CORNELL UNIVERSITY ... LIBRARY STEPHEN E. WHICHER MEMORIAL BOOK COLLECTION UNDERGRADUATE LIBRARY DATE DUE — BBS-Jpi^lll wrrrm ^tin999- M- ^ Cornell University Mi kj Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014233864 NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Late Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta * Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles : Omne supemacuum plena de pectore manat. — Horace, Ars Poetica. ALLYN AND BACON BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAG6 ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO First edition printed February, 1895. Reprinted April and September, 1895 > April, 1896; Jnly, 1897; April, 1898; May and September, 1899; April and November, 1900; October, 1901; March, 1902; April and November, 1903; July, 1904; April, 1905; April and November, 1906. Revised edition printed March, 1908. Reprinted April and October, igog; May, 19 Oj March, 191 1 ; March, 1912; March, 1913; April, 1914; March, 1915; March, 1916; March, 1917. Third edition printed June, 1918. Reprinted March and December, 1919; September, 1920; June, 1921; June, 1922; March and July, 1923; October, 1923; January and July, 1924; April, August and October, 1925; October, 1926; March, 1927. ::OPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918. *BY CHARLKS E. BENNETT. PREFACE. The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and in- structive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustra- tive Examples cited in the Syntax. C. E. B. Ithaca, New York, May 4, 1918. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevaiUng practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -is, -Imus, -itis are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. Ithaca, Nkw York, October i6, 1907. FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college stu- dent, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have ap- peared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introduc- tions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thor- ough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous. Ithaca, New York, December 15, 1894. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction — The Latin Language ix Part L sounds, accent, quantity, etc. The Alphabet i Oassification of Sounds ... i Sounds of the Letters .... 3 Syllables 4 Quantity 4 Accent 5 Vowel Changes 6 Consonant Changes 7 Peculiarities of Orthography . . 7 Part II. INFLECTIONS CHAPTER \.— Declension. A. Nouns. Gender of Nouns 10 Number n Cases II The Five Declensions .... 12 First Declension 13 Second Declension 14 Third Declension 18 Fourth Declension 28 Fifth Declension 29 Defective Nouns 30 B. Adjectives. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions 34 Adjectives of the Third Declen- sion . 36 Comparison of Adjectives ... 40 Formation and Comparison of Adverbs 43 Numerals 45 C. Pronouns. Personal Pronouns . Reflexive Pronouns . Possessive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns The Intensive Pronoun The Relative Pronoun Interrogative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns . Pronominal Adjectives CHAPTER II. Verb Stems . . ■ Conj The Four Conjugations . Conjugation of Sum First Conjugation . . Second Conjugation . . Third Conjugation . . Fourth Conjugation . . Verbs in -id of the Third Conju gation Deponent Verbs . . . 48 49 49 5° 51 51 52 52 S3 ugation. 54 55 56 58 62 66 70 74 76 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS,. Semi-Deponents 78 Periphrastic Conjugation ... 78 Peculiarities of Conjugation . . 79 Formation of the Verb Stems . 80 PAGB List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts ... 83 Irregular Verbs 9S Defective Verbs '02 Impersonal Verbs '04 Part III. PARTICLES. Adverbs '°6 Prepositions ■°7 Interjections 108 Part IV. WORD FORMATION. I. Derivatives. Nouns ... .... 109 Adjectives iii Verbs 113 Adverbs IF4 II. Compounds. Examples of Compounds . . . Part V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. — Sentences. Classification of Sentences . .117 Form of Interrogative Sentences 117 Subject and Predicate . . . .119 Simple and Compound Sentences 119 CHAPTER II. — Syntax of A^ouns. Subject 120 Predicate Nouns 120 Appositives 121 The Nominative 122 The Accusative 122 The Dative 129 The Genitive 134 The Ablative 14:2 The Locative 152 CHAPTER III. — Syntax of Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives . . . 153 Adjectives used Substantively . 154 Adjectives with the Force of Ad- verbs 156 Comparatives and Superlatives . 156 Other Peculiarities 156 CHAPTER IV. — Syntax of Pronouns. Personal Pronouns . Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns . Reciprocal Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns «S7 "57 158 159 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vu Relative Pronouns i6i Indefinite Pronouns 163 Pronominal Adjectives .... 164 CHAPTER N.— Syntax of Verbs. Agreement of Verbs 165 Voices 167 Tenses 167 Of the Indicative 167 Of tlie Subjunctive . . . .171 Of the Infinitive 174 Moods 176 In Independent Sentences . .176 Volitive Subjunctive . . .176 Optative Subjunctive . . .178 Potential Subjunctive . . .179 Imperative 180 In Dependent Qauses . . . 181 Clauses of Purpose . . .181 Qauses of Characteristic . 1 82 Clauses of Result . . . .184 Causal Clauses 185 Temporal Clauses .... 187 Introduced by Posiquam, Ut, Ubi,etc. .... 187 C«OT-Clauses 188 Introduced by Anteqtiam and Priusq-uam . . .190 Introduced by Dum, Do- nee, Quoad .... 191 Substantive Clauses . . . 192 Developed from the Voli- tive 192 Developed from the Opta- tive ....... 194 01 Result 19s After non dubito, etc. . . 195 Introduced by Quod . .196 Indirect Questions . . . 197 Conditional Sentences . .198 Use ot St., Nisi^ Sin • . . 202 FACE Conditional Clauses of Com- parison 203 Concessive Clauses . . . 203 Adversative Clauses vfith Quapivls, Quamquam, etc. 203 Clauses of Wish and Proviso 205 Relative Clauses .... 205 Indirect Discourse .... 206 Moods in Indirect Dis- course 206 Tenses in Indirect Dis- course 208 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse . . 209 Implied Indirect Discourse . 211 Subjunctive by Attraction . 212 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb 212 Infinitive 213 Participles 217 Gerund 220 Supine 223 CHAPTER \l.— Particles. Coordinate Conjunctions . . . 223 Adverbs 227 CHAPTER Vn.— Word- Order and Sentence- Structure. Word-Order 227 Sentence-Structure 232 CHAPTER Vlll.— Hints on Latin Style. Nouns 233 Adjectives 235 Pronouns 236 Verbs 236 The Cases 238 via TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part VI. PROSODY. PAGE Quantity of Vowels and Sylla- bles 240 Verse-Structure 243 rAGB The Dactylic Hexameter . . .245 The Dactylic Pentameter . . .246 Iambic Measures 246 SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. Roman Calendar .... 247 I III. Figures of Syntax and Rhet- II. Roman Names 249 { oric 249 Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax 251 Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs 259 General Index ,,.... 263 INTRODUCTION. THE LATIN LANGUAGE. I. The Indo-European Family of Languages. — Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo- European}- This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups : &SIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMHiT. a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary produc- tions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thou- sand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C. The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people. b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform ^ inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,^ is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoro- 1 Sometimes also called Aryan or Indo- Germanic. 2 Cuneiform means " wedge-shaped." The name applies to the form of the Btrokes of which the characters consist. * The name Zend is often given to this. X INTRODUCTION. aster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as lOOO B.C. Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particu- larly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic. c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the liranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliesi literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered loca- tions in which the Armenians are found to-day. d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered , and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era. EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. e. The Greek. The. Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century b.c. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.* INTRODUCTION. xi /. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria) ; the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium) ; the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plau- tus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a mucii earlier period. g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of north- ern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe ; but after the second century e.g., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul ; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people ; the Welsh ; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders. h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are de- scended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German ; Dutch ; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English. i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary pro- ductions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the XU INTRODUCTION. Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old BuK garian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century. j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century. 2. Home of the Indo-European Family. — Despite the many outward ' differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelm- ingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, • though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected. As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years. The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the vari- INTRODUCTION. Xiii ous individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier. 3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language. — The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature : a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclu- sively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length. b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong : Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey ; Tragedies). Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies). Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. (" Punic War " ; Come- dies). Ennius, 239-169 B.C. (" Annals " ; Tragedies). Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies). Lucilius, 180-103 ^-C- (Satires). Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies). Accius, i7o-about85 b.c. (Tragedies). XIV INTRODUCTION. c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (8i b.c.) to the death of Au- gustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection,! Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest full- ness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Litera- ture reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here: Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy). Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet). Cicero, 106-43 ^.c. (Orations ; Rhetorical Works ; Philosophical Works ; Letters). Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars). Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian). Nepos, about loo-about 30 b.c. (Historian). Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bu- colics "). Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes ; Satires ; Epistles), Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet). Propertius, about 50-about 15 b.c (Poet). Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems). Livy, 59 B.C.-17 a.d. (Historian). d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 a.d.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 a.d.). This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now mani- fests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the INTRODUCTION. XV colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention : Phaedrus, flourished about 40 a.d. (Fables in Verse) Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 a.d. (His- torian). Lucan, 39-65 a.d. (Poem on the Civil War). Seneca, about 1-65 a.d. (Tragedies ; Philosophical Works). Pliny the Elder, 23-79 a.d. (" Natural History"). Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 a.d. ("Letters "). Martial, about 45-about 104 a.d. (Epigrams). Quintilian, about 3S-about 100 a.d. (Treatise on Oratory and Education). Tacitus, about 5s-abont 118 a.d. (Historian). Juvenal, about 55-about 135 a.d. (Satirist). Suetonius, about 75-about 150 a.d. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars "). Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 a.d. (First Christian Apologist). Apuleius, i2S-about 200 B.C. (" Metamorphoses," or " Golden Ass "). e. TTie Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C. ; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point oi view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the " Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century a.d. /. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century a.d. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade xvi INTRODUCTION. the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are : TertuUian, about i6o-about 240 a.d. (Christian Writer). Cyprian, about 200-258 a.d. (Christian Writer). Lactantius, flourished about 300 a.d. (Defense of Christianity). Ausonius, about 310-about 395 a.d. (Poet). ] Jerome, 340-420 a.d. (Translator of the Scriptures). ; Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father). Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father — "City of God "). Prudentius, flourished 400 a.d. (Christian Poet). Claudian, flourished 400 a.d. (Poet). Boethius, about 480-524 a.d. (" Consolation of Phi- losophy "). 4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language. — After the sixth century a.d. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Chur.ch, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provencal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent-speech. ART I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. — • — THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w. 1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words — chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. I. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, o, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, oh. Of these, — d) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,* i.e. sounded without voice or vibra- tion of the vocal cords. b) b, d, g are voiced,'' i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal cords. ' For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard," or ' tenuis ' are sometimes used. 2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft,' or ' media ' are sometimes used. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclu-' sively to words derived fi-om the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, o + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless: mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house^ block-house. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch. 5. The Liquids are 1, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound, — that of ng in sing, — the so- called n adultennum ; as, — anceps, double, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sgmetimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3. 3. 10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds : — Voiceless. Voiced. Aspirates. P, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, a, th, (Dentals). c, k, q. g> oh, (Gutturals) Liquids, I,r, Nasals, f, m, n, (Labial). Spirants, 8» (Dental). (Guttural). Semivowels, J,T. a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization ; i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 a.d. 1. Vowels. as ia. father ; 5 as in the first syllable of aM ; as in ihey ; g as in mei ; as in machine; i as in pin ; as in note ; 8 as in oiey, melody ; as in rude; . ti as input; like French u, German ii. 2. Diphthongs. ae like ai in aisie ; eu with its two elements, S and fi, oe like oi in oil; pronounced in rapid succession ; ei as in rein ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui au like ow in how; and huic. These words may be I pronounced as though written kwee and wheek. 3. Consonants. d, f, h, k, 1, m, s, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt. is always pronounced as k. is always a plain /, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration. always as in get ; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gzv, as in anguis, languidus. has the sound of jy as in yei. was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue, always voiceless as in sin ; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in com- pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound oisw. like w. always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z. uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng, zd^ possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, oh, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng./, c, t — so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. (Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables, — 1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-iit, pe-rit, a-dest. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus. 3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly^ separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel ; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mon-strum, sis-te-re. 4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consisf of a mute followed by 1 or r (pi, ol, tl ; pr, or, tr, etc.'). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel ; as, a-gri, vo-lu-oris, pa-tris, ma-tris. Yet if the 1 or r introduces the second parf of a compound, the two consonants are separated ; as, ab-rumpo, ad-latus. 5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel ; as, ax-iB, tex-i. QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is long ox short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience ; but the following principles are of aid : — 1. A To-wel is long,i — a) before nf or ns; as, infans, inferior, consumo, censeo, insum. h) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nihilum. 2. A vowel is short, — a) before nt, nd ; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occui in compounds whose first member has a long vowel ; as, non dura (non dum). b) before another vowel, or h ; as, meus, traho. Some excep tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek as, Aeneas. 1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above tliem; as a, i, 0, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set abovi short vowels ; as, S, ti. ACCENT. B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation. 1. A syllable is long, i — a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, r§gnum, dius. b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con- sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, resto. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, ol, tl ; pr, or, tr, etc. ; as, Sgri, voliioria.^ Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. Note. — These distinctions of long and short' are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syl- lable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable con- taining a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa- rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. I . Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, t^git, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante- penult (second from the last) ; as, amSvi, amdntis, miserum. 3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented ; as, miserdque, hominlsque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pdrtaque ; but miserdque. 1 To avoid confusioni the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign. 2 But if the 1 or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long ; as, abrumpo. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. 4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -oe disappears, but withoul affecting the accent ; as, tanton, istfo, illno. 5. In utr^que, each, and pierSque, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence ot their oib=.r cases, — ut^rque, utrdrnque, plerdmque. VOWEL CHANGES.i ^ 7. I . In Compounds, — a) 6 before a single consonant becomes i ; as, — coUigo for con-lego. U) a before a single consonant becomes 1 ; as, — adigo for ad-ago. c) S before two consonants becomes B ; as, — ezpers for ez-pars. d) ae becomes T ; as, — conquiro for oon-quaero. e) au becomes u, sometimes ; as, — concludo for con-claudo ; explodo for ez-plaudo. 2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as,— tres for tre-es ; copia for co-opia ; malo for nia(v)elo; cogo for co-ago; amSsti for ania(v)isti; como for co-emo; debeo for de(h)abe6; junior for ju(v)enior. ml for nihil; 3. Parasitic Vo-wels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, — vinculum for earlier vinclum. So periculum, saeculum. 4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope ; as, — ardor for aridor (compare aridus) ; valde for valide (compare validus) . I Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 CONSONANT CHANGES.i 8. I. Rhotaoism. An original s between vowels became r ; as, — arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ; genus, Gen. generis (for genesis) ; dirimo (for dis-emo) . 2. dt, tt, ts each give e or sg ; as, — penaum for pend-tum ; versum for vert-tum ; , miles for milet-s ; sessus for sedtus ; passus for pattus. 3. Final consonants were often omitted ; a.s, — cor for cord ; lac for laot. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus : aoourro (ado-) ; aggero (adg-) ; assero (ads-) ; allatus (adl-) ; apporto (adp-) ; attuli (adt-) ; arrideo (adr-) ; affero (adf-) ; ocourro (obo-) ; suppono (aubp-) ; offero (obf-) ; oorruo (comr-) ; coUatus (00ml-) ; etc. 5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus : — , a) b before s or t becomes p ; as, — scripsi (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum). b) g before s or t becomes c ; as, — actus (ag-tus). c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n ; as, — eundem (eum-dem) ; princeps (prim-ceps). PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. I. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevail- i Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. 8 SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. ing forms almost down to the Augustan age ; after that, cum, vultus,; vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc., down to about the same era ; later, optimus, mazimus, libet, libido, etc. 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are ezspecto, ezpecto ; ezsisto, existo ; epistula, epistola; adul§scens, adolescens; paulus, paullus; oottldie, cotidie; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling ; as, — ad-gero or aggero ; ad-sero or assero ; ad-licio or allicio ; in-latus or illatua ; ad-rogans or arrogans ; sub-raoveo or summoveo ; and many others. 3. Compounds of jaciS were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc. 4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uuB, -unm preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom- -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antiques, anti- quom ; saevos ; perpetuos ; equos ; servos. Similarly verjjs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur ; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinqnont, loquontur ; vTvont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts. ART II. INFLECTIONS. 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this prbcess is called Declen- sion; in case of verbs, Conjugation. Chapter I. — Declension. A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; 'Roma., Rome ; -p&ana., feather ; virtus, courage. 1 . Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma- nent names of persons or places ; as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are Common; as, penna, virtus. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects ; ss, laoas, mountain ; pea, foot; CtiBa, day ; vasna, mind. 9 lO INFLECTIONS. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legio, legion ; oomitatus, retinue. V) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, stead, fastness; paupertas, poverty. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13. There are three Genders, — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram- matical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons ; and these are — 1. Masculine, if they denote males ; as, — aa-riXa., sailor ; asiicola., farmer. 2. Feminine, if they denote females ; as, — mater, tnother ; regina, queen. Grammatical Gender. 15.. Grammg.tical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Femi- nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending; of the Nominative Singular. The following are the gen- eral principles for determining grammatical gender : — A. Gender determined by Signification. 1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu- line; as, — Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April. 2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as, — quercus, ofl^j Corinttaua, Corinth; Rho&\xB, Rhodes. NUMBER. — CASES. 1 1 Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below) ; as, — Delphi, m. ; Leuctra, n. ; Tibur, n. ; Carthago, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as, — nihil, nothing; nefas, wrong ; amSre, to love. Note. — Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, AlUa (the river) , f. B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular. The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.' Note i . — Comtnon Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes IMascu- line, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also oivis, citizen ; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be commxm. Note 2. —Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female ; as, anser, m., goose or gan- der. So vulpes, f.,/ox; aquila, f., eagle. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers, — the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin : — Nominative, Case of Subject ; Genitive, Objective with of, or Possessive ; Dative, Objective with /a or /or; Accusative, Case of Direct Object ; Vocative, Case of Address ; Ablative, Objective with by, from, in, with. 1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The prin- ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions. 12 INFLECTIONS. 1. Locative. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting' place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla- tive are called Oblique Cases. 3. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.^ Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case- ending thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : — Declension. Final Letter of Stem. Gen. Termination. First ' a -ae Second 6 -i Third \ Some consonant -Is Fourth fi -Us Fifth S -SI Cases alike in Form. 19. I. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -5. 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the' Nominative. 1 The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root. Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, per-. Roots are usually mono- syllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffls. Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta, FIRST DECLENSION. 13 FIRST DECLENSION. a-Stema. 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu- larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows : — Porta, gate ; stem, porta-. SINGULAR. Cases. Meanings. TEHMraATTOMS. Nom. porta agate (as subject) -a Gen. portae of a gate -ae Dot. portae to ox for a gate -ae Ace. portam a gate (as object) -am Voc. porta gate'. -a AM. porta with, by, from, in a PLURAL. gate -a Nom. , portae gates (as subject) -ae Gen. portarum of gates -arum Dai. porti3 to or for gates -IS Ace. portas gates (as object) -as Voc. portae gates'. -ae AM. portia with, by, from, in gates -is 1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate at the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates. Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension. 21. I. Exceptions IN Gender. Nouns denoting males are Mascu- line; as, nauta, jaz&>- ; a-sricola, farmer ; also, B.a.diia, Adriatic Sea. 2. Rare Case-Endings, — a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the combination pater familisiB, father of a family ; also in mater familits, filius familias, filia familias. But the regular form, of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions ; as, pater famlliae. b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs ; as, aulal. 14 INFLECTIONS. c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae ; as, Romae, at Rome. d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This terminal tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. e) Instead of the regular ending -is, we usually find -abua in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fil us, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiaritv : as, libertabus (from ITberta, freedwoman), equabus (mares), to avoid confusion wiih libertis (from libertus, freedmati) and equis (from equus, horse). Greek Nouns. 22. These end in -e (Feminine) ; -as and -es (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows : — Archias, Archias. Epitome, epitome. Cometes, comet. Nom. Archias epitome cometes Gen. Archiae epitomes cometae Dat. Archiae epitomae cometae Ace. Archiam (or -an) epitomen cometen Voc. Archia epitome comete (or -5) Abl. Archia epitome comete (or -a) 1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatioa, grammar; musioa, music ; rhetorica, rhetoric. 2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry. SECOND DECLENSION. Systems. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -cm. So also in the Accusative. SECOND DECLENSION. IS Nouns in-us and -um are declined as follows : - Hortus, garden ; Bellum, war ; stem, hortfi-. stem, bellfi-. SINGULAR. Termination. Tbrmination. Abm. hortus -US bellum -um Gen. horti -i beUi -I sU- Dai. horto -o bello -O ■- Ace. hortum -um bellum -um Voc. horte -e bellum -um AM. horto -5 Plural. bello -6 Norn. horti -i bella -a Gen. hortorum -drum bellorum -oruir Dot. hortis -is bellis -is Ace. hortoB -OS bella -a Voc. horti -i bella -a Ail. hortis -is bellis -is Nouns in -er and ■ ■ir are declined [ as follows ; : — Puer, day ; K^e^x, field; Vir, man ; stem, puerS- stem, agrS- SINGULAR. stem, virS- Termination. JVofn. puer ager vir Wanting Gen. pueii agri viri -i Dai. puer5. agro viro -5 Ace. puenim agrum virum -um Voc. puer ager vir Wanting Abl. puero agro PLURAL. virS -5 Nom. , pueri agii viii -5 Gen. puerorum agrorum virorum -orum Dat. pueiis agris viris -is Ace. pueros agros --' viros -OS Voc. pueii agri viri -i Abl. pueris agns viiis -is I. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowei of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular, i6 INFLECTIONS. In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is furthei modified by the development of e before r. 2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer : adulter, adulterer; ^ene^x, son-in-law; lAhei, Bacchus ; socer, father^n-law; vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as aignifer, armiger. Nouns in -VHS', -rnm, -quus. 24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, — an earlier and a later, — as follows : — Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero') . Servos, m., slave. Aevom, n., age. Equos, m., horse. SINGULAR. Nom. . servos aevom equos Gen. servi aevi equi Dai. servo aevo equo Ace. servom aevom equom Voc. serve aevom eque AM. servo aevo equo Later Inflection {after Cicero). SINGULAR. Nom. servus aevum equus Gen. servJ aevi equi Dat. serv5 aevo equo Ace. , servum aevum equum Voc. serve aevum eque Abl. servo aevo equ5 1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform. Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension. 25. I. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive lingular in -i (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in >5 (for -ie) ; as, Vergill, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -ai, -ei, as Pompejus, Pompei. 2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -ii) ; as, — SECOND DECLENSION. V] Nom. ingenium filius Gen. ing^ni fill These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. 3. FQiua forms tlie Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie) ; viz. fill, O son I 4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows : — Nom. di ("Isi) Gen. deoTum (deum) Dat. dis (deis) Ace. deos Voc. di (^ei) AM. dis (deis) 5. The Locative Singular ends in -i; as, Corinthi, at Corinth. 6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orutn, — a) in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of talents; laodiara, of pecks ; sestertinm, 0/ sesterces. d) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir ; as, duumvirum. c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, 0/ the children ; socium, of the allies. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. I . The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : — a) Names of to-wns, islands, trees — according to the general rule laid down in § 15. 2 ; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt. V) Five special words, — alvus, belly; carbasus, y?aa-; colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, ivinnowing-fan. c) A few Greek Feminines ; as, ^ atomus, atom; diphthongus, diphthong. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter : — pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus, crowd. I8 INFLECTIONS. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -oa, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are de- clined as follows : — Barbitos, m. and f., Androgeos, m., Ilion, n., lyre. Androgeos. Troy. Nbm. barbitos Androgeos Ilion Gen. barbiti AndrogeS, -I Tlii Dat. barbito Androgeo Ilio Ace. barbiton Androgeo, -on Ilion Voc. barbite Androgeos Tlion Abl. barbito Androgeo Tlio 1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on ; as, Delum, Delos. 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. 3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be con- sulted. THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -6, -y, -c, -1, -1, -r, -s, -t, -X. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems, — I. Pure Consonant-Stems. TI. i-Stems. in. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted; themselves to the inflection of i-Stems. IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant-Stems. 29. I. In these the stem appears in its unaltered fortn- in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized. THIRD DECLENSION. 19 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. A. Mute-Stems. 30. Mute-Stems may end, — 1. In a Labial (p) ; as, princep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remez (remeg-s) ; dux (duc-s). 3. In a Dental (d or t) ; as, lapis (lapid-s) ; mileB (milet-s). I. Stems in a Labial Mute (p). 31. Princeps, m., chief. SINGULAR. Nbm. princeps Gen. principis principi principem princeps principe Dot. Ace. Voc. AM. PLURAL. JVom. prlncipes GeM. principum Dai. prlncipibus Ace. principes yoc. principes Adl. prlncipibus Tekminatioh. -s -is -1 -em -s -e -es -um -ibus -es -es -ibus 2. Stems in a Guttural Mute (g, c). 32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x. Remex, m., rower. Dux, c, leader. singular. plural. singular. PLURAL. Nom. remex remiges dux duces Gen. remigis reraigum duels ducum Dat. remigl remigibus duci dudbus Ace. remigem remiges ducem ducSs Voc. remex remiges dux ducSs Abl. remige remigibus duce ducibuB 20 INFLECTIONS. 3. Stems in a Dental Mute (d, t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomina live Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, m., stone. Miles, m., soldier. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. lapis lapides miles militSs Gen. lapidis lapidum mllitis militum Dat. lapidi lapidibus mllitl militibas Ace. lapidem lapides miHtem milites Voc. lapis lapides miles milites Abl. lapide lapidibus milite militibus B. Liquid Stems. 34. These end in -1 or -f. Vigil, m., Victor, m., •watchman. conqueror. Aequor, n., sea. Nom. vigil Gen. vigilia Dat. vigili Ace. vigilem Voc. vigil Abl. vigile SINGULAR. victor victoria victSti victoreiu victor victore aequor aequoiis aequorl aequor aequor aequore Nom. vigiles Gen. vigilum vigilibus vigilgs vigilSs vigilibus Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. PLURAL. victores victorum victoribus victores victores victoribus aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus 1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Noral. native and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusativ^i and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension. THIRD DECLENSION. 21 C. Nasal Stems. 35. These end in -n,i which often disappears in the Nom. Sing. Leo, m., lion. Nomeu, n., name SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. leo Ie5nes nomen nomina Gen. Ie5nis leonum ndminis nominum Dot. leoni leonibus nomini nominibus Ace. leonem le5nes nSmen nomina Voc. leo leones nomen nomina Abl. leone leonibus nomine nominibus D. s-Siems. 36. Mos, m., custom. Genus, n., race. Honor, m., honor. Nom. mos Gen. moris Dat. moii Ace. morem Voc. mos Abl. more Nom. mores Gen. morum Dat. moribus Ace. mores Voc. mores Abl. moribus SINGULAR. genus generis generi genus genus genere PLURAL. genera generum gene.ribus genera genera generibus honor honoris honori honorem honor honore honores honorum honoribuB honores honores honoribus I. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, dis- placing the earlier s, though the forms houos, colos, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry. 1 There is only one stem ending in -m. — hiemEj^MemiS. winter. 22 INFLECTIONS. II. i-Stems. A. Masculine and Feminine 1-Stems. 37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singu- lar, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is ; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end- ings of Consonant-Stems. 38. Tussis, f., cough; Ignis, ra.,fire; Hostis, c, enemy; stem, tussi-. stem, igni-. stem, hosti-. SINGULAR. Termination, Nom . tussis Ignis hosUs -is Gen. tussis Ignis hostis -is Dat. tussi Igni hosti -i Ace. tussim Ignem hostem -im, -em Voc. tussis Ignis hostis -is AM. tussi Igni or e PLURAL. hoste -i, -e Nom. tusses Ignes hostSs -es Gen. tussium Igniam hostium -ium Dat. tussibus Ignibus hostibus -ibus Ace. tussis or -es Ignis or -es hostis or -Ss -is, -es Voc. tusses Ignes hostes -es AM. tussibus Ignibus hostibus -ibuB 1 . To the same class belong — apis, , bee. Gratis, hurdle. t *securi3, axe. auris. ear. Hebiis, fever. sementis, sowing. t *sitis, thirst. avis, 1 bird. orbis, circle. azis, ( axle. ovis, sheep. torris, brand. *buris, , plough-beam. pelvis, basin. f *turris, tower. clavis, key. puppis, stern. trudis, pole. coUis , hill. restis, rope. veotis, lever. and many others. Words marked with a star regularly have Ace. -im ; those marked with a t regularly have Abl -i. Of the others, many at times shofl -im and -i. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i. THIRD DECLENSION. 23 2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant- stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota- bly, canis, dog; \\3i^6Tx\s, youths 3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, diick, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dos, dowry ; nox, night; sors, lot; inSns, mind; ars, art; gens, tribe; and some others. B. Neuter \-Stems. 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -i in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and-ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do MascuUne and Feminine i-Stems. Sedile, seat ; Animal, animal; Calcar, spur ; stem, sedili-. stem, animali-. stem, oalcari- SINGULAR. Termination. Nom. sedile animal calcar -e or wanting Gen. sedilia animalis calcaris -is Dot. sedili animali calcari -i Ace. sedile animal calcar -e or wanting Voc. sedile animal calcar -e or wanting AM. sedfli animali PLURAL. calcan -i Nom. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Gen. sedTlium animalium calcarium -ium Dat. sedilibus animalibua calcaribus -ibus Ace. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Voc. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia AM. sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus 1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e. 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e ; as, Soracte, Mt. Soracte ; so also sometimes mare, sea. '> 1 Mensls, month, originally a consonant stem (mens-), has in the Genitive Plural both mensium and mensum. The Accusative Plural is menses. H INFLECTIONS. III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of J-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them-t selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is, shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu- lar, or -1 in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class : — Caedes, f., slaughter ; Arx, f., citadel; Linter, f., skiff; stem, caed-. stem, arc-. SINGULAR. stem, lintr-. JVbm. caedes arx linter Gen. caedis arcis lintris Dat. caedl arci lintri Ace. caedem arcem lintrem Voc. caedes arx linter AM. caede arce PLURAL. lintre Nom. caedes arces lintres Gen. caedium arcium lintrium Dat. caedibus arcibus lintribus Ace. caedes, -is arces, -is lintres, -is Voc. caedes arces lintrSs Abl. caedibus arcibus lintribus . The following classes of nouns belong here : a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as, nnbes, aedes, clades, etc. V) Many monosyllables in -s or -a: preceded by one or more consonants ; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx. c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, cliens, cohors. d) Uter, venter ; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix ; and the Plurals fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnites, Quirites. e) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, civitSfl, aetas. Civitas usually has civitatium. THIRD DECLENSION. 25 IV. Stems in -1, -n, and Diphthongs, 41. Vis, f., Sus, c, B5s, c, Juppiter, m., force ; swine ; ox, cow ; Jupiter ; stem, vi-. stem, SU-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-. SINGULAR Nom. VIS sus bos Juppiter Gen. — suis bovis Jovis Dat. — sui bovi Jovi Ace. vim suem bovem Jovem Voc. vis sus bos Juppiter Abl. vi sue bove Jove PLURAL. Nom. vires sues boves Gen. virium suum ( bovum ( bourn Dat. vTribus ( suibus \ subus < bobus { bubus Ace. vires sues boves Voc. vires sues boves Abl. vlribus \ suibus \ subus bobus bubus 1. Notice that the oblique cases of sus have ti in the root syllable. 2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus. 3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-i, eic. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the i-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -i. . Seaex, m., old man. C?t.xo,i., flesh. Oa ', n., bone. SINGULAR. Nom. senex caro OS Gen. senis carnis ossis Dat. seni carni ossi Ace. senem carnem OS Voc. senex caro OS Abl. sene came osse 26 INFLECTIONS. PLURAL. Nom. senes carnes ossa Gen. senum carnium ossium Dat. senibus carnibua ossibus Ace. senes carnes ossa Voc. senes carnes ossa AM. senibus carnibus ossibus 1. Iter, itlneris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem Itiner-. 2. Supellex, supelleotllis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -i and -e. 3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems, — Jeoor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jeooris or jecinoris. 4. Pemur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femiu-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis. General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension. 43. I . Nouns in -5, -or, -os, -er, -Ss are Masculine. 2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -do, -go (Genitive -inis) ; -io (abstract and collective), -us (Genitive -utis or -lidis) are Feminine. 3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -iis are Neuter. Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines. 1. Nouns in -6. a. Feminine : caro, flesh. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine : arbor, tree. b. Neuter: aequor, j^a; cox, heart; maxmor, marile. 3. Nouns in -6s. a. Feminine : dos, dowry. b. Neuter : 6s (6ris), mouth. 4. Nouns in -er. a~ Feminine : linter, skiff. THIRD DECLENSION. 27 h. Neuter : cadaver, corpse ; iter, way ; tuber, tumor ; Gber, udder. Also botanical names in -er ; as, aoer, maple. 5. Nouns in -6s. a. Feminine : seges, crop. 45. Szceptions to the Rule for Feminines. 1. Nouns in -as. a. Masculine : vas, bondsman. b. Neuter : vas, vessel. 2. Nouns in -es. a. Masculine: axiea, ram; paries, wall ; p^a,/aoi. 3. Nouns in -is. a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river; Ignis, ^re; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail. Also — aads, axle. piscis, fish. collis, hill. postis, post. fasois, bundle. pulvis, dust. lapis, stone. orbis, circle. mensis, mr>nth. sentis, brier. 4. Nouns in -x. a. Masculine: apex, peak; codes:, tree-trunk; grex, flock; imbrex, tile ; poUex, thumb ; vertex, summit ; calix, cup. J. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine : dens, tooth ; f ons, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge. 6. Nouns in -d5. a. Masculine : cardo, hinge ; ordo, order, 46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters. 1. Nouns in -1. a. Masculine : sol, sun ; sal, salt. 2. Nouns in -n. a. Masculine : pecten, comb. 3. Nouns in -ur. a. Masculine: ■vvW.Vi.r, vulture 4. Nouns in -fis. a. Masculine : lepus, hare. 28 INFLECTIONS. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension. 47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these : — 1 . The ending -a in the Accusative Singular ; as, aethera, aether-^ Salamma, Salamis. 2. The ending -Ss in the Nominative Plural; as, PhrygSs, Phrygians. 3 The ending -Ss in the Accusative Plural ; as, PhrygSs, Phrygians. 4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocatives! Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas. J. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus In the Dative and Ablative Plural ; as, poematis, poems. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension ; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc. 7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1, as, Periclis or Pericli. 8. Feminine proper names in -o have -us in the Genitive, but -5 in the other oblique cases; as, — Nom. Dido Gen. Dldus Dat. Dido Ace. Dido Voc. Did5 Abl. Dido 9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns. FOURTH DECLENSION. a-Stems. 48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Mascu line, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows : — ■ Pructus, m., fruit. Cornu, n ., horn. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. fructus friictiis cornii cornua Gen. friictus friictuum cornus cornuum Dat. fructui friictibus cornii cornibus Ace. fructum friictus cornii cornua Voc. friictus fructus cornii cornua Abl. fructu fructibua cornu cornibus FOURTH DECLENSION. — FIFTH DECLENSION. 29 Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 49. I- Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -1, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence. 2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead of-ul; as, fruotu (for fructui). 3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis- syllables in -cus ; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as thoseln -ubus. 4. Domus, ho7ise, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second : — domum, homewards, to one's home ; domos, homewards, to their {etc.) homes domi (locative), at home ; douLO, /ro7fi home; ;. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are : oornu, horn ; genu, knee ; and veru, spit. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension. 50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; mauus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; Idus (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15. 2). FIFTH DECLENSION. e-Stems. 51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -Ss, and are declined as follows : — Dies, m., day. SINGULAR. PLURAL, Nom. dies dies Gen. diel dierum Dat. diei diebus Ace. diem dies Voc. dies dies Abl. die diebus Res, f., thing. ^IGULAR. PLURAL, res res rgi rerum rSi rebus rem rgs r§s rSs re rebus 30 INFLECTIONS. Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension. 52. I. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -gi, instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes ; as, sp6i, rgi, fidSi. 2. A Genitive ending -i (for -Si) is found in plebi (from plebes = plebs) in the expressions tribiinus plebi, tribune of the people, and plebi scitum, decree of the people ; sometimes also in other words. 3. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sonietimes occurs ; as, acie. 4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species, spes, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural. « Gender in the Fifth Declension. 53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dies, day, and meridies, mid-day. But dies is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 54. Here belong — 1. Nouns used in the Singular only. 2. Nouns used in the Plural only. 3. Nouns used only in certain cases. 4. Indeclinable Nouns. Nouns used in the Singular only. 55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus : — 1. Proper names ; as, Cicero, Cicero; Italia, Italy. 2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk. 3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; bonitas, goodr ness. 4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus : — a) Proper names, — to denote diiferent members of a family, ot specimens of a type; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros; CatonSB, men like Cato. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 3 1 b') Names of materials, —> to denote objects made of the mate- rial, or different kinds of the substance ; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures) ; ligna, woods. c) Abstract nouns, — to denote instances of the quality ; as, ignorantiae, cases of ignorance. Nouns used in the Plural only. 56. Here belong — 1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra ; Pompeji, Pompeii. 2. Many names of festivals ; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian festival. 3. Many special words, of which the following are the most impor- tant : — angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the dead. arma, weapons. moenia, city walls. dSliciae, delight. minae, threats. divitiae, riches. nuptiae, marriage. Idus, Ides. poster!, descendants. indutiae, truce. reliquiae, remainder. msidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkness. majores, ancestors. verbera, blows. Also in classical prose regularly — cervices, neck. nares, nose. fides, lyre. viscera, viscera. Nouns used only in Certain Cases. 57. I. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular ; as, jussu, by the order; injussu, without the order ; natu, by birth. 2. Used in Two Cases. a. Pors (chance}, Nom. Sing. ; forte, Abl. Sing. b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing. ; sponte, Abl. Sing. 3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nuUus; viz. nuUius and nuUo. 52 INFLECTIONS. 4. Impetus has the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and tlie Nora and Ace. Plu. ; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. 5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. ' , b. Viois, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. 6. Opis, dapis, and frugis, — all lack the Nom. Sing. 1 7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu. \ as, cor, luz, sol, aes, os (oris), rus, sal, tus. Indecliiiable Nouns. 58. Here belong — fas, n., right. nefas, n., impiety. instar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing. mane, n., morning. secus, n., sex. I. With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning'), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. Heteroclites. 59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus : — 1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another ; as, — vas, vasis {vessel) ; Plu., vasa, vasorum, vasis, etc. jugerum, jugerl {acre) ; Plu., jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc. 2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension,' have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus : — a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Ace. of the Fifth ; as, materiSs, materiem, material, as well as materia, materiam. b) Fames, hunger, 'regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame of the Fifth. c) Requies, requietis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, • takes an Ace. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requi- etem. d) Besides plebs, plebis, common people, of the Third Declen- sion, we find plebes, plebSi (also plebj, see 5 1:2. 2), of the Fifth. HETEROGENEOUS NOUNS. 33 Heterogeneous Nouns. 60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus : — 1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms, — ont asc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield \, irrus, carrum, cart. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in tht lural; as, — SINGULAR. PLURAL. balneum, n., bath ; balneae, f., bath-house. epulum, n., feast i epulae, f., feast. frSnum, n., bridle i freni, m. (rarely frena, n.^, bridle, jocus, m.jjest; joca, n. (also jooi, m.), jests. locus, m., place ; loca, n., places ; loci, m., passages or topics in an author. rastrum, u., rake; ra,stTi, m. ; lastra, n., rakes. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals 'V7ith Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns have one meaning in the lingular, and another in the Plural : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedis, temple ; aedes, house. auzilium, help ; auzilia, auxiliary troops. career, prison ; carceres, stalls for racing-chariots castrum, fort ; oastra, camp. copia, abundance ; copiae, troops, resources. finis, end; fines, borders, territory. f ortuna, fortune ; fortunae, possessions, wealth, gratia, favor, gratitude ; gratiae, thanks. impedimentum, hindrance ; impedimenta, baggage. littera, letter (of the alphabet) ; litterae, epistle ; literature. m5s, habit, custom ; mores, character. opera, help, service; operae, laborers. (ops) opis, help ; opes, resources. psiiB, part; paitSa, party ; rdle. ■ai, salt ; sSles, wit. 34 INFLECTIONS. B. ADJECTIVES. 62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes, — 1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortua, puer, ; or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum, Thus, Masculine like hortua : — Bonus, good. SINGULAR. Masculisb. Feminine. Neuter. Norn. bonus bona bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Dat. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Voc. bone bona bonum AM. bono bona PLURAL. bono JVom. boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bonis bonis bonia Ace. bonoa bonaa bona Voc. boni bonae bona AM. bonis bonis bonia 1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii (not in -i as in case of Nouns; see § 25. i ; 2). So also the Vot Sing, of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in 1. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximii; Voc. eximie. 2. Distributives (see § 78. i. c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc, and Neut. in -um instead of -orum (compare § 25. 6) ; as, denuffl, centenum ; but always singulorum. ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35 64. Masculine like puer : — Tener, tender. SINGULAR. Masculine. Femininb. Neuter. Nom. tener tenera tenerum Gen. teneii tenerae teneri Dat. tenero tenerae tenero Ace. tenerum teneram tenerum Voc. tener tenera tenerum AM. tenero tenera PLURAL. tenero Nom. teneri tenerae tenera Gen. tenerorum tenerarum tenerorum Dat. teneris teneris teneris Ace. teneros teneras tenera Voe. teneri tenerae tenera Abl. teneris teneris teneris 65. Masculine like ager : — Sacer, sacred. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine, Neuter. Nom. sacer sacra sacrum Gen. sacii sacrae sacri Dat. sacro sacrae sacro Ace. sacrum sacram sacrum Voc. sacer sacra sacrum Abl. sacro sacra PLURAL. sacro Nom. sacri sacrae sacra Gen. sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum Dat. sacris sacris sacris Aec. sacros sacr3s sacra Voe. sacri sacrae sacra Abl. sacris sacJis sacris I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following, however, are declined like tener : asper, rough; laoer, torn; ITbeTj/reej 30 INFLECTIONS. voBGr, wretched ; ^xoa-^ex, prosperous ; compounds in -fer and -ger sometimes dexter, right. 2. Satur,/«//, is declined: satur, satura, aaturum. Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66 i. Here belong - - alius, another ; alter, the other-. uUus, any ; niillus, none ; uter, which ? (of two) ; neuter, neither; solus, alotie ; totus, whole ; unus, one, alone. They are ( declined as follows : — SINGULAR. Masculine . Feminine. Neuter. Mascuune '. Feminine, Neoter. Nom. , alius alia aliud alter altera alterum Gen. alteilus alterius alteiius i alterius alterius altering Dat. alii alii alii alter! alteri 2 alteti Ace. Voc. AM. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram altemm alio alia ali5 alters altera alters Nom. uter utra utrum totus tota totum Gen. utrius utrius utrius totius totius totius Dat. utri utri utri toti t5ti toti Ace. Voc. Abl. utrum utram utrum totum totam totum utro utra utro toto tota tota I. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular. 2. Neuter is declined [ like uter. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes, — 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular, — one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3. Adjectives of one termination. 1 This is practically always used instead of alius in the Genitive. 2 A Dative Singular I'eminine alterae also occurs. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 37 a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems ; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -1, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in is (as well as -es) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters. Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68. These are declined as follows : — Acer, sharp. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Notn. acer acris acre Gen. acrjs acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Voc. acer acris acre AM. acri acri PLURAL. acri Norn. acres acres ,acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres, -is acres, -is acria Voc. acres acres acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus 1. Like acer are declined alacer, lively; campester, /we/; oele. ber, famous ; equester, equestrian ; paluster, marshy ; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; saliiber, wholesome; Silvester, woody; terrester, terrestrial; voluoer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as Septem.ber. 2. Celer, celeria, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi- nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. 38 INFLECTIONS. Adjectives of Two Terminations. 69. These are declined as follows : — Fortis, strong. Portior, stronger. SINGULAR. M. AND F. Neut.- M. and F. Neut.' Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius Gen. fortis fortis fortioris fortioris Dat. forti forti fortioii fortiori Ace. fortem forte fortiorem fortius Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius Abl. forti forti fortiore fortiore Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. fortSs fortium fortibus fortes, -Is fortes fortibus PLURAL. fortia fortium fortibus fortia fortia fortibus fortiores fortiSrum fortioilbus fortiores, -is fortiores fortioribua fortiora fortiorum fortiorlbus fortiora fortiora fortioribua I. rortiol: is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives an regularly declined in the same way. The Ace. Plu. in -Is is rare. Adjectives of One Termination. 70. Pglix, happy. FrudSns, prudent. SINGULAR. M. AND F. Nom. felrx Gen. felicis Dat. felici Ace. fellcem Voc. felix Abl. felici Nom. felices Gen. fellcium Dat. felicibus Ace. felices, -Is Voc. felices Abl. felicibus Neut. felix felicis felici felix felix felici PLURAL. felicia felicium felicibus felicia felicia felicibus M. AND F. Neut. prudens prudens prudentis prudentis prudent! prudent! prudentem prudens prudens prudens prudent! prudenS prudentes prudentia prudentium prudentium prudentibus prudentibui prudentes, -is prudentia prudentes prudentia orudentibus prudentibni ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 39 Vetus, old. Pias, more. SINGULAR. M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Nbut. Nbtn. vetus vetus plus Gen. veteria veteria pluria Dai. veteri veteri Ace. veterem vetus plus Voc. vetus vetus AM. vetere vetere PLURAL. plure Nom. veterea Vetera plurea plura Gen. veterum veterum plurium plurium Dot. veteribua veteribua pluribuB pluribua Ace. veterea Vetera plurea, -la plura Voc. veteres Vetera AM. veteribua veteribua pIuribuB pluribua 1 . It will be observed that vetua is declined as a pure Consonant- Stem ; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine ia -ea only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; divea, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; princepa, chief; aospea, safe; superatea, surviving. Yet divea always has Neut. Plu. ditia. 2. Inopa, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopT, memoii, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum. 3. Participles in -ana and -ena follow the declension of i-sterns. But they do not have -1 in the Ablative, except when employed as adjec- tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they ha,ve -e ; as, — a aapienti viro, by a wise man ; but a sapiente, by a philosopher. Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin. 4. Fiaa, in the Singular, is always a noun. 5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, — a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, — aequalia, contemporary, Abl. aequSli. conaularia, ex-consul, Abl. oonaulSri. So names of Months; as, Aprili, April; Deoembri, De- cember. b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer ; IwrevSXe, Juvenal. 