in a few 
 words. The bones of all graminivorous animals 
 contain about half their weight of phosphate of lime. 
 It can be derived only from their food, and that only 
 from the soil. Hence, the soil contains phosphoric 
 acid in some chemical combination. Secondly, the 
 actual result of chemical analysis confirms this 
 statement. Beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, 
 asparagus, cabbage, afford phosphates of lime, mag- 
 nesia, and potash. Indian com, rice, wheat, barley, 
 oats, all contain notable portions of sulphate and 
 phosphate of lime, not only in the grain, but in the 
 straw. Smut and ergot show free phosphoric acid. 
 Cotton gives 1 per cent, of ashes, of which 0. 17 are 
 phosphates of lime and magnesia. The cotton con- 
 sumed weekly, in the Lowell Mills, is 400,000 lbs., 
 containing 680 lbs. of phosphate of lime, and this 
 would furnish the bone-earth for the bones of seven- 
 teen horses, allowing 90 lbs. to each skeleton, of 
 which 40 lbs. would consist of phosphate of lime. 
 
ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 73 
 
 That beautiful yellow powder, shed by pine forests, 
 the pollen of its flowers, wafted about in clouds, and 
 descending with the rain, covering the surface of 
 water with its sulphur-like film, is composed of 6 
 per cent, of phosphates of lime and potash. The 
 ashes of all wood contain sulphate and phosphate of 
 lime. Garget contains in its leaves beautiful crys- 
 tals of phosphate of lime and ammonia ; and every 
 exact analysis of the ashes of trees, shrubs and 
 plants of evei-y kind, cultivated or wild, shows the 
 presence of phosphoric acid. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE ORGANIC CONSTITTJENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 87. The mineral elements of soil become part 
 of plants. Under the influence of the mysterious 
 principle of life, they no longer obey the chemical 
 laws, but are parts of a living structure. Life sus- 
 pends all chemical laws. It organizes inorganic 
 matter. To what laws obedient, to what purposes 
 subservient, are the elements of soil during the brief 
 moment in which they are endowed with life, it is 
 not intended to inquire. Plants by their living power 
 select from the sixty -two elementary substances, six- 
 teen or perhaps eighteen. Of these, four exist as 
 airs or gases in their uncombined state, viz. oxygen, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine ; seven are bases, 
 and four metalloids, described (41). These fifteen 
 elements, alumina excepted, are generally constant 
 constituents of plants. Iodine, once supposed pe- 
 culiar to marine vegetation, has very recently been 
 found in land plants. Bromine is also found in sea- 
 weed, and fluorine has occasionally been found in 
 the ashes of rye. 
 
 88. Every plant does not, nor does every part of 
 the same plant contain the same elements ; but sim- 
 
ORGANIC CONSTITTJENTS OF SOIL. 75 
 
 ilar parts of the same plant, at the same age, prob- 
 ably contain the same elements, united in definite 
 proportions. Whenever plants die, their elements 
 are again subject to the laws of affinity, and during 
 the decay of vegetables, they return to the earth, 
 not only those substances which the plants had taken 
 from the soil, but also those which have been elabo- 
 rated by their living structure. The former are 
 silicates and salts, or the inorganic elements ; the 
 latter are the organic parts of soil. 
 
 In the first edition of this work, chlorine was not 
 enumerated as an element of plants. Its presence 
 in them was considered accidental, because its source 
 had not been detected in the rocks, from whose ruins 
 soil has been formed. Dr. A. A. Hayes has detected 
 alkaline chlorides in the primary rocks of Vermont. 
 The possible existence of chloride of silicon has 
 been noticed. If this is not the source of the chlo- 
 rine of plants, that may be supposed to be evapo- 
 rated as a chloride from the ocean, and consequently 
 to exist in that state, dissolved in air. If derived 
 from this salt in soil, then that is extraneous. Its 
 origin was suggested to be oceanic. An examina- 
 tion of the rain-water, of each fall, during the year 
 1842, in Lowell, has shown that this suggestion is 
 correct. Probably muriates are universally con- 
 tained in rain-water. As therefore, common salt, 
 the chlorine, and soda of plants is derived by evap- 
 oration from sea-water, then as sulphate of lime has 
 been detected in snow and hail, it becomes a ques- 
 
76 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 tion, whether other inorganic salts of plants may not 
 have a similar origin, and exist dissolved in air. 
 
 Continued examination of rain-water has shown 
 that all the mineral elements of plants are traceable 
 in it. 
 
 89. It is thus seen, that soil presents itself in a 
 new view. Soil consists of two grand divisions of 
 elements. Inorganic and organic. The inorganic 
 are wholly mineral, they are the products of the 
 chemical action of the metallic, or unmetallic ele- 
 ments of rocks. They existed before plants or ani- 
 mals. Life has not called them into existence, nor 
 created them, out of simple elements. Organic 
 elements are the product of substances once en- 
 dowed with life. This power influences the ele- 
 ments, recorabines them in forms so essentially 
 connected with life, that they are, with few excep- 
 tions, produced only by a living process. They are 
 the products of living organs, hence termed organic ; 
 and when formed, are subject to chemical laws. 
 The number of elements in the inorganic parts of 
 soil, is twelve. Oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, car- 
 bon, silicon, and the metals, potassium, sodium, cal- 
 cium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, and manganese 
 (56). The number of elements in organic parts of 
 soil, does not exceed four, viz. oxygen, hydrogen, 
 carbon, and nitrogen. 
 
 90. The great - difference between these two di- 
 visions is this, that while the inorganic are simple 
 combinations of two elementary substances, the or- 
 
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 77 
 
 ganic are combinations of three or four elements, 
 but never less than three. These are variously 
 combined. They have formed the great body of 
 vegetable products ; continually changing, the* mere 
 abstraction of a part of one of their elements forms 
 a nev? product. The three elements (89), exist 
 generally in such proportion, that the oxygen and 
 hydrogen would, by their union, produce water, 
 without excess of either element, while the carbon 
 would thus be liberated. It would be found free 
 were it not also acted upon by air and moisture, 
 and changed to carbonic acid. There is not oxygen 
 enough in the organic part to convert the carbon 
 into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. 
 They are constantly changing, assuming new forms. 
 This susceptibility of change is -the foundation of 
 tillage. 
 
 91. The relation of agriculture to silicates and 
 salts, and to the composition of plants, which has 
 been alluded to (89), is of the highest interest. As 
 silicates and salts compose all the earthy ingredients 
 of soil,>D are they equally constant in plants. The 
 deduction to be drawn from this is, the sixth princi- 
 ple of agricultural chemistry, soil, consistins 
 
 CHIEFLY OF ONE SILICATE, OR SALT, IS ALWAYS 
 BARREN. 
 
 92. It is not probable that soil, thus chemically 
 constituted, exists. Admitting such to occur, even 
 then, when dressed with the food of plants, it would 
 not be fertile. The want of a mixture of earthy 
 
78 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 ingredients, which are as essential to the growth of 
 plants, as are air and moisture, would effectually 
 prevent the growth of crops. Only a portion of the 
 elements, thus essential to plants, exists in them, in 
 that state, in which they exist in soil. The silica, 
 and potash, and lime, exist in plants as in soil, as 
 silicate of potash, and sulphates and phosphates of 
 lime and potash. When the ashes of plants are 
 examined, we find carbonates of bases, which did 
 not exist as such in the soil. A large portion of 
 carbonates of lime and potash is found in ashes. 
 
 93. The origin of these is to be sought in acids, 
 ■which, by heat, produce carbonic acid. This is the 
 effect of heat upon all salts, formed of vegetable 
 acids. Such are tartaric, malic, citric, oxalic, and 
 acetic acids. The inorganic elements of plants 
 exist in combination chiefly with organic or vegeta- 
 ble acids. Each plant forms acids, in definite 
 quantity, proportionate to the size, age, and part of 
 the plants ; the acid being constant, the bases to sat- 
 urate them will be equally constant. 
 
 9-1. A beautiful chemical law governs this satura- 
 tion of the vegetable acids. It is the law of substi- 
 tution, analogous in part to the law of isomorphism', 
 or the law of similar forms ; it is perhaps connected 
 with that, so that the elements of isomorphous groups 
 only can be substituted for one another. In minerals 
 which are crystalhzed, it was formerly thought that 
 similarity of external form indicated identity of 
 chemical composition. Later observation has es- 
 
LAW OF SUBSTITUTION. 79 
 
 tablished the fact, that minerals and salts exist, with 
 perfect similarity of external form, yet of totally 
 different chemical constitution. For example, the 
 alumina in alum may be replaced by oxide of iron. 
 The form will not be changed, but all its chemical 
 properties and relations are destroyed. This is 
 called an isomorphous replacement of one element 
 for another, which produces a like form. The law 
 of this substitution is, that the body replacing 
 another, must be, not an equal, but an equivalent 
 proportion (56) ; that is, replaced by a proportion 
 containing the same quantity of oxygen. Replace- 
 ment retains the form, not the properties of the 
 displaced body. Substitution may retain the form, 
 but always the properties and functions of the ele- 
 ment whose place is thus occupied. Like replace- 
 ment, substitution occurs in equivalent proportions. 
 
 95. The relation between agriculture and this 
 law is so wisely and beneficially ordained, that it 
 might well be called a law of compensation, by the 
 Natural Theologian. It is a well established fact, 
 that plants, growing on soil containing a due mixture 
 of earthy ingredients, always select a due proportion 
 of each, according to their functions ; yet, if to such 
 soil, an excess of either of the alkalies, or of the 
 alkaline earths is given, an excess of potash, soda, 
 lime, magnesia, may be taken up by the plants, to 
 the exclusion of the usual proportion of another ; 
 hence, it may be established, as the seventh princi- 
 ple in Agricultural Chemistry, one base may be 
 
80 LAW OF SUBSTITUTION. 
 
 SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER, IN AN EQUIVALENT 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 96. This is a very important law in the agricultu- 
 ral relations of the inorganic parts of soil. What- 
 ever may be the office performed by these, in the 
 living structure, none is of higher value than this, 
 that they may be thus substituted, the one for the 
 other. It is a fact of the highest practical value. 
 Its value will be perceived, when it is considered 
 that if soil, containing originally all the elements 
 essential to a crop, becomes, exhausted of one, yet 
 another may be substituted, which, combining with 
 the organic acid of the plant, enables this to perform 
 and perfect all its functions. If a crop fails, this is 
 often charged upon the deficiency of lime in the 
 soil. It has been already shown, that this is quite 
 impossible, yet granting it true, so long as the law 
 of substitution exists, so long may potash, soda, 
 magnesia, that is, ashes, supply the place of lime. 
 
 Ashes are the product of combustion, or its equiv- 
 alent, decaying and mouldering vegetable matter. 
 
 97. Substitutions in plants, relate chiefly to the 
 bases combined with the vegetable or organic acids. 
 The mineral or inorganic acids exist already satu- 
 rated in the soil, as sulphates, phosphates, or 
 muriates. 
 
 It has been observed, however, in recent investi- 
 gations, that phosphoric acid is not always united 
 to the same number of equivalents of base, in the 
 ashes of seeds ; all the leguminous seeds have three 
 
LAW OF SUBSTITUTION. 81 
 
 of fixed base, to one of phosphoric acid, while the 
 cereal grains contain two of base to one of acid. 
 The quantity of oxygen contained in the bases of 
 these seeds, is so nearly alike, that Drs. Will and 
 Fresenius think that the law of substitution applies 
 to the phosphates. 
 
 98. In consequence of the law of substitution, the 
 oxygen in the bases of organic acid salts is a con- 
 stant quantity, although ashes of the same plant 
 may, by analysis, show a great diversity of composi- 
 tion ; this can arise only from the fact, that the 
 organic- acids exist probably in a definite proportion 
 in each family of plants. The acids are formed by 
 the essential vital functions of the plant. To the 
 perfection of this process, the silicates and salts of 
 the soil, are not less necessary than is life to the 
 vegetable ; but though one element may be substi- 
 tuted for another, yet no one element may supply 
 the place of all others. This is a problem yet to be 
 solved. Nor may any possible mixture of mere sil- 
 icates and salts, give fertility to a barren soil. Fer- 
 tility depends on the presence in soil, of matter, 
 which has already formed a part of a living struc- 
 ture, or the organic elements of soil. This matter 
 must be undergoing chemical change. Change im- 
 plies motion, motion induces motion in the surround- 
 ing elements. Without this chemically induced 
 motion, there is no fertility. 
 
 99. The inorganic elements are simple combina- 
 tions ; the organic are simple in number, but won- 
 
 6 
 
82 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 derfully complex in their combinations. It is an 
 established fact, that, all complex compounds are 
 unstable. They are prone to form new combina- 
 tions. The more complex, the easier decomposed 
 is any compound. The more complex, the more 
 liable to decomposition. Hence, the moment life 
 departs, the plant or animal speedily undergoes new 
 changes ; its elements, which life had organized, 
 obey now, not the law of life, but the laws of chem- 
 istry. The solids and fluids of a living body, when 
 life ceases, escaping in part as air or gas, leave in a 
 solid form, a substance, differing equally from any 
 living organic product, and from inorganic elements. 
 The product of the spontaneous decomposition of 
 organic substances, still may exhibit the character 
 which distinguishes this division, viz. : complexity, 
 great susceptibility and ease of decomposition. This 
 is a great practical agricultural fact. When decom- 
 position ceases in organic matter, the result is 
 barrenness. 
 
 100. In the products of the decomposition of or- 
 ganic bodies, a variety is formed, differing according 
 to the circumstances, and the time and progress of 
 decay. However varied, there are constant products 
 of organic decomposition in soil, which are ever the 
 result of that process, in or upon the earth. These 
 products are termed Geine. This term designates 
 a class of chemical compounds, allied by similarity 
 of constitution and properties. Ge is the Greek for 
 earth, and the suffix ine, is in conformity to chemi- 
 
ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF' SOIL. 83 
 
 cal names given to those vegetable or other organic 
 products, whose independent existence has been 
 determined ; for example, quinine, morphine, &c. 
 
 It is necessary to note the difference in the pro- 
 ducts of putrefaction in free or confined air. 
 
 In free air, the chief products are water, carbonic 
 acid and ammonia. In confined air, the carbon not 
 obtaining oxygen enough to be wholly converted 
 into carbonic acid, combines with a smaller quantity 
 and forms carbonic oxide. The hydrogen, deprived 
 of oxygen sufficient for its total conversion into 
 virater, combines with carbon, and thus produces 
 marsh gas, or light carburetted hydrogen, the gas of 
 street lights, while another portion of hydrogen com- 
 bines with the sulphur and phosphorus of the decay- 
 ing body, and forms those airs so offensive in 
 putrefaction, sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen gases. 
 
 In all the transformations of organic matter in soil, 
 there is ever produced an excess of hydrogen. This 
 is a highly important fact. 
 
 A principle is here to be stated and remembered. 
 Hydrogen, at the instant of becoming free, in the 
 act of being born, in its nascent state, as it is called, 
 in warm and moist air, unites with nitrogen. This 
 union produces ammonia. The nitrogen of putre- 
 fying bodies is thus removed as ammonia. Thus 
 are removed all the nitrogen, and a portion of the 
 carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of the decaying 
 organic body. There remain the several forms of 
 geine. 
 
84 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 These details may be tabulated, and thus the pro- 
 ducts of putrefaction being seen at a glance, may- 
 be readily sealed on the memory. 
 
 PUTREFACTION PKODXTCES IN 
 Free air, Confined air, 
 
 Water, Water, 
 
 Carbonic acid, Carbonic oxide. 
 
 Ammonia. Carburetted hydrogen, 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Ammonia, 
 
 Geine. 
 
 In soil, the air being partly free, partly confined, 
 all the above products may be found. These vary, 
 therefore, according as the putrefying body may be 
 on the soil, in the soil, or in the subsoil. 
 
 101. There are at least seven well defined sub- 
 stances included in the class geine. Tvifo of these 
 are indifferent in their relations, viz : ulmin and 
 humin ; five exhibit acid properties, these are the 
 ulmic, humic, geic, crenic, and apocrenic acids. 
 These seven substances are compounds of carbon, 
 with oxygen and hydrogen, in proportions just suffi- 
 cient to form water, or compounds having either the 
 hydrogen or the oxygen in excess. They may be 
 therefore grouped in three sections. 
 
 1st. Carbon and water form humin and humic 
 acid. 
 
 2d. Carbon and water with hydrogen in excess, 
 form ulmin and ulmic acid. 
 
 3d. Carbon and water with oxygen in excess, 
 form geic, crenic, and apocrenic acids. 
 
ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 85 
 
 These may be termed the neutral, the hydrogen, 
 and the oxygen groups. 
 
 The first products of decay are ulmin and ulmic 
 acid. By the continued absorption of oxygen from 
 the air, humic acid and humin, geic, apocrenic, and 
 crenic acids are formed in the order in which they 
 have been named. Each is derived from the sub- 
 stance immediately preceding it in the list. 
 
 The ultimate product of their decay is carbonic 
 acid and water. 
 
 The acids of geine easily and rapidly absorb am- 
 monia and water. They also chemically combine 
 with water and ammonia. 
 
 They are seldom found free in soil, and so ener- 
 getic is the affinity between crenic and apocrenic 
 acid and ammonia, that these have been considered 
 as essentially different from ulmic, humic and geic 
 acids. These contain carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
 gen, while crenic and apocrenic acid were supposed 
 to contain in addition, nitrogen. Hence, a distinc- 
 tion was pointed out in the last edition of this work, 
 in which geine was divided into nitrogenous and 
 non-nitrogenous. 
 
 The progress of discovery has shown that crenic 
 and apocrenic acid may be derived from geic acid, 
 free from nitrogen. 
 
 102. Still there are wide difierences in the rela- 
 tions of these several substances. The most easily 
 marked characteristic is, that some are easily, others 
 difficultly soluble in water, and others are insoluble 
 in this element. 
 
86 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 The relations of the acids and neutral substances 
 of geine to alkalies, is also remarkable. All the 
 geine acids readily dissolve in carbonated or caustic 
 alkali; in either of which the neutral geine sub- 
 stances are wholly insoluble. 
 
 Of the dissolved acids, three are precipitable and 
 two not precipitable by acids. Hence, we have two 
 divisions of geine founded on their relations to alkali 
 and water; 1st, soluble, and 2d, insoluble. The 
 insoluble substances are ulmin and humin. The 
 soluble substances are all acid, and these may be 
 still further distinguished by their relations to acid. 
 
 First. Those which are soluble and precipitable 
 by acid, viz. : ulmic, humic, geic acids. 
 
 Secondly. Those which are not precipitated by 
 acid, viz. : crenic and apocrenic acids. 
 
 In consequence of the ammoniacal combinations 
 with the acids, these are usually found in water 
 drained from soil. Hence, long before the existence 
 of crenic and apocrenic acid was suspected, the 
 substance given up by soil to water was called ex- 
 tract of mould ; the substance dissolved by alkali 
 was called humic acid, from humus, the Latin for 
 soil, or mould. These several substances are con- 
 vertible. The insoluble becomes soluble, the diffi- 
 cultly soluble in water becomes easily soluble by 
 air and moisture. Ulmic, humic, and geic acids are 
 seldom, and crenic and apocrenic acids are never 
 found free in soil. Hence, in soil, no less than five 
 separate and distinct salts of any one base may be 
 
GEINE. 87 
 
 found, .but generally the salts are chemical combi- 
 nations of several bases with each acid, which com- 
 pound salts are soluble, though singly some may be 
 insoluble in water. These compound salts minister 
 to vegetation in various ways. 
 
 103. Great difference of opinion has prevailed 
 respecting the real constitution and uses of the sub- 
 stances of the class geine. It is practically useful 
 to discuss the question, whether plants draw their 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, from the air, 
 or from the soil. The nourishment drawn from air, 
 depends on the great physical elements, air, tempe- 
 rature, moisture. Agriculture may not control these. 
 It can palliate them only by controlling that within 
 its power, the state of the soil. With all above 
 ground, the farmer has little concern. If plants are 
 nourished, chiefly from the air, it is evident that the 
 farmer is concerned only to produce that state of the 
 development of the organs of plants, best adapted 
 to the aspiration of the aerial elements. This state 
 is influenced chiefly by the soil. There is the 
 farmer's true field of action. 
 
 104. Differ as opinions may, about the ultimate 
 chemical constitution, and the mode of action of 
 geine, whether by being taken up as a solution of 
 geine, and of its compounds with the earths and 
 metals, called geine compounds, or only as a source 
 of carbonic acid, the great practical lesson of all 
 agricultural experience teaches, that geine is essen- 
 tial to the growth and perfection of seed, that with- 
 
S8 GEINE. 
 
 out geine, crops are not raised. Geine is as essential 
 to plants, as is food to animals. So far as nourish- 
 ment is derived from the soil, geine is the food of 
 plants. It may be laid down as the eighth principle 
 of agricultural chemistry, geine, in some fokm, is 
 
 ESSENTIAL -TO AGRICULTURE. 
 
 105. In all its forms, it is agriculturally one and 
 the same thing. They are all included in the terms 
 humus, or mould, or geine. Geine, in its agricultu- 
 ral sense, is a generic term. It includes all the 
 decomposed organic matter of the soil. It concerns 
 the farmer less, to know the ultimate chemical con- 
 stitution, than it does the practical, agricultural value 
 of a class of compounds termed geine. Restricting 
 that term to the definite compound, which chemists 
 have called humic acid, an account of its relations 
 will convey a full idea of whatever other organic 
 compounds are found in soil. 
 
 In describing geine thus specifically, the proper- 
 ties of the whole class are described under its 
 generic name. 
 
 106. It has been stated already, that geine is the 
 product of decomposition of bodies, once endowed 
 with life. For the present purpose, it may be con- 
 sidered as the result of vegetable decomposition. 
 
 107. Life, and the manner how plants grow, may 
 not be understood. Growth is a living process. 
 Decay is a chemical process. Its laws are not only 
 understood, but its products may be limited, con- 
 trolled, hastened. Decay is fermentation, and this. 
 
GEINE. 89 
 
 marked by its several stages, ends in putrefaction. 
 Putrefaction is the silent and onward march of 
 decay. Its goal is geine. 
 
 108. If dry vegetable matters are soaked in water 
 that'is soon discolored, a product of decomposition is 
 obtained ; its peculiar character is, solubility in water. 
 This solution, being exposed to air, soon becomes 
 filled with little flocks, which gradually subside. 
 This sediment is still a very little soluble in water, 
 but so very sparingly that it may be said to be inso- 
 luble. If the sediment is exposed a little time to air, 
 it regains the property of solubility in water, is easily 
 dissolved in part, by potash ley, or any alkaline ley, 
 whether caustic or mild. 
 
 109. The original brown solution may be con- 
 sidered as extract of mould. The sediment as a 
 compound of the several acids of geine and carbon- 
 aceous mould. These are either soluble or insoluble 
 in water, or alkali ; and hence, geine is divided into 
 soluble and insoluble. The soluble is dissolved by 
 water, by alcohol, by alkalies. The insoluble can- 
 not be dissolved by any of these agents, nor by 
 acids. The properties of geine, in water and alkali, 
 or its behavior, as it is termed, is of the highest 
 importance to the farmer, and are to be considered 
 in detail. 
 
 110. The first and earliest product of decay, is 
 that which is so easily soluble in water (108). If it 
 could be at once seized upon, it would be, doubt- 
 less, a perfectly colorless solution, but it changes to 
 
90 
 
 GEINE. 
 
 a brownish color by exposure to air. This charac- 
 ter is very common in solutions of organic matter. 
 It is due in this case to the formation of the insolu- 
 ble state. 
 
 111. If a little alum is dissolved in the watery 
 solution of geine, and then a few drops of spirits of 
 hartshorn, or sal volatile, or, as it is termed by chem- 
 ists, water of ammonia, are added, the earth alumina 
 will be let loose from the alum, and it will immedi- 
 ately combine with, and precipitate the geine, that 
 is, little flocks fall down gradually in the liquor. 
 Hence, is derived an important character. Geine 
 has a great affinity for alumina. If lime had been 
 added to the solution of geine, the same effect would 
 have followed. The same effect would be produced 
 by magnesia, by oxide of iron, and by manganese. 
 
 112. Alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron, 
 and manganese, will therefore, in soil, immediately 
 seize upon any soluble geine, and, forming com- 
 pounds with it, detain it there. The air and water 
 will have now little action upon it. 
 
 113. But supposing that none of these elements 
 (112) are present in soil, the fact stated (110) shows 
 that all soluble geine, or solution of extract in water, 
 soon passes to a mixture of soluble and insoluble, 
 forming a dark brown powder. This is thus with- 
 drawn, deep in the soil, from the immediate action 
 of the air, and undergoes no further change. It may 
 remain unchanged an indefinite time. If ploughed 
 up, exposed anyhow to the action of air or moisture, 
 
91 
 
 it again becomes partly soluble in water, and exhibits 
 its former characters, viz., great affinity for earths 
 and metallic oxides. In this state it is vegetable 
 
 MOTTLD. 
 
 114. Vegetable mould, then, is a mixture of the 
 organic and inorganic elements of soil. It is a 
 compound of soluble geine, with earths and metals, 
 mixed with soluble and insoluble geine. It is a 
 chemical compound of organic with inorganic parts 
 of soil, mixed with a large portion of free organic 
 matter. 
 
 115. The inorganic elements of mould are, 1st. 
 The bases found in the soil, produced by the decom- 
 position of silicates, as lime, potash, soda, magnesia, 
 alumina, iron, &c. 2dly. Those which already had 
 existed in plants, combined with vegetable acids. 
 These last, by decomposition, escape as carbonic 
 acid, or in acid vapors and water, while the bases, or 
 earths and oxides with which they were combined, 
 remain, and are immediately seized upon by the 
 forming geine ; while the uncombined geine passes 
 to the state of a brown coal-like powder. 
 
 116. The properties of this brown powder of 
 mould are, 1st. Partial solubility in water. Cold 
 water dissolves only about one twenty-five-hun- 
 dredth part of its weight, hot water a little more. 
 2d. It is a perfectly neutral substance, exhibiting 
 neither acid, nor alkaline, properties, but all alkalies 
 develope it in acid properties. In this state it is 
 termed geic or humic acid. It is evident, therefore. 
 
92 GEATES 
 
 that geic or humic acid can never exist free in soil, 
 so long as free bases are there present, as lime, 
 alumina, iron, &-c. It is produced by the action of 
 alkaline bases, and immediately combines with 
 them, forming salts, which are termed geates. 
 
 117. A third property of the brown powder of 
 mould is, that after alkalies have acted on it, and 
 developed acid properties, its solubility in water is 
 considerably increased, while it continues in a moist 
 state. If dried, in this acid state, it becomes almost 
 insoluble in water. 
 
 118. The geates found in soil have the following 
 characters. 1st. All the alkaline geates are very 
 soluble in water. The solution is of a brown color, 
 according to its strength, from a light brown to a 
 deep coffee color, or almost black ; acids precipitate 
 this solution, and the geine falls in light brown 
 flocks, exceedingly bulky. This precipitate may 
 be washed in water, rendered a little acid ; but sim- 
 ple water, in consequence of the great solubility of 
 geine, developed by its combination with alkali, will 
 dissolve nearly all the precipitate. 
 
 2d. Lime water, added to a solution of an alka- 
 line geate, forms a precipitate of geate of lime. It 
 is to be observed, that a cautious and gradual addi- 
 tion of lirae water forms a precipitate, which imme- 
 diately re-dissolves. This is soluble geate of lime. 
 It requires 2000 parts of .water to dissolve it, being 
 a very little more soluble than geine itself and only 
 half as soluble as lime alone. An excess of lime 
 
GEATES. 93 
 
 water precipitates all the geine as insoluble geate 
 of lime. The properties of this insoluble geate of 
 lime, are, 
 
 119. 1st. Almost perfect insolubility in water and 
 alkalies. 
 
 2d. Decomposable by alkalies. 
 
 120. Geate of magnesia is easily soluble in water. 
 It is the most soluble of all the earthy geates. It 
 requires only 160 parts of water to dissolve one of 
 geate of magnesia. It is decomposable by alkalies, 
 and then both acid and base are dissolved. The 
 geates of lime and magnesia, when exposed to air, 
 absorb carbonic acid ; a salt is formed, containing 
 an excess of geine, that is, the carbonic acid unites 
 with a part of the lime. These super-geates, as 
 they are termed, are always much more soluble 
 than the neutral geates. 
 
 121. Geate of alumina is soluble in water, and 
 in alkali, without decomposition. It requires 4200 
 parts of water to dissolve it, but is abundantly solu- 
 ble in alkali. 
 
 122. Geate of iron requires 2300 parts of water 
 to dissolve it. Like geate of alumina, it dissolves 
 easily in alkaline carbonates. 
 
 123. Geate of manganese requires 1450 parts of 
 water to dissolve it, and though soluble in ammonia, 
 is insoluble in potash or soda. 
 
 124. The properties of the geates are of the 
 highest practical importance. The three earths, 
 lime, magnesia, and alumina, are universal constit- 
 
94 
 
 uents of soil, and the two first are constantly present 
 in plants. In their relation to geine, these all com- 
 bine with that, they all form soluble compounds in 
 the moist state, but after having been thoroughly 
 dried, these geates are insoluble, even sun baking 
 diminishes their solubility. In this dried state, they 
 are earthy powders, and have long been mistaken 
 for earthy portions of soil. The fact, that lime and 
 magnesia form super-salts (120), may help to ex- 
 plain why the free use of lime may often require 
 a long time to develope any beneficial effects. At 
 first, its action renders the geine insoluble ; and it 
 is only when, by exposure, the lime is changed in 
 part to a carbonate, and thus rendered inert, that a 
 super-geate of lime, which is very soluble, forms 
 and begins to show its effects upon vegetation. 
 The easy decomposition of geate of lime, by alka- 
 line carbonates, teaches also, that if to geate of lime 
 is added an alkaline carbonate, the geine may be 
 dissoluble, and brought into use. It is probable, 
 that when land has been overlimed, the evil can 
 be corrected only by the use of ashes. The car- 
 bonate of lime will act on the silicates, as will be 
 hereafter shown. 
 
 125. The properties and relations of geine with 
 water, are also of the highest agricultural value 
 (116). The great insolubility shows at once how 
 small must be the amount of this portion of soil, 
 which can be ever removed by drainage or filtra- 
 tion, by flood, or rain, and that, in the practice of 
 
irrigation, very little effect can be due to the solvent 
 power of water on geine. Its almost total insolu- 
 bility, seems a wise provision of a far-reaching 
 Providence, that an element of soil, which has been 
 and can be produced, by the decay of organic bodies 
 only, and chiefly by plants on the earth's surface, 
 should not be borne away by the first falling shower. 
 
 126. Not less important to the farmer are. the 
 relations of geine to alkalies, its solubility is won- 
 derfully increased by their action ; this is a most 
 valuable, because available property ; it allows the 
 farmer to bring into use, by the application of alka- 
 lies, the geine, which, in its insoluble state, is quite 
 valueless. This remarkable property is not confined 
 to that portion of geine which, it may be supposed, 
 is chemically combined with alkali. Alkali, by the 
 mere action of presence, by its catalytic action, 
 which will be hereafter explained, renders an indefi- 
 nite, but large quantity of geine soluble in water. 
 This is a principle of high practical value, and were 
 the results of the principles detailed in the foregoing 
 pages, to terminate in this fact, that alone rightly 
 pondered, would account for a vast number of facts, 
 in vegetable physiology, and lead to new views in 
 the pursuit of agriculture, not less important than 
 practical. 
 
 The organic matter of soil contains within itself 
 the element of its own partial solution, that is, am- 
 monia. This is generally combined, as has been 
 shown (101), with crenic and apocrenic acids. Of 
 
96 CKENIC AND APOCRENIC ACID. 
 
 the seven organic matters found in soil, these 
 acids compose the smallest proportion. Their im- 
 portance, however, is in the inverse ratio to their 
 quantity. Their properties require a distinct ac- 
 count, allied as they are, for the most part, to those 
 of the other geine acids. 
 
 Creiiic and apocrenic acids are many-based acids; 
 that is, they satui'ate several proportions of one base, 
 or one proportion of several bases at once. 
 
 Crenic acid saturates four, and apocrenic acid 
 five equivalents of bases. Compound salts are thus 
 formed by these acids, with the various alkaline, 
 earthy and metallic bases found in the soil. Thus, 
 one proportion of apocrenic acid may be found with 
 one of ammonia, one of potash, one of lime, one of 
 iron, one of magnesia. These, by their union, 
 though in part insoluble, form a compound soluble 
 salt. These double salts are, therefore, those which 
 the plants chiefly abstract from the soil. Hence, 
 that there may be, as there must be in fertile 
 soil, a continued supply of these salts, nature has 
 provided constant sources of their reproduction. 
 The sources are two-fold. This is a point of too 
 much importance to be passed by without fuller 
 elucidation. 
 
 It has been stated (100) that the union of hydro- 
 gen and nitrogen forms ammonia. This alkali, by 
 the action of the oxygen of the air, becomes nitric 
 acid. These are the facts. Ammonia in air, in 
 contact with porous or decaying matters, becomes 
 
SOITKCES OF APOCRENATES 97 
 
 aqua fortis. Moist decaying substances induce the 
 nitrogen of air inclosed in their pores, to become 
 first ammonia, and then an acid. There is then a 
 constant formation more or less, according to cir- 
 cumstances, of nitric acid in the transformation of 
 geine. What now becomes of this nitric acid ? It 
 forms either nitrates or apocrenates. 
 
 If abundant alkaline bases are present, as potash, 
 soda, lime, magnesia, the nitric acid unites with 
 these, one or all, according to quantity, and varie- 
 ties of saltpetre — that is, nitrates result. If alkaline 
 bases are absent, then nitric acid converts humic 
 acid into apocrenic acid and ammonia, itself furnish- 
 ing the nitrogen for that alkaline base. The kind 
 of change need not be detailed, or here illustrated. 
 It is enough to state, that nitric acid and humic 
 acid, by their mutual reactions, produce apocrenate 
 of ammonia, water, and carbonic acid. This is one 
 source of the reproduction of apocrenate. 
 
 A second source is found in an abundance of 
 decaying organic matter in soil. Ammonia is here 
 copiously produced, but not a corresponding pro- 
 portion of nitric acid ; for, the oxygen of the air 
 essential to this change, is seized by the carbon and 
 hydrogen of decaying matter. 
 
 Where then there is abundance of organic matter 
 without alkaline bases, there is also fully evolved 
 ammonia and apocrenic acid, and apocrenates re- 
 sult. Where, on the contrary, little organic matter 
 a-nd abundance of alkaline bases are present, there 
 7 
 
98 FORMATION OF NITRATES. 
 
 the ammonia, both of the air and of the decaying 
 body, is converted to nitric acid, and nitrates re- 
 sult. If the nitric acid which is produced, meets 
 with humate of ammonia, the acid is decomposed 
 into apocrenic and ammonia, while the ammonia of 
 the humate is transferred to other portions of geine 
 acid, always forming in the soil. 
 
 The crenic and apocrenic acid are mutually con- 
 vertible, but with* very different results. Freely 
 exposed to air, oxygen is absorbed by crenic acid ; 
 apocrenic acid and water result. While apocrenic 
 acid by nitric acid is changed to crenic and carbonic 
 acid. 
 
 All these changes are worthy of study. The ul- 
 timate results of all are the formation of water and 
 carbonic acid. The intermediate products are am- 
 monia and nitrates, and soluble salts of the bases in 
 soil, essential to the growth of plants. 
 
 Here then is at once opened to view the neces- 
 sity of the presence of geine in soil. No practical 
 farmer ever had other opinion than this, that decay- 
 ing vegetable matter in soil, matter in an active 
 state of decay, is essential to a good crop. It is 
 the experience of ages, the result of observation and 
 experiment from the remotest times. Though, in 
 the conflict of opinion, attempts have been made to 
 set aside this experience and practice, it may be 
 assumed that science has now shown the specific 
 grounds of this universal belief. 
 
 127. Hitherto the action of geine on soil only. 
 
GEINE IN POOR SOIL. 99 
 
 has been considered, and its chemical composition 
 pointed out, sufficiently for all practical purposes. 
 The chemical proportion of the elements of geine 
 is unconnected with the practical question, how far 
 it is essential to plants. The fact that the most bar- 
 ren soil contains these elements in vast quantity, 
 that exhausted land is nearly equally rich in these, 
 as is the highly productive, has been overlooked. 
 The amount of nitrogen in geine, even in exhausted 
 soil, is sufficient to supply that element to several 
 crops of grain. The amount of carbon, oxygen, 
 hydrogen and nitrogen, in a poor, sandy, barren 
 soil, has been proved, by chemical analysis, to be 
 not less than thirty-four tons per acre, taking the 
 soil at only a foot in depth. If the light of modern 
 chemistry shall hereafter teach that these are never 
 taken from the geine of soil, it will teach also what 
 the true action of geine is. If no approach to the 
 solution of this important question has yet been 
 made, still, the absolute necessity of geine in soil is 
 admitted by all practical men. 
 
 Some further attempt to explain this subject will 
 be made in the next chapter, and the following ap- 
 pendix may be omitted by those to whom practical 
 results are of more value than philosophy. It is 
 hoped, however, that the new and important analy- 
 ses, contained in this appendix, will amply repay 
 the labor of studying their results, for the first time 
 laid before the American farmer, in the second edi- 
 tion of this work. 
 
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER lY. 
 
 HISTOEY OF GEINE. 
 
 Some account of the chemical history of a sub- 
 stance which has caused no little discussion in late 
 agricultural reports and publications, may not be 
 here misplaced. It may tend to soften the doubts 
 of those who are, and with reason apt to mistrust 
 the utility of a substance, upon whose chemical 
 nature there is such an apparent difference of opin- 
 ion. If farmers are to wait till doctors agree, there 
 will be no harvest. Happily this discussion is in no 
 wise connected with the practical application of 
 geine. It is a difference about names, not things. 
 In 1797, Vauquelin, a distinguished French chem- 
 ist, gave an account of a substance which had ex- 
 uded from the bark of an elm tree. It was a 
 shining, brittle, black substance, insoluble in alcohol, ' 
 soluble in hot water, with a brown color, and con- 
 tained potash. 
 
 In 1802, Klaproth, a Swedish analyst, received 
 from Palermo a specimen of this elm gum, and 
 found it contained a portion of resinous matter, and 
 confirmed Vauquelin's observations. In 1810, Ber- 
 zelius, the most acute chemist of the age, in experi- 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 101 
 
 meriting on the barks of various trees, noticed 
 products similar to the elm gum, particularly in 
 pine bark, Peruvian bark, and especially in the elm, 
 whose properties will be presently mentioned ; but 
 he not only gave these products no name, but 
 pointed out marked difTerences between them. The 
 substance found in pine is allied to what is called 
 pectic acid, that in Peruvian bark approaches starch, 
 while that from the elm is only a variety of vegeta- 
 ble mucilage. 
 
 In 1812, James Smithson, an English chemist, 
 and the munificent founder of the " Institute " 
 vi'hich bears his name, gave to the Royal Society of 
 London an account of his experiments on elm gum, 
 which he had received from the same place and 
 person who originally sent the article to Klaproth. 
 Smithson thought the substance more allied to ex- 
 tractive matter, than to resin, and noticed that it 
 contained 20 per cent, of potash. A similar sub- 
 stance obtained from the exudation of an English 
 elm, contained a larger per centage of potash, but 
 no trace of this new substance was detected in elm 
 sap. 
 
 In 1813, Dr. Thomas Thomson, the Coryphseus 
 of British chemists, experimented on this elm gum 
 in its several varieties, and embracing the prevalent 
 opinion of its distinct nature, not, however, because 
 prevalent, but from his own researches, erected it 
 into a distinct vegetable principle, under the name 
 of ULMXN, from ulmus, the Latin for elm. He con- 
 
102 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 founded under this name the several products noticed 
 by Berzelius, in bark ; and hence, thinks there are 
 several varieties of this substance, though Berzelius 
 does not countenance this idea. Thon^ison was the 
 first who ever procured ulmin pure, but this was not 
 the elm mucilage, but the extractive matter, and he 
 thus gave the name ulmin to the apotheme of 
 Berzelius. 
 
 Not long after this name had become the property 
 of chemists, Braconnot found, in experimenting on 
 the action of alkali on woody fibre, that a substance 
 was produced analogous to elm gum and the varie- 
 ties of ulmin, and, in 1830, Boullay noticed that 
 ulmin had acid properties, and gave to it the name 
 
 of ULMIC ACID. 
 
 The properties and relations of ulmin and of 
 ulmic acid, now engaged the attention of many ex- 
 pert chemists. It was found to be the product of a 
 great many vegetable decompositions by various 
 agents, by alkali, by acids, earths, oxides, by fire, 
 by water. All these hasten the process of decay. 
 As a general law, it may be stated that all sub- 
 stances oxidating, and gently acting on organic 
 matter, produce ulmin. Hence, it was found in a 
 vast variety of substances, and even cast-iron was 
 found to contain about 2 per cent, of a compound, 
 so analogous to ulmin, that it is so called. But, 
 above all, it was found to be the great product of 
 spontaneous decay of plants, and hence existed 
 abundantly in peat and soil. Sprengel, directing 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE 103 
 
 his attention particularly to its existence in soil be- 
 fore that form of it was universally allowed to be 
 identical with ulmin and ulmic acid, bestowed on it 
 the name of humic acid, from the Latin, humus, or 
 mould. Sprengel investigated minutely the various 
 salts of this substance, and first endeavored to 
 determine its chemical constituents. 
 
 Boullay soon followed in the same path of inves- 
 tigation, and with almost similar results. There 
 were marked differences between all the forms, yet 
 observed, that is, between elm gum of Palermo, the 
 product of bark, the artificial ulmin of Braconnot, 
 and that of soil. A multitude of different but anal- 
 ogous substances were confounded under a common 
 name, which began to be applied to the matter of 
 all vegetables, which, after having been treated with 
 alcohol and water, yielded to alkali a solution pre- 
 cipitable in brown flocks, by an acid. Under these 
 circumstances, Berzelius objected to the term alto- 
 gether, and if there is a substance to which he would 
 apply the name ulmin, it is to the mucilage of elm. 
 As this has been the source of no small confusion, 
 an account of it may be here introduced. Elm 
 bark is treated with alcohol. The tincture is evap- 
 orated dry, and the extract treated with water, 
 which dissolves a brown extractive matter, leaves 
 an insoluble residue, yhich, being treated with ether, 
 leaves a small quantity of a brownish matter, anal- 
 ogous to the extractive of chemists, or the brown 
 apotheme of Berzelius. The sap of elm contains 
 
104 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 acetate and carbonate of potash. Here, then, are 
 all the elements of elm gum, as examined by Vau- 
 quelin, Klaproth, Smithson, Thomson. Not only 
 the elm, but other trees, under diseased action, 
 exude these matters, and under the influence of air, 
 and the potash, the diseased exudation from the elm 
 bark is changed to true ulmic acid, which unites 
 with the potash, and both with the mucilage. The 
 mucilage may, by processes not here necessary to 
 be detailed, be procured pure, as a hard, opaque, 
 colorless, insipid, and inodorous gum. It moistens 
 easily, swells in water, becoming a semi-transparent 
 mucilage. It is insoluble in alkali, affords no am- 
 monia by dry distillation. Boiled with alkaline ley, 
 it affords a clear mucilaginous liquor, which browns 
 by being exposed to air. If this ley or solution is 
 exactly neutralized by acetic acid, lime water and 
 salts of lime produce no precipitate in it, and it is 
 only rendered slightly turbid by sulphuric, nitric 
 and muriatic acids. It is not precipitated by acetate 
 of lead, nor by sulphate of iron. With alcohol and 
 sub-acetate of lead it affords a mucilaginous pre- 
 cipitate. It is evident that it differs widely from 
 artificial ulmin, and from ulmin of soil, and, there- 
 fore, when Berzelius turned his attention to that, 
 having advised the abandonment of the name ulmin, 
 as inapplicable to any one substance, he bestowed 
 on the ulmin of soil the name of geine, from the 
 Greek ge, earth. If a distinction is therefore to be 
 maintained, it may be said that ulmin is the product 
 of life ; geine, of decay. 
 
niSTOEY OF GEINE. 105 
 
 The mass of matter called mould or humus, has 
 many analogies with the artificial ulmin of authors ; 
 but, taken as a whole, there are decided differences. 
 These were noticed by Berzelius, and hence he 
 divided, in an edition of his chemistry, (French 
 translation of 1832,) the constituents of the organic 
 part of mould or humus, into, 
 
 1st. Extract of mould. 2d. Geine. 3d. Carbo- 
 naceous mould, or coal of humus, as it is often 
 termed. He noticed that these mutually passed into 
 each other. This shows a great similarity if not 
 identity of chemical constituents. He did not pre- 
 tend to determine that, but by his citing, in order to 
 determine the elements of his No. 2, or geine, the 
 analysis by Sprengel of humic acid, and of that of 
 ulmic acid by Boullay, it is evident that he consid- 
 ered his geine identical with their humic and ulmic 
 acids ; but still he considered new researches to be 
 necessary to determine accurately the composition 
 of either. Later e.xperiments have proved the per- 
 fect identity of geine, and of humic acid, and 
 hence, Berzelius has withdrawn the name geine, 
 and returned to that of humic acid, the usual term 
 applied to the organic acid of soil. He could not, 
 consistently, have gone back a step further, and 
 substituted ulmin for geine, particularly after he 
 was violently attacked by Raspail, for abandoning 
 that ancient and much abused name. 
 
 The great distinction pointed out by Berzelius, in 
 his three varieties of mould, was founded on their 
 
106 
 
 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 solubility or insolubility, by water and by alkalies. 
 The author of these pages, while engaged in re- 
 searches upon the action of mordants, and of cow- 
 dung, in calico printing, began in 1833, before he 
 had met with the work of Berzelius, had also noticed 
 this marked distinction, and several other new and 
 important facts relating to what he then called, from 
 its analogies, ulmin. For all practical purposes, the 
 distinction was enough. When, a few years after, 
 his attention was accidentally called to soil, the 
 name of Berzelius, geine, was given by him to the 
 whole organic matter of mould, or humus, and that 
 matter was also, as a convenient practical division, 
 separated into soluble and insoluble, including the 
 various geic salts, which he detected in soil. In the 
 edition of Berzelius above cited, two other organic 
 compounds are noticed, as being among the general 
 products of putrefaction, traces of which Berzelius 
 noticed in soil. These were called crenic and apo- 
 crenic acids, from " irerae," Greek, for fountain, 
 having been first detected in spring water. 
 
 The presence of nitrogen was detected by Ber- 
 zelius, in crenic and apocrenic acid. This suffi- 
 ciently distinguished them from geine, extract of, 
 and carbonaceous mould. Though these acids were 
 detected after the name of geine had been applied, 
 yet the presence of nitrogen in these, would at 'once 
 have led Berzelius to examine geine anew, if he had 
 any suspicion that it contained that element, or that 
 he had mistaken the chemical nature of that sub- 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 107 
 
 Stance. Unless we suppose, with Raspail, that nitro- 
 gen in these acids exists and acts only as he sup- 
 poses it does in gluten, as an accident, or as an 
 ammoniacal salt, it cannot be supposed that geine 
 and these acids are identical, or can ever pass into 
 each other. Nor has the progress of chemical dis- 
 covery led to the abandonment of geine as a distinct 
 principle. The whole doctrine of naming the ele- 
 ments of soil may be tabulated. 
 
 THE ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF MOULD, OR HUMUS, BY 
 BEEZELIUS'S METHOD. 
 
 1882. 
 1. Extract of Mould, . . 
 
 1^40. 
 1. Extract of mould, 
 
 2. Hiunid acid, 
 
 2- Geine, 
 
 3. Carbonaceous mould,' 3 Humin, 
 
 4. Crenic acid, 4. Crenic acid, . . } 
 
 5. Apocrenic acid, .... 5- Apocrenic acid, > 
 
 Vegetable extract of 
 authors, apotheme of 
 Berzelius . 
 
 Ulmic of EouUay and 
 others, sacchulmic of 
 Liebigi 
 
 Ulmin of authors, sac- 
 chulmin of Liebig. 
 
 Admitted by most au- 
 thors. 
 
