87 M56 ; > c^ z:-.i. <-< A 4^-^ ' iT U. S. DF.PARTMfZNT OF AGRICULTURE DIVISION (IF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY ' NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA iSTo. 16 [AotUMl .late of iMiblicatioii, Octnlx;! 28, 1899] // ' RESULTS OF A B|0 LOGICAL SURVEY OF MOUNT SHASTA ■ ■'■ CALIFORNIA C. HART MERRIAM CHIEF 01-' DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SUIiVEV A6v .~N msmt. ■=hI 'i%\,''^^--:-m m£: ' ~ / 1 m w ^^^^^^ p. WAsni]N'ilts of a Biological EecounoiKsauce of south-central Idaho. By Dr. C. PI art Mevriaui. [List of Reptiles and Batrachians, by Dr. Leonhard Stejne- ger.] Pp. 1.'32, pis. 4 (1 colored), figs. 4. July SO, 1891-, .. Price, 15 cents. No. 6. {Xot piiilislied.) No. 7. Tie Death Valley Expedition: A Biological Survey of Parts of California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah. Part ii. [Reports on Birds, by Dr. A. K. Fisher; Reptiles and Batrachians, by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger; Fishes, by Chas. H. gilbert, Ph. D. ; Insects, by C. V. Riley, Ph. D.; Mollusks, by R. E. C. Stearns, PL; I).;»Deser|t Trees and Shrubs, by Dr. C. Ha,rt Meiriam; Desert Cactuses and Yuccas, by Dr. C. Hart Merriam; List of Localities, by T. S. Palmer.] Pp. 402, pla. 14, maps 5 (colored),. figs. 2. .May 31, INO:;!... '{Out of print.) No. 8. MoDographie Revision of the Pocket GoptlBrs, Family Geomyido' (exclusive of the species of Jliomonuis). By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. Pp. 258, jils. 20, iiuips 4 (colored), figs. 71 . .January 31, 18!r> , Price, Jn cents. No. 9. (Xotpii] Previous publications 15 Xevr species 10 General features 17 Effects of scanty moisture .- 19 Glacial basius 20 Canyons 21 Streams 2.'i Rock slopes 2~> Avalancbes ._ 2(i Timberline 27 Forests of Shasta 30 The yellow pine belt 30 The Shasta iir belt - 36 The Avhite-bark pine belt 39 Forest fires 10 Effects of Imrns in changing zone positions 47 Slope exposure 47 Effects of steeji slopes - 51 Basin slopes 52 Life zones of Shasta 52 Upi)er Sonorau zoue 53 Transition zoue 54 Canadian zone — - - — . . 61 Hudsonian zoue - - 64 Alpine zoue ... 67 The Boreal fauna and flora of Shasta contrasted with corresponding faunas and floras of the Sierra and the Cascades - 09 Efficiency of Klamath Gap as a barrier to Boreal species compared with that of Pitt River and Feather River gaps collectively 83 Sources of the Boreal faunas of Shasta and of the Sierra and the Cascades ... 85 Mammals of Shasta 87 Birds of Shasta and vicinity 109 Notes on the distribution of Shasta plants 135 5 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Facing page. Plate I. Mount Shasta from the vrest Frontispiece. II. Shasta from northwest, showing great snowbank in head of Diller Canyon 18 III. Southeast slope of Shasta, showing canyons of Mnd Creek and ClearCreek. (Kindness of J. S. Diller) 22 IT. Tongue of dwarf white-bark pines at extreme upper limit of tim- berllne. (Kindness of J. S. Diller) 28 V. Pino forest at west base of Shasta, showing yellow and sugar pines. (Kindness of J. S. Diller) 30 TEXT FIGURES. rage. Fig. 1. Wagon Camp 10 2. Shasta from east brink of Mud Creek Canyon 11 3. Shasta from Incoustance Creek, ]iear timlierline on north side 12 4. Shastina from north, showing great bank of snow which feeds Shas- tina streams 13 5. Alpine hemlocks, Squaw Creek Camp 13 6. Heather meadow on 8quaw Crook 14 7. Pumice saud strewn with gray volcanic shale. Young hemlocks in foreground ; white-bark pines in distance 18 8. Heather meadow bordering S(|uaw Creek. Shasta peak in distance covered with fresh snow, .September 22, 1898 19 9. Glacial meadow at head of Squaw Creek 21 10. Heather meadow on upper Squaw Creek, showing concentration of vegetation near stream 23 11. Miniature cascade on upper Squaw Creek, frequented by water shrews and ouzels - 24 12. Characteristic rock slope on north side of Shastina 25 13. Track of avalanche invading forest of Shasta firs on Cold Creek, east side of Shasta 27 14. High timberline ridge, showing effects of slope exposure. (Photo- graphed by John H. Sage) 29 15. Manzanita chaparral on south slope of Shasta 31 16. Cones of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines 32 17. Knobcone pine on Panther Creek 33 18. Incense cedar on south slope below "Wagon Camp 35 19. Cone scales of Jbiea shasiensis and Abiex concolor loioiana 37 20. White-bark pine 38 21. Dwarf white-bark pines on ,i high ridge 39 22. Pumice plain north side of .Sluasta, showing timberline mats of white-bark pines - 40 7 O NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. fNo.ie. Page. Fig. 23. A large prostrate tree of white-bark pine, a little below timberline 41 21. Black alpine hemlocks near Squaw Creek 42 25. Group of alpine hemlocks near Deer Canyon 43 26. Trunkof alpine hemlock, showing thickening and curvature of base. 44 27. Group of alpine hemlocks 45 28. Diagram showing average hourly march of temperature 48 2il. Dwarf pines ending abruptly along cold east side of ridge --- 50 30. Diagram of Shasta showing relations of life zones 52 31. Winter earth plug.s of pocket gopher 96 32. Mound made by pocket gopher. (Photographed by W. H. Osgood). 96 33. Rock couy. (Photographed by F. Stephens) --- 99 34. Jlink. (Drawn by Jiruest S. Thompson) 105 35. Marten. (Drawn by Ernest S. Thompson) 106 36. Red-tail. (Drawn by J. L. Eidgway) 112 37. Sparrow hawli. (Drawn by J. L. Ridgway) 113 38. Arctic three-toed woodpecker. (Drawn by L. A. Fuertes) 115 39. Clark crow. (Drawn by L. A. Fuertes) 120 40. Clark crow. (Photographed by Walter K. Fisher) 121 41. Western evening grosbeak. (Drawn by L. A. Fuertes) 122 42. White-crowned sparrow. (Drawn by L. A. Fuertes) 125 43. Audubon warbler. (Drawn by L. A. Fuertes) 129 44. White hellebore. (Photographed by Walter K. Fisher) 140 45. Manzanita chaparral 157 46. Monument on summit of Shasta. (Photographed by W. H. Osgood. 169 No. 16. NORTH AMEEIOAN FAUNA. October, 1899. RESULTS OF A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MOUNT SHASTA, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. Bv 0. Hart JIbruiam. INTRODUCTION. At the close of the field season of 1897 the Biological Survey had nearly completed a reconnoissance of Washington and Oregon, and in previous years had carried its operations over extensive tracts in south- ern, middle, and northeastern California, so that with the exception of a rather large area in northern California fully two-thirds of the Pacific States had been covered. In 1898, therefore, the unworked part of northern California, reaching from the Madeline Plains on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west, and from the Oregon boundary on the north to Lassen Butte and adjacent parts of the Sierra on the south, came to be the principal field of our investigations. In this area Mount Shasta occupies a nearly central ijosition. All high mountains, particularly those that stand alone, are likely to throw light on the problems of geographic distribution and are worthy of careful study. Shasta, not only because of its great altitude, but even more because of its intermediate position between tho Sierra and the Cascades, promised an instructive lesson, and was therefore chosen as a base station for part of the field work of 1898. From work previously done in the Sierra Nevada of California and the Cascade Eange of Oregon it was known that many species of ani- mals and plants are common to both ranges, and many restricted lo one or the other. Shasta, lying between the two, was expected to share the common features of both, and in addition afford the northernmost limit of Sierra species, the southernmost limit of Cascade species, or an overlapping of both, so that its fauna and flora, other things being equal, should be richer than either. But Shasta proved very much drier than either the Sierra or the Cascades, and consequently many species common to the two ranges were absent, and the total number was less than was expected. Nevertheless, the mountain shares a large 21763— No. 16 2 9 10 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. j)ercentage of the common species and is, as expected, a stepping stone on which restricted Sierra and Oascade species overlap. But the rep- resentatives of the two ranges are not equally apportioned. The most evident gap is on the north, Shasta sharing many more species in com- mon with the Sierra than with the Cascades. Indeed, the resemblance to the northern Sierra is so exceedingly close, particularly in the mam- mal fauna, that from the standpoint of geographic distribution Shasta could without violence be classed as part of the Sierra. This is the more surprising in view of the fact that the geographical gap between Shasta and the Cascades is only half as broad as that between Shasta and the Sierra. This subject is discussed in detail in the chapters entitled 'The Boreal fauna and ilora of Shasta contrasted with corres- ponding faunas and floras of the Sierra and the Cascades;' 'Bfticiency of Klamath Gap as a barrier to Boreal species compared with that of Pitt Eiver and Feather Eiver gaps collectively,' and ' Sources of the Boreal faunas of Shasta and of the Sierra and the Cascades.' ITINERARY. Leaving the railroad at Sisson, at the west base of Shasta, we estab- lished the first camp July 15, 1898, at a point kuowu as Wagon Camp, I'lG. 1.— Wagon Camp. on the south slope of the mountain, about a quarter of a mile west of Panther Creek, at an altitude of 5,700 feet (fig. 1). Wagon Camp issitn- OCT., 1899.1 ITINERARY. 11 ated in a descending tongue of Shasta firs between ascending tongues of manzauita chaparral, just above the uppermost grove of ponderosa pines, on the boundary between the, Canadian and Transition zones. It is abundantly supplied with water from several small springs, from which tiny streamlets run short distances before disappearing in the thirsty soil. Some of these springs unite to form a small marsh, in which flourish a number of plants not found elsewhere on the mountain. It is naturally a favorite spot for birds, and more species were seen here than elsewhere. Wagon Camp was occupied continuously by one or more members of the party from July 15 to August 1, and at brief intervals thereafter until October 3. A few days after reaching the mountain I set out on a trip around the peak in order to become familiar with the general features of the region and lay plans for the season's work. On this trip I was accom- panied by Vernon Bailey, my most experienced field assistant, and by a Fig. 2. — Sliasta trum east brink of Mud Creek Canyon. voluntary assistant, Lyman L. Merriam. We took saddle horses and a pack animal, which were of material aid, although we had much dif- ficulty in getting them across some of the deep canyons and over the indescribably rough lava on the west side of the mountain. Leaving Wagon Camp on the morning of July 22, we ascended Pan- ther Creek to its source, turned easterly through 'The [South] Gate,' north of Gray and Red buttes, crossed Squaw Creek near its head, and kept on among the timberline white-bark pines to the rim of ]\Iud Creek Canyon (pi. iii), which we followed down into the Shasta firs. The first night was spent in the bottom of this canyon at an altitude of 5,600 feet — some distance below the lower fall. The second day we climbed the steep east bank of the canyon, here 1,000 feet deep (fig. 2), crossed Cold Creek and Ash Creek Canyon below timberline, and reached 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. LNO. 16. Brewer Greek Canyon in the upper part of the white-bark pines. Find- ing absolutely no grass or other feed for the animals here, we crossed the canyon lower down (a little below the forks) and continued on over rough lava ridges in the upper edge of the forest until dark, when we camped on Inconstance Creek (fig. 3). The third day we pushed i':'^ >£■ ■ " ^i^®" 'jL^^ Pig. 3. — Shasta from Inconstance Creek, near tiiuberline on north side. on around the north end of the mountain, keeping a little below the great glaciers, and in the main near timberline. We climbed over a number of lava ridges, availed ourselves of a natural passageway ('North G-ate') at the upper end of a pair of conspicuous lava buttes, traversed a curious pumice plain covered with timberline mats of prostrate white-bark pines (fig. 22), crossed the fearful canyons of Whit- ney and Bolam creeks, and finally reached Shastina, where, after a very severe day, we cami)ed on some small streams of snow water on the north side (fig. 4). The fourth morning we climbed the rough slide rock of Shastina to an altitude of 10,000 feet, in order to get around a high impassable lava ridge, and then, after encircling a great amphitheater of rough slide rock, descended by some immense masses of perpetual snow to the white-bark pines, in which we continued to the great can- yon on the west side of Shastina (pi. ii), which I named Diller Canyon, in honor of J. S. Diller of the U. S. treological Survey, in recognition of his admirable researches on the geology of Shasta. After crossing Diller Canyon we kept in the upper part of the Shasta fir forest all the way to Panther Creek, which we followed down to Wagon Camp. This OCT., 1899.] ITINER,\EY. 13 was the most trying day of all — sixteen miles of continual climbing, removing blocks of lava, and building trail. Our animals suffered Fig. 4. — Shastina from north, showing great bank of snow which feeds Shastiiia streams. severely, and one of them gave out entirely. However, the mountain was completely encircled after four long days, and the desired informa- FlG. 5.— Alpine hemloclis. Squaw Creek Camp, tion was obtained. In the main we kept near timberline, climbing over the bare rock slopes above, or descending into the dark forest below, 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16 as occasion required. And since all the canyons of Shasta radiate from the summit, all were crossed on this trij). A base camp was next established in a grove of black alpine hem- locks near the head of the west branch of Squaw Greek, close to and just east of the upper end of Eed Butte. Here one or more of the party remained continuously from August 1 till September 24. All things considered, this is probably the best camping ground on Shasta, though I am not aware that it bad been used before our visit. It is close by the three upper 'meadows' ou Squaw Creek and within reach of the best feed for horses found ou the mountain, with the possible exception FlQ. 6. — Heather meadow on Squaw Creek. of a small area near Cold Creek, and it is by far the most conven- ient base from which to work the timberline region of the southern slopes. Temporary camps were established at the head of Panther Creek, in Mud Creek Canyon at the mouth of Clear Creek, in Ash Creek Can- yon a little below timberline, and high up between Mud Creek Canyon and the head of Clear Creek, from which point the main peak was twice ascended. At the base of the mountain, work was done at Sisson on tbe west side, in Squaw Creek and McCloud valleys on the south, and in Shasta and Little Shasta valleys on the north, and finally a trip was made completely around the mountain, mainly within the belt of yel- low pines which clothes its lower slopes. OCT., 1899.] PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS. 15 PERSONNEL. In the neld work on which the present report is based, I was aided by Vernon Bailey, chief field naturalist of the Biological Survey, and my assistants, Wilfred II. Osgood, Walter K. Fisher, and Eichard T. Fisher. Vernon Bailey had charge of the work at the Shasta base camps and on a trip around the base of the mountain; Walter K. Fisher had charge of the work in Mud Creek and Ash Creek canyons and near timberline east of Mud Creek, and afterwards took a party to Fall Elver Lake and Lassen Butte; W. H. Osgood had charge of the work on Lassen after Walter Fisher's departure, and also visited Squaw Creek and Shasta and Little Shasta valleys; E.T.Fisher spent the season working from the various camjjs on Shasta and at Sissou, and accompanied Osgood on the trip to Little Shasta Valley.' Our camps on Shasta were visited by Henry Gannett, chief geo- grapher of the U. S. Geological Survey; John H. Sage, of Connecticut, secretary of the American Ornithologists' Union; and two or three others, all of whom rendered important assistance. In addition to the work on and near Shasta covered by the present report, field work was done in various directions. Three cross sec- tions of the Sierra Nevada, north of latitude 39°, were made by Bailey, Osgood, and myself; Bailey and Walter Fisher ran a line from Black Eock Desert, Kevada, to Shasta, by way of Madeline Plains; Bailey and I, accompanied by Henry Gannett, carried the work across the wild and little known mountains froin Shasta to the ocean, which we reached at Humboldt Bay; and later in the season much work was done farther south, chiefly in the inner and outer Coast Eanges. PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS. Only two publications have been found relating to the zoology and botany of the Shasta region. The first is a report by Charles II. Town- send, of the U. S. Fish Commission, who, fifteen years before our visit, was stationed at Baird, a fish hatchery on McCloud Eiver. While there Mr. Townseud visited Berryvale (now Sisson Tavern) and accom- panied Major Gilbert Thompson, who was in charge of a triangulation party of the U. S. Geological Survey, in his field work on Shasta. The results of Mr. Townsend's work are contained in an important report entitled 'Field Notes on the Mammals, Birds, and Eeptiles of Northern California,' published in the fall of 1887.^ In addition to the records in this report, Mr. Townsend has kindly placed his manuscript catalogue at my disposal, and has in several instances given me important sup- ' W^hile this report was passing through the press (July, 1899), I sent Walter K. Fisher to Mount Shasta and Shasta Valley to obtain supplemental informatiou, some of which is incorporated in the mammal, hird, and plant reports at the end. — C. H. M. -Proc. U. S. National Museum, X, pp. 159-241, Nov., 1887. 16 NORTH AMERICAX FAUNA. [NO. 16. plementary iuformation respectiug- the exact localities at whicli speci- mens were collected, all of which is duly credited in the body of the present report. The sc'coud publication referred to is a brief paper by Miss Alice Eastwood on 'The Alpine Flora of IMouut Shasta," containing the results of a hasty trip to the summit made in August, 1893. So far as I have been able to ascertain, this is the first and only pub- lication relating directly to Shasta plants, although a number of species collected there during a brief A'isit by Prof. Wm. H. Brewer in the early sixties are mentioned in the Botany of California (by Brewer and Watson, 1870-1880). NEW SPECIES. In working up the collections it was found that several of the plants and mammals belonged to uudescribed sijecies. Some of the new plants have been described by Prof. E. L. Greene;^ others remain unnamed. The new mammals are here described. The new species are: riants. iJammala. Agoseris monticola. Aruica merrianii. Campanula "wilkiusiana. Phacelia frigida. Pyrola pallida. Le]ius klamathensis. Lynx faaciatiis pallescens. Nenrotrichus gibbsi major. Procyon psora pacitica. Eeithrodoutomys klamathensis. Sorex shastc'iisis, Thomoiiiys mouticola piuetorum. Urocyon californicus tOTvnsendl. ' Erythca, IV, No. II, pj). 136-112, Sept., 189(i. -•Pittonia, IV, pp. :i(J-10, March 17, l«llt. GENERAL FEATURES OP SHASTA. The snowy peak of Shasta, the pride of California, is one of the highest and most accessible of the suow-elad glacier bearing moun- tains of the United States. It is an old volcano, 14,450 feet in alti- tude, and is completely cut off from neighboring mountains — from Lassen Peak, at the north end of the Sierra proper, by the valleys of the McCloud and Pitt rivers; from the south eud of the Cascade Range in Oregon by a broad lava plateau and the valley of Klamath River. The breadth of the gap on the north is diminished by a chister of low volcanic mountains known as the Goose Nest Group. Shasta is the best-known landmark in California. Seen from the north, south, and east it appears as a single cone pushing its lofty crown upward six or seven thousand feet above apparent timberline. Seen from the west and southwest its summit is elongated and looks more like the crest of a ridge (frontispiece). This appearance is due in part to a large secondary volcano, Shastina, which rises from the northwest shoulder of the mountain , and in part to a long ridge which pushes out to the south. This west side, the one seen by tourists in traveliug over the Shasta route from San Francisco to Portland, is in many respects the least interesting. From its exposure to the direct rays of the afternoon sun it is the hottest slope, and ^ w > w H > a o S a B 'Z O X W H a o ^ S o o a w > H w •z o m > z M > O o ►I) O r r w a) O > •z k! O !Z OCT., 1899,] EFFECTS OF SCANTY MOISTURE. 19 EFFECTS OF SCANTY MOISTURE. -Lte flora of Shasta, coutrastcd with that ofmoister iiiouiitains imme- diately north and immediately South, is poor in species and individuals; and the same is true ia less degree of the fauna. At least nineteen characteristic genera and numerous additional species of plants com- mon to the Sierra aud the Cascades, are unknown (p. 80); and to these must be added the distinctive species of each range which fail to reach Shasta. The luxuriant mountain meadows aud flower beds that form such conspicuous features of the timberline region in the Cascades, the Olympics, the High Sierra, and the Eocky Mountains are wholly absent, and the only areas that in any way resemble them are the Fig, 8.— Heather meadow bordering Squaw Creek. Shasta peak iu distance covereil with fresh snow, September 22, 1898. insignificant patches of mountain heather and accompanying plants that carpet the moist bottoms of the glacier basins and form narrow beds along the tiny streams, where they are concentrated by the local distribution of soil moisture. The only real soil above timberline is restricted to the borders of the streamlets, where the decomposing heather has left a shallow covering. Everywhere else are pumice, broken lava, aud barren cliff's. The summer rainfall amounts to little or nothing, and when rains occur they sink and vanish iu the thirsty pumice sand. The streams from melting snows are exceedingly small, averaging hardly more than a foot or two in widtli, and most of them disappear before reaching the base of the mountain. The turbid streams from the glaciers are larger, 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. but they have cut for themselves deep gorges where they run their rapid courses 1,000 feet below the surface, and conseqiiently are use- less for purposes of general irrigation. They exert a local influence, it is true, since far down in the damp bottoms of the canyons and along their cool easterly lower slopes a number of moisture-loving plants occur that are uot found elsewhere except about tbe few and widely scattered springs iu the forest — serving by contrast to accentuate the general aridity. Even the black alpine hemlock, which iu the Cascades forms so attractive a feature of the upper slopes, is of local occurrence on Shasta, where its distribution is interesting as furnishing an index to soil moisture. It is associated with the white-bark pine (Pinus albi- caulis), which requires less moisture and is the dominant timberline tree. In our circuit of the peak we found the range of the white-bark pine practically coutinuous; that of the alpine hemlock discontinuous and greatly restricted. As a rule the hemlock is confined to narrow strips along the streams and gulches, or to tongues along the cool east sides of buttes and ridges, where the soil, sheltered from the hot after- noon sun, is able to retaiu more moisture than elsewhere. Below the aljjine hemlocks and occupying the middle belt of the mountain is a magnificent forest of Shasta firs ; but the humbler vegetation of this belt is scanty and irregular. Prom what has been said it is obvious that excessive dryness pre- vents many of the characteristic zone species from filling their appro- priate belts, restricting them to scattered spots, where, as in the desert, succulent vegetation i s concentrated about springs and streams. Hence Shasta is a poor place to study the broad general facts of zone distri- bution, but, as shown later, an admirable place to study detailed effects of slope exposure and humidity. GLACIAL BASINS. As in most i>arts of the Sierra aud many parts of the Cascades, gla- cial basins are conspicuous on the higher slopes of the mountain. They occupy the deep depressions between the radiating ridges, and their terminal moraines are usually clearly defined. In some of the valleys, as along the upper part of Squaw Creek, two or three such moraines may be found at iutervals, marking successive stages in the retreat of the glacier. The glacial basins usually contain small streams, at least during spriug and early summer, and they receive additional moisture from the melting snows, which linger long in the shadows of the ridges. This moisture permits the growth of a more abundant vegetation than occurs elsewhere on Shasta, save only along the streams. The bottoms of the basins therefore are usually carpeted with red heather (Bryantlms or Phyllodoce empetriformh) aud a variety of small plants, the majority of which are inconspicuous except when in flower. Among the most noticeable of these, each contributing its mite to the general verdure of the heather beds, are the dwarf huckleberries, white alpine anten- OCT., 1899.] CANYOXS. 21 narias, silenes and ligusticums, yellow monkey flowers, violets and hieraciums, blue veronicas and asters, cre:ini-colored feathery lutkeas and parnassias, pink epilobinms, red alpiue laurels, and scarlet ])ainted cups.' True grasses are scarce, but grass-like cariccs abound. The mammals inhabiting the heather meadows are the rare alpine phenacomys ( Phenacomys orophilus), the white-footed mouse {reromysciis gambeli), the long-tail mountain vole (21icrottts morda.r), and the Sierra pocket gopher {Thomomi/.s moniicola). The gophers throw up their characteristic mounds about the edges of the heather beds but are commoner on the adjacent pumice slopes. I'lQ 9.— Glacial meadow at head of Squaw Creek. CANYONS. All the canyons of Shasta radiate from the ice-covered summit and take reDiarkably straight courses down the steep sides of the moun- tain. Most of them are profound gorges cut by swift-flowing glacial 1 The plants of the glacial basins in the timberliue region vary somewhat with the moisture of the soil. The commonest species in moist spots and along the borders of the streamlets are : Arnica merriami, Caatilleja miniata, Epilobium claratum, Biera- cium (iracile, Hypericum anagalloides, Mimulua implexua (growing in the water), Mimu- lus primuloides, Mitella peniandra, Farnassia californica, Veronica cnsicld. The com- monest species in the drier parts of the heather beds are : Antennaria media, CastiUeja miniata, Hieraciiim gracile, Kalmia ijlauca microphylla, Lattea pecHnata, Ugnsticum grayi, Phyllodooe empetriformis, Sibbaldia proeumbens, ,Silene grayi, raccinium cwspi- tosum, riola purpurea. 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. streams. They average about a thousand feet in depth, and their slopes are as steep as permitted by the unstable material through which they are cut — usually pumice, gravel, and fragments of lava. Owing to the fact that all of the great glaciers are on the north, east, or southeast sides of the mountain, the canyons made by their rivers are necessarily on these sides also. The only one of any size which does not come from a glacier is Diller Canyon, on the west side of Shastina. In most, if not all, cases the bottoms of the canyons in their upper courses are bridged for long distances by masses of ice and snow — the dumps of avalanches. Below these snow bridges are vast accumula- tions of loose stones, which in several instances, as in Brewer, Bolam, and Whitney canyons, are piled up in a curious manner. During periods of high water the rocks that fall iu are carried down by the torrent and deposited on each side in banks several feet high, so that the traveler on reaching the bottom has to climb up over a ridge of loose stones and down again before coming to the stream. These lat- eral ridges form miniature canyons in the bottoms of the big ones. Most of the canyons have falls several hundred feet high in their upper courses, and some have other falls farther down. Notable falls are found high up in the canyons of Mud Creek, Ash Creek, Bolam Creek, and Whitney Creek. While difficult of access, they are well worth the effort of a visit. Mud Creek Canyon (pi. m), the only one likely to be seen by the ordinary visitor to Shasta, is not easy to cross except near the mouth of Clear Creek, which comes into it from the east. Its east bank is a precipitous single slope about 1,000 feet in height. Its west bank, except above timberline, is broken by a forest-covered terrace or bench, and both descents are likewise steep, though less difficult than the oppo- site side. The canyon of Ash Creek is better timbered and a little less precipitous than that of Mud Creek. The canyons of Bolam and Whit- nej' creeks, like that of the upi)er part of Mud Creek, are terrific naked chasms, very deep and so steep that in most places the loose material of their sides will not sustain the weight of a man — much less that of a horse — and when disturbed dashes in avalanches to the bottom. Diller Canyon is peculiar (pi. n). It is a tremendous gash on the west side of the otherwise symmetrical cone of Shastina, which it cleaves from top to bottom before taking its practically straight westerly course down the rest of the mountain. It is the only canyon on Shas- tina, the only notable one on the west side of Shasta, and the only oue anywhere on the mountain that does not emanate from a glacier. Its stream comes from enormous banks of jjerpetual snow. While the upper parts of the canyons are exceedingly steep and barren, and practically devoid of vegetation, the middle and lower parts are invaded by the trees of the adjacent slopes, and in marshy and springy spots contain patches of willows, alders, and a multitude North American Fauna, No. 16. Plate III. 5 2 a z w o G H a > C/1 r o •B M O C/2 K > > en I O s o o > z o m O W a r r M G O > Z d o r w > o X m w , 189U.] STREAMS. 23 of smaller plants. These places, iu Mud Greek and Ash Greek canyons, are the homes of the mountain showt'l or sewellel {Aplodontia major), a curious bob-tailed rodent resembling a large muskrat, which lives in a labyrinth of subterranean passages in wet ground, and cuts and drags to its burrows bundles of coarse iilants on which it feeds. Weasels {Pntorl^is ai'nonensix) are usually found in the aplodontia colonies and it is safe to assume that their presence there is the most serious factor in the life of the rightful owners of the land. STREAMS. The streams that come from glaciers are rapid, turbid, and muddy, and have cut deep V-shaped canyons down the steep slopes of the mountain. Those that coaie from melting snow are clear as crystal FiQ, 10. Heatlier meadow on upper Squaw Creek, abowinii fouceiitration of vei;etation near stream. and usually flow on the surface or in shallow channels hardly more than a foot or two in depth. They are smaller and less constant than those from the glaciers, and in times of high water carry so much gravel and pumice that they often block their own shallow channels and overflow cutting new courses near the old ones. During the fluc- tuations incident to the irregular melting of snow they often reopen the older channels and at the same time retain the new, so that on the higher slopes it is not unusual for a mountain rivulet to occupy several beds at the same time. These are commonly separated by intervals of a few feet or a few rods, and the spaces between are often covered with patches of red heather, dotted with flowering plants of many kinds. 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. The banks of tlie more permanent streamlets are so well supplied with moisture that the heather and other plants, often mixed with alpine mosses/ form a sod which, growing thicker each year, gradually comes to overhang and finally bridge the swiftly running water. Even away from these sod bridges, which for long distances completely hide the water, the space between the constantly protruding banks is so narrow that only the middle part of the stream can be seen. The icy rivulets abound in cascades, miniature waterfalls, and crys- tal pools, bordered by overhanging banks of moss, heather, and dwarf alpine laurel, and adorned by the waving heads of the scarlet painted Fig. 11.— Aiiniature cascade on upper S^uaw Creek, lietiiiented hy \v;itcr slirewa and ouzela. cups and cream-colored paruassias. They are ideal homes for the water onzel{Cinclus mexioanm), the large water shrew (Xeosore.v navujator), and the mountain vole (Microttis morda.v). The latter animal is par- ticularly abuudant, and its dark burrows, almost bidden among the plants, may be found opening out on the vertical overhanging banks only a few inches above the water, so that whenever the occupants come out they may pluu.ue in tlie icy stream before proceeding on their journey. Minks occur lower down along the streams, and still lower, otters. ' The prevailiug uioss on the banks of the alpine streams is Aulacomniiim androgy- num. OCT., 1899.1 ROCK SLOPES. 25 ROOK SLOPES. The whole upper part of the mountain between the glaciers and snow banks above and the forest belt below consists of bare rocky slopes, broken at intervals by precipitous cliffs and small heather meadows. The slopes are largely pumice sand, strewn and mixed with fragments of gray volcanic rock, among which the individual plants are so scattered as to disappear iu the genei-al view.' White-footed mice {Peromyscus (jamheli) are common on these slopes, feeding on seeds of Polygonum neu-berryi and other timberline plants. Pocket gophers (Thomomys monticola) occur here and there and throw up their characteristic mounds in the pumice sand between the rocks. They subsist on the tough roots Fig. 12. — Cbaracteristic ronk slope on north side nt' Sba^tina. of alpine plants, and were observed at intervals up to an altitude of 9,000 feet. The pika or rock cony (OcJiotona scMsticeps) inhabits steep rock slides at distant points around the peak, and lays up stores of plants for winter use. Another mammal inhabiting the rock slides 'The commonest plants of tbe bare stony pumice slopes are: Jgoseris monticola, Antennaria media, Arahis pJ(tli)spcrnui, ChwnacHs ueiadcnsis, Chrtjsotliammis hloomeri, Cymopterus teveljinihiniis, Eriogoniim polijpodum, JE. pyrohifoJiiim, Erigeron compoaitm trifidus, Sulsea Jarseni, H. nana, Lnihea. pectinaia, Lupinus ' ornaiun,' L. lyaUi, I'ent- slemon mcnzieai, PUlox douglasi diffusa, Polygonum nexduriyi, P. shastense, Saxifraga tolmiei, Senecio canua, SiUne grayi, S. sulcsdorji, Spruguea umhellala, Sfrepianthus orbicnlatus, and Viola purpurea. Besides tliesc, several ferns occur very sparingly on the rock slopes. These are Dryopteris iiculcatd scopulina, Cy^topteria fragilis, Clieilanthes graeillima, and Phegopteris aJpestris. 