40 INFLECTIONS. c) Patrials in -as, -Stis and -is, -Ttis, when designating place: regularly have -i ; as, in ArpinatT, on the estate at Arpinum yet -e, when used of persons ; as, ab Arpinate, by an Arpi natian. 6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which ar ir^^, frugal; uequam, worthless. 7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form thi Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venieutum, of those coming. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. I. There are three degrees of Comparison, — the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ioi (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel ; as, — altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, \ ^^S^^^^^ ( very high. fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus. ielix, fortunate, felicior, felicissimus. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, — doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus. egens, needy, egentior, egentisaimus. 3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus: — asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcheriimua. acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus. celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus. a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus. 4- Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus : — facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, difficult, difficilior, difficillimuB. similis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, tinlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, low, humilior, humilUmus. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 41 5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dicSus, -ficens, -volSns. Thus : — raaledicentiasimus . magnificentissimus. benevolentissimua. maledicus, slanderous, maledtcentior, magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior, benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, a. Positives in -dicens and -volena occur in early Latin ; as, maledicens, benevolens. 6. Dives has the Comparative divitior or ditior ; Superlative divitissimus or ditissimus. Irregular Comparison. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz. — bonus, good, melior. optimuB. malus, bad. pejor. pessimus. parvus, small. minor. minimus. magnus, large. major, maximus. multus, mtich, plus, plurimus. frugl, thrifty. frugalior, frugalissimus nequam, worthless. nequior, nequissimus. 73. Defective Comparison. Positive lacking entirely, — (Cf. prae, in front of.) (Cf. oitra, this side of.) (Cf. ultra, beyond.) (Cf. intra, within.) (Cf. prope, near.) (Cf. de, down.) (Cf. archaic potis, possible.) 2. Positive occurring only in special cases, — posters die, anno, etc., ^rioi, former, pnratiB, first citerior, on this side, citimus, near. ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest. interior, inner, propior, nearer, deterior, inferior, potior, preferable. intimus, inmost. proximus, nearest. deterrimus, worst. potissimus, chiefest. the following day, etc., posterl, descendants, exteri, foreigners, nationes exterae, for- eign nations. posterior, later. exterior, outer, postremus, postumus, extremuB, extimuB, latest, last. late-born, posthumous outermost. 42 INFLECTIONS. imus, J Inferi, gods of the lower world, 1 Mare Inferum, Mediterranean \ Inferior, lower, Sea, J six^en, gods above, 1 . ^^--^^ j supremus, /aj^ Mare Superum, ^rfr/a^zi: 5«a!, p"P^"°'' « ' | summus, ^z^te^ 3. Comparative lacking. vetus, old, ^ fldas, /aiiA/ul, novus, new, ^ sacer, sacred, iz\s\is, false, Also in some other words less frequently used. veterrimus. fidissimus. novissimus,^ last sacerrimus. falsissimus. 4. Superlative lacking. alacer, lively, alacrior, ingens, great. ingentlor, saliitaris, wholesome, salutarior, javenis, young. junior, i senex, old, senior. 6 a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -alls, -ilis, -His, -bills and in a few others. Comparison by Magis and Maxime. 74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational compar- ison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (more) and maxime {most). Here belong — 1. Many adjectives ending in -alia, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -ious, imus, Tnus, -orus. 2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted^: arduus, steep ; neoessarius, necessary. a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant. 1 Supplied by vetustlor, from vetustus. 2 Supplied by recentior. 8 For newest, recentissimus is used. * Supplied by minimus natu. 6 Supplied by naaximus natu. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 43 Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. Here belong — 1 . Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do lot admit of comparison ; as, hodiemus, ^ ^0-a/. duobus duabus duSbus i'j Ace. duos, duo duas duo AM. du5bus duabus duobus a. So ambo, iotA, except that its final o is long. 3. Tres is declined, — JVbm. tres tria Gen. trium trium Dai. tribus tribus Ace. tres (tris) tria Ail. tribus tribus 4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus. J. Mille is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive qf the objeda enumerated; § 201. i), and is declined, — JVbm. mflia Ace. milia Gen. milium yoc. milia Dat. mllibus A61. milibus NUMERALS. 47 Thus miUe homines, u thousand men; but duo milia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men. a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction ; as, mille hominum. 6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals. 81. I. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus : — triginta sex or sex et triginta, thirty-six. 2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction ; as, — duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodeoim) ; iindequadraginta, thirty-nine (but also triginta novem or novem 'et triginta). 3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et ; as, — centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven. anno octingentesimo octogegimo secundo, in the year 882. Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit 01 one of the tens ; as, — centum et septem, one hundred and seven ; centum et quadraginta, one hundred and forty. 4. The Distributives are used — a) To denote so much each, so many apiece ; as, — bina talenta eis dedit, he gave them two talents each. b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense ; as, — binae litterae, two epistles. But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed for one, and trini (not term) for three ; as, — iinae litterae, one epistle ; trinae litterae, three epistles. c) In multiplication ; as, — bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four. d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals ; as, — bina bastilia, two spears. 48 INFLECTIONS. C. PHONOTJNS. 82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something with- out naming it. 83. There are the following classes of pronouns : — I. Personal. V. Intensive. 11. Reflexive. VI. Relative. III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative. IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 84. These correspond to the English /, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows : — First Person. Second Person. SINGULAR. Third Person. - Norn, ego, / tu, thou is, he ; ea, she ; id, it Gen. mei tui (For declension see § 87.) Dat. raihi » tibii Ace. me te Voc. tu Abl. me te PLURAI,. Nom. nos, we y OS, you „ ( nostrum Gen. \ ( nostn > vestrum ' vestri Dat. nobis vobis Ace. nos vos Voc. vos Abl. nobis vobIs 1. A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry. 2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, I myself ; tibimet, to you yourself ; tu has tute and tutemet (written also tutimet). ' The final 1 is sometimes long in poetry. PRONOUNS. 49 3. In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative forms. II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand ; like myself, yourself, in ' I see myself etc. They are declined as follows : — First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique cases of ego. cases of tu. Gen. mel, of myself tui, of thyself sui Dat. mihi, to myself tibi, to thyself sibi 1 Ace. me, myself te, thyself se or sese Voc. . Abl. me, with myself etc. te, with thyself etc. se or sese 1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself herself itself or of themselves; and so with the other forms. 2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force ; as, — inter se pugnant, they fight with each other. 3. In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative. III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are — • First Person. Second Person. meus, -a, -um, my; tuus, -a, -um, thy ; noster, nostra, nostrum, our; vester, vestra, vestrum, /o«r ; Third Person. suua, -a, -um, his, her, its, their. I . Suus is exclusively Reflexive ; as, — pater liberos suos amat, the father loves his children. Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus ; and their by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum. ,- 1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry. so INFLECTIONS. 2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi. 3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis, common in case of suo, sua; as, suopte, suapte. This is particularly IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are — hio, this (where I am) ; iste, that (where you are) ; ille, that (something distinct from the speaker) ; is, that (weaker than ille) ; idem, the same. Hio, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively. Hie, this. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neutek. Nont, . hie haec hoc hi hae haec Gen. hujus ^ hiijus hujus horum harum horum Dat. huic huic huic his his his Ace. hunc hanc hoc hos h^s haec Abl. hoc hac hoc his his his Iste, that, that of yours. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom . iste ista istuds istl istae ista^ Gen. istius istius istius istorum istarum istorum Dat. isti istl istl istis istIs istis Ace. istum is tarn istud istos istas ista" Abl. isto ista isto istIs istIs istis Ille (archaic oUe), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.' 1 Forms of hie ending in -s sometimes append • ee for emphasis ; as, htljuaoe, this . , . here ; liSsee, liisee. When -ne is added, -e and -ee become -oi ; a& huneine, hoseine. 2 For istud, Istuc sometimes occurs ; for ista, Istaec. ' For lllud, lllUc sometimes occurs. INTENSIVE PRONOUN. — RELATIVE PRONOUN. 5 1 SINGULAR. la, he, this, that. PLURAL. Mascot-ine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. is ea id el, il, (I) eae ea Gen. ej'us ejus ejus eorum earum eorum Dai. ei el ei els, ils els, iis eis, iis Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Abl. eo ea eo els, iis eis, iis els, iis • SINGULAR. Idem, the ' same. PLURAL. Mascuune. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nbm. idem eadem idem Jeidem"! liidero 1 eorundem eaedem eadem Gen. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem earuTidem eSrundem Dot. eidera eidem eldem eisdem eisdem • eisdem Aec. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem eadem Abl. eodem eadem eodem eisdem eisdem eisdem The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has idem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. isdem or iisdem V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN. 88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corre- sponds to the English myself, etc., in ' / myself, ke himself.' SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter, Nbm. , ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum Dat. ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis Ace. ipsuih ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa Abl. ipso ipsa ipso ipsis ipsis ipsis VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 89. The Relative Pronoun is qui, who. It is declined : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Masculine. Feminine, Neuter. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cujus Dat. cui CUJUS cui CUJUS cui quorum quibus 2 quarum quibus^ quorum quibus* Ace. quern Abl. qu5 1 quam quai quod quoi quos quibus ^ quas quibus ^ quae quibus * 1 An ablative Q [in occurs in quioum , with, whom. 2 Sometimes quia 52 INFLECTIONS. VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quia, who? (sub- stantive) and qui, whatf what kind off (adjective). I. Quia, who? SINGULAR. Masc. and Fem. N'om. quis Gen. cujus Dat. cui Ace. quem Abl. quo The rare Plural follows the de- ' clension of the Relative Pronoun. Neuter. quid cujus cui quid quo 2. Qui, what ? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun ; viz. qui, quae, quod, etc. a. An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense oi how? why? b. Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions. c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homo — what man? whereas qui homo = what sort of man ? d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:— Substantive : quisnam, who, pray ? quidnam, what, pray ? Adjective : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind,prayf VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 91. These have the general force of some one, any one. SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES. M. AND F. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. quis. ' ( anything. qui, quae, qua. quod, any. aliquis, .. . . some one, aliquid, ^,. ' something. aliqui, aliqua. aliquod, any. quisquam, ., 1 anyone, quidquam, ' . . 1 anything. quisquam • quidquam, ^^^_ quispiam, quidpiam, ""y ""'• anything. quispiam quaepiam. quodpiam, any. quisque. quidque, each. quisque, quaeque, quodque, each. qtavis, quaevis, quidvis, ""y""' qvuTibet, quaelibet, quidlibet, ('^''^'''"S) you wish. quIvIs, qullibet. quaevis, quaelibet, quodvis, quodlibet, you wish. quidam, quaedam a certain , quiddam, person, or thing quidam, quaedam, quoddam, acit> tain. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 53 1 . In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus : Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc. 2. Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Femi- nine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has both qua and quae in these same cases. 3. Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam ; Geni- tive Plural quorundam, quarundam ; the m being assimilated to n before d. 4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui sub- stantively. 5. In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may stand as a Substantive. Thus : si quis or si qui. 6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,— substantive, eoquis, ecquid ; adjective, ecqui, eoquae and ecqua, ecquod. 7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural. 8. There are two Indefinite Relatives, — quioumque and quisquis, whoever. Quicumque declines only the first part ; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo, in common use. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 92 The following adjectives, also, frequently have pro- nominal force : — I. alias, anai/ier ; alter, iAe other ; uter, which of two ? (interr.) ; neuter, neither ; whichever of two (rel.) ; finus, one ; niillus, no one (in oblique cases). 2. The compounds, — uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two ; utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two i uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please i utervis, utravls, utrumvis, either one you please ; alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other. In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts ; as, — Nom. alteruter altera utra alterum utrum Gen. alterius utrius, etc. 54 INFLECTIONS. Chapter II. — Conjugation. 93. A Verb is a word which asserts something ; as, est, he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation. 94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person : — 1 . Two Voices, — Active and Passive. 2. Three Moods, — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 3. Six Tenses, — Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect. But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect ; while Jie Imperative employs only the Present and Future. 4. Two Numbers, — Singular and Plural. 5. Three Persons, — First, Second, and Third. 95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms: — 1. Noun Forms, — Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine. 2. Adjective Forms, — Participles (including the Gerundive). 96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are, — Sing. Plu. Active. Passivb. I. 2. 3- -0; -m; -i (Perf Ind.) ; -s; -sti (Perf. Ind.); -to or wanting (Impv.) ; -t ; -to (Impv.) ; -r. -lis, -re ; -re, -tor (Impv.) -tur; -tor (Impv.). I. -mus; -mur. 2. -tis; -stiB (Perf. Ind.); -te. -mini. 3- -tote (Impv.) ; -nt ; -erunt (Perf. Ind.) ; -nto -ntur ; -ntor (Impv.). (Impv.) ; VERB STEMS. 97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb, — VERB-STEMS. — THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 55 I. Present Stem, from which are formed — 1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, 2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Pas- 3. The Imperative, sive. 4. The Present Infinitive, 5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed — 1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 1 2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, > Active. 3. Perfect Infinitive, J III. Participial Stem, from which are formed — 1. Perfect Participle, 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 4. Perfect Infinitive, Passive. Apparently from the same stem, though really of different ori^ gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis- tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows : — Conjugation. Infinitive Termination. Distinguishing Vowel. I. -are a 11. -ere e III. -Sre e IV. -ire 1 99. Principal Parts. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle ^ constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb, — so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived. 1 Where the Perfect Participle is not in iise, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts. 56 INFLECTIONS. CONJUGATION OF SUM. 100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pees. Ind. Prks. Inf. Peef. Ind. Fut. Partic.1 esse fui futurus sum IN SINGULAR. sum, I am, es, thou art, est, he is ; eram, I was, eras, thou wast, erat, he was ; ero, / shall be, eris, thou wilt be, erit, he will be ; fui, / have been, I was, fuisti, thou hast been, thou fuit, he has been, he was ; DICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLURAL. sumus, we are, estis, yoit are, sunt, they are. Imperfect. eramus, we were, eratis, you were, erant, they were. Future. erimus, we shall be, eritis, you will be, erunt, they will be. Perfect. fuimus, we have been, we were, wast, fuistis, you have been, you were, fuerunt, fuere, they have been, they were. fueram, / had been, fiieras, thou hadst been, fuerat, he had been ; fuero, T shall have been, fueris, thou wilt have been. fueiit, he will have been ; Pluperfect. fueramus, we'had been, fueratis, you had been, . fuerant, they had been. Future Perfect. fuerimus, we shall have been, fueritis, you will have been, fuerint, they will have been. » The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum. CONJUGATION OF SUM. 57 SINGULAR. SUBJUNCTIVE.' Present. sim, may I be, SIS, ntayst thou be, sit, let him be, may he be ; » simus, let us be, sitis, be ye, may you be, sint, let them be. essem,2 I should be, esses,^ thou wouldst be, esaet,2 j^ ivould be ; Imperfect. essemus, we should be, essetis, you would be, essent,2 they would be. Perfect. fiierim, I may -have been, fiieris, thou ntayst have been, fuerit, he may have been ; fuenmus, 7ve may have been, fueritis, you may have been, fuerint, they may have been. Pluperfect. fuissem, / should have been, fuisses, thou wouldst have been, fulsset, he would have been ; fuissemns, we should have been, fuissetis, you would have been, fuissent, they would have been. Fres. es, be thou ; Fut. esto, thou shall be, esto, he shall be; IMPERATIVE. este, be ye, estote, ye shall be, suuto, they shall be. INFINITIVE. Pres. esse, to be. Per/, fuisse, to have been. Fut. futurus esse,' to be about to be. PARTICIPLE. Fut. futurus,* about to be. 1 The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. ^ For essem, esBes, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent are sometimes used. * For futurus esse, the form fore is often used. * Declined like bonus, -a, -um. 58 INFLECTIONS. FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. 101. Active Voice. — Amo, / love. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pbks. Iot. Pkes. Inf. Pkef. Ind. Perf. Pass. Pastic. amav^ amatus amo amare INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. amo, I love, amas, you love, zmat, Jie loves ; amabam, I was loving^ a.ma.ha.B, you were loving, amSbat, he was loving; amabo, I shall love, amabiSj/ow will love, amSbit, he will love ; PLURAL. amamus, we love, amatis, you love, amant, ihey love. Imperfect. amabamus, we were loving, amabatis, you were loving, amabant, they were loving. Future. amabimus, we shall love, amabitis, you will love, amabunt, they will love. amavi, I have loved, I loved, amavistijj/oa have loved, you loved, amavit, he has loved, he loved; Perfect. .amavimus, we have loved, we loved, amavistis, /o« have loved, you lined, amaverunt, -ere, they have loved,thij loved. amaveram, / had loved, a.Taa,vera.B, you had loved, amaverat, he had loved; Pluperfect. amaveramus, we had loved, amaveratis, you had loved, amaverant, they had loved. Future Perfect. amavero, / shall have loved, amaverimus, we shall have loved, amaveris, you will have loved, amaveritis, you will have loved, amaverit, he will have loved; amaverint, they will have loved. 1 The Imperfect also means I loved. FIRST CONJUGATION. 59 SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. SINGULAR. amem, may I love, ames, may you love^ amet, let him love ; amarem, / should love, amtres,^0» would love, amSret, he would love ; PLURAL. amemus, lei us love, ametis, may you love, ament, let them love. Imperfect. atnaremus, we should love, amaretis, you would love, amarent, they would love. Perfect. amaverim, / may have loved, amaveris, you may have laved, amaveiit, he may have loved i amaverimus, we may have loved, amaveritis, j/oa may have loved, amaverint, they-^ay^have loved. Pluperfect. amavissem, I should have loved, amavisses, you would have loved, amavisset, he would have loved; atnavissemus, we should have loved, amavissetis, ypxrwould have loved, amavissent, iheyjwould have loved. IMPERATIVE. Pres. ama, love thou; am ate, love ye. Fut. amato, thou shall love, ama.t6te,ye shall love, amato, he shall love; amanto, they shall love. INFINITIVE. Pres. amare, to love. Perf. amavisse, to have loved. Fut. amatuTus esse, to be about to love. GERUND. Gen. amandi, of loving, Dat. iimaxido, for loving. Ace. amandum, loving, Abl. amando, by loving. PARTICIPLE. Pres. amans,^ loving. (Gen. amantis.) Fut. amaturus, about to love. SUPINE. Ace. amatum, to love; Abl. amatu, to love, be 'oved. 1 For declension of amans, see § 70. 3. 6o INFLECTIONS. 102. FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice. — Amor, / am loved. PRINCIPAL PARTS. "• Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. amor amari INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. amatus sum SINGULAR. / am loved. PLURAL. amor amamur amaris amamini amatur Imperfect. I was loved. amantur amabar amabamur amabaris, or ■ -re amabamini amabatur Future. I shall be loved. amabantur amabor amabimur amaberis, or -re amabimini amabitur Perfect. amabuntur / have been loved, or / was loved. amatus (-a, -um) sum ' amati (-ae, -a) sumus amatus es amati estis amatus est Pluperfect. / had been loved. amati sunt amatus eram 1 amati eramus amatus eras amati eratis amatus erat Future Perfect. amati erant / shall have been loved. amatus ero i amati erimus amatus eris amati eritis amatus erit amati erunt 1 Pui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fueras, etc., for eram, etc.; fuero, etc., for ero, etc. FIRST CONJUGATION. 61 SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. May I be loved, let him be loved. SINGULAR. PLURAL. amer amemur ameris, or -re ametur amemini amentur Imperfect. I should be loved., he would be loved. amarer amareiis, or -re aniaretur Perfect. / may have been loved. amatus sim ^ amatuB sTs amatuB sit amaremur amaremini amareutur amati simus amati Bitis amati sint Pluperfect. I should have been loved, he would have been loved. amatus essem ' amati essemus amatus esses amati esaetis amatus esset amati essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. amare,^ be thou loved ; amamini, be ye loved. Fut. amator, thou shall be loved, amator, he shall be loved; amantor, they shall be loved INFINITIVE. Pres. amSxi, to be loved. Perf. amatus esse, to have been loved. Fut. amatum iri, to be about to be loved. PARTICIPLE. Perfect. amatus, loved, havittg been loved. Gerundive, amandus, to be loved, deserving to be loved. 1 Fuerlm, etc., are sometimes used for sim ; so fulssem, etc., for essezn. ^ In actual usage passive imperatives occur only In deponents (J 112). 6z INFLECTIONS. 103. SECOND (OR B-) CONJUGATION. Active Voice. — Moneo, I advise. Phes. Ind. moneo PRINCIPAL PARTS. Prbs. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic monere monui monituB SINGULAR. moneo monSa monet INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. / advise. PLURAL. monemuB monetis monent Imperfect. / was advising, or / advised. monebam monebamus monebas monebatis monebat Future. I shall advise. mongbant monSbo monebimus monebis monebitis monebit monebunt ■'Perfect. I have advised, or T advised. monui monuimus monuisti monuistis monuit Pluperfect. I had advised. monueruut, or -ere monueram monueramua monueras monueratia monuerat Future Perfect. I shall have advised. monueraut monuero monuerimus monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint SECOND CONJUGATION. 63 SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. , May /advise, let him advise. SINGULAR. .PLURAL. moneam moneamus moneas moneatia moneat moneant Imperfect. I should advise, he would advise. monerem moneres moneret monuenm monueris monuerit Perfect. / may have advised. moneremuB monSretis monerent monuerimua monueritis monuerint Pluperfect I should have advised, he would have advised. monuiBsem monuisses monuisset moniiaaemit monulssetls monuissent IMPERATIVE. Pres. mone, advise thou ; mon§te, advise ye. Fut. monSto, thou shall advise, monetote, ye shall advise, moneto, he shall advise ; monentS, they shall advise. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. monere, to advise. Pres. monehs, advising. Perf. monuisse, to have advised. (Gen. monentis.) Fut. monituruB esse, to be about Fut. moniturua, about to advise, to advise. GERUND. Gen. monendi, of advising. Dot. m becomes p ; while dt or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (§ 8, z). 2. After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where -BUS arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems ; as, — lab-i, Participle lap-sus. fig-ere, " fi-xus. a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -SUB to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § ii8, 3, a). 3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -itus ; as, — doma-re, dom-itus. mone-re, m.on-itus. 4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, ama-tus, amaturus ; moni-tus, moniturus. But — juva-re, Perf Partic. jutUB, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvaturuB.J lava-re, i( u lautus. ii U u <( lavaturus. par-ere, « ii partus, £. ii a it parituruB. ru-ere. a u -rutus, (f ii a (( ruiturua. seca-re. u u seotus. it t( it (1 secatflrus. fru-i. u i£ -fructus, ii ii a it fruiturufl. mor-i, It ii mortuus, ii it a a morituruB. ori-ri, It it ortus. U " a a oriturus. 1 But the compounds of Juvo sometimes have -juturus; as, adjuturus. LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 83 LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS. I. First (A-) Conjugation. Perfect in -Vi. 120. ■amo amare amavi amatus love All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model. poto potare potavl potus (§114,2) drink II. Perfect in - Tji. crepo crepare crepui crepiturus rattle cubo cubare cubul cubiturus lie down domo domare domul domitus tame -frico fticare fricui frictus and fricatus rub mico micare micui glitter dimico dimicare dimicavl dimicatum (est)* fight ex-plic6 explicare explicavl (-ul) explicatus (-itus) unfold im-plico implicare : implicavl (-ul) implicatus (-itus) entwine -seco secare secul sectus cut -sono sonare sonul sonaturus sound -tono tonare tonul thunder _vet6 vetare vetui vetitus forbid III. Perfect in -i with Lengthening of the Stem Vowel, -juv5 juvare jiivT . jutus help -lavo lavare lavl lautus wash IV. Perfect Reduplicated. -«t6 stare stetl statu rus V. Deponents. These are all regular, and follow miror, mirdri, miratus sum. Second (£'-) Conjugation. 121. I. Perfect in -VI. -^deleo delere delevi deletus destroy -fleo flere flevi flatus weep, lament com-pleo2 complere complevi completus fill up -aboleo abolere abolevi abolitus destroy de6» ciere cTvI citus set in motion 1 Used only impersonally. 2 go imfleo, expleo. 8 Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation : iiccio, accire, etc. 84 INFLECTIONS. II. Perfect in -T7I. a. Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -itua. arceo coerceo ccerceg — dplep. habeo -f^aebeo — jaceo mereo ^moneo -terreo - valeo Note i. -eeeo . emmeo flSreo horreo lateo niteo oleo palleo -pateo rubeo sileo splendeo studeo stupeo -timed torpeo vigeo vireo arcere coercere habere jacere merere monere^ npcere arcui exencui m calui - CeLfeM. carui . abut jacui merui ^2F''' ml placui tacui ' terrui valui coercitus exercjtus , calitjinis ffOf' myiCLJ habitus debitus praebitus jaciturus meritus taciturus , territus vali turns The following l|.ck the Participial Stem : - egere egul eminere florere horrere latere nitere olere pallere patere rubere silere splendere studere stupere timere torpere vigere virere egui eminul florui horrui latui nitui olui pallul patui rubui silul splendui studul stupuT timul torpul viguT virui and others. keep off hold in check practise be warm be without grieve have owe offer lie earn, deserve advise injure obey please be silent frighten be strong want stand forth bloom bristle lurk gleam smell be pale lie open be red be silent gleam study be amazed fear be dull flourish be green LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 85 Note 2.- — The following are used only in the Present System : — aveo avere •wish ftigeo fngere be cold immineo imminere overhang maereo niaerere tnourn poUeo poUere and others. be strong b. Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus). censeo censere censul census estimate 'doceo docere docul doctus teach 'misceo miscere miscui mixtus mix -teneo tenere tenui hold So contineo and sustineo ; but — retineo retinere retinul retentus retain obtineo obtinere obtinul obtentus maintain torreo torrere torrui tostus bake III. Perfect in -SI. -augeo augere auxi auctus increase torqueo torquere torsi tortus twist indulges indulgere indulsi indulge luceo lucere luxT be light lugeo lugere luxi jnourn -jubeo jubere jussi jussus order per-mulceo permulcere permulsi permulsus soothe — rideo ridere risl risum (est) laugh - suadeo suadere suasi suasum (est) advise abs-tergeo abstergere abstersi abstersus •wipe off — ardeo ardere arsi arsurus burn haereo haerere haesi haesurus stick maneo manere mansi mansurus stay algeo algere alsT be cold fiilgeo fulgere fulsi gleam —urged urgere ursi press IV. Perfect in -I with Reduplication. mordeo mordere momordi morsus bite - spondeo spondere spopondl sponsus promise tondeo tondere totondi t5nsus shear - pendeo pendere pependi hang 86 INFLECTIONS. V. Perfect in J WITH Lengthening of Stem Vowel. caveo —faveo foveo cavere favere fovere cavl favi fovi cauturus fauturus fotus take care favor cherish — moveo movere movT motus move paveo —^sedeo ^ video pavere sedere videre pavJ sedl vidi sessurus visus fear sit see voveo vovere VOVl votus vow VL Perfect in -I without either Reduplication or Lengts ENiNG OF Stem Vowel. boil lunch , creak bid promise earn pity fear confess confess think heal protect ferveo prandeo strides fervere prandere strldere (fervT, prandi stridi ferbui) pransus (§114, 2) VII. Deponents. liceor poUiceor licerl polliceri licitus sum poUicitus sum mereor mererl meritus sum misereor misereii miseritus sum vereor fateor confiteor vereri faterl confiteri veritus sum fassus sum confessus sum reor medeor rerl mederi ratus sum tuepr tueri Third (Consonant) Conjugation. 122. I. Verbs with Present Stem ending in 1. Perfect in -si. a. Type -6, -gre, -si, -tus. carpo sculpo repo serpo r scribo ■ aubo Lrego carpere sculpere repere serpere scribere nubere regere carpsi sculpsi repsi serpsi scripsi nupsi rexl carp tus sculptus scriptus nupta (woman only) rectus A Consonant, pluck chisel creep crawl write marry sovern LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 87 -tego tegere texl tectus cover af-fligo affllgere affllxi affllctus shatter -dlc5 dicere dixl dictus fay -duco ducere duxi ductus lead coquo coquere coxT coctus cook -traho trahere traxi tractus draw "veho vehere vexi vectus carry CIB^ cingere cinxT cinctus gird tlngfl tingere tinxi tinctus dip jungo jiingere junxi junctus join fingo fingere finxl fictus mould pingo pingere pinxi pTctus paint strings stringere strlnxl strictus bind -stinguo 1 -stinguere -stinxT -stinctus blot out unguo unguere unxl unctus anoint -^v6 vivere vTxi victum (est) live -gero gerere gessi gestus carry uro urere USSl ustus burn temno temnere con-tempsi con-temptus despise b. Type -Q, -Sre, -SI, -i 3US. -figo figere fixT fixus fasten mergo mergere mersi mersus sink -^spargS spargere sparsl sparsus scatter -flecto flectere flexl flexus bend n'ecto nectere nexul (nexT) nexus twine -mitto iriittere misl missus send rado radere rasT rSsus shave rods rodere rosi rosus gnaw -vado vadere -vasl" -vasum (est)' 2 march, walk -liido ludere lusl lusum (est) play "tfudo trudere triisi trusus push laedo laedere laesi laesus injure, hurt " claudo daudere clausi clausus close [ plaudo plaudere plausi plausum (est) clap explodo explodere explosi explosus hoot off -cedo cedere cessT cessum (est) withdraw -dlvido dividere divisi dlvisus divide -premo preinere press! pressus press 1 Fully conjugated only in the compounds ; exsHngud, restinguo, distinguo. 2 Only in 1 the compounds ; evado, invado, pervadB. 88 INFLECTIONS. 2, Perfect in -i with Reduplication. ab-do abdere abdidi abditus conceal red-do red-dere reddidi redditus return So addo •, condo, dedo , perdo, prodo, trado, etc. con-sisto consistere constiti take one''s stand resists resistere restiti resist circumsisto circumsistere circumsteti i 'urround — cado cadere cecidi casurus fall — caedo caedere cecidi caesus hill pendo pendere pependl pensus •weigh, pay tendo tendere tetendl tentus stretch tundo tundere tutudi tusus, tiinsus beat fallo fallere fefelll (falsus, as Adj.^ 1 deceive —pello pell ere pepull pulsus drive out »— curro currere cucurri cursum (est) run — parco parcere pepercl parsurus spare — cano canere cecinl sing — tango tangere tetigl tactus touch pungo pungere pupugl punctus prick Note. - - In the folio wing verbs the perfects were originally redupli' cated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable : — per-cello percellere perculi perculsus strike down finds findere fidi fissus split scindo scindere scidi scissus tear apart - tollo toUere sus-tull sublatus remove 3. Perfect in -i with Lengthening of Stem Vowel. —ago agere egl actus drive, do perago peragere peregl peractus finish subigo subigere subegT subactus subdue cogo cogere coegl coactus force, gather — frango frangere fregi fractus break perfringc i perfringere perfregl perfractus break down —lego legere leg! lectus gather, read perlego perlegere perlegl perlectus read through colligo colligere coUegl collectus collect deligo deligere delegl delectus choose dlligo diligere dllexl dilectus love intellego intellegere intellexi intellectus understand neglego neglegere neglexi neglectus neglect LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 8g -emo emere eml emptus liuy coemo coemere coemi coemptus buy up redimo redimere redeml redemptus buy back dirimo dirimere diremi diremptus destroy demo demere dempsi demptus take away sumo sumere sumpsi sumptus take promo pro mere prompsi (promptus, as Adj.) take out -rinco vincere vici victus conquer -re-linqu6 relinquere rellqui relictus have -rumpo rumpere rupl ruptus break edo esse (§ 128) edi esus eat funds fundere fiidi fusus pour 4. Perfect in -1 without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel. excudo excudere excudi excusus hammer consTdo consldere cSnsedl take one's seat possido possidere possedl possessus take pos- , session accendo accendere accendi accensus kindle "^-scendo ascendere ascendl ascensum (est) climb -de-fendo defendere defend! defensus defend pre-hendo prehendere prehendi prehensus seize ICO icere icl ictus strike veils vellere vein vulsus pluck verts vertere verti versus turn pandS pandere pandt passus spread solvo solvere solvi solutus loose visS visere visi visus •visit -volvo volvere volvl voliitus roll verro verrere verri versus sweep 5. Perfect in -xa. in-cumbo incumbere incubul incubiturus lean on gigno gignere genul genitus bringforth molo molere molul molitus grind vomo vomere vomul vomitus vomit fremS fremere fremui snort gemo gemere gemui sigh metS metere messul messus reap 90 INFLECTIONS. tremo tremere tremui tremble strepo strepere strepui rattle al5 alere aim altus (alitus) nourish colo colere colui cultus cultivate incolo incolere incoluT inhabit excolo excolere excolul excultus perfect Mnsulo consulere consului consultus consult consero conserere conserul consertus join desero deserere deserui desertus desert dissera disserere disserul discourse texo texere texui textus •weave 6. Perfect in -VI. sino sinere slvl situs allow desino desinere desii desitus cease pono ponere posul positus place ob-lin6> oblinere oblevi oblitus smear sero serere sevi satus sow consero conserere consevi consitus plant cerno cernere separate —discerns discernere discrevT discretus distinguish — decerno decernere decrevi decretus decide sperno spernere sprevi spretus scorn sterno sternere stravi stratus spread pro-sterno prosternere prostravi prostratus overthrow peto petere petivi (petii) petltus seek appeto appetere appetlvi appetltus long for tero terere trlvl tritus . rub -quaero quaerere quaesivi quaesitus seek acquire acquTrere acquisivi acquisitus acquire arcesso arcessere arcessivl a'rcessitus summon capesso capessere capesslvl capessltus seize Jacesso lacessere lacessivl lacessTtus provoke 7. Usedo nly in Present System. ango angere choke lambo lambere lick claudo claudere be lame fliro furere rave vergo vergere bend and a few others. LIST Of THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 9 1 11. Verbs with Present Stem : ending in -U. induo induere indul indutus put on imbuo imbuere imbui imbutus moisten luo luere lui wash poUuo polluere pollui poUutus defile minu5 minuere minui rainutus lessen statuo statuere statul statutus set up constituo constituere constitui constitutus determine suo suere suT sutus sew tribuo tribuere tribui tributus allot nio mere nil ruiturus fall diruo diruere dirui dirutus destroy obrao obruere obfui obrutus overwhelm acuo acuere acul sharpen arguo arguere argui accuse congruo congruere congrul agree metuo metuere metul fear ab-nu6 abnuere abnui decline re-spu6 respuere respul reject struo struere struxi structus build Quo fluere fluxl (fluxus, as Adj.) _fiow III. Verbs with Present Stem ending in -I. ^cupio cupere cupTvi cupltus wish sapio sapere sapivl taste — rapio rapere rapul raptus snatch diripio diripere diripul direptus plunder e^eonspicio conspicere conspexl conspectus gaze at — aspicio aspicere zspexl aspectus behold illicio illicere illexi illectus allure pellicip pellicere pellexi pellectus allure elicio elicere elicui elicitus elicit quatio quatere quassus shake concutio' concutere concuss! concussus shake pario parere peperi partus bringforth _-capi6 capere cepi captus take *«'accipio accipere accepl acceptus accept ''incipio incipere incepi inceptus begin ''feao facere feci factus make ' — afficio afficere affecl affectus affect Passive, afficior, affici, affectus sum. 92 INFLECTIONS. So other prepositional compounds, perficio, perjicior ; interficio. interficior ; etc. But — assuefacio assuefacere assuefeci assuefactus accustom Passive, assuefio, assuefierl, assuefactus sum. So also fatefacib, pateflo ; calefacio, caleflo ; and all non-prepositional com- pounds. '^jacio jacere jecT jactus hurl abicio abicere abjecl abjectus throw away fodio • fodere fodi fossus dig — fugio fugere fugl fugitQrus flee effugio efFugere effijgl escape IV. Verbs in -SCO I. Verbs in -SCO from Simple Roots. posco poscere poposci demand disco discere didicl learn pasco pascere pavi pastus feed pascor pasci pastus sum graze — cresco crescere crevi cretus grow consuesco consuescere consuevi consuetus accustom one's selj quiesco quiescere quievi quietQrus be still adolesco adolescere adolevi adultus grow tcp obsolesco obsolescere obsolevi grow old nosco noscere novi become acquainted with ignosco ignoscere ignovi ignoturus pardon agnosco agnoscere agnovi agnitus recognize cognosco cognoscere cognovi cognitus get acquainted with 2. Verbs in -sco formed from other Verbs. These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155. i). When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived. floresco florescere florul be^n to bloom (floreo) scisco sciscere scivi enact (scio) aresco arescere ami become dry (areo) calesco calescere calul become hot (caleo) consenesco consenescere consenul grow old (seneo) extimesco extimescere extimul fear greatly (timeo) ingemlsco ■ ingemiscere ingemui sigh (gemo) idhaeresco adhaerescere adhaesi stick (haereo). LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 93 3. Verbs in -SCO derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning. obduresco obdurescere obdurul grow hard (durus) evanesco evanescere evanui disappear (vanus) percrebresco percrebrescere percrebrul grow fresh (creber) maturesco maturescere tnaturul grow ripe (maturus) obmutesco obmutescere obmutui groTU dumb (mutus) V. Deponents. -fungor fiingi functus sum perform-^ '^•j'^ queror querl questus sum complain au-i^<^ speak l^ji^if^ -\oquor loqul locutus sum sequor sequi secutus sum foUow Setji^iy^ fruor frui fruiturus enjoy perfnior perfrul perfructus sum thoroughly enjoy labor labl lapsus sum glide amplector amplecti araplexus sum embrace nitor nitl nisus sum, nixus sum strive -gradior gradt gressus sum walk /patior pati passus sum suffer perpetior perpeti perpessus sum endure iitor Utl usus sum use morior morl mortuus sum die adipiscor adipisci adeptus sum acquire comminlscoi comminTsci commentus sum invent -remimscor reminisci remember nanciscor nanclsci nanctus (nactus) sum acquire -nascor nascT natus sura be born -obllvTscor oblTvIscI oblitus sum forget paclscor pacisci pactus sum covenant proficlscor proficisci profectus sum set out ulciscor ulcisci ultus sUm avenge irascor Irasci (iratus, as Adj.) be angry vescor , vescl eat Fourth Conjugation. ' 123. I. Perfect ends in -VI. "audio audire audlvl audltus hear So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, sepelio sepelire sepelivi sepultus bury 94 INFLECTIONS. II. Perfect ends in ■ ■171. — aperio aperire aperul apertus open operio operlre operul opertus cover sali5 salire salui leap III. Perfect ends in -si. saepi5 saepire saepsi saeptus hedge in sancio sancire sanxi sanctus ratify vincio vincTre vinxi vinctus bind amicio amicire amictus envelop fulcio ftilcire fulsl fultus prop up referci5 refercire refers! .refertus fill sarcio sarcire sarsi sartus patch — haurio haurire hausi haustus draw — sentio sentife sens! sensus feel IV. Perfect in -I with lengthening op Stem Vowel. — venio venire veni ventum (est) come advenio advenire advenl adventum (est t) arrive inveniS invenire invenl inventus find V. Perfect with Loss ; OF Reduplication. reperio reperire repperi repertus find comperio comperire comperl compertus learn VI. Used ONLY IN the Present. ferio ferire strike esurio esurire ' be hungry VII. Deponents. ^argior largiri So many others, experior experiri opperior opperiri ordior ordlrl orior orirl largitus sum expertus sum oppertus sum orsus sum ortus sum bestow try await begin arise Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection ; as, oreris, oritur, orimur ; orerer (Imp. Subj.) ; orere (Imper.). metior metirl mgnsussum measure assentior assentirl assensussum assent IRREGULAR VERBS. 95 IRREGULAR VERBS. 124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, do, ed5, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, fio. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing, of fer-6), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs. 125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are — absum abesse afui am absent Pres. Partic. absens (absentis), absent. adsum adesse adful am present desum deesse defui am lacking insum inesse Infui am in intersum interesse interfui am among praesum praeesse praefiii am in charge of Pres. Partic. praeSens (praesentis),^^'sje«^. obsum obesse obfui hinder prosum prodesse profui am of advantage subsum subesse subfui am underneath supersum superesse superful am left Note. — Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum ; the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus ; but prodestis. 126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able^ and sum ; potui is from an obsolete potere. — ;> possum, PRINCIPAI posse. . PARTS. potui, to be able. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR, PLURAL. Pres. possum, potes, potest ; possumus, potestis, possunt. Imp. poteram ; poteramus. Fut. potero ; poterimus. Perf. potui ; potuimus. Plup. potueram ; potueramus. Fut. P. potuero ; potuerimus. 96 INFLECTIONS. SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. possim, possis, possit ; posslmus, possitis, possint. Imp. possem ; possemus. Per/. potuerim ; potuerlmus. Pltip. potuissem ; potuissemus. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. posse. Pres. potens (oj an adjective). Perf. potuisse. >W7. Do, I give. PRINCIPAL PARTS. d5, dSre, dedi, d&tus. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. do, das, dat ; damus, datis, dant. Imp. dabam, etc. ; dabamus. Put. dabo, etc. ; dabimus. Perf. dedl; dedimus. Plup. dederara ; dederamus. Put. P. dedero ; dederimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. dem ; demus. Imp. darem ; daremus. Perf. dederim ; dederimus. Plup. dedissem ; dedisse mus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. da; date. Put. dato; datote. dato. dan to. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. dare. dans. Perf. dedisse. Put. daturus esse. daturus. GERUND. SUPINE. dandi, etc. datum, data. IRREGULAR VERBS. 97 1. The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dSri, d^tur, dSbatur, dSietur, etc. 2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perdxut, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of similar meaning. 128. Edo, /«a/f. PRINCIPAL PARTS. esse, edi, esus. Active Voice. edo, INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. edo, edimus, es, estis, est; SUBJUNCTIVE. edunt. Imp. essem, essemus, esses, essetis, esset ; IMPERATIVE. essent. Pres. es; este. Put. esto; estate. esto; INFINITIVE. Pres. esse. Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. yi Sing, estur. edunto. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. 'id Sing, essetur. 1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in es-, which alone distin- guishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be. 2. Note comedo, comesse, comedl, comesus or oomestus, consume. 3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -is, -it, etc., less often edam -as, etc. 98 INFLECTIONS. 129. Fero, I bear. PRINCIPAL PARTS -> fero, ferre, tuli, latuB. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. fero, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt." Imp. ferebam ; ferebamus. J^ta. feram ; feremus. Perf. tuli; tulimus. Plup. tuleram ; tuleramus. Fut.P . tulero ; SUBJUNCTIVE. tulerimus. Pres. feram; feramus. Imp. ferrem ; ferreraus. Perf. tulerim ; tulerimus. Plup. tulissem ; IMPERATIVE, tulissemus. Pres. fer; ferte. Put. ferto ; fertote. ferto ; ferunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferre. Pres. ferens. Perf.' fulisse. Put. laturus esse. Fut. laturus. GERUND. SUPINE. Gen. ferendl. Dat. ferendo. Ace. ferendum, Ace. latum. Abl. ferendo. Abl. lata. 1 It will be observed that not all the forms of fero lack the connecting vowel. Some of them, as ferimuB, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation. IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 Passive Voice. feror, ferri, latus sum, \ '■0 be borne. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. feror, ferris; 1 fertur ; ferimur, ferimini, feruntur. Imp. ferebar ; ferebamur. Put. ferar ; feremur. Perf. latus sum ; lati sumus. Plup. latus eram ; lati eramus. Fut.P . latus erS ; lati erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ferar; feramur. Imp. ferrer ; ferremur. Perf. latus sim ; lati simus. Plup. latus essem J lati essemus • IMPERATIVE. Pres. ferre; ferimini. Put. fertor ; fertor ; feruntor. INFINITIVE . PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferri. Perf. latus esse. Perf. latus. Put. latum iri. Ger. ferendus. So also the Compounds — affero afferre attuli allatus bringtoward auferS auferre abstuli ablatus take away confers conferre contuli collatus compare differs differre distuli dilatus put off effero efFerre extuli elatus carry out infers inferre intuli illatus bring against offers offerre obtuli oblatus present refers referre rettuli relatus bring back Note. — The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to toUo. lOO INFLECTIONS. 130. Volo, nolo, malo. PRINCIPAL PARTS. ~ >-volo, velle, volui, to wish. -^nolo, nolle, noluT, to be unwilling. ->malo, malle, maluT, to prefer. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. vol5, nolo, malo, VIS, n5n vis. mavis. vult; non vult ; ma vult ; volumus, nolumus, malumus, vultis, non vultis, ma vultis, volunt. nolunt. malunt. Imp. volebam. nolebam. malebam. Put. volam. nolam. malam. Perf. volul. nolui. maluT. Plup. volueram. nolueram. malueram. Put. P. voluero. noluero. maluero. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. velim, -Is, -it, etc. nolim. malim. Imp. vellem, -es, -et, etc. nollem. mallem. Perf. voluerim. noluerim. maluerim. Plup. voluissem. noluissem. IMPERATIVE. maluissem, Pres. noli ; nolite. Put. nolrto ; nolitote. nolito ; nolunto. INFINITIVE. Pres. velle. nolle. malle. Perf. voluisse. noluisse. PARTICIPLE. maluisse. Pres. volens. nolens. IRREGULAR VERBS. lOI ICCa- 131. Flo. fy^^rw«j take the suffixes: -anus, -ianus, -inus; as,— Catoniauus, belonging to Cato; Plautinus, belonging to PlaiUus. 2. Names oi nations talce the suffixes -icus, -ius ; as, — Germanicus, German ; Thracius, Thracian. 3. Names of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -gnsis, -aeus, -ius ; as, — Romanus, Roman ; Athiniensis, Athenian ; Amerinus, of Ameria ; Smy rnaeus, of Smyrna ; Corinthius, Corinthian. Note. — -anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desig- nate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous ; as, — bellum Afrioanum, a war {of Romans with Romans') in Africa. bellum Hispaniense, a war carried on in Spain. legiones GalUcanae, {Roman) legions stationed in Gaul. ADJECTIVES. — VERBS. 113 3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives. 153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur ; as, — parvolus, little ; misellus (passer), poor little {sparrow) \ pauperculus, needy. 4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs. 154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tinus ; as, — hodiemus, hesternus, intestinus, diutinus, of to-day of yesterday internal long-lasting (hodie) ; (heri) ; (intus) ; (diu). C. VERBS. 1. Verbs derived from Verbs. 155. I. Inceptives OR Inchoatives. These end in -sco, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action ; as, — labasoo, begin to totter (from labo) ; horresco, grow rough (from horreo) ; tremesco, be^n to tremble (from tremo) ; obdormisco, fall asleep (from dormio). 2. Frequentatives or Intensives. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato, as vife should expect). Examples of Frequenta- tives are — jacto, toss about, brandish curso, run hither and thither volito, flit about a. Some double Frequentatives occur ; as, — (from jacio, hurl) ; (from ourro, ruii) ; (from vol6,y^). cantito, sing over and over (canto) ; cursito, keep running ahout (curso) ; ventito, keep coming. b. agito, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem. 114 WORD-FORMATION. 3. Desideratives. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio ; as, — esurio, desire to eat, am hungry (edo) ; parturio, want to bring forth, ajn in labor (pario) . 2. Verbs derived from Kouns and Adjectives (Denomiiiatives) . 156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive, those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Exam- ples are — a) From Nouns : — fraudo, defraud (fraus) ; vestio, clothe (vestis) ; tloreo, bloom (flos). b') From Adjectives : — . libero, free (liber) ; saevio, be fierce (saevus). D. ADVERBS. 157. I. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im ; as, — certatim, emulously (oerto) ; curaim, in haste (ourro) ; statim, immediately (sto). 2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed : — a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim; as,— gradatim, step by step ; pa.ulatim, gradually ; viritim, man by man. b) With the suffix -tus ; as, — antlquitus, of old; radioitus,/roOT the roots. c) With the suffix -ter ; as, — breviter, briefly. COMPOUNDS. 115 II. COMPOUNDS. 158. I. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound ; the first member expresses some modification of this. 2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus : — a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7. i.) b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the com- pound often appears as i where we should expect 5 or S; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems I is often inserted ; as, — signif er, standard-bearer ; tubiceu, trumpeter ; magnaniiuus, high-minded^ matricida, matricide. 159. Examples of Compounds. I. Nouns: — a) Preposition + Noun ; as, — de-deous, disgrace ; ' ■pio-a.'Wis, great-grandfather. . b) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, — agri-cola, farmer ; f ratri-cida, fratricide. 1. Adjectives : — a) Preposition 4- Adjective (or Noun) ; as, — per-magnus, very great ; sub-obscurns, rather obscure i a-mens, frantic. b) Adjective -I- Noun ; as, — magn-animus, great-hearted; celeri-pes, swift-footed. c) Noun -I- Verb Stem ; as, — parti-ceps, sharing; morti-fer, death-dealing. Il6 WORD-FORMATION. 3. Verbs: — The second member is always a verb. The first may be — «) A Noun ; as, — aedi-fico, build. b) An Adjective ; as, — ampli-fico, enlarge. c) An Adverb ; as, — male-dico, rail at. d) Another Verb ; as, — cale-facio, make warm. e) A Preposition ; as, — ab-jungo, detach; re-f ero, bring back ; dis-cerno, distinguish ; ez-specto, await. Note. — Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions : ambi- (amb-), around; dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder ; por-, forward ; red- (re-), back; sed- (ae-), apart from; ve-, without. 4. Adverbs : — These are of various types ; as, — antea, before ; ilioo (in loco), on the spot ; imprimis, especially ; obviam, in the way. Part V. SYNTAX. 160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences. Chapter I. — Sentences. CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES. 161. Sentences may be classified as follows: — I. Declarative, which state something ; as, — puer scribit, the boy is writing. 1. Interrogative, which ask a question ; as, — quid puer scribit, wJiat is the boy writing? 3. Exclamatory, which are in the form of an exclamation ; as, — quot libros scribit, how many books he writes ! 4. Imperative, which express a command or an admonition ; as,— scribe, write ! FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen- tence-Questions. I. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; such as — quis, qui, qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, e^C. Thus : — quia veuit, who comes ? quam diu manSbit, how long will he stay f 117 Il8 SYNTAX. 2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced — a) By nonne implying the answer 'j/^J ' ,• as, — nonne videtis, do you not see? b) By num implying the answer 'no'' ; as, — num exspectas, do you expect f (i.e. you donH expect, doyouf) c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information ; as,— videsne, do you see? A question introduced by -ne may receive a special impli- cation from the context ; as, — sensistine, did you not perceive? d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation ; as, — tu in jQdicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges ? 3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quia clubitat, who doubts f {= no one doubts). 4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles : — utrum ... an; -ne an ; .... an. If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used. Examples : — utrum honestum est an turpe,] bonestumne est an turpe, \ is it honorable or base ? honeatum est an turpe, J auntne di annon, are there gods or not ? a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but in- troduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nonne, or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,— A rebus gerendis abstrahit Lenectus. Quibua? An eis quae juventute geruntur et vJribus ? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits ? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth ? SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. IIQ 5. Answers. a. The answer Yes is expressed by ita, etiam, vero, B5ne, or by repetition of the verb ; as, — 'visne locum mutemus?' 'sang.' ^ Shall we change the place ? ' ' Certainly.'' 'eatisne vos legati?' jenitive. See § 212, i, a. THE ABLATIVE. I43 2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to rejnove, to withdraw, some take the preposition, otiiers omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples: — abstl&ere cibo, to abstain from food ; hostes finibus prohibueruut, they kept the enemy from their borders^ praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island. 3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prep- osition, particularly compounds of dis- and sg- ; as, — dissentio a te, / dissent from you ; secernantur a nobis, let them be separated from us. 4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry. Ablative of Source, 215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles iiatuB and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or station ; as, — Jove natus, son of Jupiter ; summo looo natus, high-born (lit. born from a very high place') \ nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family. 1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as, ex me natus, sprung from me. 2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriiindus (with ot without ab), is used ; as, — ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses. Ablative of Agent. 216. The Ablative accompanied by a (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent ; as, — a Caesare accusatus est, he was arraigned by Caesar. I. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus : — hostes a f ortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune ,- a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the mountains were held by a multitude of the enemy. a. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus: — a canibus lauiatus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs. 144 SYNTAX. Ablative of Comparison. 217. I. The Ablative is often used with Comparativd| in the sense of than ; as, — melle dulcior, sweeter than honey; patria mihi vita carior est, my country is dearer to me than life, 2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (than) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must be used ; as, — tui studiosior sum quam illius, I am fonder of you than of him. Studiosior illo would have meant, / am fonder of you than heis. Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv- alents of pliis quam, minus quam, etc. Thus : — • amplius viginti urbes inoendun'Lur, 7nore than twenty cities an fired; minus quinque milia processit, he advanced less than five miles. 3. Note the use of oplnioue with Comparatives ; as, — opinione celerius venit, he comes more guickly than expected (lit. than opiniott). INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE. Ablative of Means. 218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instnir ment ; as, — Alexander sagitta vulneratus est, Alexander was wounded by an arrow. There are the following special varieties of this Ablative : — I. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vesoor, and their compounds take the Ablative ; as, — divitiis utitur, he uses his ■afealth (lit. he benefits himself by Ms wealth) ; vita fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life) ; munere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with duty); carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. feed themselves by means of) | castris potitus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. made himself powerful by the camp) . u. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. Sec § 212, ^. THE ABLATIVE. I45 2. With opus est (rarely usus est), there is need; as, — duce nobis opus est, we need a leader. a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate. Thus : — hoc miM opus est, (his is necessary for me. b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nobis opus est is a rare form of expression. L. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est; as, — opus est properat5, there is need of haste. 3. With nitor, innizus, and fretus ; as, — nititur hasta, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a spear'^ \ fretus virtute, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue'). 4. With contineri, consistere, constare, consist of; as, — nervis et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones) ; mortali consistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal sub- stance (lit. holds together by means of, etc.) . 