 It becomes, therefore, a question, whether the 
 term geine is not the only, proper term to be re- 
 tained, applicable to the various forms found in soil ; 
 and its distinction into soluble and insoluble, well 
 founded for all practical purposes. This question 
 may be answered by a reference to the analysis of 
 geine. It includes not only that, so called in 1832 
 by Berzelius, the equivalent of which, by the table, 
 is ulmic and huraic acid, but also all the forms. On 
 this subject, during the imperfect state of organic 
 analysis ten years ago, there may have been room 
 
108 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 for doubt ; especially when the most consummate 
 organic analyst of the age, Liebig, asserts that it is 
 exceedingly difficult to estimate quantities less than 
 one half per cent. Even now, when the results of 
 the most expert analysts have thrown a shade of 
 doubt over the determination of the true proportion 
 of carbon in carbonic acid, a proportion for so many 
 years considered one of the best established facts of 
 chemistry, it may be doubted whether later analyses 
 of geine approach nearer practical truth than those 
 executed almost in the infancy of the science. The 
 constitution of geine, as determined by Boullay and 
 Malaguti, admitted by all to be worthy of confidence, 
 is thus stated : — 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 P. Boullay, (Thomson) 56.7 
 
 " Jr., (Lassaigne) 57.64 
 
 Malaguti, (Dumas) 57.48 
 
 Eydregen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 4.8 
 
 38.50 
 
 4.70 
 
 37.56 
 
 4.76 
 
 37.06 
 
 Average, 57.30 4.75 37.-0 
 
 But it may be said that these refer only to the arti- 
 ficial productions. These may be quite other com- 
 pounds from that found in the soil. Let the analysis 
 of geine of soil, as determined by the latest re- 
 searches, answer such objection. 
 
 During the last two or three years, Mulder, in 
 whose analytical tact chemists generally place the 
 utmost confidence, has examined the various forms 
 of geine. He has now published the elaborate results 
 of his long labor. The following sketch of these, 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 109 
 
 I 
 
 which shed such a new liglit over this complicated 
 subject, is chiefly drawn from Berzelius's Report for 
 1841, in which he speaks of them in high praise. 
 While it will be seen that Mulder refers to the various 
 forms of geine, under names used by Berzelius, he 
 confirms the fact that their great difference depends 
 upon their being soluble or insoluble in alkalies, and 
 has added a crowd of new facts, which connect all 
 the forms in a beautiful and consistent manner. 
 Malaguti had procured, by boiling sugar with dilute 
 acid, ulmic acid in distinct crystals. By long boil- 
 ing in water, it is converted into ulmin, losing its 
 solubility in alkali, without any change of compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Stein had already, by repeating the experiments 
 of Malaguti, arrived at products whose analytical 
 results differed from Malaguti's. Mulder, repeating 
 the process of boiling sugar with weak acid, and 
 examining the product, has confirmed Stein's results, 
 and also what has been advanced, that the forms of 
 geine thus produced are, as Malaguti had obsei-ved, 
 identical in composition ; and has shown that the 
 various forms depend on the circumstances of the 
 manipulation. 
 
 The catalytic action of weak acid, boiled upon 
 sugar, produces first ulmin, and ulmic acid. It is 
 remarkable that these products are not formed in 
 vacuo. This is due, not to the want of oxygen, 
 but to the want of pressure. Boiled, under the 
 pressure of hydrogen, or nitrogen gas, ulmin and its 
 
110 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 acid are produced. The products formed from sugar 
 and weak acids, in a vacuum, are humin, and humic 
 acid. Ulmin, and ulmic acid, are therefore the 
 primary products of this action in air or under pres- 
 sure. If these are separated and again boiled with 
 weali acid, in contact with air, they are changed 
 into humin, and humic acid. These are therefore 
 secondary products. Humin, and humic acid, are 
 produced directly, by allowing a free and abun- 
 dant access of air. Ulmin, and ulmic acid, are then 
 rapidly transformed to humin, and humic acid. 
 Strong acid also hastens this transformation, but at 
 the same time changes humic acid to humin. For- 
 mic acid is always produced, and distils off during 
 the process ; and also two other new acids. The 
 discoverer of one, was Peligot, in 1828, which Mul- 
 der now calls glucic acid, and he himself has added 
 another, produced from this, which is called apo- 
 glucic acid. Passing over these, it is difficult to 
 procure the other acids and neutral bodies free from 
 mixture. Whatever may be the quantity of sugar, 
 or the circumstances of the manipulation, it is im- 
 possible to convert morfe than one-fifth of the sugar 
 into ulmin, and humin, and humic and ulmic acids; 
 The other four-fifths are changed into formic, glucic, 
 and apoglucic acids. 
 
 Having effected the change of one-fifth of the 
 sugar, the ulmic and humic acids are separated 
 from ulmin and humin by potash. Ammonia cannot 
 be used for this purpose. The reason will appear 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. Ill 
 
 in the sequel. Having separated the several sub- 
 stances, their analysis presents the following results. 
 The proportion per cent, the author has deduced for 
 the greater part from Mulder's formute. What a 
 chemical formula is, will be readily understood from 
 (o5). A formula is merely the true expression of 
 an analysis by the number of combining proportions. 
 It presents to the eye at once the constitution of any 
 compound, and affords a readier mode of comparing 
 several bodies like-constituted, than does the propor- 
 tion per 100 parts. That is added for those whose 
 taste may have led them to omit the details (55). 
 
 But it may here be stated that C stands for carbon, 
 H hydrogen, O oxygen. Am. ammonia, a compound 
 of 3 hydrogen and 1 nitrogen ; and Aq. stands for 
 water (aqua), a compound of one of hydrogen and 
 1 of oxygen ; 2 aq. is 2 water. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF COMPOSITION OF ULMIN, ETC. 
 
 
 Ulmin, 
 
 yormulGB. 
 C40 HI6 01* 
 
 Per 100 parts 
 Carbon. Hydrogen. 
 
 65.30 4.30 
 
 Oxygen* 
 
 30.40 
 
 Ulmic acid, 
 
 C40 HI4 012 
 
 68.95 ' 4.23 
 
 26.82 
 
 Humin, 
 
 C40 H's 0'5 
 
 64.67 4.32 
 
 31.01 
 
 Humic acid, 
 
 C40 H's 012 
 
 69.25 3.42 
 
 27.33 
 
 It is thus seen that ulraic and humic acids differ 
 from ulmin and humin, by containing, the first, two, 
 and the second, three, atoms of the elements of water 
 less than the neutral bodies from which they are 
 formed. The ulmic and humic acids above, are 
 supposed to be perfectly dry. Each may combine 
 
112 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 with a definite proportion of water, forming hydrated 
 acids. In this case they contain the same absolute 
 and relative number of the same elements as do 
 ulmin and humin. They are thus said to be iso- 
 meric with them. The composition of the hydrated 
 acids is — 
 
 Ulmic, C" H14 012-1-2 aq. or 2 hydro, and 2 oxyg. 
 Humic, C^" H12 O^a + 3 aq. or 3 " "3 " 
 
 These acids combine with bases. If these acids 
 are dissolved by ammonia, and precipitated by an 
 acid, they fall combined with ammonia. Ulmate of 
 ammonia, precipitated by metallic salts, forms double 
 salts of ammonia and a metallic oxide. The com- 
 position of these salts of ammonia is — 
 
 Ulmate of ammonia, C" H'^ 0'2 -f am. -f- 2 aq. 
 Humate " C" H's O'^ -\- am. + 3 aq. 
 
 Or, per cent. Carb. Hyd. Oxy. Nitrog. 
 
 Ulmate of ammonia, 64.75 5.06 26.22 3.97. 
 Humate " 64.53 4.22 27.46 3.74. 
 
 Mulder, havjng thus shown the composition of 
 these artificial products, proceeds to trace similar 
 natural products in peat, decayed wood, and soil. 
 Here his labors have a direct bearing on agriculture. 
 He points out their relation with those above in so 
 clear and masterly a manner, that it is impossible 
 not to believe that, in agriculture, the artificial and 
 natural products would produce like effects. In the 
 natural formation of these substances, Mulder re- 
 marks, generally, that, during decay, without free 
 
HISTOKY OF GEINE. 113 
 
 access of air, ulmin and ulmic acid are formed, as 
 in peat of a brown color, while, as in black peats 
 with free access of air, humin and humic acids are 
 produced from the primary products. This agrees 
 with his experiments in air, and a vacuum. Peat, 
 of a brown color, having boon treated with alcohol, 
 to remove all resinous matter, was then treated with 
 carbonate of soda. All the soluble matter was thus 
 extracted, that is, the ulmic acid. The insoluble 
 geine is ulmin. The soluble, precipitated, has all 
 the characters of the ulmic acid of sugar. It differs 
 only in this, it may not be heated above 284^ 
 Fahrenheit, without decomposition, and then pro- 
 duces formic acid and water. Sugar-ulmic acid 
 undergoes this change at 383° F. Humic acid was 
 prepared by a similar process, from black peat. It 
 has all the external characters of sugar-humic acid, 
 it differs by containing ammonia. Its soda solution, 
 precipitated by muriatic acid, gave a precipitate 
 containing one atom of humic aeid, to one atom of 
 ammonia. It loses no water at 284° F. ; at about 
 356° F. it evolves ammonia ; at 383° F. acetic acid. 
 Humic acid was also prepared from the black mould 
 of an old white willow, by a similar process as above. 
 It suffers no change below 302° F., and at 325° it 
 evolves water and acetic acid. Digested with caus- 
 tic potash, it evolves ammonia. Continuing this 
 digestion for twelve hours, and then precipitating 
 the humic acid, it is found converted into ulmate of 
 ammonia, with two portions of acid. It is a biul- 
 8 
 
114 
 
 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 mate of ammonia, similar to that from peat. If 
 digested with carbonate of soda, the product then is 
 biulmate of ammonia, like that from sugar. Soil 
 was treated by Mulder, first, with boiling alcohol, 
 then with water, then with carbonate of soda, and 
 the acids precipitated as usual, by muriatic acid. 
 These precipitates were with difficulty obtained 
 pure. They were repeatedly washed in cold water, 
 dried, and again treated with alcohol, to remove 
 every trace of crenic and apocrenic acid. These 
 being removed, the precipitates were again dried, as 
 in fact were all the products above described at 
 284° F. They were then analyzed. It is remarka- 
 ble that all these products are ammoniacal combi- 
 nations. It is a combination, not as a salt, in which 
 case the geine of soil would be at once soluble in 
 water, but a compound of humin and ulmin, or of 
 their acids wi.h ammonia, probably like the com- 
 pounds of ammonia with sulphates and other salts. 
 The whole may be best presented in a table, and 
 that these iiatural may be at once compared with 
 the artificial products, these are also included. 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 115 
 
 
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 t& ^ i£k 1^ 1^ itk 
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116 HISTORY OF GEINE 
 
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 i.i 1.1 ii. si 
 
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 CO I— ' i(^ 1^ h(^ ^ « 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 117 
 
 These are beautiful and valuable results. Exe- 
 cuted by one of the great masters in organic analy- 
 sis, they show a wonderful coincidence between the 
 artificial and natural product?. This has a direct 
 connection with agriculture. The source of the 
 nitrogen of plants depends upon these compounds 
 of ammonia with the geine of soil. The composi- 
 tion of that substance shows that, by making it 
 soluble, the farmer commands the same beneficial 
 effects which may be produced by nitre. But the 
 researches of Mulder do not terminate with the 
 analyses. He has examined the compounds which 
 these forms of geine produce with other acids, par- 
 ticularly with muriatic and nitric. The compound 
 of nitric and humic acids is called nitro-humic acid ; 
 ulmin and ulmic, humin and humic acid are decom- 
 posed by weak nitric acid. They are converted by 
 gentle heat immediately into a rust-colored powder, 
 and by prolonged action evolve oxalic and formic 
 acids and nitrate of ammonia. Nitro-humic acid, 
 the rusty brown powder above, is soluble in water. 
 Alkalies evolve ammonia from it. Late researches 
 have shown that this compound is apocrenate of 
 ammonia. 
 
 It is highly probable that this product is connected 
 with the action of nitrates, or saltpetre in agriculture. 
 All these products, observes Berzelius, are connect- 
 ed by an unknown thread. These black and al- 
 most insoluble acids, have a very weak saturating 
 power, in comparison with their oxygen. This .last 
 
118 
 
 HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 exceeds that of the base, by 10, IQ, or 14 times. 
 Hence, Berzelius suggests that all these organic 
 acids may have a composition analogous to sulpho- 
 benzoic acid. 
 
 Notwithstanding the objections raised by Berze- 
 lius, founded upon a want of correspondence between 
 the oxygen and saturating power of some of these 
 forms of geine, they are probably modifications of 
 one principle, differing not so much in their physical 
 properties as do fibrine, albumen, and caseine, or 
 flesh, white of egg, and curd of milk. These are 
 identical in composition, modifications of a common 
 principle to which the name, proteine, is given by 
 Mulder, its discoverer. It is not among the least 
 curious of his results that proteine is, by weak 
 acids, changed into humate of ammonia, its acid 
 being perfectly identical with that from sugar. In 
 1838, Prof. Hitchcock, in his report, published the 
 following extract from one of the author's letters, 
 when speaking of geine as the product chiefly of 
 vegetable matter, it was added : " Animal sub- 
 stances afford a similar product, containing nitro- 
 gen." The author supposed at that time that the 
 nitrogen in geine was of animal origin ; but since 
 it has been proved that proteine is derived from 
 vegetables, the results of its decomposition by 
 Mulder, leave no doubt that the proteine of vegeta- 
 bles is the source of the ammoniacal compounds of 
 geine found in soil. That neither Mulder nor 
 Berzelius have the slightest doubt that these ammo- 
 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 
 
 119 
 
 niacal compounds are wholly distinct from crenic 
 and apocrenic acid, is evident from the care of 
 Mulder to separate these last from the soil, and from 
 the total silence of Berzelius respecting any mistake 
 he may have been supposed to commit, by con- 
 founding geine with them. 
 
 It will be seen from the account of Mulder's re- 
 searches, that geine is produced chiefly from the 
 decay of woody fibre. All its forms are thence de- 
 rived. It is from woody fibre, by the absorption of 
 oxygen, by the access of air and moisture that ulmic 
 acid is first formed, and from this, by absorption 
 of another portion of oxygen proceeds humic acid, 
 and thus also, from this last again comes geic 
 acid, and thence crenic, which by still a further 
 change becomes apocrenic acid. All these trans^ 
 formations are continually occurring in soil. These 
 occur not without the production of carbonic acid, 
 water and ammonia. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE MUTITAL ACTION OF THE ORGANIC AND INOR- 
 GANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 128. In agriculture, little and seemingly unim- 
 portant discoveries are valuable. Nothing is to be 
 despised, vi'hich may lead to a rational and true 
 theory of agriculture ; this only can lead to successful 
 practice. Practice, founded on sound principles, 
 can be taught only by a knowledge of the manner 
 how the elements of soil affect each other, and 
 vegetation. This knowledge cannot be obtained 
 without the application of theoretical opinions. The 
 opinions of merely scientific men, may be wholly 
 theoretical ; but what is science ? 
 
 It is, says Davy, "refined common sense, the 
 substitution of rational practice, for unsound preju- 
 dice." 
 
 In no department of human industry, is there so 
 great a demand for the union of theory and prac- 
 tice, as in agriculture. The book farmer and the 
 practical farmer, must now shake hands. They 
 have been too long wrestling, and tiying to get 
 each other down, at arm's length, and now grap- 
 
ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 121 
 
 pling in side-hug, they find the closer the embrace, 
 the longer they stand. So it should be, theory and 
 practice should mutually support each other. 
 
 129. The theoretical and the practical farmer 
 aim at one common object. The latter is employ- 
 ing certain means to effect certain ends ; the former 
 unfolds the laws of nature, which limit and control 
 the operations which are performed to effect that 
 end. Theory may teach a rational and successful 
 practice ; this last may lead to a rational theory. 
 But without a knowledge of the elements of soil, 
 and of their mutual action, which is to be learned 
 from chemistry only, the practical application of 
 science to agriculture is but the dream of enthu- 
 siasts. 
 
 130. How do the elements of soil act.? The 
 answer involves two important considerations. 1st. 
 The mutual chemical action of the elements of soil, 
 their organic and inorganic parts on each other ; 
 and 2d. This action, as influenced and modified, 
 by the presence of living, growing plants. 
 
 131. The elements of soil, are silicates, salts and 
 geine. The silicates, as such, have no tendency to 
 react on each other. These are gradually decom- 
 posed by the action of the air. The great agent in 
 this action is its carbonic acid, which gradually 
 combines with the alkaline base of the silicates, 
 and the potash and soda are converted into soluble 
 salts, while the silex and alumnia remain. 
 
 132. The result of this action is, that the land 
 
122 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 
 
 becomes gradually more clayey and tenacious ; 
 while the alkaline bases, carried away by drainage 
 or filtration, enter brooks and rivers, and are finally 
 found in sea water. The potash of the ocean arises 
 from the decomposition of rocks and soil. This 
 action, though very marked on felspar, is compara- 
 tively nothing except on the naked and exposed 
 surface of rocks. Soil suffers but little from this 
 cause. The silicates erf soil may be considered as 
 stationary. 
 
 133. Let the class, salts, be now introduced into 
 the soil ; of these the earthy carbonates only act upon 
 silicates by mutual decomposition. The silicic acid 
 acts on the lime, forming silicate of lime, while the 
 carbonic acid, now let loose, acts as such upon other 
 silicates, and eliminates or frees the alkaline bases. 
 Let it be supposed that there is clay, or silicate of 
 potash and alumina in the soil Let carbonate of 
 lime, that is marble, or air slacked lime, shells, &.C., 
 be added to the soil. The result is, that slowly but 
 surely, chemical action takes place, the silicic acid 
 pulling one away and the carbonic acid another, the 
 lime is changed to silicate of lime, and the carbonic 
 acid escapes, and now in its turn acts upon silicates 
 as did carbonic acid of air. The alumina remains, 
 the soil becomes more clayey. Thus sands by 
 liming are amended. 
 
 134. This principle, of the action of carbonates, 
 unravels ihe agency of a vast variety of substances, 
 which appear to be very inert and inefficient. It 
 
ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL. 123 
 
 must be remembered, that the action of silicates and 
 salts is alone under consideration, uninfluenced by 
 the presence of geine or plants. That action in its 
 simplest form constitutes the following, which may 
 be laid down as the ninth principle of agricultural 
 chemistry, cahbonic acid, and the carbonates, 
 
 DECOMPOSE THE EAHTHY, ALKALINE, AND METALLIC 
 SILICATES OF SOIL. 
 
 135. The result of this action is, that the potash, 
 soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, and metallic oxides 
 are set free, and where silicate of alumina exists, 
 the soil becomes more clayey, while the carbonic 
 acid again acts upon silicates of alkalies and forms 
 carbonates of alkalies. A clue is thus given to the 
 action of peat ashes, or coal ashes in amending a 
 sandy soil. These ashes act by their carbonate of 
 lime as above stated, freeing the alkali of the silicate 
 of potash. 
 
 136. Hitherto, the action of the inorganic ele- 
 ments has been explained, uninfluenced by the or- 
 ganic or by geine. Referring to the properties of 
 this substance, it will be recollected, that it is solu- 
 ble or insoluble, that it combines with alkalies, 
 earths, and metals. It exerts a twofold action. 1st. 
 The geine combines with the potash, soda, lime, 
 
 ' alumina, magnesia, which have been let loose by the 
 action of carbonic acid, and of carbonates, and forms 
 geic salts or geates, while the carbonic acid which 
 may be let loose from any carbonate of lime, acting 
 upon these geic salts, forms super-geates, which 
 
124 ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL. 
 
 readily dissolve. It is thus evident, that geine exerts 
 an important and powerful influence upon soil. It 
 is the agent, prepared by nature, to dissolve the 
 earthy constituents of soil, rendering them so solu- 
 ble, that they become fit for food, or constituents of 
 plants. 
 
 2d. The free alkalies, produced as has been de- 
 scribed by the influence of carbonic acid, and car- 
 bonates, act on geine. They render this soluble. 
 The curious and important fact, that a small quan- 
 tity of alkali, renders an indefinite quantity of geine 
 soluble, has been noticed ( 1 17) ; and it may now be 
 added, that probably all the alkaline earths, and 
 oxide of iron and manganese possess this power of 
 converting vegetable fibre into geine. This effect 
 has long been known to be produced by potash and 
 lime. These hasten decay ; and next in power to 
 lime, in this singular process, is alumina, then oxide 
 of iron, in passing from a lower to a higher state of 
 oxidation. 
 
 137. This remarkable process, this power, ener- 
 gy, function, influence, property, called by whatso- 
 ever name it may be, which is thus exerted, by the 
 elements of silicates upon vegetable fibre, and inso- 
 luble geine ; and the power of developing acid 
 properties in that principle, is intimately connected 
 with the action of growing plants upon soil. The 
 joint effect of organic and inorganic elements of 
 soil and plants may be better understood by advert- 
 ing to the probable cause of this property of earths. 
 
CATALYSIS, OR ACTION OF PRESENCE. 125 
 
 alkalies and oxides ; though in the present state of 
 science, this cause may be apprehended only by 
 giving it a name, which arranges only many facts 
 under one view. The cause of this effect of alka- 
 lies upon geine, is to be sought in that power which 
 has been denominated catalysis, and which French 
 authors designate as the action of presence ; that 
 is, the mere presence of a body influences the na- 
 ture of a second body, so as wholly to change its 
 properties. It causes the elements of organic com- 
 pounds to enter into new arrangements, by which 
 they produce a totally different substance. The 
 catalytic body, the present body, the changing body 
 itself, suffers no change, except, perhaps, in some 
 cases of ferments, whose activity depends upon their 
 being in a state of decomposition, while the changed 
 body loses nothing of its substance. It often gains 
 oxygen and hydrogen, or the elements of water. 
 For example, starch is converted into sugar by oil 
 of vitriol. The acid suffers no change. It acts by 
 catalysis, and converts the starch to sugar, simply 
 by the addition of water, or its elements. So the 
 peculiar principle found near the eye of the potato, 
 converts starch first into gum, called dextrine, and 
 then converts this into sugar of starch. So malt, by 
 its gluten, converts starch into sugar in the process 
 of brewing beer. But the effect of this action may_ 
 not be confined to organic compounds only. It 
 has lately been extended, by an acute German 
 chemist, to all chemical changes ; and it has been 
 
126 
 
 CATALYSIS OF LIFE. 
 
 maintained that all chemical decomposition takes 
 place in obedience only to a third substance, acting 
 by its presence. Hence, this extension of the prin- 
 ciple, will allow the decomposition of the mineral 
 elements of soil, to be attributed to the catalytic ac- 
 tion of the plant. 
 
 138. Having considered the action of the organic 
 and inorganic elements of soil upon each other, it is 
 seen, that though great, this action would be but 
 very little in centuries. The geine itself would be 
 dissipated in air, were it not that, by this provision, 
 it is combined with the earthy part of the soil, and 
 there retained for the use of plants, which may 
 grow near it. 
 
 139. Let plants be grown in the soil, whose action 
 has been considered. This introduces life into the 
 process, and it gives life to all around it. It is not 
 pretended to e.xplain what the action of life is. It 
 has many relations with chemical processes. By the 
 refined chemistry of the present day, many products 
 are formed, which have been usually, and in fact, 
 are now considered products of living action only ; 
 the peculiar product of life, urea, is formed artifici- 
 ally ; so of other products, and out of carbon, nitro- 
 gen, and water, may be formed as many, and as 
 complex products as are ever elaborated by a living 
 process ; yet life is not a chemical process, and were 
 it attempted to explain how, out of the four simple 
 elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, 
 all the variety of vegetable products are formed, it 
 
CATALYSIS OF LIFE. 127 
 
 might be said that life is" a catalytic power. The 
 vital principle by its presence, impresses the same 
 power on the food we take, that the peculiar princi- 
 ple in malt and in potato, called diastase, impresses 
 on starch. It merely by its presence, gives to the 
 elements power to enter into new combinations, and 
 then these combinations occur in obedience only to 
 the well-known, established, eternal laws of chem- 
 ical affinity. 
 
 140. So too, the presence of a growing plant, of 
 the root, of a seed, where hfe is, impresses on the 
 soil, both on the organic and inorganic elements, 
 power to enter into new arrangements. The soil, 
 then, is not external to the plants ; so far as life is 
 concerned, it is as much internal as if the plant had 
 a mouth and stomach, through, and into which the 
 soil might be fed. 
 
 141. Call this power life, electricity, galvanism, ot 
 by any other name, still the great fact, that the mere 
 presence of a living, growing plant in soil, in one 
 year effects a greater amount of its decomposition, 
 than all atmospheric influences, in many years, is 
 one of the very highest interest, in a practical view. 
 It is, perhaps, of more value than all the other ac- 
 tions which have been considered. 
 
 142. It is this decomposing action of living plants, 
 on the inorganic elements of soil, which affords a 
 reasonable explanation of the action of salts in agri- 
 culture. The catalytic power of life dissociates the 
 elements of salts. They enter into new combina- 
 
128 ACTION OF SALTS OR MINERAL MANURES. 
 
 tions. The base and the acid, are separated by the 
 action of the living plant. 
 
 143. On no subject in agriculture are opinions 
 more divided, than on the manner, how salts or 
 mineral manures act. Their amount in soil is small. 
 That is soon exhausted. They cannot be artificially 
 supplied, in excess, without inducing very serious 
 injury, and, in fact, often produce barrenness ; yet 
 are often decidedly beneficial. It is not less difli- 
 cult to account for the good, than for bad effects of 
 salts. Among all the variety of substances acting 
 as salts, a distinct theory is generally framed and 
 adopted for each. If any attempt has been made 
 to arrange all the facts relating to this subject, it has 
 ended in this, that they are stimulants. They are to 
 the plants, what condiments are to the food of man. 
 This may do very well as an illustration, and the 
 author has elsewhere said, that " the soil is the plate, 
 the geine the food, the salt the seasoning." 
 
 144. This leads to no practical result, except it 
 be this, that if salts are seasoning, like the seasoning 
 of our food, they must be used sparingly. Some 
 general lawis wanting, which shall at once account 
 for the effects of salts, and while it points out how 
 so very minute a portion as the four-hundredth part 
 of one per cent, of the soil produces unquestionably 
 good effects, one per cent, will be injurious. Some 
 general principle is wanted, which will enable the 
 farmer to say what the action of a salt will be ; and 
 whether he may apply one, or less than one per 
 cent, of it, without risking his crop. 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 129 
 
 145. Such a general principle can be deduced 
 from the known chemical action of the elements of 
 soil, aided by the living plants, upon each other. It 
 is this tenth principle of agricultural chemistry, the 
 
 BASE OF ALL SALTS, ACTS EVER THE SAME IN AGEI- 
 
 CULTUEE. Peculiarity of action depends on the 
 
 ACID of the salt. 
 
 146. Forget, reader, all other principles which 
 have been presented to you. Banish from your 
 mind, if you will, all that has been said, on the ori- 
 gin and nature of soil. Put it down, all, all to the 
 account of book farming. Let it be branded all as 
 theory, and that too as the worst of theories, theory 
 fruitless, a goodly blossom bearing no fruit, a Dead 
 Sea apple ; but do not condemn the principle now 
 enunciated. Let that stand alone, by itself, for itself. 
 In all its length and breadth, it is the great practical 
 principle of agricultural chemistry. It opens veins 
 rich in results, more precious than mines of gold. 
 
 147. The action of salts in agriculture, is to be 
 regarded in a twofold light. First, a large propor- 
 tion of salts is found in plants, composed of alkalies 
 and alkaline bases of earths, united to a mineral 
 acid, such as sulphuric, muriatic, phosphoric. These 
 salts are taken up by the roots of plants when dis- 
 solved in water, and thus form a ponstituent of veg- 
 etables. Secondly, a large quantity of alkali and 
 alkaline earths is united in plants, with a vegetable 
 acid. In this case, the salts of the soil have been 
 decomposed by the living plant. What is the conse- 
 
 9 
 
130 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 quence ? The base, if alkali, lime, alumina, mag- 
 nesia, iron, acts upon geine, rendering that soluble, 
 and it is then taken up as such, or it forms an alka- 
 line or earthy, or metallic geate, which, entering the 
 plant as such, is there decomposed by the vegetable 
 acid produced in the living plant ; while the acid of 
 the salt thus let loose in the soil, acting on the sili- 
 cates, forms new salts, which, in their turn, play a 
 similar part to that produced by the original salt. 
 
 148. The effect of this action of salts is, that they 
 continually reproduce themselves. The effect may 
 be illustrated by yeast, which added to dough, begets 
 a new portion of the fermenting principle, which 
 again added to new dough, still begets new leaven, 
 and this without end. It is not to be understood, from 
 this illustration, that the action of salts is fermen- 
 tation. 
 
 149. But let this action be farther illustrated ; 
 suppose there is added a salt, composed of muriatic 
 acid and soda, that is common salt, to the soil. By 
 the action of the living plant, this is decomposed. 
 Its soda, or base, then acts on geine. If this has 
 been long in an insoluble, and perfectly useless con- 
 dition, it is now rendered soluble, and hence supplies 
 plants with food. A very marked and decided effect 
 is perceived from applying a small quantity per acre, 
 of a salt, which certainly of itself contains no nutri- 
 ment for plants. 
 
 150. The effects here produced, may be due to 
 the small quantity of alkali, acting on an indefinite 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 131 
 
 quantity of geine ; but the effect so often observed, 
 of the minute quantity of salts, say one-hundredth 
 of one per cent, of the soil, seems hardly compati- 
 ble with the explanation. So far as it goes, this is 
 its action ; but very probably the quantity of alkali 
 in the salt sown, is taken up as a geic salt, and im- 
 mediately carried into the plants. The base then 
 is withdrawn, yet the action continues. It contin- 
 ues through the whole time the fruit is forming. 
 Some other source, therefore, of the permanence 
 of this action must be sought. That is due to the 
 acid constituent of the salt. That, when the plant 
 decomposed the salts, was let loose, and now acts 
 on the silicates of the soil. It decomposes these, 
 uniting first with the alkalies, and thus reproducing 
 itself. It is again decomposed by the growing plant. 
 The same round of action continues. Suppose all 
 this had been witnessed on a worn out, almost barren 
 field. It is concluded at once, that there is some 
 peculiar virtue in the salt applied, that it is of itself 
 food, or manure ; whereas the whole action is in 
 obedience to a general law applicable to all salts. 
 
 151. Suppose plaster or gypsum has been ap- 
 plied ; the effects of a bushel of plaster per acre, or 
 even the one four-hundredth part of one per cent, 
 of the soil produces effects on alluvial land, which 
 show its good results, as far as eye can reach. It 
 seems almost incredible, that so minute a portion of 
 a mineral can act at all, yet how beautifully is this 
 result explained, by the principle that plants decom- 
 
132 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 pose, first, this salt ; the lime, for plaster is a sulphate 
 of lime, then acts on geine, which is thus rendered 
 soluble ; while the acid, the oil of vitriol or sulphuric 
 acid, immediately acts on silicates. If silicates of 
 alkali exist in the soil, we have now changed sul- 
 phate of lime for an alkaline sulphate, and if silicate 
 of lime is also present, the potash or alkali, having 
 been exhausted, plaster of Paris is formed anew. 
 So long as there is in the soil organic matter, this 
 action continues, and will continue till the plant has 
 gradually withdrawn for its own use, the acid of the 
 salt which was introduced. 
 
 152. Fertility depends wholly on salts and geine. 
 Without the last there is no fruit formed ; without 
 the salts the geine is locked up, is insoluble. Con- 
 sider now the application of this principle, that the 
 base of the salts acts always in one uniform way, 
 its action is wholly upon geine ; that the acid of 
 salts, acts upon silicates. Apply this principle to 
 all mineral manures, as they are called. They are 
 all connected by one common mode of action of 
 their base. There is no speculation, there is no 
 mystery, as to the mode how they act. The effect 
 produced by such wonderfully minute quantities is 
 no longer astonishing. It is no more wonderful 
 than that leaven should make dough rise ; it is even 
 less mysterious. 
 
 153. Apply this principle to acids, which have 
 sometimes been used. Sprinkle a small portion of 
 oil of vitriol on the soil ; supposing no free base 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 133 
 
 present, the silicates are decomposed by the oil of 
 vitriol, and sulphates of alkalies, and alkaline earths 
 are formed. These new formed salts are, in their 
 turn, decomposed by the living plants ; and the ac- 
 tion on geine commences, as has been explained. 
 
 154. Consider how salts and geine are linked. It 
 is at once seen how essential to the action of salts 
 is the presence of organic matter, or geine in the 
 soil. It is the want of a principle like that which 
 has been stated, which has led to a waste of time 
 and money, in applying mineral manures, to worn 
 out and barren soil. Whereas, the principle (145) 
 leads to the application of both salts and geine. The 
 salts alone would be useless. Their first effect in 
 either case, would be the same on silicates ; but 
 with geine, this action, like fermentation, goes on, 
 begetting new salts ; without it, this action ceases 
 after the first chemical changes have occurred. In 
 the first case, it goes on. In the second, it stops. 
 
 155. Salts without geine, act only on silicates of 
 the soil. If now, these silicates contain any portion 
 of aqueous rock (11), they usually contain also dis- 
 tinct traces of organic matter. This matter is due 
 for the most part, to the geine, held in solution in the 
 water, from which the rocks were deposited. It is 
 certainly within the bounds, not only of a chemical 
 possibility, but of a high degree of probability, that 
 the carbon, under the influence of growing plants, 
 may unite with oxygen or hydrogen, that is, with the 
 elements of water, and form thus food for plants. 
 
134 
 
 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 Hence, on such soil, the mere application of salts, 
 or of mineral manures, has produced, yea, and does 
 produce, marked and wonderful effects. This would 
 be the effect of salts, applied to soil produced by 
 the decomposition of slate ; even gneiss soil, which 
 occurs occasionally in extensive patches, would be 
 benefitted, but much less by such application. But 
 such soil forms an exception, both to the general 
 law, which has been stated, of the uniformity of 
 mineral composition, and to the necessity of apply- 
 ing salts and geine in conjunction. These remarks 
 may explain a seemingly possible anomaly to the 
 principle, that the base of all salts acts in one uni- 
 form manner upon geine, and that peculiarities of 
 action depend on the acid of the salt. The effects 
 of the first part of this proposition (145), have been 
 explained ; the effect of the second, is now to be 
 considered. 
 
 156. Perhaps no principle in agriculture is better 
 established, than that an excess of any salt in the 
 usual acceptation of that term, is a cause of barren- 
 ness. Yet it is quite as well established, that the 
 qliantity of different salts admits of some latitude, 
 and tha^ some salts do produce better results than 
 others. Referring to the acid constituents of these 
 salts, it will be found that some acids are organ- 
 ic. They consist of hydrogen", carbon, oxygen, 
 all which, under the influence of the living plant, 
 may be dissociated, and their elements form geine. 
 Other acids consist of oxygen and nitrogen, essential 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 135 
 
 constituents of plants ; others consist of chlorine ; 
 others of sulphur and oxygen, and others of carbon 
 and oxygen. In other words, the acids are com- 
 posed of elements which form food for plants, or of 
 elements which enter in a small proportion only, 
 into the composition of plants. 
 
 157. In the first case, the salts admit of a larger 
 quantity being applied, than in the second. By the 
 first, plants are fed, by the second, they are poisoned ; 
 for the base of all salts acting as has been explained, 
 the acid is eliminated ; if this is set free in large 
 quantities, and its elements can be taken up and con- 
 verted by the plant, well, good effects follow ; if on 
 the other hand, the elements of the acid are such 
 as the plant does not demand, they act like poison 
 on the animal economy. 
 
 158. Let salts be divided, on this principle of the 
 peculiarity of action depending upon the acid of the 
 salts, into two classes ; the first nourishing, the second 
 poisoning plants. The first class contains, a. carbon- 
 ates, h. nitrates, c. phosphates. 
 
 159. The action of the first class is to be studied 
 under its three divisions, [a. 158), Carbonates. 
 These include a very large portion of all salts used 
 in agriculture. It includes, limestone (14), marble, 
 old mortar, shells, shell marl. In all these cases, 
 the base or lime let loose by the action of the living 
 plant, acts at once, as caustic lime upon insoluble 
 geine, and unconverted vegetable fibre, changing 
 these into soluble vegetable food ; while the carbonic 
 
136 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 acid acts immediately upon silicates, decomposmg 
 these, and upon the geates in the soil, converting 
 these into super-geates. Carbonates of alkalies, as 
 ashes, &c., act at once. They are soluble, their 
 alkali acts immediately upon the geine. Their car- 
 bonic acid acts upon silicates and geine. Immediate 
 and decided good effects follow their application ; 
 while carbonate of lime acts slower. It often re- 
 quires many years to bring out the good effects of 
 carbonate of lime, and though ultimately these 
 effects, it is believed, have never failed of being 
 witnessed ; yet so slowly, that its use has been often 
 condemned. The principle which is here discussed, 
 may account for this apparent discrepancy. Sup- 
 pose a barren, worn-out, exhausted soil, containing 
 yet, a portion of insoluble geine and decayed vege- 
 table matter, between the state of wood and insoluble 
 geine, or even a portion of undecayed dead wood. 
 It seems too unpromising to give it manure ; little 
 of that is to be spared, and that is bestowed upon 
 better land. If this is in a country where lime is 
 cheap, that is purchased, and freely applied, as it is 
 in England, at the rate of about a cask to the rod. 
 Even in this case no change is produced, the soil is 
 as unproductive as ever. The experiment has failed, 
 and is charged to book farming. 
 
 160. The properties of lime, and geine, are here 
 to be remembered. Lime in excess, renders geine 
 insoluble, granting it to have been in a soluble state. 
 Lime changes vegetable fibre into soluble geine, but 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. V,V7 
 
 being applied in excess, it forms an insoluble salt. 
 Now by the supposition, there was no great excess 
 of vegetable matter, and the lime, rendering only a 
 small portion of that soluble, is itself then, always 
 in excess, and though it converts, it at the same 
 time locks up that geine which it had converted. 
 The reasoning will hold good, whether a cask to 
 the acre, or a cask to the rod, has been applied. 
 
 161. The lime has been perhaps, in a caustic 
 state, fresh from the kiln, and as soon as it falls into 
 powder it is spread and covered in. It is greedy of 
 carbonic acid ; so long as it remains caustic, it ab- 
 sorbs this gas, and slowly becomes carbonate of lime. 
 It is now like shell marl, clam, oyster and muscle 
 shells. The mode of reasoning applies to all these 
 forms. Slowly, but surely, it may not be for some 
 years, a gradual improvement in the limed soil of 
 the exhausted field, is perceived. The carbonate 
 of lime begins to act on the silicates ; and the alka- 
 lies of the silicates are eliminated. These solve or 
 decompose the geine and geates, which the lime had 
 locked up ; at the same time the silicic acid acts on 
 the carbonate of lime, volumes of carbonic acid are 
 let loose. The carbonic acid itself reacts on sili- 
 cates, eliminating a fresh portion of alkali, and upon 
 the geates, converting these into super-geates. A 
 round of changes goes on, till perhaps every parti- 
 cle of vegetable food is withdrawn ; crops are no 
 longer raised. Having witnessed, though slow to 
 believe it, good effects from liming, the farmer again 
 
138 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 applies il to the exhausted field ; but no good effects 
 can now follow, unless manure or decayed vegeta- 
 ble matter is also applied. This may be furnished 
 in two ways, either artificially or naturally, that is, 
 by allowing the scanty crop of all sorts of weeds, 
 grass, mullein, &c. to decay on the soil where it 
 grew. But this subject will be considered in another 
 place. 
 
 162. It has been attempted to show how the con- 
 tradictory and anomalous effects of lime are expli- 
 cable, on the principle (145) ; and here the general 
 theory of the action of lime may be adverted to, 
 much of which has been anticipated. Lime is a 
 general term, it includes all forms of calcareous 
 matter. It is the lime, the base of the salts vi'hich 
 acts, and that always as lime, no matter how it is 
 applied ; whether as marble, as marl, shells, air- 
 slacked lime, bones or plaster. In a restricted and 
 usual acceptation of the term, lime refers only to 
 that which has been burned, or stone lime. Its ac- 
 tion is threefold, each distinct, first, as a neutralizer 
 — secondly, a decomposer — thirdly, a converter. 
 
 1st. Wherever free acids exist in soil, lime acts 
 as a neutralizer. It has been asserted, on undoubted 
 authority, that occasionally free phosphoric, muria- 
 tic, geic, acetic, and malic acids exist in soil. 
 
 2d. Soil may contain abundant geates, particu- 
 larly geate of alumina, the least of all demanded by 
 plants. Long formed and sun-baked, they are 
 scarcely acted on by rain or dew, and are almost 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 139 
 
 useless. Here, lime, by decomposing these earthy 
 and metallic geates, forms a combination which, in 
 its nascent state, is readily dissolved. If the car- 
 bonate of lime acts better than the hydrate, it is 
 because, following a well known law, double decom- 
 position is easier than single. If any acid geine 
 exists in the soil, or any free acids, carbonic acid is 
 then liberated, it acts on the geate of lime, super- 
 geates result, and these are easily soluble. 
 
 3d. The great use of lime is as a converter, turn- 
 ing solid and insoluble geine, even solid vegetable 
 fibre into soluble vegetable food. Here is the point, 
 where philosophy seems to give the choice, to refer 
 this action to one of the numerous cases of catalytic 
 change, which are every day becoming more and 
 more familiar ; or to explain the whole process by 
 referring it to saponification. This word is used as 
 conveying at once what is meant, but it is not meant 
 to say that the product of lime and vegetable matter 
 is soap. The action of lime on geine, may be simi- 
 lar to its action on oil and fat. It is well established, 
 that animal and vegetable oils and fats are converted 
 into acids by the action of alkalies, earths, oxides, 
 and even by vegetable fibre itself. The general law 
 is, that whenever a substance, capable of uniting 
 with the acid of fat or oil, is placed in contact with 
 fat or oil, it determines the production of acid. Now 
 it has been shown, that alkali produces a similar 
 change on geine, it develops acid properties. If 
 alkali has converted vegetable oil and geine into 
 
140 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 acid, it is a reason why'a similar action may be pro- 
 duced by all those substances which act thus on oil. 
 Hence lime, earths, and metallic oxides, convert 
 geine into acid ; as fast as this takes place, so fast it 
 becomes soluble. Then, too, the long action of air 
 on insoluble geine rendering it soluble, is it not 
 analogous to the action of air on oils ? Both evolve, 
 in this case, vast volumes of carbonic acid, the oil 
 becomes gelatinous and soluble in alkali ; does not a 
 similar change occur in geine .' It is possible that 
 during the action of lime on geine, a soluble sub- 
 stance may be produced, bearing the same relation 
 to this process that glycerine does to saponification. 
 These views need to be foUovi'ed out experimentally, 
 and may be possibly hereafter considered. 
 
 163. In the acid soil, lime acts to eliminate car- 
 bonic acid, which then acts on silicates and geine, 
 as has been explained. All fat acids, or fats and 
 oils, act in the same way upon silicates, partly by 
 their own acid properties, and partly by the evolu- 
 tion of carbonic acid gas, which is evolved during 
 their conversion into the acid state. The quantity of 
 carbonate of lime which may be applied is unlimited, 
 and the quantity of alkali depends on the presence 
 of insoluble geine. The more abundant is the last, 
 the more freely may alkalies be applied. The car- 
 bonates include ashes of all kinds, and agriculturally 
 viewed, all kinds of lime, for the quick soon becomes 
 mild. The value of ashes in agriculture, depends 
 upon its being a combination of salts derived from 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 Ml 
 
 plants, all of which have a powerful and decidedly 
 beneficial effect. The question is often asked, What 
 is the relative value of spent or leached and un- 
 leached ashes ? It may be answered by reference to 
 the analysis of ashes. 
 
 Burning reduces organic substance to two classes, 
 ashes and volatile salts. The last are found in soot. 
 The ashes are formed of salts and silicates. These 
 vary in quantity and quality, not only in different 
 plants, but, as is well known, in different parts of the 
 same plant. Let us take oak, beech, basswood, 
 birch, as the types of the composition of hard wood 
 ashes ; yellow pine — (pinus dbies) — as the type 
 of soft wood ashes ; and wheat straw as the type of 
 the ashes of the grasses. 
 
 The average quantity of ashes from 100 parts of 
 dry oak, beech, birch, &c., is 2.87. Ashes are di- 
 vided imperfectly by the simple process of leaching, 
 into two parts, one soluble, and the other insoluble 
 in water. 100 parts of hard wood ashes would 
 afford, of soluble, 13.57 ; of insoluble, 86.43 parts, 
 if perfectly separated. 
 
 100 parts of the soluble, contain : 
 
 Carbonic acid, . ' 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . 
 
 Muriatic acid, 
 
 Silex, 
 
 Potash and soda. 
 
 22.70 
 6.43 
 1.82 
 .95 
 
 67.96 
 
 99.86 
 
14-2 
 
 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 100 parts of the insoluble contain : 
 
 
 Carbonic acid, .... 
 
 35.80 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 
 3.40 
 
 Silex, .... 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 Oxide of iron. 
 
 
 .52 
 
 Oxide of manganese, . 
 
 
 2.15 
 
 Magnesia, .... 
 
 
 3.55 
 
 Lime, .... 
 
 
 35.80 
 
 ^■ 
 
 Pine — {pinus abies) — 100 parts of dry wood 
 afford only .83 lb. of ashes ; of which 100 parts 
 afford of soluble, 50 ; of insoluble, 50. 
 
 100 parts of the solvhle contain : 
 
 Carbonic acid, . 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . 
 
 Silex, 
 
 Potash and soda, 
 
 Water, 
 
 13.50 
 6.90 
 2. 
 
 69.70 
 7.90 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100 parts of the insoluble contain : 
 
 
 Carbonic acid, .... 
 
 21.50 
 
 Phosphoric acid. 
 
 1.80 
 
 Silex, 
 
 13. 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 8.70 
 
 Oxide of iron, .... 
 
 22.30 
 
 Oxide of manganese, . 
 
 5.50 
 
 Lime, 
 
 27.20 
 
 100. 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 143 
 
 Wheat straw — 100 parts yield 4.40 lbs. of ashes ; 
 100 parts of which afford, of soluble, 19 ; of insolu- 
 ble, 81. 
 
 100 parts of the soluble contain : 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ..... 0.2 
 Muriatic acid, . . . . .13. 
 
 Silex, 35.6 
 
 Potash and soda, .... 50. 
 
 100 parts of the insoluble contain : 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . 
 
 . 1.20 
 
 Silex, .... 
 
 . 75. 
 
 Oxide of iron. 
 
 . 2.50 
 
 Lime, .... 
 
 . 5.80 
 
 Charcoal, .... 
 
 . 15.50 
 
 Peat ashes abound in carbonate, sulphate, and 
 especially phosphate of lime. Free alkali may be 
 always traced in peat ashes ; but alkali exists in it, 
 rather as a silicate, as in leached ashes. Anthracite 
 coal ashes contain carbonate of lime, alumina, and 
 oxide of iron. It is good so far as these abound. 
 
 The above are calculated on the analyses of Ber- 
 thier. The elements are stated singly, because we 
 have thus, at one view, the amount of each, and it 
 is the base chiefly which acts. The agricultural 
 value of ashes may be determined by reference to 
 these tables. In what state these elements may be 
 combined in plants, we can only determine theoret- 
 ically. Thus, the phosphoric acid, by its affinities, 
 
144 
 
 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 would be united in the hard woods as above, with 
 the lime and iron, forming in each 100 parts of the 
 insoluble portion of ashes, phosphate of lime, 5.40 ; 
 phosphate of iron, 1.86. 
 
 The composition of the insoluble part of ashes 
 gives nearly the constituents of leached ashes. If 
 the soap-boiler's process was as perfect as that 
 which the chemist employs, still his leached ashes 
 would show more lime than the above tables, be- 
 cause he always employs a portion of lime to make 
 ihis ley caustic. This is a variable portion ; what- 
 ever it is, it adds so much to the value of the leached 
 ashes. Besides the soap-maker always leaves a 
 portion of alkali, which is combined with the silex. 
 Exposure to air decomposes this, and then the alkali 
 can be extracted by water. This is one great source 
 of the active power of leached ashes. 
 
 164. A bushel of good ashes contains about 5] lbs. 
 of real potash. In leaching ashes, generally about 
 one peck of lime is added to each bushel of ashes, 
 and as it loses no bulk during the operation, a cord 
 of leached ashes contains about the following pro- 
 portions, allowing the usual proportion to be leached 
 out, or 4i lbs. per bushel : 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . 
 
 Silex, 
 
 Oxide of iron, 
 
 Oxide of manganese. 
 
 Magnesia, . 
 
 117 lbs. 
 
 146 " 
 17 " 
 51 " 
 
 119 " 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 145 
 
 Carbonate of lime, including that add- 
 ed in leaching, . . . 3072 lbs. 
 Potash, combined with silica, . 50 " 
 Spent ashes, therefore, belong to the class of 
 carbonates. 
 
 165. It may be here remarked in relation to sili- 
 cate of potash, that this substance forms a greater 
 part of the residuum produced in the conversion of 
 pot into pearl ashes, for the purposes of glass man- 
 ufactures, &c. This residuum has been used with 
 the most signal success, when mixed in the propor- 
 tion of a barrel of this material with ten horse-cart 
 loads of soil alone. (See Colman's Fourth Eeport, 
 page 344.) The silicate of potash, acting entirely 
 by its conversion into carbonate of potash, is prop- 
 erly considered in the class of carbonates. 
 