21763— Fo. 16- 4 26 NOETH AMERICAN FAI^NA. [no. 16. and clitfs, but for some unaccountable reason even rarer than tlie cony, is the bushy-tailed wood rat or pack rat {Neotoma cinered), which, if my memory serves me correctly, is less common on Shasta than on any other mountain I have visited in the West. The mountain chipmunk {Eutamiax scne.r) and golden ground squirrel {GailosiiermophUus chryso- dernis) inhabit the tongues of ])iues on the ridges, and not infrequently live in burrows among the bare rocks. Marmots, it is safe to assert, are altogether absent. We completely encircled the jieak in the neighbor- hood of timberline, and examined innumerable ledges and rock slides, such as on other mountains are inhabited by marmots, but without find- ing so much as a track or sign or even a bleached bone to indicate that any member of the genus Arctomys had ever inhabited Shasta. In former days the bighorn [Oris caiiailenni'ii) was common here, but now the occasional fragment of a skull or the scattered parts of a skeleton are all that remain. In fall the old bucks of the Columbia black-tail deer wander up on the higher ridges. Here and there, particularly in the shelter of the prostrate white-bark pines, tracks and dung of rabbits were seen, but in spite of all our efforts no member of the party succeeded in tindiug a rabbit on the mountain. The species is probably the Sierra rabbit (Lejnis l-liim or 4 feet in diameter are strewn ill desolate conriision over the broad area tliat marks the place where this terrific avalanche slowed lip and linally stopped. The accompanying illustration shows a part of this area, and also the gate cut by the avalanche when it struck the upper edge of the forest. Fig. 13. — Track of avalanche invading forest of Shasta firs on Cold Creek, east side of Shasta. TIMBERLINE. Timberline is the upper or boreal limit of tree growth, as determined by temperature. It varies somewhat according to the particular species of tree, for even Hudsonian species differ in the degree of cold they are able to endure. Thus in the northern Cascades where the alpine hemlock and alpine flr are the dominant timberline trees, the fir pushes up to higher altitudes than the hemlock. So on Shasta, where the alpine fir is replaced by the white-bark pine, the latter is the true tim- berline tree and always attains higher elevations than the hemlock. Theoretically, nothing is easier than tracing timberline on a moun- tain whose upper slopes are bare or dotted with alpine flowers and whose middle slopes support a continuous forest. Yet on Shasta, and on most high mountains, it is exceedingly difficult to fix the boundary of timberline or indicate its exact position on a map. Of course, it is 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. possible to follow the uppermost trees wherever they may lead, but a map showing such a route would resemble a saw from which alternate teeth had been removed, the remaining teeth indicating the way the dwarf trees push up on the summits of ridges, the broad spaces between the teeth, the treeless gaps, usually the intervening valleys or basins. Trees always occur at some point in the bottoms of these valleys, and usually extend completely across them, but at an altitude a thousand feet or more lower than that reached on the ridges, and there is a material difference in the tree.s themselves. If of the same species, those in the valleys are much larger and taller; if of other species, as is frequently the case, they belong to the upper part of the belt below — the middle forest belt. On Shasta, the trees that push up highest on the ridges are always the dwarf white-bark pines, while as a rule those that bridge the Intervening valleys below are full- grown alpine hemlocks or Shasta iirs, the upper limit of which must not be mistaken for timberline. The difficulty lies in determining what ought to be considered true timberline, and the reason why in the absence of obvious barriers the white-bark pines do not fill more than a third or a fourth of the belt to which they properly belong. If a mountain could be found whose upper slopes form a true cone instead of a series of alternating ridges and valleys, so that suc- cessive transverse sections would be circular in outline, instead of irregularly scalloped, it is probable that timberline would form almost a true circle around the peak, rising a little on the southwest and dijipiug down a little on the northeast. But in the absence of such ideal conditions, actual visible timberline is usually confined to the bor- ders of the tongues of dwarf trees that occupy the summits of the radi- ating ridges (pi. iv). The explanation of the absence of trees from the intervening valleys is not always easily found; still, if the valleys are studied with reference to the details of their several slope exposures and other local conditions, the position of the hypothetical timberline, in most cases, will be obvious. Let us take, for instance, one of the numerous glacial basins on the south side of Shasta, bordered on each side by lofty ridges which are capped by tongues of white-bark pines. The bottom of the valley, whenever its axial slope is steep enough to be regularly swept by avalanches, can not, of course, contain trees. The broad basin slope of the ridge on the west faces east and is in its own shadow in the afternoon; as a consequence it is too cold for trees, bat is well sprinkled with alpine i^lants. Its summit; is covered with dwarf white-bark pines, which come up from the other side and end abruptly along its eastern crest. The cold eastern slope is, in its zone position, actually above timberline, although the tongue of dwarf trees along its crest may stretch up a thousand feet above the lowest alpine plants. On the opposite or eastern side of the basin the slope faces west or southwest, and receives the warm rays of the afternoon sun. The North Ameiican Fauna No, IC. Plate IV. OCT., 1899.1 TIMBERLINE. 29 result is that this slope, nuless too steep or otherwise unsuited to tree growth, or within the track of avalanches, is commonly covered with ■white-bark pines. As a rule the timbered area on these westerly slopes takes the form of a broadening tongue, beginning at the highest alti- tude attained by trees on the crest of the ridge and increasing iu width at lower altitudes until the bottom of the valley is reached and skirted, and the limit of avalanche movement passed, when the trees again strike out boldly. The pines in the basins are much larger and more erect than those on the summits of the ridges; they decrease in size with iucrease in elevation. The long oblique line which on the west side of each ridge marks the lower limit of tree growth commonly Fig. 14. — HigU timberline ridge, abowing eiiecta of slope exposure. The dark patches on the left (west) side of tiie ridge are dwarf wiute-bark pines. (Photographed b.y John H. Sage.) marks also the upper limit of the area in shadow during the late afternoon. In local spots other factors may account for the absence of trees. Thus, they are always absent from the avalanche-swept bot- toms of the valleys, and from ground kept wet by springs or melting snow. Studied with these facts in view, comparatively few treeless areas will be found which can not be explained, and the position of true timberline may be fixed with some degree of certainty. This is really a very important matter inasmuch as it affects the zone position of a great many species. It is necessary to remember that the reason trees are absent from the cold east and northeast slopes of the ridges whose summits are 30 NORTtI AMERICAN FAUNA. (no. 16. covered with dwarf trees is that these slopes are in their zone position truly alpine and above timberline, as already explained. Nothing is easier than to refer to the wrong zone species found in the treeless basins between the pine-covered ridges. But wlien it is under- stood that parts of each basin, regardless of the distance below the highest tongue of timber, are unquestionably abovv timberline (and con- sequently Alpine) and that other parts, regardless of the distance above the nearest trees in the basin, are unquestionably well beloic timberline (and consequently Hndsonian), mistakes of this kind will be less frequent. THE FORESTS OF SHASTA. Shasta rises from a forested region (pi. v), and the mountain itself is continuously forest-covered up to an altitude of 7,500 or 8,000 feet. The trees of the lower slopes are those of the surrounding region, but those of the middle and upjjer slopes belong to such widely different species that it is necessary to divide the mountain forest into three belts, which, from their most distinctive trees, may be designated (1) the lower or yellow-pine belt; (2) the middle or Shasta fir belt, and (3) the upper or white-bark jnne belt. It is interesting to observe that these forest divisions, as shown later, coincide with the three Life zones — the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsouian. (1) The Lo-wrer Belt or Belt of Yellow or Ponderosa Pines (Piiiiis ponderosa). The most abundant and characteristic tree of the lower slopes and surrounding region is the yellow or ponderosa pine, which forms a con- tinuous open forest up to an altitude, on the south and west sides, of about 5,.500 feet. The only material gap in the pine belt of the moun- tain proper is a strip about 8 miles in length on the cold northeast quEidrant, which is occupied by lodge-pole pines belonging to the zone above (Canadian zone). On the south and west the open pine forest of the basal slopes is interrupted by extensive parks, which from a distance appear to be meadows of waving grass. A nearer view shows this to be an illusion, the broad fields of green being in reality impenetrable thickets of chaparral — a chaparral of unyielding manzanita and buck brush (Arctostaphylos patuJa and Geaiwthns rrhUinn.s, see tig. 15). Northwest of Shasta the yellow-pine forest is interrupted by the open plain of Shasta Valley, which on the southwest ends abruptly at the town of Edgewood. Xorth, northeast, and east of Shasta the ponder- osa pine forest continues with unimportant interruptions to Devils Garden, (roose Lake, and the IMadeline Plains; on the south it is prac- tically continuous to the base of Lassen Butte, and thence along the flanks of the Sierra for 350 miles ; on the southwest it follows the canyon of the Sacramento Eiver to a little below Delta, where, in the bottom of the canyon and on its warmer slopes, the curious digger pines of the Upper Sonoran zone mix with and soon replace the ponderosa pines North American Fauna No. 16. Plate V. Pine Forest at west base of Shasta Showing ye]lo\\- and h-ui;ar pines OCT., 1809. J YELLOW PINE BELT. 31 of the Transition zone. On the cooler iiud higher canyon slopes and adjacent foothills the ponderosa pines continue to tlie border of the Sacramento Valley. West of Shasta they cover all but tlie highest elevations of the Scott Mountains, completely .surround Scott Valley, and reach up a considerable distance over the east arm of the Salmon Mountains, where, mixed as usual with Douglas firs, incense cedars, and sugar pines, they till the Transition zone. Still I'artlier west they occur in greater or less abundance in the valleys of llussian Creek, North and South forks of Salmon River, Trinity River, and Klamath River, and at appropriate altitudes on the west arm of Salmon Moun- tains, Trinity Mountains, and the mountains between Iloopa Valley and Redwood Greek. Hence the Shasta forest of jjonderosa x)iaes is Fig. 15. — MaDzanita chaparral on sonth slope of Shasta. directly continuous — either broadly or by narrow and tortuous tongues — with corresponding forests of southern Oregon, northeastern Califor- nia, northwestern California, and the tlanks of the Sierra. The ponderosa pines of the Shasta plateau and adjacent region are peculiar — peculiar in the extent of their variability — and deserve care- ful study. ISTot only do the cones of adjacent trees present an unusual degree of variation in size and compactness (particularly noticeable in Scott Valley), but the cones of trees subjected to apparently slight differences of temperature, moisture, and soil present certain average differences that are quite surprising. Moreover, on higher parts of the Scott Mountains, and also along their cool east base, fairly typical Pinus jeffreyi grows within a short distance of pondero.sa. Whether or 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [^o.w. not the two actually intergrade, while au interesting question, is of little consequence compared with the fact that here, as in the Sierra, the two trees occupy adjoining but distinct belts — ponderosa the warmer and normally the lower; jeffreyi the colder and normally the higher. It sometimes happens, however, as in places along the cold east base of the Scott Mountains, where local conditions produce abnormal tempera- tures, that a strip of Jeifrey pine is sandwiched in between two areas of ponderosa pine. In this instance the low temperature comes in jjart from the cooling effects of cold streams, and in part from the afternoon shadows of the mountains. The p(mderosa forest is nowhere pure over any large area, but is sprinkled in varying proportion with sugar pines, incense cedars, Douglas firs, and white firs, and at lower altitudes with black oaks. The stately sugar pines are so valuable for lumber that the best have been already cut, but enough remain to show that the species was formerly common in most l^arts of the ponderosa for- est. The incense cedars also are scattered over the whole region, but the Doug- las and white firs require more moisture and conse- quently are less evenly dis- tributed. They are most abundant on the borders of streams, in cool canyons, 1)1' pouderorta and JclVrey pines. , ,, and along the well- watered east base of Mount Eddy and the Scott Mountains, where they become the dominant trees, the ponderosa pines being comparatively scarce. On drier and warmer soil, away from the cooling influence of the Scott Mountains, the jionderosa pines rapidly increase, and in the area between Black Butte, Shasta A'alley, and the mountain, although sprinkled with incense cedars and black oaks, they form the purest j)onderosa forest of the region. Another conifer of the yellow-pine belt is the knobcone pine (Finns atfenuaia), a narrow interrupted tongue of which ])ushes up Panther Creek. The deciduous trees of this belt are the black oak ((^Hiercns ealifoniic'i), Oregon ina])le (Acer macrophi/llniii), tree alder {Ahnts tenui/olia), and Oregon dogwood (Cornus nuttaUi). The maple and dogwood are restricted to the lowest levels and do not occur in very dry places; the alders are confined to the neighborliood of water; the oak ranges more widely over the lower half of the pine belt and thrives on dry as well as on moderately moist soils. The conifers will be considered as individual species. Sugar Pine (Finns lamheriiana). — The sugar pine is the largest, handsomest, aiid noblest of our western pines, and its wood is so OCT., 1899.) YELLOW PINE BELT. 33 valuable for hiniber that, excel )t in inaccessible places, tlie best trees have been cut. The huge trunks, often (! or 7 feet in dianietei', lise as straight symmetrical pillars to a height of 150 or 200 feet, and are cov- ered with fine beautiful bark. The long and graceful branches are usually confined to the upper parts of the trees, and the cones they carry are the longest known, frequently attaining a length of a foot and a half and sometimes of 2 feet. They are very light, however, and when falling are by no means so dangerous to the passer below as the shorter and more massive cones of the di gger pines. Around the base of Shasta the sugar pines reach from a point on the nortliwest slope about 4.J miles southeast of Edgewood, near the south end of Shasta Valley, south- erly and westerly all the way around to Ash Greek, where they cease at an altitude of about 5,000 feet. They are fairly common in McCloud Valleyaud at Sisson, whence they extend south along the Sacramento Canyon to 'The Loop.' They are at present more abundant in the neigh- borhood of Black Butte than elsewhere about the moun- tain, lu the Shasta region they are not so large as on the west slope of the Sierra in central California; still the stump of a sugar pine measured by me in McCloud Valley was 7 feet 7 inches in diameter C feet above the ground. Knoboone Fine {Pinus attenuata, fig. 17) — The knobcoue pine is a tree of erratic distribution. On Shasta it is confined to the lower slopes on the south side, from Panther Creek easterly to a point between the branches of Mud Creek, where it ranges irregularly from an altitude of 3,800 up to 5,000 feet. The latter limit is attained in a gully a little east of Wagon Camp, in a continuation of the Panther Creek strip. Lower down on Panther Creek, where the original forest of ponderosa and sugar: pines lias been removed by the combined work of lumbermen and forest fires, and the slopes are now covered by an impenetrable jungle of manzanita, this singular pine remains, com- 21753— No. 16 5 Fig. 17. — Kuobrnut piue on Paiitlu 34 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. monly growing in narrow lines. The trees are rarely more than 50 feet iu height, and most of them are much smaller. They bear a mar- velous load of slender curved cones, which on the limbs grow close together in whorls or rows, and on the trunks are scattered or grow in circles. They remain on the trees for many years, as in the case of few other species, and their large size, extraordinary numbers, and peculiar arrangement give the tree a singular and unusual appearance, Vernon Bailey has given me the following note on some knobcone pines examined by him on Panther Creek, September 27, 1898 : The trees were loaded with coues, in whorls of throe to seven around the branches, and down the trunks to 10 or 12 feet from the ground. Some of the cones must have been 20 or 30 years old, and perhaps much older. I cut off a lot of the old lower coues to see if the seeds were good, and put them on a bowlder and cracked them with a few hard blows of the ax. All of them were full of worm dust, with only now and then an undiscovered seed or a fat white worm. Cones of medium age (5 or 6 years back from the end of the branch) were invariably occupied by worms and worm dust, and usually contained few good seeds. Cones only 1 or 2 years old were rarely wormy. A great many of the old cones had been dug into by wood- peckers, either for seeds or, more likely, for the fat white grubs that live on the seeds. The cones are too hard to be broken or split apart by the woodpeckers, and are opened by a smooth hole drilled into the middle, or sometimes to the opposite wall. Usually the opening is long and narrow. Sometimes the whole inside of the cone haH been drilled out, leaving only the shell; sometimes a small round hole has been drilled just through the outer shell. White Fir {AMes concolor loiriana.)— The white fir ranges from Sisson, at the bottom of the west slope of Shasta, up to the lower edge of the Shasta fir belt, which it slightly overlaps. At Wagon Camp (fig. 1, alt. 5,700 feet) both species are common. The Avhite fir requires more moisture than the other conifers of the lower timber belt, and con- sequently its distribution is discontinuous. It is most abundant along the well-watered eastern base of Mount Eddy, north of Sisson. The highest elevation at which it was observed is a warm ridge on the east side of Mud Creek Canyon, between the mouths of Mud and Clear creeks, where, with a number of other Transition zone species, it occurs at an altitude of C,700 to 7,000 feet. This is 1,000 feet above its usual limit, and its presence here is due to the angle and steepness of the slope, as explained elsewhere (p. 49). AMes loiriana is easily distinguished from A. shastenfiis and ^1. mag- nifica by the bark, whicli is very thick and deeply furrowed, so that it resembles that of Douglas spruce {Pseudotsuga mncrdnnta) much more closely than that of the other Abies of the region. The cone scales are broad and rather short, and the bract is short and tricuspidate (fig. 19). Douglas Fib or Spruce {Pseudotsuga miwnmata). — Douglas fir is scattered irregularly through the ponderosa pine forest. Like the white flr, it prefers a moister soil than suits the ponderosa pines, and there- fore thrives best in the gulches and near the streams. Thus along the cool well-watered east base of Scott Mountains the forest consists mainly of Douglas and white firs, with scattered incense cedars and sugar OCT., 1899.] YELLOW PINE BELT. 35 and ponderosa pines, while on the drier ground a little farther east the pines increase and the tirs decrease or disappear. Most of the larger trees on the south and west slopes have been cut for lumber. A stump near McOloud Sawmill measures, at 6 feet above the ground, 8 feet in diameter. Incense Cedar {Libocedrvs decurrens), — The incense cedar occurs in greater or less abundance in all parts of the ponderosa forest, on both dry and wet ground, and from the bottom of the valley at Sisson Fig. 18. — Incense cedar ou south slope below Wagou Camp. up to the edge of the Shasta firs at Wagon Camp. But it is common- est near the cool east base of the Scott Mouutains. lu moist places the trees often grow in groups, but in the dry forest they are usually scattered at intervals among the pines. On Shasta the bark of the cedars is generally smooth and free from scales, except on the very youngest trees. In the more humid area between Scott Mountains aud the coast the scaly bark persists for many years, so that the trunks of middle-aged trees look very different from those of corresponding size in the dry interior. 36 NOBTH AJrERICAN FAUNA. [no.k;. (2) The Middle Belt or Belt of Shasta Firs (Jbhs shaatcnsis). Above tlie forest of poiulerosa pines, and tberefore uot coiaiected with similar forests elsewhere, a belt of Shasta firs averaging 2 or 3 miles ill breadth and 2,001) feet in vertical rauge completely encircles the mountain. It is the distinctive forest of Shasta — a forest of tall stately trees, dark, soiiiher, and free from underbrush, though here and there beds of the low mountain manzanita (Arctospqjhylos ncciidensis) afford a pleasing relief from the uniform dark brown of the surface carpet — usually a shallow layer of fir needles mixed with decayed cones and wood. The massive trunks, which on the steep slopes are often swollen just above the ground to give greater strength to resist the pressure of snow, average from 4 to G feet in thickness and some attain a diameter of 7 or 8 feet. Above the level of winter snow their northern sides are usually covered with the handsome bushy yellow lichen, Ererni(( vnlpina, which also clothes many of the branches; and in the denser parts of the forest the trees are draped with pendant masses of the long black-beard lichen, Alectaria frenionti. The forest almost everywhere consists of large mature trees, and is free from evidences of fire; but in one place, between JNIud Creek Canyon and Cold Creek, a considerable ai'ea, evidently an old burn, is covered with young trees averaging perhaps 20 feet in height. As a rule, the Shasta firs stop abruptly where the white-bark pines begin, and trees at their upper normal limit are of fall size. But now and then on the steep and relatively warm southwesterly slopes of the ridges, dwarf Shasta firs occur. The highest point at which such were observed was at an altitude of .s,900 feet on the east rim of jMud Creek Canyon, where a few stunted trees 3 or 4 feet in height were found mixed with white-bark pines. On a similar warm slope west of Squaw Creek a scattered line of these trees was noted at an altitude of S,100 to 8,300 feet. Here the largest were 2() feet in height. Their bark dif- fered materially from that of trees lower down, being pale grayish instead of dark brown, and thin, smooth, and full of blisters, instead of thick and deeply furrowed. These fir trees -were mistaken for another species until 1 had the good Ibrtune to find a few bearing cones, which, on August 1, were two-thirds or three-fourths grown. To my surprise, they had long exserted bracts which, as in the young cones, stood straight out horizontally. Yery young cones (2 to 3^ inches long) always appear to consist of bracts alone, the scales being hidden inside. On breaking open the cones the tiny scales are seen encircling the axis; they are less than half the size of the bracts and occupy the inner half of the diameter or section of the cone. The normal bark of the Shasta fir resembles that of the alpine hem- lock. It is rather regularly furrowed vertically, and the plates between the furrows are cracked horizontally, so that it suggests that of the ponderosa pine, though the plates are smaller and less red. Along the lower edge of the Shasta fir belt the bark is darker and the cracks and furrows are narrower. OCT., 1830.] SHASTA FIR BELT. 37 The upper eil^o of the 8hastii lir belt meets the alpine hemlocks and white bark pines of the belt above; the lower edge the |)ouderosa pines, incense cedars, Douglas spruce, and white flrs of the belt below. The flrs are easily distinguished by bark, branches, and cones. Tlie Shasta fir has very dark and relatively thiu bark, regularly furrowed so as to form 'plates' like those of the ponderosa pines, only smaller, narrower, aiiel transversely cracked. The branches are irregular, droop at first (from the weight of winter snow), and then curve upward, and the branchlets are small and terete, and stand out with mathematical precision ; the cones are huge, and their green, tongue-like, single- xwinted bracts protrude far beyond the scales, as iu the noble fir of the north- ern Cascades. In young cones the bracts stand out straight; iu old coues they are strongly deflexed. The white fir (Abies loiriana) has much thicker and grayer bark, deeply furrowed at base and not forming regular scales or iilates; the branches are more regular and more nearly horizontal, the branchlets flattei', more spreading, and lacking the mathematical lines of the Shasta fir; the cones are more slender, and the tricuspidate bracts are short, reaching less than half-way across the scale. The cone-scale differences are shown in the accompanying diagrams. (See fig. 19.) The year 189S was an 'off year' for cones, but plenty of old scales were found on the ground, and broken cones were discovered in holes iu logs, where they had been carried by pine squirrels. The Shasta fir forest is mainly pure, but iu places, particularly on the east and northeast sides of the mountain, silver pines are scattered throagh it, and in one place along its lower border (between Ash and Incon- stance creeks) the firs are replaced by lodge-pole pines, the only ones on the mountain. Whether or not Abien magnifica occurs on Shasta is a question on which we can throw no light. I do not know how to tell magnifica from shastensis except by the cones, and the trees did not bear cones the year of our visit.' Still, we found great luimbers of old coues tucked away by tlie squirrels in decayed logs, and disconnected scales under most of the trees where search was made, and among all these failed to find a single bract which was not strongly exserted. And yet Miss Fig. 19. — CniM- Bcalea of (a) Ahies shas- tensm .and [h) Abies concolorlowiana. ' While this jiaper was passing through the press (July, 1899), Walter K. Fisher revisited Shasta. He found the firs heavily laden with cones, and although thou- sands of trees were examineil he failed to find a single cone without the exserted bracts. 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. Alice Eastwood showed me, in the herbarium of the California Acad- emy of Sciences, a cone, said to have come from Wagon Gamp, in which the bracts, except a few at the base, are not exserted. Silver Pine or Mountain White Pine {Pinus monticola).— Silver pines occur here and there ou Shasta, scattered among the Shasta firs. They were found in greatest abundance on a pumice slope south of Brewer Creek Canyon, where they are the dominant trees up to an altitude of 7,200 feet, and where the ground was strewn with cones of the previous year — cones in which the scales are strongly reflexed. w / ^J^*^.^; N-. _- Fia. 21).— Wliitn-bark pine {I'liius albicauUs). In this area, along Brewer Creek, they meet and slightly overlap the alpine hemlocks and white-bark pines of the zone above. They are common also on the steep lava ridges on the north side of Shasta, par- ticularly in the neighborhood of Inconstance Creek and in Mud Creek Canyon, especially on the west side of the ridge between Mud and Clear creeks. A few trees occur near the top of lied Cone, east of Wagon Camp. Lodge-Pole Pine {Pinus murrayana). — The lodge-pole pine was not found on Shasta except ou the northeast quadrant, where Ver- OCT., 1899.] WHITE-BARK PINE BELT. 39 non Bailey, in following the wagon road around the mountain, passed through a belt of it about 8 miles in length. It begins 3 miles northeast of Ash Creek at an altitude of about 5,400 feet and reaches northerly to about 3 miles northwest of Inconstauce Greek, where it ends abruptly at an altitude of 5,C00 feet. Here it is the dominant tree, and in half of it the only tree. This area is covered during the latter part of the afternoon by the shadow of the mountain, and conse- quently is colder than places of equal altitude farther north or south. The soil is sandy and barren and the trees are of small size. (3) The Upper Belt or Belt of White-Bark Pines (Pjmjts albicauUs). Still above the forest of Shasta flrs, braving its way upward over the bare rocky ridp-^s into the very teeth of the domain of perpetual snow, is another timber belt — aTi ( pen belt of straggling, irregular trees, whose Fig. 21. — Dwarf white-bark piues on a hi^li ridge. whitened, twisted trunks with their stormbeateu heads of green are among the most weirdly picturesque objects on the mountain (fig. 20). The tree is the timberline white-bark pine, which, wherever found, pushes its way over steep and barren slopes to the extreme upper limit of tree growth. At the lower part of its range it forms an almost continuous though narrow belt around the mountain, and often attains a height of 30 or 40 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. In the higher parts of its range it soon becomes restricted to the ridges, leaving the intervening basins and gulches bare, and as it climbs higher and higher becomes more and more reduced in size and undergoes material changes of form and posi- tion. At certain altitudes the slanting trunks, only 4 or 5 feet in height, serve as pillars to support the flattened tops which form a canopy of intertwined and matted branches (iig. 21). 40 NORTH A^rERK'AN FAUXA. [NO. 16. These dwarf groves offer attractive shelters from wind and storm, and we usually camped auiong them when working the upper slopes. The tree is one of exceptional hardihood, and as it pushes on still fartiier into the realm of cold the trunks become completely prostrate and the branches hug the ground, forming among the rocks dense mats which sometimes rise a foot or two above the general level, but at their upper limit usually occupy depressions, or, if growing in the lee of a bowlder, crouch behind it and continue its surface level to the adjacent slope, as if trimmed to tit. Indeed, one is amazed at the way these uppermost ]nnes avoid exposure by flattening themselves into the hol- lows, as if afraid to lift a finger above the general level. Their life is a perpetual straggle — not against competing jilauts, but against a hostile environment. In summer they are buffeted by the winds and pelted by sand and gravel; in spring they are swept and torn by the resistless avalanches, and in winter they are deeply buried under heavy banks of snow. The prostrate trunks in young and middle-aged healthy trees are completely concealed, often half covered by stones and pumice sand, and hidden by the density of their own branches and foliage ; but in very old trees, and those injured by x)assing avalanches or laid bare by the washing away of protecting rocks during violent storms, the trunks are partly exposed and their extraordinary features may be easily examined. As a rule they are not only naked, but the strongly twisted wood, gnarled, contorted, and, iroulike in firmness, has been eaten into by the sand blast till the knots and hardest parts stand out in proniioeut ridges. A little below timberline on the north side of Shasta, between Xorth Gate and Shastina, is an extensive gently sloping pumice plain, strewn with fragments of gray shaly lava, and thickly spotted with ratlier Fig. 22 — P pi 11 D ll 8 1 of SI St lo tim linen Is of 1 ite birk pines. large mats of pines, averaging 2 to 4 feet in height, which give a most curious aspect to the region (tig. -12). This area, which is about a mile WHITR-BARK PINE BELT. 41 and a Imlf across (horizontally), must contain thousands of acres of the dwarf, flattened pines. Along its lower edge, singularly enough, trees of the same species suddenly stand upright and grow to large size, forming a rather solid forest, perhaps 30 feet in height, with an abrupt front facing the dwarf pines above. The suddenness of the transition is unusual and difficult to explain. The forest just mentioned is probably the largest continuous area of Pimts albicaulis on Shasta. Situated a little below timberline, it stretches, apparently without interruption, from Korth Gate Buttes to Diller Canyon, a distance of fully 5 miles, thus encircling the north- west quadrant of the mountain, including Shastiua. Perhaps the most attractive grove of white-bark pines on Shasta is one that fills an open gulch or glade on the east side of Xorth (Jate Buttes. Here, in the lower part of their belt, the trees are large and uncommonly symmetrical, and the gray pumice soil is covered with silvery lupines. In ascending the gulch the jjines gradually decrease in size iintil at 'The Gate' (alt. 8,500 feet) they are dwarfed and their tops are broadly flattened. The normal altitudinal limits of the white-bark pines on Shasta are hard to fix. On the south and southwest sides the trees descend in places to 7,500 feet and range thence upward on the hottest ridges to an extreme limit of 9,800 feet. But this extreme altitude is attained at two points only — on the long ridge above 'The [South] Gate '(near Eed Butte) and on a ridge about a quarter of a mile west of Mud t'leek Canyon. On the west rim of the canyon the pines stop at 9,500 feet m ?^ P*^ J.* '• - ■ ' 'V^ - Fig. 23 A lar^o prostrate tree of white-bark pine, a littli- below timberline. and on the ridge on the east side at 8,600. Probably 9,300 to 9,500 would be a fair average for their upper limit on the warmer southerly slopes. On the cold northeast slope, just soutli of Brewer Creek, they descend ai753— No. 16 6 42 NOETH AMERICAN FAUNA. [xu. 16. on a barren pumice slope to 7,000 feet, where, sparingly mixed with alpine hemlocks, they meet the upper limit of Shasta flrs and silver jjines. Black Alpine Hemlock {Tmiga mcrtemidiKi.^). — But thi' white- bark pine, although the dominant and most widely distributed tree of the upper timber belt, is not the only tree, for in places it is mixed with or replaced by the black alpine liendock. Shasta is a very dry mountain, and yet the white-bark x'ine thrives on its driest slopes and grows among the bare, naked blocks of lava where tree life seems impossible. The hemlock requires more moisture, and therefore is at a decided disadvantage. It never reaches as high as Pinna alhlaailis and attains its best development along the lower border of the Hud- ■^'^' t '^ ^ .^>*" *'■*:'. Tig. 24 — lUai'k alpine hemlocks near Squaw Creek. sonian zone, where it occurs in disconnected sheltered localities — usually in canyons or on the shady east or northeast sides of buttes or ridges, where there is more moisture than on the exposed slopes. Since these shady easterly slopes arc always cold, the hemlocks that occupy 'This in the .species heretofore eoinmonly ^^novfll as Tsiiga j)attoni or Tainiii patto- niana. It has liceii recently discovereil tliat the n.amo Tsuga meriensiana, commonly applied to the racirn-, lowland hemlock, was iirst yiveu to the jircseut alpiue species, uecessitatiny a most imliappy cliange of name. Fortnnately, however, the common Knglish names of the two and their widely different zone ranges — one restricted to the low Transition belt near tlu^ coast, the other to the hif;h Hudsonian zone on the loftiest monntains — may prevent the confusion that otherwise would result from the chance of name. )■] WHITE-BARK PIXE BELT. 43 tl^em descend in tongues considerably below tlie usual lower limit of tlie belt to which they belong. The most extreme case of the kind observed is on the east side of the series of hills and ridges known on the map as 'Gray Butte,' where a gulch, sheltered from the warm after- noon sun and moistened by seepage from melting snows, carries the hemlocks to a lower altitude than they reach elsewhere. On suitable slopes they usually begin about 7,200 or 7,300 feet and range up to about 8,000 feet. The highest altitude at which they were observed is 8,700 feet, a little east of Mud Creek Canyon, where a few stunted trees were found among the white-bark pines. Their extreme upper limit is thus a thousand feet lower than that of the white-bark pines. This is Fig. 25. — Group of alpine hemloclts near Deer Canyon. due, in part at least, to the character of the upper slopes, where no trees can grow except on the ridges — as explained under the head of Timberline (pp. 27-30) — and here the ridges are too exposed and too dry for hemlocks. On Shasta the alpine hemlock does not grow in such luxuriance or attain such dimensions as in the Cascade Eange. The average height of mature trees seems to be 80 or 100 feet; the average diameter a little less than 3 feet. Trunks i and 5 feet through are by no means rare and the one shown in the accompanying j)hotograph (fig. 26) meas- ured 6 feet. It is a characteristic habit of hemlocks on sloping ground to grow in clusters, 3 to 7 springing from a common base. In this way, when young, they are better able to withstand the pressure of the snow. 