6. In expressions of the following type : — quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this man ? quid mea Tulliola fiet, what will become of my dear Tullia ? (lit. what will be done with my dear Tullia ?) 7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom : — proelio contendere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle; proelio lacessere, to provoke to battle ; curru vehi, to ride in a chariot ; pedibus ire, logo on foot; castiis se tenere, to keep in camp. 8. With Verbs oi filling and Adjectives ol plenty ; as, — fossas virgultis complSrunt, they filled the trenches with brush. a. But plenus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, i. 9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as, — vinum Tiber! devectum, wine brought down (by) the Tiber. 146 SYNTAX. 10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus : — militibus a lacu Lemanno ad montem Juram murum perducit, with {i.e, by means of) Ais troops he runs a wall Jrom Lake Geneva to Mt, Jura, Ablative of Cause. 219. The Ablative is used to denote cause ; as, — multa gloriae cupiditate fecit, he did many things on account of hit. love of glory. 1 . So especially with verbs denoting mental states ; as, deleotor, gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido. Also with contentus; as, — fortuna amicl gaudeo, / rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on account of it) ; victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory ; natura loci confidebant, (hey trusted in the character of their cowvtry (lit. were confident on account of the character). a. fido and confido always take the Dative of the person (§ 187. II. a) ; sometimes the Dative of tlie thing. 2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussG, by order of, injussu, without the order, rogatu, etc. Ablative of Manner. 220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner', as, — cum gravitate loquitur, he speaks with dignity, I. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an adjective ; as, — magna gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity. 1. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jure, injuria, joco, vx, fraude, voluntate, furto, silentio. 3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in at- cor dance with which or in pursuance of which anything is cr is doae. It is generally used without a preposition. Thus : — mea sententia, according to my opinion ; suTs moribus, in accordance with their custom ; sua sponte, voluntarily, of his (their) ovm accord; ea condicione, on these terms. THE ABLATIVE. 147 Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. 221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event ; as, — boms auspiciis, under good auspices ; nulla est altercatio clamoilbus umquam habita majoribus, no debate -was ever held under circumstances of greater applause ; ezstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, Ae dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province ; longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance. Ablative of Accompaniment. 222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote accompaniment ; as, — cum comitibus prof ectus est, he set out with his attendants ; cum febri domum rediit, he returned home with a fever. I. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral ; as, — omnibus copiis, ingenti ezercitu, magna manS ; but usually cum ezercitu, cum duabus legionibus. Ablative of Association. 222 A. The Ablative is often used with verbs oi joining, mixing, clinging, exchanging ; also with assuesco, consuesco, assuefacio, and some others to denote association ; as, — improbitas scelere juncta, badness joined with crime; aer calore admiztus, air mixed with heat ; assuetus labore, accustomed to (lit. familiarized with) toil; pacem bello permutant, they change peace for (lit. with) war. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, infra, supra) to denote the degree of difference ; as, — dimidio minor, smaller by a half; tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher ; pauio post, a little afterwards ; quo plura habemus, e5 cupimus ampUora, the more we have, tht more we want. 148 SYNTAX. Ablative of Quality. 224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote qtiality; as, — puella ezimia forma, a girl of exceptional beauty ; vir singular! industria, a man of singular industry. I. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively ; as, — est magna prudentia, he is (a man) of great wisdom ; bono animo sunt, they are of good courage. ■J. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive ; as, sunt specie et colore taurf, they are of the afpearance and color of a bull, 3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes ZKa/«>va/; as, — scopulis pendentibus antrum, a cave of arching rocks. Ablative of Price. 225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is desig- nated by the Ablative ; as — servum quinque minis emit, he bought the slave for five minae. 1 . The Ablatives magno, pluiimo, parvo, minimo (by omission of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price ; as, — aedes magno vendidit, he sold the house for a high price. 2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203. 4. Ablative of Specification. 226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done ; as, — Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians sur- passed all the Gauls in valor ; tjede claudus, lame in his foot. t. Note the phrases : — major natu, older (lit. greater as to age) ; minor natu, younger. 2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worlhi indignus, unworthy, and dignor, deem worthy of; as, — digni honore, worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor) i fide indigni, unworthy of confidence ; me dignor honore, I deem myself worthy of honor. THE ABLATIVE. I49 Ablative Absolute. 227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically inde- pendent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle ; as, — urbe capta, AenSas fugit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas fled (lit. the city having been captured). 1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun ; as, — VIVO Caesare res publica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive) ; Tarquinio rege, Pythagoras in Italiam venit, in the reign of Tar- quin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. Targtein being king) ; Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus (lit. P. and C. being consuls) . 2. Tlie Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in Englisli we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting — a) Time, as in the foregoing examples. b) Condition ; as, — omnes virtutes jacent, voluptate dominaute, all virtues lie prostrate, if pleasure is master. c) Opposition; as, — perditis omnibus rebus, virtus se sustentare potest, though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself. d) Cause; as, — nulls adversante regnum obtinuit, since no one opposed him, he secured the throne. e) Attendant circumstance ; as, — • pasBis palmis paoem petiverunt, with hands outstretched, they sued for peace. 3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers ; as, — audito eum fugisse, when it was heard that he had fled. 4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare. I50 , aVNTAX. LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE, Ablative of Place. A. Place where. 228. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ab- lative with a preposition ; as, — iu urbe habitat, he dwells in the city. I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo- sition; viz. — ' a) Names of towns, — except Singulars of the First and Second Declensions (see § 232. i) ; as, — Carthagini, at Carthage ; Athenis, at Athens ; Vejis, at Veii. b) The general words loco, locis, parte; also many words modified by totus or even by other Adjectives ; as, — hoc loco, ai this place ; totis castris, in the whole camp. c) The special words : foris, out of doors; ruri, in the country \ terra marique, on land and sea. d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot- ing place ; as, — stant ITtore puppes, the sterns rest on the beach. B. Place from which. '^ 229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition ; as, — ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy} ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city. I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo- sition ; viz. — a) Names of towns and small islands ; as, — Roma profectus est, he set out from Rome; Rhodo revertit, he returned from Rhodes. 1 Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here fol >a), hortor, eohortor: per- auadeo, impello. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. I93 2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow^ etc. (con- junction ut) ; as, — huic conoedo ut ea praetereat, / allow him to pass that by (depend- ent form of tlie Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by .') ; cousuli permissum est ut duas legioues scriberet, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions. 3. Witii verbs of hindering, preventing^ etc. (conjunctions ne, quominus, quiu) ; s«, — ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.") ; prohibuit quominus in unum coirent, he prevented them from com- ing together ; nee quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth. a. Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a. question implying a negative ; it is not neces- sarily used even then. 4. Witli verbs of deciding, resolving^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne) ; as, — constitueram' ut pridie Idus AquTni manerem, I had decided to remain at Aquirium on the 12th; decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opi- mius should see to it ; convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp. ; . With verbs of striving,^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne) ; as, — fac ut eum exores, see to it that you prevail upon him I cura ut vir sis, see to it that you are a man ! laborabat ut reliquas oivitates adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him. u,. Conor, try, always takes the Iniinitive. Note. — Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry. 1 Especially : permitto, concedo, non patior. 2 Especially: prohibeo, impedio, deterreo. • Especially : constituo, decerns, censeo, placuit, convenit, paciscor. < Especially: laboro, do operam, id ago, contends, impetro. 194 SYNTAX. 6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquum est, sequitur, licet, oportet ; as, — sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to shawi licet redeas, you may return ; oportet loquamur, we must speak. i On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8. 7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur, quin ; non est cur, etc. ; nihil est cur, etc. ; as, — nulla causa est cur timeam, tkere is no reason why J should fear (originally Deliberative : why should I fear ? There''s no reason) ; nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say. 8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times talce the simple Sub- junctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omis- sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet ; see 6. Other examples are : — eos moneo deainant, / warn them to stop ; huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states. S, Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative. 396. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur : — 1 . With verbs of wishing; desiring, especially cupio, opto, vol5, malo (conjunctions ut, ne, ut ne) ; as, — opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, / hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur repre- sents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, may no bad man be found'.) ; cupio ne veniat, / desire that he may not come. u. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs o) this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scribas, / wish you would write ; vellem scripslsset, / wish he had written. 2. With expressions of fearing (timeo, metuo, vereor, etc.). Here ne means that, lest, and ut means that not ; as, — timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he not come'. Pm afraid \he wiliy) ; timeo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: may lu cornel Pm afraid \he won'i']^. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 195 a. Ne nou sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of /taring has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause ; as, — non vereor ne hoc non flat, [ am not afraid thai this will not happen ; vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, I fear that he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army. C. Substantive Clauses of Result. 297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words : — 1 . As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially facts, efBcio, conficiS). Thus: — gravitas morbi facit ut medicina egeamus, the severity of disease makes us need medicine. 2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, effici- tur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequi- ttir, relinquitur. Thus : — ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonnm,/n7»2 which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good; ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thus it happens that no one can be happy ; accSdebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking') . 3. As predicate or appositive afjer expressions like jus est, mos est, consuetudo est; ^so after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc. Thus : — est mos hominum ut nSlint eundem pluribus rebud ezcellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things. D. Substantive Clauses introduced by <^VLin. 298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used some- times as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after non dubits, / do not doubt ; quia ig6 " SYNTAX. dubitat, who doubts f ; non (haud) dubium est, there is. no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples : — quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae Bint, who doubts that in virtm there are riches f aon dubium erat quin venturua esset, there was no doubt that he was about to come. a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito ; as, — non dubitamus Inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were fount. b. Non dubito, / do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a qtun-clause. JE7. Substantive Clauses Introduced by QvLod. 299. I. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substan- tive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially — d) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, illud, ilia, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus : — illud est admiratione dignum, quod captTvos retinen- dos censuit, this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept ; hoc uno praestamus vel mazime feris, quod coUoqui-. mur inter nos, in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other. b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, miror, etc. ; as, — ' bene mibi evenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am sent to death ; bene f ecisti quod mansisti, you did well in remaining. 2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus : — quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam trtduco, id mei muniendi causa faoio, as regards the fact that I am trans- porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself i quod me Agamemnona aemulari putSs, falleria, as regards yout thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197 F. Indirect Questions. 300. I. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquirmg, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive.^ Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced — a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs ; as, — ■ die mihi nbi fueris, quid feceris, tell me where you were, what you did; oculis judicarT n5n potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows ; bis bina quot assent, nesciebat, he did not know how many two times two were. Note. ^ — Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following : — effugere nemo id potest quod futurum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass ; but Baepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often it is not even useful to know what is cojning to pass. b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning ; as, — Epamlnondas quaesivit uum salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe ; disputatur num interire virtiis in homine possit, the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man ; ez Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not thi7ik Archelaus happy. Note. — Nonne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, asinthelasi example above. '2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse ; as, — ■ pi neaoio quid ia-cinta, / do not know what to do. (Direct: quia'faciam, what shall I do .') 1 Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as con- sidera. quam variae sint hominum cupidlnes, consider how varied are thk desires of men. (Direct : quam variae sunt hominum oupidines I) 198 SYNTAX. 3. After verbs of exfectation and endeavor (exspeoto, conor, ezperior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question intro- duced by SI ; as, — conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break through. a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted ; as, — permit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia fer- rent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks lei thither. 4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in tlie main by tlie same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4) ; viz. ; — utrum . . .an; -ne an; .... an ; .... ne. Examples : — quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, ' quaero verumne an falsum sit, quaero verum an falsum sit, quaero verum falsumne sit, a. ' Or not' in tlie second member of the double question is ordinarily expressed by neone, less frequently by an non ; as, — di utrum slnt necne, quaeritur, // is asked whether there are gods or not. J. Haud scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first membpr of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense : / am inclined to think, probably, perhaps ; as, — haud scio an ita sit, / am inclined to think this is so. 6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in Indirect Questions. I ask whether it is true or false? CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or con- dition), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the Apodosis (or conclusion). There are the following types of Conditional Sentences : — CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. I99 First T3rpe. -r Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Sup- posed Case. 302. I. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used ; as, — 81 hoc credis, erras, if you believe this, you are mistaken ; uaturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow Nature, we shall never go astray ; 81 hoc di^sti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error. * 2. Sometimes the Protasis talces the Indefinite Second Person Singu^ lar (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative ; as, — memoria minuitur, nisi earn ezerceas, memory is impaired unless you exercise it. 3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Prot- asis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 288, 3) ; as, — 81 quis equitum deciderat, pedltes circumsistebant, if any one of the horsemen'fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him. a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated action; as, — si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if {ever) anybody consumed a day in pleading ; si quando adsideret, if ever he sat by. 4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sen- tences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Inde- pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as, — sT hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent ; 81 hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent. Second Type. — ' Should '-' Would ' Conditions. 303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Pres- ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis ; as,— - 81 hoc die as, erres, 1 if you should say this, you would be mis- si hoc dizeris, erraveris, J taken. si velim Hannibalis proelia omnia desoribere, dies mS defioiat, if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, timi would fail me ; 200 SYNTAX. mentiar, si negem, I should lie, if I should deny it; haec SI tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country should plead thus -with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request f a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the Potential variety. b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a result more positively ; as, — aliter si faciat, nailaiu habet auctorlt^tem, if he should da, otherwise f he has no authority. Third Type. — Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact. 304. I. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past ; as, — si amicT mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were here, I should not lack assistance ; SI hoc dizisses, errasses, zf you had said this, you would have erred; sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil eiSoeret, philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing; consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless de- liberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ances- tors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate. 2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote a coiitintied act, or a state of things still exist- ing; as,— Laelius, Furius, Cato sT nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium oontullssent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been {constantly) helped by them ; num igitur si ad centesimum annum vizisset, senectiitis eum suae paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would M have regretted (and now be regretting) his old age ? CONDTTIONAL SENTENCES. 20I 3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz. — a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity ; as, — nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke; Note. — In sentences of this type, however, it is not itie possibility that is repre- sented as-contTEiry-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought irom the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent tinderstood (and they would have shaken it off\. When ihe possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used. eum patris loco colere debebas, si uUa in te pietas esset, j/o» ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion. b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations ; as, — 61 Sestius ocoTsus ' esset, f uistisne ad arma ituri, if Sestius had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms f sT Qnum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fnit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die. Protasis expressed without Si. 305. I. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as, — aliSqui haeo non soriberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were other- wise) these things would not be written ; non potestis, voldptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtutem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to pleasure. 2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis. Thus : — eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (Ht. ask to-morrow, etc.) ; haec reputent, videbunt, tf they consider this, they will see (lit. let them consider, etc.) ; /oges Zenonem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he would answer. 202 SYNTAX. Use of Nisi, SI Non, Sin. 306. I. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non nega- tives a single word ; as, — ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, / should be hard-hearted unless 1 loved yote ; but — ferreus essem, si te non amarem, / should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love you. In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the second, the notion of loving. 2. ST non (si minus) is regularly employed : — a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certe follows ; as, — dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabo, if I cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it. b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form ; as, — si feceris, magnam babebo gratiam; si non feceris, ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon you. a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin minus is admissible ; as, — boc si assecQtus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, z/7 have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself. 3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin ; as, — hunc mihi timorem eripe ; si virus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut timgre desinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that [ may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to fear. 4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo nihil) ; as, — nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder, a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity. 5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as, — nisi vero, quia perfeota res non est, non videtur punienda, unless indeed, because an act is not consummated, U does not seem to merit punishment. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON. 203 Conditional Clauses of Comparison. 307. I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro- duced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam SI, tamquam 81, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see § 374) i)> 3-S indicated in the following examples : — tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis esset, as great fear seized the senators as {would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates ; sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi les dubia aut obscura sit, 6ui why do I use these witnesses, as (/ should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure ; serviam tibi tam quasi emeris me argento, I -will serve you as though you had bought me for money. 2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regu- lar principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third exam- ples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect. Concessive Clauses. 308. The term ' Concessive ' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see § 278) as, — Bit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, planted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander ; haec sint falsa, granted that this is false ; ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil. Adversative Clauses with Qnamvis, Qnamguam, etc 309. Clauses intro4uced by quamvis, quamquam, etsl, tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as 'Conces- sive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede any- thing, but rather state that something is true in spite of 204 SYNTAX. something else. They accordingly emphasize the adver- sative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different con- structions, as follows : — 1 . Quamvis, however much, although, does not introduce a state- ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed- by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as, — homines quamvTs in turbidis rebus sint, tarn en interdum animTs relazantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times they relax their energies; non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by dangers. 2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense) ; as, — quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tameu justitia id mazime efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so espe- cially ; Caesar, etsi nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen Id quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred, u.. Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. The latter is a conditional particle and teikes any of the constructions admissible for si. (See §§ 302-304.) , 3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive ; as, — Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did not seek. honors, though they were open to him. 4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect ; as, — licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though aU terrors hang over me, {yet) I will lend aid. 5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses ; as, — quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak f CLAUSES OF PROVISO.— RELATIVE CLAUSES. 2oS 6. In post-Augustan writers guamquam is freely construed with the Sub- junctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus : — quamquam moveretur his v5cibus, although he was moved by these words; quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought; quamvis infesto anlmS perveneras, though you had come with hostile intent. Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dumznodo, denoting a AVish or a Proviso. 310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ne) and have two distinct uses : — L They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as, — multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam oonsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power (^if only th^ may attain) ; omnia postposm, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father ^ nil obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you. n. They are used to express a proviso {'provided tJmt'); as, — oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear ; manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor ; nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let them marry, provided no dowry goes with it. Relative Clauses. 311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro- nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs. 312. I. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which aro doubled or have the suffix -cumque ; as, — 2o6 SYNTAX. quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, 1 fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts; quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam a uatura habet, what- ever cotnes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in Nature. 2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the thVee types mentioned in §§ 302-304 ; as, — qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type) ; qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type) ; qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been mistaken. INDIRECT DISCOURSE {OUATIO OBLTQUA). 313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (yOratio Recta) ; as, Caesar said, ' The die is cast' When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse {Oratio Obllquci); as, Caesar said that the die was cast ; Caesar thought that his troops wen victorious. a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect Discourse, see § 331. MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Declarative Sentences. 314. I. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunc- tive ; as, — Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium ten§retur non esse se senatorem, Regulus said that as long ns he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct : quam diu teneor non sum senator.) INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 207 2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context ; as, — tum Romulus legates circa viclnas gentes misit qui societatem conubiumque peterent : urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex luSiao nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of inter- marriage, {saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning. 3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative ; as, — nuutiatum est Ariovistum ad occupaudum Vesoutionem, quod est oppidum mazdmum Sequanorum contendere, it mas re- ported that Ariovistus was hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani. 4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. , It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where qui is equivalent to et Mo, nam hie, etc. ; as, — dixit urbem. Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse bar- baris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufra- gium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near which ( = and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster. 5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context ; as, — cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for se nescire). Interrogative Sentences. 315. I. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunc- tive; as, — Ariovistus Caesari respondit : se prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Romanum. Quid sibi vellet? Cur in suas pos- sessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that ht 2o8 SYNTAX. had come into Gatd before the Roman people. What did hi {Caesar) mean 1 Why did he come into his domain ? (Direct; quid tibi vis ? cur in meas possessiones venis ?) 2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis- course. Thus : — quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the In- direct. 3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un- changed in mood in the Indirect: as, — qaid fiLceiet, le/hai was he to do ? (Direct: quid faciat?) Imperative Sentences. 316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the In- direct; as, — milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct: iutermittite.) a. The negative in such sentences is ne ; as, — ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own valor ! TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. A. Tenses of the Infinitive. 317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270. a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus : — scio te haeo egisse may mean — / know you were doing this. (Direct: haec agebas.) I know you did this. (Direct: haeo egisti.) I know you had done this. (Direct : haeo egeras.) INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 2o9 B. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying' is Princi- pal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense {Repraesentatio) ; as, — ■ Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace. a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Conditional Sentences of the First Type. 319. A. The Apodosis. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317. «)• B. The Protasis. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses. Examples : — Direct. Indirect. si hoc credis, erras, dico, SI hoc credas, te errare ; dixi, SI hoc crederes, te errare. ( dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum esse : SI hoc credes, errabis, J ,. . ., . _, - .- -^- ' ' 1 dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. f dico, sl hoc credideris, te erraturum esse ; si hoc credideris, errabis, •{ ,. _ -,_ -■,.■,. - .- -^- ' dixi, SI hoc credidisses, te erraturum esse. f dico, si hoc crederes, te erravisse : Sl hoc credebas, erravisti, <,...,_ _, _ ^_ _ . ' [ dixi, Sl hoc crederes, te erravisse. a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense. 2IO SYNTAX. Conditional Sentences of. the Second Type. 320. A. The Apodosis. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini- tive of the Indirect. B. The Protasis. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses. Examples : — dico, SI hoc credas, te erraturum esse ; dixl, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. si h5c credas, erres, Conditional Sentences of the Third Type. 321. A. The Apodosis. 1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive. a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the clas- sical Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question the correctness of this passage. 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes : — a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse. d) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive. B. The Protasis.' The protasis in Conditional Sen- tences of this type ahvays remains unchanged. Examples : — SI hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixi), sT hoc orederes, te er- raturum esse ; si h5c credidisses, erravisses, dico (dixT), si hoc credidisses, te erratiirum fuisse ; SI hoc dizisses, punitus esses, dico (dixI), si hoc dixisses, futui rum fuisse ut pumrSris. 322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause, or » INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 211 quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Sub- junctive in the form -urua fuerim; as, — Ita territi sunt, ut arma trSditurl fuerint,i nisi Caesar subito advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived; non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus f ueris,i / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake. a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged ; as, — non dubito quin, si hoc dirzisses, vituperatus esses, / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed. b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con^ ditional sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely -urus f uissem) is used ; as, — quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (01 f uisses) . c. Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive ; as, — concursQ. totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut Irigidissimos quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have beeyi enough to excite even the most apathetic orators. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose Indirect character is merely implied by the context ; as, — dSmonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates d§ imxnortali- tate anlmSrum disseruisset, there were explained to me be- sides, the arguments -which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth) ; Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left. 1 Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris are to be regarded as repre- senting tradlttiri fuerunt and erratiiruB fulsti of Direct Discourse. (Sm J 304- 3- *0 212 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. 324. I. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Sub. junctive are frequently attracted into the same mood, especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute an essential part of one complex idea ; as, — nemo avarus adbuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis, no miser has yet been found who was satisfied with what he had; cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et ingenii reddereut, as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent ; quod ego f atear, pudeat ? should I be ashamed of a thing which I adtnit f 2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as, — mos est Athems quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' form.s an inseparable whole.) NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 325. These are the Infinitive, participle. Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus : — As Verbs, — d) They may be limited by adverbs ; ^) They admit an object ; c) They have the properties of voice and tense. As Nouns or Adjectives, — a) They are declined ; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 213 THE INFINITIVE. Infinitive 'without Subject Accusative. 326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive. Note. — The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express/w^^oj^ ; as, uec dulces occur- rent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children imll run to snatch kisses. A. As Subject. 327. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc. ; as, — dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, it is sweet and noble to die for one''s country ; virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, it is the part of brave men to endure fain with patience ; senatui placuit legates mittere, /^f Senate decided (lit. it pleased tht Senate) to send envoys. 2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative ; as, — aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be irasci- ble., another to be angry; Impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king. a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licult esse otioso Themlstocli, lit. it was permitted to Themisto- cles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals. B. 'As Object. 328. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after — V0I6, cupio, malo, nolo ; cogito, meditor, purpose, intend', debeo, ought; neglego, neglect; Statuo, constituo, decide ; vereor, timed, fear ; 214 SYNTAX. audeo, dare ; mature, f estino, propero, oon- Btudeo, contends, strive ; tendo, hasten ; paro, prepare (so paratus) ; asauesco, consuescS, accustom incipio, coepi, instituo, begin ; myself (so assuetus, insuitua, pergo, continue; assuef actus) ; desino, desisto, cease ; disco, learn ; possum, can ; scio, know how ; Conor, try ; soleo, am wont; as, — tu hos intueri audes, do you dare to look on these men ? Demosthenes ad Suctus maris declamare solebat, Demostkene, used to declaim by the waves of the sea. 2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative ; as, — beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, no one can be happy without virtue ; Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so. Infinitive ■writh Subject Accusative. 329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive. A. As Subject. 330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with ease and Imper- sonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, utile est, turpe est, fama est, spes eat, fas est, uefas est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, constat, praestat, licet, etc. ; as, — nihil in bell5 oportet contemn!, nothing ought to be despised in war; apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself. B. As Object. 331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs : I. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, per- ceivtng, and the like {Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi). This is th« NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 21$ regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following : sentlo, audio, video, cognosco ; puto, jiidico, spero, confido ; soio, memini ; dioo, affirmo, nego {say that . . . not), trado, narro, fateoT, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior. Also the phrases; certiorem facio (infortn), memoria teneo (remember), etc. Examples : — Epiciirei putant cum corporibu3 simul animos iuterire, the Epi- cureans think that the soul perishes with the body ; Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, Thales said that water was the first principle of the tmiverse; Democritus uegat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says nothing is everlasting; spero eum venturum esse, / hope that he will come. II. With jiibeo, order, and -veto, forbid; as, — Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge. u. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jube5 and veto is put in the Passive ; as, Caesar pontem fieri Jussit. III. With patior and sino,/«-w?z^, fl/^a',- as, — QuUo se implioari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty. IV. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infini- tive is different from that of the governing verb ; as, — neo mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me ; eUs res jactari uolebat, he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed; te tut frui virtiite cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth. a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regidarly used in accordance with \ 328. x. But exceptions occur, es- pecially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives ; as, — cupio me esse clementem, I desire to he lenient; Timolson maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared. 6. Volo also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut ; n51o the Sub junctive alone. (.See § 296. 1. a.) 2l6 SYNTAX. V. With Verbs of emotion (Joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especiallj gaudeo, laetor, doled ; aegre ferS, molests fero, graviter fero, am annoyed, distressed ; miror, queror, indignor ; as, — gaudeo tS salvum advenire, I rejoice thai you arrive safely^ non molests ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, they art not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion ; miror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you write me nothing. u.. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a guod- clause as Object. (See } 299.) Thus : — miror quod non loqueris, / wonder that you do not speak. VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (§ 178, i), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative ; as, — cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo) ; docui te contentum esse, /• taught you to be content (cf. te modes- tiam docui, I taught you temperance). Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs. 332. Those verbs which ha the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others : — d) jubeor, vetor, sinox ; as, — milites pontem facere jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge ; pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built ; niHites castris exire vetiti sunt, the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp ; Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius. 6) MiAeor, I am seen, I seem; as, — videtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered, c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons) ; as, — dicitur in Italiam venisse, he is said to have come into Italy ; Romulus primus rek Romanorum fuisse putatur, Romu- lus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 217 d) fertur, feruntur, trSditur, traduntur (only in the third person) ; as, — fertur Homerus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind; carmina Archilochi contumSliis referta esse traduntur, Archilochus''s poems are reported to have been full of abuse. Note. — In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, «), <0i niore commonly take the impersonal construction ; as, — tradltuin est Homerum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was blind. Infinitive 'with Adjectives. 333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus, etc. ; see § 328, i) occurs only in poetry and post- Augustan prose writers ; as, — oontentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved; audax omnia perpetT, bold for enduring everything. Infinitive in Exclamations. 334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig- nation, or regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples : — huncine solem tarn nigrum surreze mihi, to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me! sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa. Historical Infinitive. 335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative ; as, — interim cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui. PARTICIPLES. Tenses of the Participle. 336. I. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the Infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends. 2l8 SYNTAX. 2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that ol the verb. Thus : — audio te loquentem =you are speaking and / hear you ; audiebam te loquentem =you were speaking and I heard you; ^udiam te loquentem = you will be speaking and I shall hear you. a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force ; as, —. assurgentem regem resupinat, as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down. 3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb. Thus : — looutus taceo = / have spoken and am silent; looutus'tacui = / had spoken and then was silent ; locutus tacebo = / shall speak and then shall be silent. 4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with whicli it is connected. 5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi- Deponent Verbs are used as Presents ; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus, gavisus, solitus, ubus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus. Use of ParticipleB. 337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive. 1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Ex- amples are : — gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, glory is the unanimous praise of the good; Coaon- murds a Lysandro dirutos reficit, Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander. 2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote : — a) Time ; as, — omue malum nasceus facile opprimitur, every evil is easily crushed at birth. b) A Condition ; as, — mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, if gorged with food and drink., we cannot use our intellects- NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 219 c) Manner; as, — Solon senesoere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily. d) Means ; as, — sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the day. «) Opposition (' though ') ; as, — mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicentl credimus, •we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth. /) Cause ; as, — perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops. 3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par- ticiple in the Predicate use ; as, — video te fugientem, I see you fleeing, a. So frequently faclo, flngo, induco, etc.; as, — eis Catonem respondentem faclmus, we represent Cato reply- ing to them ; Homerus Laerteni colentem agrum faoit, Homer represents Laertes tillmg the field. 4. The Future Active Pajticiple (except futurus) is regularly con- fined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose ; as, — venerunt castra oppugnaturi, they came to assault the camp. 5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coordi- nate clause ; as, — urbem captam diruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. he de- stroyed the city captured). 6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalen* to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive ; as,— post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city ; Quinctius defensus, the defense of Quinctius ; quibus animus occupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which. 7. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predi- cate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative ; as, — equitatus quem coactum habSbat, the cavalry which he had collected. 220 SYNTAX. 8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Par- ticiples it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate. a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus : — liber legendus, a book worth readings leges observandae, laws deserving of observance. b) More frequently as Predicate. i) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.'). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.) ; as, — veniendum est, it is necessary to come ; oblivTscendum est off ensarnm, one must forget injuries ; numquam proditori credendum est, you must never trust a traitor ; suo ouique utendum est judicio, every man must use his own judgment. 2) Mtcr euro, provide for ; do, trado, give over ; zelin- quo, leave; concedo, hand over; and some other verbs, instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose ; as, — Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curavit, Caesar pro- vided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar; Imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder. 9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, i. THE GERUND. 338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun con- structions as follows : — I. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used — a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200, 202) ; as, — oupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling; ars scribendi, the art of writing. b) With Adjectives ; as, — oupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing. c) With causa, gratia ; as, — discendi causa, /or the sake of learning. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 221 2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used — a) With Adjectives ; as, — aqua utilis est bibendd, water is useful for drinking. b) With Verbs (rarely) ; as, — adfuT scribendo, /was present at the luriting. 3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose ; as, — homo ad ageudum natus est, man is born for action. 4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used — a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§ 218, 219); as,— mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection. Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by fol- lowing up the pirates. b") After the prepositions a, de, ex, in ; as, — summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleas- ure is derived from learning; multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there -was m.tich discussion by Plato on the subject of living "well and happily. 5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object. Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund. 339. I. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction -may be, and very often is, used. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus : — Gerund Construction. Gerundive Construction. cupidus urbem videndi, '^«^>-''«n cupidus urbis videndae ; of seeing the city. ) deleotor oratores legendo, / «»/ ) ^.j^^^^^ .^.^.^^^^^ 1^^^^^^,^ charmedwithreadmgthe orators, i 222 SYNTAX. 2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition ; as, — locus castris muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp; ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace ; multum temporis consumo in legendTs poetis, / spend much time in reading the poets. 3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 336, 2), the Gerundive Con- struction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives, used substantively. Thus regularly — philosophi oupidi sunt verum investigandi, philosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely verT investigandi) ; Btudium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium cognoscendonim) . 4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction ; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (orig- inally transitive) regularly admit it ; as, — hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum veneraut, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp. 5. The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjec- tives used substantively. Thus : — mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself; legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves. So nostri servandi cauaa, for the sake of saving ourselves. 6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote purpose ; as, — quae ille cepit legum ao libertatis subvertundae, -which he under- took for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty. 7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some ex- pressions which have the character of formulas ; as, — decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws ; quindecimviri sacris faciuudis, quindecimvirs for performing the sacrifices. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 223 THE SUPINE.. 340. I • The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express purpose ; as, — legati ad Caesarem grStulatum couvenSrunt, envoys came to Cae^ sar to congratulate him. a. The Supine in -um may take an Object ; as, — pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, they send en' voys to Rome to ask for p)eace. b. Note the phrase : — do (coUooo) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter in mar- riage. 2. The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difBcilis, incredibilis, jucundus, optimus, etc. ; also with fas est, nefas est, opus est ; as, — haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy to learn ; hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do. a. Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu, cognitu, diets, factu, vTsu. b. The Supine in -ii never takes an Object. Chapter VI. — Particles. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word, phrase, or clause to another. I. a) et simply connects. b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two members have an internal connection with each other; as, — parentes liberique, parents and children ; cum homines aestu febrlque jaotantur, wken people art tossed about with heat and fever. 224 SYNTAX. c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two thingii connected, — and also, and indeed, and in fact. After words of likeness and difference, atque (ac) has the force of as, than. Thus : — ego idem sentio ac tu, J think the same as you; haud aliter ac, not otherwise than, d) neque (nee) means and not, neither, nor. a. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is appended to the first word of the second clause ; but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition,' -que is regularly appended to the next following word ; as,— Ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing. b) atque is used before vowels and consonants ; ac never before vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu. c) et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon a special word ; as, — , vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator. d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly said nee iisquam, nee umquam, nee uUus, etc. 3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used •fflrrelatively ; as, — et . . . et, both . . . and ; neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor; " cum . . . turn, while . . . at the same time ; turn . . . tum, not only . . . but also. Less frequently : — et . . . neque ; neque . . . et. 1*. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations, often uses correlatives, especially et . . . et, et . . . neque, neque . . . et, where the English employs but a single connective. 4. In enumerations — a) The different members of a series may follow one another without connectives (Asyndeton; see § 346). Thus: — ez cupiditatibuB odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones, bella nascuntur, from, covetous desires spring up hatred, dissension, discord, sedition, wars. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 225 d) The different members may severally be connected by et (Polysyndeton). Thus : — horae cedunt et dies et menses et anm, hours and days and months and years pass away. c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et) ; as, — Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones dedu- cit, Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the farnutes, Andes, and Turones. 342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative. 1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually ex- clusive; as, — . cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, {either') swift death or glad victory comes. i) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alterna- tives ; as, — qm aether vel caelum nominatur, which is called aether or heaven. 2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla- tively; as, — aut . . . aut, either . . . or ; vel . . . vel, either . . . or ; sive . . . sive, if . . .orif. 343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote oppo- sition. I . a) Bed, but, merely denotes opposition. b) verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used. c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition. It is always post-positive. Definition. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sen- tence, but is placed after one or more words. £) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing argument. e) atqui means but yet. /) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always. i) vero, howevar, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive. 226 SYNTAX. 2. Note the correlative expressions : — Hon solum (non mode) . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also ; nou modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not, but not even ; as, — non modo tibi non irasoor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, / not only am not angry with you, but I do not even blamt your action. a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as, — adsentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem dlgna est, fiattery is not only not worthy of a friend^ but not even, of Ct free man, 344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the state« ment which they introduce as following from or as in con-' formity with what has preceded. 1 . d) itaque = and so, accordingly, b') ergo = therefore, accordingly. c') igitur (regularly post-positive ^) = therefore, accordingly. 2. Igitur is never combined with at, atque, -que, or neque. 345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, for. 346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted be- tween coordinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus : — d) A copulative Conjunction is omitted ; as, — avarltia infinita, insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless (and') insatiable^ Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crassus. The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when the praenomen (Marcus, Gains, etc.) is expressed. b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as, — rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argU' ments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was not, 1 Except in Sallust and Silver Latin. ADVERBS. — WORD-ORDER. 227 ADVERBS. 347. I. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs : — etiam, abo, even. quoque (always post-positive), also. quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis. ne . . . quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between ; as, ne ille quidem, not even he. tamen and ver5, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs. 2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in English, as non nullT, some ; but when non, nemo, nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque . . . neque, non . . . non, non modo, or ne . . . quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it ; as, — habeo bic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, / have here no one, neither friend nor relative. non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, /iir not even that must be passed by. a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Latei writers use it freely with verbs. Chapter VII. — Word-order and Sentence- Structure. A. WOHD-ORDER. 348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end ; as, — Darius olassem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got ready a fleet of five hundred ships. 