 166. The second class of salts belonging to the 
 first division, or nourishers [b. 158), are the nitrates, 
 including not only saltpetre, both East Indian and 
 South American, or nitrate of potash and nitrate 
 of soda, but also all composts of lime, alkali, and 
 animal matter. The last produces ammonia, which, 
 without the alkali, would act on geine and render 
 that soluble. Ammonia, by the mere act of pres- 
 ence, hastens decay ; but without the influence of 
 lime, or alkali, ammonia is changed to nitrate of 
 ammonia (126), for this base, by the oxygen of the 
 air, is changed into aquafortis, or nitric acid. While 
 a portion of acid and base are present, they unite 
 and form a salt. A portion of ammonia is thus con- 
 
 10 
 
146 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 tinually withdrawn. If lime or alkali is present, the 
 nitric acid unites with these, leaving the ammonia 
 to act on geine. 
 
 167. Thus, in a compost of animal matter without 
 alkaline hases, all the geine has not been rendered 
 soluble, as is usually supposed, by the action of 
 ammonia. Before the full action of that element 
 has been exerted on the organic matter, it has been 
 converted into a nitrate. But if the lime exceeds 
 that which the nitric acid can saturate, then the 
 soluble geine is seized upon and becomes inert. 
 Nitrates act under the influence of the growing 
 plant ; the base let loose, acts on geine ; the acid is 
 decomposed, and its nitrogen given up to the plant, 
 becomes one of their essential elements. The ele- 
 ments of nitrate of ammonia are all taken up, both 
 acid and base. If there are any salts which can be 
 called vegetable food, they are the nitrates. The 
 organic constituents of plants are hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. By their union, the 
 two first form water ; the two middle carbonic acid ; 
 the first and last ammonia. Water, ammonia, and 
 carbonic acid, then, or their elements, compose the 
 organic part of all plants. Water and carbon exist 
 in geine, and nitrogen in its ammonia compounds. 
 Geine thus contains the elements of water, ammonia, 
 and carbonic acid, or the whole organic food of 
 plants. The nitrogen, also, exists in the air. It 
 forms 80 per cent, of it. In this state it cannot be 
 assimilated by the plant till that has put forth its 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 147 
 
 leaves. Its only source for the roots and for the 
 germinating seed, is that arising, either from the 
 geine, or from ammonia evolved by the fermenting 
 dung, or from nitrates. In either case, whether the 
 nitrogen arises from the geine or from the nitrates, 
 decomposition takes place by the action of the living 
 plant. 
 
 168. Under this view, nitre is found to be one of 
 the most active, bland, and beneficial salts. Nitre 
 consists of an alkali, and an acid composed of one 
 part of nitrogen to five of oxygen. The plant 
 decomposes these. The disposition of the alkali, or 
 of the base, has been already considered. What 
 becomes of its acid ? That, too, is slowly de- 
 composed What becomes of its elements ? The 
 one part of nitrogen is taken up by the living plant, 
 or it may, under the combined influences to which 
 it is now subjected, be in part reconverted into am- 
 monia, by the hydrogen of the geine, and so act on 
 that, as alkali. What becomes of its five parts of 
 oxygen ? The answer is full of the highest interest. 
 It is a key, unlocking the chambers of mystery. 
 The oxygen acts, first, on the geine of the soil, and 
 secondly, on the silicates. And first, on geine ; 
 let it be supposed that this is wholly insoluble, per- 
 fectly inert. It has been already said that air 
 converts this into soluble geine. This action de- 
 pends on the oxygen of the air acting on the 
 carbon, by which carbonic acid is formed ; the 
 geine is thus rendered soluble, while the carbonic 
 
148 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 acid escaping, acts on the silicates of the soil, and 
 these are thus decomposed. There is no mystery 
 now in the action of saltpetre, or nitrates of alkalies. 
 The immediate effects are due to the liberated alkali, 
 acting on the geine. Its permanent effect, for ex- 
 perience has proved permanency of effect, due to 
 nitrates, is owing to the liberation of an immense 
 dose of oxygen which is produced from the gradual 
 decomposition of the acid. Now, the insoluble geine 
 condenses this in its pores, like charcoal. This 
 condensation, like that of gas by charcoal, produces 
 heat; it is like fermenting manure, while the con- 
 densed oxygen acts slowly on the geine, and forms 
 carbonic acid. It has upon the geine, buried in the 
 soil, the same effect that tillage would have, render- 
 ing it soluble, with this additional advantage, that 
 its carbonic acid, instead of escaping, acts on the 
 silicates. New portions of alkali are thus liberated, 
 supplying for years that which was first applied as 
 a part of saltpetre. The nitrates, then, hold the 
 very first place among salts in agriculture. 
 
 169. The third class (c. 158) of the nourishers are 
 the phosphates. This class includes bones, horns, 
 nails, hoofs, claws, and a large portion of the salts 
 found in the liquid excretions of animals. These 
 act much like nitre, the acid forming a constituent 
 of the plants. It is not probable that the acid in this 
 class is decomposed. It has not yet been proved 
 that carbonates and nitrates exist, already formed, 
 except in a very few plants. The quantity of salts 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 149 
 
 which may be applied, will be greater for the car- 
 bonates, less for the nitrates, and least for the phos- 
 phates. The quantity of any salt which may be 
 used, will, after the largest amount which can be 
 safely employed has been ascertained, depend upon 
 the farmer's ability to produce it. Carbonate of 
 lime may be used to any extent, according to the 
 farmer's idea of its value. Carbonates of alkali 
 may be used with benefit. The largest quantity 
 which has been known to be used without injury, 
 has been 53 bushels of ashes per acre, which are 
 equal to 240 lbs. of potash. The quantity of a 
 carbonate of alkali which may be used, will be 
 stated more fully hereafter. It is not the object of 
 this work to state quantities to be used, so much 
 as to point out the principles on which salts act. 
 The quantities used must be determined by experi- 
 ment, and perhaps when the largest amount, which 
 has been stated, is taken for a new starting point, the 
 ultimate quantity will be found limited only by the 
 geine in the soil, or applied in conjunction with the 
 salt. 
 
 170. If we now turn to the other division of salts 
 (158), the poisons, that is, those whose acid forms 
 but a small portion of the elements of plants, we find 
 there two classes : First, sulphates, as plaster, cop- 
 peras, Glauber's salts, all of which, in small quan- 
 tities, are beneficial. 
 
 Secondly, muriates or chlorides, as they are 
 strictly called, as common salt, muriate of lime. 
 
150 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 bittern, spent ley from soap-works. An explana- 
 tion, which attributes the action of sulphate of lime 
 or plaster, to its power of decomposing and fixing in 
 soil, carbonate of ammonia ought to show, 1st, the 
 actual presence of that salt in air ; 2d, that suphate 
 of ammonia is not decomposed by the resulting car- 
 bonate of lime in the cold ; 3d, that common salt, 
 would, in equivalent quantity with plaster, produce 
 equally good effects. It never has, and therefore 
 this explanation is not correct. Common salt has 
 been found beneficial when applied at the rate of 30 
 bushels per acre ; and at 14 bushels per acre, was 
 found to produce effect, next best to 53 bushels of 
 ashes per acre, but quicklime at 26 bushels per 
 acre on the same land, produced no good result. 
 
 171. In all this action of salts, it is seen that the 
 presence of life seems almost essential. Whatever 
 the vital principle may be, it may be best repre- 
 sented as analogous to electricity and galvanism. 
 In this point of view, the salts present themselves in 
 a new relation, in which, alone, they majr be said to 
 be stimulants or excitants. Plants and soil act, it 
 may be supposed, for illustration, by forming gal- 
 vanic batteries, or piles with each other. The most 
 active element in the pile, is the growing plant. It 
 is an acknowledged fact, that chemical action, if not 
 the source, is ever attended by electrical effects. 
 An acid, in contact with an alkali, or metal, always 
 produces chemical action ; but the silicates of the 
 soil are already combinations of acid and metals ; 
 
ACTION OF SALTS. 151 
 
 hence, as such, they have no tendency to act on each 
 other. If there be added to these a salt or an acid, 
 chemical action, decomposition begins. The elec- 
 tricity is, we may say, excited by salts ; they are in 
 this sense, and in no other, excitants or stimulants. 
 The very first act of vegetation, the germination of 
 seeds, induces this electric action, this decomposi- 
 tion of the elements of soil. Germination produces 
 carbonic acid, by decomposing water. This has 
 been so abundantly proved, by late experiments in 
 France, that it appears to be a good argument 
 against the theory, that the only action of humus is 
 its production of carbonic acid, to supply the wants 
 of the plant, before nature has clothed it with those 
 organs of aspiration, the leaves, by which the car- 
 bonic acid is withdrawn from the air. It seems 
 hardly probable that nature should require the pres- 
 ence of humus or geine, merely as a laboratory of 
 carbonic acid, to supply the wants of the young 
 plant. The very first act of life in a seed is to 
 evolve carbonic acid, by its carbon combining with 
 oxygen of air, and its second act is to decompose 
 water, Its oxygen combines with the carbon of the 
 seed ; a single bean produces many times its bulk of 
 carbonic acid gas, and in the soil would surround 
 itself with an atmosphere of carbonic acid. This 
 evolved, begins its action upon the silicates. The 
 living seed begins the electric action, and the plants 
 exert and keep up this influence. Salts act in a 
 similar way, but above all, over all, influencing all, 
 
152 ACTION OF SALTS. 
 
 is the living plant. This electric action induced, 
 extends to undetermined distances ; hence there is a 
 transfer, as is usual in all cases of galvanic decom- 
 position, of substances remote from the plant, to its 
 root, where they are taken up. It is not the potash 
 and lime, &c., immediately in contact with the root, 
 which alone supplies the plant, but under the gal- 
 vanic influence, an undetermined portion of soil is 
 decomposed. This decomposing agency of plants 
 wholly destroys all confidence in experiments, un- 
 dertaken to prove that pure water alone can nour- 
 ish plants. The containing vessel, that is the vessel 
 in which the experiment is made, is itself always 
 decomposed. If, to guard against an error, glass is 
 used, it has already been shown that this is only a 
 combination of silicates, and these will be transfer- 
 red from the glass to the plant. 
 
 By the experiments of Weigmann and Polstorff, 
 it appears that plants constantly discharge, while 
 growing, carbonic acid from their roots. This acid 
 decomposed the silicates in a soil, which had resist- 
 ed the action of nitro-muriatic acid. It eliminated 
 elements from pure quartz, whose existence there 
 had been proved in no other mode. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 172. The true farmer, no leas a sage than the 
 ancient orator, who gave to action, the first, second, 
 and third place in eloquence, will answer, if it is 
 asked him, what is his first requisite ! Manure. 
 What second ? Manure. What third ? Manure. 
 These answers are to he united. Action and ma- 
 nure are the first and last requisites in agriculture ; 
 and in the attempt to show what is the last, and 
 how it acts, will be offered every inducement to 
 action. 
 
 173. Manures are compounds of geine and salts. 
 They of course contain the whole elements of fer- 
 tility. Having discussed the nature and mode of 
 action of salts, and of geine, the way is prepared 
 for the discussion of manures. The proportion in 
 which these elements exist in manures is now to be 
 examined. 
 
 174. The immense variety of substances, used 
 and recommended for manures, would seem to ren- 
 der this subject both extensive and complicated. It 
 is capable of simplification. Manures are generally 
 
154 MANXTRE. 
 
 considered and treated of, under the division of 
 animal and vegetable. This common and ancient 
 division, indicating little of the nature of manures, 
 actually confounds those, whose elements are es- 
 sentially alike. Manures are to be divided by their 
 elements, into three classes : — 
 
 1st. Those consisting chiefly of geine. 
 
 2d. Those consisting chiefly of salts. 
 
 3d. Mixed, or consisting of salts and geine. 
 
 175. This seems to be a rational and practical 
 mode of classifying a vast amount of materials, and 
 the explanation of their action in classes, is prefer- 
 able to a specific account of each individual sub- 
 stance composing these classes. 
 
 176. By far the greater part of manures belongs 
 to the third class. Such are all composts, all stable 
 manure, and all the usual products of the cow-yard 
 and hog-pen. In discussing therefore, this subject, 
 there ought to be some starting point, some stand- 
 ard common measure of value, to which can be re- 
 ferred all manures, and by which their worth can 
 be determined. 
 
 177. In selecting a manure for this purpose, if it 
 can be ascertained, how much of geine, what salts, 
 and in what proportion these salts enter into its con- 
 stitution, what gases it evolves, what chemical action 
 it induces upon silicates, it will determine the rela- 
 tive value of all manures ; they will approach or 
 depart from the standard, in exact proportion to the 
 geine and kind of salts they contain. 
 
MANURE. 155 
 
 178. Manures, then, arc the elements of fertility. 
 They contain besides the inorganic salts, the organ- 
 ic elements of plants, oxygen, liydrogen, carboni 
 nitrogen. The quantity of ammonia which each 
 manure can afford, will be in direct proportion to 
 the qnantitj'- of nitrogen which each contains ; and 
 perhaps the only true and scientific view, which 
 should be taken of manures, is that which states 
 their components not as compounds, but as simple 
 elements ; a statement which should give at a glance 
 the exact quantity of the four organic elements 
 which enters into their composition. To a limited 
 extent this can be done, and in the attempts to illus- 
 trate this subject, this mode of stating the value of 
 manures, will be united with a more detailed ac- 
 count of their ingredients. 
 
 179. And first, for the choice of some substance 
 which shall form the type, of manures, and be con- 
 sidered the standard of value. Let it be pure, fresh 
 fallen cow-dung. What is its composition .-' Wa- 
 ter, hay, and bile, with a few salts. The author has 
 repeatedly analyzed this form of the food of plants, 
 and it is found that the water is a very uniform 
 quantit)' at all seasons and with various food. Oth- 
 ers have found a few per cent, less than that which 
 will be here stated ; while some late and distin- 
 guished German chemists have given results agree- 
 ing with this statement, within a fraction of one per 
 cent. 
 
 180. The proportions of organic matter, salts and 
 water, in 100 lbs. of cow-dung, are — 
 
156 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 Water, ..... 
 r, ■ f Hay, 
 y, ° I Bile and resinous and biliary 
 
 V Albumen, 
 / Silica, 
 Sulphate of Potash, . 
 Geate of Potash, 
 Salts. { Muriate of Soda, 
 
 Phosphate of Lime, . 
 Sulphate of Lime, 
 \ Carbonate of Lime, . 
 
 Loss, 
 
 . 83.600 
 . 14.000 
 matter, 1.275 
 . .175 
 . .140 
 . .050 
 . .070 
 . .080 
 . .230 
 . .120 
 . .120 
 
 99.860 
 0.140 
 
 100.000 
 181. 100 parts of cow-dung by Morin's analysis, 
 consist of 
 
 Water, 70.00 
 
 Vegetable fibre, .... 
 
 24.08 
 
 Green resin and fat acids, 
 
 1.52 
 
 Undecomposed biliary matter, 
 
 0.60 
 
 Peculiar extractive matter, . 
 
 1.60 
 
 Albumen, ..... 
 
 0.40 
 
 Biliary resin, .... 
 
 1.80 
 
 100.00 
 
 Morin probably includes the salts in the vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 182. 100 parts of cow-dung, by the analysis of 
 M. Penot, in 1835, consist of — 
 
MJ 
 
 INUKI 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 Water, 69.58 
 
 Bitter matter, . 
 
 
 
 
 0.74 
 
 Sweet substance. 
 
 
 
 
 0.93 
 
 Chlorophylle, . 
 Albumen, 
 
 
 
 
 0.28 
 0.63 
 
 Muriate of soda, 
 
 
 
 
 0.08 
 
 Sulphate of potash. 
 Sulphate of lime. 
 Carbonate of lime. 
 
 
 
 
 0.05 
 0.25 
 0.24 
 
 Phosphate of lime. 
 Carbonate of iron. 
 
 
 
 
 0.46 
 0.09 
 
 Woody fibre, . 
 Silica, 
 
 
 
 
 26.39 
 0.14 
 
 Loss, 
 
 
 
 
 0.14 
 
 100.00 
 
 183. Other analyses haye given a greater amount 
 of water, and differ but little in that item from the 
 experiments of the author. Truly this statement 
 does not lead one to suppose, that a verygood selec- 
 tion has been made, in the choice of the standard of 
 value for manure. Here is a substance, 83J per 
 cent, of which is pure water. Let that be thrown 
 out of the account ; there are 14 per cent, of hay ; 
 this is very little altered, it seems only bruised and 
 chopped, but it has lost some of its albumen, gum, 
 &c. Now the last is that portion of nutriment, 
 which the animal has extracted from the hay. 
 
 184. It is found that hay which has thus been 
 passed through living organs, has its elements much 
 
158 MANUEE. 
 
 less disposed to remain combined, or, in other words, 
 decay, that species of fermentation which forms 
 geine, takes place much more rapidly in the hay of 
 cow-dung, than in common hay. The catalysis of 
 life has impressed its power of disassociation on the 
 hay of cow-dung. The hay may therefore be con- 
 sidered geine. 
 
 In the same class may be included the biliary 
 matter, deducting from this the green resin of hay 
 associated with it, and there remains in 100 lbs. of 
 dung, only a small proportion of salts and biliary 
 matter. 
 
 The albumen,. from its great tendency to sponta- 
 neous decomposition, may also be ranked as geine. 
 It produces abundance of ammonia during decom- 
 position, and probably is the great source of the 
 evolution of that gas, during the fermentation of 
 cow-dung. Its proportion is very small, being only 
 about a sixth of one per cent. 
 
 185. Without violence to chemistry, the compo- 
 sition of cow-dung may be stated as follows — 
 
 Geine, 15.45 
 
 Salts, 0.95 
 
 Water, 83.60 
 
 100.00 
 
 In 100 lbs. hardly ^ of any value in agricul- 
 ture ! Only about {- of cow-dung aifords geine. 
 The insoluble is converted to soluble by the action 
 of the evolved ammonia. 
 
MANURE. 
 
 159 
 
 Girardin states the composition thus — 
 
 Water, 79.72 
 
 Matter soluble in water, . . . 5.34 
 
 " " " alcohol, . . . 2.00 
 
 Salts, 4.23 
 
 Fibre, 8.70 
 
 186. An important question here presents itself. 
 How much ammonia will 100 lbs. of cow-dung 
 produce } The ultimate analysis of this substance, 
 that is, that analysis which gives the proportion of 
 the organic elements, is the following : 
 
 In 100 parts of cow-dung, — 
 Nitrogen, ..... .505 
 
 Carbon, 204 
 
 Hydrogen, .824 
 
 Oxygen, 4.818 
 
 187. From these data may be calculated how 
 much ammonia will be formed ; for one part of 
 nitrogen unites with three parts of hydrogen, to 
 form ammonia, or in the atomic proportions J)y 
 weight : 
 
 14 of nitrogen, or 1 equivalent. 
 § of hydrogen, or 3 equivalents. 
 
 17 of real or pure ammonia, or 1 equivalent. 
 
 100 parts of fresh fallen cow-dung will afford, 
 therefore, 0.607, or |- of a pound, nearly, of pure 
 ammonia, or 2.18 lbs., or about 2 lbs. 2 oz. of bi- 
 
160 MANURE. 
 
 carbonate of ammonia of the shops, called sal- 
 volatile, or salts of hartshorn, the carbonic acid and 
 water being 44 parts to 17 of ammonia. 
 
 188. Cow-dung, then, the type of manures, re- 
 solves itself into geine, free alkali and salts. The 
 salts, considering the nitrogen as carbonate of am- 
 monia of the shops, will form about three per cent, 
 of the weight of the dung ; or a bushel of 86 lbs. 
 will contain, in round numbers, 2^ lbs. of salts of 
 ammonia, potash, soda and lime. 
 
 189. The cow, then, is the great manufacturer of 
 salts and geine, and it is a question of the highest 
 interest. What is the daily produce of her manufac- 
 tory ? In order to determine this, the following 
 experiment was conducted with great care, at the 
 barn connected with the print-works of the Mer- 
 rimack manufacturing company, in Lowell. A 
 single cow, being only an average producer of the 
 article in question, was selected from the 50 cows 
 usually kept at the establishment. She was fed as 
 usual, and as the other cows were. The food and 
 water were accurately weighed for seven days. 
 She consumed, in this period. 
 
 Water, 612 lbs. 
 Potatoes, 87 " 
 Hay, 167 " 
 
 Total, 866 " food and drink, 
 and voided, free from her liquid evacuations, 599 
 lbs. of dung. 
 
MANURE. 161 
 
 From the facts which have been now stated, it is 
 evident that one cow prepares, daily, from 24 lbs, of 
 hay, and 12^ lbs. of potatoes, about one bushel, or 
 85.57 lbs. of dung. This affords only 14.04 lbs. of 
 solid manure, composed of salts and of hay, so acted 
 on by the digestive organs, as to form geine, when 
 united with ammonia, produced by putrefaction. 
 
 One cow daily forms, therefore, about, 
 13 lbs. geine. 
 
 ^ " say 3 oz. of bone-dust, or phosphate of lime, 
 y'jf " say 1^ oz. of plaster of Paris, or sulphate of 
 
 lime. 
 j\f " say 1^ oz. of chalk, or carbonate of lime. 
 
 Or, per year : 
 4800 lbs. of geine, 
 71 " of bone-dust, 
 37 " of plaster, 
 
 37 " of limestone, marble, or chalk, 
 25 " of common salt, 
 15 " of sulphate of potash. 
 
 This is the product of one cow. A cord of green 
 cow-dung, pure as dropped, would be formed, daily, 
 by 108 cows. A cord of dung weighs 9289 lbs., 
 which, H- 86 lbs. (or 1 cow,) = 108 cows. And 
 one cow daily produces, in excrements, salts of lime 
 sufficient for 4^ bushels of corn. 
 
 190. Multiply the quantity produced by one cow, 
 by the number of cows kept, and it may easily be 
 calculated how much salts and geine are annually 
 U 
 
162 MANURE. 
 
 applied to soil in this form. This is better done 
 than the estimate by cords or loads. The manure 
 from one cow is a definite comprehensible quantity. 
 
 191. Estimating the nitrogen as ammonia, the 
 yearly product of one cow is 156 lbs. of nitrogen, 
 equal to 189 lbs. of pure ammonia, or equal to 677 
 lbs. of bi-carbonate of ammonia of the shops. A 
 single cow will therefore give, annually, fed on hay 
 and potatoes, 31,025 lbs. of dung, containing 
 
 4800 lbs- of geine. 
 
 677 
 
 ii, 
 
 of carbonate of ammonia^ 
 
 71 
 
 a 
 
 of bone-dust, 
 
 37 
 
 U 
 
 of plaster, 
 
 37 
 
 U 
 
 of chalk, 
 
 24 
 
 (t 
 
 of common salt. 
 
 15 
 
 Li. 
 
 of sulphate of potash. 
 
 192. It is perfectly evident, from this view, that 
 the main agricultural value depends on the ammonia 
 or nitrogen, and the geine. The lime, in its forms 
 of salts, goes but little way towards this value, yet 
 valuable, so far as they exist. It is evident, from 
 section 74, that the lime in the above salts of lime, 
 the annual product of one cow, is sufficient to supply 
 the grain and straw of a crop of 140 bushels of 
 rye. 
 
 193. If these, then, are the elements of plants 
 which are found in cow-dung, is it to the organic or 
 the inorganic portion that the enriching power is 
 due ? The great value of dung as a manure, has 
 
MANURE. 163 
 
 been supposed to be due to its animal matter. The 
 common idea of animal matter includes substances 
 which contain much nitrogen, but is it to the nitro- 
 gen, or to salts, that the chief value of manure is 
 due ? To the nitrogen, chiefest and first, and that, 
 too, as it exists in the albuminous portion of dung. 
 The nitrogen of the hay contributes very little to 
 the value of manure. The hay furnishes the geine. 
 That it is the nitrogen of dung only, the part not 
 contained in the hay, which evolves ammonia, is 
 evident ; for if the nitrogen of the hay only, was 
 the essential element of dung, then hay, which con- 
 tains about one per cent, of nitrogen, could supply 
 its place : 50 pounds would be equal to 100 pounds 
 of dung. It is well known that such effect is never 
 produced by planting on hay. 
 
 194. It is not to the nitrogen only, in dung, to 
 which can be referred the action of this manure. 
 It depends on its other elements, salts and geine. 
 The action of nitrogen is referred to its power of 
 forming ammonia, and this then acts in two ways. 
 First, upon geine, or the hay part ; secondly, upon 
 silicates. First, it is a powerful alkali. Now it has 
 been shown that all alkaline earths convert insoluble 
 into soluble geine. Secondly, it is a well established 
 fact, that the production of nitre is not necessarily 
 dependent on the presence of animal matter ; under 
 the influence of porous materials, aided by alkalies, 
 or lime, the elements of air combine and form nitric 
 acid and nitrates, when bases are present. This 
 
164 MANURE. 
 
 action is greatly assisted by ammonia, which acts by 
 catalysis. The great use of the animal matter is to 
 produce this alkali, or ammonia. If no alkaline 
 base is present, it becomes the source of the forma- 
 tion of nitrate of ammonia. This salt being decom- 
 posed by the living plant, its nitric acid acts on the 
 silicates, and saltpetre or nitrate of potash is pro- 
 duced. The agency of this, as a manure, has 
 already been considered (167, 168). The action, 
 also, of other salts in dung, will be easily understood 
 by reference to the fifth chapter. 
 
 195. There is still a powerful effect due to the 
 geine, or to the hay in its conversion to that state. 
 During this process, a great quantity of carbonic 
 acid is liberated. The decomposing action of this 
 upon silicates of the soil, and the consequent libera- 
 tion of their alkali, has also been explained (133). 
 All these actions are to be remembered, in account- 
 ing for the action of cow-dung. The geine, salts, 
 nitrogen, each acts ; the geine has an action, the 
 salts an action, the nitrogen an action. They all 
 contribute to one end. Three substances, but one 
 result, viz., vegetation. 
 
 196. The nitrogen, then, in dung, is that organic 
 element to which must be attributed its chief enrich- 
 ing quality. The nitrogen is the basis, both of the 
 production of ammonia, and of the formation of 
 nitrates. Hence, the quantity of nitrogen in ma- 
 nures will form a very good element for the estima- 
 tion of their value. Manures will be found rich. 
 
MANURE. I(i5 
 
 in proportion to their quantity of nitrogen, or their 
 power of forming nitrates. This is the great and 
 first cause of the enriching power of dung. Though 
 ,the action of all excrements has been referred to 
 their inorganic parts only, common experience tends 
 to the explanation which has been given of the joint 
 action of all their parts. 
 
 197. The source of nitrogen in dung is an inter- 
 esting question. It is evident that it must have been 
 introduced into the animal's system by the food, 
 perhaps also by the drink ; for all water contains 
 absorbed air, of course, nitrogen. Hence, the kind 
 of food greatly influences the amount of nitrogen in 
 dung. 
 
 198. If a cow assimilated all the nitrogen of her 
 hay, 25 lbs. of hay would increase her weight daily, 
 by about 8 lbs. ; but no one expects such a result, 
 and the balance of the nitrogen goes ofi" in milk, or 
 in liquid excretions. Hence, a milch cow fats not. 
 So long as a greater part of the nitrogen is voided 
 by milk or otherwise, a cow fats not. If she is not 
 parting with nitrogen in milk, a greater portion goes 
 off in dung. Hence, a common observation, that 
 the manure of fattening cattle is richer than that of 
 milch cows, or of cattle not fattening. 
 
 199. The difference in the quantity of bile, slime, 
 &c., in a cow fed on hay or on meal, is not very 
 great. A cow was fed six days on meal and water. 
 She consumed in this period. 
 
166 MANURE. 
 
 Indian meal, 96 lbs., or per day 16 lbs. 
 Hay, 30 " " 5 " 
 
 Water, 330 " " 55 " 
 
 76 lbs. 
 
 There were voided during this period 330 lbs. of 
 dung, or 55 lbs. daily. She scoured and lost flesh. 
 The evacuation had all the appearance of night soil, 
 and soon evolved a great quantity of ammonia, and 
 though covered in an earthen pot, was soon studded 
 with a crop of exquisitely beautiful fungi. Com- 
 pared with hay dung, its composition was, 
 
 Geine, 17.43, 14.45 in common dung. 
 Salts, .93, .95 
 Water, 81.64, 83.60 
 
 Probably the nitrogen was 21 per cent., or five 
 times that of common cow-dung. 
 
 200. Doubtless the value of all excrements will 
 depend somewhat upon the food of the animal, and 
 the manner of feeding. It may be stated as a gen- 
 eral fact, that the manure of cattle, summer-soiled, 
 is nearly twice the strength of that from the stalls in 
 winter ; and all fattening cattle, whether in winter or 
 summer, produce, as has been stated, a still richer 
 vegetable food. Animals fattening on oil cake, 
 gave manure, 12 loads of which exceeded in value 
 of crops raised, 24 of common stock. These re- 
 marks show, that some allowance is to be made for 
 the food. The standard refers only to hay and pota- 
 
MANURE. 167 
 
 toes. But the value due to different food, may not 
 be so great as is commonly supposed. The actual 
 amount of nitrogen, even where vegetable and ani- 
 mal food is concerned, is not materially different. 
 There were two dogs, which were fed, the one on 
 vegetable, the other on animal food; at the appointed 
 time, these animals were sacrificed on the altar of 
 physiological experiment, and the chyle examined. 
 The following were the results ; 
 
 Vegetable Food. 
 
 Water, .... 93.06 
 Fibrine, ... .06 
 Albumen, . . , 4.6 
 Salts, 8 
 
 Animal Food. 
 
 89.02 
 .08 
 
 4.7 
 
 .7 
 
 These are the sources of ammonia, if the chyle 
 had been allowed to putrefy. 
 
 201. The ammonia in dung, as has been ex- 
 plained, is the source both of the rapid conversion 
 of the hay into soluble geine, and of nitrates. The 
 action of unfermented dung needs no explanation 
 after this exposition. The geine, the salts, carbonic 
 acid, and ammonia, must be formed among the sili- 
 cates and roots of plants on which they are to act. 
 
 202. Having, determined the mode of expressing 
 the value of manures, and fixing the standard of 
 value, other manures containing salts and geine, 
 may now be compared with that, and their value 
 determined, by detailing their constituents. 
 
168 
 
 203. Horse-dung contains : 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 . 71.20 
 
 Hay, bile, and slime, . 
 
 . 27. 
 
 Silica, ..... 
 
 .64 
 
 Phosphate of lime. 
 
 .08 
 
 Carbonate of lime. 
 
 .30 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia and soda. 
 
 .58 
 
 Loss, 
 
 .•20 
 
 100.00 
 
 The food of the horse will of course affect these 
 results, and hence there is found a great discrepancy 
 in the amount of the elements, at different times. 
 Girardin's analysis of horse-dung affords : 
 
 Water, . ' 78.36 
 
 Matters soluble in water, . . . 4.34 
 " " alcohol, . . . 2.60 
 
 Vegetable fibre, 12.86 
 
 Salts, 2.34 
 
 Boussingault found that the following was the 
 composition of the dung of a horse fed on hay and 
 oats : 
 
 Water, 75.31 
 
 Geine, 20.57 
 
 Salts, 4.02 
 
 100. 
 
 The organic portion, or the geine, gave. 
 
 Carbon, 9.56 
 
 Hydrogen, 1.26 
 
MANURE. 169 
 
 Oxygen, 9.31 
 
 Nitrogen, . . . . . . .54 
 
 Horse-dung quickly ferments. It should be im- 
 mediately removed and composted with cattle-dung, 
 or sprinkled with plaster. It loses in a month, at 
 least, one third of its weight by fermentation. 
 
 204. Expressing the value compared with cow- 
 dung, we have — 
 
 Geine, 27. 
 
 Salts, 96 
 
 Water, 71.20 
 
 The geine, then, is nearly double that in cow- 
 dung, and the salts, which are mostly phosphates of 
 lime, magnesia, and soda, are about the same. If 
 the nitrogen is regarded, it is found about 50 per 
 cent, greater than in cow-dung. Hence, during the 
 chemical actions of the production of ammonia and 
 nitrates, if the heat is in proportion to that action, 
 we may possibly assign a reason, why horse-dung is 
 a hotter. manure than cow-dung. The nitrogen in 
 horse-dung is about f of one per cent, or, this ma- 
 nure contains, in lOi) parts : 
 
 Geine, 27. 
 
 Salts, 96 ' 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia, . . . 3.24 
 
 But though horse-dung is considered as a hotter 
 
 manure than cow-dung, this is true of horse-dung 
 
 only in its fresh state. Fermented horse-manure is 
 
 really of less value than cow-dung. This is the 
 
/ 170 MANURE. 
 
 voice of experience. Thrown out with the litter, 
 and moistened as it is with little urine, compared 
 with that of cattle-dung from the barn, it rapidly fer- 
 ments and decays. By the time horse-manure has 
 fermented, so as to be converted into a uniform mass 
 of muck, it loses, at least, nine-tenths of its weight, 
 and nearly two thirds of its nitrogen has disappeared. 
 Hence, without care, horse-dung rapidly loses its 
 value. Now this quick heating is owing to the 
 ready decomposition of the dry droppings ; and if 
 these are kept properly moistened, a manure is pro- 
 duced when the horse-dung is half-rotted, which is 
 fully equal to cow manure. It has ever required 
 much management to get good yard-manure from 
 horse-stables. The pile should be broad, well trod- 
 den down, and kept constantly moist with water. 
 Each layer, as it is formed, should be sprinkled with 
 a little ground plaster. 
 
 All the water which drains from the heap should 
 run into a pit and be mixed with a little plaster, and 
 returned upon the pile. 
 
 In the course of two or three months, a rich pasty 
 manure may be thus formed, equal to the best farm- 
 yard manure from cattle. 
 
 The evacuations of cattle and horses are usually 
 mixed in the farm-yard. These, with the litter, form 
 yard manure. The nature of the litter, fermentation 
 and age affect the quality and quantity of yard- 
 manure. This causes its practical division into long 
 and short, or strawy and fat muck. 
 
171 
 
 Age reduces the quantity of fresh manure nearly, 
 as follows. It has been found by one observer, that, 
 
 100 loads lose in bulk, in 81 days, 25.7, or become 73.3 
 " " 254 " 35.7 " 64.3 
 
 " " 384 " -37.5 '■ 62 5 
 
 " " 393 " 52 8 " 47.2 
 
 Or to State the result differently from another 
 source, 25 cwt., recent dung yield. 
 At the end of six weeks, . . .21 cwt. 
 After eight weeks, . . . . 20 " 
 When half rotted, . . . 15 to 17 " 
 When fully rotted . . . 10 to 13 " 
 Turning our attention to the quality of yard ma- 
 nure, it has been found that the composition of that 
 six months old is per 1 00 parts : 
 
 Water, 79.30 
 
 Organic matter, ..... 14.03 
 Salts, 6.67 
 
 100.00 
 
 JBoussing'ault, 
 
 Cattle only afforded yard-manure of the following 
 composition, per 100 parts : 
 
 Water, ....... 75. 
 
 Albumen, urea, slime, bile, \ 
 sweet and extractive matter, \ Soluble in water, 
 salts, potash, and soda. 
 
 Resins and fatty matter, 
 
 Starch, . . . . ^ Insoluble in water, 
 
 Salts of lime and magnesia, 
 
 Vegetable fibre SO. 
 
 100. 
 
 -r 
 
 sia, ) 
 
172 
 
 Richardson of New Castle, England, has also 
 determined the composition of yard manure. His 
 results are as follows : 
 
 Fresh, ready for the field. 
 
 Water, . . 64.96 
 Organic matter, 2S.71 
 
 Saks, . 
 
 10.33 
 
 Dried al 202 = 
 
 
 Carbon, . 
 
 37.40 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 5.27 
 
 Oxj'gen, 
 
 25.53 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 1.76 
 
 Ashes, . 
 
 30.05 
 
 
 Ashes consist of J 
 
 Potash, . . . 3.22 
 
 Soda, . . . 2.73 
 
 Lime, . . . 0.34 
 
 Magnesia, . . 0.26 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . 3.27 
 
 Chlorine, . . 3.15 
 
 Silica, . . . 0.04 J 
 
 Silica, . . . 27.01 ] 
 Phosphate of lime, . 7.11 
 
 " magnesia, . 2.26 
 
 " iron, . . 4.63 
 
 " mangan. trace, 
 Carbonate of lime, . 9.34 
 
 " magnesia, . 1.63 
 Sand, . . . 30.99 
 
 Carbon 83 
 
 Alkali and loss, . 3.14 . 
 
 Soubeiran has recently examined farm-yard ma- 
 nure, about to be laid on the field. It was made 
 from the dung of the horse-stables, cow-houses, 
 sheep-folds, and pig-styes, at Grignon, heaped up, 
 and wetted with urine. It was not rotted so much 
 as to form fat muck, and contained 30.6 per cent, 
 dry dung. The fresh dung contained per 1000 
 parts : 
 
 Water, 694. 
 
 Organic matters, .... 192. 
 
 Soluble alkaline salts, . . . 8.75 
 
 Carbonate of lime and magnesia, . 17.50 
 
MANnRE. 173 
 
 Sulphate of lime, .... 13.13 
 
 Ammonia-phosphate of magnesia, . 11.50 
 
 Phosphates, principally of lime, . 4.65 
 
 Earthy matters, .... 66.47 
 
 1- 
 The quantity of nitrogen was 13.91, which was 
 
 divided, thus : 
 
 Nitrogen of the soluble ammoniacal salts, 1.67 
 Do. of the ammonia-phosphate of 
 
 magnesia, . . . .64 
 
 Do. of the organic matter, . . 11.60 
 
 13.91 
 
 It will be noted, that Soubeiran finds a much 
 larger per centage of nitrogen in manure than other 
 analysts. He objects to the estimates usually made, 
 because these have been founded on dry manure, 
 which thus has lost ammonia by its salts being 
 decomposed by the carbonate of lime present. Fresh 
 dung loses thus by drying ■§ of its ammonia. Hence, 
 the equivalent of poudrette and all fermented ma- 
 nures is generally placed much too low, when calcu- 
 lated on their nitrogen only. Taking into view all 
 the circumstances which affect the nitrogen in yard- 
 manure, the quantity must vary exceedingly ; but it 
 has been estimated by Payen and Boussingault to be 
 0.41 per cent. ; hence its carbonate of ammonia 
 becomes equal to about 1.78 lb. in each 100 lbs. 
 The weights of equal bulks of ox and horse-dung, 
 from the barn-yard and stable, as usually prepared, 
 are as follows : 
 
174 MANURE. 
 
 ■yOx-manure, old and fat, one cubic foot weighs 58 lbs. 
 Do. fresh, " " 48 " 
 
 Horse-manure, old and fat, " " 39 " 
 
 Do. fresh, " " 30 " 
 
 It has been ascertained that an ox in France 
 affords 5,600 lbs., and a horse and a half, or ten to 
 fifteen sheep, an equal amount of yard-manure per 
 year. 
 
 But yard-manure too often is exposed to rain. Its 
 salts are thus washed out, or the natural liquids 
 mixed with it drain away, and are thus lost. It is a 
 positive money loss, for the composition of an impe- 
 rial gallon of this muck-water, as determined by 
 Johnston, in two samples, is as follows : 
 
 From cow-dung washed From jartl-dung walcrcii 
 by rain. with cow's urine 
 
 1° Ammonia, .... 9 60 grs. . . 2330grs. 
 Solid organic matter, 200.80 " . . 77.60 " 
 Solid inorganic or ashes, 268.80 " . . 518.40 " 
 
 470.20 grs. 
 
 617.30 grs. 
 
 2° The ashes of a gallon 
 
 
 consisted of alkal. salts, 207.80 grs. 
 
 . 420.40 grs. 
 
 Phosphate of lime and \ 
 
 
 magnesia, with a little \ 25.10 '• 
 
 . 44.50 " 
 
 phosphate of iron, ; 
 
 
 Carbonate of lime, . 18.20 " 
 
 . 31.10 " 
 
 " magn. and loss, 4.30 " 
 
 3.40 " 
 
 Silica and a little alumina, 13. 40 " 
 
 . 19.00 '• 
 
 268.80 518.40 
 
175 
 
 These results speak for themselves. They show 
 rills of wealth gushing from the farmer's manure, 
 which no prudent man will allow to run to waste. It 
 is the concentrated food, organic and inorganic, of 
 plants, all which they need. 
 
 205. Human excrement has been analyzed by 
 Berzelius. 
 
 In its pure state, its composition may be thus 
 stated : 
 
 Water, 75.3 
 
 Geine, 23.5 
 
 Salts, 1.2 
 
 Nearly three-fourths of the salts are composed of 
 carbonate, muriate and sulphate of soda, the re- 
 mainder is composed of phosphates of lime and 
 magnesia ; the latter is particularly abundant in 
 feces. The average quantity of nitrogen is about 
 3 J per cent. Human excrement contains, per 100 
 parts : 
 
 Geine, 23. 
 
 Salts, 1.2 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia, . . . 15.32 
 A later analysis of human excrement has been 
 made by Fleitmann in Rose's laboratory. The feces 
 of a young man, in health, for four days, dried at 
 212° F., weighed 2607 grains, or nearly six ounces. 
 In 100 parts of the salts or inorganic constituents 
 were. 
 
 Chloride of sodium, (common salt) . 0.58 
 Chloride of potassium, . . . 0.07 
 
176 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 Potash, and hydrate of potash, . . 22.49 
 
 Soda, 0.75 
 
 Lime, 21.36 
 
 Magnesia, 10.67 
 
 Peroxide of iron, .... 2.09 
 
 Phosphoric acid, .... 30.98 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . . . ■ 1-13 
 
 Silica, 1-44 
 
 Carbonic acid, ..... 1.05 
 
 Sand, 7.39 
 
 The sand was supposed to have been, in part, 
 swallowed during the time while the young man 
 was in exercise in the fields near Berlin. 
 
 The potash existed in combination partly with an 
 orsanic substance in the feces, which acted as an 
 acid. The quantity of phosphate of magnesia is 
 remarkable, and all the phosphates are composed of 
 three of base to one of acid. 
 
 The urine was separately collected. Its inor- 
 ganic salts exceeded daily more than six and one- 
 third times those of the solid feces. Now the mixture 
 of urine and feces, the fluids and solids, are known 
 under the name of night soil. No substance is more 
 varied in composition, depending as it does upon the 
 food and habits of those whose accumulations are 
 removed from their usual receptacle. A French 
 farmer found to his cost, that the night soil of a 
 Parisian restaurateur was much superior to that of 
 the Parisian military barracks. The former was a 
 very rich manure, the latter almost worthless. 
 
JHANURE. 177 
 
 Hog-manure, in its cliaracters, approaches night- 
 soil sufficiently, to be ranked with it for the present 
 purpose. It is the manure of fattening swine only 
 which is to be classed with night-soil. The estray 
 and running animals produce only a " cold " ma- 
 nure of little value. The manure of the penned 
 animal is always combined with his liquid evacu- 
 ation. This, whose value is stated (247), gives hog- 
 manure a value which places it with night-soil. 
 
 Boussingault found in recent hog-dung — water 
 81, nitrogen 0.63, in one hundred parts, nearly as 
 much as in horse-dung, and from the experiments of 
 Schwerts, hog-dung appears superior to that of the 
 cow. 
 
 Sheep-dung may be placed with night-soil and 
 hog-manure. Sheep may be said to digest better 
 than cattle. They cut their food finer, and chew it 
 better ; they void thus less vegetable fibre. Their 
 excrement is more converted into geine. Fed on 
 hay alone, their excrement is composed of: 
 
 Water, 67.9 
 
 Bilious and extractive matter, . , 1.7 
 
 Humus with slime, .... 12.8 
 
 Hay and vegetable matter, . . 8.0 
 
 Silica, . ..... 6.0 
 
 Carbonate and phosphate of lime, . 2.0 
 Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, 1.6 
 
 100.0 
 
 Sprengel. 
 12 
 
178 MANURE. 
 
 
 Others have found 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 . 68.74 
 
 Matter soluble in water, . 
 
 4.40 
 
 Matter soluble in alcohol, . 
 
 2.82 
 
 Vegetable fibre. 
 
 . 16.26 
 
 Salts, 
 
 8.13 
 
 
 100.35 
 
 
 Girardin 
 
 The salts were composed of phosphate of lime and 
 magnesia, carbonate of lime, silicate of potash, com- 
 mon salt and silex. 
 
 The nitrogen is abundant, and the amount of 
 matter containing this, nearly three-fifths greater 
 than that of cattle-dung. The whole is finer di- 
 vided, and hence speedily putrefies, and evolves 
 ammonia. It is thus one of the hottest of all 
 manures. But containing, as it does, little water, 
 and being in fine compact balls, air cannot act upon 
 it as it would upon cow-dung. Hence, unless mois- 
 ture is present, sheep-dung undergoes little change. 
 Great care is required in its use. Its ammonia is 
 abundant ; hence, if uncombined with geine, it 
 bums up the crops. Hence, when there is little 
 geine, little sheep-dung must be used. Where the 
 soil is wet, and that too with little vegetable matter 
 in it, there decomposition rapidly occurs, and the 
 virtue of the dung, its ammonia, is lost. 
 
 It is said that 1000 sheep, folded on an acre of 
 ground one day, would manure it sufficiently to feed 
 
MANURE. 179 
 
 1001 sheep, if their manure could all be saved. So 
 that, "by this process, land which can, the first year, 
 feed only 1000 sheep, may the next year, by their 
 own droppings, feed 1365. So said Anderson, forty 
 years ago (Rural Essays). Sprengel allows that 
 the manure of 1400 sheep, for one day, is equal to 
 manuring highly, one acre of land. This is about 
 four sheep per year. In France, it is allowed that 
 one sheep manures about 10^ feet square of land 
 per night. 
 
 206. Thus, the most common substances used for 
 manure, cow, horse, hog-dung, and night-soil, are 
 reduced to geine, salts, and carbonate of ammonia, 
 or nitrogen, its equivalent. It need not be said that 
 the experience of ages has proved that these varie- 
 ties of manure possess very different fertilizing 
 properties. These depend, not on the salts alone, 
 whose amount and quality is nearly the same in all ; 
 nor on the geine, for that is nearly the same in 
 human and horse excrement. Their fertilizing 
 power, then, depends not, as has been asserted, on 
 the salts which would render their agricultural value 
 equal. All experience would prove such an asser- 
 tion unfounded. But it is said that their relative 
 value depends on their power of producing am- 
 monia. 
 
 If the value of manure depended on its salts only, 
 then its ashes alone would be as effectual as the 
 manure. Perhaps no experiment determines this 
 question more satisfactorily, than that of Mr. Lawes, 
 
180 MANUEE. 
 
 in England. 28 tons of yard manure were divided 
 equally ; 14 tons were burned to ashes, and afforded 
 32 cwt. The manure, 14 tons, and the 32 cwt. of 
 ashes were applied, each to one acre of land, and 
 one acre of the same land was left unmanured. 
 The crops were as follows : 
 
 1. Manure, 1276 lbs. dressed wheat, or 22 bush. 
 
 2. Ashes of do. 888 " " " 16 " 
 
 3. No manure, 923 " " " 16 " 
 
 Straw and chaff: 
 
 1. 1476 lbs. 
 
 2. 1104 " 
 
 3. 1120 " 
 
 Increase of grain by manure. No. 3 being ^ 1000. 
 
 1. 1382 lbs. 
 
 2. 962 " 
 
 Increase of straw, by manure : 
 
 1. 1381 lbs. 
 
 2. 985 " 
 
 It is evident that the salts alone of manure do 
 not meet the wants of the farmer. 
 
 Numerous experiments, proving the inefficacy of 
 salts without nitrogenous and organic matters, might 
 here be cited. They would confirm only the expe- 
 rience of practical farmers. It may be useful to 
 state what is the composition of the ashes of several 
 excrements, as determined by Mr. J. Rogers. 
 
MANURE. 181 
 
 
 Kg. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Silex, .... 
 
 13.19 
 
 62.54 50.41 
 
 62.40 
 
 Potash, .... 
 
 3.60 
 
 2.91 
 
 8.32 
 
 11.30 
 
 Soda, .... 
 
 3.44 
 
 0.98 
 
 3.28 
 
 1.98 
 
 Chlor. sodium. 
 
 0.89 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.03 
 
 Phos. sesqui ox. iron, 
 
 , 10.55 
 
 8.93 
 
 3.98 
 
 2.73 
 
 Lime, .... 
 
 2.03 
 
 5.71 
 
 18.15 
 
 4.63 
 
 Magnesia, . . . 
 
 2.24 
 
 11.47 
 
 5.45 
 
 3.84 
 
 Acid, phosphoric. 
 
 0.41 
 
 4.76 
 
 7.52 
 
 8.93 
 
 " sulphuric, . 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.69 
 
 1.83 
 
 " carbonic, . 
 
 0.60 
 
 
 
 2.13 
 
 Sand, .... 
 