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. Those that grow singly usually support themselves by having the trunks strongly curved downward just above the ground, as shown in flg. 20. The alpine hendock is one of the most picturesque and attractive trees of our western mountains. Its beauty is due in part to the hand- some trunks and irregular drooping branches, but mainly to the dense and peculiarly tufted foliage which falls in graceful masses in such manner as to conceal the branches and upper jiarts of the trunks. The twigs or ultimate branchlets curve upward and the needles stand out on all sides and point outward— away from the body of the tree — pro- ducing a tufted appearance very unlike that of other conifers. This Fig 2G. — Truiilc of alpinr hemlocli, showing tliickt'ning and curvature of liase. effect is heightened during the latter x^art of summer by the light green tips of the new growth. The hemlock forest is dark, somber, and silent, and its drooping branches are draped with the dangling beards of the black-beard lichen (Alccfoiinfrcvionli). The only color that breaks the otherwise uniform darkness is the bright yellow lichen {Evernia ruljiina) which covers the north or northwest sides of the trunks and upper sides of the branches — a conspicuous feature and one seemingly out of harmony with the general tone of the forest. In all these respects the hemlock forest accentuates the features of the Shasta fir forest of the belt below, with which it is directly continuous. The tree trunks a.nd bark also resemble those of the Shasta firs. The bark is in long scales which, as OCT., 1899.] WHITE-BARK PINE BELT. 45 the trees urow^ tliickeii into irref;iilar i)l;itcs ti:iiis\'t'rs(ii\' broken at intervals of s to 12 inches. In the growing tree the branches die from below npwiud in a ciirious way. First a subdivision of a low braiicli dies and the tii)S curl down- ward and inward, drawing together until they form a close curl or tail which can be set on fire by a single match. Dozens of these curls can be seen on most of the young trees, and also on the lowermost remaining branches of the middle-sized and some of the old ones. This prt)cess of dying and curling continues until all llie lower branche.s are dead. Meanwhile, the curl-tails gradually drop off and litter the ground, leaving the bare dead branches hanging down at a sharp angle. These dead branches hug the trunks closer tlian the livin.n ones and cling on until the bark comes oft', when they form an armature of '* -1 \ " rf. Fig. 27 Group of alpine hemlocks. unsightly bleached and brittle sticks pointing downward around the trunk. These in time break off, too, so that as the tree grows into maturity the handsome trunk finally becomes clear aud clean. The alpine hemlocks are prolific bearers and the ground is always strewn with their cast-off cones, which average about 2i inches in length, and have a dark streak down the middle of each scale. When young the cones are conical, when old and the scales become fully reflexed they are slender, subcylindrical and only three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Year after year the cones fall to the ground in such prodigious numbers that they form a very important part in the layer of felting that covers the surface in the hemlock forests — a loose dark felting composed of disintegrating needles, twigs, and cone scales pressed firmly together by the weight of the snow in winter, and 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. only rarely dotted by living pliiut.s. In moist spots, particularly aloiig the boi'ders of the tiny sparkling streams, the red heather [Phyllodooe empetrlformis) forms little beds and the delicate feathery Lutlcea iiecti- nata spreads a faint veil of green over the dark soil. In the drier parts of the forest hardly a plant is seen save now and then a solitary clumii of prince's pine (Chimaphihi nwitzitif^i) or painted wintergreen (Pyrola pict(i). Late in September the hemlocks molt and the wind brings down show- ers of needles that falling on the tent at night sound like rain. Their color has now changed from green to golden brown and they sprinkle the black floor of the forest so thickly as to change its appearance. FOREST FIRES. During the past ten years the country about Shasta, particularly on the west and south, has been repeatedly devastated by forest fires. Here, as elsewhere, lumbermen and fires have destroyed the greater part of the timber on the lower slopes and adjacent i)lain, which are now covered by a dense chaparral of manzanita and buckbrush, dotted with scattered pines. Fortunately, the fires have not as yet spread upward far enough to do much damage to the Shasta firs of the middle timber belt. Whether the character of these trees and the freedom of the ground beneath from combustible material will prevent the spread of fire remains to be seen. Thus far the greatest harm has been done in the forests of ponderosa and sugar pines, where lumbering opera- tions are being carried on with painful vigor. While we were on the mountain, from the middle of July until the end of September, one or more fires, the result of vandalism or neglect, were raging continuously on the south and west slopes, and two of them did irreparable injury. One began near some woodcutters' shanties, 3 or 4: miles below Wagon Camp, on the road to Sisson ; the other and more destructive originated in the area covered by the lumbering opera tions from McCloud Mill and pushed swiftly up the Panther Creek slope, consuming the greater part of the only area of Piiiiis attenuata on Shasta and burning grea.t tongues into the handsome fir forest on both sides of ^Vagon Cami), which it closely and almost completely surrounded. The fire that lasted longest in the summer of 1898 did the least harm. It consumed a worthless tract of manzanita chaparral between Black liutte and the mountain, and gave off a surprisingly enormous quantity of smoke, hiding the country to the west for a full month. During its continuance the entire mountain was often enveloped in smoke and when the wind was northwest, as it was a great deal of the time, showers of burned leaves fell daily at our camps. On August 12, when we were at work on the rocky slopes above the head of Squaw (Jreek at an altitude of 9,500 feet, charred leaves fell so abundantly that we caught many in our hands. Great clouds of smoke rolled up between us and OCT., 1899.] SLOPE EXPOSURE. 47 the sun, which became deep red like the fall inoon and then disappeared. At 5 o'clock the smoke began to settle back, us it always did when the chill of the evening came on, and the sun reappeared, to set as iisual behind the dark outlines of the distant mountains. Fires on the south, in the valley of the McCloud, cut oil' the view in that direction, and it was only at rare intervals, and usually at sun- set, that we were a.ble to see the snowy crown of Lassen Butte 00 miles away. Even Oastle Crags, almost at our feet, were rarely visible. This experience is frequent in the west; and of the hundreds of persons who visit the Pacific slope every summer to see the mountains, few see more than the immediate foreground and a haze of smoke which even the strongest glass is unable to penetrate. Along the railroad between the head of Sacramento Canyon and Shasta Valley one traverses desolate tracts which a few years ago were covered by a noble forest of jionderosa and sugar pines. EFFECTS OP BURNS IN CHANfrlNG ZONE POSITIONS. A burn in the lower part of the Shasta fir forest a little above Wagon Camp aflbrds an exc'ellent illustration of the way fires some- times change the zone relations of particular areas. The area in ques- tion was well within the Canadian zone before the iire, which occurred only a few years ago. Since the fire, Transition zone species have crept up the ridge, and now Oeanothns vehithius, Arctostaphylos patula, Hor- lielia pseudocapitata, Apocynum pumihim , Gayophi/tnmramosis.si in tim, aud others are common. The manzanita and buck-brush are young and small but are spreading, so that in a few years the ridge, which has a warm southerly slope, will be mainly Transition. But in the mean- time a new growth of Shasta firs has started, and ia ten or twenty years is likely to overtop and drown out the Transition zone species, enabling the Canadian zone to reclaim the burn. Such cases of alternation of zones resulting from the clearing of forest land are not uncommon, i)articularly when deforestation is caused or accompanied by ilre. But on steeper slopes, especially rock slopes, if the vegetable layer is burned off, the (lower) zone which creeps up to replace the (higher) one destroyed becomes permanent or nearly so. It may be laid down as a general rule that the destruction of forests, by admitting the sun and wind, lessens the moisture in the soil and increases the temperature, thus inviting animals and plants to come in from adjacent warmer areas. Deforestation of an area therefore tends to lower its zone position. SLOPE EXPOSURE. By slope exposure is meant the inclination of the earth's surface at a particular point with reference to the angle at which it receives the sun's rays. The amount of heat, were it not for the retarding effect of 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO, 16 the atmosphere, would be greatest at noon, when the sun's position with reference to the earth is most nearly vertical. But, as everyone knows, the atmosphere becomes heated slowly and does not attain its highest temperature until the middle or latter part of the afternoon, the hour varying witli the locality. Hence slopes that face the sun most nearly at a right angle at the time of day when the atmosphere is hottest are naturally the hottest slopes — those that carry the zones highest; while conversely, slopes that face the opposite direction are naturally the coldest slopes — those that depress the life zones lowest. At Portland, Oregon (about -!75 miles north of Shasta), the hottest part of the day in summer is a little after 4 o'clock in the afternoon, at which time the sun is nearly due west. Gonsecpxently the hottest uncomplicated slopes are those that face west or a little south of west. The accompanying diagram shows the actual mean hourly march of atmospheric temperature at Portland, Oregon, for June, July, and August : AM. g PM. ;l3l4| 5 f i7 s 9 10 1, e\: 2 3 4 .5 e\7\ 9 /iV '^ AUGUST JULY JUNE MAY AfifiL 18 ■ 1 AUGUST JULY 77 ■^ ^ Iti \ >t / ^ N \ / / \ ■/i 1 \ 71 / / 10 . GU \ 68 \ ,s 6? \ \ bd ffi \ \^ 64 ^ / 6^ 1 e - \ 61 1 / \ tiV / / \ ^ ^y 'v; / \ i>a 1 V y/ / ' / ^s \ APRIL 54 / 1 ^ — -, hJ s^ / V \ V / / 51 / ''0 / /J •19 >.^ / 1 \ 4.9 4/ / 4f, Ih / '-[7 ! 43 ^41 1 i Fio. 2S. — Diagram showiDg average hourly march of temperature. The influence of slope exposure on the faunas and floras of moun- tainous regions is profound. Measured by a scale of altitudes, it amounts on ordinary slopes to nearly a thousand feet, and on steep slopes is still more marked. Thus on mountains it is usual for plants and animals of particular species to occur on warm southwesterly slopes at elevations 800 to 1,000 feet higher than on cool northeasterly slopes. Similarly on north and south ridges, the faunas and floras of the warm west slopes often belong to lower zones than those of equal elevations on the cool east slopes. Shasta aftbrds innumerable examples of the eftects of slope exposure, both simple and complicated by canyons. An excellent illustration of the latter is to be found in Mud Greek o^'T-. IS!"'.] SLOPE EXPOSURE. 49 Oauyoii, aear the mouth of Clear Creek (see pi. iii). The altitude of the bottom of the canyon at this point is 6,700 feet, which would nat- urally place it in the middle of the Canadian zone. The steej) west side of the narrow ridge between the two creeks receives the afternoon sun at nearly a right angle, and is in consequence an unusually warm slope for the altitude. The result is that seeds of plants carried upward by winds and birds from the Transition zone, more than 1,000 feet below, have here found a favorable resting place and have grown into a colony of Transition zone species, among which are Abies concolor loiclana, Arctoxiaphylos patula, Kvnzia tridcutatajAmelanohier alnifolia, Biihiis jJ'iri'ifioritx, Sorbus nambucifolia, Symphoricarpos pilostis, Ribes viscosissimiim, B. umictum, Samhucus melanocarpa, Apocynum pumihim, Spircva (loitglasi, Vaccinium [arbnscuJaf), Lupimis elmeri, Eriogonum mayifoUum, Gilia aggregata, Pteris aquilina lamiginosa, and the large Transition zone form of Gastilleja miniata. Just across the canyon, and in one place less than 100 feet from the lower edge of this isolated Transition colony and at a lower level, are species belonging to the Hudsonian zone — such as I'entxtemon newberryi and Pulsatilla occiden- talis. Thiis, growing close together on opposite slopes of the same canyon, are species characteristic of zones both above and below the one to which the altitude properly belongs. This case is by no means peculiar and is a good illustration of the simpler effects of slope exposure commonly shown in mountain canyons. Another class of cases is found on the buttes and hills. A mile and a half northeast of Wagon Camp is a conspicuous red cinder cone about 1,000 feet in height, known as lied Cone. In zone position it is well within the lower part of the Canadian belt where it is surrounded by the forest of Shasta firs, scattered trees of which push up on the basal slopes and on the south side reach the top. Just below the sum- mit are a few silver pines belonging to the same zone. The warm south- west slope brings up Irora the Transition zone below thickets of man- zanita, a few incense cedars, and several humbler plants. The cold northeast slope, although reaching an altitude of only about 6,800 feet, which would place it in the middle of the Canadian zone, is cold enough to bring down from the Hudsonian zone several characteristic plants, such as Polygonum newberryi, Gymopterus terebinthinus, Cycladenia liumilis, Eriogonum polypodum, and Viola purpurea. On the south side of Shasta an interrupted ridge or series of buttes, known collectively as ' Gray Butte,' reaches up the mountain side from Eed Cone, east of Wagon Camp, northward to the gap known as 'The Gate.' In a gulch or canyon on the east side of this butte the black alpine hemlock descends more than 1,000 feet below its usual lower limit. The reason is obvious. The row of buttes cuts off' the warm afternoon sun, and seepage from melting snows keeps the soil moister than in more exposed places, so that the gulch meets the two require- ments of the alpine hemlock — a moist soil and a cold atmosphere. For its entire length this long tongue of hemlock is ilanked by Shasta firs 21753— No. 10 7 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. from the zone below, so that the usual zone relations are changed, parallel strips of Canadian and Hudsouian riiuning up and down the mountain — instead of encircling it in the usual horizontal belts. Along Squaw Creek another tongue of iilpine hemlock descends to the head of the main fall, at an altitude of about 7,250 ieet, and is similarly sandwiched between ascending tongues of Shasta firs. Between 'The [ South ] Gate' and the grove of alpine hemlocks on upper Squaw Creek is a prominent mass of lava 700 or 800 feet high, known as 'Eed Butte.- It is about -!,000 feet below the altitude of extreme timberline and its summit is covered with trees; nevertheless its precipitous northeast side is so cold thi;i,t its zone position is well above timberline, as shown by the presence there of such distinctively alpine plants as Oxyria digyna and Suxifraya tolmiei. In this case the Fig. 29. — Dwart pines ending abruptly along ruld east aidu dl lid^e. effect of a very cold mass of rock is added to that of the coldest slope, and the result is a lowering of alpine zone species 2,000 feet below their normal elevation on the hottest southwest slopes. The high north and south ridges atlbrd perhaps the simplest example of the direct influence of slope exposure. The warm west sides of these ridges usually bear trees in proportion to the availability of their slopes, while the cold east sides remain naked and alpine (see hg. 14). The way the dwarf pines stop along the east crest of the ridges is shown in the accompanying hgure (tig. 1!0). Finally, the glaciers of Shasta afford impressive evidence of the eff'ects of slope exposure. My party did not take the altitudes of the glaciers, but according to the Shasta map sheet of the U. S. Geological Survey those on the cold east and northeast slopes descend below 9,000 feet, a7ul one of them, at the liead oi Ash Creek, below 8,."«00 feet, while the only one having a south exposure (at the head of Mud Creek) stops at 11,000 feet,' and there are no glaciers at all on the west ' There la another glacier on tlie south side, tributary to Mud Creek, which descends lower than the one marked on the ma]) as ' Konwakitou glacier/ but it is completely hidden by a high ridge and is not exposed to the late afternoon sun. o'-T, ]S99.] EFFECTS OF STEEP SLOPES. 51 side. Heace if the altitudes to which glaciers descend on the various slopes be accepted as indicating the course of a sinuous line of equal temperature, it follows that the difference in temperature dependent on the angle and conditions of slope exposure, as measured by the glaciers, is equivalent to a difference of upward of 2,000 feet in altitude. But this is doubtless excessive and due in part to local influences. EFFECTS OF STEEP SLOPES. Steep slopes, particularly those that face the southwest and west, exaggerate the effects of slope exposure. Those that face the hot after- noon sun at nearly a right angle receive the greatest quantity of heat, but this alone is not sufflcient to account for the very extraordinary degree to which the fauna and flora are sometimes affected. When it is remembered that the hottest ordinary slojoes carry up the zones only 800 to 1,000 feet, one is startled to find that on some favorable steep slopes they are pushed up more than 2,000 feet above their normal limits. The explanation did not occur to me until, in discussing the matter with the geologist, G. K. Gilbert, he suggested the diurnal ascend- ing current as the missing factor. It is well known that in ordinary calm weather the air currents on mountain sides and in deep canyons ascend by day and descend by night. The ascending currents are warm, the descending currents cold. The night current, being in the main free from local influences that affect its temperature, must exert an essentially equal effect on all sides of a mountain; but the temperature of the ascending day current, being constantly exposed to and in fact created by the influence of the sun, must vary enormously on different slopes. The activity and effective- ness of this current increases with the steepness of the slope and the directness of its exposure to the afternoon sun. Hence the hottest normal slopes — those that face the suu at nearly a right angle during the hottest part of the day — are rendered still more potent by increased steepness, the direct exposure to the sun keeping up the supply of heat while the steepness of the slope accelerates the rate of movement of the diurnal ascending current, carrying the heated air upward a very great distance before it has time to be cooled by the general temperature of the stratum it penetrates. Thus it is that species characteristic of the Transition zone on Shasta — species which on normal southwesterly slopes attain their upper limits at an altitude of 5,500 to 5,700 feet — are in favorable places enabled to live at elevations of 7,900 and even 8,000 feet, considerably more than 2,000 feet above their normal uioper limits. The steep slopes of Diller Canyon furnish instructive illustrations of the effects of these ascending hot-air currents. Here, on the hot stony pumice slopes, such distinctive Transition zone species as Arctostaphylos patula, Kunzia tridentata, Geanothus velutinus, and Ghrysothamnus-occi- dentalis flourish among the Shasta firs and white-bark pines at an alti- tude of nearly 8,000 feet in the belt where the Canadian and Hudsonian zones overlap, and more than 2,000 feet above the extreme upper limit of their normal distribution on uncomplicated hot southwesterly slopes. 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. BASIN SLOPES. Many of the glacial basins of the timberline region are broad U-shaped depressions with gently sloping bottoms, ending abruptly in terminal moraines, below which they may or may not continue on to other moraines. Tbey were excavated by glaciers at a period when the ice cap of Shasta was much larger and more complete than at present. The upper ends of most of these valleys abut against the steep upper slopes of the peak, and are bordered on both sides by lofty ridges, so that they are walled in on three sides and thus converted into basins. Such basins, when they face the southwest, appear to promote the reflection of heat and retard the escape of hot air, so that they some- times become hot pockets characterized by species belonging to the zone below. LIFE ZONES OP SHASTA. Shasta stands on a Transition zone plane, with a dilute tongue of Upper Sonoran approaching its northern base by way of Klamath and Shasta valleys. Its forested slopes rise quickly through the Boreal zones to timberline, above which its ice-clad summit towers to a height of 5,000 feet. The life zones of Shasta, therefore, beginning with the Upper Sonoran element of Shasta Valley, are — Upper Sonoran Hudsonian Transition Arctic-Alpine. Canadian In a generalized diagrammatic north and south section of the moun- tain the relations of these zones may be shown somewhat as fellows: P^^tn'^'^ ^V^V^V^V TRANSITION^ v , aVa^^ A V A V ^ V /^ V ^ V A V /v V A V A V A V A V A V A V A V A V A Fig. 30. — Diagram of Shasta showing relations of life zones. The altitudes of zone boundaries here given are intended to repre- sent their average or mean elevation on normal southerly slopes. The aridity of the mountain as a whole, with consequent scattered or 'spotty' instead of 'continuous' distribution of most of its zone species, complicated by the influences of hot and cold slopes, springs, and air currents, elsewhere discussed, which frequently carry species 1,000 feet or more above or below their normal limits, makes it almost impossible OCT., 1899] UPPER SONORAN ZONE. 53 to fix with certainty the normal zone altitudes. Hence those liere given must be regarded as approximate only. The average width of the belt of overlapping of adjoining zones appears to be about 800 feet; so that the normal vertical distribution of the distinctive species of each zone overreaches in both directions the altitudes given by about 400 feet. The zone positions accorded the various species are based on jier- sonal field experience, and in the great majority of cases are believed to be correct; in a few instances, however, the evidence Is inconclusive — hence the zone lists must be regarded as provisional and subject to correction. Species recently exterminated or driven away, as the moun- tain sheep, elk, and grizzly bear, are included in the tables. UPPER SONORAN ZONE. The Upper Sonoran element in the region about Shasta is dilute and is limited to Shasta Valley at the north base of the mountain, which it reaches by way of the Klamath country on the north and northeast. It lias no connection whatever with the Upper Sonoran of the Sacra- mento Valley on the south, which ends near the point where Pitt River joins the Sacramento, about 50 miles below Shasta. Shasta Valley is an arid plain about 25 miles in length by 10 or lli in breadth, studded with small volcanic buttes and lava flows. It varies in altitude from a little less than 4,000 to about 2,700 feet, and is lowest at the north, where the Shasta River, by which it is traversed, flows into the Klamath River. Shasta River is in places bordered by decid- uous trees, mainly Populus trichoearpa, Betula occidenidlis, and Alnus rhombi/olia. The valley is sparsely covered with rabbit brush of sev- eral species, mainly Chrynothanmufs occidentalis and C. riscidiflorus, and in some places, chiefly on the east and south, by the true sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata). The southeastern part contains an open forest of junipers [Juniperus ovcidentalix), which meets the pine forest of the basal slopes of the mountain. The western part is an open plain very scantily dotted with rabbit brush and a few small and mainly incon- 8i)icuous plants, among which were observed: Mentzelia Iwvicaulis, Xanthium strumarium, Heliotropiiim ciirassavicum, Verbena bracteosa, Datura meteloides, barcobatus vermiculatus and JSHcotiana sp. f Along the western border of the valley, near the Scott Mountains, several characteristic shrubs occur, among which are Geanothus cuneatus, Arcto- staphylos (viscida.^), Cercocarpus parvifolius, Eriodictyon ghitinosum, and Garry a fremonti. ' The zone position of this region is further indicated by the presence of such birds as the chat {Icteria virens longicauda), bush-tit [Psultri- parus minimus californicus), California towhee {Pipilo fuscus erissalis), California jay {Aphelocoma californica), and California valley quail [Lophortyx californicus vallicola). Formerly antelope were common here, but now they are rarely seen. The most abundant mammals are jack rabbits (Lepus californicus), sagebrush cottontails {Lepiis nut ' (iarrya fremonti is both Uppei- iSouorau and Trausitioii. 54 NORTH AMERICAN PATNA. [NO. 16. talli), kangaroo rats {IJipodomys calif or nivun), pocket mice {Perofjnathus parriisf), woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes), coyotes {Oanis ochropm), and raccoons {Procyon psora pacifica). So little work was done in Shasta Valley that the species mentioned are of course only a fraction of those present. MAMMALS Ol' rr-l'EU SONORAX ZONK (IN SHASTA VALLEY). lientrirtrd to J'pper Sonoran. Lepus californicus. Perogiiatbus (parvus ?). Lepus nuttalli. Peromyscus trtiei. MicTotus califc.rniciis. Eeitbrodontoniys khimathensis. Coiirmfm to Vpper Sonoran and Tratisition. Antilocapra americana. Procyon psora pacifica. Canis oebropus. Scapanus ealifornicns. Dipodomys calinnnicus. Spermophilus doiiglasi. Mephitis (iccideiitalis. Spilogale latifrons. Myotis evotis. Taxidea taxiis. Necitoma fuscipes. Vespertilio fusons. Peromyscus gainbeli. fZapus pacificus. BIISDS OF UPPER SOXORAN ZONE (IN SHASTA VALLEY). liestricted to Upper Sonoran. Catherpes mexicanus pimctulatus. Lanius liidovicianus excubitorides. Choudestes grammacus etiinatus. Otocoris alpestris merrilli. C'yanocephaliis i yaiiocephalus.' Pipilo fnsciis crissalis. Falco iiiexicauuH. Psaltrijiarus luinimus californicus. f'ouuiion to Upper Sonoran and Transition. .\pbelocon]a califoruica. Melauerpes foruiicivorns liairdi. Ahtragaliuus ijsultria. Pbabenoptilus nuttalli. Huti'o swaiusoni. Pipilo macnlatus megalonyx. Calypto anna. Scolecophagus cyanoceplmlus. Carjiodacus mexicanus obscuru.s. Speotyli) cunicuLuia bypoga'a. Cathartes aura. Spi/clla socialis arizona". Choudestes grammacns strigatus. Sturnella magna neglccta. C'bordeiles virginiauus. Tbryomanes bewicki spilurus. Cyanospiza amirna. Troglodytes aedon parkmani. Dendroica a-stiva. Tyrannus Aerticalis. Geothlypis trirbas occidoutalis. Vireo gilvus swainsoni. Icteria virens lougicauda. Zeuaidura macroura. Lopbortyx californicus vallicobi. J'BANyiTlON ZONE. Excepting Shasta Yulley, the Transition zone covers the whole coun- try about Shasta and pushes up over the basal slopes to an altitude of 5,(100 or 0,000 feet. To the northeast and east it reaches and extends beyond the Klamath country and Goose Lake in Oregon, aiid the Madeline Plains in extreme northeastern California, interrupted only by narrow tongues of Upper Sonoran in the upper Pitt River Valley, iind by small islands of Canadian on the highest mountain summits. ' The piuon jay visits the juniper forests in Shasta Valley iu fall to feed on the jumper berries, but whether or not it breeds there is not known. OCT., 1899.1 TRANSITION ZONE. i)h To the south the Transition zone lills the McOloud and Pitt River val- leys, embraces the canyon of the Sacramento, aud stretches on ward along the ilanks of the Sierra all the way to southern Oalifornia. To the west it overspreads the wild mountain region between Shasta and the Pacitic Ocean, changing gradually from Arid Transition to Humid Transition, and surrounding the Upper Sonoran bottoms of Scott and Hoopa valleys, and the Boreal summits of Salmon, Trinity, and Siski- you mountains. It covers the lower slopes and eastern part of the Siskiyous, and passes around the southern ends of the Salmon and Trinity mountains continuously to the sea. On the flanks of Shasta the Transition zone forms a broad continuous belt covering the basal slopes on the northwest, west, and south, but interrupted on the cold east and northeast sides by the Boreal, which here pushes down to the actual base of the mountain, crowding the Transition out to the east around a group of low volcanic hills. On the southwest and west it pushes up on ordinary slopes to 5,500 or 6,000 feet, rising on steep pumice canyon slopes a couple of thousand feet higher, and everywhere embracing tongues of Canadian which descend along the cold streams and on the cold easterly slopes of ridges. On Shasta the study of the Transition zone is complicated by strong local differences of soil-raoisture and humidity — differences that exert a profound effect on the distribution of plants, and to a less degree on that of animals also. It has been shown elsewhere (Life Zones and Oioj) Zones of the United States, p. 28, September, 1S08) that in some plac'cs the Arid Transition of the Rocky Mountains aud Great Basin passes gradually into the Humid Transition of the Pacific coast. On Shasta similar changes occur in such small compass that they may be studied to excellent advantage. Thus, near the south end of Shasta ^'alley the dominant types of vegetation are Pluus ponderosa^ (Jnercns calif'ornica, Artemisia trideMuta, Knnzia triilcntata, Arctostaphylos putiila, Chryso- thamnits occidentalism Rhus trilohuta, Garri/a freinonti, and Pruuus siib- cordata, all characteristic Arid Transition species. On moister soils near by, particularly in shady canyons, the dominant types are Pseu- dotsiKja mucronata, Abies concolor lowiami, Acer (/labrum, Gornus nvttdUi, Bubus parviflorus {==^niitliunus Auct.) Spira'a douglasi smd othev Humid Transition species. In this connection it is important to bear in mind that the extreme bottom of the west slope of Shasta, between the Sacramento River and Shasta Valley (elevation about 3,400 feet), is decidedly cooler and more boreal than the middle part of the slope 1,000 or 2,000 feet higher. The reason is twofold: The bottom part of the west slope, from the head of the Sacramento Canyon northward, lies close to the east base of Mount Eddy and the Scott Mountains, by which it is shielded from the late afternoon sun, and consequently receives less heat than higher parts of the same slope. Furthermore, it is well watered, and the rapid evaporation caused by the dry atmosphere tends to lower the tern- 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. perature still more. Higher parts of the same slope are not only very much drier, but are exposed to the direct rays of the afternoon sun, which, owing to the increasing steepness, strike the ground more nearly at a right angle than at lower elevations, the result being a material increase in the amount of heat received. It is obvious, therefore, that on the southwest and west slopes the middle part of the Transition zone is the hottest and driest, the part in whicli low Transition or even Upper Sonoran s^jecies are most apt to be found, while the npjyer and lower parts are coolest and dampest, the parts most likely to be invaded by Canadian zone species. Hence it is not surprising that Douglas and white flrs, willows, alders, elder, snowberry, red spirtea, osier, and thim- bleberry ilourish at the top and bottom of the Transition slope, but are absent from the middle part. At the extreme foot of the slope, along the cool streams near Sisson Tavern, two normally boreal plants occur which were not found at all in the boreal belts on the mountain. These are Limura horealis and Pachi/stima myrsinites. With them is associ- ated tlie mountain chinquai)iu (Castanopsis sempervirens). There is something peculiar about the distribution of Pachystima. It is abund- ant in the neighborhood of Sisson Tavern and occurs here and there, apparently on dry soil, up to an altitude of 4,700 feet, but not above. Since all three of these species are boreal, it is possible that the forms here referred to are Transition zone subspecies. .MAMMALS dl' TRANSITION Zl}XE. (1 ) 'Species known to nrr.nr in the Transition cone of Shasta. Antilocapra americana. OilocoUeus cohimliianiis. Ijassariscus astutus raptor. Perognathus iiioUipilosus. C'allospermupbilus chrysmleirua. revomyscus boyli. Cani8 ochropus. Peromyscus gambeli. Castor cauadcnsis.' Procyon psora pacitica. Cervus occidentalis. Scapanus cnlifornicus. Dipodoiijys califumicus. Sciuropterus (klauiathensis?). Erethizon episanthua. Sciurus albolimbatus. E'ltamias amiinus. Sciurus fossor. Eutamins sent-.x. Soiex montereyensis. Felis oregoncDsis. Sorex vagrans amccnus. Lutra Imdsoniea. Spermophilus douglasi. Lutreola visoii. Spilogalo latifrone. Lynx fasciatus palles.KUS. Taxidea taxus. iMephitis occidentalis. Tbomomys nionticola pinetorum. Jlicrotus Diontauus. Urocyou californicus towuseudi. Microtus mordax.' Ursus americanus. Jly.itis evotis. Ursus horribilis. Jlyotis Incifiigus longicrus. Vespertilio fusous. Nfotouia ciucie:i. Vulpes marrourus.^ Keotoiua fuscipes. Zapus paeiiicus. NeurotricliuH gilibsi major. ' Restricted to culd streams wliicli tbounb tra\erNiug tiie Trausitiou zone afford Bor(;il tcmjieratures. - Probably does not breed Ijelow t'auailiau. OCT., 1899.] TRANSITION ZONE. 57 MAMMALS OF TRANSITION ZONE — continued. {2^ liestricted to Transition zone. Bassariscus astutiis raptor. Lynx fasriatns pallrsrens. ?Mephiti8 oooiden talis. fMiurotuH luontanus. SciuruB I'ossor. Urocyon californiciis townscndi. (3) Common to Traiisitiiiii and VjU'er Sonoran sonea. [See p. 5-i.] (4) Common to Transition and Canadian zonts. Callospermopliilns chrysodeirus. Cervua occideiitalis. Eretliizon epixautlius. Eutamias amu-nus. Eutamias seiiex. Felis oregonensia. Lutra hudsonica. Lutreola vison energumeno.s. Microtus mordax. Myotis lucifugus longicrus. Neotoma ciuerea. Neurotricbus gibbsi major. Odocoileus columbiauu.s. Perognatbus mollipibjsus. Peromyscus boyli. Peromyscus gambeli. Scapanus califoruitus. Soiuropterus alpinus klamatbensis ? SciiiruM albolimbatus. Sorex moutereyensis. Sorex vagrans amauus. Taxidea taxus. Ursus americanus. Ursiis borribilis. Vulpes macrourus.' BIRDS OF TRAXSITION ZONE. (1) Species known to occur in Transition zone of Sliasta. Apbelocoma oalifornica. Aiiuila cbrysai'tos. Astragalimis psaltria. Astragalinus tristis salicamaus. Bubo virginianus. Buteo borealis calurus. Buteo swainsoni. Calypte auna. Carpodacus mexicanus obscums. Cathartes aura. Ceophla'us pileatus abieticola. Certhia familiaris ocoidentalis. Chajtura vauxi . Chondestes grammacus strigatus. Chordeiles virginianus. Circus hudsonius. Colaptes cafer. Contopus borealis. Contopus richardsoni. Cyanocitta stelleri. Cyanospiza amcena. Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus. Dendroica a^stiva. Dendroica auduboni. Dryobates pubescens gairdneri. Dryobates villosus hyloscopus. Empidonax difficilis. Empidouax bammondi. Empidonax wrighti. Falco sparveriua. Geotblypis tolmiei. Geotblypis tricbas occideDtalia. Giaucidium gnoma californicum. Helminthopbila celata lutearena. Helmintbopbila rubricapilla gutturalis. Hirundo erythrogastra. Hylocichla aonalascbkaj auduboni. Icteria virens longicauda. Lopbortyx californicus vallicola. Melanerpes formicivorus bairdi. Melanerpes torquatus. Melospiza lincolni. Melospiza melodia montana. Merula migratnria propincjua. Oreortyx pictus plumiferus. Oreospiza chlorura. Pasaerella iliaca megarhyncha. Petrochelidou lunifrona. Pbalsenoptilua nuttalli. Pipilo maculatus megalonyx. Piranga ludoviciana. Scolecophagua cyanocepbalus. ' Supposed to breed in Canadian and wander over Transition. 21753— No. 16 8 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. BiRn.s OF TRANSITION ZONE— Continued. 1,1) Species known to occur in Transition zone of Shasta — Continnetl. Selasphoriis rufus. Sialia mexioana occidentalis. Sitta carolinensis acrileata. Sitta pygm^a. Speotyto cunicularia hypogsea. Sphyrapicus rulnr. Spizella socialis arizomie. Stellula calliope. Stnrnella magna neglecta. TaeliTcineta bicolor. Tachycineta thalassina. Thryomanes bewicki spilnrus. Troglodytes aijdon parkraani. Tyrannus verticalis. Vireo gilvus swainsoni. Vireo solitarius lassini. ?Wil8onia pusilla pileolnta. Xenopicns alliolarvatus. Zamelodia nielanocephala. Zeuaidura macroura. (2) Restricted to Transition zone. ?Cha;tiiTa vauxi. Contopus richardsoni. Dryobates piiliusrcns gairdneri. Glancidinui gnoma calil'ornicum. Jlelanerpes torquatus. Oreospiza chloriira. Passerella iliaca inegarhyncha. Sialia mexicana occidentalis. ' Sitta pygm;ea. Sphyrapicus ruber. Vireo solitaries casaini. Zamelodia melauocephala. ' (3) t'nmiiKtn to Transition and Upper Sonoratt zoirss [See p. 54.] (4) Common to Transition and Canadian zones. Aquila cbrysactos. Bubo virginianus. Buteo borealis calurus. CeopMoeus pileatus abieticola. C'erthia famlliaris occidentalis. Cliordeiles Tirginianus. Colaptes cafer. Contopus borealis. CyanocittM stelleri. Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus. Dendrolca auduboni. Pryobates villosus byloscopus. Empidonax difEcilis. Empidonax liammondi. Empidonax wrighti. Falco sparA-erius. Geothlypis tnlmiei. Helminthophila celata lutescens. Helminthophila rubricaiiUla yutturalis. Hylociclila aonalascbkte auduboni. Melospiza liiicolni. Morula migratoria propinMua. Oreortyx pictus plumiferus. Piianga ludoviciana. Scbisphorus rufus. Sitta carolinensis aculeata. Stellula calliope. AVilsoniapusiDa pileolata. Xei[0])icu8 albolarvatns. PLANTS OF TRANSITION ZONK. (1) Sperifs known to occur in the Transition zone of Shasta. Abies concolor lowiniia, Acer ciroinatum. Acer glabrum. Acer macrophyllum. Achillea lanulosa. Alnus tenuifolia. Amelanchier aloifolia. Anaphalis margaritacea Antennaria geyeri. Apoc^ nuiu pumilum. Aquilegia truncata. Arctostaphylos patula. Artemisia ludoviciana. Artemisia trideutata. Asarum hartwugi. Betula occidentiilis. ' Probably common to Transition and Ui)per Souoran OCT., 1899.] TRANSITION ZONE. 51) PLANTS OF TRANSITION ZONE — conl-iliuid. (1) Spedes knoii'ii to occur in l\ansUion zone of Shasta — Ci)iitinu<'il. Carnra gairdneri. Ciistanopsis sempervirens. Ceiuiothiis oordulatus. C'oanotlius integerrimus. Ceanotlius (Cerastes) prostratus. Ceanothus velutinus. t'erasus dcmissa. Cerasus emargir.ata. L'erasus glandulosa. C'evcocarpus lediiblius. Ccrcocarpua parv ifolius. Chama"saracha^ naua. Cliimaphila iiien/.iesi. Chimaphila umbi'Uata. (Jbi'vsampliora califoniica. ChiwsothamnuB "bloomeri angustatns. Chrysothamnus occidentalis. Cormis nuttalli. Cornus pubescens. (.'orylus rostrata californica. CratiBgua rivularis. C'ryptanthe geminata. Epilobium brevistylum. Einlobium oregoncnse. Epilobium spicatuni. Eriogonam marifolium. Eriogonum nudum. Eupatorium occideutale. Fragaria bracteata. Fragaria chiloensis. Fraxinus oiegana. Fritillaria atropurpurea. Gayophytum ramosissimum. Gilia aggregata. Gilia (Collomia) grandiflora. Hastingsia alba. Heleniastrum rivulare. Heracleum lauatum. Hieracium albiflorum (large form). Hieracium fynoglossoides nudicaule. Hieracium greenei. Horkelia pseud ocapitata. Juniperus occidentalis. Kunzia trideutata. Lappula nervosa. Libocedrus decurrens. Lilium washingtonianum. Linna^a borealis. Liuum lewisi. Lotus amcricauus. Lupinus elnieri. Liipinus miuimus. MaohaTantUera sliastensis (large t'oiiii) Mimulus moniliformis. Mimulns tilingi. Osmorriiiza uuda. Pacliystima myrsinites. Pa'onia browni. Pentsteinon coufertus (Ibrm not typical). Pbaeelia magelliinica. Pinua atteli. Periaorens obscurns. Regulus calendula. Regnlns aatrapa olivaceus. Salpinctes obaoletns. Selasphorus rufus. Sialia arctica. .Sitta canadensis. ?Sitta carollnensis aculeata. Sphyrapieus thyroideus. Spinus pinua. Stellnla calliope. Zonotrichia lencophrya. Nucifraga colnmbiana. (2) Species restricted to Hudsonian zone. Zonotrichia leucophrys. ' These three apecies occur along the lower edge of the Hudsonian zone not obtained in its upper part, and it is not certain whether or not they included. -Does not breed above Hndaonian. 21753— No. 16 .9 , but were should be 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO, 16. Bliilis ()if HUDsoNIAN ZONE — Continued. (3) Species oomvion to Hndxonian and Canadian ^(nies. [See p. t>3.] (4) Sjiei-it's eomnion to Hudsonian and AJjiiiif zones. Salpiuctes obsoletns.' Sialia arctica. Stellul.a calliof)e. PLANTS (IF Hni>SI>NIAX ZONE. (1) Spei'ies known to occur in Hudsonian zone on Shasta. Agoberis mouticola. AUinni sp. f Antennavia media. Aralii.s platysperiiia. Arttostaphylos nevadensis. Arnica merriami. Arnica viscosa. Campauula "wilkinaiaiia. C'arex bveweri. Castanopsis aempervireus. Castillcja afifinis. Castilli'ja miuiata (small form). Cbeiranthus perennis. Clirysuthamims bloomeri. Crepis intermedia. C'ycladcnia Imnjilis. C'ymoptcrus terebintliinus. Epilobium clavatum. Epilobiuin obcordatum. Kpilobium ])i"ingleanum. Erigeron armeriai'olium. Eriogonum polypodum. Eriogonum pyrola'folium. Hieracium albiflorum (alpine form). Hieracium gracile. Hieracium liorridnm. Holodiseus discolor. Hypericum anagalloides. Juncus parry i. Juniperusnana. Kalmia glauea micropbylla. Ligusticum grayi. Lupinus albifrons. Lupinus 'ornatus.' Lutkea pectinatii. Machajrantbera sha.stensis. Minnilus implexus. Mimulus ]irimuloid('K. Mitella pentandra. Mouardella odoratissima. Oreastrum alpiginum. Oreobroma triphylla. Ortbocarpus pilosus. Parnas.sia californiea. Pentstemou glaber utahensia. Pentstemoii iiienziesi. Pentstemon iiewberryi. Pblox douglaai diffusa. Pbyllodoce cmpetriformis. Pinus albicaulis. Polygonum uewberryi. Polygonum sbastenae. Potentilla Jlabelli folia. Potentilla ]>8eudorupeatris. Pulsatilla occidentalis. Kibes cereum. Saxifraga bryopbora. .Scutellaria nana. Sibbaldia procumbons. .Silene grayi. Sitanion cinereum. Spraguea umbellata. St(dlaria crispa. .Strep tan tbua orbi cubitus. Tsuga luertensiana. Vacciniiim ca'Spitosuui. Veronica cuaicki. Viola purpurea. (2) Species restricted to Hudsonian ;oii(' Allium sp. ? Arnica mciriami. Arnica viscosa. fCastilleja afliui.s. Castilleja miniata (small torm). Cycladenia humilis. Epilobium clavatum. Epilobium obcordatum. ' On Shasta the rock wreu is restricted closely to the Alpine and Hudsonian zones, but in othei- places it occurs iiiucb lower down, and was recently found in Shasta Valley by AV. K. Fisher. Di'T., Mi? Scuti llaria nana. Tsiiga morteneiana. Viiccininm r:Bspitoaiim. (3) Sjiectes common to Htidsonian and t'anadian zones. [See p. lU.] (4) Sjieciffi covtvion to Agdscri.s monticola. Aiiteiinaria media. Arabi . platysperm i. Carex breweri. Cheirantbus perennis. Chrysothamiius bb)omeri. Cymopterus terebinthinus. Eri,n"<"rnn arineria^ folium. Eridgounni polypodnm. Eriogouura pynibi'folium. Hieraoium albifiorum (alpini' form). Hieraciuni gracile. Hieraciuni horridnm. Jnncus parryi. Hgnsticum grayi. Lupinus 'ornatua.' HudsottiaH and Alpiur zones. Lutkea ]icctinata. JlaihaTauthera sbastensis. Oreastrum alpiginum. Pcntstemou nienziesi. Pbbix douglasi diti'iisa. Polygonum newl)erryi. Polygonum sliMStense. Pulsatilla oocidentalis. Sibbaldia procumbens, Sileni.' grayi. .Sitanion cinereum. Spraguea nmbellata. .stieptanfhuh mliiculatus. ViTcinica lusicki. A'iola. purpurea. ALPINE ZONE. The Alpine zone occupies the irregular belt of i)umice and la\a between timberline and the upper limit of plant growth. On the warmer southwesterly slopes its lower limit may be found at 9,500 to 0,800 feet, but on ordinary slopes it is considerably lower. The great majority of its species stop at or below an altitude of 11,000 feet, but on the relatively warm southwesterly slopes Hulsea nana was found at 11,300 feet, and two species, Draba brcireri and Polemoni inn pulcheJliim, as high as 13,000 feet — the extreme limit of plant growth on :shasta. :\IAMMALS <1K ALPINK ZONE. (1) Specii-i known to oi'citr iu Jlpine zone on Shasta. Canis lestes.' Microtus mordax. Ovis canadensis. Peromysi-us gambeli. Pbeuacomys orophilus. Tbomorays monticola. Vulpes macniurus.i (2) Species restricted to Alpine zmu' None. ' The coyote and fox range up into the. Alpine, ■/ Hnraba breweri. Erineruu armeriielbliuiu. Erigerun Cf.nupositus trifidns. Erion'ouiiiii iiolypoduiu. Eriojjiiiium pyrobi'folium. HiiTaciuiii albillorniii (alpine form). Hieraciuin gracilf. Hieraciuui horriduiu. Hnlsia larseni. Hulsea nana. Jnncns narryi. Lignstiruiri urayi. Lnpinus lyalli. in Alpine zone on Shosttt. Lupinus 'ornatns.' Lutkea ](ectiuata. MachaTanthera sUastensis Oreastrnni alpigiuuni. Oxyria digyna. Pentstemiin menziesi. Phacelia frigidii. Phlox donglaai difi'usa. Polemuniiim pulcliellnni. Polygonnni newberryi. Pulygouuni sliastcnsi'. Pulsatilla occidentalis. Sagina saginoides. Sasifraga tolmiei. Senecio canus. Sibbaldia procunibeus. Silene grayi. Silent! snksdorli. .SiUiniou cinereunj. Spraguea uinbellata. Streptantbns orbit'ulatus. Veiouira cusicki. \iobi purpurea. (2) Species restrieled to Alpine :t>ne. Achillea borealis. Bikukulla uniHora. C'ardamine bellidifolia ijachyjihylla. Cha'nactis uevadensis. Draba breweri. Erigerou coinpositus tritidus. Hnlsea larseni. lluksea nana. (3) Species common to Alpi [Sec p Lupiuus lyalli. Oxyria digyua. Phaceli.i frigida. Polemouiuin pulchelluni. Sagiua saginoides. Saxifraga tolmiei. Senecio canus. Silene suksdorfi. lie and Hndsoiiian zimes. 67.] THE BOREAL FAUNA AND FLORA OF SHASTA CONTRASTED W^ITH CORRESPONDING FAUNAS AND FLORAS OF THE SIERRA AND THE CASCADES. In couaideriug tlie relations of the boreal faunas and floras of Shasta to those of other i)arts of the Sierra-Cascade system it is necessary at the outset to have a clear conception not only of the extent of the lange as a whole, but also of the number and magnitude of the breaks or gai)S ill the continuity of its boreal fauna and flora. The Cascade Range enters the State of Washington from British Columbia in lati- tude 490 and pushes southward completely across Washington and Oregon; its continuation, the Sierra iSevada, traverses California for a distauce of 500 miles, ending a little south of Mount Whitney, in about latitude 36°. The Cascade-Sierra system, therefore, extends over 13 degrees of latitude, and has a total length of fully 1,000 miles. For the whole of this distance it rises abruptly from a low region, whose faunas and floras are in the southern part Sonoran, in the northern jiart Tran- sition. The field work of the Biological Survey has shown that the narrow boreal band which occupies the higher parts of the range is not continuous, but is interrupted by four important gaps, through Avhich Transition zone species pass freely in broad belts from one side to the other. These gaps, begining at the north, are: (1) The Columbia Gap, or gorge of the Columbia River, on the bound- ary between Washington and Oregon, where the breadth of the Tran- sition zone seems to be less than 50 miles.' (2) The Klamath Gap, on the boundary between Oregon and Califor- nia, extending from a little south of Mount Pitt in Oregon to Mount Shasta in California, a distance of about 50 miles. This interval is interrupted by one or two detached groups of low mountains on the California side, and by long ridges on both sides, whose summits are inhabited by boreal species, materially decreasing the actual breadth of the gap. (3) The Pitt I-iiver Gap, between Mounts Shasta and Lassen in north- ern California. The breadth of the Transition zone here is about 60 miles. 'Althoiigli not "bearing on the fauna, of Shasta, it is interesting to note, in connec- tion witli tlie effects of the Columbia Kiver Gap, that a number of species charac- teristic of the northern Cascades, ia the State of Washington, do not occur in the southern Cascades, iu Oregon. Among the mammals the most notable species of this kind are Arctomj/s calir/atiis, Ciillosperniophlliia satui-dtun, Erotovii/s gapperi satu- ratus, Oreamvos viontanus, Peromynciis areas, Piitoriiis washingtoni, Zapus tiinutatiia. 69 70 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. (4) The Feather River or (^hdney Gap, between Mount Lassen aud tlie high ridge northwest of Honey Lake — the northern end of the Sierra proper. This gap is the shallowest, narrowest, most irregular, and least effective of all, and is the only one which has not been cut deeply and comjjletely through the range by a large river. The Boreal zones of the two sides, at the points where they come nearest together, which is southeast of the southeastern extension of the boreal plateau on whicli Lassen stands, are not separated, apparently, by more than 15 miles. The distance between tiie Hudsonian elements ap|)ears to be several times greater. This region needs further exploration. Fully half of the boreal species of Shasta are common to both the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Bange, and some of them extend over the entire length of the Sierra-Cascade system, inhabiting the princi- pal boreal summits all the way from British Columbia to .Mount Whit- ney; others are restricted to particular parts of the mountains, aud each of the four gaps mentioned forms a barrier beyond which certain species do not pass. Therefore, in contrasting the boreal faunas and floras of Shasta with corresponding faunas and floras of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade liange it is necessary to fix definite limits to the terms employed. The term 'Sierra,' as used in the table headings and following discussion, is restricted to the lofty range extending from Mount Whitney northward a little beyond Honey Lake; the 'Cas- cades,' to the Cascades of Oregon. In other words, the term ' Sierra' is restricted so as not to include Shasta or Lassen;' the term 'Cascades' so as )iot to include the Cascades of Washington. The paucity of animal and plant life on Shasta, contrasted with that of the Sierra and Cascades, has been already noted and is clearly shown in the following tables. The explanation, briefly stated, is that Shasta, on account of its aridity and relatively small area, is incapable of supporting so rich a fauna and flora as either of the extensive ranges between which it is situated. It is not assumed that all of the boreal species inhabiting Shasta were discovered by us, but in the case of the Canadian and Hudsonian mammals and birds, and the Hudsonian and Ali)ine plants it is believed that the number which escaped detection is too small to materially alter the results here given.^ In grouping the species for study it seems most logical to arrange the mammals, birds, and plants in two principal categories; [a] Boreal ' The llora and fauna of Lassen are not known in sufScient detail to admit hi com- plete comparisons in either directum; henro this mountain is omitted from consid- eration in the accompanying tables. At the same time it should lie stated that Lassen is clearly a part of the Sierra, so far as its fauna is concerned. '-^The accompanying percentages and lists of species are provisional and subject to revision. They are based on present intorination aud will, of course, he corrected and supplemented by future field work. They are sufficiently near the truth, how- ever to demonstrate certain facts aud warrant certain deductions aud Keusr^li-^''- tious of very great interest in connection with the orii;in of the biirenl faunas and floras of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range. OCT., 189!).] BOREAL SPECIES OP SHASTA AND SIERRA-CASCADES. 71 species that occur on Shasta, with reference to tlieii' occurrence in the .Sierra or Cascades or both; and {h) Boreal species that occur on tlie Sierra or the Cascades or both, but which, so far as known, are absent from Shasta. BOREAL SPECIES OF SHASTA CONSIDERED 'WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR PRESENCE OR ABSENCE IN THE SIERRA AND THE CASCADES. The boreal mammals, birds, and plants of Shasta have been grouped in four categories • (1) species common to Shasta and the Sierra-Cas- cade system as a whole: (2) species common to Shasta and the Sierra, but not known from the Cascades; (3) species common to Shasta and the Cascades but not known from the Sierra, and (4) Shasta species not known from either the Sierra or the Cascades. Thirty-six distinctively Boreal mammals are known from Shasta, including the boreal species which range down into or through the Transition zone. Of these, 2G are common to the Sierra on the south and the Cascades on the north, 7 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cascades, 1 is common to Shasta and the Cascades but is not known from the Sierra, and 2 are peculiar to Shasta. Of the 30 distinctively Boreal mammals of Shasta, 17 are believed to be exclusively boreal. Of these, 12 are common to the Sierra and the Cascades, 4 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cascades, 1 is peculiar to Shasta, but not one is common to Shasta and the Cascades which does not occur also in the Sierra. Forty-seven distinctively Boreal birds are known from Shasta, includ- ing tLe boreal species which range down into or through the Transition zone. Of these, 41 ai e common to the Sierra and the Cascades, 4 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cas- cades, and 2 are common to Shasta and the Cascades but are not known from the Sierra. Of the 47 distinctively Boreal birds of Shasta, 22 are believed to be exclusively boreal. Of these, 18 are common to the Sierra and the Cas- cades, 2 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cascades, and 2 are common to Shasta and the Cascades but are not known from the Sierra. One hundred and twelve distinctively Boreal plants are known from Shasta, including the boreal species which range down into or through the Transition zone. Of these 55 are common to the Sierra and the Cas- cades; 31 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cascades; 16 are common to Shasta and the Cascades but are not known from the Sierra, and 8 0(-cur on Shasta which are not known from either the Sierra or the Cascades. Of the 112 distinctively Boreal plants of Shasta, 101 are believed to be exclusively boreal. Of these, 47 are common to the Sierra and the Cascades; 28 are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [voA6. from the Cascades; 15 are common to Sliastu and the Cascades bat are not known from the Sierra; and 8 are restricted to Shasta. Three mammals, 5 birds, and (>S plants are believed to be restricted to the Hudsouiaii and Alpine zones. Of these, 2 mammals, .'3 birds, and 30 plants are common to the Sierra and the Cascades; one mam- mal, 1 bird, and 18 plants are common to Shasta and the Sierra but are not known from the Cascades; and no mammal, 1 bird, and 12 plants are common to Shasta and the Cascades, but are not known from the Sierra. Five Hudsonian Alpine i>lants from Shasta are not known from either the Sierra or the Cascades. These comi)arisons show: (1) That of the boreal species known from Shasta, including those which range down into the Transition zone, S7 percent of the birds, 7- percent of the mammals, and only 50 percent of the ]>lants are common to the Sierra and the Cascades. (2) That of the exclusively boreal species known from Shasta, S') jjer- cent of the birds, 70 percent of the mammals, and 4(1 percent of the plants are common to the Sierra and the Cascades. (.'5) That of the exclnsivelj' Hudsonian and Alpine species known from Shasta, 00 percent of the birds, 07 percent of the mammals, and 44 percent of the plants are common to the Sierra and the Cascades. (4) Tha.t in each instance, as would be expected, the percentage of sjiecies common to the two ranges is greater in the case of those rang- ing down into the Transition zone than in those restricted to the Boreal, for the obvious reason that geographically the Boreal belt is broken by broad gaps, while the Transition zone is practically continuons. (5) That of the birds, mammals, and plants of Shasta, birds liave by far the largest x>ercentage of species common to the Sierra and the Cascades, mammals next, and plants least of all. This corresponds with the relative powers of dispersion possessed by these groups. Arranged primarily by groups instead of zone limits, it appears that the percentages of Shasta birds common to the Sierra and the Cascades are as follows: Of boreal species, including those which range down into the Transition zone, 87 percent; of species restricted to the Boreal zones, 85 percent; of species restricted to the Hudsonian and Alpine zones, CO percent. The percentages of Shasta mammals common to the Sierra and the Cascades are : Of boreal species, including those which range down into the Transition zone, 72 percent; of species restricted to the Boreal zones, 70 percent; of species restricted to the Hudsonian and Alpine zones, C7 percent.' The percentages of Shasta plants common to the Sierra and the Cas- cades are: Of l)oreal species, including those which range down into the Transition zone, 49 percent; of species restricted to the Boreal I Thu number of Iliulsonian-Alpine species is <("> siii:ill to nive this pi-. ((Mitage mucli value. OCT., 1899.] BOREAL SPECIES OP SHASTA AND SIERRA-CASCAD]:S. 73 zoues, 46 percent; of species restricted to the Hudsouian iuid iVlpine zones, 44 percent. For evidence of another kind — that based on the absence from Shasta of species which occnr in the Sierra or tlie Cascades or both — see pages 79-82. Following are the tables on which the foregoing generalizations are based : (1) BOREAL SPECIES CM)MMON TO SHASTA AND THE SIEKRA-CASCADE SYSTEM. (Sjtecies followed l)y the letter T range cliiwn into or through the Tr:in.sition zone.) (a) MAM.AI.^LS. Callospermophilus clirysofleirus 1'. Canis lestes. Erethizon epixanthus T.? Eutamias am,s. Perisoreua obscurus. (c) PLANTS. ' Ireastrum alpisinura. Pent.stemon menziesi. Pbylbidoce empetrilormis. Polygonum newberryi. Silene suksdorfi. Toiieldia occidentnlis. Vacciuium arbusuula T. Veronica cusicki. (4) BOREAL SHASTA SPECIES NOT KNOWN FROM EITHER THE SIERRA OR THE CASCADES. Perognatbus mollipiloaus T. Arnica longifolia. Arnica visoosa. ' Campanula wilkinsiana. ' Jlimulus implexu.s. (a) MAMMALS. .Sorex shastensis. (6) ]URDS. [None.] (c) PLANTS. Pentstemon glaber utahensis. Phacelia frigida. ' Scutellaria nana. Silene grayi. ' ' So far as known restricted to Shasta. 76 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. (5) EXCWJSIVELY BOREAL SPECIES OF SHASTA. (a) MAMMALS. Aploilontia major. Cauis lestes. Evotoniys mazama. ? Lepus klamathensis. Microtus mordas. Mustela caurina. Mustela pennanti. Jlyotis yumanensis saturatus. Ochotona schisticeps. Ov\» canadensis. Pbenacomys orophiluB. Putorius arizonensis. Sores (Neosorex) navigator. Sorex ehastensis. Thomomys monticola. Vnlpes macroiirus. Zapus trinotatus alleni. (6) BIRDS. Accipiter atrioapillu.s striatulus. Anthns pensilvauious. Carpoducus cas.sini. Cinclus mexicanus. Coccothraiistes vespertinus montanus. Dendioicu occideiitalis. Junco liyeraalis thurberi. Leucosticte tephrocotis. Loxia curvirostra. bendirei. Myadestes townseiidi. Xucifraga culumbiana. Parus gambeli. PerisoreuM obscurus. Picoides arcticus. Regulus calendula. Regulus satrapa olivaceus. Sialia arctica. Sitta canadensis. Sphyrapicus tliyroideua. Spinus pinus. Wilsonia piisilla pileolata. Zonotrichia leucophrys. (o) PLAXT.S. Abies shastensis. Achillea borcalis. Aconituni colurabianuni. Agoseris monticola. Allium validnm. Allium sp. ? Alnus sinuata. Antennaria media. Arabis platysperma. Arctostapbylos nevadensis. Arnica longifolia. Arnica merriami. Arnica viscosa. Bikukulla uniflora. Campanula wilkinsiana. Cardaraine bellidifolia pachypbylla. C'arex breweri. Castilleja miniata (alpine Jurm). Cha'Dactis nevadensis. Cheiranthus pereuiiis. Chrysothamnus bloomeri. Corallorbiza bigelovi. Crepis intermedia. Cycladenia liumilis. Cymopterus terebinthinus. Delphinium sonnei. Draba breweri. Drosera rotundifolia. Epilobium clavatum. Epilobium obcordatum. Epilobium pringleanum. Erigeron armeriiefoliura. Erigeron compositus tritidus. Erigeron iuornatus. Eriogonum polypoduni. Eriogonum pyroliefolium. Geiitiana simplex. Habenaria Icucostachys. Habenaria unalascbensis. Hieracium albitiorum (alpine form). Hieracium gracile. Hieracium horridum. Holodisous discolor. Hulsca larseui. Hulsea nana. Hypericum anaf;alloides Junciis parryi. Juniperus nana. Kalmia glauca micropbylla. Ligusticum grayi. Lupinus albifrons. Lupinus lyalli. Lupinus 'ornatus.' Lutkea pectiuata. Maclia.-rantihera sliastensis. Madia bolanderi. Mimulns implexus. Mimulus primuloides. OCT., 1809.] EXCLUSIVELY HUDSONIAN-ALPINE SPECIES 01-' SHASTA. 77 KXGLUSIVELY BOREAL SPECIKS OF SHASTA— ('oiitiiiuod. Ic) I'LANT.s — continued. Mitellii peiitaudra. Mouuidella odoratiasima. Oreastrum alpigin-^m. Oreobroma triphylla. Orthocarpus pilosus. Oxyria digyna. Parnassla caliloruion. Peiitstemon deustus. Pentstenion glaber utahensis. Peiitstemon gracilentns. Peutstemou menziesi. Pentstenion newlierryi. Pliacelia frigida. Phlox donglasi diffusa. Phyllodoce empetriforniis. Pinus albioaulis. Pinus monticola. Pinus murrnyana. Polemonium pulobejlum. Polygonum newberryi. Polygonum ebasteuse. Potentilla fiabellifolia. l^otentllla pseudorupe.stris. Pulsatilla occidcutalis. Sagiua saginoides. Saxifraga bryopliora. Saxifraga tolmiei. Senecio canus. Senecio trigonopliyllus. Sibbaldia procumliens. Silene grayi. Silene suksdorli. Sitauion cinerenni. Spraguea umbellata. Stellaria crispa. Streptantbus orbiculatiis. Tofieldia occidentalis. Tsuga mertensianu. Yaccinium ciespitosum. Yaceinium occidentale. Yeronica cusicki. A'iola blanda. Yiola purpurea. (6) EXCLUSIVELY HUDSONIAN-ALPINE SPECIES OF SHASTA. JIAMMALS. Pheiiaconiys oiopbilus. Ochotoua Bcbisticeps Ovis canadensis. HISD.^ Aiithus pensilvauicus. Leucosticte tepbrocotis. Nucifraga columbiana. Sialia arctica. Zonotrichia lencoplirys. Acbillea borealis. Agoseris monticola. Antennaria media. Arabia platysperma. Arnica merriami. Arnica viscosa. Bikukulla unidora. Cardamine bellidifolia pacbypbylla. Carex breweri. Cbienactis nevadensis. Cheirantlius perennis. Chrysotbamnus bloomeri. Cycladenia humilis. Cymopterus terebintbinus. Draba breweri. Epilobium clavatum. Epilobium obcordatum. Epilobium pringleanum. Erigeron armeriaefolium. Erigeron compositus trifidus. Eriogonum polypodum. Erlogonum pyrohefolium. Hieracium albiflorum (alpine form), Hieracium gracile. Hieracium horridum. Holodiscus discolor (alpine form). Hulsea larseni. Hulsea nana. Juncusparryi. Juniperus nana. Kalmia glauca micropbylla. Lupinus albifrons. Lupinus lyalli. Lupinus 'ornatus.' Lutkea pectinata. Macba-ranthera shastensis. Mimulus implexus. Mitella pentandra. Oreastruni alpiginum. Oreobroma tripbylla. 78 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [ NO. 16. EXCLUSIVELY HUDSON'IAN-ALPINE SPECIES OF SHASTA— Continued. PLANTS — continued. Orthocarpus pilosns. Oxyria digynii. Parnassia californica. Pentstemon glaber utaheusi.s. Peutsteuion menziesi. Pentstemon uewberryi. Phacelia frigida. Phylloiloce cmpetriforniis. Pinus albicaulis. Polemoniuni pulclielluni. Polygonum ni'wberryi. Polynouum sbasteuse. Poteutilla flabellifolia. Potentilla pseudorupestris. Pulsatilla occidentalis. Sagina saginoides. Saxifraga bryoiiLora. Saxifraga tolmiei. Scuecio canus. Sibbaldia procuniliens. Silene grayi. Silene suksdorti. Sitauion cinereum. Streptauthus orbiculatus. Tsuga mertensiana, \'accinium ca.'Spitosum. Veronica cusicki. Viola ■jturpurca. (7) EXCLUSIVELY HUDSOXIAN-ALPINE SPECIES C()Mi[ON TO SHASTA AND THE SIERRA-CASCADE SYSTEM. Ochotona scbisticeps. Nuciiraga columbiana. Sialia arctica. MA.M.^IAL.S. Phenacomys oiophilus. BIRDS. Zoiiotricbia leucophrys. Acbillea borealis. Autennaria media. Arabis platysperma. Likukulla unillora. Cardamine btdlidifolia paehypiiylla. Carex brewer!. Cbi ysothamnus bloomeri. Cymopterus terebintbinus. Epilobium obcardatum. Epilobium priugleanum. Eiiogonum pyrohe folium. Holodiscus discolor ( typical alpim- birm). Juncus parryi, Juniperus nana. Kalmia glauca micropliylla Mittdla pentandra. Oreobroma tripliylla. Orthocarpus pilosus. Oxyiia digyna. Pentstemon uewberryi. Pinus albicaulis. Polemonium pulcbelluiii. Polygonum shastense. Potentilla llalicllifolia. Pulsatilla oicidentalis. Sagina saginoides. Saxifraga tolmiei. Sibbaldia procumbens. Tsuga mertensiana. Viola purpurea. (8) EXCLUSIVELY HULSONIAN-ALPINE SPECIES COMMON TO SIIA.STA AND THE SIERRA BUT NOT KNOWN FROM THE CASCADES. MAMMALS. Ovis canadi-nsis. HIRDS. ? Leucosticte tephroc otis. I'LANTS. Agoseris monticola. Cycladenia humilis. Arnica merriaml. Draba breweri. Chu'iiactis ncvadi-nsis. Erigc>ron armeriiefolium. Cheiranthus perennis. Erigeron compoaitus trifidus. OCT., 1899.] SIERRA-CASCADE SPECIES NOT KNOWN FROM SHASTA. 79 HUD.SQNI.VX-ALPINE SPECIES OF SHASTA AND SIERRA— tUiutinuod. PLANTS — oontinued. Eriogounm poljpodum. Hieracium albiflorum (alpine form), HieiUL-inm horridum. Hulsea larseni. Paniassia californica. Saxifraga bryophora. Seiiecio canus. Streptanthus orbiculatus. Vaccinium caispitosum. (9) EXCLUSIVELY HUDSONIAX-ALPINE .SPECIES COMMON TO .SHASTA AND THE CASCADES BUT NOT KNOWN FROM THE SIERRA. MAM.M.VLS. None. lilRDS. Aiithus penailviinicus. Epilobium clavatum. ffierucium gracile. Hulsea nana. Lupinus lyalli. Lupinus 'ornatus.' Lutkea pectinata. MacliEeranthera shastensis. Oreastruni alpiginum. Pentstemon uienziesi. Phyllofloce empetriforrais. Polygonum newberryi. Silene suksdorti. Veronica onsicki. BOREAL SPECIES OF THE SIERRA-CASCADES NOT KNOWN FROM SHASTA. Turning to another phase of the subject, the absentees, or boreal species of the Sierra and Cascades which are not known from Shasta, an equally instructive lesson may be learned. The boreal species that occur in the Sierra or Cascades, or both, but which are not known from Shasta, have been grouped in three cate- gories: (1) species common to the Sierra-Cascades but not known from Shasta; (2) Sierra species not known from Shasta or the Cascades; and (3) Cascade species not known from Shasta or the Sierra.' (1) Boreal species common to the Siekea and the Cascades BUT NOT KNOWN FROM ShASTA. Only three boreal mammals are known to occur in both the Sierra and the Cascades which have not been found on Shasta. These are the Sierra marmot [Arvtomys flaviventer), the wolverine [Gula hiseus), and the silver-haired bat {Lasionyeteris noctivagans). The marmot, it maybe stated with confidence, is really absent; the wolverine has been killed in the near vicinity and probably occurs on Shasta; the bat is a local species common in the mountains west of Shasta, easily overlooked and most likely to occur. Hence there is every reason to ' In the accompanying tables and discussion tbe boreal species are treated col- lectively, no iiecoiint being taken of the important distinctions between the Alpine, Hudaonian, and Canadian species. This course has been rendered necessary by the absence of discriminative zone lists of Cascade-Sierra species. Labcra'. v ^» ' ~ 159 Sapiuc-o- '.••> Cornell Univertity IttMca, Now York 1485 t TTMd 80 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. believe that the Sierra marmot is really the only mammal common to the Sierra and the Cascades which does not occur on Shasta. Two boreal birds believed to be common to the Sierra-Cascade system (the western winter wren, Anorthura hiemalis xmcifica, and the Towiisend warbler, Dendroiva toumsendi) have not yet been discovered on Shasta, but are liable to be found there at any time. With plants the case is quite different, for at least 19 well-known genera, and a considerable number of species of other genera, not known from Shasta are common to the Sierra and the Cascades. (a) JIAJIMALS. Arctomys llaviveuter. Gulo luscus. La.si(inycteris noctivagans. (1)) lURD.S. Anorthura hiemalis pacitica. Dendroica townseudi. (r) PLANTS. Genera not known from Sha8t(t. Arenaria. Iris. Kanimculus. Cassiope. Ivesia. Sruelowskia. Claytonia. Listera. Streptopus. Clintouia. Jlerteusia. Thalictrum. Erythrouinm. Pedieularis. Xerophylliini. Geuni. Primula. Heiichcni. Raillardella. Jdditional sjieciet not known from Shasta. Arnica chamissoiiis. Lonicera iuvolucrata. Campanula scouleri. Polygonum bistortoides. Crepia nana. Populus tremuloides. Erigeron salaugiuosus. Salix barclayi. Gentiana nowberryi. Saxifraga nivalis. .Juncus orthophyllus. Saxifraga punctata.. Lonicera conjugalis. (2) bokbal slbrea species not kkown prom shasta oe the Cascades. Eight mammals, 1 bird, 3 coniferous trees, several shrubs, and a num- ber of small plants are known from the High Sierra which do not occur on Shasta or the Cascades ; the majority of them are restricted to the southern part of the Sierra, not reaching as far north as the mountains about Lake Tahoe, and consequently need not be considered here. Only three of the Sierra mammals {Spermophilus belduigi, Uulamiun speciosus frater, and Sorex ohsciirus) which range north to the south end of Feather Eiver G-ap fail to reach Shasta, and two if not all three of these are known to cross this gap and occur on Lassen, showing that the Feather liiver G-ap of itself is of very little significance. The details of plant distribution in these mountains are not sufiSeiently known to admit of safe generalizations. OCT., 1899.] BOKEAL CASCADE aPECIES. 81 BOREAL SIERRA SPECIEH— Coutinued. (a) MAMMALS. Eutamias nlpinus.' Microtiis dutoheri.' Eutamias speciosus.' Sorex obsourus. Eutamias speciosus callipeplus.' Speruiophilus beldingi. Eutamias speciosus fratev. Tliomomys alpinus. ' (6) ItlRDS. Pinicol;i euucleator californica. (C) I'l.AXT.S. Abies magnifica. Oreobroma uevadensis. Arenaria compacta. Oreobroma pygm;ca. Arenaria congesta. Phyllodoce breweri. Artemisia rotbrocki. Pinus balfouriana. Chryaopsis breweri. Piuus flexilis. Draba lemuioni. Primula suffrutescens. Eulophus parish!. Quercus vaccinifolia. Hulsea al^ida. Raillardella scaposa. ? Leduiu glandulosum. Ranunculus oxynotus. Leucothoe davisiiv. Silene bernardina. Lycbnis californica. Silene californica. Montia fontana. (3) Boreal Cascade species not known prom Shasta or the SlEEBA. Eleven mammals, 2 birds, 3 fir trees, and a number of shrubs and other plants which inhabit the Cascade Range in Oregon are not known to occur on Shasta or in the Sierra I^evada. One of the mammals [Eutamias townsendi) does not reach as far south as the southern end of the Cascades, and two others (Aplodontia major rainieri and Sciurus cascadeniiiii)&ve, only subspeciflcally sei^arable from corresponding forms in the Sierra. The remaining eight are independent specific types not represented on Shasta or in the Sierra, and all of them push south to the extreme southern end of the Cascades immediately across Klamath Gap from Shasta. (a) JIA^IMALS. Aplodontia major rainieri. Scapanus alpinus. Eutamias townsendi. Sciurus douglasi cascadensis. Lynx canadensis. Sorex (Atophyrax) bendirei. Microtus (Arvicola) arvicoloides. Thomorays mazama. Microtus (Chilotus) bairdi. Zapus montanus. Putorius cicognani streatori. {D BIRDS. Hylocichla ustulata. Leucosticte tephrocotis liltoralis.^ ' These mammals are restricted to the southern part of the Sierra and none of them come as far north as the mountains about Lake Tahoe. -Leucosticte tephrocotis littoralis breeds in the Cascades of Washington bnt is not actually known from the Cascades of Oregon. It is likely to be found among the glaciers of Mount Hood and The Sisters when the birds of these mountains are studied. 21753— No. 10 11 82 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. (c) ri.ANTS. Abies amabilis. Abies lasiocarpa. Abies nobilis. Gaultlieria myrsinites. Menziesia feiruginea. Rhododeudrou albiflorum. Ribes erythrocarpum. Ribes lac'ustre. Rubus hisiocoecns. Sileue acaulis. Sorbus occidentalis. Spinua arbuscula. Vacoiuiura uiicropbyllum. A^aleriaua sitchensis. EFFICIENCY OF KLAMATH GAP AS A BARRIER TO BOREAL SPECIES COMPARED WITH THAT OP PITT RIVER AND FEATHER RIVER GAPS COLLECTIVELY. Ill view of the iiiU'rownoss of Klanialli Gap, a break of less than 50 miles, separating the boreal fauna of Shasta from that of the Cascades, compared with the breadth of the combined Pitt Eiver and Feather River gaps, about 100 miles, separating Shasta from the boreal fauna of the Sierra Nevada northwest of Honey Lake, one might expect Shasta to share more species with the Cascades than with the Sierra. The con- trary is true. The Feather Eiver Gap, as elsewhere explained (p. 70), is ineftective compared with the others; the branches of Feather Eiver do not cut completely through the mountains, and the gap is merely a low part of the range, with, the Honey Lake ridge and small boreal-capped peaks projecting here and there as stepping stones between the main Sierra and Mount Lassen. Pitt Eiver Gap is deeper, cutting completely through the range between Lassen and Shasta, forming a boreal break about 60 miles in width, and there is no apparent reason why it should not be as etfective a barrier as Klamath Gap, although from the stand- point of zone distribution it does not cut so low and therefore has a slightly cooler summer climate, in consequence of which it is less effect- ive. But this difference is insufficient to explain the really great dis- parity in potency of the two, for in checking the extension of boreal species Klamath Gap has proved far more effective. Passing over the species common to Shasta and the Sierra-Cascade system as a whole (see p. 73), only three of the ten distinctively Sierra mammals which reach the northern end of the Sierra fail to reach Shasta, and two if not all of these bridge the Feather Eiver Gap and reach Mount Lassen, which is separated from Shasta by only the Pitt River Gap. On the other hand, not one of the ten distinctively Cascade mammals which occur at the extreme south end of the Cascade Range has been able to cross the narrow Klamath Gap to Shasta. If the number of distinctive mammals of the Sierra-Cascade system be reduced by subtracting those which are represented in the two ranges by closely related forms ' 8 distinctive specific types will remain 'Close discrimination of species and subspecies is necessary in laying off the minor subdivisions of faunas; and it is interesting from the zoological standpoint to know which and how many of tbe specific types common to a given area have undergone enough change in parts of that area to warrant separate recognition by name, but from the standpoint of the distribution of specilic types such details are of little value. 