228 SYNTAX. 349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrange, ment is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sen- tence ; as, — magnus in h5c bello Themistocles fuit, great was Themistocks in this war ; vliud iter habemus nullum, other course we have none. SPECIAL PRINCIPLES. 350. I. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly fol- lows the word upon which it depends. Thus : — a) Depending upon a Noun : — tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs ; niius regis, son of the king; vir magni animi, a man of noble spirit. Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scTtum. V) Depending upon an Adjective : — ignarus rerum, ignorant- of affairs ; digni amioitia, worthy of friendship ; plus aequo, more than {what is) fair. 2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; IS,- Philippus, rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians; adsentatio, vitiorum SL&\vXxix., flattery, promoter of evils. Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always in good prose urba Roma, the city Rome. 3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words ; as, — audi, Caesar, hear, Caesar ! 4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the posi- tion of Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it. a. Adjectives of quantity (including numerals') regularly pre- cede their noun ; as, — omnes homines, all men ; septingentae n^ves, seven hundred vessels. WORD-ORDER. 22g b. Note the force of position in the following : — media urbs, the middle of the city; urbs media, the middle city ; eztremuta bellum, the end of the war ; bellum eztremum, the last war. c. Romanus and Latinus regularly follow ; as, — senatus populusque Romanus, the Roman Senate and People ; ludi RomaiiT, the Roman games ; feriae Latinae, the Latin holidays. d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Geni- tive, a favorite order is : Adjective, Genitive, Noun ; as, — summa omnium rerum abundantia, the greatest abun- dance of all things. Pronouns. a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns regularly precede the Noun ; as, — hic homo, this 7na7t ; ille homo, that man ; erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc. , there wire two routes, by which, etc. qui homo ? what sort of man ? b. But ille in the sense of ' that well known^ ' tfiat famous^ usually stands after its Noun ;-as, — testula ilia, that well-known ciistotn of ostracism ; Medea ilia, that famous Medea. c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun ; as, — pater meus, tny father i homo quidam, a certain man ; mulier aliqua, some woman. But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its Noun ; as, — meus pater, my father (i.e. as opposed to yours, Ms, etc.). d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity ; as, — nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance 1 seem to you to be doing nothing. 230 SYNTAX. 6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify; as, — valde diligens, extremely diligent i saepe dixi, I have often said; te jam diu hortamur, we have long been urging you; paulo post, a little after. 7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern. a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its case ; as, — de communi hominum memoria, concerning the common memory of men ; ad beate vivendum, for living happily. b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed before the preposition ; as, — magno in dolore, in great grief ; Eumma cum laude, with the highest credit ; qua de causa, for which cause ; banc ob rem, on account of this thing. c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see § 144, 3, 8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igif-.ur regularly stand in the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third ; as, — ita est enim, for so it is. 9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it, regularly stand first ; as, — id ut audlvit, Corcyram demigravit, w?ien he heard that (referring to the contents of the preceding sentence), he moved to Corcyra,; BO cum Caesar venisset, timentea connrmat, when Caesar had come thither (i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the timid. 10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are etymologically related ; as, — at ad seuem senez de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scrips!, as I, an old man, wrote to an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I havt written to a friend, concerning friendship. WORD-ORDER. 231 11, Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following : — a) Hyp^rbaton, which consists in the separation of words that regularly stand together ; as, — Septimus mihi Originum liber est in manibus, thi . seventh book of my ' Origines ' is under way ; reoepto Caesar Orioo profiolscitur, having- recovered Orictts, Caesar set out. b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or the same word-order in successive phrases ; as, — sed pleni omnes sunt librl, plenae sapientium voces, plena exemplorum vetustas, but all books are full of it, the voices of sages are full of it, antiquity is full of examples of it. c) Chidsmus,! which consists in changing the relative order of words in two antithetical phrases ; as, — multos defendi, laesi neminem, many have I defended, I have injured no one ; borribilem ilium diem aliis, nobis faustum, that day dreadful to others, for us fortunate. d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial Period ; as, — simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, pretended' interest in the Pompeian party. 12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided ; others were much employed. Thus : — a) Cadences avoided. — WW w ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter). www; as, esse potest (close of pentameter). b) Cadences frequently employed. w ; as, auxerant. w w ; as, comprobavit. www w ; as, esse videatur. w \j ; as, rogatu tuo. 1 So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter X \chi\ Thus : — multos laesi X defendi neminem 232 SYNTAX. JB. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 351. I. Unity of Subject, — In complex sentences the Latiii regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members; as,— Caesar primum su5, deinde omnium ex oonspectu remStis equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae toUeret, oohor- tatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed his own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope of flight, encouraged his men and joined battle. 2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a subordinate one, stands before both ; as, — Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Haedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar ; ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paoi serviendum putavit, although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he ought to aim at peace. a. The same is true also i) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause ; as, — Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proiicTsci, when this had been reported to Caesar he , hastened to set out fro7n the city. 2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause ; as, — L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Fomponius tri- biinus plebis diem dixit, M. Pomponius, tribune of the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius Man- lius, though he had been dictator. 3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause ; indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow ; as, — postquam haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this, he iet out; 81 quis Ita agat, imprudens sit, if any one should act so, he would, be devoid of foresight ; accidit ut iina nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.— HINTS ON STYLE. 233 4. Sometimes in Latin tlie main verb is placed within tlie sub- ordinate clause ; as, — SI quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, if there is any talent in me, and I know how little it is. 5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause; as, — Caesar etsi intellegeba!: qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be forced to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus to come to him. In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language ; in English we generally avoid it. 6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus : — At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castrTs gererentur, cog- noscerent, ubi se dSceptos intellezerunt, omnibus copiis snbsecuti ad flumen contendunt, but the enemy when they had sent men to learn what was going on in camp, after dis- covering that they had been outwitted, followed with all their forces and hurried to the river. Chapter VIII. — Hints on Latin Style. 352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar. NOUNS. 353. I. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of tht Plural ^zr: ie the English; as, — 234 SYNTAX. domos eunt, they go hoine (i.e. to their homes'); Germani corpora curant, the Germans care for the body; animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers; dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night. 2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the SingU' lar; as, — omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost ; quae cum ita sint, since this is so ; haeo omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all. 3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espe- cially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus : — 9. puero, a pueris, /rozw boyhood; Sulla dictatore, in Sulla's dictatorship ; me duce, under my leadership ; Roman! cum Cartbaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made peace with Carthage; liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book ; prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles''s fore- sight saved Greece. 4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147. i) denote a permanent or characteristic activity ; as, — accusatores (professional) accusers; oratores, pleaders ; cantores, singers ; Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius, liberator of Germany. u. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are commonly employed ; as, — Numa, qui Romulo sucoessit, Numa, succsssor of Romulus; qui mea leguut, my readers ; qui me audiunt, my auditors. J. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In English we say : ' The war against Carthage ' ; ' a journey through GauV; Cities on the sea'' ; 'the book in my hands''; 'the fight at Salamis' ; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus : — a) A Genitive ; as, — dolor injuriarum, resentment at injuries. -HINTS ON STYLE. 235 S) An Adjective ; as, — urbes maritimae, cities on the sea ; pugna Salaminia, the fight at Salamis. c) A Participle ; as, — pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Cannae. d) A Relative clause ; as, — liber qui in meis manibus est, the book in my hands. Note. — Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo- sitional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are typical examples : — transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain ; excessus e vita, departure from life; odium erga Romanos, hatred of the Romans ; liber de senectute, the book on old age ; amor in patriam, love for one's country. ADJECTIVES. 354. I. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjec- tives are — a) A Genitive ; as, — virtutes animi = moral virtues ; dolores corporis = bodily ills. b) An Abstract Noun ; as, — no vitas rei = the strange circumstance; asperitas viarum = rough roads. c) Hendiadys (see § 374, 4) ; as, — ratio et ordo = systematic order ; ardor et impetus = eager onset. d) Sometimes an Adverb ; as, — omnes circa populi, all the surrounding tribes ; su5s semper Taostes,- their perpetual foes. 2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective ; as, — dootrlna, theoretical knowledge ; prudentia, practical knowledge; oppidum, walled town ; libellus, little book. 236 SYNTAX. 3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with propel names ; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name ; as, — Socrates, homo sapiens — the -wise Socrates; Scipio, vir fortissimus = the doughty Scipio ; Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima = famous Syracuse. 4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective Genitive ; as, — 1 pastor regius, the shepherd of the king; tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves. PRONOUNS. 355. I. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fond- ness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one ; as, — a quo cum quaereretur, quid mazime ezpediret, respondit, when it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly, qui, cum ab eo quaereretur, respondit.) 2. Uterque, ambo. Uterque means each of two ; ambo means both; as, — uterque frater abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e. sepa- rately) ; ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together. a. The Plural of uterque occurs — i) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56) ; as,— in utris'que castris, in each camp. 2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things ; as, — utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev- eral in number) were famous. VERBS. 356. I. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is supplied : — a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc ; as, — in odio sumus, we are hated; in invidia sum. I atn envied; HINTS ON STYLE. 237 admirationi est, he is admired \ oblivione bbruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by oblivion) ; ♦ in usu esse, to be used. b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : — agitari as Passive of persequi ; temptari as Passive of adoriri. 2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied — a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo- nent; as, — adhortatus, having exhorted ; veritus, having feared . ^)'By the Ablative Absolute; as, — hostium agris vastatis Caesar ezercitum reduzit, hav- ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army. c) By subordinate clauses ; as, — eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived there, he pitched a camp ; hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst into the city. 3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (='one^). Cf. the English ' Vou can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him drink.'' But in Latin this use is mainly coniined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280) , Jussive (§ 275), De- liberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples : — videres, you could see ; utare vTribus, use your strength, quid h5c homine facias, what are you to do . the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any foot except the last. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. JULIAN CALENDAR. 371. I. The names of the Roman months are : Januarius, Fetfrua- rius, Martius, Aprilis, Majus, Junius, Julius (Quintilis i prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilis 1 before the Empire), September, Octo. ber, • November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood. 2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month : — a) The Calends, the first of the month. b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in March, May, July, and October. c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fif- teenth in March, May, July, and October. 3. From these points dates were reckoned backward ; consequently all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following. 4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as pridie Ealendas, Nonas, Idiis. The second day be- fore was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas Nonas, etc. Simi larly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on These designations are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. The Roman numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days before Nones, Ides, or Calends. 5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with Ealendas, Nonas, Idiis. Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common : — a) dig quTnto ante Idiis Martias ; b) quinto ante Idiis Martias ; c) quTnto (V) Idiis Martias ; d) ante diem quintum Idiis Martias. ' Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names Quintilis, Sextilis, September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc. 247 248 SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. 6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, — ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the 28tA of September. ex ante diem quintum Idas Oototrcea, from the nth of October. 7. In leap-year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendas Martias, and the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal Mart. 372. CALENDAR. Days of the month. March, May, July, October. January, August, December. April, June, Sep- tember, November. February. I Kalendis. Kalendis. Kalendis. Kalendis. 2 VI. Nonas. IV. NonSs. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. S III. NONIS. NonTs. NoNIS. 6 Prldie Nonas. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idas. VIII. Idus. 7 NonIs. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Idus. VI. VI. VI. 9 VII. V. V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. " , IV. II V. III. III. III. 12 IV. Pridie Idiis. Pridie Idiis. Pridie Idus. 13 III. IDIBUS. 7d;bus. IDIBUS. 14 Pridie Idus. XIX. Kalend. XVIII. Kalend. XVI. Kalend. IS IDIBUS. XVIII. " XVII. XV. i6 XVII. Kalend. XVII. " XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. XII. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX. VII. 24 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 VIII. VIII. VII. V. (bis VI.)" 26 VII. VII. VI. IV. (V.) " 27 VI. VI. V. III. (IV.) " 28 V. V. IV. Prid. Kal. (Ill Kal ) 29 IV. IV. III. (Prid. Kal.) . 30 31 III. Pridie Kalend. III. Pridie Kalend. Pridie Kalend. (Enclosed forms are for leap-year.) FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 249 II. PROPER NAMES. 373. I . The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts : the praenomen (or given name), the nomen (name of the gens or clan), and the cognomen (family name). Such atypical name is ex'emplied by Marcus TuUius Cicero, in which Marcus is the prae- Qomen, TuUius the nomen, and Cicero the cognomen. Sometimes a second cognomen (in later Latin called an agnomen) is added — expecially in honor of military achievements ; as, — Gaius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. 2. Abbreviations of Proper Names. A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus. App. = Appius. N. = Numerius. C. = Gaius. P. = Publius. Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. = Quintus. D. = Deoimus. Sex. = Sextus. K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius. L. = Lucius. Sp. = Spurius. M. = Marcus. T. = Titus. M'. = Manius. Ti. = Tiberius. III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. A. Figures of Syntax. 374. I. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words ; as, — quid multa, -why (should I say) much ? 2. Brach^logy is a brief or condensed form of expression ; as, — at ager sine cultara fructuSsus esse non potest, sic sine doo- trina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva- tion, so the mind {cannot be productive') without learning. Special varieties of Brachylogy are — a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two ; as, — minis aut blandimentis corrupta = (terrified) by threats or corrupted by flattery. b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as,— dissimilis erat Chares eorum et factis et moribua, lit. Chares was different from their conduct and character^ i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc. 25o FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. 3. Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression ; as, — prius praedicam, lit. / ivill first say in advance. 4. Hendiadys (Iv Stot Svoiv, one through two') is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective ; as, — f ebris et aestus, the heat of fever ; celeritate cursuque, by swift running. 5. Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introductior^ of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate ; as, — Bubmersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships. a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus : — nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow Marcellus is (lit.you know Marcellus, how slow he is). Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry. 6. Anacolilthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con- struction of the sentence ; as, — ■ turn Anci filii . . . ija-peasias eis inda^cataa oresceie, then the sons of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more. 7. Hysteron Prdteron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two words or phrases ; as, — moriamur et in media arma ruamua = let us rush into the midst of arms and die. S. Figures of Rhetoric. 375. I. Litotes (literally softening) is the expression of an idea by the denial of its opposite ; as, — baud parum laboris, no little toil (i.e. much toil) ; non ignoro, I dm not ignorant (i.e. I am well aware). 2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory conceptions; as, — • sapiens Tnsania, wise folly. 3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial) ; as, — sensim sine sensu aetas senescit. 4. Onomatoptieia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, — quadrupedante putrem sonitii quatit ungula campum, 'And shake with horny hoofs the solid ground.'' INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE H^LUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.' p. ii8, nonne videtis, Sesi. 47. num exspectas, PhU. ii, 86. videsne, Vatm. 30. sensistine, Cat. i, 8. a rebus, de Sen. 15. p. iig, visne locum, Leg. ii, i, estisne, Liv. i, 38, 2. jam ea, Ter. Phor. S2S- estne frater, Ter. Ad. 569. p. 120, decorum est, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13. opportune acddit, Alt. i, 17, 2. Nimia, Eut. i, 3. p. 121, philosophia, Tusc. Disp. ii, i6. assentatio, Lael. 8g. Corinthi, Tac. E.ii, 1. p. 122, audi tu, lAvy, i, 24. nate, mea, Aen. ij 664. rumor est, Ter. And. 185. p. 123, galeam, Aen. ii, 392. ductus, Ov. Am. iii, g, 61. nodo sinus, Aen. i, 320. p. 124, idem gloriari, de Sen. 32. eadem peccat, N. D. i, 31. multa egeo, Gell. xiii, 24. multum valet, 'Hor. Epp. i, 6, 52. nihil peccat, Stat. 161. minitaritem vana, SU. i, 306. acerba tuens, Lucr. v, 33. dulce loquentem, Hor. Od. i, 22, 24 . multum sunt, B. G. iv, 1, 8. servitutem, PI. Pers. 34 a. vitam, Ter. Ad. 859. stadium, Qff. iii, 10, 42. Olympia, de Sen. 14. p. 125, pisds, Sen. N. Q. iii, 18, 2. orationes, Brut. 82. homines, Rose. Am. loi; otium, Hor. Od. ii, 16, i. me duas, Att. ii, 7, x. p. 126, te litteras, Pis. 73. hoc te, Ter. Hec. 766. me id, PI. Tr. 96. non te, Fam. ii, 16, 3. omnes artes, Ljti. 25, 37. rogatus, de Dom. 16. multa, N. D. ii, 166. milites, B. C. i, 54. p. 127, tremit, Lucr. iii, 489. ' nuda, Aen. i, 320. manus, Aen. ii, 57. hie locus, B. G. i, 49. indomum, Ac. i, 13. p. 128, Thalam, SaU. Jug. 75, 1. Thurios in, Nep. Ale. 4. cum Acen, Nep. Dat. 5. Italiam venit, Aen. i, 2. p. 130, amids, Sail. C. 16, 4. Orgetorix, B. G.i, 2. p. 131, munitioni, 5. G. i, 10. mihi ante, Verr. v, 123. illi, Tac. Ag. 9. intercludere. Pi. JW. G. 223. oppidum, .B. C iii, 80. tumihi, Verr. 3, 213. quid mihi, Hor. Epp. i, 3, 15. p. 132, erit ille. Eel. i, 7. quae ista. Par. 41. honorem, Verr. iv, 25. Caesar, Dii). ii, 79. sdntillam, Aen. i, 174. disputatio, Tusc. Disp. ii, 2. honesta, Off. iii, 38. p. 133, castris, B. G. vii, 16. legiones, B. C.ii, 22. receptui, B. G. vii, 47. fortunae, Fam. vi, s, i. quibus, Flac. 19. hos tibi, iVe^. Paus. 2. me gerendo, ijii. i, 23. noxiae, Leg. iii, 11. p. 134, it clamor, Aen. v, 451. dum Latio, Aen. i, 6, p. 137, magni, Nep. Cat. i, 2. tantae molis, Aen. i, 33. • For explanation of the abbreviations, see p. 257- 251 252 INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES. p. 138, viri, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43. memoria, Or. 54. Epicuri, i''. V, 3. praeteritorum, Div. i, 63. nomina, PI. Foen. 1062. reminiscere, B. G. i, 13. reminlscens, Nep. Ale. 6. p. 139, mihi patriae, Stdl. 19. te veteris, ad Her. iv, 24, 33. me admones, ad All. v, i, 3. pecuniae, Flacc. 43. p. 140, miseremini, Verr. i, 72. p. 141, desine, Hor. Od. ii, 9, 17. operum, Hor. Od. iii, 17, 16. p. 142, curis, Marc. 34. Caesar, B. G. s, 51. caret, Hor. Sat. i, 3, 66. urbem, Nep. Thras. 1. p. 143, abstinere, Plin. Epp. i, 12, 9. hostes, B. G. i, 1, 4. praedones, Verr. iv, 144. dissentio, Plane, g. secernaiitur. Cat. i, 32. ab Ulixe, Liv. i, 49, 9. a fortuna, B. G.v, 34, 2. a multitudine, B. G. iii, 2, 1. p. 144, melle dulcior, de Sen. 31. patria. Cat. i, 27. amplius, 3. G. vii, ij, i. opinione, B. G. ii, 3, i. munere, Aen. vi, 885. came, 5aW. Jus. 89. castris, B. G. ii, ,26, 4. opus est properato. Mil. 49. p. 145, nititur, Aen. vi, 760. uervis, JV. D. ii, 59. mortali, Lucr. v, 65. quid hoc, Sest. 29. quid mea, Fom. xiv, 4, 3. fossas, B. G. iii, 18. vinum, /»». vii, 121. p. 146, militibus, B. G. i, 8, i. victoria, B. G. i, 14, 4. natura lod, B. G. iii, 9, 3. p. 147, nulla est. Brut. 164. exstinguitur, Tae. A.ii, 72. longo, Aen. v, 320. cum febri, de Or. iii, 6. improbitas, de Or. ii, 237. aer calore, N. D. ii, 27. assuetus, de Or. iii, 58. p. 148, puella, PI. Merc. 13. vir singulari, PI. Vid. 41. sunt specie, B. G. vi, 28, 1. scopuUs, Aen. i, 166. Helvetii, B. G. i, 2, z. me dignor, Aen. i, 335. p. 149, Cn. Pompeio, B. G. iv, 1. omnes virtutes. Fin. ii, 117. perditis, Fam. vi, i, 4. nuUo adversante, Tac. A.i, 2. passis palmis, B. C. iii, 98. audito eum, Liv. xxviii, 7. p. 150, stant litore, Aen. vi, 901. p. 151, a Gergovia, 5. G. vii, 59, 1. Stella, N. D. ii, 52. biennjo, Tac. Agr. 14. P- IS3, prima et, Tac. A. i, 37. omnium rerum, Fam. vi, 21, i. eadem alacritas, B. G. iv, 24, 4. res operae, B. G. v, 11, 5. stultitia, F. iii, 39. p. 154, domus, (^ !or, Ter. j4»i. 891. pars, Sail. Jug. 14, 15. p. 156, sencctus, de Sen. 55. exercitus, lAvy, xxxix, 1. p. 157, virtus, Lael. 100. p. 158, me oravit, Phil, ii, 45. me oraverunt, Div. Caec. 2. suum genium, Tae. Dial. 9. p. 159, Hannibalem, Sest. 142. suus quemque, Rose. Am. 67. Belgae, B. G. ii, i, 1. Galli, B. G. vi, 8, i. Themistodes, Nep. Them. 9. illud intellego. Sail. Jug. 85, 5. hie est, PI. Tr. 697. p. 160, Maximum, de Sen. 10. non is sum, B. G. v, 30, 2. non suspicabatur, Verr. i, 36. vincula, Co/, iv, 7. quod idem, 4c. ii, 32. bonus vir, Lael. 63. p. 161, ipso terrore, B. G. iv, 33, 1. valvae se, Div. i, 74. Persae, Nep. Ale. 5. ea molestissime, Q. Pr. i, i, i. p. 162, career quae, Verr. v, 143. Belgae, B. G. ii, 1, i. nostra qui. Cat. i, 7. servili, B. G. i, 40. erant, B. G. i, 6. quam quisque, Tusc. Disp. i, 41- non longe, B. G. i, 10, i. Themistodes, Nep. Them. 4, 3. INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES. 253 p. 163, p. 164. p. i6S, p. 166, p. 167, p. 168, p. 169. p. 170, p. 171, p. 172, P- 173, P- 174, p. I7S, P- 177. P- 178, numquam digne, de Sen, 2. cognatio. Arch. 2. mors est, Tusc. Disp. i, 27. justitia, F. i, so. si quisquam, Lael. g. potestne, Tiisc. Disp. iv, 54. si ullo, Alt. xii, 23, 1, taetrior, Verr. iv, 123. quod cuique, Off. i, 21. quinto quoque, Verr. ii, 139. nemo Romanus, Liv. viii, 30, 3. alter exercitum, Plane. 86. alteri se, B. G. i, 26, 1. causidicus, de Or. i, 202. Tarquinii, Liv. i, 34, 7. non oimiis, Div. ii, 90. Coiioli, Liv. ii, 33, 8. duo milia. Curt, iii, 2, s- temeritas, F. iii, 72. si tu, Fam. xiv, s, i- velatus, On. Met. v, no. tunica, Aen. viii, 457. virtus, Lael. 100. dum vitant. Ear. Sat. i, 2, 24. Caesar, B. G. vii, go, 2. jam pridem, Att. ii, 5, *■ Duilium, de Sen. 44. hostes, B. G. v, 9, 6. domidlium. Arch. 7. Regulus, Of. iii, 100. Caesar, B. G. iv, 17, i. nihil habebam, Alt. ix, 10, 1. videor, iV. Z). ii, 72. Gallos, B. G. vii, '4, 4. honestum, F. ii, 49. si solos, Tusc. Disp. i, 9. rex tantum, Nep. Con. 4. Verres, Verr. Act. Pr. 12. ardebat. Brut. 302. Caesar, B. G. iii, 24, i. hoc jam. Cat. i, 5. dico me, StM. 27. quare. Cat. 1, 32. isto bono, de Sen. 33. ne repugnetis, Cluent. 6. tu vero, Tmjc. Disp. i, 112. impii ne. Leg. ii, 41. cave ignoscas, Lig. 14. quid fadam, Pi. Cure. 589. ego redeam, Tef. Bun. 49. huic cedamus I PhU. xiii, 16. quid facerem, Ter. Eun. 831. hunc ego. Arch. 18. ne sint, (2e Sen. 34. fuerit, Fcr*-. i, 37. di istaec, Ter. H. T. 1038. falsus utinam, Liv. xxi, 10, 10. p. 179, dicat aliquis, Ter. And. 640. fortunam, Pub. Syr. 193. velira mihi, Fam. xiii, 75, 1. nolim putes, Fam. ix, is, 4. dies deficiat, N. D. iii, 81. p. 180, egredere. Cat. i, 20. rem vobis, Verr. iv, 1. si bene, de Sen. 3. consules, Leg. iii, 8. hominem. Twelve Tables. amidtia, Liv. 38, 38, i. quin equos, Liv. i, S7i 7- p. 181, adjuta, Ter. Eun. iso. portas, B. G. ii, 33, i. haec. And. 472. ut ne, Of. i, 103. ut non. Cat. i, 23.^ ut earum, B. G. iv, 17, 10. p. 182, Helvetii, B. G. i, 7, 3. haec habui, de Sen. 85. non habebat, B. G. iv, 38, 2. idoneus, Fer;'. iii, 41. dignus. Leg. iii, S- multa, Tusc. Disp. i, 80. p. 183, sunt qui, Inv. ii, 144. nemo, Fam. i, 4, 2. sapientia, F»«. i, 43. quae, Lael. 23. non is sum, B. G. v, 30, 2. non longius, 5. G. ii, 21, 3. o fortunate. Arch. 24. ut qui, Phil, xi, 30. egomet, lie Or. i, 82. nemo est, Verr. iv, 115. nemo fuit, B. C. iii, S3i 3- quem audierim, NepfAr. 1, a. p. 184, quis tam, Tusc. Disp. iii, 71. Sidliam, Verr. Act. Pr. 12. mons, B. G. i, 6, i. non is. Cat. i, 22. nemo est, de Sen. 24. habetis. Cat. iv, 24. ' nihil, Ter. B. T. 675. , nemo est, 5. G. vi, 39, 3. p. i8s, Themistocles, Nep. Them. 8, 3. neque, de Sen. 84. quoniam, iVe^. MUt. 7, s. noctu, ruse. Disp. iv, 44. Bellovaci, B. G. vii, 73. 254 INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES p. i86, id feci, Caec. loi. Crasso, Fam. xiii, i6, 3. hocita, Leg' "i, 3i- Haeduos, B. G. i, 16, 6. id omitto, Sail. Jug. no, 7. p. 187, Epaminondas, Nep. Ep. g, 4. id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3. Caesar, B. G. iii, g, 2. ubi de, B. G. i, 7, 3. ut qiiisque, Ferr. v, 143. hostes, B. G. iv, 26, 2. id ubi, Liv. i, 32, 13. p. 188, postquam occupatae, Liv. xxiv, 35, 4- postquam Romam, SoH. Jug. 28, 2. postquam stnicti, Liv. i, 23, 6. I)osteaquam, Leg. ii, 64. an turn, Pis. 26. credo turn, Fej'r. iv, 46. eo tempore, ijg. 20. illo die. Mil. 38. p. 189, Lysander, Dio. i, 96. Pythagoras, JV. Z). iii, 88. jam Galli, B. G. vii, 26, 3. Treveri, B. G. vi, 7, i. cum ad, Verr. v, 27. cum equitatus, B. G. v, 19, 2. saepe cum, Nep. Cim. 4, 2. cum procucurrissent, iU. C. ii, 41, 6. p. 190, tum tua. Ear. Epp. i, 18, 84. cum videbis, PI. Bacch. 145. stabilitas, Lael. 82. cum tacent. Cat. i, 21. cum te, Alt. xiv, 17 A, 4. prius, PI. Merc. 456. nihil contra. Place. 51. non prius. Sail. C 51. p. 191, priusquam, Liv. i, 24, 3. tempestas. Sen. Ep. 103, 2. priusqu'am telum, B. C. ii, 34, 6. animum, PI. Amph. 240. sol antequam, Phil, xiv, 27. Alexander, Quint. Curt, iv, 6, 17- dum haec, 5. G. iii, 17, 1. dimi anima, Att. ix, 10, 3. Lacedaemoniorum, Tusc. Disp. i, loi. Cato, Nep. Cat. 2, 4. 0. 192, donee, ijs. xxiii, 31, 9. ferrmn, iVe#. £^. 