 61.37 
 
 
 
 
 When it is said that nitrogen measures the value 
 of manure, it must be remembered that the nitrogen 
 should exist as ammonia, or in a state of combination 
 which permits its ready conversion into ammonia. 
 
 It is the result equally of chemical and agricultu- 
 ral experience, that salts are decomposed with more 
 or less ease, that their stability is greater or less. 
 Nitrates are less stable compounds than sulphates, 
 sulphates less stable than chlorides, or muriates, and 
 these last less stable than carbonates. Hence, the 
 ease with which the nitrogen of a salt is yielded, 
 affects the result. Time, then, is required to pro- 
 duce from equal amounts of nitrogen, equal effects 
 from different salts containing that element. 
 
 This is true, also, of organic, nitrogenous manures. 
 The nitrogen is effective in proportion to the rapidity 
 of decay. Hence, the nitrogen in horns, hair, 
 feathers, hoofs, leather-shavings, woollen rags and 
 
182 MANURE. 
 
 flocks, produces not the same effects in the same 
 time, with an equal amount of nitrogen in flesh and 
 blood. Nitrogen in soil may be useless from its 
 state of combination. 
 
 It has been proved by Krocker that rocks, and 
 even barren soils, at the usual depth of tillage, 
 contain an amount of ammonia exceeding per acre 
 that of any fair crop, raised by the aid of best farm- 
 yard manure, on an acre of the best soil. It is not 
 enough that tons and tons of ammonia are already 
 existent in soil, if that ammonia can be extracted 
 only by chemical processes, and human manipulation. 
 No matter how much of this element may be in 
 rain, how much may exist in the soil, aided by the 
 inorganic salts, fair average crops may be raised by 
 these natural sources of ammonia. To obtain truly 
 profitable crops, an excess beyond the natural supply 
 is absolutely essential. To keep up this excess, and to 
 obtain the largest returns for the seed sown, nitrogen 
 in the shape of salts, or of readily decomposing organ- 
 ic matter, must be supplied with inorganic salts. The 
 nitrogenous principle gives at once an energy to 
 vegetation, enabling it to unfold early and largely 
 those organs, the roots and leaves, by which the 
 earth and air contribute their portion to the growth 
 of plants. 
 
 Nitrogen gives salts power to do more work in 
 the same time. It is a labor-saving machine, ena- 
 bling the farmer from the same ground, and with 
 the same time and labor, to reap larger rewards. 
 
MANURE. 183 
 
 Natural vegetation is a low-pressure engine, but it 
 will bear any amount of pressure, so beautifully 
 built is it in all its parts. Inorganic salts are the 
 water, geine the fire which raises the steam to drive 
 this machine, filling the thousand cylinders which 
 are distributed throughout plants. Nitrogen is the 
 regulator of this engine. Nature has eveiywhere 
 put her machine into the hands of man. She keeps 
 it in working order, by her gentle steam. She takes 
 man as her apprentice, and her generous hand sup- 
 plied the daily bread while man was learning the 
 construction of the valves, the working of pistons, 
 the real power of the engine, the source of the 
 steam. These, even though dimly seen, nature 
 demands should be worked up to full pressure, 
 when the apprentice sets up for himself, and is 
 determined that the sweat of his brow, while it feeds 
 his body, shall also purify, enlarge and strengthen 
 his intellect. 
 
 In making agricultural trials with pure ammonia- 
 cal salts (166), in which the nitrogen exists as 
 ammonia, or as an acid united with ammonia, and 
 with nitrates, in which the nitrogen exists as an acid, 
 it is to be remembered that the base with which this 
 nitrogen acid is combined, acts an important part. 
 The influence of the base is to be deducted from 
 that rightly due to the nitrogen, as determined by 
 experiments. What then is the influence of pure 
 salts of ammonia ? It has been proved, again and 
 again, especially by Jacquemart, in France, and by 
 
184 MANURE. 
 
 Kuhlmann, in Flanders, that pure salts of ammonia 
 act like ordinary nitrogenous manures. Their en- 
 ergy of action, their relative value, is almost in 
 direct ratio to their nitrogen. 
 
 This is a doctrine, which, limited by the circum- 
 stances referred to above, is substantiated by experi- 
 ment. Sal-ammoniac, or muriate of ammonia, and 
 sulphate of ammonia, were used by Kuhlmann as a 
 top-dressing on mowing ground. The field was 
 apparently in the same condition in every part, and 
 equally exposed. It was laid out in plots of four 
 square poles, separated by trenches. Alternate 
 patches were reserved unmanured, and as the whole 
 was in grass, all accidents of culture were avoided. 
 The season was rainy and quite wet. The salts 
 were applied at the rate of 240 lbs. per acre, and 
 the grass cut and cured on each plot at the same 
 time. The yield of hay, over unmanured plots, for 
 every 100 lbs. of sal-ammoniac used, was at the 
 rate of 580 lbs. per acre ; and for every 100 lbs. 
 sulphate ammonia, 419.6 lbs. or as 1 to 0.723. 
 
 This is nearly in direct ratio to the nitrogen, 
 which, per 100 parts, in the muriate of ammonia, 
 is 26.439 ; in the sulphate of ammonia is 2 1 .37.5 ; or 
 the nitrogen is as 1 to 0.808, while the crop is as 
 1 : 0.723. 
 
 In the same field, and at the same time, was used 
 bone-liquor, that which had been boiled on bones, to 
 extract their fat. The last being removed, the 
 liquor is a weak solution of glue or gelatin, contain- 
 
185 
 
 ing, when dried, 16.980 parts of nitrogen in 100. 
 It was used at the rate of 2000 gallons per acre. 
 What then is the value of this bone liquor, estimated 
 on the per centage of nitrogen ? It is as 26.439 : 
 16.980. Now 26.439 nitrogen in sal-ammoniac, 
 gave 5S0 lbs. hay excess over unmanured. Hence, 
 16.980 should give 372.8 ; and this was the actual 
 amount for every 100 lbs. of dry matter in this 
 liquor. Here, an organic manure, rapidly decom- 
 posing, formed ammonia by its nitrogen, which 
 afforded a product equal, pro rata, to that of an 
 easily decomposable salt, in which ammonia was 
 already formed. 
 
 Doubtless, had the salts employed been equally 
 easily decomposable, their nitrogen would have 
 given equal results. 
 
 To observe, then, the difference between salts of 
 ammonia unequally decomposable, let the amounts 
 of hay produced by 100 parts of nitrogen from each 
 salt be compared. Uninfluenced by the considera- 
 tions which have been offered, these should be 
 alike. 
 
 The sal-ammoniac gave, for 
 every 100 parts of nitrogen, 24,395 parts of hay. 
 
 The sulphate gave, for every 
 100 parts of nitrogen, 21,660 parts of hay. 
 
 2,735 
 
 Now, this difference is attributable to the greater 
 stability of sulphate of ammonia. It gives up its 
 
186 MANURE. 
 
 alkali slower. The plant does not so readily 
 dissociate the elements of the salt. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the bone-liquor is examined, 
 it is found that, because it was readily decomposed, 
 100 parts of its nitrogen produced 24,355 parts of 
 hay, coinciding almost exactly with the product from 
 sal-ammoniac, and confirming thus the principle that 
 nitrogen measures the value of a manure. 
 
 When all circumstances are equal, 100 nitrogen 
 always produce like effects, no matter what may be 
 its origin. Among the most important circum- 
 stances which influence manure, are drought and 
 wet. The season has its influence, and years differ- 
 ing by temperature, moisture, and dryness, show 
 different results from the same manure. 
 
 But it is not as muriate or sulphate that the am- 
 monia of manure is ordinarily found. 
 
 Putrefaction gives rise to carbonate of ammonia. 
 It has been proved that the degree of saturation has 
 no effect on the result. It is of no practical impor- 
 tance whether the ammonia be partly or wholly 
 saturated with carbonic acid. Even the excess of 
 that acid does not prevent — it ought rather to 
 increase — the good effects of this compound. 
 Taking, therefore, carbonate of ammonia, which is 
 more readily decomposed than even the muriate, let 
 its effects be compared with that of sulphate, each 
 salt being used in such quantity that the amount of 
 nitrogen shall be equal. 
 
 Jacquemart, carefully conducting this comparative 
 
MANURE. 187 
 
 experiment, in France, mixed the solution of car- 
 bonate of ammonia with charcoal or peat, so as to 
 bring it into a dry state, like the sulphate. The 
 salts were sowed with wheat in the fall, on the 
 same field, and under circumstances apparently the 
 same. The field had been cleared of bushes, 
 grubbed up, and, after two crops, was limed and 
 marled. Now this liming and marling, though alike 
 in all parts, had a special effect on the sulphate of 
 ammonia; it imbibed it, and gradually evolved car- 
 bonate of ammonia. Hence, in the first year, the 
 sulphate yielded less than portions of the same field 
 unraanured. 
 
 But the year following, the experiment was re- 
 peated, and the salts, as before used, were again 
 sown with wheat on the same places in which each 
 had been before applied. The sulphate was there- 
 fore in a state to act with more efiiciency, but still 
 the lime interfered. 
 
 The product was 71 with the sulphate to 70 un- 
 manured. The product, with carbonate and peat, 
 compared with that with sulphate, was as 94 to 71, 
 or as 1 to 0.74. In Kuhlmann's trials, uninfluenced 
 by lime, it was as 1 to 0.88. Let it be remembered 
 that Kuhlmann used muriate of ammonia, a salt not 
 so easily decomposed as carbonate. To show the 
 influence of lime on sulphate of ammonia, a solution 
 of that salt in the same quantity as before used, was 
 absorbed to dryness by chalk, and sowed with oats. 
 The product was as 79 to 74 over the unmanured. 
 
188 MANTTKE. 
 
 The same ground being again sowed with wheat and 
 salts as before prepared, yielded the second year, as 
 90 to 70 over the un manured. Two seasons seem 
 therefore necessary to the full efRcacy of sulphate 
 of ammonia on limed soils. 
 
 That nitrogen measures the value of manures, is 
 proved also by nitrate of soda. Here soda, the 
 base, also acts ; but if nitrate of soda be used in 
 unequal doses, then the product is nearly in direct 
 ratio to the nitrogen employed. 
 
 Now on the same field on which Kuhlmann per- 
 formed his experiments, which are above related, he 
 tried at the same time nitrate of soda in two propor- 
 tions, at the rate of 240 and 120 lbs. per acre. 
 
 The yield of hay over unmanured soil was, for 
 240 lbs. nitrate soda, 1550 lbs. per acre. ■ 
 120 " " 784 " 
 
 This is in direct ratio of the nitrogen employed. 
 If now the effect of nitrate of soda is compared with 
 sal-ammoniac or bone-liquor, it is seen that the addi- 
 tion of the soda base has given the nitrogen great 
 activity. The combination has given the plant 
 power to absorb a greater quantity of food from 
 earth and air, than either the nitrogen or the base 
 singly could have effected. 
 
 The yield has been for every 100 parts of nitro- 
 gen used, 40.056 parts of hay ; nearly double that 
 produced by a simple ammoniacal salt, and four 
 times that which an equal amount of nitrogen ordi- 
 narily produces. 
 
MANURE. 189 
 
 These facts prove the strength of the principle 
 adopted for estimating the relative value of manures. 
 No manure, no salt, no combination of salts, gives 
 full vigor to vegetation, while nitrogen is absent. 
 Nitrogen not only measures, but gives the value to 
 manures. It has been asserted, on high authority, 
 that nitrogen in animal manure is always in a defi- 
 nite proportion to the phosphates ; hence it may 
 measure their quantity. Nitrogen makes manure 
 hotter or colder. This causes change among the 
 particles to begin, and to be carried on in the ma- 
 nure. Motion begins here, and is communicated to 
 seeds and plants. Hence, crops are in proportion 
 to the energy of these changes and motions. 
 
 207. This is a practical view of a practical sub- 
 ject. The nitrogen present in the manure expresses 
 its true value. This position is substantiated by the 
 experience of practical men. The experiments 
 undertaken by order of the Saxon and Prussian 
 authorities, to ascertain whether the contents of the 
 sewers of the cities of Dresden and Berlin, could be 
 applied to fertilizing the barren lands in their vicin- 
 ity, may be offered to prove its correctness. These 
 varied in every form, and continued for a long 
 period, prove that if a soil without manure yields a 
 crop of three for one sown, then the same land 
 yields, dressed 
 
 With cow-dung, 7 for one sown, 
 
 " horse-dung, 10 " " 
 " human manure, 14 " " 
 
190 MANURE. 
 
 Now the nitrogen in these has been shown, taking 
 the minimum of nitrogen in the human, at 1^ per 
 cent, is as 1 : 1.50 : 3, whilst the above numbers are 
 to each other, as I : 1.43 : 2. 
 
 Considering how varied is the composition of 
 night-soil, and how much diluted by various mix- 
 tures, this agreement is as near as ought to have 
 been expected, in experiments whose objects were so 
 totally different from that of ascertaining the quantity 
 of nitrogen in each different manure. 
 
 208. Many modes of using night-soil are in use, 
 all depending on convenience, and modified by 
 locality, and other circumstances. Perhaps no mode 
 is preferable to that long used in Flanders. It has 
 the sanction of a people whose agriculture is, and 
 has been for ages, pre-eminent. Flemish manure, 
 or gadou, contains the whole efficacy of night-soil, 
 both solid and liquid ; and as used in Flanders it 
 may be easily produced any where. Gadou cannot 
 be too highly recommended for those who reside in 
 the vicinity of a dense population, and who cannot 
 procure dried peat, or charred matter to mix with 
 night-soil. It is even questionable whether the pro- 
 ducts of the market-garden are not earlier and more 
 luxuriant, and the yield greater with gadou, than 
 with night-soil in any other shape. 
 
 An essential requisite for forming Flemish ma- 
 nure, is a brick or stone cistern, laid in mortar 
 cement, and covered with an arch of the same. 
 Two openings are left in the arch, one for the intro- 
 
MANUKE. 191 
 
 duction of the night-soil, the other for an air-hole, 
 which must be kept open. Night-soil, as collected 
 during the season allotted to this work, is thrown 
 into this reservoir, and then allowed to ferment 
 several months. Gadou sells in Lisle for about 24 
 cents per barrel of 3'2 gallons ; of this, about | are 
 expenses of manufacture. It is then in a liquid 
 state, slightly viscid, with the odor of very weak 
 hydrosulphuret of ammonia. This salt is rapidly 
 converted by exposure and air into sulphate of 
 ammonia. Gadou may be used before or after 
 planting, or as a top-dressing to grass. 
 
 A hogshead, mounted so as to be easily moved, 
 is kept in the field, and filled from the cart with 
 gadou, and from the hogshead it is ladled out all 
 around, by means of a long-handled scoop, such as 
 is commonly used by night scavengers, and by 
 successive removes of the hogshead, the whole 
 ground is watered with gadou. 
 
 This manure, like all the highly nitrogenous, is 
 an annual, acting more rapidly in proportion to its 
 fluidity. 
 
 In Flanders, about 22 gallons, or 2 cwt., are equal 
 to about 5 cwt. of farm-yard dung. But no com- 
 parison between the two can safely be made. The 
 one runs its course rapidly, the other acts slowly. 
 The one exerts all its influence in a season, the 
 other reserves its fire, and acts for two or more 
 seasons. 
 
 When it is determined what portion of farm-dung 
 
192 MANURE. 
 
 acts in a year, then may that fraction be compared 
 with gadou. If the fraction is |, then 50 of farm- 
 yard dung are equal to 100 Flemish manure. The 
 proportion of azote in the last being 0.22 per cent., 
 the real relation becomes to ordinary yard-manure 
 which contains 0.41 per cent., as 182 : 100. 
 Hence, it is on certain crops only, that this and 
 similar rapidly decomposing manure should be 
 applied. For lightening, breaking up, and loosen- 
 ing the soil, ameliorating its condition, farm-dung is 
 better than gadou ; and even where that is fully 
 applied, an occasional dressing with yard-manure is 
 considered essential. 
 
 Each substance used for a manure cannot be 
 considered in detail. The composition only, will be 
 mentioned. Among the mixed manures, poudrette 
 and guano rank next to gadou. Poudrette is night- 
 soil partly dried in pans, and mixed up with variable 
 quantities of charred earth, peat charcoal, or ground 
 peat and plaster. Its value will depend on the circum- 
 stance, whether its ammonia and salts are saved, or 
 lost, in the manufacture. If sulphate or muriate of 
 lime is added before drying, then the volatile car- 
 bonate of ammonia will be changed into sulphate of 
 ammonia, and sal-ammoniac. Thus, not only the most 
 valuable portion of night-soil will be retained, but the 
 salts of lime will be much increased. The peat not 
 only retains a portion of gaseous ammonia, but its 
 geine by this act is rendered more soluble. All 
 night-soil from vaults has begun to evolve ammonia, 
 
MANURE. 193 
 
 hence the advantage of mixing ground peat or plas- 
 ter with night-soil, before drying. But, however 
 prepared, poudrette varies much in quality. Anal- 
 ysis alone can determine its true value. Four 
 samples of dried night-soil, examined by Professor 
 Johnston, afforded as follows, per 100 parts : 
 
 Water, 
 
 20.04 15.12 
 
 13.97 27.46 
 
 Organic matter, with a 
 
 
 
 little nitrogen, . . 
 
 9.39 21.52 49.53 9.14 
 
 Ammonia, .... 
 
 0.53 2.25 
 
 ? .? 
 
 Phosphates of lime, mag- 
 
 
 
 nesia, and iron, . . 
 
 5.04 7.53 
 
 13.12 4.37 
 
 Carbonate of lime, . . 
 
 22.62 19.80 
 
 2.56 6.89 
 
 " magnesia. 
 
 .90 » 
 
 fct U 
 
 Sulph. of Hme (gypsum). 
 
 2.32 " 
 
 tb Ct 
 
 Alkaline salts, . . . 
 
 1.33 9.27 
 
 12.35 7.10 
 
 Insoluble silicious matter. 
 
 37.42 24.46 
 
 8.44 45.01 
 
 Very recently, Soubeiran has analyzed the 
 poudrette of Montfaucon, near Paris. Taking into 
 view the state in which ammonia exists in manure, 
 Soubeiran has, with great skill, separated that which 
 exists as putrescible animal matter, or as an easily 
 soluble ammoniacal salt, from that which exists as a 
 less soluble compound of ammonia, magnesia, and 
 phosphoric acid, a triple salt, which is slowly de- 
 composed in the soil. Fresh and warm poudrette, 
 as sold at Montfaucon, to farmers, in November, 
 1847, contained, in 100 parts, — 
 13 
 
194 
 
 Water, 28.00 
 
 Organic matter, 29.00 
 
 Soluble alkaline salts, 0.43 
 
 Carbonate of lime, 3.87 
 
 Sulphate of lime, 3.87 
 
 Ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate, . 6.55 
 
 Bone phosphate of lime, .... 3.46 
 
 Earthy matters, 24.82 
 
 100.00 
 
 209. It is evident, therefore, that the value of 
 poudrette depends on the skill and honesty of the 
 manufacturer. But allowing these to be what they 
 should be, no consumer of poudrette will think him- 
 self wronged, if he discovers ground peat in the 
 article ; and allowing this, and the plaster, or other 
 salts added, and water to compose one-half the 
 weight of this manure, the farmer buys, in every 
 hundred pounds of poudrette, 200 pounds of the 
 best human excrement, and in a form not only porta- 
 ble, but perfectly inoffensive. The value of good 
 poudrette, depending on its ammonia, is, compared 
 with cow-dung, as 4 to 1, calculated on the average 
 of its nitrogen, cow-dung being 1. 
 
 Paris is the birth-place of poudrette, as well as of 
 fashion. Poudrette is one of the French fashions 
 founded on good taste. Rude in its first manufac- 
 ture, like a French dish, it has been improved by 
 science, and its manufacture has attracted the atten- 
 tion of the most eminent chemists, who have con- 
 
MANHRE. 195 
 
 ferred on this important interest the highest benefit. 
 One is astonished at the vastness of the works 
 devoted to the preparation of poudrette, at the forest 
 of Bondy, and at Montfaucon. There arrive daily 
 at this establishment, six hundred cubic yards of 
 night-soil. This quantity affords one hundred cubic 
 yards of poudrette after undergoing the various 
 processes in the immense vats of reception and 
 subsidence. The liquids, and of course a large 
 portion of the salts were formerly allowed to run 
 into the Seine. But even with this waste, the simply 
 air-dried poudrette was worth to the farmer and 
 gardener, $1-62 per cwt., containing, on the average, 
 1.6 per cent, of nitrogen in the ordinary poudrette, 
 2 per cent, in the middling, and 2.67 in the first 
 quality. 
 
 The immense loss sustained by agriculture, by 
 the wasteful and hateful mode of making poudrette, 
 as above described, demanded reform. The liquid 
 portion of night-soil at Montfaucon, is worth to 
 agriculture nearly three times the value of its 
 poudrette. Chemistry taught that urine could be 
 easily converted to sulphate of ammonia, at a rate, 
 calculating its value on its nitrogen, cheaper than 
 poudrette. Practice has shown that sulphate of 
 ammonia is effective, in proportion to its nitrogen, 
 which is about 21 per cent. It can be made at 4^ 
 cents per lb. Now, at $1-62 per cwt. for poudrette 
 at 1.6 per cent, of nitrogen, the relative money 
 value of sulphate of ammonia and poudrette is ais 
 1 to 13. 
 
196 MANUKE. 
 
 It has been estimated that the urine at Montfau- 
 con would annually produce 4,000,000 lbs. of 
 sulphate of ammonia. The nitrogen in this amount 
 is equal to 52,000,000 lbs. of poudrette, or to 
 2,029,270 lbs. yard-manure, or about 225 cords, 
 containing 0.41 per cent, nitrogen ; about ^ less 
 than that of pure cow-dung. Still it was desirable 
 that all the liquids of night-soil should be saved for 
 agriculture, without undergoing a process of separate 
 manufacture, however cheap its product might be. 
 A process was wanted which could be universally 
 and easily applied, even by the humblest of those 
 who go about in darkness, and by night " gather 
 samphire, dreadful trade ;" a process equally appli- 
 cable to a single load, or to the annual product of a 
 crowded city. 
 
 With the hope that the nuisance of night-men 
 may be abated, when it is seen that agriculture and 
 health will be equally benefited, by adopting better 
 processes for the conversion of the contents of our 
 vaults into manure, a general account of the mode 
 of effecting such a desirable result may be here set 
 before agricultural and sanitary committees. 
 
 It had long been known that sugar-house black, 
 the bone-charcoal refuse from the sugar-refinery, 
 was a valuable manure, having properties which 
 could not be attributed solely to its bone-dust, or 
 phosphate of lime. Something was due to the 
 charcoal, something to the blood added to clarify, 
 and something to the matter extracted by both from 
 
197 
 
 the crude sugar. A constant and gentle production 
 of ammonia goes on in sugar-refinery bone-black, 
 giving that a value superior to its per centage of 
 ammonia. The porous charcoal induces by conden- 
 sation the formation of ammonia from the air, and 
 by changes occurring in the extractive matter, and 
 the charcoal itself. It vs^as attempted to imitate 
 refinery-black, by mixing charred turf, or peat, or 
 even mould, with the water of city sewers. This, 
 under the name of "animalized black," proved a 
 powerful manure, very like refinery-black, affording 
 like that, an enduring and constant gentle evolution 
 of ammonia. Carbonized earth, charred peat, char- 
 coal, or mould, mixed with urine, and the liquid 
 portion of the settling vats of poudrette manufac- 
 tories, formed also a manure similar to sugar-house 
 black. 
 
 The greatest improvement yet introduced into the 
 poudrette processes, depends on the above princi- 
 ples. The whole contents of Parisian vaults are 
 now at once mixed with charred matters, by which 
 they are completely deodorized, and easily reduced 
 to a dry state, in which they may be pulverized, 
 barrelled, transported, without offensive exhalations. 
 The substance selected for charring should contain, 
 like peat, or turf, or swamp muck, or pond mud, 
 abundance of vegetable remains. These several 
 substances are preferable. Vegetable mould or 
 loam charred will answer, and, when previously to 
 being charred, these are mixed with saw-dust, small 
 
198 MANTTEE. 
 
 chips, shavings, or tanner's spent bark, they become 
 quite equal to peat charcoal. 
 
 Whatever substance is chosen, after it has been 
 charred, it should easily fall to powder. If a too 
 clayey loam is used, it forms lumps in the charring 
 process. 
 
 The process of forming poudrette thus becomes 
 inoffensive and simple, and the materials being col- ' 
 lected, they are to be mixed, as follows, in a pit 
 sunk for the purpose. To every load of night-soil, 
 add an equal bulk of the charred material, mixing 
 evenly the two, by rakes and stirrers, like a mason's 
 mortar mixing tool. 
 
 The liquids are absorbed, it becomes a stiff mass, 
 which is to be heaped up, and the watery portion 
 allowed to drain out. If the centre of the pit is 
 raised, of course the fluid collec^ts round the edges, 
 and this is to be again mixed with the charred mat- 
 ter, till the moisture is absorbed. The whole mass 
 is now to be air-dried under sheds. 
 
 When pretty dry, add again its volume of night- 
 soil, and so repeat as long as the night-soil is deo- 
 dorized, or till the charcoal matter is only about 
 one-fourth the whole mixture. 
 
 The whole may be finished in five or six weeks. 
 It is a dry powder, which may be carried about in a 
 snuff-box, with as little offence as the pulverized 
 weed ; and, when recently prepared, has been 
 actually handed round on a china plate, at an even- 
 ing party of sensitive, and very sensible ladies and 
 
199 
 
 gentlemen, without their suspecting the origin of the 
 new article of commerce submitted to their inspec- 
 tion and criticism. 
 
 From the variety of materials which may be used, 
 no one whose enterprise and interest impel him to 
 collect night-soil, can say that he has not, or may 
 not have the material for charring. He may object 
 to the process as too expensive for an individual like 
 himself to undertake such a matter. 
 
 Happily in this part of our country, peat bogs, 
 hassocks, turf, saw-dust, spent and decayed bark, 
 underbrush of pines, and the rubbish left after glean- 
 ing the faggots where wood land has been cleared, 
 are abundant. Make these into small piles with 
 loam, giving enough combustible matter to allow the 
 whole, when covered with sods and fired, to burn 
 slowly like a charcoal pit, a slow, smothered fire, 
 burning without consuming, till the whole soil with 
 which the peat or earth &c. were mixed, has been 
 baked.quite up to a low, red heat, just visible in the 
 night. 
 
 This mass of baked soil and charcoal will answer 
 very well for the speedy conversion of the few loads 
 of night-soil, which small farmers may collect into a 
 dry, useable manure, on the plan which has been 
 laid down. 
 
 To those who undertake the removal of larger 
 quantities, a general account of the furnace used 
 for charring soil, the mode of conducting the whole 
 process, from the collection of the raw material. 
 
200 MANURE. 
 
 from its legion of city and town depositories, to its 
 final state of a dry, inodorous manure, full of agri- 
 cultural vigor, may be an inducement to undertake 
 its preparation. 
 
 First. Be it understood, that a few pounds of cop- 
 peras, dissolved in a pail of water, say half a pound 
 to a gallon, will, when thrown into an ordinary vault, 
 while its contents are being removed, completely 
 deodorize that, no noxious gases escape, polluting 
 the air, and making night more terrible than day to 
 the dweller in crowded cities. 
 
 This would be an incidental benefit to all, but to 
 him who, by contract, abates the nuisance of an 
 overflowing vault, it is money in his pocket. The 
 addition of copperas-water actually adds a direct 
 value to the night-soil. The ammonia so volatile, 
 the sulphuretted compounds so horrible, are seized 
 by the copperas water, they are retained long 
 enough to be transported to the spot, where the 
 further conversion of the night-soil is to take place. 
 Both the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen are 
 too valuable to be lost. No grain ever grew which 
 did not contain sulphur compounds. 
 
 Secondly. The night-soil being deodorized, as 
 above, it is to be removed or transported, by day or 
 by night, as may be most convenient, to the pit pre- 
 pared for its reception, and then mi,xed in the mode 
 which has been above set forth, with the charred 
 material. 
 
 Thirdly. The furnace for charring is to be con- 
 
MANDKE. 201 
 
 structed of several hoppers, or very shallow pans, 
 with inclined sides, set one above the other, and sur- 
 rounded with brick work, so that the fire may play 
 all around the hoppers. The hoppers must be so 
 constructed as to swivel, so that the contents of each 
 may be easily dropped into the pan immediately 
 below. 
 
 The bottom of each pan is made of thick cast- 
 iron, the lowest pan has a bottom of fire-brick, and 
 is stationary over the grate ; a door leads to it, and 
 its end is moveable, so as to allow the charred 
 material to be withdrawn. 
 
 The height of the furnace will be regulated by the 
 number of tiers of pans. It is a large chimney 
 stack, with a fire at its bottom, the flame, smoke, &c. 
 passing among the hoppers. 
 
 The pans are charged with the materials intended 
 to be baked, and the fire is kept up constantly. 
 
 The earth or peat on the lowest hopper, when of 
 a brownish red color, and somewhat hot, is to 
 be withdrawn into sheet-iron cylinders, furnished 
 with a tight cover, and cooled while shut up. The 
 materials in the several hoppers are to be succes- 
 sively dropped into those below them, and the upper 
 one recharged with fresh matter. The charge is 
 repeated about once in an hour, the earth, &c., 
 having been previously screened and made fine. 
 
 The materials should be moist when put into the 
 furnace. This prevents combustion on the lower 
 plate, and the steam from the moisture pervading 
 
202 MANURE. 
 
 the whole furnace, excludes the air, and so carboni- 
 zation takes place without combustion. A furnace 
 18 feet high, will char 15 to 18 cubic yards in twenty- 
 four hours, and in France it has been found that the 
 cost, per cubic yard, is 96 cents — say, $1. 
 
 The whole cost of an establishment, capable of 
 converting into poudrette, the night-soil of a city of 
 20,000 inhabitants, is about $4000 to $5000. The 
 actual cost of the manufacture, including all ex- 
 penses, is about 20 cents per year for each inhab- 
 itant. 
 
 The product is about 136 cords, or 17,000 bushels 
 annually. The poudrette contains about 3 per cent, 
 of nitrogen, and under the name of " animalized 
 black," it sells for about 34 cents per bushel. This 
 leaves a profit of between $1700 and $1800 per 
 annum. 
 
 Experience determines the value of manure. Its 
 decisions are without appeal. It has proved that 
 from 22 to 28 bushels per acre of animal black, are 
 equal to four tons of yard-manure. 
 
 The preparation of poudrette so extensively pur- 
 sued in France, Continental Europe, and England, 
 has been also attempted in this country with varied 
 success. Many establishments, unfortunately, have 
 been abandoned, but the " Lodi Manufacturing Com- 
 pany," situated about three miles from the city 
 of New York, perseveres and produces a good 
 article, which is entitled to the farmer's confidence. 
 It is sold at the works at about $1.50 per barrel, of 
 four bushels, or 87^ cents per bushel. 
 
MANURE. 203 
 
 210. There is yet another form of poudrette, 
 which, though much used in France, has not been 
 introduced here. It contains more than ^ animal 
 matter, and it is formed without any offensive evolu- 
 tion of gas, by boiling the offal of the slaughter- 
 house, and other refuse animal substance, by steam, 
 into a thick soup, and then mixing the whole into a 
 stiff paste, with sifted coal ashes, and drying. If 
 putrefaction should have begun, the addition of 
 ashes sweetens the whole, and ihe prepared " ani- 
 malized coal," as it is termed, or poudrette, is as 
 sweet to the nose, as garden mould. It is trans- 
 ported in barrels from Paris to the interior. 
 
 This manure is prepared at " horse boiling " estab- 
 lishments in France. The carcasses of horses are 
 cut in quarters, and steamed, to separate the fat. 
 Unfortunately the flesh loses some of its salts by 
 this treatment. The composition of the commer- 
 cially cooked flesh was found by Soubeiran to be 
 
 Water, 10.00 
 
 Animal matter, .... 84.78 
 
 Bone phosphate of lime, . . . 2.40 
 Earthy matter, .... 2.82 
 
 100.00 
 
 In this state it is said to be a cold manure, very 
 poor in alkaline salts. It wants ammonia. 
 
 Blood is also converted into manure by the 
 " horse boilers." It is coagulated by steam, and 
 then dried in the air. Thus treated, it contains 
 
204 
 
 '4 MANTJEE. 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 . 17.00 
 
 Animal matter, 
 
 . 78.00 
 
 Bone phosphate, 
 
 0.33 
 
 Salts and earthy matter, . 
 
 4.67 
 
 100.00 
 
 211. Guano is the excrement of sea-birds. It is 
 found on our northern rocks and islands, but its great 
 deposit is on the islands of the Southern Ocean, be- 
 tween 13° and 21° south latitude. It there forms 
 immense beds, from 60 to 80 feet thick. What a 
 length of time must have elapsed, or how incredible 
 the number of birds, to have produced that pile of 
 guano, whose base, washed by the sea, was observed 
 by our countryman, Mr. Blake, to stretch a mile in 
 length, and to tower 800 to 900 feet high ! The 
 composition of ancient guano, countenances the idea 
 of its being the excrements of birds. 
 
 212. The following table presents the constituents 
 of guano, as determined by several chemists. 
 
MANURE. 
 
 205 
 
 Urate of Ammonia, . . . . 
 
 Ammonia, 
 
 Uric Acid, 
 
 Oxalate of Ammonia, . . . 
 " " Lime, 
 
 Phosphate of Ammonia, . 
 " " Lime, • . . . 
 " Ammonia and Magnesia, 
 " Soda 
 
 Mui-iate of Soda, 
 
 Sulphate of Soda, 
 
 " of Potash, 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia, . . 
 
 Clay and Sand, 
 
 Water and organic matter. 
 
 32. 
 2S.75 
 
 10.6 
 
 7. 
 
 6, 
 14.3 
 
 26 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 42 
 
 4.7 
 
 32.3 
 
 10.6 
 
 7. 
 
 6. 
 14 3 
 
 26 
 
 3.8 
 55 
 42 
 47 
 32.3 
 
 13.35 
 16.36 
 6.45 
 9.94 
 4 19 
 6 29 
 0.10 
 1.19 
 4 22 
 6.60 
 5.90 
 28.31 
 
 a 
 
 !► 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 15. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 
 / 
 
 13t 
 
 
 25. 
 
 30.5 
 
 
 3. 
 
 H 
 
 
 6L§ 
 
 36.5 
 
 * Included with water and organic matter. 
 
 t Oxalate amm. included. 
 
 J From crop of the birds. 
 
 § Includes urate of amm. and 11. water. 
 
 The samples examined by Ure were from the 
 purest guano, furnished by the governments of Peru 
 and Bolivia. 
 
 Of the 32 3 parts of organic matter, &c., examined 
 by Voelkel, about 12 parts are soluble in water. 
 
 An analysis of one sample indicates little of the 
 general character of the deposit. Its value depends 
 
206 MANURE. 
 
 chiefly on its volatile constituents. Two samples 
 from the same parcel, yielded Professor Johnston : 
 No. 1. 
 
 Water, salts of ammonia, and organic matter, 23.5 
 
 Sulphate of soda, 1-^ 
 
 Common salt and phosphate of soda, . . 30.3 
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and carbon- 
 ate of lime, ....-• 44.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 No. 2. 
 Water and volatile matter, . . . 51 5 
 
 Ammonia, .... . '• 
 
 Uric acid, ...... -8 
 
 Common salt and sulphate and phosphate of soda, 11,4 
 Phosphate of lime, ..... 29.3 
 
 100.0 
 The average of several hundred analyses of guano 
 from South America and Africa, afforded Professor 
 Johnston, per 100 parts : 
 
 Water, from .... 12.9 to 29.6 
 
 Organic matter and salts of ammonia, 28.9 to 35.9 
 
 Phosphates, .... 26.8 to 38.6 
 
 Ammonia is the most valuable ingredient ; next, 
 
 a peculiar acid, called uric acid, which gradually 
 
 affords ammonia, after these the bone earth of guano, 
 
 gives it a permanent effect. The volatile matter acts 
 
 in the earlier stage of vegetation. It is continually 
 
 escaping. Hence, fresh fallen guano is always best. 
 
 It is probably like the recent droppings of the pre.<- 
 
MANURE. 207 
 
 ent race of fish-eating birds. These consist almost 
 wholly of uric acid. The excrement of the sea 
 eagle gave in the 
 
 Solid Kvticuations. Liquid Evncualuins. 
 
 Ammonia, . . 9.20 
 Uric acid, . . 84.65 
 Phosphate of lime, 6.13 
 
 Uric acid, . . 59. 
 Other salts, . .41. 
 
 lOO.OO 100. 
 
 Compared with these, guano contains -J- to } of its 
 original organic elements. No manure yields more 
 substances for the wants of plants, in all stages of 
 their growth, than guano. 
 
 Guano is an article of commerce. There are 
 three varieties known in trade. The white, the dark 
 gray, the red brown, which is the most common. 
 The white is the most recent, the red brown the most 
 ancient, and decomposed, the gray intermediate. 
 The actual money value of guano, to the farmer, in 
 England, where it is now extensively used, does not 
 exceed $5 per cwt. The price has fallen at the 
 present time to about $2-50 per cwt. Beyond this, 
 practical men, who have used it, say that the farmer 
 cannot afford to employ it. Mr. Blake thinks it may 
 be afforded for 1 ^ cent per pound, delivered in the 
 United States. It is much used in Peru, where a 
 spoonful is applied to each hill, as soon as the corn 
 shows itself. The effects are what the most san- 
 guine could expect, from this natural, concentrated 
 poudrette, consisting both of salts and geine. Allow- 
 
208 MANURE. 
 
 ing, as has been asserted, that the land itself in Peru, 
 contains not a particle of organic matter, guano can 
 be no proof that plants require not geine, containing 
 as it does, by analysis, 12 per cent, of soluble 
 organic matter. 
 
 But this soluble matter will avail nothing without 
 moisture ; hence, in Peru, from the days of the 
 Incas, till now, it is the practice, according to Dr. 
 Von Tschudi, ( Travels in Peru,) a few weeks after 
 the seeds begin to shoot, to dig a little hollow round 
 each plant, which is filled up with guano, and 
 covered with earth. After 12 or 15 hours, the whole 
 field is laid under water for some hours. In a few 
 days the growth of the plant is doubled. 
 
 Guano is applied in best proportion in England 
 and in this country, at the rate of about 3 to 4 cwt. 
 per acre. It is still better applied mixed with one- 
 half yard-manure. It should be applied annually in 
 small doses ; 3 to 4 cwt. are considered equal to 20 
 or 25 tons of manure. 
 
 213. The dung of all domestic fowls, and of birds 
 in general, contains salts similar to those in guano ; 
 and while this subject is under consideration, the 
 fact may be mentioned, that it has experimentally 
 been proved, that the dung of pigeons is f ths 
 stronger than horse manure. And for stoved mul- 
 berries, vines, peaches and other plants, the drop- 
 pings of the barn-yard fowls, 1 part to from 4 to 10 
 of water have been found to produce excellent re- 
 sults ; the trees having, at the end of two years, the 
 
MANURE. 209 
 
 most healthy and luxuriant appearance imaginable. 
 The poultry yard is, to a careful farmer, a rich 
 source of vegetable food. How much a single hen 
 can contribute to increase the crops, may be seen 
 from the following account, from Vauquelin. 
 
 214. In ten days a hen ate 7474 grains of oats, 
 which contained of 
 
 Phosphate of lime, .... 91.8348 grains. 
 Silica, 141.8616 
 
 During this time four eggs were 
 
 laid, whose shells weighed . . 308.814 
 
 And contained phosphate of lime, 17.5975 
 Carbonate of lime, .... 276.7095 
 Gluten, 9.8725 
 
 The excrements during the same 
 
 time, gave of ashes, . . . 348.521 
 Composed of carbonate of lime, 39.3511 
 Phosphate of lime, .... 184.5348 
 Silica, 124.6351 
 
 Thus voiding in eggs and excrements. 
 Carbonate of lime, .... 315.0606 
 Phosphate of lime, .... 202.1323 
 
 Now this is 17.2267 grains of silica less ; and 
 in round numbers, 110 grains of phosphate, and 316 
 grains of carbonate of lime more than the food 
 eaten contained. Probably in all such experiments, 
 where confined to food different from usual, and 
 deprived of their customary habits, all animals draw 
 upon, and, in such cases, may be said to eat them- 
 14 
 
210 MANURE. 
 
 selves. The daily amount of bone-dust, however, 
 which one hen thus produces in her various drop- 
 pings, is about 18] grains, and of carbonate of 
 lime, 3.9 or an annual amount in round numbers, of 
 these two salts, of 1 pound and 3 ounces. Estima- 
 ting the salts only, it is found that the agricultural 
 value of a single hen per annum, equals the salts 
 contained in several bushels of wheat. This places 
 in a' strong light, the very great effects produced by 
 a spoonful of guano, to a hill of corn. In Belgium, 
 the annual value of the dung of 400 or 500 head of 
 pigeons, much used in manuring flax, is $25 to $30. 
 Under the name of columbine, pigeons' dung is much 
 used in the north of France, and it is stated by Du- 
 mas, that the annual droppings of six to seven hun- 
 dred pigeons are sold for 100 francs, or about $19. 
 Columbine is applied at the rate of about 900 lbs. 
 per acre, ordinarily. In France the expense of this 
 manure, per acre is from $9.60 to $15 56. 
 The composition is as follows, per 100 parts : 
 
 C1-,],,U1„ .,^.,**„— ^^ i Recent. Six monilis old. Alter terinentalion. 
 
 boluble matter m > davt. Spresgel. Davy. 
 
 .n. 
 
 Pigeons' dung, ) 23 16 8 
 
 The salts and other matters are similar to those 
 in guano. Pigeons' dung has been imported from 
 Egypt into England. Its composition per 100 parts 
 was found by Johnston to be : 
 
 Water, 6.65 
 
 Organic matter, 59.68 'TJr.'J:'' 
 
 Ammonia, 1.50 
 
 Alkaline salts, 0.42 
 
MANURE. 211 
 
 Phosphate of lime and magnesia, 7.96 
 Carbonate of lime, .... 2.37 
 Silicious matter, chiefly sand, . 21.42 
 
 100.00 
 All fowl droppings should be kept dry to avoid 
 fermentation. It is best to compost this manure 
 with peat, or charred earth, as noticed under the 
 head of poudrette making. 
 
 215. And here, having adverted to eggs, attention 
 may be called to a sadly overlooked fact. All around 
 is heard the requiem of departed wheat-fields. The 
 burden of the chant is, carbonate of lime ! carbonate 
 of lime! The wail is, it is gone! gone! The 
 want of this is the grand characteristic of our soil. 
 The sole cause, in the estimation of some, of all our 
 barrenness, and fruitless attempts, as they say, and 
 would have us believe, at raising wheat. An egg- 
 shell shall put such reasoning or dreaming to flight. 
 A common sized hen's egg weighs about 1000 
 grains, of which the shell is about 106 grains. Two 
 per cent, of the shell is albumen, or animal matter ; 
 1 per cent, phosphate of lime and magnesia, and 
 the balance or 97 per cent, carbonate of lime. At 
 an egg a day, this is equal to 1^ ounces of dry 
 chalk per week. Whence comes this ? From soil, 
 from brick-dust, from grain, meal, &c. But it exists 
 not in soil as carbonate of lime. Animals, like 
 plants, decompose the silicate of lime of soil, and 
 recombine the base with carbonic acid, to form egg- 
 shells. Considering the countless thousands of eggs 
 
212 
 
 which are produced by the birds of every feather in 
 New England, how big a bit of chalk would their 
 shells produce ! So of fresh water clams ; their 
 shells, common throughout New England, are car- 
 bonate of lime. These facts speak volumes. 
 Whenever birds cease to lay eggs, or clams to 
 form shells, then, and not till then, may it be said 
 that New England soil is barren, because it contains 
 no lime. 
 
 216. Flesh, fish, fowl, all animal solids, muscle, 
 gristle, skin, sinews, &c., all afford geine, by putre- 
 faction, and evolve vast volumes of ammonia. 
 Salts are more or less present in all animal sub- 
 stances. There are uniformly found, in the soft or 
 fluid portions, some of the following salts : 
 
 MINERAL SALTS. 
 
 Sulphate and phosphate of lime. 
 Phosphates of soda, magnesia and ammonia. 
 Sulphate and muriate of potash and soda. 
 Carbonates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia. 
 
 VEGETABLE SALTS. 
 
 Benzoate of potash, soda, lime. 
 Acetate, " " " 
 
 Oxalate, " " " 
 
 ANIMAL SALTS. 
 
 Urate of ammonia. 
 
 Lactate of ammonia. 
 
 Oxides of iron, manganese, and, silica. 
 In a word, are found, in animals, the inorganic 
 parts of soils, the elements of silicates, united with 
 the inorganic acids which existed in the soil, added 
 
MANURE. 213 
 
 to the organic, produced by the animal itself. These 
 salts are common to animals and plants, but except 
 in bones, they form only a small part of the living 
 body. 
 
 217. In plants there are certain principles, as 
 albumen and gluten, so like animal products, that 
 they have received the name of vegeto-animal. 
 But very late discoveries have proved that they are 
 identical with the fibrine and albumen of animals. 
 That these animal and vegetable products are modi- 
 fications of a principle called proteine, has been 
 alluded to (page 118). The late analyses of these 
 various products, shed a clear light over the multi- 
 form substances, from the animal kingdom, used for 
 manure. They shovi? how like products arise from 
 the decomposition of plants, and thus assimilate 
 animal and vegetables in the process of forming 
 composts. 
 
 Fibrine, or the basis of flesh, or muscular fibre, 
 albumen, and caseine, or the curd of milk and 
 basis of cheese, are composed as follows, by Mul- 
 der's analysis : — 
 
 
 Fibrine. 
 
 Alb 
 
 umen. 
 Of serum. 
 
 Caseine. 
 
 
 Of eggs. 
 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 54.56 
 
 54.48 
 
 54.84 
 
 54.96 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 15.72 
 
 15.70 
 
 15.83 
 
 15.80 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 6.90 
 
 7.01 
 
 7.09 
 
 7.15 
 
 Oxygen, i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphorus, , 
 
 22.83 
 
 22.81 
 
 22.24 
 
 23.09 
 
 Sulphur, -' 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
214 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 The corresponding products of vegetables are, 
 1st, gluten, and 2d, its peculiar principle, detected 
 by Liebig, called vegetable fibrine ; 3d, vegetable 
 albumen ; 4th, legumine, or vegetable caseine. The 
 two last are identical in composition and properties, 
 with the albumen and caseine of animals. Indeed, 
 it has been suggested, that animals never create 
 either of the above, but draw them ready formed 
 from plants. The composition of the vegetable 
 principles authorizes such a conclusion. By the 
 analyses of Drs. Scherer and Jones, in the labora- 
 tory of Liebig, these are constituted as follows : 
 
 Gluten. Vegt.Jibrine. Albumen. Caseine. 
 
 Average of Of rye, wheat 
 3 trials. and plants 
 
 Carbon, 55.22 54.345 54.86 54.138 
 
 Nitrogen, 15.98 15.733 15.88 15.072 
 
 Hydrogen, 7.42 7.272 7.31 7.156 
 
 Oxygen, ^ 
 
 Sulphur, } 21.38 22.647 21.95 23.034 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 100.00 100 00 100.00 100.00 
 
 Caseine contains no phosphorus, but both animal 
 and vegetable principles, comprised under the above 
 names, are always combined with alkalies, lime, 
 magnesia, iron, sulphur, and phosphoric acid. The 
 above are the organized principles of living bodies, 
 and are distinguished from all others by their nitro- 
 gen. Substances not containing this element are 
 said to be organic, but not organized. 
 
 218. The above substances, which form the great 
 
MANURE. 215 
 
 bulk of animals, and no small part of plants, de- 
 ducting their inorganic elements, compose proteine, 
 whose constituents are : 
 
 Carbon, 55.742 
 
 Hydrogen, 6.827 
 
 Nitrogen, 16.143 
 
 Oxygen, 21.288 
 
 100.00 
 
 This compound is the basis of the animal solids, 
 and soft parts : fibrine, or flesh, and albumen, are 
 only compounds of this, with sulphur and phospho- 
 rus. All the parts of the animal frame are modi- 
 fications only of proteine. 
 
 The peculiar principle of glue, or size, or jelly, 
 called gelatine, never exists in the healthy animal 
 body. It is the product of catalysis. Boiling water 
 is the catalytic agent, and produces it from tendon, 
 ligament, cartilage, skin and bone. The composi- 
 tion of these will show at once their relation to 
 proteine : 
 
 
 Tendon. 
 
 Cartilage, or gristle from ribs. 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 50.874 
 
 50.895 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 7.152 
 
 6.962 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 18.320 
 
 14.908 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 23.754 
 
 23.235 
 
 Scherer. 
 