83 84 NORTH AJIERK'AN FAUNA. [no. 16. for the southern Cascades aucl 7 for the northern Sierra. Of these distinctive specific types only 3 of the 7 Sierra species fail to leach Shasta, while all of the 8 Cascade species fail. The significance of these facts appears when the Boreal faunas of the mountains north and south of Klamath Gap are studied with ref- erence to their geographic sources of origin, as pointed out in the next chapter. SOURCES OF THE BOREAL FAUNAS OP SHASTA AND OF THE SIERRA AND THE CASCADES. The boreal nuim.ils and plants of the Sierra-Cascade system as a whole are not yet well enough known to admit of positive statements as to the number of species or the details of their distribution. Heuce a complete study of their distribution with reference to the geographic source of origin of the various specific types is not possible. Never- theless, enough has been learned to point to some very interesting conclusions. It has been already shown that the boreal fauna and flora of Shasta form a part of the fauna and flora of the Sierra-Cascade system ; that 70 percent of the exclusively boreal mammals of Shasta are common to both ranges; and that of the remainder, 80 j)ercent are common to the Sierra. It is obvious therefore that, so far as mammals are con- cerned, Shasta may be considered a part of the Sierra (see p. 71). Fifty-eight boreal ' species of mammals are known from the Sierra and the Cascades. Of these, 31 (.j4 percent) are common to both ranges, 11 (19 percent) are restricted to the Sierra, and 16 (28 percent) to the Cascades. Of the 58 boreal species of mammals known to inhabit the Sierra- Cascade system not a single genus or subgenus is peculiar, though the genera Aplodontkt and Ncurolriclnin and the subgenus Aioplujra.r are restricted to the northwest coast region. With species the case is very different, for 23 of the 58 species (40 jjercent) are peculiar to the Sierra-Cascades; but even of these only 10 differ suiliciently from near relatives elsewhere to be considered distinct specific types. Of the 58 species whose relationships are so obvious that there can be no doubt as to their affinities and origin, 5 (9 percent) come from mountains farther north (in British Columbia, some ranging into southeastern Alaska), 8 (11 percent) are of general transcontiueutal boreal distri- bution, 16 (28 percent) are chai'acteristic of the humid west or north- west coast region, 19 (33 percent) are identical with or closely related to species living in the Rocky Mountains, and 10 (17 percent) are dis- tinctive superspecific types restricted to the Sierra-Cascade system. If, instead of treating the Sierra-Cascade species collectively, we group them with reference to the particular part of the mountains they inhabit, putting the Cascade species (those north of Klamath Gap) in 'Our collections from the Cascades have not vet been workeil up, and it is proba- ble that several species will be added to this number. S5 86 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. one category, and the Sierra species (those soutli of Klamatli Gap) ia another, some additional facts are brought out which emphasize the widely different sources of origin of the distinctively Cascade si)ecies on the one hand, and the distinctively Sierra species on the other. Of the distinctively Cascade species, -IS ])ercent are derived from mountains farther north, 12 percent are local types, 12 percent belong to transcontinental boreal tyi)es. and 25 percent to northwest-coasfc types. Of the distinctively Sierra species, 50 percent are specially developed local types, and 50 j^ercent belong to types common to the Sierra and the southern Eoclvy Mountains. These facts point not only to the great antiquity and effectiveness of the Klamath Gap, but also to a former east and west continuity of range of Boreal species between the Ttocky Mountains of Utah and Colorado and the Sierra Nevada of California, a distance of at least 500 miles. MAMMALS OF SHASTA. Sorex shastensis sp. iiov. Shasta Shrew. Type from Wagon Camp, Mount Shasta (alt. 5,700 ft. in the lower part of tlie Cana- dian zone). No. 95450, U. S. Nat. JSIiiB., Biological Survey Coll. Collected .Scqit. 26, 1898, by W. H. Osgood. Orig. No. 317. Characters. — Size small; decidedly smaller than /S. raf/rans ; tail rather short; ears small, but conspicuous. Third unicuspid smaller than fourth. Skull and teeth peculiar. Color. — Type specimen, in change from summer to winter pelage: Head and sides of neck to shoulders dull fulvous brown ; rest of upper parts dark steel gray; underparts ashy brown; tail sharply bicolor, dusky above, bufly below, becoming dusky toward tip. Cranial characters.— ^VvlW small, decidedly smaller than in ragrans and as small as in caUfornimis ; brain case moderately high — not at all flattened as in californicns ; rostrum rather small (about as in cnUforni- cus); constriction swollen. Tooth row, as a whole, somewhat shorter than in ccdifornicns ; unicuspids decidedly narrower, particularly the first and second; molariform series much as in californicns, but slightly smaller; large premolar very broad posteriorly. Measurements. — Type: Total length, !l(»; tail vertebrae, 35; hind foot, 12. RemarJcs. — This new species is based on a single specimen caught by W. H. Osgood in a trap set in a springy place among the Shasta firs, immediately above Wagon Camp. In the same trap, and in the iden- tical spot, he caught also specimens of Xeosorex navigator and Xeuro- trichus gibhsi major. Several specimens of Sorer vagrans amcenus were caught near by, but no others of this species. Sorex shastensis is a small shrew of uncertain affinities. In several respects it resembles *S'. californicns, but differs from this species mark- edly in color, and still more in the form of the cranium and narrow- ness of the unicuspidate teeth. Sorex vagrans amoenus Merriam. Sierra Shrew. Twenty-two specimens of this small shrew were collected on Shasta and about its base. Two were caught among the tules at Big Spring, in Shasta Valley, on the north side of the mountain; two at Warm- castle Soda Springs, in Squaw Creek Valley, on the south side; and nineteen in the Canadian zone and lower part of the Hudsonian from Wagon Camp up to upper Squaw Creek, Mud Creek, and Ash Creek. Most of them were trapped under logs in damp places. 87 88 NOKTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 10. Sorex montereyensis Merriam. Monterey Shrew. Six specimens of this large long-tail shrew were secured — one at the lower edge of the Hudsoniau zone, near 3[ud Greek; four in the Can- adian zone, in Mud Creek Canyon; and one in the Transition zone, in Squaw Creek Valley, near Warmcastle Soda Springs. Sorex (Neosorex) navigator Baird. White-bellied Water-shrew. Apparently rather scarce, as a large amount of trapping resulted in the capture of only four specimens. These were obtained at as many localities, namely, the head of Panther Creek, upper Squaw Creek, upper Ash Creek Canyon, and Wagon Camp, all in the Canadian zone. Neurotrichus gibbsi major subsp. no\'. Large ShrewiDole. Type li'oui C'arberry Rantli, Shasta County, Calif, (alt. 4,ld0 ft., bet-n-een Mts. Shasta and Lassen). No. 6.5321, J ad., U. S. Nat. Mus., Biological Survey Coll. Collected Jlay 18, 1894-, by C. P. Streator. Orig. No. 3789. Characters. — Similar to X. (jihbai, but decidedly larger; hind feet larger; forefeet much broader and longer; tail much longer; under parts darker; skull larger and broader; fifth upper lateral tooth (the 'large premolar') decidedly smaller than in X. gibbsi, and possessing a distinct anterior cusp on the cingulum, which is absent in gibbsi; fifth lower lateral tooth (the 'large jiremolar ') decidedly larger than in gibbsi. Measurements. — Average of 3 specimens from type locality: Total length, 120; tail vertebrre, 40; hind foot, 17. Average of 4 specimens from Mount Shasta; Total length, 113; tail vertebra', 41; hind foot, 16.2. Remarks. — Four specimens of this new form of Gibbs shrewniole were collected by our party on Shasta — all in the Canadian zone. Three were caught in Mud Creek canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek by Walter K. Fisher and W. H. Osgood, and one was taken at Wagon Camp by Osgood. In May, 1894, my assistant, Clark P. Streator, obtained 3 specimens (the type and cotypes) at Carberry Ranch, on the south side of Pitt liiver, between Mounts Shasta and Lassen. Carberry Ranch is in the upper part of the Transition zone. The Canadian zone specimens from Shasta are not quite so large, but agree in other characters. Scapanus califomicus (Ayres). California Mole. Vernon Bailey found a dead mole of this species, October 3, in the road between Wagon Camp and Sisson at an altitude of 4,500 feet. He reported mole ridges as common in places a little below Wagon Camp, and also in sandy soil in the Murray pine belt east of the moun- tain; W. H. Osgood saw mole ridges in Shasta Valley. Myotis evotis (H. Allen.) Big-eared Bat. At Sisson, September 5, R. T. Fisher obtained a specimen from a small boy, who caught it in n kitchen. The species doubtless occurs in Shasta Valley also. OfiT-. 1899.] MAMMALiS. 89 Myotis lucifugus longicrus (True), At Wagou Camp, July 17, Walter K. Flslier shot one of tliese bats. Small bats were abundant here, but kept so much in the forest that they were hard to shoot. Myotis californicus (Aud. & Bach.). Galiforiua Bat. A single specimen of this species, collected on Mount Shasta by C. H, Townsend, is recorded by Miller in North American Fauna, No. 13, page 71, October, 1897. Myotis yamanensis saturatus JMiller. Common among the alpine hemlocks at Squaw Creek Camp, where they were seen every night, darting in and out of the flickering light of the camp fire. Here I shot one the evening of August 3, and four the evening of August 9. Late in July and early in August small bats, probably the same species, were seen nearly every evening at the tem- porary camps on or near upper Mud Creek. The species is interesting as the only bat secured in the Hudsonian zone. Vespertilio fascus Beauvois. Large Brown Bat. Common at Wagon Camp, where Vernon Bailey shot one July 17, and I shot three the evening of July 28. IMany more could have been killed if desired. In 1883 C. 11. Townsend obtained it at Sheep Rock. The species is one of the commouest in the foothills aud valleys, aud is easily recognized on the wing by its large size and its character of flight. [Arctomys flaviventer (Aud. & Bach.). Mountain Marmot. It may be asserted with confidence that no marmots of any kind live on Shasta. Our collectors were at work on the mountain from July 15 until October without seeing a single individual. Moreover, when Vernon Bailey and I made our trip completely around the peak the latter part of July we kept near timberline all the way and made a special search for marmots, but were unable to find a trace of their presence.] Spermophilus douglasi (Richardson). Oregon Ground S(j^uirrel. Common at Sisson and in McCloud and Shasta valleys, whence it ranges up through the manzanita chaparral of the basal slopes nearly to Wagon Camp. At Sisson R. T. Fisher collected eight during the first half of September, and says of them,: " One of the few really plen- tiful mammals at Sisson. Hardly an acre in the valley is free from their burrows. Under the barns and houses, in the fields, along the hot slopes east and west of. the town, and even in the woods, one con- stantly sees them. At the time I write of, September 1-15, they seemed to be feeding chiefly on acorns and chinquapins — acorns in the valley, chinquapins on the western slopes. In behavior they were wild and sneaking; at all times, difficult to approach. None appeared to have hibernated." 21753— No. 16 12 90 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. (no. 16. At "Big Spring, in Shasta Valley, where they abound, W. H. Osgood saw several climb up on a beam and enter an opening in a granary. Callospermophilus chrysodeirus Merriam. Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel. One of the most abundant and conspicuous mammals of the moun- tain, where they were seen daily from the manzanita belt iip to timber- line, and where 52 specimens were collected. At Sisson they are rare, but 2,000 feet higher are fairly common, as they are also in Squaw Creek Valley at the south base of the mountain. In the fir forest they make their homes under logs or about the roots of trees, but in the neighbor- hood of timberline live in burrows under the rocks, often in slide rock, associated with small colonies of conies. At low altitudes they are usually unwary and maybe easily killed with the 'auxiliary' barrel, but in the neighborhood of timberline they are so exceedingly shy it is difficult to approach within gunshot. At our camj) among the alpine hemlocks on upper Squaw Creek they first kept at long range, but find- ing us harmless gradually overcame their fear, and finally, toward the end of the season, came to be one of the most persistent of camp robbers, stealing bread and other eatables. At the same time they never came freely and boldly as did their associates, the chipmunks, but always stole in silently and if possible kept out of sight. This species goes into winter qnarters much later than its relatives in the Rocky ilountain region. On Shasta it was seen daily near timber- line until after the middle of September and a few were noticed on warm days as late as September 24, but all those secured during the latter part of the month were young of the year. Between Wagon Camp and Sisson they were seen as late as September 26. Eutamias amoenus (Allen). Klamath Chipmunk. Abundant in the chaparral of the lower slopes and thence up through the forest to timberline. Fifty-three sj)ecimens were obtained at vari- ous points on the mountain. At Wagon Camp they were common and were seen j^icking unripe serviceberries the latter part of July. At the south base of the mountain one was killed as low down as Warmcastle Soda Springs in S(iuaw Creek Valley. In the forest they live mostly about logs and stumps and are quite fearless, but along the upper edge of timber, where they live among the bare rocks, they are much more wary. Eutamias senex (Allen). Allen Chipmunk. Abundant in the Shasta fir belt and ranging down to Sisson and Warmcastle Soda Springs at the base of the mountain and up to the upper limit of continuous timber, though jierhaps not to extreme tim- berline. Sixty-eight specimens were secured. At Wagon Camp they were common and were usually associated with their small cousin, U. amoenus. They are more arboreal than the other "'T-, 1809.] MAMMALS. 91 chipmunks and we often saw theui in the trees 40 or 50 feet above the ground, moving about in the branches or chasing one another around the great trunks of the hemlocks and firs. At our camp in the alpine hemlocks on Squaw Creek they were the most abundant and most fear- less of the diurnal mammals. Here they were constantly associated with the less abundant golden-mantled ground squirrels (Gallospermo- philus chrysodeirus), compared with which they are bolder, more active, more graceful, and more interesting. In camp they made frequent visits to the mess box, which they clearly regarded as public property, approaching it boldly and without suspicion and showing no concern at our presence — in marked contrast to the golden-mantled ground squirrels, which approached silently, stealthily, and by a circuitous route, in constant fear of detection. If disturbed while stufflug their cheek pouches with bits of bread, pan- cake, or other eatables, each chipmunk usually seized a large piece in its mouth and scampered off', returning as soon as we withdrew. In fact, they made themselves perfectly at home in camp, and evidently ranked us with other harmless inhabitants of the forest. They climbed up the sides of our tent and over towels hung to dry on branches, as if such things had always been a part of their environment. It should be added, however, that the most familiar animals were always the young of the year, which probably had no recollection of the time before our arrival. Along the upper border of the timber, where the ground is more open and is covered with gray rocks and pumice instead of the dark felt- ing of hemlock and fir needles and cones, the chipmunks are far more alert and wary. After the middle of September the adults were rarely seen, and after the 20th the young came out only during the warmest part of the day. At Sisson, li. T. Fisher found these chipmunks more abundant than any other mammal. They were common in the woods, in the chapar- ral, on the hillsides, and in the bottom of the valley. At the time of his visit — from the end of August to the middle of September — they were in the molt and very ragged. Sciurns albolimbatus Allen. Sierra Pine Squirrel. [ = S. californicus Allen, preoccupied.] Common in the Canadian zone forest of Shasta firs, and in the Transi- tion forest of mixed pine and Douglas spruce. Among the Shasta firs they were seen on all sides of the mountain and came up as high as the lower edge of the alpine hemlocks. Among the pines and Douglas firs they were seen as low as Bear Butte, near Squaw Creek Valley, and were common at Sisson and thence northward along the base of the Scott Mountains. Like other pine squirrels they lay up stores of cones for winter use. At low elevations they rival the large gray tree squirrels in collecting the seeds of the huge cones of the sugar pines. At higher 92 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. elevations they seem to feed largely on tlie niucli smaller seeds of the Shasta firs, the coues of which they collect iu large numbers. These cones are gathered in heaps at the bases of trees, where the squirrels live, and are also stored in decayed logs, where they are stuffed into all available openings. As 1898, the year of our visit, was an ' oft' year' for cones, we were forced, iu order to obtain specimens, to take advan- tage of the stores made by these squirrels the previous year. Iu them we found innumerable cones, more or less perfect and with the seeds still untouched, of both Abies shastensis and A. loiriana. Sciurus fossor Peale. Oregon Gray Squirrel; Large Tree Squirrel. Fairly common iu the pine forest covering the southern and western basal slopes of Shasta. At different times during the summer these large squirrels were seen in Squaw Greek Valley and between Sisson and Edgowood. On July 13 Vernon Bailey found them common near Bear Creek, between Fall Eiver Valley and Shasta, where the sugar pines begin. They were then cutting off' the scales and eating the green seeds of the half-grown cones of sugar pines. Sciuropterus alpinus klamathensis Merriam. Klamath Flying Squirrel. The only flying squirrel seen by our jjarty was observed by me in August on a cedar stub near a small stream a couple ot miles below Wagon Gamp, but was not secured. There is therefore some uncertainty as to the species. At Sisson I was informed that a boy had a pair alive in a cage, but he left town with them before they could be examined. Castor canadensis Kuhl. Beaver. Probably not now living in the immediate vicinity of Shasta, although in 1883, according to G. H. Townsend, "a number of them occupied unmolested a dam, which they had constructed in a corner of a meadow belonging to Mr. J. H. Sisson." They were formerly common in Shasta Eiver, where Walter K. Fisher was recently told a few were seen in the winter of 1898-91). Aplodontia major Merriam. Aplodontia; Sewellel. In making the circuit of Shasta the latter part of July, Vernon Bailey and I discovered a colony of aplodoutias in some rank vegeta- tion covering a springy place in Ash Creek Canyon, in the upper part of the Canadian zone. A little later W. K. and R. T. Fisher were sent there and obtained two specimens. About the same time they and W. H. Osgood caught eight in Mud Greek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek, at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet. Aplodoutias live in wet or damp places usually overgrown with rank vegetation, and preferably in springy, sloping ground where some ot their innumerable burrows and sunken runways are kept wet by tlie cold trickling water. As is well known, they cut various plants, com monly rank or woody kinds, which they gather and carry iu buudles to their burrows, or to places near by, where they spread them out to dry. «c-f- 1898.] MAMMALS. 93 In Asli Creek Canyon Walter Fisher found tlieir (•,uttint>-s to consist chiefly of ferns and willows— tlio latter carried from a Ion.;;- distance. In Mud Creek Canyon the cuttings consisted chiefly, accordiii};' to W. H. Osgood, of thimble-berry bushes, mountain ash, and brake ferns — the latter predominating, and in one place forming a pile as big as a bushel basket. The animals commonly live in colonies, but Osgood concluded that in Mud Creek Canyon only one individual, or at most, a pair, lived in one place, "though several may be distributed among the branches of a stream." Mus museulus Linn. House blouse. Abundant at Sisson, and running wild like the native species. R. T. Fisher reported them as constantly getting into his traps, partic- ularly in the -weeds and sedges in wet places along the banks of Cold Creek, where he caught a dozen or more. Keithrodontomys klamathensis sp. nov. Type from Big Spring ('Mayten ), Shasta Valley, Calif. No. 95444, i ad., U. S. Nat. Mus., Biological Survey Coll. Collected Sept. 18, 1898, by W. H. Osgood. Orig. No. 281. Characters. — Size medium; ears and hind feet large ; tail long, only slightly shorter than in longicauda; color grayish or brownish gray, decidedly paler than longicauda. Color. — Summer pelage: Upperparts pale grayish brown, washed with butty on sides; underparts white, tail bicolor, dusky above, whitish below. Cranial characters. — Skull rather large; braiucase and rostrum rel- atively broad ; audital bullae small. The skull as a whole agrees better with that of megalotis than with that of longiuauda, particularly in the length of palate and breadth of braincase; but the rostrum is broader and the audital bulla? are smaller than in either. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 149; tail vertebne, 71; hind foot, 19. Average of 2 adults from type locality: Total length, 144; tail vertebrae, 66; hind foot, 18.5. Remarks. — Both in color and cranial characters Beithrodontomys Mamathensis resembles the pale grayish B. megalotis of the desert region of the southern part of the Great Basin much more closely than it does the dark brownish B. longicauda of California west of the Sierra. This new harvest mouse is common in wet jjlaces in Shasta and Lit- tle Shasta valleys, where four specimens were obtained by W. H. Osgood and R. T. Fisher. They were caught in little runways in wet grass near tales. The species doubtless reached Shasta Valley by way of the open Klamath country. During our explorations in eastern Oregon in 1896, numerous specimens of the same species were caught by my assistants, B. A. Preble and Cleveland Allen, in the tule marshes bordering the streams connecting Malheur and Harney lakes. 94 XORTH AMERICAN FAINA. [no. 16. Peromyscus gambeli (Baird). Oommou White-footed Mouse. Common on all, or nearly all, j)arts of ttie mountain from Sisson up to and possibly a little above extreme timberline. One hundred siieci- meus were collected. In choosing their homes these mice are easily suited, for they seem equally contented among the dense vegetation iu damp parts of the bottoms of canyons and among the bare lava rocks and pumice soil ot the driest timberline slopes. Some were caught also iu the heather meadows bordering the little streams in the Hudsonian zone. At Sisson E. T. Fisher found them rather rare except in damp woods along Gold Creek, where he caught a number under roots and stumps close to the water. Peromyscus boyli (Baird). Exceedingly rare, or else of such peculiar habits that it escaped observation. Only a single specimen was obtained on Shasta. It was caught at the extreme upper limit of the Canadian zone (alt. 7,800 feet) on Squaw Creek, August 9, by Walter K. Fisher. Others were secured at Fall River Lake, in the Transition zone, southeast of the base of the mountain. Peromyscus truei (Shf.). Big-eared Mouse. Collected in Little Shasta Valley by Walter K. Fisher, who found it living among bushes of Oeanothns cuneatits. Weotoma fuscipes Baird. Kound-tail Wood Eat. Not found on Shasta, but common in some of the low valleys at its base. Their characteristic stick houses were seen in the juniper forest at the southern end of Shasta Valley, in the chaparral near Gazelle, and in several places in the Scott Mountains (Bailey). In Little Shasta Valley one was collected September 19 (Osgood). Neotoma cinerea Ord. Bushy-tail Wood Eat. Eather scarce. Only four specimens were obtained — two in Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek, and two high up on Squaw Creek (alt. 8,800 feet). Of those caught in Mud Creek Canyon, one was trapped at the end of an old log, the other at the entrance to an aplodontia burrow. Shasta abounds in the kinds of ledges and cliffs usually inhabited by this species, but, except at rare intervals, no traces of the animals were found. Microtus californicus (Peale). California Vole. Not obtained by us except in Shasta Valley, where six specimens were secured in September by W. H. Osgood and E. T. Fisher. Their runways were found in very wet places in the tules at Big Spring, in Shasta Valley, and along Little Shasta Creek. Walter K. Fisher secured specimens along Shasta Eiver, northeast of Edgewood. OCT., 1899.] MAMMALS. 95 Microtus montanus (Peale). l^ot obtained on Shasta, biit collected at Fall River Tjiike in Aiijiust by W. K. Fisher. In August, 1883, seven specimens were (jollccted in the grassy meadows at Sisson Tavern by 0. H. Towusend. Microtus mordax (Merriam). Mountain Vole. Common in suitable moist places throughout the Canadian and Hud- sonian zones, particularly in the heather meadows a little below timber- line, where, though chiefly nocturnal, they were sometimes seen in the daytime. Their burrows abound in the heather beds, especially along the overhanging banks of streams, and are so large that some of them were at first mistaken for those of Microtux arvicoloides, a species which does not occur on Shasta. They were not found in the dry forest. Seventy- four specimens were collected, of which only six were obtained at Wagon Camp. Near Sisson Tavern R. T. Fisher caught fifteen along "the wet and bushy banks of a long ditch." They probably reach Sisson not from Shasta, but from Mount Eddy, in the Scott Mountains, near the foot of which Sisson Tavern is situated. Still, it is possible that the two colonies are connected along some of the few cold streams that traverse the Transition zone slopes of Shasta. Evotomys mazama Merriam. Mountain Evotomys. Fairly common in moist places in the Shasta fir forests of the Cana- dian zone, where nineteen specimens were obtained. Ten were col- lected in Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek (altitude 6,700 feet); seven along Squaw Creek from 6,700 up to 7,700 feet; one at the bead of Panther Creek at 7,700 feet, ;ind one ;it Wagon Camp at 5,700 feet. They were usually caught in traps set under logs in damp or wet places. Phenacomys orophilus Merriam. Lemming-Mouse. Rare and local, judging from the results of our trapping. Only three specimens were obtained — all in the heather meadows along the upper part of Squaw Creek, where they were caught August 7, 10, and 13 by Walter K. Fisher. Thomomys mouticola Allen. Sierra Pocket Gopher. Abundant throughout theboreal slopes of the mountain, from the lower part of the Canadian zone to above timberline. In the dark forests of Shasta firs their mounds were seen wherever there was enough small vegetation to furnish food, and were commonest along the streams and about the edges of marshy places, where plant life is abundant and luxu- riant. Above the line of continuous timber their mounds were noticed on many of the pumice slopes between the altitudes of 8,000 and 9,000 feet. Above the head of Squaw Creek a small colony was found at an altitude of 8,300 feet, and another between 8,900 and 9,000 feet. On the east side of Mud Creek Canyon they were seen at 8,800 feet, and on the west side at 8,900 feet. On our trip around the mountain near 96 NORTH AirEBICAN FAUNA. timberline, tlae latter part of July, their mounds were fouDd in almost every place wliere the soil was deep enough for the animals to work; Fig. 31. — AVinte-r c;irth x^luga of pocket goplier. '! -•-? llG J2 — Moniid m idu 1j\ iiotket goplier (Hjotogiapliea b> W H O^gooiT ) and on the north side they were abundant nearly up to timberline, both on the main peak and ou Shastina. OCT., 1899.] MAMMALS. 97 At Wagon Camp, aud thence eastward to Panther Oreek, the whole country is honeycombed with their subterranean passages. While we were at Wagon Camp they were unmitigated pests, throwing up little mounds of fresh earth in our midst every day and keeping the ground disturbed the -whole time, so that it was impossible to walk in any direction outside of the marsh without stirring up a cloud of dust. I shot several in camp in the daytime, as they poked their heads out of their burrows, pushing little loads of dirt before them. They throw out the earth so rapidly that it is difficult to observe the process accu- rately. One uppearvd to empty it from his ])Ouches, but I shot him in the act and found his pouches free from dirt and full of cut pieces of roots. On the higher slopes the winter earth plugs — the cylinders of earth mixed with heather which in winter are pushed up into the snow from the underground passages — remain on the ground all summer, a strik- ing evidence of the absence of rains, for a single hard shower would disintegrate and wash them away. They usually take the form of irregular serpentine ridges ; but on Squaw Creek one was found which formed a complete oval ring with radiating cylinders. A photograph of this one, taken August 1, 1898, is here reproduced. (See fig. 31.) Thomomys monticola pinetorum subsp. nov. Pine- woods Gopher. Type from Siason, Siskiyoa County, Calif. No. 95152, g .ad., U. S. Nat. Mus., Biological Survey Coll. Collected Sept. 4, 1898, by K. T. Fisher. Orig. No. 173. Characters. — Similar in general to T. monticola, but slightly smaller; skull shorter and broader; color very much i^aler. Color. — Upperparts pale fulvous, almost orange fulvous (in striking contrast to the much darker colors of mowf/w/a and ma~ama); nose dusky; sides of head in one pelage plumbeous or slaty faintly washed with buffy; in other pelage strongly washed with ochraceous. Cranial characters. — Skull, contrasted with that of monticola, short and broad, with zygomata much more widely spreading. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 210; tail vertebrae, 76; hind foot, 28. RemarTes. — Common at Sisson and thence up to Wagon Camp, grading gradually into T. monticola. Dipodomys californicus Merriam. Kangaroo Eat. Common in the manzanita chaparral on the south side of Shasta from Squaw Creek Valley, near McCloud Mill, ui> along th(i road to Wagon Camp, as far at least as an altitude of 4,800 feet, where their unmistakable tracks abounded in the dusty soil. In Shasta Valley they are exceedingly abundant and destructive to grain, according to complaints of the ranchmen. Here W. H. Osgood found their little trails winding about through the sage brush in all directions, and saw fresh tracks in the road every morning. 21753— No. 16 13 98 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [™16- Perognathus mollipilosus Coues. Mountain Poclvet-Mouse. Common in the manzanita chaparral, a little below Wagon Camp, ■where four were caught in July by E. T. Fisher. But the most extra- ordinary locality at which the species was found — and for that matter the most remarkable and abnormal place in which any species of the family has ever been found — is a subalpine pumice basin near timber- line at the head of Panther Creek, where Walter K. Fisher discovered it and caught two the night of July 18. Later, six more were secured at the same place. In Shasta A";tlley Yernou Bailey and W. H. Osgood found abundant signs of some species of Perognathus, but did not obtain specimens. The species is probably 1'. parvus, which is common in the adjacent Klamath Basin. Erethizon epixanthus Brandt. Porcupine. Apparently common, and yet not a specimen was obtained. Their characteristic guawings on the trunks of small trees were seen at many points around the mountain, usually iu the Hudsonian or upper part of the Canadian zone. Tliey were common among the dwarf timberliue white-bark pines on the north sides of both Shasta and Shastina; and in a small forest of young Shasta firs between Mud Creek Canyon and Cold Creek, linear timberliue we several times found small trees whose tops had been gnawed in winter when they protruded above the snow. In a single instance fresh tracks were seen in the trail between Wagon Camp and Squaw Creek Camp i^by Yernou Bailey). And on August 4 our favorite mule came into camp with ijorcupinc. quills in his nose. 0. H. Townsend found porcupines in surprising abundance in Lassen County, south of Shasta, in 1883 and 1884, and gives an interesting account of their habits. Zapus trinotatus alleni Elliot. Sierra Jerboa. Fairly common in damp places on and near the mountain. Twenty specimens were collected — fifteen in the Canadian zone in Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek (alt. 6,700 feet), two near the upper jiart of Mud Creek (alt. 7,900 feet), and three at Wagon Camp. One of the most attractive spots near Wagon Camp is a grove of ponderosa pines in which the ground is carpeted with strawberries and scarlet painted cups, mixed with ferns and scattered clumps of serviceberries. The soil, while not wet, receives enough moisture from the little streams that sink into the ground a few rods above to enable these plants to grow iu such profusion that they form a con- tinuous meadow — 'Castilleja meadow' we called it, from the abundance of painted cups. Here the jerboas abound. We saw several in the daytime, leaping about like frogs in the dense vegetation, and caught one or two in our hands. In Mud Creek Canyon, W. II. Osgood informs me, they were also frequently seen in the daytime, in wet places under the white hellebore ( Veratrum cali/orniciim). OCT., 1899.] MAMMALS. 99 Zapus pacificus Merriam. A' alley Jerboa. Only two specimens of tbis little-known species weic secured and one of these was destroyed in the trap. Tliey were caught in thickets on the banks of Little Shasta Creek September 20 by E. T. Fisher. Ochotona schisticeps (Merriam). Ooiiy; Pika. Eelatively rare and confined to small and widely separated colonies. During our circuit of the mountain, made near timberline the latter part of July, we saw what we took to be signs of conies among rocks east of Mud Creek Canyon, but finding no more believed we had been mistaken, until the evening of July 24, when we camped on some rivu- lets of snow water on the north side of Shastina. Here we found a small scattered colony reaching up in the slide rock from about 8,000 to nearly 10,000 feet, and a specimen was secured by Vernon Bailey. The next day we found signs ia Cascade Culcli a mile or two northwest of Horse Camp. Later, when camped in the al- pine hemlocks ou the small west branches of Squaw Creek, we found a colony in the slide rock close by. Conies were afterwards found on both sides of Red Butte and on the east side of Gray Butte, and Osgood heard one near the head of Mud Creek Canyon. In all, 14 speci- mens were collected. This species differs in habits and voice from those of the Rocky Moun - tains ; it is less noisy and less often heard in the middle of the day, for which reason it is more apt to escape detection, and its common note, instead of the usual ' bleat,' is a loud shrill eW eh,'' or eW eh' eh\ It seems to be most active in the late afternoon and on moonlight even- ings, and its voice is heard at all hours of the night. On most mountains where conies live, their well known accumula- tions of plants of various kinds, cut and piled on the rocks to dry, are conspicuous objects. But on Shasta, where I often saw the animals carrying freshly cut plants to their dens in the slide rock, I failed to find a single 'haystack.' In one place a few fresh stems of Polygonum newberryi, with its large broad leaves, were seen, and in another a large accumulation of old brown leaves of the same species mixed with a larger quantity of Phyllodoce empetriformis — apparently left over from the previous year. But the only real 'haystack' found on the mountain by FlQt. 33. — Hock cony {Ochotona t^chlsticeys) — Photograplied by F. Steplieus. 100 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. any of the party was discovered on the east side of Gray Butte Septem- ber 25 by Veruon IJailey. It contained Upilobium spicatum, Holodiscus discolor, Monardella odoratissima, Hiej-acirim horridmn, Gemiotlms velu- timtSj and two species of grass. The bulk of the material was Hpilo- bium and Monarddhi. On the west slope of Goose Nest Mountain, just east of Little Shasta Valley, "Walter K. Fisher found conies common in an area of slide rock which extends in a practically unbroken stretch from the top to the bottom of tbe mountain. I have not seen the specimens. Lepus nuttalli Bachman. Sagebrush Cottontail. Several seen and two secured by W. H. Osgood in the sagebrush in Shasta and Little Shasta valleys, near the north base of the mountain. Lepus klamathensis sp. nov. Klamath Eabbit. TypeixoWi Fort Klamath, Oregon. No. 92248, 2 ad., U. S. Nat. Jtus., Biologiral Survey Coll. Collected Jan. 2.-., 18IIS, by B.L.Cunningham. Orig. No. 86. Gliaructcrs. — Similar to L. columbiensis Ehoads, but color fulvous instead of yellowish, with a distinct white stripe on hind foot; skull characters distinctive. Color. — Summer pelafje: Upperparts grizzled fulvous and black, the fulvous rather pale and dull, but not at all yellowish as in columhiensis; head, face, and pectoral collar dull fulvous; chin, throat, and belly white; a white stripe, sometimes irregular, extending along full length of upper surface of hind foot, on inner side, and usually including toes. Winter pelage: Either snow white all over, or like summer pelage but with black hairs much more plentiful. Cranial characters. — Skull similar to that of columhiensis but some- what smaller and narrower; interorbital breadth at anterior notch less; bullib decidedly smaller (smallest of the umrricanus-hairdi-n-ashingtoni group); outer face of ju gal very deeply grooved anteriorly, and with upper ridge reaching anteriorly beyond end of groove. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 432; tail vertebra*, 28; hind foot, 127. Average of 3 specimens from type locality: Total length, 410; tail vertebra', 39; hind foot, 126. Bemarhs. — Lepus Idamathensis is a member of the amerieanus-hairdi- irusMngtoni group. In color it is intermediate between the yellowish columhiensis and the dark fulvous n-ashingtoni. In cranial characters it agrees best with columhiensis, particularly in the great length of the postorbital processes, but in the small bullre and peculiar form of the jugal it differs from all known members of the group. This rabbit is common in the alder thickets in marshy places and along streams near Fort Klamath, Oregon, from which place the late Major Ohas. F. Bendire sent me several specimens in the winter of 1883-84; and from which we have recently obtained additional spec- imens from B. L. Cunningham. OCT., 1809.] MAMMALS. 101 A carious feature about lj (W. H. Osgood). IG. Oreortyx pictus plumiferus. Plumed Mountain (iluail. Fairly common, but not often seen, in the Shasta fir belt and the manzanita chaparral along its lower edge. Two or three broods were found near Wagon Camp the latter part of July, when the young were hardly a third grown. Several were seen and killed high up on IMud Creek Canyon August 8 by R. T. Fisher and W. H, Osgood, who also saw several flocks in Shasta Valley September 17-20. At Sisson, the first half of September, E. T. Fisher found many small flocks in the dry woods and chajjarral west of the villaf;e. 17. Lophortyx californicus vallicola. California Valley (i>uail. Not found on the mountain, but common in Little Shasta Valley, where W. II. Osgood secured a specimen September 19. In August, 1883, C. II. Townsend saw them "in considerable numbers at the base of Mount Shasta," near Sisson. 15. Dendragapus obscurus fuliginosus. Sooty (1 rouse. Fairly common in the Shasta fir forest, and less so at higher alti- tudes. At AVagon Camp, during the last half of July, we often saw a hen grouse with half a dozen young; and in a rocky place among the alpine hemlocks near S(|uaw Creek, ia September, we several times ran across a small flock, all full grown, feeding among patches of moun- tain chinquapin and the dwarf mountain manzanita {Arctosta])hijlos ncpudcusis). Berries of the latter formed the principal contents of the crop of one killed by Vernon Bailey August 21. Mixed with these berries were seed capsules of rentstemon (jrncileniiix and a few large IHT., 1899.] BIKDS. Ill ;ints. Usually tlie grouse were fonud singly or in bunches of two or three ia the forest. When disturbed they generally flew up into the tall Shasta firs, where, instead of remaining motionless like many grouse, they walked about among the branches, stepping deliberately from limb to limb, but keeping on the opposite side from tlie enemy, so that it was almost impossible to see them. The old males were sometimes found high up on the lava ridges among dwarf i*/)t((s albicaiilis, 1,000 feet or more above the continuous forest. When flushed they usually spread their wings and soared down the steep mountain side until lost from sight in the forest below. The 'hooting' or 'booming' of the old males, so often heard in the northern Cascades, was not heard by any of our party on Shasta. 19. Zenaidura macroura. Mourning Dove. Fairly common at Sisson. In Shasta \'alley \V. H. Osgood found them abundant September 17--'0. [The band-tail pigeon [Coliimba fnsciata) was not observed in the region by my party, but in the fall and winter of 1883 C. H. Townsend found it abundant in the foothills of the lower ^McOloud Itiver, " gather- ing in the pine trees on the higher ridges in immense flocks."] 130. Cathartes aura. Turkey Vulture. One or two seen at Wagon Camp and between Wagon Camp and Sisson in July; one seen by Walter K. Fisher at timberline, east of Mud Creek Canyon, about the end of July. At Sisson and in Shasta Valley they were more common. 21. Circus hudsonius. Marsh Hawk. Seen at Sisson the middle of July (F. A. M.) and end of ^Vugust (C. H. M.). Seen in Shasta Valley September 17-L'O (W. IT. Osgood). 22. Accipiter velox. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Rather rare. One shot near Squaw Creek Camp August 10 liy Ver- non Bailey; one seen on Mud Creek in August, and several in Shasta Valley by W. H. Osgood September 17-20. C. H. Townsend shot one at timberline on Shasta September 7, 1883. 23. Accipiter cooperi. Cooper Hawk. Eather rare. One killed above timberline (alt. 9,400 feet) aljove the head of Squaw Creek August 21 by E. T. Fisher. In September 1SS3, C. H. Townsend siiot one near timberline on Shasta. HI. Accipiter atricapillus striatulus. Western Goshawlc. One visited our camp at Squaw Creek August 28. It was shot at but not secured. July 28, 1883, C. H. Townsend shot two young gos- hawks near timberline on Shasta. 112 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. 25. Buteo borealis calurus. Western Eed-tail. Ratlier conunon. Seen from time to time at Wagon Camp in July and early August, frequently at Squaw Creek Camp in August and September, and several times above timberline. One was seen flying over the summit of Shasta July 31 by W. IT. Osgood and E. T. Fisher. Common during fall migration in Shasta Talley, where Osgood saw many September 17-20, and I saw several September 29 — chiefly about the narrow meadows bordering Shasta Eiver. A. Merriam saw them September 3. At Sisson Miss Florence Fig. 36. — Ked-tail (Buteo horealis). Drawn by J. L. Eidgway. 26. Buteo swainsoni. Swainson Hawk. Eare. July 28 I saw a nearly black Swainson hawk near an aban- doned sawmill (alt. 4,800 feet) on the road from Wagon Camp to McOloud Mill. In July, 1899, Walter K. Fisher saw one in Shasta Valley. 27. Aquila chrysaetos. Golden Eagle. Eather rare, but seen from time to time flying over the mountain, usually at high altitudes. C. H. Townseud shot one near Sheep Eock, at the north base of Shasta, August 21, 1883. 28. Haliseetus leucocephalus. Bald Eagle. In speaking of the bald eagle, 0. H. Townsend states that when he had climbed to the extreme peak of Shasta (alt. 14,440 feet), on July 27, OCT., 1899.] BIRDS. 113 1883, ";^ii eagle came up tlirougli the fog that liad gathered imme- diately below us aud shared with us our rocky pinnacle above the clouds." 1.'9. Falco mexicanus. Prairie Fah^u. Several seen and one shot in the south eud of Shasta Valley, at the north base of the mountain, September 30, by W. H. Osgood, who thinks it j)robab]e that they breed on the cliffs at Sheep Rock. 30. Falco columbarius suckleyi. Black Merlin. At Wagon Camp, August 8, John H. Sage aud I saw a small dark falcon, supposed to be Suclcley's merlin, fly into a Sha.sta fir, but we were unable to shoot it. 31. Falco sparverius. Spairow Uawk. Common at timberline throughout the summer. Usually seen in the heather i^atchcs aud among the white bark pines, where thej' were FlQ. 37. — Sparrow Hawk (Faleo sparverius^ Drawn by J. L. Ridgway. feeding on grasshoppers. Several were killed near timberline, east of Mud Creek Canyon, the latter part of July and early August, and one was recorded as high as 13,000 feet by Walter K. Fisher. On the west side of Mud Creek Canyon two were killed August 11 at an altitude of 10,000 feet by Vernon Bailey. Their stomachs were distended with 21753— No. 16 15 114 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [™l«- grasshoppers. At the north base of the mountain one was seen by nie on tlie narrow meadows bordering Shasta River in Shasta Valley Sep- tember 29, and several were observed farther north in the valley Sep- tember 17-20 by W. H. Osgood and E. T. Fisher. At Sisson they were seen July 15 by Miss Floreiice A. IMerriam. 32. Bubo virginianus. Great Horned Owl. Eare. Feathers were fouiid at two or three places on the mountain, and at Sisson birds were heard hooting. 33. Speotyto cunicularia hypogsea. Burrowing Owl. ISTot observed by us, but reported by C. II. Townsend as common "on the sage-covered districts north of Mount Shasta," about 15 miles from the mountain. 34. Glaucidium gnoma californicum. California Pigmy Owl. C. H. Townsend obtained two specimens of the pigmy owl August 7, 1883, at the big spring, a mile or two north of Sisson Meadows. 35. Megascops asio bendirei ( !). California Screech Owl. A screech owl was heard at Wagon Camp at different times during the season, particularly the latter part of September, but as no speci- men was secured there is some doubt as to the subsi^ecies. 36. Coccyzus americanus occidentahs. California Cu<'koo. One sliot and others seen in .Tuly, 1899, by Walter K. Fisher, among the alders and birclies on Shasta IJiver east of Edgewood. 37. Ceryle alcyon. Kingfisher. A common resident in the neighborhood of Sisson, where it was seen repeatedly along Cold Creek, at the fish hatchery, and along the upper Sacramento; seen also along Shasta Eiver north of Sisson. 38. Dryobates villosus hyloscopus. Cuban is Hairy Woodpecker. Rather rare Two or three were seen near Wagon Camp in July; two were collected where the Hudsonian and Canadian zones meet, near S(piaw Creek Camp, in August (August 9 and 17); one was seen there Sejitember 1, and two were shot in tlie Transition zone in Sep- tember (one in Squaw Cieek Valley September 13, the other at Sisson September 30). At Sisson R. T. hlsher saw three or four, during the first halt of S<'])teinlier, in the big firs west of Sisson Tavern. 39. Dryobates pubescens gairdneri. Cairdner Woodpecker. Obtained at Sisson by C. H. Townsend ^Vugust •">, 1883. 40. Xenopicus albolarvatus. White-headed Woodpecker. A common breeder in the upper part of the ]iiue belt, and also among the Sliasta and wliite firs near Wa.uon Camp, where several specimens were, collected, and where a nest-containing noisy young was found the latter part of July. The nest was in a stub in a burn, with the OCT., 1899. r.iUDs. 115 entrance about G feet from the ground. At Sissou the white-headed woodpecker was seen, the middle of July, by J\Iiss Merriiiiii, and early in September by 11, T. Fisher. In the pine woods bordering the south end of Shasta ^'alIl'y I .saw half a dozen September 2'.). 41. Picoides arcticus. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. Kare, but evidently breeding in the Shasta lir forest of the Canadian zone, where a male was shot near Wagon Gamp by Jolia H. Sage July Fig. 38. — Arctic Tliree-locil Woodpecker (Picoides aretlcua). — Drawu by L. A. Fuertes. 20. Another was shot by Vernon Bailey July 30 in the gap between Eed Cone and the lower end of Gray Butte, where a third individual was seen. 4i'. Sphyrapicus ruber. Red-breasted Sapsucker. Fairly common at Wagon Camp, where specimens were collected in July by John H. Sage and Yernon Bailey. One was shot in ]\lud Creek Canyon about the end of July by K. T. Fisher, and one was seen at Sisson July 15 by Miss Merriam. September 18, one was seen in the brush along Little Shasta Creek by W. H. Osgood. In 1883 C. H. Townsend found the S])ecies "in midsummer in limited numbers on the heavily pine- timbered slopes of Mounts Shasta and Lassen.'' 116 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. 43. Sphyrapicus thyroideus. Williamsou Sapsucker. A male was killed August 4 by E. T. Fisher at timberline on the east side of Mud Creek Canyon. This was the only specimen collected, though otliers were seen near the sauie place. August 25, 1883, C. H. Townsend secured one at timberline on Shasta. 44. Ceophloeus pileatus abieticola. Pileated Woodpecker. Fairly common about Wagon Camp, where their loud hammering and unmistakable cries were often heard. Several times in July one visited a tree on the edge of camp, and one was heard there the day we left, September 2.j. September 16, W. H. Osgood and 11. T. Fisher saw three between Sisson and Bdgewood. 45. Melanerpes formicivorus oairdi. California Woodpecker. Seen from time to time among the oaks at Sisson, where one was shot by E. T. Fisher early in September. 46. Melan'3rpes torqnatus. Lewis Woodpecker. Common at Sisson and in Squaw Creek Valley near McCloud Mill. July 2.") Miss Merriam saw one at ^^'agon Camp; August 2 W. H. Osgood killed one and saw others high up on IMud Creek Canyon; August 3 I saw a small flock in tde Shasta fir forest between Mud and Squaw creeks ; August 10 Walter K. Fisher shot one near Squaw Creek ; and September 17-20 W. H. Osgood saw several in Shasta Valley. 47. Colaptes cafer. Eed shafted Flicker. Fairly common on the mountain; seen or heard nearly every day, during the latter half of .July and early August, near Wagon Camp. July 28 several were seen on the lower slope between Wagon Camp and McCloud ]\Iill; late in July and early in August several were seen high up on Squaw and Mud creeks; August 16 one was killed by E. T. Fishei' at S(juaw Creek Camp; and during migration, the latter half of September, a few were seen nearly every day a little below timberline near Squaw and Panther creeks. At the time of our visits to the juniper forest iu Shasta Valley, September 19 and 2'.t, flickers were common and were probably feeding on the juniper berries. At Sisson, Florence A. Merriam found them common, the middle of July, and E. T. Fisher, the first half of September. 48. Phalaenoptilus nuttaUi. Poor-will. The unmistakable note of the poor- will was heard in July at Wagon Camp, where the species doubtless breeds. One of the birds was seen on Lower Squaw Creek near Warmcastle Soda Springs August 13 by W. H. Osgood. Others were heard near Edgewood by Walter K. Fisher. 49. Chordeiles virginianus. Nighthawk. Often seen flying at Wagon Camp, on the lower edge of the Shasta fir forest, the latter part of July. Several flocks were seen at Sisson, the first half of September, by E. T. Fisher. OCT., 1899.] BIRDS. 117 50. Chsetnra vauxi (?). Vaux Swift. A couple of miles below Wagou Gamp ti small black swift was seen by Vernon Bailey about July -!-t. At Sisson numbers of swifts were seen September 1 and September 10 by li. T. Fisber, and on Septem- ber 3 by Florence A. Merriam, but they flew too high to be .shot. 51. Aeronautes melanoleucus. White-throated Swift. Several were seen high up on Mud Creek Canyon early in August by W. H. Osgood. 62. Calypte anna. Anna Hummingbird. Apparently breeding at Wagou Camp, where one was shot July 22 by John H. Sage. Breeds on the lower McOloud River (Townsead). 53. Selasphorus rufus. Eufous Hummingbird. The commonest hummingbird of Shasta, breeding, apparently, from the lower edge of the Shasta firs to timberline, though it is possible that those seen at high altitudes had moved up to feed from the painted cups in the heather meadows after the breeding season was over. At Wagon Camp, where they were abundant in July and early August, they seemed to feed chiefly from the scarlet painted cup {Gastilleja miimtta). 54. Stellula calliope. Calliope Hummingbird. Nearly as almudant as tSvlasphorus nrfun, and the commoner of the two at high altitudes. In early August botli si)ecies were constantly hovering over the superb flowers of the scailft paint brush (Gastilleja miniata) in the heather meadows near timberline. They were seen also visiting the large yellow blossoms of Mimiiliis implexufi, which singular species forms mucilaginous beds in the little streams at and below tim- berline. Walter K. and K. T. Fisher found them abundant in Ash Creek Canyon about the first of August, particularly among the painted cups and delphiniums. [Trochiliis alexandri is recorded by C. H. Townsend as breeding along the lower McCloud, but was not obtained by us. In this connection it should be remembered that we did not collect hummingbirds in the low country, either at Sisson or in Squaw Creek Valley.] 55. Tyrannus verticalis. Arkansas Kingbird. At Gazelle, on the west side of Shasta Valley, Vernon Bailey saw three on telegraph wires October 31. G. H. Townsend records the species as breeding on the lower McCloud River. In July, 1899, Wal- ter K. Fisher found this kingbird common in Shasta and Little Shasta valleys. 56. Sayomis saya. Say Phoebe. One was seen about an old windmill in Shasta Valley September 19 by W. H. Osgood. 118 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. |n'>i8- 57. Contopus borealis. Olive-sided Flycatcliei'. Coiiniion at Wagou Gamp, wliere several pairs reared families early in the season, and where, on July 1^2, j\Iiss Jlerriam saw a parent bird feeding young in the nest, wliicli was in a fir tree 30 to 40 feet from the ground. In July the species was also seen at Sisson, and in Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek, on the north side of the mountain. 58. Contopus rich.ardsoni. Western Wood Pewee. A fairly common breeder at Sisson, where Florence A. Merriam saw old birds feeding young in the nest (in a fir tree) July 15. 59. Empidonax difficilis. Western Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. On July 20 I shot one in a thicket of cherry bushes [Gerasiis emuy- ginotd) on the boundary between the Canadian and Transitioii zones, a little west of Wagon Camp, where it was doubtless breedinf^-. 60. Empidonax hammondi. HanimoTid Flycatcher. A common breeder near Wagon Camp, in the lower edge of the Shasta firs, where several were collected late in July. Xear Squaw Creek Camp, at the upper edge of the Shasta firs, one was shot August 21, and in Mud Creek Canyon at the mouth of Clear Creek, one was shot August 7. Gl. Empidonax wrighti. Wright Flycatcher. One was shot at Wagon Camp July 24 by John H. Sage. (J2. Otocoris alpestris merrilli. Dusky Horned Lark. Common in places in Shasta Valley, particularly about Montague, where a number were se(;ured bj'- Walter K. Fisher. This is doubtless the form reported by C. H. Townsend, under the name ruhea, as found "in limited numbers on the sage-covered districts north of Mount Shasta in midsummer." The locality referred to, he tells me, is in Shasta Valley, about 15 miles from the mountain. 63. Pica pica hudsonica. Magpie. One was seen flying over the east side of Shasta Valley, near Sheep Eock, September 20 by Vernon Bailey and W. H. Osgood. 64. Cyanocitta stelleri. Steller Jay. The form of Steller jay of the Shasta region is intermediate between true stelleri and the Sierra subspecies, /Voj/foiis. It is one of the <-omnionest, noisiest, and best-known birds of the region. Early in the season it was rarely seen above the lower part of the Canadian zone, and was u-ost numerous in the Transition; but on August 2 one came all the way \\\) to Squaw Creek ( 'amp, in the alpine hemlocks, and a few days later a small flock was encountered, scream- ing, in Mud Creek Canyon at the mouth of Clear Creek. The latter half of September they were common at high altitudes and paid daily visits to our camp on upper Squaw Creek. At Sisson, apparently, they are always common. OCT., 1899.1 BIRDS. 119 65. Aphelocoma californica. California -lay. Fairly commou at Sissoii, and more abundant in the lower country farther north. Seen by Vernon Bailey near Crazelle August 31, by W. H. Osgood among the junipers in Shasta Valley September 1 7 to 20, and by me in the undergrowth along the edge of the open pine and oak forest bordering the south end of Shasta Valley, where it was fairly common, September -!!). 66. Perisoreus obscurus. Oregon Jay. Unaccountably rare on Shasta during our stay. On August 6, when in a dense part of the forest east of tlie lower end of (Iray Butte, I saw a flock of Steller jays, and with them several birds I took to be Oregon jays in the dark plumage of the young. August 20 Vernon Bailey shot one on Horse Camp Trail at an altitude of 6,600 feet, and two days later saw ten in the fir forest between Squaw Creek and Mud Creek Canyon. September 28, on his way around the mountain, he saw three above the }ii>int where the wagon road crosses Ash Creek, at an altitude of about .5,900 feet, by far the lowest point at which the species was seen. On July 29, 1S99, Walter K. Fisher saw about 15 Oregon jays on Horse Camp trail. In 188.'! C. H. Townsend saw four small flocks (July 30 to September 7) in the heavily timbered forests of !Mount Shasta. 67. Corvus americanus. Crow. A few seen at Sisson. In July, 1889, Walter K. Fisher found them common in Shasta Valley. 68. Nucifraga columbiaua. Clark Crow ; Nutcracker. Clark crows are among the most common, most characteristic, and most interesting birds of the higher slopes of Shasta. In summer they are closely restricted to the Hudsonian zone and adjacent rocky slopes immediately above timberline, but in fall they wander far and wide in search of food and are liable to be seen almost anywhere. Two or three, apparently young of the year, visited Wagon Camj), at tiie lower edge of the Shasta firs, as early as August S; and in September it was not unusual to see small flocks or single individuals flying over the chaparral belt between Wagon Camp and Sisson. The usual food of the Clark crow — the large nut-like seeds of Pinus albicanli.s — having failed in 1898, the birds were feediuy mainly on insects. The stomachs of specimens killed at extreme timberline con- tained in some cases grasshoppers only, in others chiefly beetles (Cole- optera); of those killed lower down, iu the alpine hemlocks and Sliasta firs, chiefly small hairless greenish caterpillars. They sometimes flew up to masses of yellow lichen, where they seemed to be picking out something to eat. On upper Squaw Creek, August 30, two were seen eating blueberries (F. A. M.). During hot atteruoons the latter part of July they were often seen soaring and performing aerial antics above the forest, and also chasing insects in the air, launching out from the tree tops after them like flycatchers. As a rule, they are silent when 120 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. feeding and noisy when flying about the white-bark pines. Vv^hen on the ground they are very deliberate, and tlieir broad heads and general form suggest gulls, particularly when the birds are moving away from the observer. When searching for insects in the young hemlocks they sometimes began at the bottom and worked up, sometimes at the top and worked down. One day in early August a young-of-the-year, showing the true luitcracker spots on the breast, spent some time in camp, feeding in a small tree in our midst without showing the least annoyance at our presence. He began at the top and worked slowly downward, drop- ping from branch to branch and peering searchingly over the foliage and into the tufts of hemlock needles, often liauging almost bottom Fig. 39.— Clark Crow (\iii-i/nr,a ci'luntbianaj. Itravvu Ity L. A. Fueite.s. side up to pick off the small green caterpillars which infested both the hemlocks and the Shasta firs. We could plainly see him grasp the lit- tle caterpillars crosswise and give a big gulp in swallowing them, as if bolting something several times as large. He went over a branch at a time, examining the whole of it carefully before movino- to the one below, and sometimes went out so far toward the tip that tlie slender branch bent down with his weight. Another bird reversed this order of procedure, and after finally reaching the top of the tree "ave a jump, aided by a slight flap of the wings, and perched on the very top- most sprig, when, gaining his balance, he opened his bill and uttered a little cry of exultation. Clark crows were almost daily visitors to our camp among the alpine hemlocks on upper Squaw Creek until near the end of August when OCT., 1899.1 BIRDS. 121 Fig. 40, — Clark Crow (Xiicifrihra cnUunhiaiia}. (Photo;;r,i]ilieil by Walter K. Fisher.) they moved up to timberline to feed on the large wingless grasshoppers then abunchmt along the upper edge of the tongues of dwarf white- bark pines and on the lava-strewn pumice slopes at still higher eleva- tions. Some were seen along the edge of the snow at an altitude of 11,000 feet, where dragon-flies, grasslioppers, and otlier insects were common. Olark crow is a little larger than a blue jay, and his colors are put on in blocks. The body is gray; the wings and tail are black and white, in conspicuous contrast. Still, singular as it may seem, this colora- tion is both directive and protective. When in motion the bird is most con spicuous, the black and white patches flashing with great effect; but when quietly feeding on the ground among the gray lava rocks of the higher slopes it is not easily seen, the gray of the body resembling the gray rocks, the black markings the dark shadows. The coloration, however, is doubtless most protective at night when the bird is at roost in the trees and exposed to its worst enemies, presumably owls and martens. Con- trasts of gray or white with black are among the most effective of disappearing colors at night — the black resembling patches of night shadow, the gray the interspaces. The true home of the Olark crow is among the wiiite-bark pines of the rocky wind-swept ridges not far from the region of perpetual snow. Here, from the thaws of early spring till tiie storms of approaching winter, not a day i)asses without liis presence. He is a bold, powerful bird, a fit tenant for such a home, where his loud cry walces the echoes of glacier cliffs a thousand times oftener than it reaches a human ear. 69. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus. Piiion Jay. Not an inhabitant of Shasta, but occurs in migration about its base, and may breed iu the junipers in Shasta Valley. September 1*8, Vernon Bailey saw six in the chaparral and yellow pines at an altitude of 1,000 feet on the wagon road between pjlk Creek and Ash Creek, and the next day found a few near Shee|) Hock. At Fort Crook, a little southeast of Shasta, a number were collected some years ago by Captain Feilner. 70. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus. Yellow-headed Blackbird. Not observed by us, but in 1883 0. H. Townsend often saw it "among the flocks of Brewer blackbirds that frequented the timnthy meadows of Berryvale, at the western base of Mount Shasta, 3,500 feet altitude." Berryvale is the old name for the meadows near Sisson Tavern. 21753— No. 16 ]G 122 NOETH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16. 71. Agelaius phceniceus. Eed- winged Blackbird. Common in Shasta Valley September 17 to 20 (Osgood). 0. H. Town- send gives it as "an abundant summer resident of the cultivated coun- try north of Mount Shasta." 72. Sturnella magna neglecta. Western Meadowlark. Common in the meadowland at Sisson and Edgewood, and in the narrow meadows bordering Shasta Eiver, in Shasta Valley. At Wagon Camp I saw one in a grassy opening August 13, and a few days earlier Walter K. Fisher saw one in a similar place a little higher on the mountain. In the Sisson Meadows ('Strawberry Valley'), during the first half of September, 11. T. Fisher found meadowlarks "gathered in flocks of as many as a hundred birds." 73. Icterus hullocki. Bullock Oriole. Common along streams in Shasta and Little Shasta valleys (W. K. Fisher). Vernon Bailey tells me that at Ager, in the north end of Shasta Valley, some silver poplars in a door yard are literally full of nests of this oriole, and that when he examined them June 20, 1899, the new nests contained young orioles and the old nests young house finches {Garpodacus m. ohscuriis). 74. Scolecophagus cyanocephalus. Brewer Blackbird. Fairly common at Sisson and in Shasta Valley, but not observed on the mountain except in one instance, when several were seen at extreme timberline on the east side of Mud Creek Canyon August 24 by Vernon Bailey and Florence A. Merriam. 75. Coccothraustes vespertinus montanus. Western Evening Grosbeak. One of the commonest and most characteristic birds of the Shasta fir belt (Canadian zone), and much less common in the alpine hemlocks (Hud- sonian zone). At Wagon Camp, near the lower border of the Canadian zone, small flocks were seen or heard daily whenever the camp was occupied, from the time of our arrival, the middle of July, until our departure, Septem- ber 25. At Squaw Creek Camp,intheHudsoniau zone, they were much less common, but still by no means rare, and during early August their distinctive call, a short whistle, was heard every day. Fig. 41. — Western Evciiin^i (jrosbeak {C(iccotluiuf>:lm vesijertlnua rtiontanus.) Drawn by L. A. Fuertes. OCT., 1899.1 BIRDS. 123 In September they were rarely observed on upper S(iuaw Creek, but September 18 a flock was seen near the head of Panther (Jreek. They were common in Mud Greek Canyon about the end of July and begin- ning of August. On September 29 I visited the juniper forest in Shasta Valley, and was surprised to find there dozens of evening grosbeaks, and still larger numbers of Townsend solitaires, feeding on the fat berries of the junipers {Juniprrus oecidcnt,y L. .V Fuertes. Sisson, Miss Merriam saw them the middle of July, and R. T. Fisher found them common the first half of September. 111. Dendroica occidentalis. Hermit Warbler. Fairly common in the Hudsonian and upper part of the Canadian forest during August (collected at Squaw Creek Camp at intervals from August 3 to August 28) ; not seen in July. 112. Geothlypis tolmiei. Macgillivray "Warbler. Seen at Sisson and Wagon Camp about the middle of July, and again at the latter locality August 1 and August 3. One was shot in Mud Creek Canyon at an altitude of 6,700 feet by W. H. Osgood August 7. In July and August, 1883, C. H. Townseud found it not uncommon on the mountain. 113. Geothlypis trichas occidentalis. Western Yellow-throat. At Big Spring, in Shasta Valley, W. H. Osgood found this warbler common in the tules September 17 to 20; and August 6, 1883, O. H. Tovrasend secured an immature specimen at the base of Mount Shasta. 21753— No. 10 17 130 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. 114. Icteria virens longicauda. Long-tailed Chat. Fairly common at Sisson, and common in the lower country farther north — at Gazelle and on toward Yreka. Common along Shasta River in Shasta Valley (W. K. Fisher). 115. Wilsonia pusilla pileolata. Pileolated Warbler. Common in Mud Greek Canyon the latter part of July and early August ; seen at Sisson July 13 by W. H. Osgood, and at Wagon Camp August 3 by Miss Merriam; several seen at S(iuaw Creek in flocks of chickadees and warblers during August and September; seen in wild cherry bushes at Wagon Camp September 2."j. In the summer of 1883 C. H. Townsend found it rather common on Shasta. lie. Anthus pensilvanicus. Pipit; Titlark. In a barren rocky basin above timberline, near the head of Panther Creek, on July 17 I heard titlarks and saw Arctic bluebirds. At the same place two months later (September 18) titlarks were common. In Shasta ^'alley September 17 to 20 W. H. Osgood saw flocks along the road. 117. Cinclus mexicanus. Dipjier ; Water Ouzel. Common on the upper part of Squaw Creek as far as the timber extends, and sometimes seen above timberline. Seen also on Panther Creek, near its head, and on 3Iud and Ash creeks. On Squaw ('reek we often watched the ouzels feeding among the cascades and clear cold pools between the upper heather meadow and the main fall. One afternoon just before dark (ryopicriii (leuleata scopu- liiia (Eaton), Cyxtoptcrh fnujUis (L.) Beruh., Gheila tithes gracillima D. C. Eaton, ('ryptogrammi' acrostichaides R. Br., and Phegopieris alprs- tria (Uoppe) Mett. Much lower down, along the boundary between the Canadian and Transition zones, T'terh aquilina lanuginosa (Bory) Hooker, and Asjileniinn Jili.rfirmina (L.) Bernh. occur. The brake [Pteris) is very abundant on the pumice sand at Wagon Camp and Sisson and wherever there is sulficient moisture in the soil in spring and early summer. The black-beard lichen (Alectoria fremonti) and the handsome yellow tree lichen [Erernia vulpinn ) abound in the dark forest of Shasta firs. In tlie chapter on 'Life Zones* the more distinctive species have been grouped according to their vertical distribution (see pp. 52-68), but for convenience in finding the notes relating to particular species, they are here arranged in systematic order. In the case of certain plants found by us only on the borderland between adjacent zones, the zone position is in doubt and must be determined by future study. Tlie most important kinds of plants from the standpoint of geo- graphic distribution are naturally those that remain longest in a par- ticular spot. Hence, as pointed out by Coville,' trees, shrubs, and perennials are the kinds most useful in determining zone boundaries. For tliis reason little attention is here given to annuals. Pinns monticola Douglas. Silver Pine; Mountain White Pine. Common in places, chietiy in the upper half of the Canadian zone, but local and by no means generally distributed. Wherever it occurs it is mixed with Shasta firs, and in places it reaches up high enough to overlap the lower edge of the black alpine hemlocks and white-bark timberline pines. (See ]>. .'>S.) I Botany of Death Valley Expedition, pp. 17-18, 1893. OCT., 1899.] I'L.VNTS. 137 Pinus lambertiana Douglas. Sugar J'iiic. Fairly common in most parts of tlie Transition zone (oicst of])o!)derosa pines, and occurring hero and there in the immense areiis of chainirnil that cover the lower slopes on the sontli and west sides of the inountaiu. (See pp. 32-3.'>.) Pinus albicaulis Kngelmann. White-bark Pine. The timberline tree of Shasta, which it: encircles at altitudes ranging, according to slope, from about 7,000 up to 8,000 feet, and pushing up on the warmest ridges to an extreme elevation of 9,800 feet. In its distribution therefore it tills the Hudsouian zone except in places unsuited to tree growth. The only tree competing witli it on Shasta is the black alpine hemlock, which, requiring more moisture, is at a disadvantage and is confined to special localities, as explained in full under that species. (See pp. 39-42.) Pinus ponderosa Laws. Ponderosa or Yellow Pine. The most abundant and characteristic tree of the lower slopes and basal plane of Shasta, where, filling the Transition zone, it forms a con- tinuous open forest of wide extent. (See pi). 30-32.) Pinus murrayana Balfjur. Lodge-i)ole Pine. Confined to the northeast quadrant of Shasta, where it occupies the lower part of the Canadian zone. (See pp. .iS-.iO.) Pinus attenuata Lemmon. Knobcone Pine. Common in a limited area in the Transition zone on the south side of Shasta, where it is confined to the lower slopes (from about 4,000 to 5,600 feet altitude) from Panther Creek easterlj^ to between the branches of Mud Creek. (See pp. 33-34.) Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.' Black Alpine Hemlock. A characteristic tree of the Hudsoniau zone, where, however, it is not generally distributed for the reason that the u|)per slopes of Shasta are in most places too dry for it. It occurs in the same belt with I'inns albicaulis, but does not reach so high, and, requiring more moisture, is confined to disconnected localities, usually in canyons and gulches or along the shady sides of buttes or ridges. (See pp. 42-40.) Pseudotsuga mucronata (Eaf.). Sudw. Douglas Fir or Spruce. Common, scattered through the less arid parts of the forest of i)on derosa pines which clotlies the lower Transition zone slopes of Shasta and extends away in all directions (seep. 32). A subspecies pendula (Eiigelm.) Sudworth, with "branches, at least the lower ones, very slender and long-pendent," has been described from Sissoii (Bot. Calif., II, 483, ISSO; Sudworth, Check List Forest Trees of U. S., 24, 1898), and is common thence westerly to tlie coast. (See pp. 34-35). ' For change of name from Tsuga paltoni to T. iik itensiana, see footnote p. 42. 21753— No. 16 18 138 NORTH AMERICAN" FAUNA. [™18- Abies shastensis Lenimon. Shasta Fir. The domiuiiut tree of the Ciiiiadiaii zone, covering the middle slopes and completely encircling the mountain in a solid belt about 2,000 feet in vertical breadth. Its upper border overlaps the lower edge of the Hudsoniau; its lower border, the upper edge of the Transition. Along Panther and Squaw creeks, on tlie south slope, it ranges from about 5,500 up to 7,500 feet, and on steep southwesterly slopes considerably higher. (See pp. 36-38.) Abies concolor lowiana (Murray) Lemmon. White Fir. The common and only true fir of the basal slopes of Shasta, where it occurs in moist places from the altitude of Wagon Gamp (5,700 feet) down to the very bottom of Sisson Valley at the base of Mount Eddy (alt. 3,400 feet). It thus fills the Transition zone, except in places that are too dry for it. (See p. 34.) Libocedrus decurrens Torrey. Incense Cedar. Common throughout the Transition zone forest of ponderosa pines, except in the dryest places. (See p. 35.) Chamsecjrparis lawsoniana (Murray) Parlat. Lawsou Cypress. Attributed to "the Shasta Mountains" (Bot. Calif , II, p. 115, 1880), but not found by us.' Juniperus nana Willd. Dwarf Alpine Juniper. Fairly common in places close to timberliiie, usually associated with P'nnis albicduUn in the upper part of the Hudsoniau zone. On Shasta it usually grows in small patches less than a foot high and, as a rule, only a few feet in diameter; in the Olympics, on Mount JiaiTiier, and on numerous other mountains it forms much larger patches. Between Mud Creek Canyon and the high ridges above Squaw Creek, it pushes up to extreme tlmberline at 9,800 feet, along with PhiKs tdhk-auVin. On the north side of Shasta and Shastina it was found in crevices among the sharp lava rocks at altitudes varying from 8,. 