 Horny matter is equally allied to proteine. Its 
 several variations have been divided into two classes : 
 1st, soft, and 2d, compact. The first includes skin, 
 
216 MANURE. 
 
 or the outer part, called cuticle ; and the delicate 
 lining membranes of the internal passages, and 
 sacs ; and these substances are like constituted. The 
 cuticle of the sole of the foot is composed of : 
 Carbon, ..... 50.894 
 
 Hydrogen, 6.781 
 
 Nitrogen, ..... 17.225 
 
 J-yf"'! 25.099 
 
 Sulph' 
 
 ,ur 
 
 :l 
 
 100.00 
 
 Scfierer. 
 Compact horny matter includes hair, horn, nails, 
 claws, hoofs, scales. Like all the other compounds 
 of proteine, these contain sulphur, lime, magnesia, 
 &c., and from ^ to 2 per cent, of bone earth. The 
 effect of these as phosphates has been adverted to, 
 section 169. These all give varied portions of 
 ashes. The beard gives about 0.72 per cent. ; blond 
 colored hair, 0.3, and the black hair of a Mexican, 
 0.2 ; nails, 0.5; wool, 2 ; and gelatine of bone, 0.7 
 per cent, of ashes. These all evolve ammonia by 
 caustic alkali, an effect which might have been pre- 
 dicted from their composition, which is, according to 
 Scherer : 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 50.652 
 
 51.540 
 
 51.089 
 
 50.653 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 6.769 
 
 6.799 
 
 6.824 
 
 7.029 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 17.936 
 
 17.284 
 
 16.901 
 
 17.710 
 
 Oxygen, 1 
 Sulphur, I 
 
 24.643 
 
 24.397 
 
 25.186 
 
 24.608 
 
MANTTEE. 217 
 
 Hair afFords a substance, in addition to its pro- 
 teine, and to whicli feathers are analogous. The 
 composition of the last is, 
 
 Feathfir. auill. 
 
 Carbon, .... 50.474 . . . 52.427 
 
 Hydrogen, ... 9.110 .. . 7.213 
 
 Nitrogen, . . . 17.682 . . . 17.893 
 
 Oxygen, .... 24.774 . . . 22.467 
 
 Bone itself is allied to proteine by its cartilage, 
 which composes nearly one-third the weight, and 
 which boiling water, under pressure, completely 
 extracts in the form of gelatine, or glue. 
 
 219. All these varied forms of proteine may be 
 tabulated so as to express, at a glance, their relation 
 to each other, if the elements. Carbon, Hydrogen, 
 Nitrogen, and Oxygen, are expressed by C. H. N. 
 O., and to each are added figures, which represent 
 the number of atoms, entering into the compound. 
 This is called chemical notation, and each set a 
 chemical formula. (55.) 
 
 Proteine, C« W^ W O'^ 
 
 Gelatine of tendons, . . C« H« Wh 0'8 
 
 Chondrine, or gelat. of rib cartilage,C''8 H^o N" O^o 
 Compact horny matter, hair, . C''^ W^ N'' O''' 
 Feathers, . . . . C^s H39 W O'^ 
 
 But the great practical lesson, taught by this sim- 
 ilarity of constitution, is, that it enables the chemist 
 to present at one view, animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances, as carbon, water, ammonia, and carburetted 
 
218 MANnRE. 
 
 hydrogen. This is the view which the farmer takes, 
 for he knows that these are the elements of manure. 
 Proteine may be resolved into : 
 
 Hydro;r<-n. 
 
 p, , ; 4.242 4-0.707= 4.949 Carb. hydrogen. 
 
 M 51.500 51.500 Carbon. 
 
 Oxygen, 21.288 -f 2.661 = 23.949 Water. 
 Nitrogen, 16. 1 43 + 3.459 = 19.602 Ammonia. 
 
 93. 173 + 6.827 = 101). Proteine. 
 
 This is the agricultural view, and expresses at 
 once that this great variety of substances is com- 
 pared to cow-dung as 32 to 1, when used dry as 
 manure, dung being 1, and proteine being calculated 
 on its nitrogen. The physiological view is this : 
 
 If ammonia and water, known compounds of nitro- 
 gen, hydrogen, and oxygen, are added in certain 
 proportions to proteine, all the gelatinous tissues, 
 hair, horn, &c., will be formed. 
 
 Let Pr. represent proteine, then 
 
 Proteine. Ammnnia. Water. Oxygen. 
 
 Fibrine, albumen =: Pr. 
 Arterial membrane = Pr. -J- 2 
 
 Chondrine = Pr. -|_4 -(_2 
 
 Hair, horn = Pr. + 1 -f 3 
 
 Geliitinous tissues =2Pr. -(-3 +1 -f-7 
 
 By this view, horny matter exceeds by 16 per 
 cent., and the gelatinous tissues by 25 per cent, the 
 value of the proteine of flesh, blood, &c. 
 
MANURE. 219 
 
 220. For the purposes in view, all animal and 
 vegetable products may be divided into two classes : 
 first, that which does, and second, that which does not, 
 contain nitrogen. The action of these is very dis- 
 tinct, on the elements of soil, and as manures The 
 first class putrefies, the second does not. The first 
 class forms alkali, the second forms acids. The 
 action of the first depends on nitrogen, that of the 
 second on carbon. 
 
 221. The first class contains flesh in all its varie- 
 ties ; blood, skin, sinew, gristle, cartilage, tendons, 
 hair, feathers, wool, hoofs, horns, nails, scales, and 
 one-third, nearly, of bones and teeth. The second 
 class contains fats and oils in all their variety. 
 
 222. It is easily understood, then, how woollen rags 
 and flocks become powerful manure. They afford 
 ammonia, and 100 lbs. containing 17 of nitrogen, 
 should be 34 times stronger than 100 lbs. of fresh 
 cow-dung. Connected with flocks and wool, there is 
 a very valuable product, rich in all the elements of 
 manure, which is often lost or not used for agricul- 
 tural purposes, namely, the sweat, or natural soap of 
 wool. Fresh clipped wool loses from 35 to 45 per 
 cent, of its weight by washing. This is due to a 
 peculiar matter exuded from the wool, and which 
 consists chiefly of potash, lime, and magnesia, united 
 to a peculiar animal oil, forming an imperfect soap. 
 It is remarkable that this soap of lime, in all other 
 cases insoluble, is here soluble in water. The ex- 
 perience of the best French agriculturalists, is full of 
 
220 MANTTRE. 
 
 testimony to the good effects of this wool sweat. It 
 has been calculated that the washings from wool, 
 annually consumed in France, are equal to manuriflg 
 370,000 acres of land. 
 
 223. Bones consist of variable proportions of car- 
 tilage, bone earth, and carbonate of lime. The bone 
 earth may be estimated at one-half the weight. It is 
 a peculiar phosphate of lime, containing 8 parts of 
 lime to 3 of phosphoric acid. A great part of the 
 value of bone as manure, depends on its cartilage. 
 The animal part of bones being one-third of their 
 weight, the ammonia is equal to 8 or 10 times that 
 of cow-dung, while, if we regard the salts only, 
 100 lbs. of bone dust, contain nearly 66 times as 
 much as an equal weight of cow-dung. Such state- 
 ments while they express the chemical facts, are 
 almost, if not quite, supported by the testimony of 
 those who have, in practical agriculture, applied 
 these concentrated animal manures. It is a common 
 opinion, that bones from the soap-boiler have lost a 
 large portion of their animal matter. It is erroneous. 
 Boiling, except under high pressure, extracts very 
 little of the gelatine, and not all the fat and marrow. 
 Heads and shoulder-blades and the smaller bones 
 still contain, after boiling, 3^ per cent, of fat and 
 tallow. If the phosphate of lime of such bones is 
 dissolved out by acid, the animal portion remains, 
 with all the form and bulk of the bone. Bones 
 which are offered in the market, are quite as rich in 
 the elements above stated, as are unboiled bones. 
 
MANURE. 221 
 
 The phosphate of lime is rendered quite soluble by 
 its combination with gelatine and albumen. The 
 class of mixed manures, containing nitrogen, has 
 thus been considered. The principle of their action 
 and the foundation of their value, pointed out. The 
 action of the second class, or that not containing 
 nitrogen, remains to be explained. 
 
 224. All fats and oils exposed to air give off a 
 quantity of carbonic acid, and end by becoming 
 acids. As their ultimate elements are the same as 
 those of plants, it may bo inferred, that under the 
 influence of growing plants, fats and oils are decom- 
 posed and become vegetable food. But there is 
 another action of fats and oils on silicates ; they not 
 only let loose the alkali of silicates by the carbonic 
 acid, which they evolve, but the oils now become 
 acids, immediately combine with this alkali, and im- 
 perfect soaps are formed. Soaps are truly chemical 
 salts, and hence we have at once a clew to the action 
 of oil and fat. 
 
 225. Among the most powerful of manures in 
 the class composed of geine and salts, is soot. 
 There is no one substance so rich in both. Its 
 composition allies it to animal solids, and is as 
 follows : 
 
 Geine (ulmin), 
 
 30.70 
 
 Nitrogen, .... 
 
 20. 
 
 Salts of lime, mostly chalk. 
 
 25.31 
 
 Bone-dust, .... 
 
 1.50 
 
222 MANURE, 
 
 Salts of potash and soda, and ammonia, 6.14 
 
 Carbon, , 3.85 
 
 Water, 12 50 
 
 100.00 
 
 On the principles adopted for determining the 
 value of manure, the salts in 100 lbs. of soot are 
 equal to 1 ton of cow-dung. Its nitrogen gives it a 
 value, compared vi^ith cow-dung, as 40 to 1. 
 
 226. Soot forms a capital liquid manure for the 
 floriculturist. Mixed with water, in the proportion 
 of 6 quarts of soot to 1 hogshead, it has been found 
 to be a most efficacious liquid, with which to water 
 green-house plants ; and being not only a come-at- 
 able, but a comely preparation, it may recommend 
 itself to the cultivator of flowers, by these ladylike 
 qualities. 
 
 The most decided good results have been pro- 
 duced in England, on Stinchcombe farm, containing 
 210 acres of arable land, by soot, barn-yard manure, 
 and sheep-dung. The rotation is turnips, potatoes, 
 wheat. The average produce of the potatoes, 315 
 bushels ; of the wheat, 28 bushels per acre. The 
 turnips are manured by that produced by 12 oxen 
 and 5 horses, 4 of which are employed in cartino- 
 the crops to market and hauling back soot, often a 
 distance of 25 miles. The turnips are fed off by 
 sheep, and eacli acre in turnips receives at the rate 
 of the manure of 2000 sheep for one day (205). 
 The potatoes and wheat are each manured with soot 
 
MANURE. 223 
 
 only, at the rate of between 11 and 12 bushels per 
 acre. The annual quantity used being about 3000 
 bushels, at the cost of about a 6d. English, say 12] 
 cts. per bushel. By this treatment, for 30 years the 
 quantity of crops and the quality of the land have 
 improved year by year. Anthracite coal-soot, as it 
 may be called, contains no geine. It contains 
 abundant salts of ammonia. Mixed with swamp- 
 muck and alkali, at the rate of two bushels per 
 cord, there can be no doubt that the good effects of 
 soft coal, or wood soot, would be produced. The 
 fine dust which collects about the flues of boilers, 
 when anthracite is used, thus becomes of great agri- 
 cultural value. From an accurate experiment on 
 106,504 lbs. of coal, I find the quantity of this ash, 
 collecting about flues, is 5.09 per cent, of the coal 
 consumed. 
 
 227. Among the mixed manures, is the salt, or 
 spent ley of the soap-boiler. It seems to offer a 
 natural passage from this class to those consisting of 
 salts only. To understand its components, the 
 chemical composition of oil and fat must be briefly 
 studied. No products of life are now better under- 
 stood than the fatty bodies. They are all acids, 
 combined with a peculiar organic base, which acts 
 the part of an oxide. This is never obtained except 
 in combination with oxygen and water. In this 
 state it has long been known under the name of 
 glycerine. The acids combined with it, are stearic, 
 margaric, and oleic. By the union of these acids 
 
224 MANURE. 
 
 with glycerine, stearine, and margarine, or fats, and 
 oleine or oil is produced. In soap-making, the alkali 
 used decomposes stearine and oleine, combining 
 with their acids, which thus are converted into 
 stearates, margarates, and oleates of alkali, or soap, 
 while the glycerine remains free in the spent ley 
 with the salts which that contains. 
 
 228. The proportion of glycerine in fat and oil, 
 is about 8 per cent. Its composition is — 
 
 Carbon, 40.07 r .J,X»;?,;„"„ ) Carbon, 24.77 
 Oxygen, 51.00 { ?,Ve°S„n""d \ or Car. hyd. 17.85 
 Hydrogen, 8.92 ( """Zse'L". "" ) Water, 57.37 
 
 Glycerine is transparent and liquid, and was 
 called the sweet principle of oils, from its sweet 
 taste. 
 
 229. The glycerine is thus the organic, or geine 
 part of salt ley. Its proportion in that will vary, if 
 the spent ley is boiled, as is usual, upon a fresh 
 portion of tallow, which adds its quantity of glyce- 
 rine, in proportion to the alkali in the ley. 
 
 230. The salts are various, and depend on the 
 kind of alkali used to form the ley. The alkali is 
 derived from barilla, from soda or white ash, from 
 potash, or from ashes. Hence, no general state- 
 ment can be given which shall express the value of 
 spent ley salts. That some idea may be formed of 
 its components, it may be divided into two kinds : 
 1st, that produced from soft soap, or from ashes, or 
 potash ; 2dly, that from hard soap, barilla, or soda- 
 ash. A boil of 2000 lbs. of soft soap requires 150 
 
MANURE. 225 
 
 bushels of ashes, and its spent ley contains, in addi- 
 tion to a little free potash, the following salts, 
 derived from ashes : 
 
 130 lbs. of sulphate of potash, 
 6 " of muriate of potash, 
 36 " of silicate of potash, 
 allowing the ashes to have been a mixture of oak, 
 bass, and birch woods. Besides these, in the pro- 
 cess of soap-making, in order to make the soap 
 " grain," common salt is added. A chemical 
 change is thus induced, the potash soap is changed 
 to soda soap, or the soft to hard. The soda of the 
 salt entering the soap is replaced by the potash, 
 which combines with the acid of the salt, that is 
 chlorine, or muriatic acid. In other words, common 
 salt, or chloride of sodium, or muriate of soda is 
 changed to chloride of potassium, or muriate of pot- 
 ash, which is thus added to the spent ley. The pro- 
 portion of salt added, varies, but it may be stated in 
 general, 7 bushels, or 500 lbs. to 150 bushels of 
 ashes. In a boil, then, of 2000 lbs. of soap, 12C0 
 lbs. of fat, or tallow, containing 100 lbs. of gly- 
 cerine, 150 bushels of ashes, 7 bushels of salt, 
 afford about 200 gallons of spent ley. This con- 
 tains the glycerine and salts above (230), and 
 affords, per gallon, 
 
 Geine, or glycerine, 
 a , \ Muriate of potash, 
 ' I Sulphate of potash. 
 
 Silicate of potash, 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5^ 
 
 lb. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 n 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2^ 
 
 oz. 
 
226 MANURE. 
 
 231. The spent ley from soda soap, contains the 
 sulphate and muriate of soda, of the soda ash, which 
 rarely amounts to 12 per cent. As less salt is here 
 added, the spent ley is less rich in salts. In a boil 
 of 2000 lbs. of hard soap, 600 weight of white ash 
 are used. Including the one bushel of salt usually 
 added, the spent ley contains. 
 
 Sulphate of soda, 84 lbs. or, per gallon, 6| oz. 
 Muriate of soda, 106 " " | lb. 
 
 Glycerine, 100 " " | lb. 
 
 232. The value of spent ley has been tested for a 
 series of years. It has shown its good effects on 
 grass lands for four or five years after its applica- 
 tion. There is great advantage in carrying it out 
 upon snow. It has then the effect of converting 
 any carbonate of ammonia in the snow into sal- 
 ammoniac, or a volatile into a fixed salt. 
 
 233. When it is thus understood on what the value 
 of spent ley depends, it would seem probable that 
 the farmer may himself prepare it ; and, unless he 
 resides in the neighborhood of a soap-boiler, at a 
 cheaper rate than he can buy and cart home this 
 liquid manure. A hogshead of spent ley, of 100 
 gallons, contains, if from ashes, 
 
 50 pounds of glycerine or geine, 
 
 53 " of muriate of potash, 
 
 13 " of sulphate of potash. 
 The salts may easily be supplied. It becomes a 
 highly interesting question, whether the glycerine 
 has any specific action, any action which the light 
 
227 
 
 of chemistry may not kindle in similar substances. 
 By reference to (228) its chemical constitution ap- 
 proaches geine, and they are here presented side by 
 side. 
 
 Glycerine. Geine of Soil. 
 
 Carbon, 40.07 58.00 
 
 Hydrogen, 8.92 2.18 
 
 Oxygen, 51.00 39.90 
 
 234. The glycerine resolves itself into water, 
 free carbon and carburetted hydrogen, or the gas 
 of marshes or stagnant pools ; the geine into car- 
 bon and water. In the series of changes which 
 they may undergo, let it be supposed that carburet- 
 ted hydrogen gas is evolved by glycerine. There 
 is no reason for assuming, as do some, that carbonic 
 acid is the only source of the carbon of plants. The 
 volumes of carburetted hydrogen produced in the 
 decay of plants, may be intended, as well as car- 
 bonic acid, for their nutriment. Suppose, of which 
 there is no doubt, that carburetted hydrogen of gly- 
 cerine contributes to this effect, there remains then 
 free carbon, which, being perfectly insoluble and 
 changeless, acts only by condensing gases in its 
 pores. 
 
 23.5. Geine, by tillage, air and moisture, evolves 
 also carbonic acid. As gas, no one will deny that 
 it thus affords carbon to plants ; its carbonic acid is 
 absorbed and its carbon assimilated, and hence, if 
 either glycerine or geine afford carbon, the circum- 
 stances under which they may be applied to the 
 
228 MANURE. 
 
 land, are less favorable to the production of carbu- 
 retted hydrogen, than of carbonic acid. The bal- 
 ance then is in favor of geine. 
 
 236. There are two circumstances wherein geine 
 and glycerine differ. The latter is soluble to any 
 extent in water, it is applied to the land in spent ley, 
 already dissolved. The action so evident, is due to 
 one of two causes, or to their joint action. Spent 
 ley acfts either by its organic, or by its inorganic 
 part; by its glycerine, or by its salts. Those who 
 take the ground, that humus or geine never is taken 
 up by plants, will then attribute all the decided good 
 effects of spent ley to its salts. Glauber's and com- 
 mon salts applied in equal quantity to that contained 
 in soda spent ley, should produce equally good ef- 
 fects. It is well known that such is not the fact. 
 Nor will those who maintain this doctrine, admit that 
 glycerine acts by its evolving gases, for then an 
 equal weight of peat would answer. It is well 
 known that such is not the fact. 
 
 237. If spent ley then acts neither by its salts, 
 nor its evolved gas, it acts by the perfectly dissolved 
 state of its glycerine. That such is the case admits 
 not of a doubt, and goes to show that plants appro- 
 priate the geine or humus of soil by absorbing it as 
 geine or geates. 
 
 238. The spent ley acts both by its salts and its 
 geine. The action of salts has been explained. 
 The soluble state of geine is the most important fact 
 to be borne in mind, if it is attempted to make spent 
 
MANURE. 229 
 
 ley on a farm. Swamp muck, or peat, ashes, and 
 common salt, will afford all the elements of spent 
 ley, and the following may be proposed as an imita- 
 tion of that from soda soap : 
 
 Fine dry snuffy peat, .... 50 pounds. 
 
 Salt, . ; J bushel. 
 
 Ashes, 1 " 
 
 Water, 100 gallons. 
 
 Mix the ashes and peat well together, sprinkling 
 with water to moisten a little. Let the heap lie for 
 a week. Dissolve the salt in the water, in a hogs- 
 head, and add to the brine the mixture of peat and 
 ashes, stirring well the while. Let it be stirred oc- 
 casionally for a week, and it will be fit for use. 
 Apply it as spent ley, grounds and all. Both ashes 
 and salts may be doubled and trebled, with advan- 
 tage, if convenient. The mixture of ley must be 
 used before it begins to putrefy ; this occurs in three 
 or four weeks. It then evolves sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen gas, or the smell of gas of rotten eggs. This 
 arises from the decomposition of the sulphates in 
 the water and ashes, by the vegetable matter. A 
 portion of the geine is thus deposited from the solu- 
 tion. (See Appendix for the trial of this ley.) 
 
 239. Having thus considered the class of mixed 
 manures, or those composed of geine and salts, 
 those consisting of salts only are to be now ex- 
 plained. They are next in value to the mixed 
 manures. They are chiefly the liquid evacuations 
 of animals, and when artificially combined with 
 
230 MANURE. 
 
 geine, their value exceeds that of the solid evacua- 
 tions. These liquids equal, in fact, the mixed ma- 
 nures of the most fertilizing energy. The liquid 
 evacuations are truly salts only, dissolved in water ; 
 but they are salts of a peculiar character in many 
 cases, and are formed of an animal acid. This is 
 it which renders a detailed account of these ma- 
 nures interesting to the farmer. It is not enough for 
 this purpose to refer the action of these liquids to 
 the general effect of salts or mineral manures. 
 
 240. The peculiar animal acid to which refer- 
 ence has been made, becomes, like nitric acid in 
 nitrates, the food of plants. The element from 
 which it is derived gives a marked and highly valu- 
 able character to the liquid evacuations of the farm- 
 yard and household. This peculiar animal principle 
 is urea. It may be obtained from these liquids in 
 transparent but colorless crystals, of a faint but 
 peculiar odor. Cold water dissolves more than its 
 weight, and boiling water an indefinite quantity of 
 crystals of urea. The pure crystals undergo no 
 change when dissolved in pure water, but if they 
 are mixed with the other ingredients of the urine, 
 decomposition rapidly ensues, and they are resolved 
 almost entirely into carbonate of ammonia. Alka- 
 lies and alkaline earths induce similar changes on 
 urea. The practical value of this fact will be easily 
 understood. 
 
 241. Pure urea has no distinct alkaline properties. 
 It unites with aqua fortis, or nitric acid, and forms a 
 
MANURE. 231 
 
 sparingly soluble salt, composed of about equal parts 
 of each of its ingredients. . 
 
 242. Urea is composed, according to Dr. Prout, 
 of carbon 19.99, oxygen 26.66, hydrogen 6.66, 
 nitrogen 46.66. These elements are so beautifully 
 balanced, that they afford only carbonic acid and 
 ammonia ; though the chemistry of every reader 
 may not understand how these elements produce 
 cyanic acid and ammonia. The salt cyanate of 
 ammonia, has actually been formed by modern 
 chemistry, which has thus succeeded in forming a 
 true organic product, or product of living action, 
 or rather of chemical action guided by living prin- 
 ciple. In all animal evacuations containing urea, 
 that may be considered as so much carbonate of 
 ammonia of the shops. Hence it is the urea in 
 urine which gives that liquid so great a value. 
 Urine is richer in ammonia than flesh or blood; 
 
 243. The peculiar animal acid which has been 
 mentioned as forming so essential a part in these 
 liquid excretions, is called uric acid. It is not, like 
 urea, changed by exposure into ammonia. It con- 
 tains a large portion of nitrogen, which, under the 
 influence of growing plants, is let loose, and may 
 then form ammonia. Its composition is as follows : 
 carbon 36.11, hydrogen 2.34, oxygen 28.19, nitro- 
 gen 33.36. 
 
 The peculiar principles of the liquid evacuations 
 having been explained, their constitution may be 
 now stated. They are, it will be remembered, at 
 the head of the class of manures comptised of salts. 
 
232 
 
 MANTJHE. 
 
 First, the liquid evacuation of cattle, what is its 
 agricultural value as a manure ? Its composition 
 will form the answer. 
 
 Cow's urine was long ago examined by Eouelle 
 and by Brandt, whose results have formed the basis 
 of all calculations of its value for almost half a 
 century. The results are evidently defective. The 
 more exact analysis of cattle urine, by Sprengel, 
 who has devoted particular care to the subject, gives, 
 as the average of many trials, the following, in 1000 
 pounds. 
 
 Water, 
 
 Urea, . 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Mucus or slime, 
 
 Hippuric acid, 
 
 Lactic acid. 
 
 Carbonic acid. 
 
 Ammonia, . 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Phosphoric acid. 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 Oxide of iron. 
 
 Oxide of manganese. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Comliined with polash, 
 soda and ammonia, form- • 
 ing salts, , 
 
 Combined with soda, 
 lime and magnesia, form- ■ 
 ing salts, . 
 
 926.24 
 
 40.00 
 
 .10 
 
 1.90 
 
 .90 
 
 5.16 
 
 2..56 
 
 2.05 
 
 6.64 
 
 5.54 
 
 4.05 
 
 .70 
 
 2.72 
 
 .65 
 
 .36 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .01 
 
 ^36 
 
 1000.00 
 
MANURE. 233 
 
 Let this now be compared with the standard of 
 value, cow-dung. 100 lbs. of that afford 2 lbs. of 
 carbonate of ammonia ; while this evacuation gives 
 4 lbs. of ammonia in its urea, besides that in its 
 other ammoniacal salts. 
 
 244. The quantity of liquid manure produced by- 
 one cow annually, is equal^to fertilizing l^ acres of 
 ground, producing effects as durable as do the solid 
 evacuations. A cord of loam, saturated with urine, 
 is equal to a cord of the best rotted dung ; and the 
 fresh urine of one cow is valued in Flanders at $10 
 per annum. If the liquid and the solid evacuations 
 including the litter, are kept separate, and the liquid 
 is soaked up by loam, it has been found they will 
 manure land, in proportion by bulk of 7 liquid to 6 
 solid, while their actual value is as 2 to 1. 
 
 245. 100 lbs. of cattle urine afford about 8 lbs. of 
 the most powerful salts which have ever been used 
 by farmers. The simple statement then, in figures, 
 of difference in value of the solid and liquid evacua- 
 tions of cattle, should impress upon all the impor- 
 tance of saving the last in preference to the first. 
 Let both be saved. If the liquids contained natu- 
 rally, geine, they might be applied alone. It is the 
 want of that guiding principle which teaches that 
 salts and geine should go hand in hand, which has 
 sometimes led to results in the application of the 
 liquor, which have given this substance a bad name. 
 
 246. It has been proved that the ammoniacal salts 
 of urine have a forcing power on vegetation. The 
 
234 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 value of ammonia was long ago understood by Davy, 
 and its carbonate was his favorite application. Plants 
 watered with a simple solution of sulphate of ammo- 
 nia, an abundant salt in cow's urine, are 15 days 
 earlier than those watered with pure water. Grass 
 land watered with urine only, yields nearly double 
 to that not so manured. In a garden on land of very 
 poor quality, near Glasgow, urine diluted with water, 
 nearly doubled the grass. But upon wheat, sown on 
 clay land, it did no good ; it injured barley, potatoes 
 grew rank and watery, and on turnips the effects 
 were only half as good as mere unfermented dung. 
 The circumstance of the soil in this last case, was 
 probably a deficiency of geine. 
 
 247. The liquid evacuation of the horse is com- 
 posed, according to Boussingault, of 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 
 0.47 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 
 .40 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 
 1.5.5 
 
 Salts, 
 
 
 4.51 
 
 Water, 
 
 
 87.61 
 
 Other analysts have found in horse i 
 
 jrine. 
 
 Water, 
 
 . 94. 
 
 Urea, 
 
 .7 
 
 Chalk, 
 
 1.1 
 
 Carbonate of soda. 
 
 .9 
 
 Hippurate of soda. 
 
 2.4 
 
 Muriate of potas 
 
 h, . . . 
 
 .9 
 
MANURE. 235 
 
 The hippuric acid is not peculiar to the horse. 
 The urine of most herbiverous animals contains hip- 
 purate, formerly called benzoate of soda, its acid 
 having the fragrance of gum benzoin. If man takes 
 benzoic acid, hippuric replaces uric acid in the urine. 
 According to the composition, horse stale, pound for 
 pound, is equal to the value of covir-dung. Sprengel 
 found the urine of sheep to afford, in 1000 lbs.. 
 
 Water, 980 
 
 Urea, with some albumen, . . . 28 - 
 Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, 
 with traces of silica, alumina, iron and 
 manganese, ..... 12 
 
 1000 
 No animal affords more urine than the hog- 
 Owing to a peculiar volatile and unexamined sub- 
 stance, it gives plants and roots a disagreeable taste. 
 Fed on grains and bran, the urine in 1000 lbs. 
 affords. 
 
 Water, 926. 
 
 Urea, with a little slime and albumen, 56.40 
 Salts, common salt, muriate of potash, 
 
 gypsum, chalk, Glauber's salts, . 17.60 
 
 1000.00 
 
 Fromberg has examined the urine of a sheep, and 
 Von Bibra that of the horse, ox, and pig. These 
 later analyses have been thus tabulated by Johnston. 
 
236 
 
 MANTTRE. 
 
 OM 
 
 ITJ CO 
 
 o o 
 
 . E; ~ - - f° 
 o" ~ ~ - 3- 
 
 ,_^ l-tj Wj t-t5 Q Q Q 
 
 
 Cfl ""^S "^ "^ ►-♦j 
 P* Qj X. p R 
 
 > CO p O^ O OS (O to 
 
 . o - io w o Ici- bi 
 
 ■ rf^ - rfi^ CO to Oi o 
 
 cr 
 p 
 
 n> 
 p 
 
 o 
 < 
 
 cw 
 
 p 
 
 O O - - ^ CO 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ s - 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 5^. 
 
 I g a 
 
 o B' < 
 g-o; to 
 
 CI) — ■ ^ p 
 ^ S Ol M 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 (-» hJ 1-* ?o ro M 
 p^o^a^oGOCoox►-' 
 cooai*».GOhP^bico 
 
 -iDtHOff^OOOtO 
 
 M o >— 00 o 00 yD 
 CO o ro CO o Kd k) 
 (^ Ol CO CJ o oi en 
 
 h-i CO kCi. 
 .CI CZ) -GOWOi-'CJiIicntO 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1 p= 
 
 to ^ I— » 1-1 CO 
 
 CBO -^tOOtOCOCO 
 -i3 iO .ro CJi bi Ot CO vCi- 
 
 <i o\ CO ^a <i o o 
 
 >-'p :;tootooji-' 
 
 too :;toooco>ii-- 
 
MANTTRE. 
 
 237 
 
 248. But rich as are the liquid evacuations of the 
 stable and cow-yard, they are surpassed by those of 
 the farmer's own dwelling, especially when it is con- 
 sidered with what ease these last may be saved. 
 According to Dr. Thomson, 1000 parts of this sub- 
 stance, the human liquid evacuation, contain 42^ lbs. 
 nearly of salts, which are. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac, ..... .459 
 
 Sulphate of potash, . . . .2.112 
 
 Muriate of potash, .... 3.674 
 
 Common salt, ..... 5.060 
 
 Phosphate of soda, .... 4.267 
 
 Bone-dust, (phosphate of lime,) . . .209 
 Acetate of soda, .... 2.770 
 
 Urate of ammonia, .... .298 
 
 Urea with coloring matter, . . 23.640 
 
 42.489 
 Water, 957.511 
 
 There is scarcely a single element in this liquid 
 which is not an essential ingredient of plants. 
 
 In every 100 lbs. 
 Of cattle urine, are 
 Of horse urine. 
 Of human urine. 
 Of sheep urine, 
 Of hog urine. 
 
 It is at once seen how valuable are swine as 
 manufacturers of manure. 
 
 4. lbs. c 
 
 f urea. 
 
 .70 " 
 
 u 
 
 2.36 « 
 
 L( 
 
 2.80 « 
 
 (£ 
 
 5.64 " 
 
 Li 
 
238 MANTJKE. 
 
 It will be noted, that by the table (247), pigs' 
 urine, like human, contains phosphates, of which the 
 urine of the ox, horse, and sheep, are destitute, or 
 contain traces only. Hence pigs' urine is more valu- 
 able than that of horses and cattle, not only by its 
 urea, but by its salts. 
 
 249. The urea being called equal to ammonia, it 
 is seen that the ammoniacal salts in human urine are 
 very nearly the same as those in cow-dung, but its 
 effects in actual practice are found to be nearly 
 double those in cow-dung. The actual amount of 
 salts in 100 parts of human, cow, and horse-dung, is 
 in round numbers, 1 per cent., while in the liquids 
 it averages 5.88, being in the cow 7.4, and in the 
 human 4.24 per cent, horse 6, according to Sprengel. 
 
 250. All urine of course varies with the food of 
 the animal, the season, and its age. White turnips 
 give a weaker liquor than Swedish. Green grass is 
 siill worse. Distillers' grains are said to be better 
 than either of these. The more water the animal 
 drinks, the poorer the urine. Doubtless the liquids 
 of fattening kine are richer in ammonia during this 
 period, for it contains a part of that nitrogen not 
 carried away in milk. In winter, urine contains 
 much less urea than in summer, sometimes only 
 one-half Putrefaction changes urea to ammonia. 
 The time required for this varies. Urine putrefying 
 for a month, contains double the ammonia of fresh 
 urine. It does not wholly decompose in a month ; 
 but during all this time, gives off ammonia. Unless 
 
MANURE. 239 
 
 then mixed with loam, or peat, or swamp muck, or 
 where kept in tanks with thrice its bulk of water, or 
 with oil of vitriol, 3 lbs. to 160 gallons of urine, 
 or with plaster, copperas, or other substances which 
 will form a fixed salt with ammonia, that will escape. 
 Urine is fully ripe, when it contains neither caustic 
 ammonia, nor urea. 
 
 Food, exercise, age, condition, and sex of the 
 animal, alter the quality, and affect the quantity of 
 the urine discharged. It becomes therefore an inter- 
 esting question. What is the quantity and' quality of 
 urine which various animals discharge daily and 
 yearly ? 
 
 On the average, a healthy 
 
 Solid lbs. 
 Man excretes in 24 hours, 3 pints or 1000 lbs. per an., giving 30 to 170 
 Horse " " " 3 " 1000 " " 60 to 124 
 
 Cow " " " 40 " 7000 to 12000 " 490 to 1440 
 
 Unless she is a milch cow, when the quantity is 
 affected by that of the milk ; the more milk, the less 
 urine. 
 
 The abundant urine of a cow, though containing 
 less solid matter than that of a horse, yet, agricul- 
 turally, it is more valuable. Quantity more than 
 compensates for quality. 
 
 The quantity of liquid drank affects little that of 
 the urine discharged by cattle and other animals, 
 while in man the result is different. 
 
 Man discharges nearly all the water drank, as 
 urine ; while a horse which drank in 24 hours, 35 
 pints of water, evacuated 3 pints of urine, and a cow 
 
240 MANURE. 
 
 which drank in 24 hours, 132 pints of water, evacu- 
 ated 18 pints of urine, and gave 19 pints of milk. 
 
 It has been proposed by Stenhouse, to add milky 
 lime (slacked lime diffused in water) to urine, to stir 
 it well, and let it settle. A portion of phosphoric 
 acid is thus sepdrated, as phosphate of lime. Air 
 slacked lime may be also thus used, the powder 
 being sprinkled into the urine, and well stirred. 
 The clear liquor may be run off, but this is a loss. 
 Phosphates only are thus saved. Hence that great 
 practical farmer and chemist, Boussingault, has pro- 
 posed to add a solution of magnesian salts to urine. 
 For this purpose Epsom salts may be employed, 
 while those who live near salt works may use the 
 " Bittern " liquor, or muriate of magnesia, for this 
 purpose. By this process, both a portion of the am- 
 monia and phosphoric acid are separated and fall 
 down from the urine, as ammonia-phosphate of 
 magnesia. This is a valuable manure for potatoes. 
 
 Each pint of human urine will produce a pound of 
 wheat. Each pound of ammonia is equal to a bushel 
 of grain. Whatever may be the food, it is evident 
 from the above statements, that rivers of riches run 
 away from farms, from want of attention to saving 
 that which ordinarily is allowed to be wasted. 
 
 251. Each man evacuates, annually, enough salts 
 to manure an acre of land. Some form of geine 
 only is to be added to keep the land in heart, if the 
 farmer has but the heart to collect and use that 
 which many allow, like the flower unseen, " to waste 
 its sweetness on the desert air." 
 
MANURE. 241 
 
 252. But with all the farmer's care, with every 
 convenience for collecting and preserving these ani- 
 mal products, still the amount which can be so col- 
 lected, is often wholly inadequate to the wants of the 
 farmer of small means. All these accumulations 
 presuppose a goodly stock of animals on the farm. 
 
 This again is limited by the means of keeping, and 
 so one influences the other. The farmer wants some 
 source of manure, which while it produces the salts 
 and geine of an unlimited amount of stock, hogs and 
 hens, shall yet require no more barn-room, fodder or 
 team, than every man who means that his hands and 
 lands shall shelter, feed, and clothe him, can easily 
 command. 
 
 IQ 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, AND IRRIGATION. 
 
 253. The class of salts, as manure, is to be 
 distirigmshed from the salts called mineral manures, 
 by this circumstance, that they contain large por- 
 tions of peculiar animal products, called urea and 
 uric acid. These afford ammonia in large quantity 
 by their decomposition. Having considered the 
 relative value of the two classes of manure, those 
 composed of salts, and of salts and geine, that con- 
 sisting chiefly of geine is now to be explained. 
 
 254. First and foremost in this class, is swamp- 
 muck, mud, or peat. This class includes, also, dry 
 leaves, dry vegetables of all sorts ; ploughing in of 
 green or dry crops, irrigation. These are fruitful 
 topics. The principles only of their action can be 
 pointed out. The application of the principle must 
 be left to the farmer. The why of things has been 
 or will be shown ; the how must be deduced from 
 the why by practical men. 
 
 255. Peat is too well known to render it necessary 
 to say that it is the result of that spontaneous change 
 in vegetable matter, which ends in geine. Peat is. 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 243 
 
 among manures consisting chiefly of geine, what 
 bone-dust is, among manures, consisting of animal 
 matter. Peat is highly concentrated vegetable food. 
 When the state in which this food exists is exam- 
 ined, it is found not only partly cooked but sea- 
 soned. 
 
 256. Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine, 
 and salts. The proportion of these several ingre- 
 dients must be known before the value of peat can 
 be compared with similar constituents in cow-dung. 
 This proportion is exhibited in the following table of 
 constitution of Massachusetts peat per 100 parts : 
 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Soluble 
 Geine. 
 
 Insoluble 
 Geine. 
 
 Total 
 Geine. 
 
 Salts and 
 Silicates. 
 
 1. 
 
 Dracut, 
 
 14.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 86.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 2. 
 
 Sunderland, 
 
 26.00 
 
 56.60 
 
 82.60 
 
 14.40 
 
 3. 
 
 Westborough, 
 
 48.80 
 
 43.60 
 
 92.40 
 
 7.60 
 
 4. 
 
 Hadley, 
 
 34.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 91.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 5. 
 
 Northampton, 
 
 38.30 
 
 44.15 
 
 82.4-'> 
 
 17.55 
 
 6. 
 
 
 32.00 
 
 54.90 
 
 86.90 
 
 13.10 
 
 7. 
 
 
 1-200 
 
 60.85 
 
 72.85 
 
 27.15 
 
 8. 
 
 
 10.00 
 
 49.45 
 
 59.45 
 
 40..55 
 
 9. 
 
 
 33.00 
 
 59.00 
 
 92.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 10. 
 
 Average, 
 
 4600 
 
 46.80 
 54.73 
 
 92.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 
 29.41 
 
 84.14 
 
 15..55 
 
 11. Watertown,Kf, 5.10 8.90 14.00 86.00 
 1-2. Danvers, " ' 8.10 6.50 14.60 84 40 
 
 257. Under the general name of peat, are com- 
 
244 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 prised several varieties, which may be distinguished 
 as, 1st. Peat, the compact substance generally 
 known and used for fuel, under this name. 2d. 
 Turf, or swamp-muck, by which is to be understood 
 the paring which is removed before peat is dug. It 
 is a less compact variety of peat. It is common in 
 all meadows and swamps, and includes the hassocks. 
 Both these varieties are included in the above, from 
 No. 1 to No. 10. It includes, also, the mud of 
 salt-marshes, 3d. Pond mud, the slushy material 
 found at the bottom of ponds when dry, or in low 
 grounds, the wash of higher lands. This seldom 
 contains more than 20 per cent, of geine. Nos. 1 1 
 and 12 are of this description. 
 
 258. These varieties comprise probably a fair 
 sample of all the peat and swamp muck and pond 
 mud which occur in the various parts of the coun- 
 try. The results stated (256), are those of the 
 several varieties when dried at a temperature of 
 240° F. The composition of peat ashes has been 
 alluded to (163). They contain, in fact, all the 
 inorganic principles of plants which are insoluble, 
 with occasional traces of the soluble alkaline sul- 
 phates, and of free alkali. Twenty samples of peat, 
 from various localities in Rhode Island, afforded Dr. 
 C. T. Jackson an average of 72 vegetable matter, 
 24 ashes, in 100 parts, dried at 300°. 
 
 Silica formed J of the ashes. The remaining 
 salts were similar to those which have been men- 
 tioned. 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 245 
 
 259. It is well known that all peat shrinks by 
 drying, and when perfectly dried at 240° F., loses 
 from 73 to 97 per cent, of water. When allowed to 
 drain as dry as it will, it still contains about § of its 
 weight of water. It shrinks from § to ^ of its bulk. 
 A cord wet becomes | to ^ of a cord when dry. 
 To compare its value with cow-dung, equal bulks 
 must be taken, and hence, to dry peat a bulk of 
 water must be supposed to be added, in proportion 
 above stated, or still better, because easier done, the 
 pile of dry peat is to be estimated by the pit left 
 after digging. It will be found, on the above data, 
 that 100 parts of fresh dug peat, of average quality, 
 contain, — 
 
 Water, 85.00 
 
 Salts of lime, .... 00.50 
 
 Silicates, 00.50 
 
 Geine, 14.00 
 
 100.00 
 This does not diifer much from fresh cow-dung, 
 so far as salts, geine, and water are concerned. 
 The salts of lime are actually about the same, while 
 the alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia in the silicates 
 added to the salts of lime, make the total amount of 
 salts, in round numbers, equal that of cow-dung. 
 
 If the bulks of these are compared, it will be found 
 that, at 90 lbs. per bushel, full measure, and 103 
 bushels being allowed to a cord, each contains and 
 weighs as follows, in pounds : 
 
246 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 Weip-ht. Soluble Insoluble Total Falls of 
 ■" Geine. Gtfine. Geine. Lime. 
 
 Dung, .... 9289 128 1288 1416 92 
 No. 9 peat of table, 921(5 376 673 1049 91 
 No. 10 " " 9216 519 529 1048 81 
 
 A cord of pond mud, (No. 11,) weighs when dug, 
 6117 lbs., and contains solid matter, 3495 lbs., 
 composed of geine, 495 lbs., of silicates and salts, 
 3005 lbs. The salts of lime in pond mud are 2^ 
 per cent. 
 
 260. The salts and geine of a cord of peat are 
 equal to the manure of one cow for three months. 
 It is certainly a very curious coincidence of I'esults, 
 that nature herself should have prepared a sub- 
 stance, whose agricultural value approaches so near 
 cow-dung, the type of manures. This subject may 
 have been now sufficiently explained. Departing 
 from cow-dung and wandering through all the varie- 
 ties of animal and vegetable manures, we land in a 
 peat-bog. The substance under our feet is analyzed, 
 and found to be cow-dung, without its musky breath 
 of cow odor, or the power of generating ammonia, 
 except in some varieties of peat. These always 
 heat when piled. The various transformations of 
 geine have not ceased in peat which naturally fer- 
 ments, such is alway-preferable in agriculture. But 
 generally the power of forming ammonia has ceased 
 to be active. That process is generally over, a part 
 of the ammonia remains, still evident to the senses 
 by adding caustic potash. It exists in part, either as 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 247 
 
 a compound of crenic and apocrenic acid, or other 
 forms of geine, or as phosphate of ammonia, and 
 when the presence of ammonia is added to the saUs, 
 whose existence has already been pointed out, it may- 
 be said that peat approaches dung moistened with 
 the liquid evacuation of the animal. 
 
 261. The power of producing alkaline action, on 
 the insoluble geine, is alone wanted to make peat as 
 good as cow-dung. Reviewing the various matters, 
 from whatever source derived, solid or liquid, which 
 are used as manure, all possess one common prop- 
 erty, that of generating ammonia. The conclusion 
 then of this whole matter is this : the value of all 
 manures depends on salts, geine, and ammonia ; and 
 it is directly in proportion to the last ; it follows, that 
 any substance affording these elements may be sub- 
 stituted for manure. 
 
 262. The great question comes, How is to be 
 given to peat, a substance whicji, in all its other 
 characters, is so nearly allied to cow-dung, that lack- 
 ing element ammonia ? How is that to be supplied ? 
 Without it, cow-dung itself would be no better than 
 peat, nay, not so good ; for in peat, nearly one-half 
 of the geine is already in a soluble state. Passing 
 by the fact, already alluded to, that peat contains 
 traces of ammonia, which, evolved when treated 
 with caustic potash, exerts its usual action, it may be 
 added that, possibly in the process of vegetation, 
 when the decomposing power of the living plant 
 is exerted on peat, and the silicates, caustic potash is 
 
248 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 produced, and ammonia evolved. Considering peat 
 as a source of nitrogen only, it is evident that the 
 action of alkali is of the highest practical im- 
 portance. 
 
 263. In this part of the subject of manure, proba- 
 bilities and possibilities are no longer admissible. 
 There are two facts well established by experience, 
 delating to the action of ammonia in dung. First, it 
 has been shown (166) that dung produces nitrates. 
 Porous substances and alkali possess the power of 
 forming nitrates ; alkali and porous substances act 
 like spongy platina, they induce a catalytic power, 
 and the consequence is, that the elements of the air, 
 Oxygen and nitrogen, unite and form nitric acid, this 
 Combines with the alkali, and consequently nitrates 
 are produced. The other well established fact, in 
 relation to the action of ammonia in dung, is the 
 power of dissolving and converting geine, which has 
 been explained in Chap. IV. The most valuable of 
 these two properties is that of producing soluble 
 geine. The formation of nitrates may be quite, and 
 ordinarily is prevented. It is the alkaline action 
 which is sought. 
 
 264. By the addition of alkali to peat, it is put into 
 the state which ammonia gives to dung. The ques- 
 tion then arises, How much alkali is to be added to 
 swamp muck or peat, to convert that into cow-dung ? 
 Recurring to the doctrine of chemical proportions, 
 whose value to the farmer is thus made evident, it 
 will be remembered that the equivalent of pure 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 249 
 
 potash and soda, that is, that portion of one which 
 can take the place of the other, is as 2 to 3 ; that is, 
 2 parts of pure soda are equal to 3 of pure potash. 
 If either of these is compared with ammonia, it will 
 be found that one part of pure ammonia is nearly 
 equal to two of soda. When these substances are 
 met with in commerce, it is in the state of salts, as 
 Carbonate of ammonia of the shops, white ash, or 
 soda ash, or potash and pearlash. The equivalent 
 of these is deduced from determining the pure 
 alkali of each, and adding the equivalent of carbonic 
 acid. It is found that, 
 
 59 lbs. of pure carb. ammonia are equal to 
 54 lbs. " soda, or to 
 
 70 lbs. " potash> 
 
 But unless the impurities of the commercial alka- 
 lies are known, it may not be prudent to substitute 
 pot or pearlashes, and soda or white ash, either for 
 one another, or for ammonia in the usual state, in 
 the above proportions. All alkalies in the market 
 are how much purer than formerly. 
 
 1st quality pot and pearlashes contain, on the 
 average, 83 per cent, of carbonate, and no perfectly 
 caustic alkali. 2d quality pots and pearls average 
 71 per cent, carbonate. English soda ash contains 
 in its perfectly dry state 81.5 per cent, of pure car- 
 bonate, and about 2.75 of caustic soda = 4.68 
 carbonate, or the total carbonate is equal to 86 per 
 cent., which, in the commercial state of fair soda ash, 
 is equal to 80 per cent. 
 
250 ARTIFICIAL MANUKE. 
 
 The proportions then become, 
 
 59 pure carb. ammonia = 61 commercial, 
 54 '' soda = 67 soda ash of 80 per ct. 
 
 70 " potash = 84, 1st qual. pots or pearls, 
 70 " " =98, 2d " " " 
 
 Fortunately for agriculture, rigid accuracy is not 
 here required. ' The farmer need not fear to use the 
 commercial alkalies because he knows not their 
 chemical composition. 
 
 265. For all agricultural purposes, it may be con- 
 sidered, that salts of hartshorn, or carbonate of am- 
 monia, and white or soda ash, are equal, pound for 
 pound, and that pots and pearls may be taken at 
 one-half more. 
 
 266. If all the nitrogen in dung becomes am- 
 monia, then, as has been shown (187), each 100 lbs. 
 affords 2 lbs. 2 oz. Discarding fractions, let it be 
 called 2 lbs. Hence, if to 100 lbs. fresh dug peat, 
 there are added 2 lbs. soda ash, or 3 lbs. of pot or 
 pearl ashes, all the good effects of real cow-dung 
 will be produced. Peat or muck thus requires 2 per 
 cent, of soda ash, or 3 per cent, of potash. 
 
 267. By (259) a cord of green peat weighs 9216 
 lbs. ; 2 per cent, are 184 lbs. Hence a cord re- 
 quires that amount of soda ash, or 276 lbs. of potash. 
 But if the peat is quite dry, so as to have lost I of 
 its bulk, then 736 lbs. of soda ash, or 1104 lbs. pot- 
 ash will be necessary. Two per cent, of alkali 
 seems enormous. It is stated, in the hope that it 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 251 
 
 raay lead to experiments on the free use of alkali. 
 But as it will be hereafter shown, that this is to be 
 reduced by mixing with loam or other matter, this 
 quantity, even if applied to one acre, will probably 
 produce very good effects. It has repeatedly been 
 proved for other purposes, that a cord of fresh dug 
 peat neutralizes 100 lbs. of soda ash, or 400 lbs. to 
 a dry cord. Further, dry peat, by boiling with, 
 neutralizes 12^ per cent, of its weight of potash, and 
 in actual practice, alkali to the amount of 6 per cent, 
 of the weight of the geine, in pond mud, has been 
 used. It would therefore appear to be safe to use 
 the theoretical proportion. 
 
 268. But the nitrogen in cow-dung does not all 
 tell. It is impossible but that some portion of the 
 elements of ammonia enter into other combinations, 
 and part also escapes as gas. Besides, it is not all 
 brought at once into action, and hence a less portion 
 of alkali than above indicated may be used. It is 
 probable that not a third of the ammonia acts. Let 
 it be taken at thE|.t quantity. Then the equivalents 
 are 100 lbs. fresh peat, and 10| ounces soda, or 1 
 lb. of potash, or 1 per cent, of the weight of the 
 peat in commercial potash. 
 
 269. This proportion will allow, in round numbers, 
 to every cord of fresh dug peat, 92 lbs. pot or pearl 
 ashes, or 61 lbs. of soda, or 16 to 20 bushels of 
 common house ashes. 
 
 Having no guide here from experience of the 
 quantity which may be used per acre, yet, in order 
 
252 AETIFICIAIi MANUEE, 
 
 to arrive at conclusions which can be recommended 
 Safely, the alkali has been calculated in the quantity 
 6{ saltpetre, which has been used with such signal 
 success by O. M. Whipple, Esq., of Lowell, no less 
 distinguished for the good sense with which he 
 Undertakes an experiment, than for the public spirit 
 which urges him onward to its successful conclusion. 
 On the principles which have been developed, when 
 saltpetre is used, the whole alkali is let loose by the 
 action of the growing plant. The experience of Mr. 
 Whipple is a guide to the quantity of alkali which may 
 be safely used. He has used from 50 to 150 lbs. salt- 
 petre per acre. The real alkali in saltpetre may be 
 called ^ of its weight ; or the real alkali used has 
 been from 25 to 75 lbs. = 36J lbs. and 109] lbs. 
 pure carbonate, or, in round numbers, an average of 
 commercial 1st and 2d quality, of 49 to 147 lbs. 
 per acre, giving an average of 99 lbs., nearly, which 
 is nearly 1 per cent, of the weight of a cord of green 
 peat, which agrees with the estimate (268). If, 
 then, this is mixed with the usual proportion of 
 geine, which the dung used contains, equally good 
 effects per acre ought to be produced. 
 
 270. There are other practical facts which may 
 help to a solution of the question. How much alkali 
 is to be added to a cord of peat ? According to the 
 experience of the late Mr. Phinney, of Lexington, 
 an authority which may not be questioned, a cord of 
 green dung converts twice its bulk of peat into a 
 manure, of equal value to itself — that is, a cord of 
 
AKTIFICIAL MANURE. 253 
 
 ft 
 
 clear stable-dung, composted with two of peat, formg 
 a manure of equal value to three cords of green 
 dung. Indeed, the permanent effects of this com- 
 post, according to Mr. Phinney, exceed those of 
 stable-dung. Equal bulks are here about equal 
 weights. On these facts, 2 lbs. of ammonia in 100 
 of cow-dung, should convert 200 lbs. of fresh dug 
 peat into good cow-dung. The equivalents of these, 
 as has been shown (265), are 2 lbs. of soda ash, 
 or 3 lbs. of potash. Allowing the gaseous ammonia 
 to be here retained by the peat, and consequently 
 all effective, it is divided equally among the 300 lbs. 
 of dung and peat, in proportion of lOf oz. of soda 
 ash, or 1 lb. of potash to 100 lbs. of fresh peat. 
 Now this calculation, deduced from actual experii 
 ment, confirms the theoretical proportions (268), 
 supposing only J of the nitrogen to act, though that 
 was made before the author met with the statement 
 of the great practical farmer. 
 
 271. There is a coincidence here of proportions, 
 which makes it quite certain that the quantity 
 recommended (269) is a perfectly safe basis for 
 agricultural use. By theory the proportions are, 
 1 cord peat, 61 lbs. soda ash, 92 lbs. potash. As 
 deduced from the compost of dung and peat, 61 lbs. 
 soda ash, 92 lbs. potash. This proportion gives 
 each cord of peat a value equal to that of cow-dung. 
 If ^ only of the nitrogen of dung acts, the alkali 
 and peat may be composted, as that is, with loam, 
 or still better, mixed up at once with its proportioi) 
 
254 AKTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 of peat. If this is done, then the result will be, in 
 round numbers, 1 cord of fresh dug peat, 20 lbs. of 
 soda ash, 30 lbs. potash, 5 to 7 bushels house ashes. 
 In March, 1849, the author, in a letter addressed to 
 the commissioner for the agricultural survey of 
 Massachusetts, threw out the following hint, which 
 was published in the second report of Mr. Colman : 
 
 " Take 100 lbs. of peat as sold, or the fine part 
 from the bottom of a peat stack ; at any rate, bruise 
 the peat fine, put it into a potash kettle, and 2] lbs. 
 of white ash, and 130 gallons of water ; boil for a 
 few hours ; let it settle, dip off" the clear for use, add 
 100 lbs. more of peat, 2| lbs, white ash, fill up with 
 water, as much as you have dipped off", boil again, 
 settle and dip off". This may be repeated five times. 
 How much oftener I know not ; probably as long as 
 the vegetable part of peat remains. The clear 
 liquor is an alkaline solution of geine. The three 
 first boilings contain geine, alumine, iron, magnesia, 
 and sulphate or phosphate of alkali. The dark 
 colored solution contains about half an ounce per 
 gallon of vegetable matter. 
 
 " It is to be applied by watering grass lands. The 
 'dregs' may be mixed up with the manure, or 
 spread as a top-dressing, or put in the hill. Expe- 
 rience will teach ; I only suggest." 
 
 The principle which should guide the farmer in 
 the making of artificial manure has now been con- 
 sidered. The author of these pages is not a prac- 
 tical farmer ; agriculture is not his pursuit, and he 
 
AETIFICIAL MANURE. 255 
 
 has studied its chemistry only as a recreation from 
 the daily duties of life. He has thrown out sug- 
 gestions, the result of researches undertaken with 
 reference to a totally different object, and these 
 suggestions have been acted upon by practical men, 
 whose results confirm his previous anticipations. 
 He has no theory on this subject to maintain ; his 
 opinions must stand or fall by practice, speak for 
 themselves. Yet, he is not altogether indifferent to 
 the practical results which may follow his sugges- 
 tions, and he would consider that he had inflicted a 
 serious injury on agriculture, by the publication of 
 erroneous opinions. When a man's character is 
 to be established in a court of evidence, what is 
 the good old English rule ? To call upon the by- 
 standers, the country present, taken indiscriminately 
 from all who may have known the person. Do not 
 summon persons whose interest may throw a shadow 
 of suspicion on the testimony of the witness. And 
 so here ; let it be proved, if it can be, whether the 
 principles here advanced are of practical value, by 
 calling upon the stand those gentlemen who have 
 tested the author's opinions, and of some of whose 
 operations and results he was ignorant, till he met 
 with them in the agricultural publications of the 
 day, or in accidental conversation ; others have 
 been requested to state by letter their results, after 
 these pages were prepared for the press. The evi- 
 dence on this point is contained in the Appendix to 
 this volume. 
 
 272. Attention might here be called to the exten- 
 
256 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 sive use of peat, composted with lime and animal 
 manure ; but it will be observed that it is wished to 
 direct the thoughts at this time to a compost of 
 artificial manure, without lime or animal manure. 
 The author does not go for lime, but for soluble 
 alkali. Carbonate of lime alone is not expected to 
 produce immediate results, and seldom has pro- 
 duced, or can be expected to produce visible effects 
 in the first year of its application. The why and 
 the wherefore of this has been already explained, 
 and it is merely adverted to now to guard against 
 any inference favorable to the action of lime being 
 deduced from the following facts. Mr. George 
 Robbins, of Watertown, an extensive manufacturer of 
 soap and candles, and of starch, employs the refuse 
 of these trades in enriching and gladdening his land. 
 It is believed his crops will compare with any of the 
 best cultivators around him. He has not used for 
 four years a spoonful of manure made by any ani- 
 mal, walking either on two legs or on four. He 
 keeps a large number of horses and hogs, and 
 several cows, and uses not a shovelful of their 
 .manure, but selling that, uses peat and swamp muck 
 mixed with his spent barilla ashes. The propor- 
 tions are, one part of spent ashes to three of peat, 
 dug up in the fall, mixed in the spring. After 
 shovelling two or three times, it is spread and 
 ploughed in. The effect is immediate, and so far, 
 lasting. The effects of this spent ashes alone on 
 sandy loam are excellent ; it makes the whole quitQ 
 *' salvey." 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 257 
 
 273. The composition of spent ashes has already 
 been alluded to ; a certain portion is carbonate of 
 lime ; it is well known, that as such, it would pro- 
 duce no better effects than so much chalk. A large 
 part of silicate of soda exists in the spent ashes. 
 This is decomposed by the carbonic acid of the air, 
 the alkali then acts on geine, but this action is 
 greatly assisted by the carbonate of lime. It is 
 perhaps the most powerful agent in the decomposi- 
 tion of the silicate of soda. Here then the action 
 of carbonates on silicates tells. And it may be 
 worth while to be reminded here, that this action 
 was explained in detail, in order that it might be 
 understood how spent ashes could act so rapidly on 
 swamp muck. 
 
 274. Alkalies and peat, or swamp muck are 
 within the command of almost every farmer. Lime 
 is not within reach, and besides, requires no small 
 skill in its management. In the preparation of ma- 
 nure, price is every thing. Let the cost be estima- 
 ted per cord, of artificial manure, prepared in the 
 proportions stated (270). Peat or muck may be 
 called worth fifty cents per cord, and the labor of 
 digging, say one dollar, 
 
 $1-50 
 92 lbs. potash, 6 cts. $5-52 v 
 
 or, 61 lbs. soda ash, or | ^ j^ jj 
 
 ■while ash, 4 cts. 2-44 c & ' 
 
 or, 24 bush, ashes, 124 cts. 3-00 J 
 
 3(10-96 $515 
 
 3-65 
 17 
 
258 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 Were they really good hard wood ashes, about 16 
 bushels would be sufficient, but an excess here is al- 
 lowed, to compensate for variation in quality. This 
 may appear a very high price, but it is to be remem- 
 bered, that its value is to be compared with that of a 
 cord of clear cow-dung. What is the value of cow 
 dung ? It appears from the barn account of the 
 Merrimack Manufacturing Company, that for 9j 
 years, ending October, 1838, a bushel of clear cow- 
 dung, costs 21^ cents. During the same time dung 
 of inferior quality was delivered at the Print-works, 
 by the neighboring farmers at 20 cents per bushel. 
 Clear dung, is delivered at the Print-works in Dover 
 at 12| cents per bushel, and at several of the Print- 
 works in Rhode Island, at 16 cents per bushel, giv- 
 ing an average of 17.45 cents per bushel, and as a 
 cord contains, in round numbers, 100 bushels, its 
 price is $17-45 
 
 Deduct from this the price of an artificial cord, 5'15 
 
 $12-30 
 
 It is hence evident that an artificial cord is only 
 about one-third of the price of a natural cord, and 
 if the last may be mixed with two parts of loam or 
 swamp muck, so may the first, which will reduce the 
 price of a cord of artificial manure, to $2-71. Now 
 this is equal, according to all experience, cord for 
 cord, to stable manure ; the value of that may be 
 estimated at $5, so that an artificial cord costs only 
 about one-half. The best plan for preparing the 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 259 
 
 artificial manure is to dig the peat or swamp muck 
 in the fall ; in the spring of the year let this be mixed 
 in the proportion of 30 lbs. of potash, or 20 lbs. of 
 soda ash, or 8 bushels of common house ashes, to 
 every cord of fresh dug peat, estimating this by the 
 pit dug out, and allowing nothing in the spring for 
 shrinking. If ashes are used,thej may be mixed in 
 at once with the muck, but if soda ash or potashes 
 are used, they must be dissolved in water, and the 
 pile evenly wet with the solution. The pile is then 
 to be well shovelled over, and used as is other ma- 
 nure. But it has been found by experience, that the 
 peat may be dug in 'the spring, immediately mixed 
 with the alkali, and used forthwith. If spent ashes 
 are used to prepare this muck, add one cord of spent 
 ashes to three cords of peat or swamp muck. 
 
 275. But there are still other forms of cheap 
 alkali from salt and lime, which may be recom- 
 mended, though this may appear inconsistent with 
 what has been advanced respecting lime, but in this 
 ease, the lime is converted into a perfectly soluble 
 salt. The soda is eliminated caustic, acts on the 
 geine, renders it soluble. During the exposure to 
 the volumes of carbonic acid, evolved from the peat, 
 the caustic soda becomes carbonated. This car- 
 bonate of soda, immediately decomposes the soluble 
 salt of lime, and an insoluble salt of lime with a 
 soluble salt of soda is the result. The effects of 
 these various actions, are, first, the geine is made 
 soluble, ammonia evolved, which is converted into a 
 
260 ARTIFICIAL MANTIEE. 
 
 nitrate, carbonate of lime produced, which acts as 
 that does in spent ashes, and a soluble salt of soda or 
 common salt remains in the mass, producing still 
 farther good effects, when its alkali is let loose by 
 the action of growing plants. Here are rounds of 
 changes taking place, which though the farmer may 
 not readily understand, he may easily produce, with 
 lime and common salt. It may be stated, in farther 
 explanation of these changes, that common salt is a 
 compound of soda and muriatic acid, or muriate of 
 soda, using here the old language of chemistry, 
 which is more intelligible to the farmer, though not 
 philosophically correct. By mixing quicklime with 
 common salt, its soda is let loose, the acid com- 
 bines with the lime, forming a soluble salt of lime, 
 and as long as the soda remains caustic it has no 
 effect on the muriate of lime, but as soon as the soda 
 becomes mild or carbonated, decomposition of the 
 muriate of lime is produced, and the common salt 
 regenerated. Commencing then with quicklime and 
 salt, we pass on to a soluble salt of lime and caustic 
 soda, and from that, to mild soda, and to carbonate 
 of lime and the original common salt ; and these in 
 decaying soil are mutually decomposed, and reform 
 carbonate of soda. 
 
 276. If these various changes take place in the 
 midst of peat, or geine, it is evident that the caustic 
 soda acts upon the geine, and also evolves ammonia 
 from that substance ; secondly, that the muriate of 
 lime in its finely soluble state insinuates itself among 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 261 
 
 all the particles of the geine, that the soda also is 
 equally diffused, and that when the soda becomes 
 carbonated, it produces an almost impalpable car- 
 bonate of lime throughout the whole mass, which, 
 by its equal diffusion through the soil with the geine, 
 acts upon the silicates, as has been heretofore ex- 
 plained. In order to produce these effects, take, 
 
 1 bushel of salt, 
 1 cask of lime. 
 
 Slack the lime with the brine, made by dissolving 
 the salt in water sufficient to make a stiff paste with 
 the lime, which will be not quite sufficient to dis- 
 solve all the salt. Mix all the materials then well 
 together, and let them remain together in a heap for 
 10 days, and then be well mixed with three cords of 
 peat ; shovel well over for about 6 weeks, and it 
 will be fit for use. Here, then, are produced 3 cords 
 of manure, for about the cost of $2-10 per cord. 
 
 Salt, $0-60 
 
 Lime, 1'60 
 
 Peat, 4-50 
 
 3)$5-30($2 10 
 
 From experiments made in a small way, it is 
 believed that this will be found an effectual manure ; 
 the author suggests it, in the hope that it may lead 
 to cautious experiment. 
 
 Lime and salt have been also commended by 
 other writers. Sir John Sinclair, in his " Scotch 
 
263 AETIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 Husbandry," says that sea water evaporated to a 
 saturated solution, that is, till the salts fall, may be 
 used to slack lime. 3'2 bushels thus slacked, mixed 
 with 40 loads of peat, and spread on one acre of 
 poorest fallow, were equal to any manure. 
 
 Mr. Mitchell, a surgeon in Ayr, recommends 3000 
 gallons sea water to be evaporated to 600 gallons, 
 and this is to be used to slack 64 bushels of lime. 
 This may be applied to two acres. 
 
 Salt water peat mixed with lime, has been very 
 successfully used in some places in England. The 
 peat being saturated with sea water, by its natural 
 position is dug out, partially dried, and mixed with 
 about -^ its bulk of slacked lime. It soon heats, fer- 
 ments strongly, and when used soon after as manure, 
 produces excellent effects. Doubtless, all peat, satu- 
 rated with strong brine, and then mixed with lime, 
 would be equally as effective as submarine turf. 
 
 But there is still another form in which this artifi- 
 cial manure may be prepared, that is by the addition 
 of ammonia. Take 
 
 3 cords of peat, 
 61 lbs. sal-ammoniac, 
 I cask, or about 61 lbs. lime. 
 
 Slack the lime, dissolve the sal-ammoniac, and wet 
 the peat well with the solution through every part. 
 Then shovel over, mixing in the lime accurately. 
 We have here, then, 3 cords of manure, at a price 
 as follows : 
 
AKTinClAL MANURE. 263 
 
 3 cords peat, .... $4-50 
 
 61 lbs sal-ammoniac, at Is., . 10-17 
 
 61 lbs. lime, .... 0-27 
 
 3)fl4-94($4-98 
 
 It will be observed that three cords are used in 
 these calculations, because the quantity of salts used 
 is equivalent to the ammonia in a cord of dung, and 
 that is supposed to be composted with 2 cords of 
 loam, or meadow mud. Whether the estimates are 
 correct, each one will determine by the value he 
 may place on his peat and manure, and will apply 
 his own estimate. When a cord of stable or barn- 
 yard manure is usually estimated worth $4, the 
 price of a cord of clear pure cow-dung will not be 
 thought high at $17. In fact, it probably, when 
 mixed with the usual proportion of litter, straw, 
 stalks, and the usual loss by waste of its value, 
 would become worth only about $5. But these 
 questions do not affect the principle — that from 
 alkali and peat, as cheap a manure may be pre- 
 pared, and as good, as from stable-dung ; for let that 
 be called $5-00 
 
 then adding 2 cords of peat, 3'00 
 
 3)i8-00 
 
 $2'66 per cord. 
 
 277. There are other sources of alkali, for con- 
 verting peat into soluble manure. Of these the chief 
 
264 AETIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 is animal matter. Here we have ammonia pro- 
 duced. It has been actually proved by experiment, 
 that a dead horse can convert 20 tons of peat into a 
 valuable manure, richer and more lasting than stable 
 dung ; " a barrel of alewives is equal to a wagon 
 load of peat." The next great and prolific source 
 of ammonia is the urine. The urine of one cow for 
 a winter, mixed up as it is daily collected with peat, 
 was sufficient to manure | an acre of land with 20 
 loads of manure of the best quality, while her solid 
 evacuations, and litter, for the same period, afforded 
 only 17 loads, whose value was only about one-half 
 that of the former. 
 
 278. It need only be added in confirmation of all 
 that has been advanced, that those who have had the 
 prudence to fill their yards and hog-pens with mea- 
 dow mud, which has thus become saturated with 
 ammonia, have in no wise lost their reward. If they 
 have been satisfied with their practice, perhaps they 
 will be no less firm in their belief of success, when 
 science offers them a reason for the faith that is in 
 them. 
 
 Peat or turf has begun to excite attention in 
 France, as a manure in itself, and not simply as a 
 vehicle for supplying ammoniacal salts (206). Sou- 
 beiran, in his prize essay on manures, &c., in 1847, 
 says, that from his own experiments he can find no 
 difference between the humus of mould and turf • 
 he asserts that it is equally fit for encouraging vege- 
 tation, and " If we consider the service which humus 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 265 
 
 spread on land renders to vegetation, we must rogret 
 that turf, which is so abundant in certain localities, 
 should not be more frequently employed as an 
 adjunct to other manures. Suitably modified by air 
 and alkalies, it would incontestably render important 
 services to agriculture." Fresh turf when mixed 
 with ^ its weight of dried flesh, Soubeiran found was 
 slowly decomposed, forming with turf a compound 
 similar to fermenting dung. 
 
 Peat or turf has been used in France as a con- 
 venient substance when in dry powder, to absorb so- 
 lutions of ammoniacal salts, thereby reducing that 
 to a state approaching poudrette. For this purpose 
 M. Jacquemart, in 1813, compared such prepared 
 turf powder with poudrette, using such quantity that 
 each should represent the same amount of nitrogen, 
 or its equivalent ammoniacal salts. The poudrette 
 contained in 3 bushels, or 132 lbs., nitrogen equiva- 
 lent to 9^ lbs. sulphate of ammonia crystals. Of 
 the nitrogen, 53 per cent, existed as ready formed 
 carbonate of ammonia, and 47 per cent, as part of 
 the organic matter of the night-soil. 
 
 This poudrette, used at the rate of 25 bushels per 
 acre, represented therefore 82 lbs. of crystals of sul- 
 phate of ammonia ; solutions of carbonate and bicar- 
 bonate of ammonia, equivalent each to 82 lbs. of 
 crystals of sulphate, were absorbed to dryness by 
 peat powder. These several manures were sowed 
 with oats and covered in, under similar circumstan- 
 ces, of soil, time, and exposure. The yield was as 
 follows — poudrette representing 100 : 
 
266 ARTIFICIAL MANUEE. 
 
 Grain. ^ The straw being 100, the 
 grain is to the straw as 
 
 No. 1. Poudrette, . . 100. 65. 
 
 " 2. Carbonate of am., 94. 69. 
 
 " 3. Bicarb, of am., 95. 77. 
 
 " 4. No manure, . 74. 62. 
 
 The next year wheat was sown, and the equiva- 
 lent of sulphate of ammonia increased to 103 lbs. 
 A mixture of No. 1 and 2 in equal portions gave 
 results equal to poudrette. 
 
 From these results, it is believed that a manure 
 may be prepared with the ammoniacal liquor of gas 
 works and peat, in a portable form, which may be 
 confidently recommended to the farmer and gardner. 
 
 Gas liquor alone, applied by the water-cart, at the 
 rate of 400 gallons per acre, and the land a few 
 days after sowed with barley, has given results equal 
 to stable manure. Much of this liquor is allowed 
 to run to waste. With the hope that it may be saved 
 for the mutual benefit of agriculture and the gas 
 manufacturer, the following suggestions are submit- 
 ted to their consideration. 
 
 From experiments which were tried by Jacque- 
 mart, with those above detailed, it appeared that 
 sulphate of ammonia and peat powder produced 
 very little effect. The conversion into that salt is to 
 be avoided if it is intended to be used as will be 
 here recommended. Sulphate of ammonia, mixed 
 with other manures is known by repeated experi- 
 ments to produce good results, but for the purpose of 
 preparing " peat poudrette" at the gas works, car- 
 
ARTIFICIAL HANURK. 207 
 
 bonate of ammonia is preferable. If sulpbate of 
 ammonia is used, then about 2 oz. of chalk or 
 whiting in powder should be added to each gallon of 
 gas liquor, before mixing, as hereafter described. 
 Whatever portion of ammonia is converted to sul- 
 phate, an equivalent of chalk powder must be used. 
 Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of lime result 
 by slow decomposition. The gas liquor is variable 
 in quality ; but that from Pictou coal contains about 
 6 per cent, of ammonia. This is equal to about 
 14| lbs. sulphate of ammonia crystals, per 100 gal- 
 lons, or 21 oz. per gallon ; hence, at the rate of 82 
 lbs. per acre, 600 gallons of gas liquor should be 
 used. But from later trials than those cited above, 
 it has been proved that much less than this quantity 
 is an effectual manure. The transportation of the 
 liquor in any quantity will not pay the expenses. 
 How then may the fanner use gas liquor ? It is 
 recommended to dry peatj and then powder it. It 
 maybe dried by the spare heat from the gas re- 
 torts. The temperature should not exceed 240° F. 
 At 300° it will be apt to take fire. To one ton dried 
 peat, or 50 bushels, add 150 gallons gas liquor. 
 
 Peat, as has been shown, (259), contains about 15 
 per cent, solid matter. At the average weight of a 
 cord, fresh dug, the amount of solid matter of IJ 
 cord, will be about 2137 lbs., or one ton ; this when 
 dried as above, will absorb two-thirds its weight, or 
 150 gallons gas liquor, without becoming pasty ; it 
 forms a moist powder only like damp sand. If it is 
 found that it becomes too wet to work up moist, this 
 
268 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 is caused by imperfectly roasted peat, and then as 
 proposed (209) the gas' liquor must be added at in- 
 tervals, drying between in open air. The whole 
 will weigh about 3400 lbs. and the bulk will equal 
 100 bushels. At 5 per cent, of ammonia, 150 gal- 
 lons of gas liquor contain equal to 27 lbs. carbonate 
 of ammonia of commerce, or 21 lbs. sulphate of 
 ammonia. Hence the compost above contains = 8 
 per cent, carbonate of ammonia, and one bushel 
 may be considered equal to ^ peck of good pou- 
 drette. The total, whatever may be the bulk, is 
 equal to 1^ cord of fresh peat mixed with 27 lbs. 
 of soda ash, or about nearly in the proportions re- 
 commended (271) to make a cord equal to a cord of 
 stable manure. 
 
 If, by repeated drying under sheds in the open 
 air, 50 bushels of roasted peat are made to absorb 
 600 gallons gas liquor, it produces 75 bushels gas 
 poudrette, whose ammonia equals that in 2'> bushels 
 of the best poudrette from night-soil, and, used by 
 itself, 3 for 1 of that produces -fif^ of its effects, 
 or, when mixed J to | of poudrette, produces equal 
 effects to one of the night-soil article. It may not 
 be questioned that gas poudrette may be cheaply 
 prepared in a form so concentrated that bushel for 
 bushel its ammonia may equal that of poudrette ; 
 and when mixed with a little stable-dung, to set up 
 an active fermentation, it may be expected to act 
 equally well with the best commercial poudrette. 
 
 For this purpose the peat should be dried at the 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 269 
 
 lowest possible temperature which will expel the 
 moisture. It must not be charred. The ammonia 
 should all be in the state of sulphate. The moistened 
 peat powder may then be dried, and thus reduced to 
 nearly its original bulk, without danger of losing 
 ammonia. When dry, to every 100 parts of crys- 
 tals of sulphate-ammonia used, add 65 lbs. of pow- 
 dered chalk. It will be seen that this will gradually 
 become equal to about 100 lbs. of dry plaster of Paris, 
 giving off ammonia during all this time. Charring 
 stops all further action of the elements of peat. In 
 Jacquemart's experiments, probably the whole effect 
 is due to the ammonia carbonate. No ammoniacal 
 salt, according to Kuhlmann, acts till reduced to that 
 state. Fermentation has such effect. Hence, car- 
 bonate of ammonia, mixed with charcoal powder, 
 had the same good effects as when mixed with over- 
 dried peat. With this view, the cinders and sparks 
 collected by locomotive engines may be mixed into 
 a dry powder with gas liquor. So may be used 
 also charred saw-dust, and spent tan. But, it will 
 be observed that, by the mode recommended in this 
 work, the active power of peat is intended to be 
 preserved. It . differs from the " peat charcoal " 
 movement of the day in this point. That makes 
 vault poudrette ; this, gas poudrette. 
 
 Composts may be formed without peat or stable- 
 manure. That substance being omitted, speedy 
 decay and rapid fermentation may be induced in all 
 straws, green twigs, weeds, and green vegetable 
 
270 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 matter of all kinds, by piling them up, moistening 
 the heap with a solution of organic matter in the 
 state of decay, and adding various salts. A rich 
 and valuable manure may be thus speedily prepared, 
 if certain precautions are observed to retain the 
 volatile ammonia, the product of fermentation (100) 
 by converting it into fixed salts. 
 
 The rapid decay in all such composts depends 
 upon the same principle as the fermentation of 
 dough, viz., the addition of some body, as yeeist, 
 actually undergoing chemical change. This change 
 communicates motion to the particles of the whole 
 mass which thus act by induced fermentation. 
 
 A process of making manure on this principle 
 was originally proposed by JaufFret, in France. 
 Variously modified, it has been used both there and 
 in other countries with signal success. Manure 
 made by his original recipe costs more than stable- 
 dung, but the following, based on the principle 
 above stated, forms an economic manure. The 
 quantity of the materials are intended for manuring 
 one acre : 
 
 3 tons of green straw, ferns, bean-stalks, pea- 
 vines, potato-tops, weeds, leaves, &c., 
 
 90 lbs. of ground plaster, 
 
 2 " of common salt, 
 
 3 " of saltpetre, 
 
 2}^ bushels of house ashes, 
 
 2J " of charcoal powder, 
 
 5 " of night-soil. 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANUKE, 271 
 
 Make the pile of vegetable matter near a puddle 
 of stagnant water, if possible ; if this is not conve- 
 nient, sink a pit by the edge of the pile, fill it with 
 common water, throw into it the night-soil, mix it 
 well by stirring, add the ashes, then the charcoal, 
 lastly the salts. 
 
 With a bucket furnished with a long-pole handle, 
 like a tanner's scoop, water the pile several times 
 daily with the above mixture, taking care that the 
 drainage runs into the pit, to be again returned 
 upon the pile. In two or three weeks in warm 
 weather the heap is sufficiently converted for use. 
 
 The yeast, as it may be termed in this process, is 
 the night-soil, and the putrescent matter in the 
 stagnant water. 
 
 Referring now to (100), it will be at once seen 
 here is a ready and cheap mode of producing geine, 
 ammonia, nitrates, which, with the salts already 
 added, form a manure whose efficacy and economy 
 alike recommend its use to those who have not peat 
 or swamp-muck at command. 
 
 There is a choice, if it may be exercised in the 
 kind of straw best for such a compost as is above 
 recommended. The straw of beans, peas, and all 
 pod or leguminous plants, is richer in nitrogen than 
 straws of grain, or cereal plants. Pod-plant straw 
 contains more vegetable matter, and a greater quan- 
 tity of potash salts, than grain straw ; the first 
 form more geine, more ammonia by putrefaction, 
 and are therefore preferable for composts. Oat 
 
272 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 
 
 Straw contains more potash, and buckwheat straw 
 more magnesia than other straws. 
 
 The following table exhibits straws as arranged 
 according to their practical compost value, by 
 Sprengel, and also their proportion per cent, of 
 organic matter, salts and nitrogen ; the last as 
 determined by Payen and Boussingault : 
 
 
 straw. 
 
 Organic matter. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 1. 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 , 96.797 
 
 3.2i)3 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Bean, 
 
 9G.879 
 
 3.121 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Millet, 
 
 95.145 
 
 4.853 
 
 0.78 
 
 4. 
 
 Pea, 
 
 9.5.029 
 
 4.971 
 
 1.79 
 
 5. 
 
 Barley, 
 
 94.759 
 
 5.244 
 
 0.23 
 
 6. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 96.482 
 
 3.518 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Rye, 
 
 97.207 
 
 2.793 
 
 0.17 
 
 8. 
 
 Corn-stalk, 
 
 96.015 
 
 3.985 
 
 0.-,28 
 
 9, 
 
 Oat. 
 
 94.266 
 
 5.734 
 
 
 279. Having thus considered all the classes of 
 manure, and shown the possibility of enriching bar- 
 ren fields, without the aid of animals, other subjects, 
 intimately connected with this discussion, may be 
 here introduced. 
 
 These are, the application of manure in the form 
 of rain, snow, and by overflowing streams, and the 
 humble attempt to imitate these natural processes, 
 by irrigation. The effects in these cases are alike. 
 They are due to two distinct causes, first, to the air 
 of the water, and secondly, to the salts and other 
 materials, dissolved by, or suspended in the water. 
 First, before it can be understood how irrigation acts, 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 273 
 
 let it be considered, how pure water acts ; it is not 
 said rain water, for that acts in a double way, both 
 by its purity and impurity. The more impure, the 
 better manure is water. The purer water is, the less 
 is it fit for irrigation. 
 
 280. Pure water acts only by its air. All water 
 exposed to air, absorbs different proportions of its 
 oxygen and nitrogen. This is a very slow process. 
 It is found that most natural waters give out, by boil- 
 ing, from every hundred cubic inches of water, 3^ 
 cubic inches of air. This air contains 8 or 9 per 
 cent, more oxygen, than an equal bulk of common 
 air. Water is generally filled or saturated with air ; 
 it will take up no more by a month's exposure. If 
 this wat€r is boiled, and again exposed to the air, it 
 will absorb, in 24 hours, as follows : — let there be 
 taken any number of measures of air, which are 
 composed of 20 of oxygen and 80 of nitrogen. If 
 100 measures are absorbed by water, it is in this 
 proportion : 
 
 Of nitrogen, 46.43 
 
 Of oxygen, 53.57 
 
 so that oxygen is three times more absorbable than 
 nitrogen, 
 
 281. If now, there is expelled by boiling, the air 
 from pond or river water, it is found to contain. 
 
 Nitrogen, 45.29 
 
 Oxygen, 18.63 
 
 so that two-thirds of the oxygen have disappeared ; 
 
 18 
 
2T4 IBKIGATION. 
 
 this is the only fact which concerns the farmer. 
 The oxygen has been absorbed by natural waters 
 and two-thirds retained. What has become of it ?' 
 It has gone, it is not said all of it, but in irrigation a 
 large portion to convert insoluble into soluble geine. 
 Irrigation is chiefly employed on grass-lands. The 
 green sward here may not be broken up. M'^hat if 
 it was ? What if by ploughing, it was exposed to 
 the action of the air ? Remember the properties of 
 geine. Air converts the insoluble to soluble, by 
 forming carbonic acid, that is, the air combines with 
 the carbon of the geine, and forms that gas. Give 
 the geine this oxygen, condensed in water : wet it 
 with this concentrated oxygen, crowd it into geine, 
 as would be done by overflowing a meadow with 
 water. It penetrates every crack and cranny, and 
 every mole's-eye hole ; it expels the carbonic acid 
 imprisoned under the sod. It is doing the same 
 work upon the untouched green sward, which would 
 be effected by ploughing and tillage. The long and 
 the short of the whole action of irrigation with pure 
 limpid water is, that its absorbed oxygen converts 
 insoluble to soluble geine. Is this explanation which 
 science offers, confirmed by practice ? The appeal 
 is made to all who have attended either to the theory 
 or practice of irrigation, to bear witness to its truth. 
 Is it not admitted that the running waters are alone 
 fit for this purpose ? That after remaining a few 
 days they are abated, and a new flood must cover 
 the land .' Is not this necessity of renewing at short 
 
IRRIGATION. 275 
 
 periods, the covering of water which shows no de- 
 posit, a proof that it has given up some invisible 
 agent to fertilize the earth ? This invisible agent is 
 oxygen. Is it not evident from the extreme slowness 
 with which air is absorbed by water, that if it were 
 not for the running water, which every few days 
 replaces that which has acted, that the practice of 
 irrigation with pure water could be never successful ? 
 
 282. This is the principle, a principle which, hav- 
 ing been wholly overlooked, has led to a waste of 
 time and money, and has given to irrigation, in many 
 minds, the odor, if not of a bad, at least of a useless 
 practice. Where, guided by this light of science, 
 grass lands can be irrigated, let it be done. If the 
 experience of the most enlightened agriculturists in 
 Europe is not all deception, by simple irrigation with 
 running water, the farmer may cut two tons of hay 
 where he toils and sweats to rake off one. 
 
 283. But by far the most fertile source of increas- 
 ed crops by irrigation, is found in the impurity of 
 water ; the salts and suspended matter, the slime 
 and genial mud of freshets. Perhaps the effect due 
 to this cause, cannot be better illustrated, than by a 
 statement of those substances, and their amount, 
 which fill the waters of the Merrimack ; a flood of 
 blessings ! which rolls by those engaged in the din 
 and hot haste of manufactures, as unheeded as was 
 the earthquake which thundered and trembled, and 
 rolled away under the feet of the fierce soldiery in 
 an ancient battle. In the year 1838, during twenty- 
 
276 IHRIGATION. 
 
 three days of freshets, from May till November, no 
 less than 71874063 lbs. of geine and salts rolled by 
 the city of Lowell, borne seaward. During the five 
 days of the great freshet, from January 28th, to 
 February 1st, 1839, no less than 35970897 lbs. of 
 the same matter rolled by at the rate of from 
 112128 lbs. to 20405397 lbs. per day; each cubic 
 foot of water bearing onwards, from 1^ to 30^ grains. 
 This is only the suspended matter. That which is 
 chemically dissolved by the waters, the fine filmy 
 deposit, which occurs in a few days after the coarser 
 and grosser matters subside, and the matter ordinarily 
 suspended in the water of the river added to the 
 above for the year 1838, give a grand total of 
 839181 tons of salts and geine, which were rolled 
 down in the water of the Merrimack river. 
 
 284. What is this matter ? Is it of any agricul- 
 tural value .' The answer to the first question will 
 answer both. The dissolved salts are sulphate and 
 geate of lime, and the fine deposit occurring after 
 the water has settled, is composed of one-half geine, 
 and the remainder of salts of lime and silicates. 
 The great agricultural value is found in the clayey 
 deposit, which occurs in the first few days. The 
 coarser part, that which collects about the foot of 
 rocks, and falls, and eddies, is composed as follows : 
 
 Geine, 3.92 
 
 Silex, 72.70 
 
 Oxide of iron, . . . . 9.15 
 Alumina, 8.30 
 
IRRIGATION. 277 
 
 Lime, 0.51 
 
 Magnesia, 0.10 
 
 But considering the elements as we have usually- 
 treated them, as silicates, salts and geine, the com- 
 position of the several deposits is shown in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Sulphate Fhos. of 
 
 Insol. of lime. lii 
 
 The coarse de- ) .^ ^g j gg ^^^ ^ g^ g^ _^^ 
 posit above, ) 
 
 Freshet, 1839, 5.40 6.50 2.34 1.20 84.66 
 
 ^T-ls^'sg 1®-^^ ^-^^ ^-^^ ^-^^ ^^-^^ 
 
 285. If the doctrine of the action of silicates, 
 salts and geine, upon each other, when aided by 
 growing plants, is considered, it cannot fail to be 
 perceived, that the fertility of soils, periodically 
 overflowed by turbid waters, is owing to the ele- 
 ments, salts and geine which it contains, and to the 
 exquisitely finely divided state of the silicates which 
 form the bulk of the deposit. The carbonic acid of 
 the air acts on each atom of silicate, while owing 
 to the geine having been, as it were, irrigated, the 
 oxygen of the air and water must put that into a 
 state to evolve carbonic acid, Hence, the silicates 
 are at once decomposed, and their alkali liberated. 
 How beautiful ! It seems like a special interposi- 
 tion of that beneficent Power, whose blessings, while 
 they fill us with wondering admiration, at the infi- 
 nite skill which directs every change in the material 
 universe, should teach us also, that these changes 
 
278 IRRIGATION. 
 
 are held up to us, not only to admire, but in some 
 humble degree to imitate. Whenever man — "the 
 faithful servant and interpreter of nature," has thus 
 learned the lessons propounded by an Infinite Mind, 
 he finds, when he humbly imitates nature's laws, 
 she is a kind and indulgent parent. She opens her 
 hand liberally, and gives fertility by irrigation, and 
 rivers and streams like holy water sprinkled by a 
 reverend father, fructify all they bedew. With 
 hearts thus attuned, by the observation of the laws 
 of nature, they respond to the gentle vibrations, 
 caused by the descent of genial and fertilizing 
 showers. 
 
 286. Rain is only natural irrigation ; the water 
 is found, like that of rivers, rich in oxygen, and or- 
 ganic matter. The fertilizing power of rain is 
 referred to the same causes which lead to irrigation, 
 to the salts and geine, which rain water contains. 
 Several chemists have proved the existence of sa- 
 line matters and organic substances in the air. The 
 falling rain carries down with it salts of ammonia, of 
 soda, of lime, and organic matter. These all may 
 be supposed floating in the air. The dry soils, give 
 to the winds an impalpable dust, its silicates and 
 geine. When hailstones which have been formed in 
 the regions of perpetual frost, exhibit almost the 
 same substances, which are contained in rain water, 
 the height at which these matters float, would almost 
 compel the supposition that they exist in a gaseous 
 state From the examination of hailstones, by Girar- 
 
lEUlGATlON. 279 
 
 din, a French chemist, it appears, that no sensible; 
 trace of ammonia was detected during the evapora- 
 tion of their water, but there was found a notable 
 quantity of lime and sulphuric acid; and, above all, 
 a large proportion of an organic substance contain- 
 ing nitrogen. Melted hailstones have the appearance 
 of water, contaii^ing a drop or two of milk ; by 
 standing, the water grows clear, and the flocky mat- 
 ter which settles, burns with the smell of animal 
 matter, and evolves ammonia. 
 
 It is a question whether this is not the source of 
 the ammonia, discovered in rain water. It is taken 
 for granted, that the ammonia in rain water exists 
 as a volatile carbonate, because it was found to pass 
 over in distillation. So does a volatile product, 
 which always discolors the crystals of sal-ammo- 
 niac, procured by adding muriatic acid to the dis- 
 tilled water. This discoloring matter was noticed a 
 century ago by MargrafT. Later chemists have also 
 detected ammoniacal salts in rain water, but no 
 volatile carbonate of that base. It is well known 
 that muriate of soda arises in evaporation, so does 
 chromate of potash, and several other salts. If, in 
 distilling rain water, the ammonia did not pass over 
 in the volatile organic discoloring product, it may 
 have gone over as muriate of ammonia. It is not 
 questioned that ammoniacal salts exist in rain and 
 snow water. The fact that it there exists as carbo- 
 nate seems to be assumed, and is incompatible 
 with the salts which have been heretofore obtained, 
 
280 IRRIGATION. 
 
 from rain, snow, and hail. This subject has of late 
 excited much attention, and as the existence of salts 
 in snow is intimately connected with the old saying 
 that " Snow is the poor man's manure," it may be 
 worth while to examine the foundation of this prov- 
 erb. Like all others of this class it will be found to 
 rest on observation, and is supported by experiment. 
 In 1751, Margraif, in the neighborhood of Berlin, 
 after it had snowed several hours, collected in glass 
 vessels as much falling snow as afforded 360O 
 ounces of water. This, carefully evaporated, af- 
 forded 60 grains of calcareous matter, with some 
 grains of muriatic acid, and traces of nitrous vapor. 
 An equal quantity of rain water afforded 100 grains 
 calcareous matter, with some mui^atic acid ; and in 
 both cases the matter was discolored by an oily sub- 
 stance. A similar result was obtained long ago in 
 Ireland, by Dr. Rutty, who found in a gallon of snow 
 water, 4 grains, and in one gallon of rain water, 6 
 grains of calcareous matter. This is about the pro- 
 portion found by Margraff, and would give for each 
 inch of snow water about 10 lbs. of salts per acre. 
 From the existence of free acids in this case, it is 
 evident that no carbonate of ammonia could have 
 there existed. There are some experiments per- 
 formed by our countryman, Dr. Williams, formerly 
 Hollis Professor of mathematics and natural philos- 
 ophy in Harvard College, and detailed in the first 
 volume of his history of Vermont, where the exper- 
 iments were performed. In 1791, 6 gallons of fresh 
 
IRRIGATION. 281 
 
 falling snow water afforded by evaporation 1 1 grains 
 calcareous matter, 2 grains of saline matter, 5 grains 
 of a dark brown oily matter. In January, 1792, 6 
 gallons of snow water, from snow lying three inches 
 deep on the grass, on an area of 16 square feet, 
 where it had lain 59 days, covered with a depth of 
 27 inches of snow, afforded the same salts as above, 
 and 105 grains of this oily matter. This is the 
 most remarkable fact, and may afford some weight 
 to the suggestion before made, that organic matter 
 exists gaseous in the air. It must have been drawn 
 up by capillary attraction, or evolved from the sur- 
 face of the earth. It is there condensed by the 
 snow and returned to the earth, impregnated with its 
 salts of lime and ammonia. The snow is " the 
 poor man's manure." It not only adds salts and 
 geine, but prevents the escape of the last. But is it 
 possible that it should escape in the cold ? Doubt- 
 less it does when the ground is not frozen. The snow 
 by its warm mantle actually prevents the earth grow- 
 ing colder, and, as has been ingeniously suggested, 
 keeps up an imperfect vegetation. The snow thaws 
 frozen ground. In 1791, Professor Williams found 
 that the ground which had been frozen 6 inches in 
 depth before the snow fell, not only had this frost 
 extracted in a few weeks by snow, but that the 
 ground, 6 inches below the surface, had a tempera- 
 ture of 39 degrees. This slight elevation of tem- 
 perature was enough to allow the gaseous exhalation 
 of organic matter, which was found to exceed that 
 
282 
 
 PARING AND BTIRNINff. 
 
 of fresh fallen snow by 20 times. This quantity, 
 in snow 3 inches deep, would give per acre 40 lbs., 
 and to this are to be added 5 lbs. of salts. If this 
 geine is not a natural addition in weight, it has 
 undergone 'a transformation and become soluble. 
 Besides, every inch of fresh fallen snow actually 
 adds a little of this same matter ; it will not be 
 extravagant to estimate the total addition of geine at 
 50 lbs. per acre for the winter. This, added to the 
 warming effects of snow, shows that it may have a 
 genial and enriching power on vegetation, indepen- 
 dent of its ammonia. The old notion of the exis- 
 tence of nitre in snow is not supported by evidence ; 
 but in whatever view we consider the salts of lime 
 in snow and rain water, it is difficult to believe that 
 carbonate of ammonia exists in atmospheric air. 
 
 287. There are still other sources of manure, or 
 the elements of fertility, which the farmer can com- 
 mand. Among these are paring and burning, and 
 the ploughing in of green and dry crops. 
 
 It is not intended to go into the detail of these 
 operations. All experience proves their great fertil- 
 izing power. Their whole action, mysterious as a 
 part of it may appear, depends for its success upon 
 the formation of geine, salts, and silicates. And 
 first, — burning, in which is to be considered the 
 effects of simply burning the earthy parts of soils. 
 In the description of silicates. Chap. II., the frequent 
 occurrence of pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, was 
 described, and this is especially the case in all 
 
FAKING AND BURNING. 283 
 
 clays. The effect of T)uming is, to disengage sul- 
 phurous acid, and the red and seared appearance of 
 the foliage in the neighborhood of a brick kiln, which 
 may be often observed, is due to the disengagement 
 of acid gases, during the process of burning the 
 bricks. This acid gas being liberated, in the opera- 
 tion of burning soils, hastens the formation of 
 sulphates and salts. It divides the silicates, and 
 thus reduces them to a state in which the carbonic 
 acid of the air more easily decomposes them. If 
 we go one step further, and burn the vegetable 
 matter of the soil, a portion of geine is lost, and 
 eishes are formed, whose operation has been already 
 considered (Chap. III.) They dissolve any geine 
 in soil ; hence the practice of burning the parings 
 of a peat meadow, wbose ashes bring the balance 
 into cultivation. The wbole practice of burning 
 vegetable soil for its ashes is wasteful. The original 
 mode of paring and burning, and which forty years 
 ago was so common in Europe, is still followed in 
 many places in England, where the paring, from the 
 operation, is called push ploughing. It has been 
 more often given up, from the excessive crops it has 
 produced, exhausting the soil, than any inherent sin 
 in the practice itself. Instead of paring and 
 burning, it should rather be called paring and 
 roasting. The process should never go beyond a 
 good scorching. The effects of scorching insoluble 
 geine and inert vegetable fibre, may be illustrated 
 by reference to the effects of roasting coffee, or rye. 
 