500 to 0,000 feet, and was common on the curious aU)ic((ulis plain stretching west- erly from 'North Gate' to Bolam Creek. Juniperus occidentalis Hooker. AVestern .Tuniper. ^Vbnndant in the south end of Shasta ^"alley, where it forms a forest many miles in extent. Scattered trees begin 4 or 4i miles easterly from Edgewood, and become more and m()re plentiful to the north until, at a distance of about 5 miles south fimn Big Spring, they suddenly become abundant arid cover the whole country east of the main mass of lava buttes, forming a continuous juniper forest which fills the south- ern i)art of Shasta N'alley and reaches nortliward, 1 am told, into Little 'Another cypress attributed to Shasta but ncit suru by us is ('iipn:sxii.s mucnaliiana Murr., " originally reported by Jciffrey from Mount Shasta at 5,000 feet altitude" (Bot. Calif., II, p. Ill, 1880). In both iustauces, ]irobably, the term 'Shasta' was used in a rather loose sense, as coveriug adjaeent luouutains not theu named. OCT., 1899.J PLANTS. 139 Shasta Valley. When visited about the end of September, the trees were full of their large berries, and many birds, iiicludiiij; evening grosbeaks and Townsend solitaires, were there in numbers feeding on them. The zone position of this tree, which appears to be the type form, is high Upper Sonorau and low Transition. The boreal form common in the Sierra, but not found on Shasta, should be diflereut. Sitanion cinereum J. (r. Smith. Alpine Grass. The common grass of the glacial meadows, but nowhere sufficiently abundant to form anything like a sod. It is closely related to S. ely- moidvs Raf., from which it has been recently separated by Mr. .Tared G. Smith. Carex breweri Boott. Alpine Oarex. Common in the glacial meatlows and scattered sparingly over the moist slopes. (Identified by F. V. Ooville.) Juncus parryi Engelm. Parry Juucus. Common in the heather patches and other moist places from slightly below timberliue up through the Alpine zone. Noted by 'N'ernou Bailey as high as 11,300 feet. (Identified by F. Y. Coville.) Allium validum Watson. Large Wild Oiuon. Abundant in the Canadian zone along the streams of the Shasta fir belt, and often growing in the lower heather beds along the lower border of the Hudsonian zone. (Identified by Professor Greene.) AlUum sp. — ? A very small species is common in the glacial meadows at the head of Squaw Creek, but matures so early that we were unable to obtain anything but the bulbs. Calochortus nudus Watson. Fairly common along the lower edge of the Canadian zone near Wagon Camp, flowering late in July. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Greene.) Calochort'j.s maweanus Leichtlin. Not rare at Wagon Camp, but not seen elsewhere. An elegant little species with white hairy flowers. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Fritillaria atropurpurea Nutt. Common in the chaparral of the Transition zone basal slopes from Sisson up to Wagon Camp. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Hastingsia alba (Durand) Wats. Common near Wagon Camp, where its long and slender cylindrical spikes were in flower the latter part of July. (Identified by Miss Bast- wood and Professor Greene.) Lilium parvum Kellogg. Tiger Lily. Common in marshy places in the lower part of the Shasta fir belt, particularly at Wagon Camp, where it was flowering abundantly about 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [NO. 16 the middle of July, and was still iu fruit as late as the end of September. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Lilium washingtonianum Kellogg. Washington Lily. This sujjerb lily, with large white and very fragrant flowers, is com- mon in the manzanita in the upper part of the Transition zone, and occurs sparingly at lower altitudes. At Sisson it was in fruit the end of September. The flowers had passed their prime by the middle of July, bat occasional plants were found in blossom as late as the end of the month. Tofieldia occidentalis Watson. Common near the bottom of the Canadian zone at Wagon Camj). (Identified by Professor Greene.) Tritelia ixioides (Ait.) Creene {=Brodkea). Common at Wagon Camp on the border between the Canadian and Transition zones, where its yellow star flowers were in bloom the latter half of July. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Vagnera stellata (Linn.) Morong. Common at Wagon Camp, particularly in open grassy places along the edges of the fir forest, where it was flowering abundantly when we reached the mountain, the middle of July. Plants still holding their fruit were ob- served when we left Wagon Camp, Septem- ber 25. Veratrum californicum Durand. White Hellebore. Abundant at numer- ous localities along the streams and in marshy spots in the Canadian and upper part of the Transition zones. Particularly common at Wagon Camp, and also on Squaw Creek just above the middle meadow. Smilax californica Gray. California Smilax. Occurs in places in the lower part of the Transition zone along Shasta River between Edgewood and Sisson, but nearer Sisson. Not observed elsewhere. ^B 'WSSI^'M ^K^B^pHH ^Bm 'I^^Sf 'm Df ^'-^^P'^ i m<' mWi^t Sj^ RBI j^^S^J K| ••l^p" f^P^ w '«p j^I^SIP^^hI m^^^/t ^^m ^g Fjg. 44. — White HL'Uebore (Veratrum calif orniciii it). Pliotographed liy W K. Fisher. OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. 141 Sisyrinohium bellum Watson. Bhioeyed Grass. Fairly common in the Transition zone iiear Wagon Oainii. Corallorhiza bigelovi Watsou. Xot nucommon iu the woods near Wagon Camp. (Jdcrititied by Pro- fessor Greene.) Habenaria leucostachys (Lindl.) Watson. Common in the marsh at Wagon Camp. (Ideiitiiied l)y Professor Greene.) Habenaria unalaschensis Watson. A boreal species, fairly common in the marsh near Wagon Camp, growing with the last. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Populus trichocarpa T. & G. Western Balsam Poplar. Common in the upper Sacramento Canyon near Sisson, and less so along Shasta River at the south end of Shasta Yalley. Salix lasiandra Bentham. Black Willow. Abundant in cool moist places about Sisson. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Salix nuttalU Sargent. jSTuttall Willow. Common in moist places in canyons of the Canadian zone and near Wagon Camp. (Identified by F. Y. Coville.) Salix sitchensis Sanson. Sitka AVillow. Common in canyons iu the Canadian zone. Found in Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek. (Identified by F. V. Coville.) Alnus rhombifolia Nutt. White Tree Alder. Observed only on Shasta Eiver in the southern part of Shasta Valley, where its zone jiosition appears to be Upper Sonoran. Shasta Valley is one belt lower than the rest of the region about Shasta and contains a dilute tongue of Upper Sonoran species that come in from the north by way of Klamath Kixer Valley. Alnus sinuata (Kegel) Eydb. Alder. Common in moist places in the canyons of the Canadian zone. In Mud Creek Canyon noted as high as 6,70(1 feet. Found also near Wagon Camp. (Identified by F. V. Coville.) Alnus tenuifolia ISTutt. Paper leaf Alder. [=^i. incaria car. rirescena Wats]. A Transition zone species common along streams in the neighbor- hood of Sisson Tavern and along the east base of Scott Mountains. (Identified by F. Y. Coville.) Betula occidentalis Hooker. Birch. Fairly common along Shasta IJiver at the south end of Shasta Valley. Not observed elsewhere. Corylus rostrata californica A. DC. Fairly common in the Transition zone in Squaw Creek Valley near McCloud Mill, and probably elsewhere at the base of the mo'zritain. 142 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no- lU- Castanopsis sempervirens (Kellogg) Dudley. Sierra Chinquapin. The distribution of the mountain chin(iuapin on Shasta is discon- tinuous. It is possible that two forms exist, one apparently restricted to the manzanita chaparral of the Transition zone from Sisson up to the lower edge of the Shasta fir oelt; the other to the scattered stretches of Pinus albicanlis of the Hudsonian zone, where it reaches timberline on the rocky slopes and ridges. Prof. William K. Dudley, of Stanford University, California, has, at my request, kindly looked up the proper name for the boreal Sierra chinquapin, which he finds to be sempervirens of Kellogg.' The type locality of sempervirens is the west slope of the Sierra near Mariposa. I have found the species abundant on a ridge near a stage station called Chinquapin, between Mariposa and the Yosemite, where it occurs with Pinnn jeffreyi, P. lamberticma, Abies viagnifi en, Pseudotsuga mncronata, and Pruims emarginatd at and above an altitude of 6,200 feet. The locality, therefore, is along the overlapping borderland between the Transition and Canadian zones. Professor Dudley tells me that the ' var. minor' Bentham is the small southern loast range form of the true coast chinquapin, Castanopsis clirysophylla, and that the type locality is the Santa Cruz Mountains. C. vhrysopliylla is a handsome tree 75 to 125 feet in height, with large leaves, ending in long, slender attenuate points; C. sempfyrirens is a bush with small and relatively bluntly rounded leaves. I found both s])ecies common on the Trinity Mountains : G. clirysophyUa on the sunny lower slopes in the Transition zone; 0. sempervirens on the cold summit in the lower edge of the Canadian zone, where it is associated with Arctnstaphylos nevadensis, Gernstis emarginain, Ceanotlius relvtiinis, the dwarf mountain form of Queraus olirysolepis, and the very distinct Q. vaccinifolia.''- ' I'roc. C'aiif. Acad. Sci., I, p. 75, lS5.i (reprint). - Q)iercus vacciiiifoiia Kelloi;jg" is auotbcr excellent species, usually confounded with the dwarf mountain form of ','• clirysolepis, with which it has nothing to do. Their zone relations are niuch the same as those of the two species of Castanopsis, for Q. raovinifoKa occurs along the lower edge of the Boreal, and ranges up through the Canadian zone, always in rocky places, while f^'. cliri/solepit belongs to the Transition zone. Their ranges join where these zones meet, and I have found both growing side liy side on the Trinity Mountains, ami also on the .Sierra. Querciis cltrysolejtis is a Transition zone tree which at the upper limit of its range is always dwarfed and often reduced to a shrub; but irrespective of size it always retains its charac- teristic leaves and acorn cups, (^hierciis raccinifoUa is always a small bush — rarely much over a meter in height — and, whether in fruit or not, is distinguishable at a glance by tlie character of its leaves and cups. The leaves are smaller, narrower, thinner, and blunter (commonly narrowly oval with an obtuse jioint instead of sharply lanceolate) and lack the yellow tomeutum underneath; furthermore, their margins, although somewhat thickened, are not distinctly revolutc. The acorn cups are smaller and thinner, and lack the beautiful yellow ' turban ' so ehiiracteristio of chrynolepis ; the acorns average shorter and thicker and the basal scar is smaller. The branchlets are mu<'h more slender, and glabrous or nearly so, instead of tomeutose. OCT.. 1899.] PLANTS. 143 It is remarkable that a shrub of such wide distribution, and one dif fering so conspicuously from the tree chinquapin [Gastanop.iln ohryso- phi/Ua), should so loug escape recognition as a disrinct species. ftuercus californica (Torr.) Cooper. Black Oak. [-----Q. Icelhxigi Newb.] The only oak of Shasta, where it is confined to the basal slopes of the Transition zone, reacliing up on the south and west sides to an altitude of 4,500 feet. It is fairly common in McOloud Valley, more common at Sisson, and increases in abundance to the northward. Between Black Butte and Edgewood it is mixed with ponderosa pines and is one of the most conspicuous trees. It does not attain such large size in this region as nearer the coast and farther south in the Sierra. \(^)uercus garryuna was not found immediately about Shasta, and Querent iriKlizeni, which pushes up the canyon of the Sacramento along distance, does not fairly enter the region.] Asarum hartwegi Watson. ^Vild Ginger. Occurs here and there throughout the Transition zone, but is com- monest in damp places on the lower slopes. It does not reach (juite up to Wagon Camp, but in a warm lava basin on the west side of the mountain was found at an altitude a little higher than Wagon Camp. Eriogonum marifolium T. & G. Yellow Eriogonum. Common at Wagon Camji and other points along the lower edge of the Canadian zone and in the upper part of the Transition. The species seems to belong to the Transition rather than the Canadian zone, and Shasta is its type locality. (Identified by J. K. Small.) Eriogonum polypodum Small. Small-leaf Al])ine Eriogonum. The commonest and most widely distributed Eriogonidii of the higher slopes, where it ranges from the lower edge of the Hudsonian zone up to and far above timberline. The highest altitude at which it was obtained is 10,000 feet. Its leaves are small and densely covered with a white woolly or hairy material, and its tortuous prostrate branches are so intertwined as to form little mats several inches in diameter on the stony pumice slopes; these whitish mats are vastly more compact and dense above timberline than below. The roots are strong but rather slender, and, like those of many other plants that live on the barren, wind-swept pumice slopes, are of extreme length. The main root usually slopes obliquely for 80 or 90 millimeters, and then divides into four or five slender rootlets 900 to 1,000 millimeters in length. The whitish tomen- tose leaves rarely rise more than 25 or 30 millimeters above the ground ; the fruit stems 100 to 150 millimeters. This plant and Polygonum shastense are probably the most abundant, conspicuous, and widespread plants of the Hudsonian and Alpine zones. They thrive in very dry soils and therefore are not confined 144 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no- 16. to the moist basins and strips bordering the streams, as are Phyl- lodoce, Lutkea, and many others. (Identified by J. K. Small.) Eriogonum pyrolsefolium Hooker. Large-leaf Alpine Eriogonum. Abundant on the pumice slopes of the Hudsoiiiau and Arctic- Alpine zones, where it is associated with the foregoing species and with Poly- (/onum shastense, P. newberryi, Pentstemon daridsoni, and others. It is easily recognized by its large roundish deep-green leaves, in striking contrast to tlie much smaller whitish-tomentose leaves of its congener and ass,ocmt6, Erigonum poljipoduin. Both species are common all the way around the mountain. The present species [pyroJaiolium) is rarely found above an altitude of 9,500 feet, but on a warm slope east of Mud Creek Canyon Vernon Bailey found it as high as 10,0()() feet. It flow- ered the second time above the head of Squaw Creek the latter part of September and was then in flower and fruit simultaneously. Its root is large, thick, tapering, and moderately strong; it subdivides into about half a dozen rootlets which penetrate so deeply into the soil that it is difflcnlt to obtain specimens without breaking them. The longest root measured was 750 millimeters to the broken end. The leaves reach about 30 millimeters above the ground; the fruit stems 70 millimeters. The old imbricating leaf stems remain attached for several years and form a series of scales around the upper part of the perennial rootstalk. Eriogonum nudum Dougl. Naked-stem Eriogonum. Common in the lower part of the Transition zone, particularly about Sisson, where it was flowering plentifully as late as the end of Sep- tember. It is easily recognized by its tall, green naked stems, which rise from a bunch of large tomentose leaves. Oxyria digyna (Linn.) Alpine Sorrel. One of the characteristic alpine species, growing in cold spots among the rocks at high altitudes on all sides of the mountain; found by Vernon Bailey as high as 11,200 feet. On the north side of Shastina we collected it at 8,000 feet, and on the northeast side of Eed Butte as low as 7,000 feet. This is the lowest station at which it was found, and since I'inn.s tilbicaiilis occurs above Eed Butte the locality might be mistaken to be below timberline, but the sorrel grows only among the rocks on the cold northeast sloj^es, where there are no trees and where the temperature is truly alpine. Polygonum shastense Brewer. Shasta Polygonum. One of the commonest and most characteristic plants of the stony pumice slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine zones. A singular and attractive plant, particularly in September, Avhen it is heavily laden with white and red flowers and fruit. As a rule the flowers are whitish, turn- ing red as the fruit begins to develop. No two plants could well be more difl'erent iu general appearance than this species and its congener and OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. 145 associate Polygonum newherryi, and few species bear a closer resem- blauce than P. shastense and its geographically remote relative P. paro- nychia. The resemblance is not only most striking, but is exceedingly interesting from the standpoint of geographic distribution. Polygonum shastense lives at high altitudes in the High Sierra and Cascade Itange, while P. paronychia inhabits the outer sea beach in northern California and Oregon, where it is bathed in the chilly fogs of the Pacific Ocean. The root of Polygonum shastense is of moderate size and slopes very obliquely into the soil. It divides into half a dozen long slender rootlets, which penetrate to a depth of 550 millimeters or more. One specimen examined divided into three main roots of rather large size, which tapered very gradupJly and reached a length of 750 millimeters. The branches are prostrate and usually form loosely intertwined mats 300 to 500 millimeters in diameter, rising in some cases io to 50 millimeters above the surface, but usually flattened on the ground. Polygonum newberryi Small. Broad-leaf Polygonum. Abundant from the lower edge of the Hudsonian zone up to a little above timberline, where its big green leaves are very conspicuous on the pale pumice soil and among the broken fragments of gray lava rock. About the middle of September the leaves turn red — often a deep handsome red — and begin to fall, so that by the end of the month the plant has practically disappeared. Its buck wheat-like fruit is a favorite food of the mice inhabiting the higher slopes. Oreobroma triphylla (Wats.) Howell. Dwarf Alpine Spring Beauty. This tiny inconspicuous plant was found near timberline north and northwest of Eed Butte. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Spraguea umbellata Torr. Pussy-paws. Abundant on the pumice slopes of the Hudsonian zone, beyond which it pushes both upward and downward on suitable soils. The highest altitude at which it was noted is 9,400 feet on the east side of Mud Creek Canyon, but it was rarely seen abo\ e 9,000 feet. On the other hand, a form of it descends in suitable spots to the lower edge of the Canadian zone near Wagon Camp (altitude 5,600 feet), and to the same altitude in the lower part of Mud Creek Canyon. Stellaria crispa C. & S. Collected by Vernon Bailey and Miss Wilkins in Mud Creek Canyon near the junction of Clear Creek. (Identified by Professor Creene.) Sagina saginoides (L.) Brit. Occurs above timberline; collected by Miss Wilkins. Silene grayi Watson. Hudsonian Catchfly. Common in stony places and along streams below timberline in the Hudsonian zone. Found both in the stony pumice soil and in the heather beds. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Dr. B. L. Eobinson.) 21753— No. 16 19 146 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no, 16. Silene suksdorii Robinson.' Alpine Catclitly. An alpine species common in scattered tufts, which form small com- pact mats under the edges of rocks, well above timberline. Often mixed with Urigeron compositus. (Identified by Dr. B. L. Eobinson.) Aconitum columbianum Nutt. Monkshood. Common in a marshy place in the Shasta fir forest at Wagon Camp, where its tall wands of handsome blue flowers were conspicuous in July and its fruit in September. Aquilegia trimcata Fisch. & Mey. Eed Columbine. Common near Wagon Camp, in the upper part of the Transition zone. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Delphinium sonnei Greene. Larkspur. Common in moist spots in the Shasta fir forest near Wagon Camp, and also in the canyon of Ash Creek. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Pseonia browni Dougl. Wild Pasony. Occurs sparingly in the upper part of the pondcrosa pine forest (Transition zone), particularly in the neighborhood of Wagon Camp. Pulsatilla occidentalis Watson. Common in places on the higher slopes (Hudsonian zone), particu- larly where the snow lies late. It blooms as the snow recedes, leaving a handsome globular head of feathery plumes which waves in the breeze long after the season of flowering. BikukuUa uniflora (Kellogg) Howell. Reported by Miss Eastwood from above timberline on Horse Camp Trail; not found by us. Arabia platysperraa Gray. Flat- pod Arabis. The commonest and most widely distributed crucifer of the higher slopes of Shasta, where it occurs on stony slopes and along the edges of the heather beds from the lower edge of the Hudsonian zone upward on warm slopes to 10,200 feet. Its extreme vertical range appears to be about 3,000 feet. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Cardamine bellidifolia pachyphylla Coville. This small alpine crucifer, with white flowers and rather broad dark green leaves, is nowhere abundant, but was observed here and there above timberline, both on the main peak of Shasta and on Shastina. (Identified by F. V. Coville.) Cheiranthus perennis (Coville) Greene. [ = Erysimum asperum perenne Coville.] Vernon Bailey and I found this coarse yellow-flowered crucifer at timberline on the north slope of Shastina July 24, but did not observe it elsewhere. (Identified by Professor Greene.) 'Botanical Gazette, vol. It!, p. 44, pi. 6, 1891. OCT, 1899.] PLANTS. 147 Draba breweri Wats. Sierra Alpine Draba. Collected east of Mud Creek Canyon at an altitude of 13,000 feet by Miss Wilkius; not observed elsewhere. This Draha ai.d Polemonimn pidchellum are the only plants found at so great an elevation. (Identi- fied by F. V. Coville.) Streptanthus orbioulatus Greene. A Hudsonian species common on pumice soil in stony places at and below timberline all the way around the mountain. The plant is easily recognized by its long curved slender pods and its rather large domed leaves. The length of the large tapering root only slightly exceeds the height of the plant. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Chrysamphora californica (Torr.) Greene. California Pitcher Plant. {= Darlingtonia Auct.) This interesting pitcher plant is exceedingly local in distribution. Mr. Elmer Applegate tells me that it is common in the upper part of the Sacramento Canyon, a short distance from Sisson Tavern. It has been reported as occurring in the 'marshes' of Shasta, but we did not find it on the mountain, nor did we find any marshy areas more than a few rods in extent. Drosera rotundifolia Linn. Sundew. Collected by Miss Wilkins in the springy bog just above Wagon Camp in the Canadian zone. Not observed elsewhere. Mitella pentandra Hook. Common in the heather patches along the overhanging banks of streams in the Hudsonian zone. Abundant at Squaw Creek Camp. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Parnassia californica (Gray) Greene. Grass-of-Parnassus. This elegant flower is common along the water courses of the Hud- sonian zone, usually growing along the overhanging banks of the tiny rivulets. It blossoms late, and a few plants were still in flower when snow fell, the last week in September. Saxifraga bryophora Gray. Reported by JMiss Eastwood from the timberline region on Horse Camp Trail; not found by us. Saxifraga tolmiei' T. & G. Alpine Rock Saxifrage. Common above timberline, where it usually forms small dense mats in moist places among rocks. On Inconstance Creek, on the north side of Shasta, it was found as low as 7,600 feet. On the south slope Lt ranges up to 11,000 feet, or possibly higher. On the cold northeast side of Red Butte it occurs among the rocks with Oxyria digyna. fSee p. 50.) _ ' ' The spelling tolmwi should be regarded as au obA'ions typographical error. 148 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. Peltiphyllum peltatum (Torr.) Eugler. Giant Water Saxifrage. One of the most conspicuous plants in the bottom of the Sacramento Canyon, where its clusters of huge incised roundish leaves along the water's edge suggest the devil's club. It ranges along the Sacramento Kiver from just below Sisson nearly to the Sacramento Yalley. Ribes amictum Greene. Occurs at Wagon Camp, along Squaw Creek, and in the bottom of Mud Creek Canyon at an altitude of 6,700 feet. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Ribes cereum Dougl. Found near timberline near the head of Panther Creek, and also much lower down. Ribes viscosissimum Pursh. Common near Wagon Camp and observed at other points within the Transition zone, particularly along Squaw Creek. Ribes klamathense Coville. Occurs in cool moist places in the Transition zone at Sisson. (Iden- tified by ¥. V. Coville.) Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt. Mountain Mahogany. Common on Sheep Eock and thence to the southeastern corner of Shasta Valley {V. Bailey), and on warm, dry slopes of the Scott Mountains, where C. parvifolius also occurs. Fragaria bracteata Heller. Small Strawberry. Common on the lower slopes. Just below Wagon Camp strawberries and painted cups are so abundant as to form an almost continuous car- pet under the uppermost grove of ponderosa pines. (Identified pro- visionally by P. A. Rydberg.) Fragaria chile 3nsis Duchesne. Large Strawberry. Occurs with the last a little below Wagon Camp, but is much com- moner lower down, particularly near Sisson. Sisson Tavern was formerly called 'Berryvale' and is located in 'Strawberry' Valley. Both names were derived from the abundance of this wild fruit there in early days. (Identified provisionally by P. A. Eydberg.) Holodiscus discolor (Pnrsh) Maxim. Alpine Spirrea. Common on rocks at and a little below timberline, usually associated with Pinus albicaiilis. It is a small, fragrant bush, usually less than a foot in height, and always grows among rocks at high altitudes. In the Hudsoniau zone it was found all tlie way around the mountain, and was in blossom from about July -0 until September. A larger form, which the botanists do not appear to have named, occurs lower down, in the Canadian zone. It has larger, broader, and tliinner leaves and should be separated. OCT., 1890.] PLANTS. 149 Spiraea douglasi Hook. Eed Spiraa. Common in moist places in the Canadian and Transition zones, but most abundant in the latter. It is common at Sisson, at the west base of the mountain, and in Squaw Creek Valley on the south side, and thence upward, in suitable moist spots, to Wagon Camp at 5,700 feet, along Squaw Creek at 6,000 feet, and iu Mud Creek Canyon as high as 6,700 feet. Horkelia pseudocapitata Eydberg. Abundant in the Transition zone near Wagon Camp, particularly abouttheupperlimitof P*rtMspo)«7Brosa. (Identified by P. A. Rydberg.) Kunzia tridentata (Pursh.) Spreng. Irregularly distributed in the Transition zone; commonest in the manzanita chaparral of the lower slopes. On the north side of the mou.ntain it is exceedingly abundant, and in the open pine forest bor- dering the south end of Shasta Valley attains unusually large size. On the west side, north of Sisson, it occurs sparingly on most of the warmer and drier knolls, and more ])lentifully between Black Butte and Shasta Valley. It is almost always associated mth Arctostaphylos patula, with which it ascends some of the warmer slopes to points far above the upper limit of its usual distribution. Thus it was found on a southwest slope iu Mud Creek Canyon between the altitudes of 6,700 and 7,400 feet; on similar slopes near Horse Trail and in Diller Canyon as high as 7,800 to 7,900 feet, and on a warm pumice ridge north of Shastina at 7,500 feet.' In Squaw Creek Valley, near McCloud Mill, a form occurs which has exceedingly narrow leaves. Lutkea pectinata (Hook.) Kuntze. Abundant in the Hudsouian zone, chiefly in the neighborhood of timberline, where it is common along the little streams in the upper edge of the forest, and in the glacial basins which are wet from melting snows in the early part of the season, but may be dry at the time the plant blossoms. In damp spots, particularly along the borders of cool springs, the individual plants often stand so near together as to form extensive beds. Fotentilla flabellifolia Hook. Occurs here and there, a little below timberline, in the Hudsonian zone. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and P. A. Rydberg.) Fotentilla pseudorupestris Rydberg. Dwarf Alpine Poteutilla. A dwarf Alpine or high Hudsonian Fotentilla of the glandulosa type, collected on the north side of Shastina at an altitude of about 8,800 feet, is provisionally referred to this species by Mr. Rydberg. ' For an explanation of this seemingly abnormal r:inge, see p. 49. 150 NORTH AMERKJAN FAUNA. [no. 16. Potentilla glandulosa Liudl. Large Yellow Poteutilla. A large Potentilla from the Transitioa zoue, near Wagon Camp, is ideutified by Mr. Eydberg as P. glandidosK. Rosa californica C. & S. Oalifornia Rose. Abundant in moist places in the Transition zone near Sisson Tavern and along the east base of Mount Eddy. Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt. Wild Rose. Common in places in the Transition zone, particularly a little below Wagon Camp. Rubus parviflorus Nutt. [=E. nntlianns Auct. 1 Western Thimbleberry. Common in cool moist places in McCloud Valley and at Sisson, and thence up through the Transition zone to an altitude of 5,200 feet on the road to Wagon Camp, and 6,000 feet along Squaw Creek and in Mud Creek Canyon. Most of the Transition slopes of Shasta are too dry for the thimbleberry. Rubus vitifolius C. & S. Blackberry. Common in cool moist places in the Transition zone near Sisson and along the east base of the Scott Mountains. Sibbaldia procumbens Linn. Alpine Sibbaldia. Common in the Hudsonian zone near timberline, particularly in springy places and in the heather beds. Usually occurs in small patches below extreme timberline. Amelanchier alnifolia > utt. Serviceberry. Abundant in moderately moist parts of the Transition zone. On the west and southwest sides of the mountain it reaches from Sisson to Wagon Camp. On a warm southwest slope on the steep ridge between Mud Creek Canyon and Clear Creek it occurs, with several other Transition zone species, at the unusual altitude of about 7,000 feet. (Seep. 4!>.) Crataegus rivularis Nutt. Black Haw. Common in the Transition zone about the west base of Shasta, par- ticularly along streams at the east basp of Mount Eddy, from the head of the Sacramento northward, usually in cool moist soil. Common near Sisson Tavern. Sorbus sambucifolia (C. & S.). Moujltain Ash. Rather scarce and confined chie^y to the relatively moist Trausiticm zone slo])es of the canyons. In Mud Creek Canyon it was found along the bottom from 5,000 feet to 0,700 feet. Along Squaw Creek it was found at about 5,500 feet. Cerasus demissa (Nutt.). Western Chokecherry. Common in places in the lower part of the Transition zone. Observed on the south slope above McCloud Mill, mainly in the gulches; also in the neighborhood of Sis^n, and near the south end of Shasta Valley. OCT., 1899,] PLANTS. 151 Cerasus emarginata Dougl. Bush Cherry; Bitter Red Cherry. Abuudaut in phices in the chaparral of the Trausitioii zone. In Sacramento Canyon, south of Siiasta, it begins at 'Tlie Loop," and ranges up to the lower edge of the Canadian zone. Jt is profusely abundant at Wagon Camp, where it is a straggling bush a little higher than a man's head, and usually grows in thickets. It ascends Mud Creek Canyon to an altitude of 5,000 or 5,700 feet. Cerasus glandulosa Kellogg. A sapling or small tree having large broad leaves; collected by me a short distance south of Sisson Tavern. (Identitied by Professor Greene.) Prunus subcordata Benth. Wild Plum. Common in places along the southern and western borders of Shasta Valley, usually in the edge of the open Finus ponder oaa forest and often growing with Rhus and Kunzia. We found it also near Etna, on the west side of Scott Valley. Cercis occidentalis Torr. Eed-bud. Reported from Mount Shasta in the Botany of California, but not found by us except in the Sacramento Canyon, wliere it is common. lotus americanus (Nutt.) Bisch. [= Hosnclcia amerivana.\ Common in the Transition zone at Wagon Camp, and thence along the road to Sisson, growing chiefly in open places in the chaparral. Lupinus elmeri Greene [= L. albicauUs sylventris Auct.] Common in places throughout the upper part of the Transition zone, and ranging into the Canadian. Common at Wagon Camp and a little above. Found also in Mud Creek Canyon at mouth of Clear Creek. (Identified by J. B. Leiberg.) Lupinus 'ornatus' Auct. [not of Douglas.] Silvery Lupine. This beautiful species is common in spots near and a little below tinjberline, sometimes covering extensive areas, but not uniformly dis- tributed. Where it occurs it is usually sufficiently abundant to give the mountain side the effect of a distinct silvery covering. It always grows on stony or pumice slopes and usually among or near white bark pines, although in a few instances it was found outside of the pine areas. It is common near the head of Squaw Creek and on both sides of Mud Creek Canyon. On the east side of this canyon it is particu- larly abundant just above the trees, and stops abruptly at an altitude of 8,200 to 8,400 feet, to be replaced by the dwarf Alpine L. lyalli. On the north side of Shasta it is common in an open forest of white-bark 'In this and subsequent refereoces to 'The Loop' the statement means that in going north along the railroad track we first saw tlie plant at 'The Loop.' The species may occur farther south in the canyon ou suitable slopes above the level of the railroad. 152 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. pines in a shallow gulch at the east base of the lava buttes just below 'North Grate.' The upper limit of the silvery lu[)ine usually coincides with the lower limit of the dwarf lupine (£. lyalli), which species gen- erally pushes from this point upward through the Alpine zone. The root of the silvery lupine is slender and tough, and soon divides into two or three very long wire-like rootlets which run a rather shallow course in the sand. Some of them measure 750 millimeters. The plant at timberline averages about 60 millimeters iu height. Mr. Leiberg tells me that this species, although commonly referred to ^ornatus\ is not ornatus of Douglas. It has also been called i. argenteus deoumhens SVatson. Lupinus albifrons Benth. Collected near Horse Gamp August 20 by Vernon Bailey and Miss Wilkins. (Identified by J. B. Leiberg.) Lupinus lyalli Gray. Dwarf Alpine Lupine. Abundant and widely distributed over the higher rocky pumice slopes from timberline or a little above up to an altitude of slightly more than 10,000 feet. (Identified by J. B. Leiberg.) Lupinus minimus Dougl. Dwarf Lowland Lupine. Common in the Transition zone at Sisson. (Identified by J. B. Lei- berg.) Vicia americana Muhl. Bather common at and below Wagon Camp, and still in flower when we left, September 25. Linum lewisi Pursh. Wild Hemp. Abundant at Wagon Camp, where its delicate blue flowers were con- spicuous in July, and its large subglobular seed capsules in September. Polygala cornuta Kellogg. Occurs plentifully iu the dry pine woods of the Transition zone near Sisson Tavern, but was not observed on the mountain proper. (Iden- tified by Miss Eastwood.) Ehus trilobata Nutt. In going north from Sisson we first observed this species a mile or two south of Edgewood, to the north and east of which it became more and more common. Its zone position here is along the borderland between the Transition and Upper Sonoran zones. Pachystima myrsinites Eaf Oregon Boxwood. Common in the Transition zone at the west base of Shasta, from Sis- son up to an altitude of about 4,700 feet, usually in mauzanita chapar- ral. Its absence from the higher slopes within the proper zone limits of the species is probably due to heat and dryness, as explained else- where (p. 5(j), but it is possible that the Sisson plant is a Transition zone subspecies of the true Boreal P. inyrsinitea. OCT., 1809] PLANTS. 153 Acer macrophyllum Pursli. Oregou Maple; RIk leaf Maple. The tree maple is rare in the region about Shasta, wlu^re it was observeil only in moist places in the lower part of the Transition zone near Sisson and in the upper part of the Sacramento Canyon. Acer glabrum Torr. Bush Maple. Fairly common in McCloud Valley and in moist places along streams and canyons in the Transition zone. In Mud Creek Canyon it was found up to an altitude a little above 5,600 feet, and along Squaw Creek to nearly 6,000 feet. Acer circinatum Pursh. Vine Maple. This characteristic west-coast species, with nearly circular 7-point leaves, occurs sparingly in moist places near Sisson Tavern, but is not common. It is one of the most distinctive plants of the humid Pacific coast division of the Transition zone. Ceanothus cordulatus Kellogg. Snow Bush. Common in the lower x)art of the Transition zone on the southern and western basal slopes of Shasta. In the upper part of Sacramento Canyon it first occurs at 'The Loop,' whence it is abundant northerly to within a mile or two of Edgewood. At Sisson and in Squaw Creek and McCloud valleys it is very abundant, but for some reason not apparent it does not reach on Shasta its usual upper limit, and was not observed anywhere above 4,900 feet. Possibly it is choked out by the other chaparral, which is made up mainly of manzanita {Arcto- staphylos patula) and buck-brush [Ceanothus velutinun). Ceanothus cuneatus Nutt. Wedge-leaf Ceanothus. This is one of the most characteristic shrubs of the Upper Sonoran zone in California, where it is generally associated with the curious digger pines. The region about Shasta is too high for it. It occurs, however, in the lower valleys, both north and south of Sisson. On the north it reaches from Yreka to a little beyond Edgewood, appearing a mile or two south of the latter i^oint on the road to Sisson, and about 4 miles southwest of it on a road farther west. Skipping the broad Transition belt between Edgewood and the Sacramento, it occurs next at Delta, in the Sacramento Canyon, and ranges thence southerly. Its upper border meets the lower border of another species, G. cordulatus, which is common at Sisson, as well as on the southern and western basal slopes of Shasta. Ceanothus velutinus Dougl. Buck-brush. Profusely abundant on all the manzanita-covered slopes of Shasta, from the lower part of the Canadian zone down nearly to the lower edge of the Transition. Mixed with Arctostaphylos patula in nearly equal proportion it forms the dominant chaparral of the mountain. 21753— No. 16 20 154 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. (no. 16. Tongues of it push up ou warm southerly slopes to about 6,600 feet ' altitude, and it descends on the west slope to about 4,200 feet (half a mile east of Sisson), and on the south slope to 3,000 feet (near McOloud Mill). Along tlie east base of Mount Eddy, where it is sheltered from the afternoon sun, it appears about 2 miles north of Sisson (altitude 3,700 feet), and continues northerly for many miles. Ceanothus integerrimus H. & A. California Lilac. Common in parts of the Transition zone, notably in Squaw Creek Valley near McCloud Mill, and in the upper Sacramento Valley a httle below Sisson, but very scarce or absent on the slopes of Shasta proper. Like C. cordulatus it seems to be kept out by some unknown cause, possibly choked out by other species. Perhaps the soil is too dry for it. Ceanothus (Cerastes) prostratus Benth. Squaw Carpet. In following the Sacramento Canyon northward, Sijuaw Carpet was first seen at the 'The Loop,' a few miles south of Sisson, whence it occurs in greater or less abundance throughout the ponderosa pine forest and manzanita chaparral to the lower slopes of Shasta, whereon the southwest side it reaches up to 5,200 feet. Rhamnus californica Esch. (This form may be R. riihra Greene.) Scarce and confined to low altitudes in the Transition zone. Found by Vernon Bailey in Squaw Creek Valley below 4,000 feet. Specimen lost. Hypericum anagalloides C. & S. Dwarf Hypericum. Common in spots in wet places in the Hudsonian and Canadian zones. It was most common in the second meadow on Squaw Creek, and by no means rare near Wagon (!anip, and was in flower in late July and throughout August. Viola blanda Willd. White Violet. Collected by ^liss Wilkins in the middle meadow on Squaw Creek, at an altitude of 7, .500 feet. Not observed elsewhere. Viola purpurea Kellogg. Alpine Yellow Violet. Common on dry rocky slopes on pumice soil from some distance below timberline upward, on warm southerly exposures, to 9,300 feet. When we reached the mountain, the middle of July, its yellow flowers were conspicuous, although even at that time the species had nearly passed flowering. Its fruit and dark green leaves remained as late as the latter part of September, sharply outlined against the whitish stones and pumice of the bleak and barren ui)per slopes, where a violet seemed singularly out of place. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Greene.) ' For its extreme upper limit, on hot canyon slopes, see remarks under Jrclosta- pJhijJos palula, p. l.W. OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. 155 Mentzelia Isevicaulis (Dougl.) T. & G. Kather common in Shasta Valley, but not found elsewhere about the mountain. This species seems to belong to the Upper Sonoran zone, and therefore has no place Iti the flora of Mount Shasta. Epilobium spioatum Lamarck. Willow Herb ; Fire weed. Abundant in places, chiefly on old burns in the Canadian and Tran- sition zones. At Wagon Camp it did not begin to flower until near the middle of August; at Sisson it was still in flower in places as late as the middle of September. Epilobium brevistylum Barbey. Collected at Wagon Camp, where it is tolerably common in moist places; the largest species next to spicatum. (Identified by Professor Trelease.) EpilobiTim oregonense Hausskn. Common at Wagon Camp. A large form occurring also at Wagon Camp Professor Trelease considers as probably £. ylaberrimum Barbey. ? Epilobium homemanni Eeichenb. Some poor specimens, with exceedingly long seed capsules, collected by me a little below timberline about the end of the season, are doubt- fully referred to this species by Professor Trelease. Epilobium clavatum Trelease. Abundant in the heather meadows and along the edges of the cool streams of the Hudsoniau zone at and a little below timberline. (Identified by Professor Trelease.) Epilobium priugleanum Hausskn. A tiny alpine species, rarely as tall as one's thumb, occurring here and there on the borders of the highest streamlets above timberline. (Identified by Professor Trelease.) Epilobium obcordatum Gray. Rose Epilobium. Local — common near timberline on the steep west side (east slope) of Mud Creek Canyon. A remarkable plant, strikingly unlike the others of its genus. It has a woody base and is really a dwarf bush. Its large red flowers are showy and very handsome. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Trelease.) Gayophytum ramosissimum T. & G. Abundant throughout the Transition zone, where it was equally com- mon at Sisson and at Wagon Camp and was in flower as late as the end of September. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Carum gairdneri (Hook. & Arn.) Gray. Eather common in damp soil at Wagon Camp where the Canadian and Transition zones meet. (Identified by Dr. J. N. Hose.) 156 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. Cymopterus terebinthinus T. tS: (1. Common iu the ueighborbood of timberline, usually iu stony places on dry pumice slopes; found also on top of Red Gone, a little east of Wagon Camp. This species has a large and woody root and a remark- ably rank and lasting odor. Its zone position is Hudsonian; a larger unrecognized form occurs in the Canadian zone. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Dr. Eose.) Ligusticum grayi Coulter & Eose. Common throughout the Hudsonian zone, particularly a little below timberline, where it occurs most abundantly in the beds of heather along the little streams. In places it pushes down into the Canadian zone. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Dr. Eose.) Heracleum lanatum Michx. Cow Parsnip. Occurs in damp x)laces in the Canadian zone. In Mud Creek Canyon near the mouth of Clear Creek it was found as high as 0,700 feet. (Identified by Dr. Eose.) Osmorrhiza nuda Torr. Found sparingly at Wagon Camp and at Sisson. Cornus nattalli Audubon. Oregon Dogwood. Eather common iji moist jjlaces in the lower half of the Transition zone. It occurs in Squaw Creek Valley near McCloud Mill, and is common along the streams near Sisson Tavern; on the road from Wagon Camp to Sisson it was seen uj) to an altitude of 4,500 feet. Cornus pubescens Xutt. Common in cool damp soil near Sisson and aloug the upper Sacra- mento. Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt. Occurs here and there throughout the drier parts of the forest, but is less common than GMmaphihi menziesi. Chimaphila menziesi Spreng. Fairly common throughout the Shasta fir forest, and also in the mixed forest of pines and firs from the upper Sacramento Canyon northward (Canadian and Transition). Pyrola picta Smith. Occurs here and there througliout the forest of Shasta firs, where its ornamental light-marbled leaves are pleasingly conspicuous against the dark soil. Pyrola pallida Greene. ' Found sparingly on the dry summit of Red Cone, about a mile east of Wagon Cami). (Identified by Professor Greene.) ipittonia, IV, p. 39, March 17, 1899. OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. Pyrola secunda Linn. Decidedly less eoniinon than /'. pictii, fir forest. 1.^)7 )iit like it found in the Shasta Pterospora andromedae Nutt. Pinedrops Found in the dry woods along the border between the (Janadiaii and Transition zones. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Pleuricospora fimbriolata Gray. Collected at Wagon Camp by Miss Wilkins. (Identified by F. V. Coville.) Sarcodes sanguinea Torr. Snow Plant. This handsome plant i.s reported as common on the forested slopes of Shasta at the time of melting- snow in spring. It probably occurs in both the Canadian and Transition zones. Arctostaphylos nevadensis Gray. Dwarf Mountain Manzanita. Common in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones, growing in extensive beds a foot or less in height. On the high ridges, among the timber- line Pimis albicaKlifi, these beds of green cover the pale gray lava rocks, and in the dark forests of Shasta fir they form the only con- spicuous surface vegetation. Arctostaphylos patula Greene. Green Manzanita. The most abundant and troublesome chaparral of Shasta. It is a characteristic Transition zone species and covers the lower slopes all the way around the mountain except a belt about 10 miles wide on tlie * Fig. 45. — Mauzanita chaiiarral. northeast base, reaching from Ash Creek to about 3 miles northwest of Inconstance Creek, which is too cold for it and is occupied by Canadian zone species. On the north, west, and south it covers practically the whole of a broad belt several miles in width, reaching from base level 15H NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. to the lower edge of the Canadian zone and formerly occuijied in the main by a forest of ponderosa pines, some of which still remain scattered over it. Except at its extreme lower limit, it is usually mixed with buck-brush {Geanothus velutlnus). Seen from a distance, the extensive areas of manzanita on the lower slopes of Shasta are very deceptive. They look like meadows of green grass, but to cross them is in most cases impossible, owing to the den- sity of the growth and rigidity of the branches. For this reason they form secure retreats for black bears, deer, wild-cats and other animals. At two i^laces on the west side of the mountain Arctostaphylos jjatula reaches the extraordinary altitude of 7,800 to 7,900 feet. One of these is on the nortli side of Diller Canyon, the other on the north side of Horse Camp Trail. Both stations are on long and steep southwest pumice slopes which receive the hot rays of the afternoon sun almost at a right angle, carrying up numerous Transition zone species nearly 2,000 feet above their normal limit. (See p. 51.) From the southwest base of Shasta the green manzanita reaches down the canyon of the Sacramento Kiver to 'The Loop.' Phyllodoce empetriformis (Gray). Red Heather. \=Bryanthus empetriformis Auct.] Abundant along the cold streams of the Hudsonian zone and in the bottoms of the glacial basins tbat are kei)t moist by melting snows; commonest between the altitudes of 7,500 and 8,500 feet, and not seen above 9,100 feet. This is the only 'heather' found on Shasta. It usually forms extensive beds or carpets in which numerous other plants find a congenial home. These beds are practically the only flower gardens on the mountain, and the only areas where small plants are plentiful enough to give the effect of continuous green ; hence they are commonly spoken of as 'heatber meadows.' Kalmia glauca microphylla Hook. Alpine Laurel. Abundant in most of the heather meadows just below tiniberline, particularly along Squaw Creek. In general size and aspect the alpine laurel resembles the red heather so closely that at a little distance it is difficult to tell them apart. Vaccinium caespitosum Mich. Dwarf Alpine Blueberry. Abundant on the higher slopes withhi the Hudsonian zone, reaching a little above timberline. Common here and there in the stony pumice flats and basins, but commonest near the streams, where it is scattered through the heather and forms beds of its own along the outer edges of the heather beds. Its leaves turn dark red or garnet dur- ing the latter half of September, contrasting handsomely with the dark green of the heather. In the neighborhood of timberline the dwarf blueberry is rarely more than three or four inches in height. It was in full bloom the middle of July. ■OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. 159 The form here referred to is the dwarf High Sierra one, given under caispitosum by Ooville, iu liis 'Botany of the Deatli Valley Expedition' (p. 145. 1893). Vaccinium arbuscula (Gray) | -- Yuccinium cnnpitosum var. arhimcnla Cray]. Common in moist places in the Transition zone from Wagon Camp down to Warmcastle Soda Springs nt the south base of the mountain. This species seems to be distinct from the dwarf boreal T^. caspitostim. It averages about '2 feet (60 centimeters) in height and has red branches and decidedly larger and thicker leaves than the alpine cwspitosum. Whether or not the latter is the typical form is another question. The zone j)ositiou of 1^. <(rhiiscula is probably Canadian and Transition. Vaccinium occidentale Gray. BluebeiTy. Common in the Canadian zone in some of the canyons, and in the marsh at Wagon Camp, where it fruited early. Fraxinus oregana Nutt. Oregon Ash. Occurs sparingly in the upper Sacramento Canyon, but was not observed about the actual base of the mountain. Gentiana simplex Gray. Blue Gentian. Common in the Canadian zone swamp at Wagon Camp the flrst half of ^Vugust. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Apocynum pumilum (Gray) Greene. Common in suitable places throughout the Transition zone, from which it pushes up a short distance into the lower edge of the Cana- dian. With other Transition zone species it was found on a warm slope in Mud Creek Canyon at 6,7(K) feet. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Cycladenia humiUs Benth. Common in places in the Hudsonian zone, but very local. It occurs plentifully on the top of Red Cone, a short distance northeast of Wagon Camp, at an elevation of about 6,600 feet; on a red lapilli hill which forms a part of Eed Butte, just east of ' The [South] Gate,' and on both sides of Mud Creek Cauyon a little below true timberline. The highest altitude at which it was observed was 8,700 feet on a southwesterly slope on the west side of Miid Creek Canyon. Cycladenia humilis is a curious and rather striking plant. It usually has four large entire leaves, sug- gesting those of Polygonum neicberryi, and bears a pair of conspicuous red tubular flowers followed by two curious seed pods, which are very long and lie side by side, one above the other, like the barrels of a Win- chester rifle. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Sjjreng. Common throughout the ponderosa pine forests of the Transition zone and sometimes seen in ^he lower part of the Shasta fir forest, where its 160 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. handsome scarlet flowers are \ery attractive. Ou warm southwest slopes near Panther Creek it was found as high as 6,600 feet, and between Mud and Clear creeks as high as 0,700 feet, but these are abnormal altitudes due to unusually warm exposures and soil. Collomia grandiflora Dougl. Commou in the upper part of the Transition zone a httle below Wagon Camp, where it was flowering abundantly the last half of July. Phlox douglasi diiFusa (Beuth.) Gray. Alpine Phlox. A common, widely distributed, aud conspicuous plant of the higher slopes within the Hudsonian zone, sometimes straggling down into the Canadian zone. It occurs in scattered tufts on the dry rocky slopes and ridges, usually on pumice soil, and is commonest in the neighbor- hood of timberline. It blossoms early, and flowers were rarely seen as late as the latter part of July. After flowering the whole plant withers and is disintegrated by the wind, so that little more than the woody base remains. Polemonium pulchellum Bunge. A characteristic but not abundant Alpine species, occurring here and there among rocks far above timberline. On the north side of Shastina it was in full bloom Julj^ 24 at an altitude of 8,900 feet. On the south side of Shasta, above Squaw Creek, and on both sides of Mud Creek Canyon, it was not found below 9,500 feet, whence it ranges up to 13,000 feet. This species and Draha hreiveri were both observed at 13,000 feet, and are the highest plants found on Shasta. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Phacelia frigida Greene.' Dwarf Alpine Pliacelia. This new species, which Professor (ireene has kindly described at my request from specimens collected by us above the head of Squaw Creek, is common and widely distributed ou the higher and more bar- ren rocky slopes, be.yinning above timberline and reaching, 07i south- erly slopes, as high at least as 10,200 feet. The lowest altitude at which it was found is 8,700 feet, on a cold slope. Phacelia magellanica (Lam.) Coville. A plant which, in the present unsatisfactory state of the group, it seems necessary to refer here, is abundant on the lower slopes, i)ar- ticularly in the Transition zone, where it was in flower throughout the summer and as late as the end of September. Cryptanthe geminata Greene. Eather common in the Transition zone below Wagon Oamj). (Identi- fied by Professor Greene.) ' Pittoiiia, I\ , pp. 39-40, March 17, 1S99. OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. 161 Lappula nervosa (Kellogg) Greene. Abundant in the openings near and a little below Wagon (Janip, where it is the most troublesome 'stick-tight' of the region, filling- the forelocks and manes of the horses and binding them together in a dense mat. Monardella odoratissima Bentli. Abundant in the Canadian zone and much less common in the Hudsonian. x\.bundant in the chaparral at Wagou Camp and found in several places on warm sunny slopes as high as 7,800 or 7,900 feet, and in one place near the head of Squaw Creek at 8,300 feet. In the latter locality only a few bunches occur among the rocks and no others were observed for a long distance below. Scutellaria nana Gray. Dwarf Skullcap. This interesting little yellow-flowered skullcap was found at one place only — the north slope of Shastin;i, at an altitude of 8,800 feet, where it was flowering July 24. If this alpine plant is the same as the type of S. nana, which came from the hot desert region near Pyramid Lake, Nevada, its occurrence at timberline on Shasta must be acci- dental. (Identified by F. Y. Coville.) Stachys ingrata Greene. Abundant in moist soil at Wagon Camp, on the border between the Canadian and Transition zones. (Identitted by Professor (Treene.) Chamsesaracha nana Gray. This solanaceous i)lant, which has la gc white flowers and looks like a dwarf potato, is common in an old burn near Wagon Camp, where the Canadian and Transition zones overlap. (Identified by Miss East- wood.) Castilleja miniata Dougl. Scarlet Painted Cup. Common and conspicuous. A large form, probably the type form — since the type came from the Blue Mountains of Oregon — is common in moist places in the lower part of the Canadian zone and upper part of the Transition. It was flowering abundantly in the uppermost grove of ponderosa pines at Wagon Camp the latter half of July. A smaller form, apparently unnamed, abounds in the heather beds of the Hud- sonian zone near and a little below timberline, where it was flowering profusely the first half of August. The scarlet painted cup is one of the handsomest flowers of the moun- tain. Where the jjlants are abundant on the dark heather the effect of the bright green corolla tubes protruding in slender spindles from the vivid scarlet mass of bracts and calyx is superb. Early in August the calliope hummingbirds were constantly hovering over these flowers. (Identified by M.L. Fernald.) 21753— No. 10 21 162 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. Castilleja afiinis Hook. & Arn. A plant collected in the Hudsonian zone near timberliue just north of Red Butte by Vernon Bailey has been identified as this species by M, L. Fernald. Since the type locality of affinis is the low coast strip near San Francisco or Monterey, the typical form would hardlj^ be expected to occur in the high timberline region of Shasta. Orthocarpus pilosus Watson. Common in places near timberline, particularly near 'The [South] Gate,' between the heads of Panther Creek and Squaw Creek. (Iden- tified by M. L. Fernald.) Mimulus implexus Greene. Abundant in wet places throughout the Hudsoniau zone, reaching its greatest perfection in the neighborhood of timberline. In the shal- low rapids of some of the mountain rivulets it grows in such profusion that its leaves form extensive mucilaginous patches, which completely fill the beds of the streams. Its large and showy yellow flowers were in blossom from the latter part of July until the end of September. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Mimulus moniliformis Greene. Two forms of large yellow ^Rmiilus grow in the marsh at Wagon Camp, in the lower edge of the Canadian zone. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Mimulus tiling! (Regel.) Greene. Common in the marsh at Wagon Camp. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Mimulus primuloidcs Benth. Common in patches in marshy places aiid along streams in the Cana- dian and Hudsonian zones, but much more common in the Canadian than in the Hudsonian. It was abundant at Wagon Camp and also in some of the heather meadows along Squaw Creek and other streams. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Greene.) Pentstemon menziesi Hook. One of the most characteristic and widely distributed plants of the higher slopes, where it is common among the bare rocks all the way around the mountain. It is common in the Hudsoniau zone in the neighborhood of timberline, but much more abundant in the Alpine, and was found by Vernon Bailey as high as 10,200 feet. This species is easily distinguished from the other Alpine species of the region by its smooth entire leaves and relatively small bluish or violet blue flow- ers, which become pink or reddish with age. (Identified by Professor Greene.) The plant is by no means typical, but seems to be interme- diate between menzicfii and davidsoni. It may be a distinct species. OCT- 1899.] PLANTS. 1 63 Pentstemon newberryi Gray. Ooinmou in places in the Hudsouiau zone and possibly in the npper part of the Canadian; much less generally distributed than P. menzicxi and usually occurring at lower altitudes. On the north side of Shastina it was flowering, the latter part of July, at an elevation of 7,600 feet, and at the same time on the cold east slope of Mud Creek Canyon as low down as 5,600 feet. Its flowers are much larger than those of P. mensiesi and red instead of bluish; its leaves are longer, and are serrate instead of entire. Pentstemon glaber utahensis Watson. Abundant just below timberliue on the curious Pinus alhicaulis plain between North Gate and Bolam Creek, on the north side of Shasta, where it was flowering plentifully July 24. It was not seen elsewhere on the mountain. Its blue-purple flowers are even larger than those of P. newberryi and are very showy and handsome. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Pentstemon deustus (Dough). Yellow Pentstemon. Common in the rough black lava beds in the Shasta fir forest north of Cascade Gulch, on the west side of the mountain, at an altitude of about 7,500 feet, but not seen elsewhere. This species is a dwarf bush 5 or 6 inches high, with yellow flowers and strongly serrate leaves. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Pentstemon gracilentus Gray. Abundant iu places in the Shasta fir forest, particularly between the canyons of Mud and Ash creeks, in the Canadian zone. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Greene.) Pentstemon confertus Dougl. (Not typical.) Common near Wagon Camp. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor (rreene.) Veronica cusicki Gray. Common just below timberline, particularly along the little streams where it grows in the grass and heather on the overhanging banks. It was flowering abundantly from the time of our arrival, the middle of July, until about the middle of August. (Identified by Miss Eastwood and Professor Greene.) Boschniakia strobilacea Gray. Collected at Wagon Camp by Miss Wilkins. (Identified by Profes- sor Greene.) Liunaea borealis Linn. Twin Bell-flower. Fairly common along one of the streams half a mile north of Sisson Tavern, but not noticed elsewhere. This form was described by Torrey as variety longiflora. 164 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. [no. 16. Sambucus melanocarpa Gray. Blackberry Elder. Common in moist parts of tlie Transition zone, particularly in the canyons. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Symphoricarpos racemosus Mich. Snowberry. Common about Sisson Tavern and in cool moist places along the base of Mount Eddy. Symphoricarpos pilosus Greene. Mountain Sno\vl)erry. Abundant in the upper part of the Transition zone, particularly at Wagon Camp and along Squaw Creek. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Campanula wilklnsiana Greene.' Shasta Bluebell. This new bluebell, recently described by Professor Greene from speci- mens collected by us on the upper part of Squaw Creek, is common in the lower heather meadows, and less so in the marshy place at Wagon Camp. It is singular that the only Campanula found on Shasta should be new, the usual Sierra and Cascade species being absent. The pres- ent species, which is named after Miss Lewanna "\\'ilkins, averages 4 to .5 inches in height and has a rather small flower. Its zone position is Hudsonian and Canadian. Achillea lanulosa Nutt. Common in the Transition zone at and below Wagon Camp. (Identi- fied by G. L. Pollard.) Achillea boreaUs Bong. Dwarf Alpine Yarrow. Occurs in places on the stony pumice slopes above timberline. Be- tween the heads of Mud and Squaw creeks Vernon Bailey found it at an altitude of 9,600 feet. (Identified by C. L. Pollard.) Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & II. Common in dry open j)laces in the chaparral from Sisson to Wagon Camp. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Antemiaria geyeri Gray. Geyer Everlasting. A large specimen of this liandsome everlasting was collected by Ver- non Bailey in the Transition zone just below Wagon Caiiix) September 25. The species was not noted elsewhere. (Identified by Miss East- wood and Professor Greene.) Antennaria media Greene [=A. alpina Auct.]. Alpine Everlasting. Common in open parts of the Hudsonian zone in the neighborhood of timberline on most parts of Shasta and on Shastina. On ordinary slopes it ranges from an altitude below 8,000 feet up to about 9,000. (Identified by Professor Greene.) iPittonia, IV, pp. 38-39, March 17, 1899. PLANTS. 165 Arnica merriami Greene.' Oommon iu the heather meadows and ahing the edges of streams in most parts of the Hudsouiau zone. This new species has just been described by Professor Greene from specimens collected by us on the moist banks of the small west arm of Upper Squaw Greek, under the alpine liemlocks, where it is very (amnion. Arnica longifolia D. 0. Eaton. Oominon iu moist places in the Canadian zone, chiefly on tlie banks of streams. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Arnica viscosa Gray. This singular species, which differs strikingly iu appearance and habit from most members of its genus, grows in dense i^atches, usually 2 or 3 feet in diameter, amoug the bare lava rocks on steep sloj^es near timberline. On the south side of Shasta it was fairly common and flowering abundantly in August. (Identified by Miss Eastwood.) Artemisia tridentata Nutt. True Sagebrush. Sagebrush is unknown iu the region about Shasta except iu Shasta Valley, which it invades and overspreads from the Klamath country on the north. It reaches the extreme south end of Shasta Valley and penetrates a short distance into the bordering forest of ponderosa pines, where it mixes with Kunzia tridentatd. Pushing southeasterly over Shasta Valley it reaches the gap at Sheeji Rock. Its zone position is Upper Sonoran and Transition. Artemisia ludoviciana Zs'utt. A fovm of Artemisia ludoviciana. is common in places just below Wagon Camp, along the iipper edge of the Transition zone. When the species and subspecies now lumped under the above name are properly defined, several useful zone plants may be added to their appropriate lists. Machseranthera shastensis Gray. Shasta Alpine Aster. [=Aster shastensis Auct.]. A dwarf alpine species abounding on the bare rocky pumice slopes in the neighborhood of timberline, aud common also on the borders of the heather beds in the glacial meadows. This is the type form. A related but unnamed form, usually a foot and a half or more in height, is common and widely distributed on the lower slopes, chiefly in the upper part of the Transition and lower part of the Canadian zones. Oreastnim alpiginum (Gray) Greene. Common in the neighborhood of timberline, particularly iu moist places. (Identified by Professor Greene.) 'Pittonia, IV, p. 36, March 17, 1899. 166 NORTH AMEEICAN FAUNA. Iw> le. Chaenactis nevadensis (Kellogg) Gray. Alpine Chaenactis. This curious composite, with whitish tubular flowers, much divided sticky leaves, and a smell like that of alcoholic specimens, occurs here and there in the pumice sand and among the broken lava shale above timberline. It was first seen in flower on the north side of Shastina July 24 (alt. 9,000 feet), and early in August was flowering plentifully on the south slope of Shasta above the head of Squaw Creek (alt. 9,300 feet). (Identified by Professor Greene.) Chrysothamnus bloomeri (Gray) Greene. One of the commonest and most widely distributed plants of the higher slopes, where it occupies pumice soils from the bottom of the Hudsonian zone u.j) to several hundred feet above timberline. It was rarely found above an altitude of 9,000 feet. This plant is very long lived, and although the part above ground is relatively small it springs from a large woody base resembling that of the true sagebrush. The root is enormous. The main taproot (some- times double) usually sinks so deeply into the soil that I was unable to dig one up without breaking off the terminal point. In mature plants the main root measures about 200 millimeters in circumference where it enters the ground, and is 500 to 600 millimeters in length. It gives off numerous small and slender rootlets some of which exceed 600 millimeters in length. The height of the plant above ground rarely exceeds 150 millimeters. Chrysothamnus bloomeri angustatus (Gray) Greene. Common at Wagon Camp and in various parts of the Transition zone, usually scattered through the manzanita chaparral. Yernon Bailey collected it at Sheep Eock. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Chrysothamnus occidentaUs Greene. Rabbit Brush. Fairly common in open spots on the lower slopes throughout the Transition zone, where it is mixed with Ktinzia tridentata, Arctostaphy- los patula, and Geanot.htis velutinus. This large white-stemmed spe- cies occurs sparingly in dry soil at Sisson, and thence to Edgewood and Shasta Valley, in the upper edge of the Upper Sonoran zone, where it is common among the sagebrush. It was obtained at Sheep Eock by Vernon Bailey. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Nutt. Common in the upper part of the Upjier Sonoran zone in Shasta Valley. (Identified by Professor Greene.) Erigeron armerisefolium Turcz. Eather common near timberline. Specimens were collected above Squaw Creek, near the head of Mud Creek Canyon, and on the north slope of Shastina. (Identified by Professor Greene.) OCT., 1899.] PLANTS. If) 7 Erigeroh com^ositiis trifidus Hook. Comihon oh tlie slopes of broken sliule aiul puiriicc above timberliiie, wbbre it ofteti groWs in ma(.s Of Silene suksdorfi close under the edges of I'ocki Oii tliti iouth side of Shasta it was not observed lower than 9,260 fefet, bufc oil the cold north slope of Shastina it was found as low as 8,90rt fe^t. Its yellow flpWers are rather conspicuous, and were notrid frftni th* liittev pai't of July until late in August. (Identified by Professot Grtednei) Erigiron inomJatus Gray. This tall ahd hihch-brb,nched Erigeron was found in .Alud Creek Canybn ahdalbiig Squaw Creek, a little below the fall, at an altitude of 6,800 feet. (Idfelitlfled by Professor Greene.) Eapatdrium occidetitkle Hook. Collected by Y^rnoji Bailfey and Miss Wilkins on Horse Camp Trail on the boundary between thb Tl'ansition and Canadian zones. (Identi- fied by Professor -2r). streams, 23-24, Sbecp, mountain, 103. Sh<.vclh'r, 109. Shrew, ilonterev, XH. SbaMta. 87. Sierra, 87. while-bellied water, 88. Shrewinnlc, large, 88. Shrike, wliitc-rumped, 128. Sialia arctica, 133-134. mexicanaoccidentalia, 133. Sibbaltlia, alpine, 150. Sibbaldia procumbens, 150. Silene acaulis, 82. bernardiiia, 81. californica, 81. ;^Tayi, 145. suksdorfi, 146. Si-skiii, pine, 124. Si.syrinchium belluin,141. Sitaniou cinercnra, 139. Sitta canadensis, 131. carolincnsis aculeata, i:!l. liygma'a. 13X. Skullcap, dwarf, IGl. Skunk, laige, 105. little spotted. 105. Slnpr exposure. 47-51. Slopes, basin, 52. cit.ctof St.M-p, 51. Smelowskia, f^O. .-^^^^i.'a'.ifornia, 140. SiniiS^ '■liforniea, 140. Suipe, AVilson, 109, Suowberry, 164. mountain, 164. Snow bu.sh, 153. Snow plant, 157. Solida^o elongata, 168. Solitaire, Townseud, 132-133. Sorbus occidentalis, 82. sarabucifolia, l.';0. Sdrex (Atopbyrax) bendirei,8l. mouti^-reyensis, 88. (Neosorex) navigator, 88. obscurus, 81. shastensis,, 16, 87. Tagrans ama-nus, 87. Sorrel, alpine, 144. Sparrow, Lincoln, 120. mountain sojig, 12.'3. thick-billed, 126. Town send, 126. western chipping, 125. western lark, 1-5. western savanna, 124. white-crowned, 125. Spatula clypcata, 109. Speotyto cunicularia hypogaa, 114. S])urmopliilu.s beldingi, 81. 178 INDEX. Spermopliilua douglasi, 89-90. iSphyrapicus ruber, 115. thyroideus, 116. Spilogale latifrona, 105. Spinus pinu3, 124. Spiraea, alpine, 148. red, 149. Spiraea arbuscula, 82. douglasi, 149. Spizella socialis arizoniB, 125. Spraguea umbellata, 145. Spring beauty, dwarf alpine, 145. Spruce, Douglas, 137. Squaw carpet, 154. Squirrel, golden-mantled ground, 90. Klaraatli flying, 92. large tree, 92. Oregon gray, 92. Oregon ground, 89-90. Sierra pine, 91-92. Stachys iugrata, 161. Stelgidopteryx serripennis, 127. Stellaria crispa, 145. Stellula calliope, 117. Stephanomeria lactucina, 169. Strawberry, large, 148. small, 148. Streams, 23-24. Streptanthus orbiculatus, 147. Strep topus, 80. Sturnella magna neglecta, 122. Sandew, 147. Swallow, barn, 127. cliff, 127. rougb-wiuged, 127. tree, 127. violet-green, 127. wbite-bellied, 127. Swift, Yaux, 117. wbite- throated, 117. Sympboricarpos pilosus, 164. racemosua, 164. Tacbj'cineta bicolor, 127. thalassina, 127. Tanager, mountain, 127. Taxideataxus, 105. Teal, cinnamon, 109. Thalictrum, 80. Tbimbleberry, western, 150. Thomomya alpinus, 81. mazama, 74, 81. raoDticola, 95-97. nionticola pinetorum, 10,97. Thrusb, dwarf hermit, 133. Thryomanes bewicki spilurus, 131. Timberline, 27-30. Titlark, 130. Tofieldia occidentalia, 140. Totanua flavipL-s, 110. Towbee, California, 126. green-tailed, 126. spurred, 126. Trocbilua alexandri, 117. Troglodytes aedon parkraani, 131. Tritelia ixioidea, 140. Tsuga mertensiana, 42-46, 137. 'llf^tef r^i::^ Xauga pattoni, 42. pattoniana, 42. Tyrannus verticalis, 117. Urocyon californicus townsendi, 16, 103-104. Ursua americanus, 107. liorribilis, 107. Vaccinium arbuscula, 159. Cffispitosum, 158-159. micropbyllum, 82. occidentale, 159. Vagnera stellata, 140. Valeriana sitcbenais, 82. Veratrnm californicum, 140. Verbena bracteosa, 53. Veronica cusicki, 163. Vespertilio fuscua, 89. AMcia americana, 152, Viola blanda, 154. purpurea, 154. Violet, alpine yellow, 154. white, 154. Vireo, Cassin, 128. western warbling, 128. Vireo gilvua swainsoni. 128. aolitarius casaini, 128. Vole, California, 94 mountain, 95. Vulpea macrourus, 103. Vulture, turkey, 111. "Warbler, Audubon, 128-129. Calaveras, 128. hermit, 129. luteacent, 128. Macgillivray, 129. pileolated, 130. western yellow -throat, 129. yellow, 128. Weaael, mountain, 106. Willow, black, 141. Nuttall, 141. Sitka, 141. "Willow herb, 155. Wilsonia pusilla pileolala, 130. Wolverine, 105. Woodpecker, arctic three- toed, 115. Cabania hairy, 114. California, 116. Gairdner, 114. Lewis, 116. pileated, 116. white-headed, 114-115. Wren, canyon, 130. Parkmaii, 131. rock, 130. tule, 131. Vigors, 131. Western winter, 131. Santhium strumarium, 53. Xanthocephalua xantbocepbalus, 121. Xenopicus albolarvatua, 114-115. Xerophyllum, 80. INDEX 179 Yarrow, dwarf alpine, 164. Tellowlegs, 110. Zamelodia melanooepliala, I'JC. Zapus montanus, 74, 81. pacificus, 99. trinotatns, 69. trinotatus aneiii,98. Zeiiuidura macroura, 111. Zones, Li lo, r.2 -68. Alpine, 67-68. Ciiimdiaii. 61-0-4. Hudsonian, 64-67. Transilion, 54-61. Upper Senoran, 53-54. Zonotricbia leucoplirys, 125. LABORATORY. OF ORNITHOJ-QG^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY ^ - - ITHACA, NEW YORK