284 GREEN AND DEY CROPS. 
 
 A tough green berry, or dry seed, which is quite 
 insoluble, is made by this process very soluble. 
 Toasting bread has a like effect, and so has baking 
 on the dough. Though in roasting coffee, a large 
 portion of charcoal seems to be made, yet in the 
 grounds of coffee, vegetable fibre is in that state in 
 vi^hich air and moisture act, as they do on the geine 
 of soils, converting the insoluble into soluble. If 
 ever decided good effects have been witnessed from 
 the application of charcoal, independent of rain 
 water, they are due to the cause here pointed out. 
 
 288. Turning in green crops is returning only to 
 the soil, the salts, silicates and geine, which the 
 plant has drawn out of it, together vi^ith all the 
 organic matter the plant itself has elaborated, from 
 oxygen and hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, from 
 whatever source derived. It has decomposed, during 
 the short period of its growth, as has been already 
 pointed out, more silicates and salts than the air 
 only could effect during the same period, which, 
 being turned in, restore to the soil from which they 
 grew, salts and silicates in a new form, whose action 
 on vegetation is like that of alkalies. But, powerful 
 as are the effects of green crops, ploughed in, it is 
 the experience of some practical men, that one crop 
 allowed to perfect itself and die where it grew, and 
 then turned in dry, is superior to three turned in 
 green. The whole result is explained by the fact, 
 that dry plants give more geine than green. Green 
 plants ferment, dry plants decay. A larger portion 
 
GREEN AND DBY CROPS. 285 
 
 escapes in fermentation, as gas and more volatile 
 products are formed, than during decay. The one 
 is a quick consuming fire, the other a slow moulder- 
 ing ember, giving off, during all its progress, gases, 
 which feed plants, and decompose the silicates of 
 soil. 
 
 289. The power of fertility which exists in the 
 silicates of soil is unlimited. An improved agricul- 
 ture must depend upon the skill with which this 
 power is brought into action. It can be done only 
 by the conjunction of salts, geine, and plants. Bar- 
 ren sands are worthless, a peat bog is little better ; 
 but a practical illustration of the principles, which 
 have been maintained, is afforded by every sandy 
 knoll made fertile by spreading swamp muck upon 
 it. This is giving geine to silicates. The very act 
 of exposure of this swamp muck, has caused an evo- 
 lution of carbonic acid gas ; that decomposes the 
 silicates of potash in the sand ; that potash converts 
 the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo ! a crop. 
 That growing crop adds its power to the geine. If 
 all the long series of experiments under Von Voght, 
 in Germany, are to be believed, confirmed as they 
 are by repeated trials by our own agriculturists, it is 
 not to be doubted, that every inch of every sand 
 knoll, on every farm, may be changed into a soil 
 in 13 years, of half that number of inches of good 
 mould. 
 
 290. That the cause of fertility is derived from 
 the decomposing power of the geine and plants, is 
 
286 DECOMPOSITION OF SOIL. 
 
 evident from the fact, that mere atmospheric expo- 
 sure of rocks, enriches all soil lying near and around 
 them. It has been thought among the inexplicable 
 mysteries, that the soil under an old stone wall is 
 richer than that a little distance from it. Indepen- 
 dent of its roller action, which has compressed the 
 soil and prevented the aerial escape of its geine, 
 consider that the potash washed out of the wall has 
 done this, and the mystery disappears. The agents 
 to hasten this natural production of alkali, are salts 
 and geine. The abundance of these has already 
 been pointed out in peat manure. Next to this, dry 
 crops ploughed in ; no matter how scanty, their 
 volume constantly will increase, and can supply the 
 place of swamp muck. Of all soils to be cultivated, 
 or to be restored, none are preferable to the sandy 
 light soils. By their porousness, free access is given 
 to the powerful effects of air. They are naturally in 
 that state, to which trenching, draining, and subsoil 
 ploughing are reducing the stiffer lands of England. 
 Manure may as well be thrown into water, as on 
 land underlaid by water. Drain this, and no matter 
 if the upper soil be almost quicksand, manure will 
 convert it into fertile arable land. The thin covering 
 of mould, scarcely an inch in thickness, the product 
 of a century may be imitated by studying the laws of 
 its formation. This is the work of " Nature's 'pren- 
 tice hand ; " man has long been her journeyman, 
 and now guided by science, the farmer becomes the 
 master-workman, and may produce in one year quite 
 as much as the apprentice made in seven. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 
 
 291. In all attempts at improving soil by manure, 
 two objects are intended, which form the golden 
 rule of applying salts and geine ; to make " heavy 
 land lighter, light land heavier, hot land colder, and 
 cold land hotter." Are there then, notwithstanding 
 all that has been offered and said, differences in 
 soil ? Have not, it may be asked, all the preceding 
 pages been based on the fact, that there is but one 
 soil .' True, it has been so said, it is said so now. 
 Chemically, the inorganic elements of all soil are 
 alike. The silicates and salts are nearly the same 
 in all ; the organic portion, the geine varies, and 
 that to a greater degree than any other ingredient. 
 While the silicates compose with great uniformity 
 about 89 per cent., and the salts of lime, sulphate, 
 and phosphate, &c., 2 per cent., the geine varies 
 from 1 to 20 per cent. The silicates may be finer 
 or coarser, more sandy or more clayey. These cir- 
 cumstances affect not the chemical, but the physical 
 properties of soil. The physical properties, then, 
 are the foundation of the great diversity which soil 
 
288 PHYSICAL PEOPEKTIES OF SOIL. 
 
 exhibits. The subject of soil will have been very 
 imperfectly treated, if a few pages are not devoted 
 to this important subject. 
 
 Liebig has observed that, " it is the duty of the 
 chemist to explain the composition of a fertile soil, 
 but the discovery of its proper physical state or con- 
 dition belongs to the agriculturist." Evidently, in 
 the opinion of the authority quoted, the composition 
 and physical state of soils are independent of each 
 other ; and it may be thought that the author is 
 exceeding the limits, bounded by chemistry, when 
 he touches this new field, thus appropriated to the 
 agriculturist. 
 
 292. The physical characters of soil are embraced 
 under the terms, cold, hot, wet, and dry land. These 
 characters are dependent on four circumstances. 
 
 Firstly, the absolute weight of a given bulk of 
 soil. 
 
 Secondly, its color. 
 
 Thirdly, its consistency. 
 
 Fourthly, its power of retaining water. 
 In other words, the physical characters of soil may 
 be considered under. 
 
 Firstly, its relation to heat. 
 
 Secondly, its relation to moisture and gas, 
 
 Thirdly, its consistency. 
 
 Fourthly, its electrical relation. 
 
 The relation to consistency, makes soil light or 
 heavy ; the relation to heat and moisture, makes soil 
 hot or cold, dry or wet. The great natural varieties 
 
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 289 
 
 of soil are, sand, clay, and loam ; first, the great dis- 
 tinction in the scale of soil, is sand and clay : all 
 intermediate varieties proceed from mixtures of 
 these, with each other. Now the sand may be sili- 
 ceous or calcareous, that is, composed of silicates, 
 the distinguishing character of soil in this country, 
 or mixed with a salt of lime, the feature of much 
 European soil. By clay is meant common blue 
 clay, or sub-silicate of alumina, consisting of alu- 
 mina 36, silica 68, oxide of iron, and salts of lime, 
 and alkalies, 6. 
 
 Sandy clay is — clay and sand, equal parts, 
 
 Loamy clay is — f clay, and I sand. 
 
 Peaty earth is — geine. 
 
 Garden mould is — 8 per cent, geine. 
 
 Arable land is — 3 per cent, geine. 
 
 Taking these several varieties, it is found, that 
 sand is always the heaviest part of soil, whether dry 
 or wet ; clay is among the lightest parts ; geine has 
 the least absolute weight, so that while a cubic of 
 sand weighs, in its common damp state, 141 lbs., 
 clay weighs 115 lbs., and geine 81 lbs. ; hence 
 garden mould and arable soil weigh from 102 to 
 119 lbs. The more geine, compound soil contains, 
 the lighter it is. 
 
 293. Among the most important physical char- 
 acters of soil, is the power of retaining heat ; this 
 will be found to be nearly in proportion to its abso- 
 lute weight. The weight of soil determines, with 
 tolerable accuracy, its power of retaining heat. 
 19 
 
290 PHrSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 
 
 The greater the mass in a given bulk, the greater 
 is this power. Hence sands retain heat longest, 
 three times longer than geine, and half as long again 
 as clay. Hence, the dryness and heat of sandy 
 plains. Sand, clay, and peat, are to each other, as 1, 
 2, and 3 in their power of retaining heat. But while 
 the capacity of soil to retain heat, depends on the 
 absolute weight, the power to be warmed, another 
 very important physical character, depends on four 
 principal circumstances : first, the color ; second, 
 the dampness ; third, the materials ; fourth, the angle 
 at which the sun's rays fall. First, color ; the 
 blacker the color, the easier warmed. White sand 
 and gray, differ almost 50 per cent., in the degree of 
 heat acquired in a given time. As peat and the 
 varieties of geine, are almost all of a black, or dark 
 browii color, it is seen how easily they may become 
 warm soils, when dry ; for secondly, dampness modi- 
 fies the influence of color, so that a dry, light colored 
 soil will become hotter, sooner than a dark wet one. 
 As long as evaporation goes on, a difference of 10 
 or 12 degrees will be found between a dry and a wet 
 soil of the same color. Thirdly, the different mate- 
 rials of which soils are composed, exert but very 
 little influence on their power of being heated by the 
 sun's rays. Indeed, if sand, peat, clay, garden 
 mould, all equally dry, are sprinkled with chalk, 
 making their surfaces all of a color, and then exposed 
 to the sun's rays, the differences of their temperature 
 will be found inconsiderable. Color and dryness, 
 
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 291 
 
 then, exert a most powerful influence on the capacity 
 of soil to be warmed. 
 
 Fourthly, the last circumstance to be noticed, is 
 the different angle at which the sun's rays fall. The 
 more perpendicular, the greater the heat. The effect 
 is less in proportion, as these rays by falling more 
 slanting, spread their light out over a greater surface. 
 But this point, which seems external to soil, need 
 not be enlarged on. Now, the great fact to be 
 observed, ia this relation, of soil to heat is, that 
 geine exerts the most marked influence. If soil 
 heats quickly, it is because it has a large proportion 
 of geine. Does it cool quickly ? It is the geine 
 which gives up heat quickly, referring here to the 
 soil in a dry state, the modification produced by 
 dampness having been already considered. 
 
 294. The relation of soil to moisture and gas, is 
 not less important than that of heat. All soil, except 
 pure siliceous sands, absorb moisture, but in different 
 degrees. Geine possesses the greatest power of 
 absorption, and no variety of geine equals in its 
 absorptive power, that from animal manure. The 
 others rank in the following order, garden mould, 
 clay, loam, sandy clay, arable soil. They all satu- 
 rate themselves with moisture by a few days' ex- 
 posure. It is a very interesting question. Does soil 
 give up this absorbed water speedily and equally ? 
 Is its power of retaining water equal .? As a general 
 fact, it may be stated, that the soil which absorbs 
 fastest and most, evaporates slowest and least. 
 
292 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 
 
 Geine evaporates least in a given time. The power 
 of evaporation is modified by the consistence of 
 soil ; by a different degree of looseness or compact- 
 ness of soil. Garden mould, for instance, dries 
 faster than clay. As it has been already shov^'n, 
 that the power of being warmed is much modified 
 by moisture, so the power of a soil to retain water 
 makes the distinction of a hot or c6ld, wet or dry 
 soil. In all the relations to moisture, as to heat, 
 geine exercises the greatest influence. 
 
 295. Connected with this power of absorption of 
 moisture, is the very important relation of soil to gas. 
 All soil absorbs oxygen gas, when damp, never 
 when dry. Of the ingredients of soil, geine forms 
 the only exception to this rule. That absorbs oxy- 
 gen, whether it be wet or dry. Geine has this 
 power in the highest degree, clay next ; frozen 
 earths not at all. A moderate temperature increases 
 the absorption. 
 
 When earths absorb oxygen, they give it up un- 
 changed. They do not combine with it. They 
 merely induce on the absorbed moisture, power to 
 imbibe oxygen. But when geine absorbs oxygen, 
 one portion of that combines with its carbon, pro- 
 ducing carbonic acid, which decomposes silicates, 
 and a second portion of oxygen combines with the 
 hydrogen of the geine, and produces water. Hence, 
 in a dry season well manured soils, or those abound- 
 ing in geine, suffer very little. The power of geine 
 to produce water, is a circumstance of soil almost 
 
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 293 
 
 wholly overlooked. It is one, whose high value will 
 appear by a coniparison with the quantity of water, 
 produced by a fresh ploughed, upturned sward, with 
 that from the same soil undisturbed. The evapora- 
 tion from an acre of fresh ploughed land is equal to 
 950 lbs. per hour ; this is the greatest for the first 
 and second days, ceases about the fifth day, and 
 again begins by hoeing, while at the same time the 
 unbroken sod affords no trace of moisture. This 
 evaporation is equal to that which follows after 
 copious rains. These are highly practical facts, and 
 teach the necessity of frequent stirring of soil in 
 a dry time. Where manure 'or geine is lying in 
 the soil, the evaporation is from an acre equal to 
 5000 lbs. per hour. At 2000 lbs. of water per 
 hour, the evaporation would amount in 92 days to 
 2208000 lbs. which is nearly equal to the amount of 
 rain which would fall in the same time in this 
 climate. But the evaporation from woodland actu- 
 ally exceeds the amount of rain which falls. The 
 evaporation from an acre of woodland was deter- 
 mined by Professor Williams, (see his Hist, of Ver- 
 mont, vol. I.,) as follows : two leaves and a bud of a 
 branch of a growing maple were sealed in a bottle, 
 while yet attached to the tree. The expired water 
 collected and weighed, was found to amount in six 
 hours to 16 grains. The tree was 8] inches in 
 diameter, and 30 feet high. It was felled, and the 
 leaves carefully counted, were in number, 21192. 
 Supposing these all to have evaporated like those in 
 
294 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 
 
 the bottle, they would have expired, in twelve hours, 
 339072 grains of water. A moderate estimate, and 
 below the usual quantity of wood per acre of similar 
 land, gave four such trees to a rod, or 640 per acre. 
 Estimating 7000 grains to a pint, 3875 gallons of 
 water, or 81000 lbs. were evaporated from an acre 
 of woodland in 12 hours. At Eutland, in Vermont, 
 where this experiment was made, in 1789, the Pro- 
 fessor notes, that on the 26th of May, the maple 
 leaves were ^ of their full size, and on the 15th of 
 September following, these leaves began to turn 
 white. Throwing out the 15 days in September, 
 and the 4 in May, the leaf may be considered as 
 fully developed for three months. During these 92 
 days, the evaporation would have amounted, at 12 
 hours per day, to 2852000 lbs. The rain at the 
 place during this period, was 8.333 inches or 43^^ 
 pounds to every square foot of surface, equal per 
 acre of 43560 feet, to 1890504 lbs. The amount 
 of evaporation during the time in which the tree was 
 in full leaf exceeds that of the actual fall of rain, by 
 nearly 1000000 of lbs. This excess arises from the 
 decomposition of geine in the soil, and consequent 
 formation of water, by the action of the living plant. 
 If we allow the process to go on, during 15 hours 
 per day, then in 92 days, as above, 3565000 lbs. of 
 water would be evaporated. One may easily under- 
 stand how exhausting a process must be vegetation, 
 where every year all above ground is cut and carried 
 away. Not only the geine, whose carbon and water 
 
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 295 
 
 have become parts of the plant, is thus withdrawn, but 
 a still larger portion disappears as water and car- 
 bonic acid. In forests, the annual fall of leaves and 
 wood, in fields, the ungathered crop, may add more 
 than the amount thus withdrawn from soil. That 
 plants do form from carbonic acid and water, a 
 great amount of vegetable matter, is by all admitted. 
 This amount in dry or green crops turned in, 
 increases the geine of soil. 
 
 There is yet another view of the effect of the con- 
 version of geine into water. Allowing, as has been 
 asserted, that all land, forest or cultivated, pro- 
 duces annually about the same amount of carbon, 
 then the amount of water, transpired above from 
 woodland in 15 hours, is nearly equal to dissolving 
 one-half of the geine, to produce that amount, leav- 
 ing the balance to be derived from air. An acre of 
 woodland produces, it is said, annually, about 1783 
 English pounds of carbon. If water dissolves only 
 ^jjjjj part of its weight of humus or geine, then 
 3565000 dissolves 1426 lbs., which, at 58 per cent. 
 
 carbon are equal to 827 lbs. 
 
 Leaving to be derived from air, . . 956 lbs. 
 
 1783 lbs. 
 This is taking geine in its most insoluble state. The 
 great increase of solubility when combined with 
 alkali would render the annual amount of water 
 transpired, equal to dissolving, as geine, all the car- 
 bon which has been added to the plant. 
 
296 PHYSICAL PEOPEETIES OF SOIL. 
 
 The advantage of a light porous open soil is now 
 evident; it lets in air, it lets off steam. This steam, 
 charged with carbonic acid, acts on silicates, elimi- 
 nates alkalies, waters and feeds plants. Salts, geine, 
 and barren pine plains, are the elements of a western 
 prairie. Nature never bestowed upon man, soil of 
 greater capability of being made lastingly fertile, 
 than the sandy light soil of New England. 
 
 296. It is evident that the terms of heavy and 
 light, given by the farmer to soil, do not refer to 
 their absolute wei'ght (293). These distinctions de- 
 pend on firmness or consistency of soil. This pro- 
 duces a very marked difference in the fertility and 
 tillage of land. The terms light and heavy, mean 
 lighter or heavier to work. It is well known that 
 clay lands are heavy to work, sandy soil the lightest 
 and easiest, next to this is a soil containing a small 
 portion of geine. All light soil becomes heavy when 
 wet, but it is a well ascertained fact, that heavy soil 
 always becomes lighter by frost. Hence the reason 
 of breaking up with a plough before winter. Moist 
 earth then becomes frozen, and its particles being 
 driven asunder by frost, it becomes lighter, in truth 
 it has been found that the consistency of clay is 
 diminished nearly one-half by frost, and loamy clay, 
 one-half to two-thirds. It is essential to this change 
 from heavy to light land, that the soil be wet enough 
 to freeze. It is well known, that if, by frost, the 
 nature of the soil is thus changed, that if it is 
 ploughed while wet after freezing, the labor of the 
 
PHYSICAL PKOPEKTIES OF SOIL. 297 
 
 fall ploughing is lost. A lasting injury is done by- 
 ploughing land too wet. 
 
 297. In reference to the electrical relations of soil, 
 the dry sands are non-conductors, the clays weak 
 imperfect conductors, they are in the negative state. 
 Geine is always positive towards the elements of 
 soil. 
 
 298. In whatever view we regard geine, it is the 
 basis on which rests the whole art of agriculture. It 
 is this which causes the great difference of soil. 
 It is a difference of physical characters. The chem- 
 ical characters are uniform. If, then, geine is the 
 soul of fertility, if it makes soil hot, cold, wet, dry, 
 heavy or light, the proportion and state in which it 
 exists in soil, becomes an agricultural problem of the 
 highest value. This would lead to chemical analy- 
 sis. The lectures in which the principles set forth in 
 this book, were explained, terminated with a prac- 
 tical exhibition of the process of analysis of soil. 
 Having already greatly exceeded the limits to which 
 it was intended to confine these pages, the subject of 
 analysis, and several other topics, may be resumed at 
 some other time. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Dr. Nichols's Statements, from the Essex County 
 Agricultural Transactions, 1839-40. 
 
 To the Committee to whom was referred the Communication of 
 Andrew Nichols, on the subject of Compost Manures, <^c. 
 
 Gentlemen : — Persuaded of the importance of the dis- 
 coveries made by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, and 
 given to the world through the medium of the reports of 
 Professor Hitchcock and Kev. H. Colman, to the Legisla- 
 ture of Massachusetts, concerning the food of vegetables, 
 geine, and the abundance of it in peat mud, in an insoluble 
 state, to be .^^ure, and in that state not readily absorbed and 
 digested by the roots of cultivated vegetables, but rendered 
 soluble and very easily digestible by such plants, by potash, 
 wood ashes, or other alkalies, among which is ammonia, 
 one of the products of fermenting animal manures, I 
 resolved last year to subject his theories to the test of ex- 
 periment the present season. Accordingly, I directed a 
 quantity of black peat mud, procured by ditching, for the 
 purpose of draining and reclaiming an alder swamp, a part 
 of which I had some years since brought into a state highly 
 productive of the cultivated grasses, to be thrown in heaps. 
 During the winter I also had collected, in Salem, 282 bush- 
 els of unleached wood ashes, at the cost of 12^ cents per 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 bushel. These were sent up to my farm, a part to spread 
 on my black soil grass lands, and a part to be mixed with 
 mud for my tillage land. Two hundred bushels of these 
 were spread on about six acres of such grass land, while it 
 was covered with ice and frozen hard enough to be carted 
 over without cutting it into ruts. These lands produced 
 from one to two tons of good merchantable hay to the acre, 
 nearly double the crop produced by the same lands last 
 year. And one fact induces me to think, that, being spread 
 on the ice, as above mentioned, a portion of these ashes 
 was washed away by the spring freshet. The fact from 
 which I infer this, is, that a run below, over which the 
 water coming from the meadow on which the largest part of 
 these ashes were spread flows, produced more than double 
 the quantity of hay, and that of a very superior quality to 
 what had been ever known to grow on the same land 
 before. 
 
 Seventy bushels of these ashes, together with a quantity 
 not exceeding thirty bushels of mixed coal and wood ashes, 
 made by my kitchen and parlor fires, were mixed with my 
 barn-manure, derived from one horse kept in stable during 
 the winter months, one cow kept through the winter, and 
 one pair of oxen employed almost daily on the road and in 
 the woods, but fed in the barn one hundred days. This 
 manure was never measured, but knowing how it was 
 made, by the droppings and litter or bedding of these cattle, 
 farmers can estimate the quantity with a good degree of 
 correctness. These ashes and this manure were mixed 
 with a sufficient quantity of the mud above mentioned by 
 forking it over three times, to manure three acres of corn 
 and potatoes, in hills four feet by about three feet apart, 
 giving a good shovelful to the hill. More than two-thirds 
 of this was grass land, which produced last year about half 
 a ton of hay to the acre, broken up by the plough in April. 
 The remainder was cropped last year without being well 
 manured, with corn and potatoes. Gentlemen, you have 
 
APPENDIX. 301 
 
 seen the crop growing, and matured, and I leave it to you 
 to say whether or not the crop on this land would have been 
 better, had it been dressed with an equal quantity of pure, 
 well rotted barn-manure. For my own part, I believe it 
 would not, but that this experiment proves that peat mud, 
 thus managed, is equal if not superior to the same 
 quantity of any other substance in common use as a 
 manure among us, which, if it be a fact, is a fact of im- 
 mense value to the farmers of New England. By the 
 knowledge and use of it, our comparatively barren soils 
 may be made to equal or excel in productiveness the virgin 
 prairies of the West. There were many hills in which the 
 corn first planted was destroyed by worms. A part of 
 these were supplied with the small Canada corn, a part 
 with beans. The whole was several times cut down by 
 frost. The produce was three hundred bushels of ears of 
 sound corn, two tons of pumpkins and squashes, and some 
 potatoes and beans. Dr. Dana, in his letter to Mr. Colman, 
 dated Lowell, March 6, 1839, suggests the trial of a solu- 
 tion of geine as a manure. His directions for preparing it 
 are as follows: "Boil one hundred pounds of dry pulver- 
 ized peat with two and a half pounds of white ash, (an 
 article imported from England,) containing 36 to 55 per 
 cent, of pure soda, or its equivalent in pearlash or potash, 
 in a potash kettle, with 130 gallons of water ; boil for a few 
 hours, let it settle, and dip off the clear liquid for use. Add 
 the same quantity of alkali and water, boil and dip off as 
 before. The dark colored brown solution contains about 
 half an ounce per gallon of vegetable matter. It is to be 
 applied by watering grain crops, grass lands, or any other 
 way the farmer's quick wit will point out." 
 
 In the month of June, I prepared a solution of geine, 
 obtained, not by boiling, but by steeping the mud as taken 
 from the meadow, in a weak ley in tubs. I did not weigh 
 the materials, being careful only to use no more mud than 
 the potash would render soluble. The proportion was 
 
302 APPENBIX. 
 
 something like this : peat, 100 lbs. ; potash, 1 lb. ; water, 
 50 gallons, — stirred occasionally for about a week, when 
 the dark brown soliition described by Dr. Dana, was dipped 
 off and applied to some rows of corn, a portion of a piece 
 of starved barley, and a bed of onions sown on land not 
 well prepared for that crop. The corn was a portion of a 
 piece of manured as above mentioned. On this the benefit 
 was not so obvious. The crop of barley on the portion 
 watered, was more than double the quantity both in straw 
 and grain to that on other portions of the field, the soil and 
 treatment of which was otherwise precisely similar. 
 
 The bed of onions which had been prepared by dressing 
 it with a mixture of mud and ashes previous to the sowing 
 of the seed, but which had not by harrowing been so com- 
 pletely pulverized, mixed and kneaded with the soil, as the 
 cultivators of this crop deemed essential to success, con- 
 sisted of three and a half square rods. The onions came 
 up well, were well weeded, and about two bushels of fresh 
 horse-manure spread between the rows. In June, four 
 rows were first watered with the solution of geine above 
 described. In ten days the onions in these rows were 
 nearly double the size of the others. All but six rows of 
 the remainder were then watered. The growth of these 
 soon outstripped the unwatered remainder. 
 
 Mr. Henry Gould, who manages my farnj on shares, and 
 who conducted all the foregoing experiments, without 
 thinking of the importance of leaving at least one row 
 unwatered, that we might better ascertain the true effect of 
 this management, seeing the benefit to the parts thus 
 watered, in about a week after treated the remainder in the 
 same manner. The ends of some of the rows, however, 
 which did not receive the watering, produced only very 
 small onions, such as are usually thrown away as worthless 
 by cultivators of this crop. This fact leads me to believe 
 that if the onions had not been watered with the solution of 
 geine, not a single bushel of a good size would have been 
 
APPENDIX. 303 
 
 produced on the whole piece. At any rale, it was peat or 
 geine rendered soluble by alkali, that produced this large 
 crop. 
 
 The crop proved greater than our most sanguine expecta- 
 tions. The onions were measured in the presence of the 
 chairman of your committee, and making ample allowance 
 for the tops, which had not been stripped off, were adjudged 
 equal to 640 bushels to the acre. In these experiments, 7 
 lbs. of potash, which cost 7 cents a pound, bought at the 
 retail price, were used. Potash, although dearer than wood 
 ashes at 12J cents per bushel, is, I think, cheaper than the 
 white ash mentioned by Dr. Dana, and sufficiently cheap to 
 make, with meadow mud, a. far cheaper manure than such 
 as in general used among our farmers. The experiment 
 satisfies me that nothing better than potash and peat can be 
 used for most if not all our cultivated vegetables, and the 
 economy of watering with a solution of geine, such as are 
 cultivated in rows, I think cannot be doubted. The reason 
 why the corn was not very obviously benefited, I think 
 must have been that the portion of the roots to which it 
 was applied, was already fully supplied with nutriment out 
 of the same kind from the peat ashes and manure put in 
 the hill at planting. For watering rows of onions or other 
 vegetables, I should recommend that a cask be mounted on 
 light wheels, so set that like the drill they may run each 
 side of the row and drop the liquid manure through a small 
 tap-hole, or tub from the cask, directly upon the young 
 plants. For preparing the liquor, I should recommend a 
 cistern about three feet deep, and as large as the object may 
 require, formed of plank and laid on a bed of clay and 
 surrounded by the same, in the manner that tan-vats are 
 constructed ; this should occupy a warm place, exposed to 
 the sun, near the water, and as near as these requisites 
 permit to the tillage lands of the farm. In such a cistern, 
 in warm weather, a solution of geine may be made in large 
 quantities with little labor, and without the expense of fuel. 
 
304 APPENDIX. 
 
 as the heat of the sun is, I think, amply sufficient for the 
 purpose. If, from further experiment, it should be found 
 economical to water grass lands and grain crops, a large 
 cask or casks placed on wheels and drawn by oxen or horse 
 power, the liquor from the casks being at pleasure let into 
 a long narrow box perforated with numerous small holes, 
 which would spread the same over a strip of ground some 
 six, eight, or ten feet in breadth, as it is drawn over the 
 field in the same manner as the streets in cities are watered 
 in summer. 
 
 ANDREW NICHOLS. 
 
 I certify that I measured the piece of land mentioned in 
 the foregoing statement, as planted with corn, on the 21st 
 of September, 1839, and found the same to contain two 
 acres, three quarters, thirty-one rods. 
 
 John W. Pkootok, Surveyor. 
 
 Dr. Andrew Nichols's Statement of 1840. 
 
 Gentlemen : — Having invited the attention of the Trus- 
 tees of the Essex Agricultural Society to our continued 
 use of, and experiments on, fresh meadow or peat mud, as 
 a manure, it is of course, expected that the result of these 
 experiments should be laid before them. The compost with 
 which we planted most of our corn and potatoes the present 
 year, was composed of the same materials, and managed in 
 the same manner as that which we used last year for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 Four acres of corn, on the same kind of soil, was manured 
 in the hill with this compost, and one acre of corn on a 
 more meagre portion of the same field, was manured in the 
 same manner, with a compost consisting of the same kind 
 of mud, half a cord of manure taken from the pigsty, and 
 
APPENDIX. 305 
 
 forty pounds of potash, second quality, dissolved in water, 
 sprinkled over and worked into the heap, with the fork, in 
 the same manner that the dry ashes were into the other 
 compost. Of both kinds the same quantity, a common iron 
 or steel shovelful to the hill, was used, and no difference 
 in the crop which could be ascribed to the different manures, 
 could be perceived. The hills were four by three feet apart 
 on an average. In the borders and adjoining this piece of 
 corn, one acre was planted with potatoes. The compost 
 used in some portions of this consisted of rather a larger 
 portion of coarse barn-manure composed of meadow hay, 
 corn-fodder waste, &c., wet with urine and mixed with the 
 droppings of cattle, and less meadow mud. The whole six 
 acres was hoed twice only after the use of the cultivator. 
 The whole amount of labor, after the ground was furrowed 
 and the compost prepared in heaps on the field, is stated by 
 the tiller of the ground, H. L. Gould, to have been forty- 
 nine days' work of one man previous to the cutting of the 
 stalks. Pumpkins, squashes, and some beans were planted 
 among the corn. The produce was four hundred and sixty 
 bushel baskets of sound corn, eighty bushels of potatoes, 
 three cords of pumpkins, one and a half bushels of white 
 beans. On one acre of the better part of the soil, harvested 
 separately, there were one hundred and twenty baskets of 
 ■com ears, and a full proportion of the pumpkins. On one- 
 eighth of an acre of Thorburn's tree-corn treated in the 
 same manner as the rest, the produce was nineteen baskets. 
 A basket of this corn shells out seventeen quarts, one quart 
 more than a basket of the ordinary kinds of corn. The 
 meal for bread and puddings is of a superior quality. 
 Could we depend upon its ripening, for, Thorburn's asser- 
 tions to the contrary notwithstanding, it is a late variety of 
 com, (though it ripened perfectly with us last season, a 
 rather unusually warm and long one,) farmers would do 
 well to cultivate it more extensively than any other kind. 
 The use of dry ashes on our black soil grass lands showed 
 20 
 
306 APPENDIX. 
 
 an increased benefit from last year. But our experiments 
 with liquid manure disappointed us. Either from its not 
 being of the requisite strength, or from the dryness of the 
 season, or from our mistaking the effects of it last year, or 
 from all these causes combined, the results confidently 
 anticipated, were not realized ; and from our experiments 
 this year we have nothing to say in favor of its usej 
 although we think it worthy of further experiments. On 
 the first view of the subject, a dry season or a dry time 
 might seem more favorable to the manifestations of benefit 
 from watering plants with liquid manure, than wet seasons 
 or times. But when we consider that when the surface of 
 the earth is dry, the small quantity of liquid used would be 
 arrested by the absorbing earth ere it reached the roots, and 
 perhaps its fertilizing qualities changed, evaporated, or 
 otherwise destroyed, by the greater heat to which at such 
 times it must be exposed — it is not, I think, improbable 
 that the different effects noticed in our experiments with 
 this substance, the two past years, might be owing to this 
 cause. It is my intention, should sufficient leisure permit, 
 to analyze the soil cultivated and the mud used, and prepare 
 a short essay on the subject of peat mud, muck, sand, &c., 
 as manure, for publication in the next volume of the 
 transactions of the society. 
 
 Yours, respectfully, 
 
 Andrew Nichols. 
 Danvers, December 20, 1840. 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 Extract from Dr. Nichols's Letter. 
 
 Danvers, Jan. 28, 1842. 
 Dear SIr : — I am sorry to say that I have no new facts 
 to communicate. Nor have I any thing that contradicts 
 
APPENDIX. 307 
 
 my former views on the subject of peat, as manure. We 
 used it in compost on about nine acres of corn and potatoes 
 last summer, one-half of which was the same land on which 
 it was used the preceding season. Its effects seemed not to 
 be lessened by this second trial in the same soil. The 
 compost was as formerly composed by mixing the mud, 
 barn-manure, ashes or potash together in the field, in 
 spring, two or three weeks before the corn was planted ; in 
 a part of it, say, the manure for two acres, about 20 lbs. of 
 nitrate of potash were used. Wherever the nitre was used, 
 worms were absent ; other parts of the field were more or 
 less injured by them. This was all the good that we could 
 positively ascribe to the nitre. Our crops were in a most 
 flourishing condition on the tiiorning of the 30th of June, in 
 the afternoon and evening of that day, a violent tempest 
 and two showers of hail, blew down my barn, half my fruit 
 trees, and prostrated and mangled the corn. I should have 
 bargained readily with any one who would have insured me 
 half the crop realized the preceding year from the same 
 land and management. But the healing powers of nature 
 and genial influences of summer suns and showers, in a 
 few days restored the field again to a flourishing Condition. 
 A drought more severe than that of the preceding season 
 followed in August ; and our crop of corn per acre, was 
 about i less than the crop of that year. My farmer, H. L. 
 Gould, from his success with the mud which you analyzed, 
 was strongly impressed with the belief that other peat mud 
 would not prove as good. I requested him to make an 
 experiment, which he accordingly did, with two cart-loads 
 of peat, such as makes good fuel, taken directly from the 
 swamp, mixed with ashes, and used in the same quantity 
 by measure, as the other compost. He planted with this 
 four rows of corn through the piece. And, contrary to his 
 expectations, if there was any difference, he acknowledged 
 that these rows were better than the adjoining ones. The 
 mud you analyzed, contained, you recollect, a large portion 
 
308 APPENDIX. 
 
 of granitic sand ; this peat mucli less sand but more water, 
 it being quite spongy. The same bulk, therefore, as taken 
 from the meadow and used in our experiment would proba- 
 bly have weighed, when dry, not more than J or | as much 
 as the other. The quantity of geine in the shovelful of the 
 two kinds, varies not very much after all. I regret that 
 Mr. Gould did not repeat his experiments with the solution 
 of geine last season. My farm is seven miles from my 
 residence, and, like yourself, I turn no furrows with my 
 own hand, nor can I oversee, in their various stages, 
 experiments there. I suggest, advise, and leave him to 
 execute. He found himself too much hurried with his 
 work, to attend to this subject at the proper time. In 
 answer to your question I say — that the solution the 
 second year was not applied to the same land, and although 
 used in much larger quantities, it was not as strong as that 
 used the past year 
 
 Yours, respectfully. 
 To S. L. Dana, M. D. Aitokew Nichols. 
 
 It will be observed that about three cords of swamp mud 
 and 33 bushels of ashes have been used per acre, in 1839, 
 and 40 lbs. of potash in 1840. 
 
 The number of hills is 3630 per acre. Then calculating 
 the real potash, there were given to each hill of corn about 
 f pint of ashes, or 32 grains of alkali, in 1839, and 45 
 grains in 1840. 
 
 If three cords of swamp muck were used in 1840, about 
 6 oz. of dry geine have been applied per hill — the muck 
 being like pond mud. Now, 45 grains of alkali and 6 oz. 
 of geine, and yjViy of a cord of pig-manure per hill, have 
 here produced eifects equal to guano. No new source of 
 nitrogen has been opened to the corn. The effects are due, 
 then, to the alkaline action on geine, and of salts upon sili- 
 cates. The failure of the solution in the second year is 
 probably owing to the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen ; 
 see section (238). 
 
APPENDIX. 309 
 
 No. III. 
 
 Letter from Hon. William Clark, Jr. 
 
 Northampton, Wth February, 1842. 
 
 Dear Sir : — The results of the few trials I have made 
 with alkalies to neutralize the acidity of swamp muck, 
 have not been ascertained with that precision that is neces- 
 sary to determine conclusively which is best. I will, how- 
 ever, give you the experiments (if they deserve the name), 
 as they were made, with the apparent results. The first was 
 with fine well decomposed muck, from the swamp of which 
 you had samples, numbered 5, 6, and 7. In the spring of 
 1840, 16 lbs. of soda ash, or white ash, dissolved in water, 
 were carefully mixed with two estimated tons of the muck, 
 and the mixture applied as a top-dressing for corn. Two 
 other estimated tons of the muck were served with eight 
 bushels of dry wood ashes, all well mixed together and 
 spread on one side of the muck that was served with the 
 white ash, and further on, an equal quantity of fresh barn- 
 yard manure was spread, and still farther on, an equal 
 quantity of compost, made of one part barn-manure, and 
 two parts muck, mixed and fermented before using. 
 
 The land was a light sandy loam, on the border of a pine 
 plain, and the whole field was treated alike in all respects, 
 except the diiferent kinds of manure, all of which was 
 spread on the turned furrow, and harrowed in before 
 planting. The corn planted where the wood ashes and 
 muck were spread, early took precedence of all the other 
 parcels, and continued apparently much the best through 
 the season. Among the other parcels, no striking diiference 
 in growth or yield was manifest. The whole field was 
 harvested together, without separate weight or measure- 
 ment ; and the advantage which the ashes and muck 
 apparently gave over the others, rests (where no experiment 
 should rest) on the opinion of those whose attention was 
 called to it, while the corn was growing. 
 
310 APPENDIX. 
 
 A similar trial of ashes and muck, and soda and muck, 
 was made the same season on grass land ; and the advan- 
 tage was decidedly in favor of the soda ash and muck, as 
 on the corn land it was in favor of the ashes and muck. 
 
 Why the soda ash should act relatively, more favorably 
 upon the muck spread on grass land than when spread on 
 corn land, I am unable to determine, unless it be the partial 
 shade which the grass affords to protect it from the direct 
 rays of the sun, and measurably preserve its moisture and 
 softness. This inference is strengthened by the fact that 
 muck, treated as in the above cases — with soda ash in 
 solution, (which makes it somewhat pasty,) in the only 
 instance I have tried it — spread on the surface of an old 
 field, without a protecting crop, or subsequent harrowings 
 to cover it in the soil, became apparently sun-baked so hard 
 as to defy, for a time at least, the softening action of water. 
 This hardening effect was not observed to take place with 
 the muck treated with the dry ashes, or in the manure 
 compost, and may have arisen from the insufficient quantity 
 of alkali used in the case mentioned. 
 
 In another case, one lb. of soda ash, and one lb. of soft 
 soap were mixed with four bushels of muck, and all put 
 in a fifty gallon tub, and the tub filled with water, and 
 left to stand five or six days, with an occasional stirring ; 
 at the end of that period, the dark colored water was dipped 
 off and applied to various garden plants and vegetables, 
 and the tub again filled with water, and the muck stirred 
 up, and after a day or two the water was again dipped off 
 and applied as before, and the tub again filled with water. 
 This process was continued for two or three weeks in the 
 early part of the season, and the muck, though gradually 
 wasting, without additional alkali, continued to ferment 
 from time to time, and yield black liquor, to appearance 
 nearly as rich as the first. Rapid growth of the plants 
 followed in all cases when it was applied, and its effects 
 upon a lot of onions would have been ascertained with con- 
 
APPENDIX. 311 
 
 siderable accuracy, had not a " hired man " took it into his 
 head that the few rows purposely left for comparison, were 
 suffering by unwitting neglect, and gave them a "double 
 dose," thereby equalizing the growth, and sacrificing the 
 experiment to his honest notions of fair dealing, which 
 required that all should be treated alike. In another case, 
 a muck compost dressing, formed by previously slacking 
 quicklime with a strong brine of common salt, to disengage 
 the acid of the salt, that its soda might act on the muck 
 when in contact, was applied as a top-dressing for com, 
 without any perceptible effect, perhaps for want of skill in 
 compounding. 
 
 Facts abundantly testify to the fertilizing properties of 
 swamp muck and peat, when brought to a right state, and 
 the subject of your inquiry perhaps yields to no other, at 
 the present time, in point of importance, to our good old 
 Commonwealth. Taking your estimate of the weight of 
 fresh dug muck or peat, and Professor Hitchcock's estimate 
 of the quantity in the state, and the saving of one cent per 
 on in the expense of neutralizing its acidity, and fitting it 
 for use in agriculture, when applied to all our swamp muck 
 and peat, will amount to an aggregate saving to the indus- 
 try of the Commonwealth, of over five and a half millions 
 of dollars. Is there a reasonable doubt that more than ten 
 times this one per cent, per ton will be saved over any 
 present process, when chemistry has shed its full light on 
 the subject? 
 
 The magnitude and importance of a small saving in this 
 matter, must certainly have been overlooked by some who 
 have given advice on the subject of making muck compost. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Your most obedient servant, 
 
 William Clark, Jk. 
 
 S. L. Dana, M. D., Lowell, Mass. 
 
312 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 Extract from a letteh of Mr. Joseph A. Foster to 
 THE Author, relating to imitation spent Let (238). 
 
 Attkboro', February 6th, 1844. 
 
 Dear Sir : — I determined last spring to make a trial of 
 the imitation spent ley, recommended in the " Manual," 
 and the object of this communication is to give you the 
 results. 
 
 I mixed the composition in the manner and proportion 
 stated, with one exception, using two bushels of ashes 
 instead of one. I then spread it upon grass land, seeded 
 down to herd's grass and clover. The soil was rather a 
 dry, gravelly loam. It was spread upon a piece of land 
 about ten rods long, and two broad. It was spread the 27th 
 of April. On the 8th of June, or a little more than five 
 weeks after the application, as I find by the farm journal, 
 the effects of it were distinctly visible. The grass was 
 both much darker, or deeper green, and much taller. The 
 spot was distinctly marked where the composition was 
 spread. The difference continued to be much more appa- 
 rent, and several persons who knew not that any thing had 
 been put on, pointed out the spot upon which it had been 
 applied. The difference continued to increase till the dry 
 weather came on, when, in common with other dry lands, 
 the grass in a short time was completely scorched. The 
 grass upon which this manure had been applied did not dry 
 up any quicker than that around it. The grass had not 
 attained half its growth when it was mown. The spot upon 
 which the imitation was spread, had not the drought come 
 on, would have yielded at least one-half as much more as 
 an equal area by its side. 
 
 EespectfuUy yours, 
 
 Joseph A. Foster. 
 
INDEX. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Section. 
 
 Acetates, formation of, . . 47 
 
 Acids, " ... 44, 52, 65 
 
 " " in plants, . . 93, 98 
 
 " " " salts necessary to, 98 
 
 " action of, . . . . 46, 47, 153 
 
 " " on alkalies, . . . .46 
 
 " in salts, action of, . . . . 150 
 
 " " cause of peculiarity of action of, . 145 
 
 " difference in constitution of, . . 156, 157 
 
 " different strength of, ... 166 
 
 " rule for naming, . . . , .66 
 
 " combine only in their equivalents, . . 58 
 
 " in soil, when free, .... 162 
 
 " crenic, .... 101, 102 
 
 " " many-based, .... 126 
 
 " " saturating power of, . . 126 
 
 " apocrenic, .... 101, 103 
 
 " " many-based, . . 126 
 
 " " saturating power of, . . . 126 
 
 " geic, ..... 101 
 
 " humic, ... . . 101 
 
 " phosphoric, ..... 163 
 
 " sulphuric, ..... 153 
 
 " weak, action on sugar, . (p. 109) 
 
316 
 
 Acid, ulmic, .... 
 
 Agriculture, improvement of, 
 " mineralogy of, 
 
 " value of small discoveries in, 
 
 " relation to silicates and salts. 
 
 Agricultural Chemistry, aims of, . 
 
 " " first principle of, 
 
 " " second " 
 
 " " third " 
 
 " " fourth " 
 
 " " fifth " 
 
 sixth 
 seventh 
 eighth 
 ninth 
 
 tenth 
 
 " Geology, 
 
 Albumen, analysis of, . 
 
 " in dung, .... 
 Alkalies, .... 
 
 properties of, . . . 
 
 strong resemblance in, 
 catalytic action of, 
 combine only in their equivalents, 
 sufficiency of in soil, 
 in soil not free, 
 
 efi'ects on geine, 126, 128, 136, 142, 162, 264, 
 
 276, 137 
 
 " " cause of, . . 137 
 
 in ashes, ..... 163 
 
 action of carbonates on, . . 159, 169 
 
 action on vegetable fibre, . . . 136 
 
 Section^ 
 
 . 101 
 
 289 
 
 . 37 
 
 128 
 
 . 91 
 
 1 
 
 . 19 
 
 20 
 
 . 29 
 
 75 
 
 . 84 
 
 chemical proof of, 84 
 
 agricultural " 85 
 
 91 
 
 . 95 
 
 104 
 
 . 134 
 
 135 
 
 . 145 
 
 2,3 
 
 . 217 
 
 184, 201 
 
 . 41 
 
 '46 
 
 . 63 
 
 126 
 
 . 58 
 
 75 
 
 . 76 
 
 result of, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 Section. 
 
 Alkalies, action on vegetable fibre connected with 
 
 
 
 growth of plants, 
 
 137 
 
 t( 
 
 soluble, .... 
 
 . 272 
 
 ti 
 
 " within the reach of all, . 
 
 274 
 
 i( 
 
 other forms of cheap. 
 
 . 275 
 
 it 
 
 action of salt on, , 
 
 275 
 
 t( 
 
 stearate of, . 
 
 . 227 
 
 ft 
 
 margarate of, . 
 
 227 
 
 it 
 
 relative value of, . 
 
 . 264 
 
 Alkali 
 
 ne geates, .... 
 
 118, 124 
 
 (I 
 
 bases, ..... 
 
 . 62 
 
 it 
 
 " affinity of, for carbonic acid. 
 
 62 
 
 Alum, 
 
 formation of, . 
 
 . 79 
 
 Aliimi 
 
 na, geate of, . 
 
 121 
 
 It 
 
 phosphate of, . 
 
 . 80 
 
 tt 
 
 silicate of, ... 
 
 48 
 
 tt 
 
 insolubility of, in water. 
 
 . 62 
 
 tt 
 
 quantity of, in rock, 
 
 58 
 
 tt 
 
 combining weight of, 
 
 . 56 
 
 tt 
 
 peculiarities of, . 
 
 64 
 
 Ammonia, in soil, unites with organic acid, 
 
 . 101 
 
 tt 
 
 changes to nitric acid, . 
 
 126 
 
 tt 
 
 humate of, changed to apocrenic acid, 
 
 . 126 
 
 tt 
 
 in manure. 
 
 178 
 
 tt 
 
 in cow-dung, 
 
 186, 187 
 
 tt 
 
 produced yearly by one cow, 
 
 191 
 
 tt 
 
 the main value of manure, 
 
 . 192 
 
 tt 
 
 . catalytic action of. 
 
 194 
 
 tt 
 
 sources of, . 
 
 . 200 
 
 tt 
 
 in proteine, 
 
 219 
 
 tt 
 
 in bone, .... 
 
 . 223 
 
 tt 
 
 in all animal matters, . 
 
 216 
 
 tt 
 
 in peat, .... 
 
 . 260 
 
 tt 
 
 action of, in dung, 
 
 263 
 
 it 
 
 chemical equivalent of. 
 
 . 265 
 
318 INDEX. 
 
 Section. 
 Ammonia, equal to soda for agricultural purposes, 265 
 
 Ammoniacal salts of urine, ^ . . 246 
 
 " " and peat powder, . . . 278 
 
 Analysis of horse-dung, Girardin's, . . 203 
 
 " " sheep " " . (p. 178) 
 
 " " 146 Massachusetts soils, . . 33 
 
 " " 15 "Wisconsin " . (p. 36) 
 
 " " 48 European " . (p. 37) 
 
 " " soils, 413, table of, (p. 39) 
 
 " " night-soil, " " . . . 208 
 
 " " vine ashes. 
 
 An: 
 
 mal matter, ..... 
 " use of, ... 
 
 " all affords geine, ammonia and salts, 
 source of alkali for peat, 
 products may he divided into two classes, 
 " first class of, . 
 " second " 
 Animalized coal. 
 
 Anthracite coal, ashes of, ... 
 
 Apocrenates formed by nitric and humic acid. 
 Ashes, action on soil, 
 
 " value of, ... 
 
 " constituents of, . 
 " divisible in two parts, . 
 " of hard wood, analysis of, . 
 " " soluble part of, . 
 
 " insoluble " 
 
 " pine, analysis of, 
 " wheat straw, 
 " anthracite coal, 
 " leached, value of, . . . 163 
 
 " " contents of cord of, 164 
 
 " " salts in, . . . . 164 
 
 " of manure, value of, (p. 180) 
 
 21 
 167 
 194 
 216 
 277 
 220 
 221 
 221 
 210 
 163 
 126 
 135 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 163 
 
INDEX. 
 
 319 
 
 Ashes of manure, table of, 
 " " vine, analysis of, 
 Atomic weight, 
 
 " " theory of. 
 
 Atoms, combinations of. 
 Author, not a practical farmer, 
 
 (p. 180) 
 
 Section. 
 
 21 
 55 
 55 
 55 
 271 
 
 B. 
 
 Barley, limits of, . 
 
 
 . 26, 28 
 
 " " cause of, 
 
 
 . 26 
 
 " temperature necessary to 
 
 growth. 
 
 26 
 
 " " of germinal; 
 
 ion, . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Bases, alkaline. 
 
 
 41 
 
 " " properties of, . 
 
 
 . 62 
 
 " " equivalents of, 
 
 
 62 
 
 " " action on geine. 
 
 
 . 147 
 
 " metallic. 
 
 
 58 
 
 " carbonates of, in ashes. 
 
 
 92 
 
 " separated from the acid. 
 
 
 142 
 
 " of all salts, acts ever the s 
 
 same, 
 
 145, 152 
 
 Bones, constituents of. 
 
 
 223 
 
 " bone earth in, . 
 
 
 . 223 
 
 " tallow in after boiling, 
 
 
 223 
 
 " liquor of, as manure. 
 
 • Cp- 
 
 184, 185) 
 
 Bromine in seaweed. 
 
 
 87 
 
 Burning of crops. 
 
 
 . 287 
 
 " " effects of, 
 
 
 287 
 
 C. 
 Carbon, chemical equivalent of. 
 
 
 . 57 
 
 " in sandy soil. 
 
 
 127 
 
 " sulphuret of. 
 
 
 . 65 
 
 Carbonates, 
 
 
 . 52, 159 
 
 " nf ammonia. 
 
 
 . 265 
 
320 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Carbonate of lime in leached ashes, 
 
 164 
 
 " " "in soil, remarks on, 
 
 . 33 
 
 Carbonic acid, evolved by roots, . 
 
 (p. 152) 
 
 " " formation of. 
 
 . 57 
 
 " " chemical equivalent of. 
 
 57 
 
 " " affinity for alkaline bases, , 
 
 . 62 
 
 " cause of, . 
 
 . 93, 170 
 
 " " absorbed by geates. 
 
 . 120 
 
 " " action on silicates. 
 
 133, 134, 159 
 
 " " " result of, 
 
 135 
 
 " " in plants, 
 
 . 167 
 
 " " composition of. 
 
 55 
 
 Carburets, .... 
 
 . 49 
 
 Cartilage of bone, as manure. 
 
 223 
 
 Caseine, analysis of, . 
 
 . 217 
 
 Catalysis, action of, 
 
 137 
 
 " definition of. 
 
 . 69 
 
 Catalytic power, . . . 129, 
 
 140, 141, 142 
 
 Chalk in eggshells, 
 
 . 215 
 
 " clamshells, 
 
 215 
 
 Charred peat, .... 
 
 . 278 
 
 Chemical equivalent, definition of, . 
 
 56 
 
 " " important to farmers, 
 
 . 58 
 
 " formulse, of proteine, . 
 
 219 
 
 Chlorides, .... 
 
 . 170 
 
 " source of, ... 
 
 84 
 
 " in granite rocks. 
 
 . 88 
 
 " " " " Hayes on. 
 
 88 
 
 Chlorine in soil. 
 
 . 89 
 
 Columbine, 
 
 215 
 
 Combining number. 
 
 . 55 
 
 Compost of animal matter. 
 
 167 
 
 Copperas, .... 
 
 . 170 
 
 Cotton, phosphates in, . 
 
 86 
 
 Cow-dung, the type of manures, 
 
 . 179 
 
INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 Cow-dung, composition of, 
 
 " analysis of, 
 
 " value of, dependent on food, . 
 
 " water in, . 
 
 " general analysis of, 
 
 " ammonia in, 
 
 " ultimate analysis of, . 
 
 " quantity produced by one cow, 
 
 " compared with horse-dung, 
 
 " cost of, . 
 
 " from meal compared with from hay, 
 
 " richer in summer than winter, 
 
 " action of, . . 
 
 Crasso, analysis of vine ashes. 
 
 Section. 
 
 179 
 . 180 
 
 200 
 
 . 183 
 
 105, 188 
 
 107, 186 
 
 186 
 . 189 
 
 284 
 . 276 
 
 199 
 . 200 
 
 201 
 . 21 
 
 D. 
 
 Decay, definition of, . . . 
 
 107 
 
 " first product of, 
 
 . 110 
 
 " hastened by potash and lime, 
 
 136 
 
 " " alumina. 
 
 . 136 
 
 " general products of. 
 
 101 
 
 Decomposition, as effecting value of manure. 
 
 (p. 181) 
 
 Deodorizing vaults, how done. 
 
 (p. 200) 
 
 Drought, its effects on manure. 
 
 (p. 186) 
 
 Dung, horse, how treated, 
 
 (p. 170) 
 
 " " fermentation of. 
 
 (p. 170) 
 
 E. 
 Eggshells, lime in, 
 
 . 215 
 
 Elements defined. 
 
 35 
 
 " number of, . 
 
 . 40 
 
 ■' atomic, .... 
 
 55 
 
 " earthy and metallic. 
 
 . 40 
 
 " volatile and combustible. 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 
322 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Elements division of, . 
 
 
 . 41 
 
 " " adopted, 
 
 • 
 
 61 
 
 " unequal affinity of, . 
 
 
 54,55 
 
 " combination of, . 
 
 
 55 
 
 " proportion of combination, . 
 
 
 . 56 
 
 " of soil, metallic and unmetallic, 
 
 
 40 
 
 " " action of, . 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 " " defined. 
 
 
 131 
 
 " " two classes of. 
 
 
 . 101 
 
 " " first class of, 
 
 . 
 
 102 
 
 " " second " . 
 
 
 . 103 
 
 " metallic, change to unmetallic. 
 
 
 64 
 
 " mineral, cause of decomposition of. 
 
 
 . 137 
 
 " number selected by plants, 
 
 , 
 
 87 
 
 " wherein plants do not obey chemical laws of, 87 
 
 " susceptibility of change, 
 
 
 90 
 
 " number of, in organic parts of soil, 
 
 
 . 89 
 
 " " inorganic " " 
 
 
 89 
 
 " organic, complex combination of, J 
 
 
 99 
 
 " inorganic, simple " 
 
 . 
 
 99 
 
 " organic, character of, 
 
 
 . 99 
 
 " " products of decomposition of. 
 
 100 
 
 " " one constant, 
 
 
 100, 101 
 
 " inorganic. 
 
 
 115 
 
 " organic, of plants, . 
 
 
 . 167 
 
 " relative weight of. 
 
 
 55 
 
 " of silicates, laws of combination of, 
 
 
 . 56 
 
 Epsom salts, formation of. 
 
 
 79 
 
 European soils, analyses of, . . (p 
 
 .37 
 
 ,39) 
 
 Evaporation from soil, 
 
 
 294 
 
 " " woodland, . 
 
 
 . 295 
 
 Excrement, human, analysis of, . 
 
 (P- 
 
 175) 
 
 " " ashes of, table of, 
 
 (P- 
 
 181) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 323 
 
 F. 
 
 Farmer, the, a chemist, 
 " philosophy of, 
 
 " pole-star of, 
 
 " knowledge of terms, 
 
 " important fact to, 
 
 " true field of action of, 
 
 " first requisite of, 
 
 Fats, action of air on, 
 " action on silicates, 
 " chemical composition of. 
 
 Feathers, analysis of. 
 
 Feces, human. 
 
 Felspar, ingredients of, 
 " soda in, . 
 " action of air and moisture on. 
 
 Fertility, what dependent on, 
 
 Fibrine, analysis of, . 
 
 Fleitmann, on human feces, 
 
 Flemish manure. 
 
 Flowers, salts in, . 
 
 Fluorine, in rye ashes. 
 
 Fruit trees, limits of. 
 
 Furnace, for poudrette. 
 
 Gadou, 
 
 Gas poudrette, how made, 
 
 " liquor, value and use of, 
 Geates, character of, 
 
 " properties of, 
 
 " formation of, 
 
 " abundant in soil, . 
 
 " action of lime on, 
 
 (P 
 
 (P 
 
 (P 
 
 Section. 
 
 . 
 
 39 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 36 
 
 , 
 
 79 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 224 
 
 
 224 
 
 
 224 
 
 
 218 
 
 . 175) 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 61 
 
 . 
 
 77 
 
 . 98, 
 
 152 
 
 
 217 
 
 . 175) 
 
 
 
 208 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 26 
 
 .201) 
 
 
 
 208 
 
 
 278 
 
 
 278 
 
 
 118 
 
 
 124 
 
 , 
 
 136 
 
 
 162 
 
 
 162 
 
324 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Geates of lime, 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 118 
 
 It 
 
 of magnesia, 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 a 
 
 of alumina. 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 121 
 
 ti 
 
 of iron. 
 
 . 
 
 
 122 
 
 II 
 
 of manganese, . 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 123 
 
 Geic acid, .... 
 
 
 . 
 
 101, 116 
 
 Geine 
 
 , researches of Mulder, . 
 
 
 (p. 108) 
 
 ii 
 
 history of, . 
 
 
 (P- 
 
 100) 
 
 tt 
 
 first discovery of, 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 It 
 
 contents of. 
 
 . 
 
 (P- 
 
 107) 
 
 i( 
 
 potash in, 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 It 
 
 called nlmin in trees, 
 
 
 (p. 101) 
 
 II 
 
 same as " 
 
 (p. 10.5, 
 
 110, 
 
 111) 
 
 11 
 
 constitution of, 
 
 (P- 
 
 115, 
 
 116) 
 
 tt 
 
 names of. 
 
 
 (p. 107) 
 
 tt 
 
 definition of. 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 102, 105 
 
 It 
 
 essential to crops. 
 
 
 
 . 104 
 
 It 
 
 in all forms the same, 
 
 . 
 
 
 105 
 
 It 
 
 a generic term, 
 
 
 , 
 
 . 105 
 
 II 
 
 described. 
 
 
 
 108, 109 
 
 tt 
 
 divided. 
 
 
 
 . 109 
 
 It 
 
 soluble, what dissolved by. 
 
 
 
 .109 
 
 It 
 
 properties of, important to the farmer, 
 
 
 . 109 
 
 " 
 
 passage from insoluble to soluble. 
 
 . 
 
 110, 113 
 
 tt 
 
 affinity for alumina. 
 
 
 
 . Ill 
 
 It 
 
 " lime, magnesia, 
 
 
 
 111, 126 
 
 It 
 
 " oxides of iron and 
 
 manganese. 
 
 112 
 
 It 
 
 vincombined. 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 II 
 
 " properties of, 
 
 
 160 
 
 116, 117 
 
 tt 
 
 properties of, with water, . 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 II 
 
 relations to alkalies. 
 
 
 
 126, 136 
 
 " 
 
 quantity in soil. 
 
 , 
 
 
 127 
 
 It 
 
 twofold action of. 
 
 
 , 
 
 . 136 
 
 It 
 
 cause of effect of alkalies on, 
 how retained in soil, 
 
 • 
 
 
 137 
 
 . 138 
 
INDEX. 
 
 325 
 
 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Geine, 
 
 fertility dependent on, 
 
 
 151 
 
 it 
 
 necessary with salts, 
 
 
 . 153 
 
 ti 
 
 action of oxygen on. 
 
 
 168 
 
 ti 
 
 as required by nature, . 
 
 
 . 171 
 
 it 
 
 in cow-dung, 
 
 
 185 
 
 ti 
 
 formed daily by one cow. 
 
 
 . 189 
 
 it 
 
 " yearly " " . 
 
 
 189 
 
 It 
 
 the main agricultural value of manure 
 
 
 . 191 
 
 t( 
 
 action of, in manure. 
 
 
 195 
 
 it 
 
 in horse-dung, . 
 
 
 . 204 
 
 tt 
 
 compared with glycerine, . 233, 
 
 234, 
 
 235, 236 
 
 ti 
 
 in spent ley. 
 
 
 . 238 
 
 ti 
 
 necessity of in soil. 
 
 
 127 
 
 it 
 
 in peat. 
 
 
 . 256 
 
 ii 
 
 in rivers at freshets, 
 
 
 283 
 
 it 
 
 intention of application of. 
 
 
 . 291 
 
 tt 
 
 varies much in soil. 
 
 
 291 
 
 ti 
 
 lightest part of soil, 
 
 
 . 292 
 
 it 
 
 absorption of moisture by. 
 
 
 294 
 
 it 
 
 " gas by, . 
 
 
 . 295 
 
 tt 
 
 slow evaporation of. 
 
 
 291 
 
 if 
 
 effect of conversion into water; 
 
 
 . 295 
 
 tt 
 
 electrical relations of. 
 
 
 297 
 
 tt 
 
 basis of agriculture. 
 
 . 
 
 . 298 
 
 it 
 
 table of composition of. 
 
 CP- 
 
 115) 
 
 ii 
 
 comparison of natural and artificial, (p 
 
 US 
 
 116) 
 
 tt 
 
 modifications of, . 
 
 (p- 
 
 118) 
 
 Gelatin; description of. 
 
 • 
 
 . 218 
 
 ti 
 
 analysis of, . ■ ■ 
 
 
 218 
 
 Glass 
 
 , green, composition of, . 
 
 
 . 71 
 
 Glauber's salts, .... 
 
 
 170 
 
 Glyce 
 
 rine, .... 
 
 
 . 227 
 
 I 
 
 composed of, . 
 
 
 227 
 
 " ihe organic part of ley. 
 
 
 . 229 
 
 compared with geine. 
 
 233, 234, 235, 236 
 
326 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Glycerine, different from geine. 
 
 236 
 
 Grain, crops of, in Massachusetts, 
 
 . 23 
 
 " northern boundary of. 
 
 26 
 
 " failure of, in Iceland, . 
 
 . 26 
 
 " " " cause of, 
 
 26 
 
 " temperature " of germination, 
 
 . 26 
 
 Granite, formation of, . 
 
 5 
 
 " composed of, . 
 
 71, 72 
 
 Guano, great quantity of, . 
 
 211 
 
 " analyses of, . 
 
 . 212 
 
 " an article of commerce, . 
 
 212 
 
 " Johnston's average table of. 
 
 (p. 206) 
 
 " table of various analyses of, 
 
 (p. 205) 
 
 " proportion to be used, . 
 
 . 208 
 
 " use of, . 
 
 212 
 
 " ammonia in, . 
 
 . 212 
 
 " varieties of, ... 
 
 212 
 
 Gypsum, application of. 
 
 . 151 
 
 " action of, ... 
 
 151 
 
 H. 
 
 Hair, analysis of. 
 
 Hail, fertilizing power of, . 
 
 Hay, action of catalysis on, 
 
 " yield of by various salts, 
 Hayes, Dr., on chlorides in rocks. 
 Heat, absorbed by soils. 
 Hen, food of, . 
 
 " " analysis of, 
 
 " eggs of, " 
 
 " excrements of, " 
 
 " " salts in, . 
 
 " agricultural value of, . 
 Hog manure, 
 
 (P- 
 
 184, 185) 
 
 218 
 
 184 
 
 293 
 214 
 214 
 214 
 214 
 214 
 214 
 205 
 
INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 Section. 
 Hog manure, value of, ... . 205 
 
 " " contents of, . . . (p. 177) 
 
 " urine, analysis of, .... 247 
 
 Horn, analysis of, .... . 218 
 
 Hornblende, ingredients of, ... 60 
 
 " action of, air and moisture on, . . 77 
 
 Horse-dung, analysis of, . . . . 203 
 
 " " value compared with cow-dung, . . 204 
 
 " " fermentation of, . . . 204 
 
 " " how to be treated, . . (p. 170) 
 
 " boiling establishments, . . . 210 
 
 Hruschauer, analysis of vine ashes, . . .21 
 
 Human excrement, Fleitmann's analysis of, (p. 175) 
 " " Berzelius's " (p. 175) 
 
 Humic acid, . . . • CP- H^) 
 
 Humin, . . . . . .102 
 
 Humus, . . . . • (p. 113) 
 
 " constituents of, . . (p. Ill) 
 
 " formation of, . . . (p. Ill) 
 
 Humin, formula of, . . . (p. Ill) 
 
 Humic acid, " formation of apocrenates by, 126 
 
 Humate of ammonia, . . . (p. 112) 
 
 ilydrogen, ...... 40 
 
 " in sandy soil, .... 127 
 
 " considered as unity, ... 55 
 
 " combination of, . . . .55 
 
 " excess of, in decaying soil, . . 100 
 
 " groupj in organic bodies, . . . 101 
 
 I. 
 
 Indian corn, northern limit of, 
 
 " " temperature of germination, 
 Iowa soils, analyses of. 
 Iodine, in land plants. 
 
 (p. 36) 
 
 26 
 26 
 
 87 
 
328 
 
 Irrigalion, 
 
 Section. 
 254, 279, 281, 282, 283 
 
 " most fertile source of benefit from, 
 " , natural, . 
 Iron, carburet of, 
 
 " geate of, . . . 
 
 " phosphate of, 
 
 " silicate of, . 
 
 " sulphate of, formation, 
 
 " " action, 
 
 " sulphuret of, 
 
 " " decomposition of, 
 
 " combining weight of, 
 Isinglass, physical properties of, 
 Isotheral line, . 
 Isochimenal line. 
 Isomorphism, law of, . 
 
 283 
 286 
 65 
 122 
 80 
 48 
 79 
 82 
 65 
 79 
 56 
 37 
 26 
 26 
 94 
 
 Jackson, C. T., Dr., on peat, . . . 258 
 
 Jacquemart, on peat and ammonia, , . . 278 
 
 '• " various manures, . . (p. 187) 
 
 JaufTret's manure, principles of, . . . 278 
 
 Johnston, Professor, analysis of yard-dung, (p. 174) 
 
 " " " of night-soil, table of, 208 
 
 " " soil not dependent on rocks, . 21 
 
 K. 
 
 Krocker, on amount ammonia in soil, . (p. 182) 
 
 Kuhlmann, on nitrogenous manures, (p. 184, 185, 187) 
 
 L. 
 
 Lawes, on the value of manure ashes. 
 Law of substitution. 
 Life, a catalytic power. 
 
 (p. 180) 
 
 95 
 139 
 

 INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 Life, 
 
 first action of, ... 
 
 Section. 
 171 
 
 Lime 
 
 , action of, ... 
 
 159, 161, 162 
 
 ii 
 
 " on vegetable fibre. 
 
 160, 162 
 
 a 
 
 " on free acids in soil, . 
 
 162, 163 
 
 it 
 
 properties of, ... 
 
 160 
 
 tt 
 
 secretion of, . 
 
 . 18 
 
 a 
 
 in soil, .... 
 
 30 
 
 tt 
 
 sufficiency of, in soil, . 
 
 . 75 
 
 It 
 
 not free " . 
 
 76 
 
 tt 
 
 combining weight of, . 
 
 . 56 
 
 tt 
 
 in dung, .... 
 
 192 
 
 ft 
 
 in eggshells. 
 
 . 215 
 
 - it 
 
 in granite, .... 
 
 72 
 
 tt 
 
 in pine plains, . 
 
 73, 74 
 
 it 
 
 in wheat straw, 
 
 74 
 
 it 
 
 place of, may be supplied. 
 
 . 96 
 
 tt 
 
 corrective of too much. 
 
 124 
 
 tt 
 
 hastens decay, . 
 
 . 136 
 
 tt 
 
 misapplication of, . 
 
 160, 161 
 
 tt 
 
 caustic, .... 
 
 . 62 
 
 tt 
 
 " greedy of carbonic acid. 
 
 161 
 
 tt 
 
 carbonate of, . 
 
 14, 45, 57 
 
 tt 
 
 " in ashes, 
 
 . 92, 164 
 
 tt 
 
 " extent of use. 
 
 . 169 
 
 it 
 
 " in flowers and leaves, 
 
 86 
 
 it 
 
 composts of, . 
 
 . 166 
 
 it 
 
 geates of, . 
 
 118 
 
 tt 
 
 " soluble. 
 
 . 118 
 
 tt 
 
 " insoluble, . 
 
 119 
 
 tt 
 
 phosphate of, . 
 
 57, 82 
 
 it 
 
 " cause of, 
 
 84 
 
 t( 
 
 " in all soil, 
 
 . 85 
 
 it 
 
 " in bones of graminivorous 
 
 animals, 86 
 
 tt 
 
 " in vegetables, 
 
 . 86 
 
 It 
 
 " in grain and cotton, 
 
 86 
 
330 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lime, silicate of, 
 
 " sulphate of, . 
 
 " " in all soil, . 
 
 " muriate of, . 
 Loam, formation of. 
 Locomotive cinders, as manure, 
 
 M. 
 
 Seetion. 
 
 . 48 
 
 53, 57, 80, 82, 83 
 
 . 84 
 
 170 
 . 76 
 
 278 
 
 Magnesia, .... 
 
 " combining weight of, 
 
 " caustic, 
 
 " may supply the place of lime, . 
 
 " geate of, . 
 
 " phosphate of, in vegetables, 
 
 " silicate of, . 
 Man, the journeyman of nature. 
 Manganese, geate of, . 
 
 " silicate of, . 
 
 Manure, .... 
 
 " the farmer's first requisite, 
 
 " what composed of, 
 
 " immense variety of, 
 
 " divisible into three classes, . 
 
 " chiefly of the third class, . 
 
 " standard measure of, . 
 
 " the elements of fertility, . 
 
 " contents of, . 
 
 " the type of, ... 
 
 " " composition of, . 
 
 " from one cow, . . . 189, 
 
 " chief value of, . . 193,194, 
 
 " rich in proportion to nitrogen, 
 
 " what reduced to, . 
 
 " three varieties, different properties of, 
 " " " comparative value of. 
 
 . 18 
 
 56 
 
 . 62 
 
 91 
 
 . 120 
 
 85 
 
 . 48 
 
 290 
 
 . 123 
 
 48 
 
 172, 252 
 
 172 
 
 . 172 
 
 174 
 
 . 175 
 
 176 
 
 177, 179 
 
 178 
 
 . 178 
 
 179 
 
 . 179 
 
 190, 191 
 
 195, 261 
 
 196, 261 
 . 206 
 
 206 
 . 207 
 
INDEX. 331 
 
 
 Section 
 
 Manure 
 
 ■■, long and short, . . ■ (p. 170) 
 
 a 
 
 ■weight of cubic foot of, . (p. 174) 
 
 tt 
 
 various sorts of, . . . . 208 
 
 it 
 
 dung of fowls, .... 213 
 
 tt 
 
 " " good results from use of, . 213 
 
 tt 
 
 not containing nitrogen, . . . 224 
 
 tt 
 
 from salts only, .... 239 
 
 tt 
 
 " chiefly from liquid animal 
 
 
 " evacuations, . . 239 
 
 tt 
 
 of peculiar salts, .... 239 
 
 tt 
 
 of animal acids, . . . 239, 240 
 
 tt 
 
 liquid of cow, composition of, . . 243 
 
 It 
 
 " " compared with dung, 243 
 
 tt 
 
 " " quantity annually from one 
 
 
 " " cow, effects of, . . 244 
 
 It 
 
 " of horse, .... 245 
 
 tt 
 
 " of man, . . . .248 
 
 tt 
 
 natural, insufficient for all, . , . 252 
 
 tt 
 
 artificial, ..... 253 
 
 tt 
 
 " distinction of, from animal, . 253 
 
 tt 
 
 " first in this class, . . 254 
 
 tt 
 
 " others " " . . . 254 
 
 It 
 
 green, action upon peat, . . . 270 
 
 tt 
 
 artificial, cost per cord, . . 274, 276 
 
 tt 
 
 " " compared with cow-dung, 274 
 
 11 
 
 " preparation of, in best manner, . 274 
 
 It 
 
 other sources of, . . . 284 
 
 tt 
 
 sheep, analysis of, . . . . 205 
 
 II 
 
 hog, ..... 205 
 
 It 
 
 sheep, value of, ... . 205 
 
 Margarine, ...... 227 
 
 Margaric acid, ...... 227 
 
 Metalloids, defined, . . . 40, 50 
 
 tt 
 
 number of, . . . . 43, 45, 58 
 
 tt 
 
 characters of, . . . 65 
 
332 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Meta-Uoids, combinations of with oxygen, 
 " aclion of air and water on, 
 
 " continually become salts, 
 
 " selected by plants. 
 
 Metalloid compounds, . 
 Metals, .... 
 
 Mica, properties of, 
 " ingredients of, 
 " action of air and wet on. 
 Minerals, simple, 
 
 " " number of, . 
 
 " " limited knowledge of, 
 
 " " elements of, . 
 
 " " table of constitution of, 
 
 " " three classes of, 
 
 Mitchell, on sea water, lime, and peat. 
 Motion, in seeds and plants, remarks on, (p, 
 
 " chemically induced in soil. 
 Mould, vegetable, defined, 
 
 " organic elements of, acc'g to Berzelius, (p. 
 Muck, action on sand, .... 
 Mud, value of, . . . 
 
 " compared with dung, 
 " of freshets, analysis of. 
 Muriates, ..... 
 
 " source of, ... 
 
 Section. 
 
 . 66 
 78 
 
 . 79 
 87 
 
 . 40 
 41 
 
 . 37 
 60 
 
 . 77 
 35 
 
 38, 59 
 38 
 39 
 59 
 60 
 270 
 
 189) 
 
 98 
 . 114 
 107) 
 
 . 289 
 
 258, 259 
 
 . 259 
 
 284 
 
 . 170 
 
 84 
 
 N. 
 
 Nails, the, analysis of. 
 Nature, beneficence of. 
 Neutral group of organic bodies. 
 Night-soil, table of analysis of, 
 
 " Soubeiran's analysis of, 
 
 " composition of, . 
 
 " " nitrogen in. 
 
 218 
 285 
 101 
 208 
 208 
 205 
 205 
 
INDEX. 
 
 333 
 
 Nitrates, ..... 
 
 " action of . . . 
 
 " in soil, source of, . 
 
 " of soda, its effects on grass, . 
 Nitrification in soil, 
 Nitric acid, action of on humic, 
 
 " " " on humate of ammonia. 
 
 Nitre, composition of, . 
 
 " one of the most active salts, 
 Nitro-humic acid, ... (p. 117) 
 
 Nitrogen in soil, .... 
 
 " in sandy soil, 
 
 " in geine, .... 
 
 " in air, 
 
 " source of, for roots and seeds, 
 
 " in maure, 
 
 " produced yearly by one cow, 
 
 " action of, . 
 
 " the chief enriching quality in manure, 
 
 " the basis of ammonia, 
 
 " in dung, source of, 
 
 " in hay, what becomes of, 
 
 " in horse-dung, 
 
 ' ' in night-soil, 
 
 " in cow-dung, 
 
 " distinguishing feature of organized bodies, 
 
 " measures, value of manure, . (p. 181) 
 
 " how limited in value, . (p. 187) 
 
 Nitrogen effective, as decay is rapid, . (p. 181) 
 
 " remarks on its effects on vegetation, (p. 182) 
 Norton, Professor J. P., on fertile soils. 
 
 Saction. 
 
 166 
 . 167 
 
 126 
 . 188 
 
 126 
 . 126 
 
 126 
 . 168 
 
 168 
 
 101 
 127 
 127 
 167 
 167 
 178 
 191 
 194 
 196 
 196 
 197 
 198 
 204 
 205 
 268 
 217 
 
 21 
 
 0. 
 
 Oats, limit of, . 
 
 " temperature of germination, 
 
 26, 28 
 26 
 
334 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Oils, action of air on, .... 
 
 " action on silicates, .... 
 
 Oleic acid, ...... 
 
 Oleine, ...... 
 
 Organic matter in cow-dung, . 
 
 " " " according to Morin, . 
 
 " " " " M. Penot, 
 
 " " " ultimate analysis of, 
 
 Oxides, metallic, .... 
 
 " of iron, combining weight of, 
 
 " of manganese, . 
 Oxygen, .... 
 
 " combining weight of, 
 
 " in bases of organic acid salts, 
 
 " in sandy soil, . 
 
 " action of, on geine, 
 
 " « 11 silicates, 
 
 " in water, action of, 
 
 " group of organic bodies. 
 Ox, quantity of manure from one, . 
 
 Section. 
 
 . 224 
 224 
 227 
 
 . 227 
 
 . 180 
 181 
 
 . 182 
 186 
 
 . 49 
 56 
 
 . 56 
 
 40, 49 
 
 . 56 
 98 
 
 . 127 
 168 
 
 . 168 
 281 
 
 . 101 
 
 Cp. 174) 
 
 P. 
 
 Pearlash, properties of, ... 
 
 " to be used one-half more than soda-ash, 
 Peat, ...... 
 
 " analysis of, . 
 
 " varieties of, ... . 
 
 " water in, ... . 
 
 " value of, . 
 
 " ashes, contents of, 
 
 " compared with cow-dung, 
 
 " salts and geine in, . 
 
 " resemblance to cow-dung, 
 
 ■' ammonia in, . 
 
 " power wanting in, ... 
 
 . 46 
 
 265 
 254, 255 
 
 256 
 . 257 
 
 259 
 . 259 
 
 163 
 . 254 
 
 260 
 . 260 
 
 260 
 . 261 
 
INDEX. 
 
 335 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Peat, power wanting in, how to be given, . 
 
 262 
 
 " addition of alkali to, 
 
 . 264 
 
 " quantity of alkali to hundred weight. 
 
 266 
 
 " " " cord, fresh dug. 
 
 267, 269 
 
 " dry. 
 
 267, 269, 271 
 
 " dung to be added to, 
 
 270, 276 
 
 " action of dung on. 
 
 276 
 
 " boiled with alkali. 
 
 271, 272 
 
 " mixed with spent ashes, 
 
 272 
 
 " charred, .... 
 
 . 278 
 
 " action of lime and salt on, 
 
 276 
 
 " " sal-ammoniac on. 
 
 . 276 
 
 " converted by other sources into soluble 
 
 manure, 277 
 
 " mixed with urine. 
 
 277, 278 
 
 " necessity of fermentation in. 
 
 . 260 
 
 " submarine, .... 
 
 276 
 
 " and salt water, 
 
 . 276 
 
 Phosphates, .... 
 
 -52 
 
 " action of, . 
 
 . - .169 
 
 " proportional to nitrogen. 
 
 (p. 189) 
 
 Phosphorus, equivalent of. 
 
 57 
 
 " existence of, . 
 
 84 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 . 57 
 
 " equivalent of, . 
 
 57 
 
 Phosphurets, .... 
 
 . 49 
 
 " action of air on, 
 
 78 
 
 Pigeon dung, .... 
 
 . 213 
 
 " " value of, . 
 
 214 
 
 Pine ashes, analysis of, 
 
 . 163 
 
 " plains, lime and potash in. 
 
 . 73, 74 
 
 Plants for food. 
 
 . 22 
 
 " product of, . . . 
 
 22 
 
 " repay labor of cultivation, 
 
 . 22 
 
 " natural limit of, . 
 
 24 
 
 " artificial " . 
 
 . 24 
 
336 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Plants, limits of, what determined by, 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 " laws of distribution of, . 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 " irregularity of limits of. 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 " limits of grain bearing on mountains, 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 " earthy parts of, 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 " not all contain the same elements. 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 " elements of, return to earth. 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 '' always contain salts and silicates, 
 
 
 . 
 
 91 
 
 " always form acids, . 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 " galvanic action of, 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 " decomposing action of, 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 " animal principles in. 
 
 
 
 217 
 
 " " " analysis of, 
 
 
 
 217 
 
 Plaster of Paris, formation of. 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 " " application of. 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 " " action of. 
 
 
 151, 
 
 170 
 
 Ploughing in of crops, 
 
 
 , 
 
 287 
 
 " " great fertilizing power 
 
 of. 
 
 
 287 
 
 " " green, action of, 
 
 
 , 
 
 288 
 
 " " " compared with 
 
 dry. 
 
 
 288 
 
 Polstorff, experiments of, _. 
 
 (p. 152) 
 
 
 Potash, silicate of, . . 
 
 
 48, 
 
 165 
 
 " combining weight of, 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 " solubility in water. 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 " caustic, .... 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 " in granite, 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 " carbonate of, in ashes. 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 " may supply the place of lime, 
 
 
 , 
 
 96 
 
 " hastens decay. 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 " to be used one-half more than soda. 
 
 
 
 265 
 
 Potassium, sulphuret of, . 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 Potato, limits of, . 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 Poudrette, . . . . 
 
 208, 
 
 2n9, 
 
 210 
 
 " mode of making, . (p. 194 to 
 
 202) 
 
 
 " composition of. 
 
 . 
 
 
 208 
 
INDEX, 
 
 337 
 
 Section. 
 
 Poudrette ammonia in, . 208 
 
 " peat in, .... 209 
 
 " salts in, . . . . . 209 
 
 Proteine, . . . (p. 118) 
 
 " description of, . . . 218 
 
 " chemical formulae of, ... 219 
 
 " action of weak acid on, . . (p. 118) 
 
 Putrefaction, products of, . . . . 100 
 
 " table of products of, . . 100 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quart 
 
 z, formation of, . 
 
 . 60 
 
 ti 
 
 odor produced by friction. 
 
 84 
 
 Rain, 
 
 R. 
 natural irrigation, 
 
 . 286 
 
 it 
 
 fertilizing power of, 
 
 286 
 
 tt 
 
 ammoniacal salts in, 
 
 . 285 
 
 Replacement, of elements. 
 
 94 
 
 Eichardson, analysis of yard-dung, 
 
 (p. 172) 
 
 Rogers, J., on manure ashes. 
 
 (p. 181) 
 
 Rule for estimating soil ingredients, . 
 
 • (P-41) 
 
 Eocks 
 
 , primitive, .... 
 
 3,6 
 
 tt 
 
 secondary, . . . 
 
 . 5,8 
 
 tt 
 
 trappean, .... 
 
 7 
 
 tt 
 
 origin of. 
 
 10, 11 
 
 tt 
 
 chemical constituents of, . 
 
 8 
 
 it 
 
 two great classes of. 
 
 10, 11 
 
 tt 
 
 distribution of, . 
 
 11 
 
 tt 
 
 first class of, . 
 
 . 12 
 
 tt 
 
 second " . 
 
 13 
 
 It 
 
 chemical constitution of, 
 
 15, 39 
 
 tt 
 
 " " difiference in. 
 
 15 
 
 tt 
 
 fossiliferous, 
 22 
 
 . 16 
 
ddO INDEX. 
 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Rocks, non-fossiliferous, . 
 
 17 
 
 " cause of difference, 
 
 . 18 
 
 " amount of " . 
 
 19 
 
 " only one, in truth, 
 
 . 19 
 
 " not affect vegetation, 
 
 20, 26, 27, 28 
 
 " what covered by. 
 
 . 30 
 
 " different views of, 
 
 34 
 
 " compound. 
 
 . 35 
 
 " composition of, . 
 
 38 
 
 " number of elements in, 
 
 40, 45 
 
 " great bulk of, . . . 
 
 48 
 
 " enrich soil. 
 
 . 290 
 
 " action of, on soil, . 
 
 290 
 
 Eye, limit of, . 
 
 26, 28 
 
 " temperature of germination. 
 
 26 
 
 S. 
 Sal ammoniac, action of, 
 
 . 276 
 
 Salt, action of, . 
 
 149 
 
 " use of, . 
 
 . 170 
 
 Saltpetre, ..... 
 
 166 
 
 " action of. 
 
 . 269 
 
 " alkali in. 
 
 269 
 
 Salts, . . . .40, 44, 
 
 45, 46, 50, 76 
 
 " super, sub, neutral, . 
 
 57 
 
 " very insoluble, and abundant, . 
 
 . 80 
 
 " action on silicates, . 
 
 133, 171 
 
 " " of, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 
 
 149, 150, 171 
 
 " " on of plants, . 
 
 147 
 
 " fertility dependent on, . 
 
 . 151 
 
 " connection with geine necessary, . 
 
 154 
 
 " action of, without geine. 
 
 . 155 
 
 " " on soil of slate, . 
 
 155 
 
 " " " gneiss. 
 
 . 155 
 
 " excess of, the cause of barrenness, . 
 
 156 
 
INDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Sails, some of better effect, than others, . 
 
 156 
 
 " . divided into two classes. 
 
 . 158 
 
 " first class, three divisions, . 
 
 159 
 
 " constant in plants. 
 
 . 91 
 
 " second class of, . 
 
 166 
 
 " quantity of, which may be used, 
 
 . 169 
 
 " two classes of, poisonous. 
 
 170 
 
 " in cow-dung, .... 
 
 . 180 
 
 " " " byMorin, 
 
 181 
 
 " " " byM. Penot, 
 
 . 182 
 
 " in bushel of dung. 
 
 188 
 
 " formed daily by one cow, 
 
 . 189 
 
 " formed yearly by one cow, . 
 
 191 
 
 " in horse-dung, .... 
 
 . 204 
 
 " in night-soil. 
 
 205 
 
 " in excrements of a hen, 
 
 . 214 
 
 " in animal matter, 
 
 216 
 
 " . annually evacuated by one person. 
 
 . 251 
 
 " in urine, . . . . . 
 
 243, 249 
 
 " in mud and peat, 
 
 . 256 
 
 " in rivers, at freshets, 
 
 283 
 
 " in rain and snow. 
 
 . 280 
 
 " intention of application of. 
 
 291 
 
 " of ammonia, value of, . . (p 
 
 184) 
 
 " of crenic and apocrenic acids, sources of. 
 
 126 
 
 Sand, improved by liming. 
 
 133 
 
 " composition of, . 
 
 . 13 
 
 " action of muck on, . . . . 
 
 289 
 
 " best to restore, .... 
 
 . 290 
 
 " heaviest part of soil, 
 
 292 
 
 Sandstone, formation of, . . . 
 
 5 
 
 Science, definition of, ... . 
 
 128 
 
 " application to agriculture. 
 
 128, 129 
 
 Sea eagle, excrement of, . 
 
 212 
 
 " water, for slacking lime, . 
 
 . 276 
 
340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Serpentine, ingredients of, 
 
 Section. 
 60 
 
 Seeds, heat and cold borne by. 
 
 . 26 
 
 Sheep, urine of, . 
 
 247 
 
 Silex, 
 
 42, 48, 62, 69 
 
 " formation of. 
 
 48 
 
 " quantity of, in rock. 
 
 . 59 
 
 " as an acid in simple minerals, 
 
 59 
 
 Silica, combining weight of, . 
 
 . 56 
 
 " soluble, .... 
 
 70 
 
 Silicates, . . . 40,41, 
 
 42, 45, 46, 76 
 
 " decomposition of, 
 
 76 
 
 " action of, carbonic acid on, 77 
 
 131, 134, 285 
 
 " selected by plants, 
 
 87 
 
 " constant in plants. 
 
 . 91 
 
 " no action on each other, 
 
 131 
 
 " of soil, stationary. 
 
 . 132 
 
 " of potash. 
 
 165 
 
 " action of oxygen on, 
 
 . 168 
 
 " of soda in spent ashes, . 
 
 273 
 
 " unlimited fertility of, 
 
 . 289 
 
 " uniformity of, . 
 
 291 
 
 " laws of combination of. 
 
 . 56 
 
 Silicon, ..... 
 
 43 
 
 " action of, with oxygen. 
 
 . 48 
 
 " sulphuret of, . . . 
 
 . 65, 83 
 
 " properties of, . 
 
 . 67 
 
 Silicic acid, .... 
 
 . 69, 71 
 
 Siliciurets, .... 
 
 . 49 
 
 " action of air on. 
 
 78 
 
 Sinclair, Sir John, on sea water, and peat. 
 
 . 276 
 
 Skin of the sole of the foot, an analysis of, 
 
 218 
 
 Slate, ..... 
 
 5 
 
 Snow, salts in, . 
 
 286 
 
 Soda, 
 
 . 42 
 
 " silicate of, . 
 
 48 
 
INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 Soda, silicate of, combining weight of, . 
 
 56 
 
 " may take the place of lime, 
 
 . 96 
 
 " muriate of, action of, 
 
 149 
 
 Soil, ...... 
 
 . 10 
 
 " only one, .... 
 
 19 
 
 " all primary, .... 
 
 . 20 
 
 " transportation of, . 
 
 . 30, 31 
 
 " chemical composition of. 
 
 32,33 
 
 " analysis of, . 
 
 33 
 
 " balk of, 
 
 . 48 
 
 " elements in, . 
 
 40 
 
 " unvarying, .... 
 
 . 58 
 
 " decay of, . 
 
 76 
 
 " organic parts of, . 
 
 88,89 
 
 " inorganic " 
 
 89 
 
 " " number of elements in, 
 
 . 89 
 
 " organic " " 
 
 89 
 
 " inorganic, difference of, . 
 
 . 90 
 
 " carbonaceous. 
 
 102 
 
 " not external to plants, 
 
 . 140 
 
 " decomposed by plants. 
 
 . 141, 147 
 
 " result of action of carbonates on, 
 
 . 135 
 
 " sandy, best to restore. 
 
 290 
 
 " physical properties of, . 
 
 291, 298 
 
 " " " characters of. 
 
 291 
 
 " " " what dependent on. 
 
 . 292 
 
 " " " relations of, . 
 
 292 
 
 " varieties of, ... . 
 
 . 292 
 
 " sand heayiest part of. 
 
 292 
 
 " most important character of, 
 
 . 293 
 
 " " " " determined by 
 
 weight, 293 
 
 " color and dryness important to, . 
 
 . 293 
 
 " relation to moisture and gases. 
 
 . 294, 295 
 
 " fresh ploughed, evaporation of, . 
 
 . 295 
 
 " light, advantages of. 
 
 295 
 
342 
 
 Soil, action of cold on, 
 
 secnon. 
 . 296 
 
 " electrical relations of, 
 
 297 
 
 " chlorine in, . . . 
 
 . 298 
 
 " all fertile has certain elements, 
 
 21 
 
 " origin of four, growing grape vine, 
 
 . 21 
 
 " Johnston on, . 
 
 21 
 
 " Norton on fertile. 
 
 . 21 
 
 " table of analyses of, 413, 
 
 (p. 39) 
 
 " weight of cubic foot of, ingredients, amount 
 
 per acre, rule for, 
 
 (p. 41) 
 
 " remarks on analysis of, 
 
 33 
 
 " divided into soluble and insoluble. 
 
 (p. 35) 
 
 Soot, a powerful manure, 
 
 • 225 
 
 " salts in, ... . 
 
 225 
 
 " analysis of, . . . 
 
 . 225 
 
 " nitrogen in, . 
 
 226 
 
 " capital liquid manure, . 
 
 . 226 
 
 " good results of, in England, 
 
 226 
 
 " of anthracite coal. 
 
 . 226 
 
 Soubeiran, analysis of yard-manure, 
 
 (p. 172) 
 
 " observations on nitrogen in. 
 
 (p. 173) 
 
 " analysis of night-soil. 
 
 208 
 
 " " of animalized coal, 
 
 - 210 
 
 " on mould and turf, 
 
 278 
 
 " " " " " and dried flesh. 
 
 . 278 
 
 Spent ley, ..... 
 
 170, 297 
 
 " " salts of, . 
 
 . 230 
 
 " " alkali in, . . . 
 
 230 
 
 " " two kinds of. 
 
 . 330 
 
 " " first kind, analysis of. 
 
 . 230, 233 
 
 " " second " " 
 
 . 231 
 
 " " value of, ... 
 
 232 
 
 " " action of, . 
 
 236, 237, 238 
 
 " " from soda soap, imitation of, . 
 
 238 
 
 Spent ashes, composition of, . 
 
 . 273 
 
INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Starch, converted into sugar, 
 Stable manure, composition of, 
 Stearine, 
 Stearic acid, 
 Stinchecombe farm. 
 Straws, table of value of. 
 Substitution, of elements, 
 
 " law of, . 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 " equivalent of. 
 Sulphates, . 
 Sulphurets, 
 
 " action of air on. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, formation of, 
 
 " " equivalent of, 
 
 Sulpho-benzoic acid, 
 Super-geates, 
 Swamp mud, 
 Sugar, action of weak acid on, 
 
 Table of products of putrefaction. 
 Talc, ingredients of, 
 Temperature, effects of. 
 Theories, the evils of. 
 Turf, . 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulmin, composition of, 
 " production of, . 
 " first called geine, . 
 Ulmic acid, 
 
 " " formation of, . 
 " " composition of, 
 
 
 Section. 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 . 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 227 
 
 
 . 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 226 
 
 (p 
 
 172) 
 
 94 
 95 
 43 
 57 
 
 
 52, 
 
 170 
 49 
 78 
 57 
 57 
 
 (p- 
 
 118) 
 
 
 
 120, 
 
 124 
 254 
 
 (p- 
 
 140) 
 
 100 
 60 
 26 
 
 146 
 
 257 
 
 (p. Ill) 
 
 101 
 
 (p- 
 
 109) 
 
 
 (p. 
 
 100) 
 
 
 (p. 102) 
 
 101 
 
 Cp- 
 
 110) 
 
 
 (P- 111) 
 
 
344 
 
 Urea, formation of, ... 
 
 Section. 
 139, 240, 242 
 
 " properties of, . 
 
 . 241 
 
 " composition of, . . , 
 
 242 
 
 Uric acid, .... 
 
 . 243 
 
 " " composition of, . 
 
 243 
 
 Urine of cow, composition of, . 
 
 . 243 
 
 " of one cow, annually. 
 
 244 
 
 " salts in, . 
 
 245, 246 
 
 " effects of watering with, 
 
 246 
 
 " of horse, analysis of, 
 
 . 247 
 
 " " value of, . 
 
 247 
 
 " human, " 
 
 . 248 
 
 " " analysis of, . 
 
 248 
 
 " " compared with horse and cow. 
 
 248, 249 
 
 " varies with food. 
 
 250 
 
 " action of putrefaction on. 
 
 . 259 
 
 " mixed with peat, 
 
 . 277, 278 
 
 " of hog, analysis of. 
 
 . 247 
 
 " sheep, .... 
 
 247 
 
 Vegetable mould, .... 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 " " inorganic elements of, . 
 
 
 115 
 
 " " brown powder of, 
 
 , 
 
 115 
 
 " " " " properties of. 
 
 
 116 
 
 " products, two classes of. 
 
 , 
 
 220 
 
 Vinegar, properties of, . 
 
 
 246 
 
 " action on pearlash, . 
 
 246 
 
 247 
 
 Vital principle, .... 
 
 
 171 
 
 Volcanoes, cause of, . 
 
 
 6 
 
 " products of, . 
 
 
 12 
 
 Von Tschudi, on guano, . . (p. 
 
 208) 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 "VV. 
 
 Section. 
 
 Water, elements of, ... 
 
 40 
 
 " composition of. 
 
 52, 55 
 
 " in plants, .... 
 
 167 
 
 " pure, action of, on land, 
 
 . 280 
 
 " " air in. 
 
 280 
 
 " with air expelled. 
 
 . 281 
 
 Weigmann, experiments of. 
 
 (p. 152) 
 
 "Wisconsin, soils of, . 
 
 . (p. 36) 
 
 Wheat, limits of, . 
 
 . 26, 28 
 
 " conditions necessary for. 
 
 . 26 
 
 " temperature of germination, 
 
 26 
 
 " straw ashes, analysis of. 
 
 . 163 
 
 Wood, hard, ashes, analysis of. 
 
 163 
 
 Woodland, evaporation of, 
 
 . 295 
 
 Wool, analysis of, ... 
 
 218 
 
 " natural soap of, for manure, 
 
 . 222 
 
 " " " 35 to 40 per cent, of, 
 
 222 
 
 " " " used in France, 
 
 . 222 
 
 Woollen rags, powerful manure, 
 
 222 
 
 " " stronger than cow-dung. 
 
 . 222 
 
 Y. 
 
 
 Yard-manure, defined, . 
 
 (p. 170) 
 
 " how affected by age, &:c. 
 
 (p. 171) 
 
 " composition of, . 
 
 (p. 171) 
 
 " analysis, by Richardson, 
 
 (p. 172) 
 
 " " " Johnston, . 
 
 (p. 174) 
 
 " " " Soubeiran, 
 
 (p. 172) 
 
 " weight of cubic foot of, . 
 
 (p. 174) 
 
 23 
 
 
 THE END. 
 
 
iliniOij 169 
 
 mmw