9, 3. trepidationis, Liv. xxi, 28, 11. exspectavit, B. G. iv, 23, 4. dum litterae, Fam. xi, 23, 2. postulo, Ter. And. 550. orat, Ter. Ad. 882. milites, £. C ii, 21, z. Helvetiis, 5. G. i, 2, i. p. 193, huic. Rose. Am. 54. consuli, Liv. xxxv, 20, 4. ne lustrum, lAv. xxiv, 43, 4. prohibiut, iiji. xxv, 35, 6. nee quin, Liv. xxvi, 40, 4. constitueram, 4«. xvi, 10, i. decrevit. Cat. i, 4. couvenit, iiu. x, 27, 2. fac ut, P;. JJ«(i. 1218. cura ut. Cat. iii, 12. laborabat, 5. G. vii, 31, i. p. 194, sequitur, iV. D. ii, 81. eos moneo. Cat. ii, 20. huic imperat, B. G. iv, 21, 8. opto, Verr. Act. Pr. so. p. 19s, vereor ne, Att. vii, 12, z. ex quo, F. ii, 24. ita fit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 16. est mos. Brut. '84. p. 196, quis, Par. 48. illud, OS. iii, in. hoc uno, de Or. i, 32. bene mihi, Tusc. Disp. i, 97. quod, B. G. i, 44, 6. quod me, Nep. Ep. 5, 6. p. 197, oculis, B. G. i, 12, I. bis bina, N. D. ii, 49. effugere, N. D. iii, 14. saepe autem, N. D. iii, 14. Epaminondas, F. ii, 97. ex Socrate, Tusc. Disp. v, 34. nescio, PI. Amph. 1056. p. 198, conantur, B. G. i, 8, 4. pergit, Liv. i, 7, 6. quaeritur, N. D. i, 61. haud sdo, Tusc. Disp. ii, 41. p. 199, naturam. Off. i, 100. memoria, de Sen. 21. si quis, B. G. i, 48, 6. si dicendo, Tac. Dial. 19. p. 200, mentiar, Lael. 10. haec si. Cat. i, 19. sapientia, F. i, 42. consilium, de Sen. 19. Laelius, Arch. 16. num igitur, de Sen. 19. IJNJJiiA lU IJtlJi JiJi.Ajyj.Ji'l^JiS. 255 p. 201, p. 202, P- 203, ft. 204, t). 20s, p. 206, p. 207, t). 208, p. 209, p. 211, p. 212, P- 213, nisi felicitas, Tac. Agr. 31- eum paths, Phil, ii, 99. si Sestius, Sest. 81. si unum, Liv. ii, 38, S- non potestis, F. ii, 71. eras, Fl. Merc. 770. haec reputent, Tusc. Disp. i, Si- roges, F. iv, 69. ferreus, Fam. xv, 21, 3. dolorem, Phil. 12, 21. si feceris, Fam. v, 19, ^. hoc si, Fam. vii, i, 6. hunc mihi, Cat. i, 18. nihil, Cat. ii, 10. nisi. Mil. 19- sed quid, Div. Caec. 14. serviam, PI. Men. iioi. sit fur, Verr. v, 4. haec sint, Ac. ii, 105. ne sit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 14. homines, Phil, ii, 39. non est. Rep. i, 10. quamquam. Off. i, 56. Caesar, £. G. iv, 31, 1. Atticus, Nep. Alt. 6, .1. licet, Rose. Am. 31. quamquam quid, Cal. i, 22. quamquam, i»». xxxvi, 34, 6. quamvis, multi, Tac. Dial. 2. quamvis infesto, Liv. ii, 40, 7. multi. Off. iii, 82. omnia postposui, Fam. rvi, 2 ; 6- nil obstat, Hor. Sat. i, i, 40. oderint, Ace. 204. manent, de Sen. 22. nubant, P/. Aid. 491. quidquid, 4e«. ii, 49. quidquid oritur, Div. ii, 60. Regulus, Off. iii, 100. tum Romulus, Liv. i, 9, 2. nuntiatum, B. G. i, 38, i. dixit, Nep. Them. 7, S- Ariovistus, 5. G. i, 44, 7. milites, B. G. iii, s, 3- Caesar, 5. G. i, 14, 6. concursu, Tac. Dial. 3^. demonstrabantur, de Sen. 78. Paetus, Alt. ii, 1, 12 nemo, Par. 52. cum diversas, Tac. Dial, i, 4. mos est, Oro/. 151. quod ego, PI. Capt. 961. dulce, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13. p. 214, P- 215, p. 216, p. 217, p. 218 p. 219, p. 220, p. 221 p. 222, p. 223, virorum, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43. aUud est, Tusc. Disp. iv, 27. impune. Sail. Jug. 31, 26. licuit, Tusc. Disp. i, 33. Demosthenes, F. v, 5. beatus, N. D. i, 48. Cato, Sail. Cat. 54, 5. apertum est, F. v, 34. Epicurei, Lael. 13. Thales, N. D. i, 23. Democritus, N. D. i, 29. nullo se, Lig. 3. nee mihi, de Sen. 85. eas res, B. G. i, 18. te tua. Brut. 331. cupio. Cat. i, 4. Timoleon, JVe^. Tim. 3, 4. gaudeo, PZ. Bacch. 456. non moleste, de 5e». 7. Sestius, Sest. 95. traditum, Tmsc. Disp. v, 114. audax, ffor. Od. i, 3, 23. hundne, Hor. Sat. i, 9, 72. interim, B. G. i, 16, i. assurgentem, Liv. iv, 19. gloria, Tusc. Disp. iii, 3. Conon, Nep. Con. 4, 5. omne, Phil, v, sr. mente, Tmsc. Disp. v, 100. Solon, ie Sen. 26. sol, iV. D. ii, 102. mendaci, Div. ii, 146. perfidiam, B. G. vii, s, S- eis Catonem, (Ze Sen. 3. Homerus, ie 5e». 54- urbem, Liv. xxii, 2f - ■ equitatiun, 5. G. i, iS, i. obliviscendum, Tac. ffis*. ii, i. numquam, Verr. i, 38. suo cuique, N. D. iii, 1. Caesar, B. G. i, 13, i- scribendo, Fam. xv, 6, 2. mens, 0/. i, 105. Themistocles, Nep. Them. 2, 3 multa, P. i, S- ad pacem, Liv. xxi, ij .7 hostes, B. G. iii, u, i, legati, 5. G. iv, 13, 5- quae ille, Sail. Fr. i, 77, "• legati, B. G.i, 30, i- do (colloco), PI. Tr. 73S- hoc est, Att. vii, 22, 2. cum homines. Cat. i, 31. 256 INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES. p. 224, discidia, F. i, 44. p. 22s, horae, de Sen. 69. Caesar, B. G. ii, 35, 3. cita, Hor. Sat. i, 1, 8. qui aether, N. D. ii, 41. p. 226, adsentatio, Lael. 8g. Cn. Pompeio, B. G. iv, 1, j.. p. 227, Darius, Nep. Milt. 4, i. p. 228, magnus, Nep. Them. 6, 1. p. 22g, erant duo, B. G. i, 6, i. nisi forte, de Sen. 18. p. 230, id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3. eo cum, B. G. vii, 7, 4. ut ad, Lael. 5. p. 231, Septimus, de Sen. 38. recepto, B. C. iii, 12, 1. sed pleni. Arch. 14. horribilem, Tusc. Disp. i, 118. simulatam, Tac. A. i, 10. p. 232, Caesar, B. G. i, 25, 1. Haedui, B. G. i, 11, 2. Caesar cum, B. G. i, 7, 1. accidit, Nep. Ak. 3, 2. p. 233, si quid. Arch. 1. Caesar, 5. G. v, 4, i. p. 237, hostium, B. G. iii, 29, 3. mens quoque, de Sen. 36. tanto, 5mS. S9. p. 238, pro multitudine, B. G. i, 2, j. p. 249, ut agar, Tusc. Disp. ii, 13. minis, Tusc. Disp. v, 87. dissimilis, Nep. Chab. 3, 4. p. 250, febris. Cat. i, 31. submersas, Aen. i, 69. nosti, Fam. viii, 10, 3. tum And, Liv. i, 40, 2. moriamur, Aen. ii, 353. quadrupedante, vle». viii, sg6. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. Ac, Gcero, Academica. Ace, Acdus. ad Hei., ad Herennium. Aen., Virgil, Aeneid. Arch., Cicero, pro Archia. Att., Cicero, Episiulae ad AtUcum. B. C, Caesar, de Bella Civili. B. G., Caesar, de Bella Gallia). Brut., Cicero, Brutus. Caec, Cicero, fro Caecina. Cat., Cicero, in CatUinam. Cluent., Cicero, pro Clitentio. Curt., Quintus Curtius; de Dom., Cicero, de Doma Sua. de Or., Cicero, de Oratore. de Sen., Cicero, de Senectute. C, Cicero, de Divinatione. Div. Caec, Cicero, Divinatia in CaeciHum. Eel., Virgil, Eclogues. Eut., Eutropius. F., Cicero, de Finibus. Fam., Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares. Fkc, Cicero, pro Placco. Gell., Aulus Gellius. Hor., Horace. Epp., Epistles. Od., Odes. Sat., Satires. Inv., Cicero, de Inventione. Juv., Juvenal. Lael., Cicero, LaeUus, de AmicHia. Leg., Cicero, de Legibus. Lig., Cicero, pro Ligario. Liv., Livy. Lucr., Lucretius. Marc, Cicero, pra Marcello. Mil., Cicero, pro Milone. N. D., Cicero, de Natura Deorum. Nep., Nepos. Ale, Alciiiades. Ar., Aristides. Att., Atticus. Cat., Cato. Cbab. Chabrias. Cim., Cimon. Con., Canon. Dat., Datames. Ep., Epaminondaj. Milt., MUtiades. Paus., Pausamas. Them., Themistocles. Thras., Thrasybuhis. Tim., Timoleon. 0£E., Cicero, de Officios. Or., Cicero, Orator. ^ Ov., Ovid. Am., Amores. Met., Metamorphoses. Par., Cicero, Paradoxa. Phil., Cicero, Philippics. Pis., Cicero, i» Pisonem. Plane, Cicero, i>ro Plancit. PL, Plautus. Amph., Amphitruo. Aul., Aulularia. Bacch., Bacchides. Capt., CapHvi. Cure, CurcuUo. Men., Menaechmi. Mere, Mercalor. M. G., Af j/e* Gloriosus. Pers., Persa. Poen., Poemihis. Rud., Rudens. Tr., Trinummus. Vid., Vidtdaria. Plin. Epp., Pliny the Younger, irftefi. Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus. Q. F., Cicero, od Quintum Fratrem. Rose Am., Cicero, ^o Roscio Amerint. Sail., Sallust. C, Catiline. Fr., Fragments, Jug., Jugurtha. Sen., Seneca. Ep., Epistles. N. Q., Naturaks Quaestiones. 257 2S8 ABBREVIATIONS IN THE EXAMPLES. Sest., Cicero, pro SesHo. Sex. Rose, Cicero, pro Sexto Roscio. Sil., Silius Italicus. Stat., Caedlius Statius. Sull., Cicero, pro Sulla. Tac, Tacitus. A., Annals. Agr., Agricola. Dial., Dialogus de Oratoribus. Ger., Germarda. H., Histories. Ter., Terence. Ad., Adelphoi. And., Andria. Eun., EuniKhus. ■ Hec, Eecyra. H. T., Bautontimoroumenos. Phor., Phormio. Tusc. Disp., Cicero, Tusculan Disputa- tions. Twelve Tables, Laws of the Twelve Tables. Vatin., Cicero, in Vatitimm. Yen., Cicero, in Verrem. Verr., Act. Pr., Cicero, AcUo Prima in C. Verrem. INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. Note. — Compounds axe not given unless they present some special irregularity. The references are to sections. A. abdo, 122, 1, 2. abido, 122, III. abnuo, 122, II. aboleo, 121, 1, abstergeo, 121, in. absum, 125. accendo, 122, 1, 4. accidit, 138, m. accio, 121, 1, N. accipio, 122, m. acqmro, 122, 1, 6. acuo, 122, II. adds, 122, 1, 2. adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2. adiplscor, 122, V. adolesco, 122, IV, i. adsum, 125. advenio, 123, IV. aSero, i2g. afficio, 122, III. affligo, 122, 1, I, a. agnSsco, 122, IV, i. ago, 122, 1, 3. algeS, 121, III. alo, 122, 1, 5. amicio, 123, III. amo, 120, 1. unplector, 122, V. ango, 122, 1, 7. aperio, 123, II. appeto, 122, 1, 6, arceo, 121, II, n. arcesso, 122, 1, 6. ardeo, 121, III. ■ aresco, 122, IV, j. arguo, 122, n. ascends, 122, 1, 4. aspicio, 122, III. assentior, 123, VII. assuefacio, 122, III. assueflo, 122, III. audio, 123, 1, aufero, 129. augeo, 121, in. aved, 121, II, a, N. 2. cads, 122, 1, 2. caedo, 122, 1, 2. calefaciS, 122, III. calefio, 122, III. caleo, 121, II, a. calescS, 122, IV, 2. cans, 122, 1, 2. capessS, 122, I, 6. capio, 122, III. cares, 121, II, a. carpo, 122, 1, I, u. caveS, 121, V. cedS, 122, 1, I, b. censeo, 121, II, b, cams, 122, 1, 6. cieo, 121, 1. cingS, 122, 1, I, a. circumsistS, 122, 1, 2. claudS, 122, 1, I, b. Clauds, 122, 1, 7. coemS, 122, I, 3. coepl, 133. coerceo, 121, II, a. cognosco, 122, IV, I. cogo, 122, 1, 3. 2S9 coUigS, 122, 1, 3. cols, 122, 1, s. comminlscor, 122, V. comperiS, 123, V. compleo, 121, I. concutio, 122, III. condS, 122, 1, 2. cSnferS, i2g. cSnfiteor, 121, VII. congruS, 122, II. consenesco, 122, IV, 2. cSnsero, 122, 1, 5. consero, 122, 1, 6 {plant) cSnsido, 122, 1, 4. consists, 122, 1, 2. cSnspicio, 122, III. constat, 138, III. cSnstltuS, 122, II. consuesco, 122, IV, 1. consuls, 122, 1, s. contineo, 121, II, b. contingit; 138, III. coquS, 122, 1, I, a. crepS, 120, II. crescS, 122, IV, 1. cubs, 120, II. cupiS, 122, III. cuiro, 122, 1, :i. D. debeo, 121, II, a. decerns, 122, 1, 6. decet, 138, II. dedecet, 138, II. dedo, 122, 1, 2. defends, 122, 1, 4, 26o INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS deled, 121, 1, deligo, 122, I, 3. demo, 122, 1, 3. desero, 122, 1, 5. desino, 122, 1, 6. desum, 125. dico, 122, 1, 1, u, differs, i2g. dlligo, 122, 1, 3. dimico, 120, H. dirimo, 122, I, 3. diripio, 122, III. diruo, 122, II. discerno, 122, I, 6. disco, 122, IV, I. dissero, 122, 1, 5. distinguo, p. 87, footnote, divido, 122, I, I, 6. do, 127. doceo, 121, II, b. doles, 121, II, a. domo, 120, II. dues, 122, I, 1, iz. E. edo, 122, I, :i. edS, 122, I, 3. efifero, 129. eflfuglS, 122, III. egeo, 121, II, a, N. i. eUciS, 122, III. emineS, 121, II, ^35 ; quantity of first syllable, 362, 3. -al, declension of nouns in, 39. alacer, decl., 68, i ; comp., 73, 4. aliqua, gi, 2. aliqui, 91 ; 91, 2. aliquis, gi ; 252, 2 ; aliquis dicdt, dixerU, 280, I. -SUs, suffix, 151, z. aUter ac, 341, i, alius, 66 ; g2, 2S3, '■■ alius ac, 'other than,' 341, i, c). Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N. allicio, conj., log, 2, 6). Alliteration, 37s, 3. Alphabet, i. alter, decl., 66; g2, i; used correlatively, .2S3, I. Alternative questions, 162, 4; indirect, 300, 4. alteruter, decl., g2, 2. alvus, gender of, 26, i, b. amandus sum, conj., 115. amatarus sum, conj., 115. amb- (ambi-), 159, 3, N. ambo, 80, 2, a; usage, 355, 2. amo, conj., loi. ampUus = ampUas quam, 217, 3. amussis, -4m, 38, i. fl», 162, 4, and a) ; 300, 4; Aowd JC»S o»i nescio an, 300, J. Anacoluthon, 374. 6- Anapaest, 366, 2. used correlatively. 266 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Anaphora, 350, 11, i). Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3; 144, 3. anceps (syllaba anceps), defined, 366, 10. Androgeds, •dec!., 27. animal, decl., 39. Animals, as agents, 216, 2. animi, locative, 232, 3. annSn, in double questions, 162, 4. Answers, 162, 5. ante, prep. w. ace, 141 ; as adv., 144, i ; dat. w. verbs compounded w. ante, 187, III; in expressions of time, 357, i; 371,5; ante diem, 371, s; 6. Antecedent of rel., 251. attraction of, 251, 4. -incorporated with rel., 251, 4. Antecedent omitted, 251, i. repeated with rel., 251, 3. Antepenult, 6, 2. antepSno, with dat., 187, III, 2. antequam, with ind., 2gi; with subjv., 2g2. Anticipation, denoted by subjv., w. antequam and prmsquam, 292 ; by subjv. with dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2 ; 374, s. -anus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 152, i ; 3. Aorist tense, see Historical perfect. Apodosis, 301 ff. in conditional sent, of ist type, 302, 4 ; result clauses as apodoses, 322 ; qum- clauses as apodoses, 322; ind. ques- tions as apodoses, 322, b; potuerim in apodosis, 322, c ; apodosis in indir. disc, 319-321; in expressions of obligation, ability, etc., 304, 3,0; with periphras- tic conjugations, 304, 3, b. Apposition, i6g; agreement, 169, 2; partitive, 169, 5; with voc. in nom., 171, 2 ; genitive w. force of appositive, 202; id as appositive of clause, 247, i, b; inf. as appositive, 326; 329; subst. clauses as appositives, 282, i, /; 294; 297, 3. Appositive of locative, 169, 4 ; with ace. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a ; with town names, in abl. of place whence, 229, 2. position of, 350, n. aptus, w. dat., 192, 2. apud, prep. w. ace, 141. ArckiaSj declension of, 22. -ar, declension of nouns in, 39. arguS, constr., 178, i, d). -dris, suffix, 151, 2. -drium, suffix, 148, 3. -drvus, suffix, isi, 2. armiger, decl., 23, ^. Arrangement of words, 348-350; of clauses, 351. Arsis, defined, 366, 6. artHs, dat. and abl. plu. of, 49, 3. arx, decl., 40. -Ss, ace. plu. in Greek nouns, 47, 3. -as, old gen. sing., ist decl., case-end- ing, 21, 2, a). ending of Greek nouns, nom, sing, in, 22. gender of noims in -as, 43, 2 ; 45, i. voc. of Greek nouns in -as, anUs, 47,4- aHs, abl. of patrials in, 70, s, c). Asking, case const, with verbs of, 178,1, c; subst. clauses w., 29s, I ; ind. ques- tions, 300, I. Aspirates, 2, 3, c. Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f . ; 9, ». Association, abl. of, 222, A. Asyndeton, 341, 4, a) ; 346. at, 343. I, <^). -atim, suffix, 157, 2. Atlas, decl., 47, 4. atomus, gender of, 26, i, c), atqtie, 341, 2, 6) ; = as, 341, I, e). atqui, 343, 1, e). Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221: 227, 2, e). Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5 ; of relatives, 250, s; subjunctive by at- traction, 324; of adjectives, 327, 2, a; 328, 2. Attributive adjs., 233, 2. -atus, its force as suffix, 151, 4. auddr.ter, formation and comparison, 76, 2. audeo, conj., 114, i. audio, conj., 107; with pres. partic, 337, 3- aulal, archaic gen., ?i, 2, b. ausus, force as participle, 336, 5. aut, 342, 1, a). autem, 343, i, c) ; 350, 8. Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5; in finite forms, 166, 3. GENERAL INDEX. The rftferences are to sections and paragraphs. 267 auxiHum, auxiUa, 61. ■4x, sufSx, ISO, 2. B. balneum, balneae, 60, 2. barbiios, decl., 27. Believing, verbs of, with dat., 1S7, 11. belli, locative, 232, 2. bellum, decl., 23. bene, comparison, 77, 1. Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. benevolus, comparison, 71, 5, a). -ber, declension of month names in, 68, i. -bilis, suffix, 150, 4. ionu^, decl., 63 ; comparison, 72. bos, dec!., 41. Brachylogy, 374, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d. -btdam, suffix, 147, 4. -bundus, suffix, 150, i. J«m, decl., 38, i. C. C, for G. as abbreviation of Gams, 373. caedes, decl., 40. Caesura, 366, 8; in dactylic hexameter, 368, 3. edcar, decl., 39. Calendar, 371 ; 372. Calends, 371, 2, a), campesler, decl., 68, i. canis, decL, 38, 2. capio, conj., no. carbasus, gender of, 26, 1, 6). career, carceres, 61. Cardinals, defined, 78, i ; list ' of, 79 ; decl., 80; with and without et, 81, i; 3; expressed by subtraction, 81, 2; replaced by distributives in poetry, 81, 4, d. care, comparison, 76, j. card, decl., 42. carrus, carrum, 60, i. Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 ff. Case-endings, 17, 3. eastrum, castra, 61. Catalectic verses, 366, 9. causa, with gen., 198, i ; nulla causa est cur, with subjv., 29s, 7. Causal clauses, 285; 286; clause of characteristic with accessory notion of cause, 283, 3. conjunctions, 345. Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d). cavi, 363, 2, b). cave, cave ne in prohibitions, 376, b. -ce, 6, 3 f. ; 87, footnote 2. cedo, cette, 137, 3. cedo, with dat., 187, II. celeber, decl., 68, 1. celer, decl., 68, 2. celo, constr., 178, i, e). cenatus, force, 114, 2. celera, adverbial ace, 185, n. celeri, use, 233, 4. Characteristic, clauses of, 283 ; denoting cause or opposition {'although'), 283, 3 ; gen. of, 203, I ; abl., 224. Charge, gen. of, 208, i ; 2. Chiasmus, 350, 11, c). Choosing, const, w. verbs of, 177, 1-3. circa, circiter, circum, preps, w. ace, 141. circum, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. circumdd, const., 187, i, a. Circumstance, abl. of attendant, 221. CM, prep. w. ace, 141. citerior, comparison, 73, i. cito, 77, 2, a. citrd, prep. w. ace, 141. civitds, decl., 40, i, c. clam, with ace, 144, 2. Clauses, coord, and subord., 164, 165. Clauses of characteristic, 283 ; purpose, 282; result, 284; causal, 285; tem- poral with postquam, tit, ubi, simul ac, etc., 287 ; with cum, 288 ; substantive clauses, 294 f . ; condition, 301 f . ; con- ditional comparison, 307; concessive, 308 ; adversative, 309 ; wish or proviso, 310; relative, 311 f.; 283 f. cldvis, decl., 38, i. Clinging, construction of verbs of, 258, 3. clipeus, cHpeum, 60, i. Close of sentences, cadences used, 350, 12. coepi, conj., 133; coeptus est, 133, i. Cognate ace, 176, 4. cognomeri, 373. cago, w. ace, 178, i, d); w. infin., 331, VI. Collective nouns, 12, 2, a); w. plu, verb, 254, 4- colus, gender of, 26, 1, b). com-, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. 268 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. comedo, conj., 128, 2. comiies, decl., 22. conUHa, as time expression, 230, i. Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 187, II; subst. clause w. verbs of, 295, i ; commands expressed by jussive subjv., 27s; by imperative, 281. Common gender, 15, £, N. i. nouns, 12, I. syllables, s, jB, 3. commonefacio, w. gen. and ace, 207. commoneo, w. gen. and ace, 207. communis, w. gen., 204, 2; with dat. 204, 2, a. commHtS, w. abl., 222, A. Comparatives, decl., 69; w. abl., 217; w. qnam, 217, 2; occasional meaning, 240. , two required in Latin, 240, 4. Comparison of adjs., 71 f.; of adverbs, 76; 77- participles as adjs., 71, 2. adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -vohts, 71, 5. defective, 73. abl. of, 217. Comparison, conditional, 307. Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, 6); w. result clauses, 284, 4 ; w. clauses of characteristic, 283, 2, a. Completed action, tenses expressing, 262-4; 267, 3. Compounds, 158 f.; spelling of, 9, a. Compound sentences, r64. verbs governing ace, 175, 2, o ; gov- erning dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d. Conative uses of pres., 259, 2 ; of imperf ., 260, 3 ; of pres. partic, 336, 2, u. Concessive clauses, 308; 'although' as accessory idea to clause of character- istic, 283, 3. subjunctive, 278. Conclusion, see Apodosis. Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a). Condemning, verbs of, constr.,208, f. Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. sentences, ist type (nothing im- plied), 302; in indir. disc, 319; 2d type ('should'-' would'), 303 ; in indir. disc, 320; 3d tyjie (contrary to fact), 304; in indir. disc, 321; abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, 6); introduced by relative pronouns, 312; general conditions, 302, 2 ; 3 ; indicative in con- trary-to-fact apodoses, 304, 3 ; praasia omitted or implied, 305, i; protasis contained in imperative, or jussive subjv., 30s, 2 ; employment of nisi, si nSn, sm, si mirms, 306; conditional relative sentences, 3T2, 2. cSnfido, w. abl., 219, i, a. Conjugation, 11 ; 93 f.; the four conju- gations, 98; periphrastic, 115; pecul- iarities of conj., 116. Conjunctions, 14s, r ; 341 f. Conor, with inf., 295, s, a. Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. consistere, with abl., 218, 4. Consonant stems, nouns, 29 f.; adjs., 70, 1. partially adapted to i-stems, 40. Consonants, 2, 2 f . ; pronunciation, 3, 3. , double, 2, 9. combinations of, in division into syllables, 4, 2 f . Consonant changes, 8 ; omission of finals, 8, 3 ; assimilation of, 8, 4 f . stems, 29; following analogy of {-stems, 40. conspicio, conj., 109, 2, i). constdre, w. abl., 2r8, 4. Construction ace to sense, 254, 4; 235, B, 2, c). consuetudd est, with subjv. substantive clause, 297, 3. cdnstievl = pres., 262, A. consularis, abl. sing, of, 70, s, a. Contending, verbs of, with dat., 338, 3. contentus, w. abl., 2T9, i. contmerl, with abl., 218, 4. canUngit ut, 297, i. Continued action, tenses for, 257, i, h. contra, prep. w. ace, 141 ; as adv., 144, 1. Contraction, 7, 2. , length of vowel as result of, s. A, ,,b). Contrary-to-fact conditions, 304. Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. Coordinate clauses, 165. conjunctions, 341 f . copia, copiae, 61. Copulative conjunctions, 341. cor, lacks gen. plu., S7. 7- cornu, decl., 48. Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3 ; 342, a adverbs, 140. coltidie, spelling, g, 2. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 269 Countries, gender of, 26, i, a. Crime, gen. of, 208, i ; 2. -crum, sufSx, 147, 4. -culum, suffix, 147, 4. -cuius (a, um), suffix, 148, i. cum, appended, 142, 4. cum (conj.), 'when,' 288-290; 'wlien- ever,' 288, 3. adversative, 309, 3. causal, 286, 2. explicative, 290. to denote a recurring action, 288, 3 ; 289, u. inversum, 288, z. cum . . . turn, 290, 2. cum primum, 287, i. cum, spelling of, 9, 1. cum (prep.) , with abl. of manner, 220; with abl. of accompaniment, 222; ap- pended to prons., 142, 4. -cundus, suffix, 150, 1. cupiS, conj., 109, 2, o); with subst. clause developed from optative, 296; w. inf., 331, IV, and 0. cur, nuUa causa est cur, w. subjv., 295, 7. euro, with gerundive const, as obj., 337, 8, J, 2. Customary action, 239, i ; 260, 2. D, changed to j, 8, 2 ; d final omitted, 8, 3 ; assimilated, 8, 4. Dactyl, 366, 2. Dactylic hexameter, 368. pentameter, 369. iapis, defective, 57, 6. Daring, verbs of, with obj. inf., 328, i. Dates, 371, 2-s; as indeclinable nouns, 371, 6; in leap year, 371, 7. Dative, 17; irregular, ist decl., 21, i, c) ; 3d decl., 47, s ; 4th decl., 49, 3 ; 3 ; Sth decl., 52, I and 3 ; 186 fE. in the gerundive const., 339, 7. of agency, 189. ^ of direction and limit of motion, 193 of indir. obj., 187. of advantage or disadvantage, so called, 188, 1. of local standpoint, 188, a, a). of person judging, 188, 2, c). of possession, 190; 339, i- of purpose or tendency, 191 ; 339, 7- of reference, 188. of separation, 188, 2, i). of the gerund, 338, 2. with adjs., 192 ; with proprms, com- munis, 204, 2; similis, 204, 3. with compound verbs, 187, III. with intrans. verbs, 187, n. with nomen est, 190, i. with impersonal pass, verbs, 187, II, J. with trans, verbs, 187, 1. with verbs of mingling, 338, 3. ethical dat., 188, 2, b). de, prep. w. abl., 142 ; with abl. instead of gen. of whole, 201, i,a; with verbs of reminding, 207, a; compounds of de governing dat., 188, 2, d;de m, with verbs of accusing and convicting, 208, 3; with gerund and gerundive, 338, 4,6. dea, dedbus, 21, 2, e). dgbebam, debui in apodosis, 304, 3, a). debeS, governing obj. inf., 328, i. debut, with pres. inf., 270, 2. decemvir, gen. plu. of, 23, 6, b). dlcernd, w. subst. clause developed from volitive, 29s, 4. decet, w. ace, 17s, 2, c). Declarative sentences, defined, 161, i; in indir. disc, 314. Declension, 11; heteroclites, 59. , stems and gen. terminations, 18. , ist decl., 20-22; 2d decl., 23-27; 3d decl., 28-47; 4th decl., 48-30; 3th decl. 31-53; of Greek nouns, 22; 27; 47 ; of adjs., 62-69 ,' of prons., 84-90. Decreeing, verbs of, w. subjv., 295, 4. dedecet, 175, 2, c). Defective verbs, 133 f . ; nouns, 54 f . ; 32, 4; 57; comparison, 73. Definite perfect, see Present perfect. Degree of difference, abl. of, 223. Degrees of comparison, 71 ff. delectat, w. inf. as subj., 327, i. dilector, w. abl. of cause, 219. Deliberative subjv., 277; in indir. ques- tions, 3i50, 1 ; in indir. disc, 315, 3. Demanding, verbs of, w. two aces., 178, I ; w. subst. clause, 295, i. Demonstrative pronouns, 87; 246; of ist, 2d, and 3d persons, 87 ; position of demonstratives, 3S0, 5, •'• Denominative verbs, 136. 270 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Dental mutes, ^, 4. stems, 33. Dependent clauses, 282 S. Deponent verbs, 112; forms witl\ passive meanings, 112, b); semi-deponents, 114. Depriving, verbs of, w. abl., 214, i, ft. Derivatives, 147 f . -des, patronymics in, 148, 6. Description, imperf. as tense of, 260, I, a. Desideratives, 155, 3. Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i ; verbs of, w. subst. clauses, 296, i. deterior, 73, 1. deus, decl., 25, 4. devertor, 114, 3. dexter, dec!., 65, i. dl-, 159. 3, N. Diaeresis, 366, 8; bucolic d., 368, 3, d). Diastole, 367, 2. die, 116, 3. dicitur, dictum est, w. inf., 332, note. died, accent of compounds of, in impera- tive, 116, 3. -dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. Dido, decl., 47, 8. dies, decl., 51 ; gender, S3. Difference, abl. of degree of, 223. diffieUe est = Eng. potential, 271, i, ft). difficilis, comp., 71, 4. Mgnor, with abl., 226, 2. dignus, 226, 2 ; in rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 3. Dimeter, verses, 366, 11. Diminutives, 148, i. Diphthongs, 2, i ; 3, 2 ; diphthong stems, 41 ; diphthongs shortened, 362, z. diphlkongus, gender of, 26, i, e). Dipodies, 366, 11. ' Direct reflexives, 244, i. object, 172. quotation, 313. discourse, 313. questions, 162. dis-, in compounds, 159, 3, N. Disjunctive conjunctions, 342. dissimdUs, comp., 71, 4. Distributives, 63, 2 ; 78, i ; 79 ; 81, 4- dia, compared, 77, i. dives, decl., 70, i ; compared, 71, 6. dixfi, 116, 4, e. do, conj., 127. doeed, with ace, 178, i, ft); with inf, 331, VI. domi, locative, 232, *. domo, 229, i, ft). domes, 182, i, ft. domwm, 182, i, ft) ; 'house,' in ace, 182, N. domus, decl., 49; 4 ; gender, 50. donee, with ind., 293; with subjv., 293, III, 2. dono, constr., 187, i, u. dos, gender, 44, 3. Double consonants, 2, 9. questions, 162,4; indirect, 300, 4. Doubting, verbs of, w. quin, 298. Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative. dubito, dubiitm est, nSn dubito,- non dubiwn est, with gain, 298 ; non dubito w. inf., 298, a. due, 116, 3. dued, accent of compounds of, in imper., 116, 3. duim, duint, 127, 2. -dmn, 6, 3. dum, temporal with ind., 293; with subjv., 293, III, 2; in wishes and provisos, 310. dummodo, 310. duo, decl., 80, z. Duration of time, 181, 2. Duty, expressed by gerundive, 189; 337, 8; verbs of duty in conclusion of cond. sentences contrary-to-fact, 304, 3, a; subst. clauses dependent on verbs of, 29s, 6 ; inf. w. verbs oi duty, 327, i; 328, i; 330; 'it is th? duty of,' 198, 3; 'I perform a duty,' 218, I. duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, ft). dux, decl., 32. e, as vowel, 2, i ; as second member of diphthongs, 2, i ; sound of, 3, i ; change, to i, 7, i, 0; for S, 7, i, c; in voc. sing, of 2d decl., 23; in abl. sing, of 3d decl., 31 ; dropped in nom. of neuters of 3d decl., 39 ; -i for 4 in abl. of mare, 39; alternating w. » in abl. sing, of )f-stems, 37,38; for e in gen. sing, of 5th decl., 52, i ; in abl. sing, of adjs. of 3d decl., 70, i ; 3 ; in GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 271 beni and mail, 77, i ; distinguishing vowel of 3d conj., g8; , before j, 362, S ; for -l in imperatives, 363, 2, b; in temeri and saepl, 363, a, c. i, pronundation, 3, i ; by contraction, 7, 2; as ending of Greek nouns, 22; e-stems, 51 ; ending of dat. of 5th decl., S2, 3; distinguishing vowel of 2d conj., 98; -I in Jame, 363, 2, a; in adverbs, 363, 2, c. S, ex, use, 142, 2 ; see ex. ecqnis, gi, 6. edic, 116, 3. Editorial 'we,' 242, 3. edd, 128. edec, 116, 3. efficiB ut, 2g7, i. efficitur ut, 297, a. Effort, subjv. w. verbs of, 295, 5. egeo, w. abl., 214, i, c. ego, 84. egomet, 84, 2. ei, diphthong, 2, i ; 3, 2. -«, gen. of 5th dec!., 52, i. -Us, 148, 6, 6). e/»j, as poss., 86, i ; quantity, 362, S- Elegiac distich, 369, 2. Elision, 266, 7. Ellipsis, 374, I. -ellus (fi, um), 148, 1. Emphasis, 349. Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable, 6,3. , -met, 84, 2 ; -fte, 86, 3 ; cum as en- clitic, 142, 4. End of motion, see Limit. Endings, case endings, 17, 3; personal, of verb, 96 ; in formation of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -ensimus {-ensumus), 79, N. -insis, 151, 2; 152, 3. Envy, verbs of, with dat., 187, 11. eo, 132; cpds., 132, I. ' Epexegetical genitive, 202. Epistolary tenses, 265. epislula, spelling, 9, 2. epitome, decl., 22. epuhim, epulae, 60, i. equdbus, 21, 2, e). equester, decl., 68, i. equos, decl., 24. -er, decl., of nouns in, 23 ; adjs., 63 ; 64 ; 6s; 68; adjs. in -er compared, 71, 3. erga, prep. w. ace, 141. ergo, 344, I, 6). -errms, suffix, 154. -fa, gender of nouns in, 43, i ; exception, 44, s ; in nom. plu. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 2. -es, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22. , gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, a). esse, conjugation of, 100 ; compounds of, 12s; 126; e;.se omitted, 116, 5. est qui, with subj., 283, 2. et, 341, I, a; in enumerations, 341, 4, c). et is, 247, 4. et . . . neque, 341, 3. Ethical dative, 188, 2, b). etiam, in answers, 162, 5. et nSn, 341, 2, c). etsi, 'although,' 309, 2; etsi, 'even if,' 309, i, a. -etum, suffix, 148, 3. -eus, inflection of Greek nouns in, 47, 6 ; adj. suffix, 151, I. iienitut, 297, 2. ex, 142, 2 ; with abl., instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; compounds of, with dat., 188, .2, d; with abl. of source, 215, I. Exchanging, verbs of, with abl. of asso- ciation, 222, A. Exclamation, ace. of, 183. Exclamatory sentences, 161, 3. Expectancy, clauses denoting, in subjv., 292, I ; 293, III, 2. exposed, constr., 178, j., a), exsisto, spelling, 9, 2. exspecto, spelling, 9, 2. exteri, exterior, 73, 2. extremus, use, 241, 1. exuo, w. abl., 214, i, b. f, pronunciation, 3, 3; »/, quantity of vowel before, s, i, a. fac, 116, 3 ; with subjv., 295, 5. facile, 77, 3. facUis, comp., 71, 4. Jacio, 109, 2, o) ; pass, of, 131. , in imper., 116, 3. falsus, comparison, 73, 3. fame, 59, 2, J). Familiarity, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i. 272 famUias, 21, 2, a). fori, 136. fas, indeclinable, 58. fauces, decl,, 40, i, d). Favor, verbs signifying, with dat., 187, II. Fearing, verbs of, constr., 296, a. febris, decl., 38, i. felix, 70. Feminine, see Gender. Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c-. femur, decl., 42, 4. -fer, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2 ; adjs. 6s, i. fero, and its compounds, 129. -ficits, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. fidel, s^t I. fidl, 114, I ; with abl., 219, i, u. fidus, compared, 73, 3. fierem, fieri, 362, i, c; fieri potest ut, 298, 2. Fifth decl., 51 f. Figures of rhetoric, 375. of syntax, 374. flH, 25, 3. filia, ftiidbus, 21, 2, e). Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 218, 8. Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. finis, fines, 61. Finite verb, 95. fiS, conj., 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6. First conj., loi ; principal parts of verbs of, 120; deponents of ist conj., 113. First decl., 20 f . ; peculiarities, 21 ; Greek nouns of ist decl., 22. fit ut, 297, 2. fldgitS, constr., 178, i, a), fodio, conj., 109, 2, a). Foot, in verse, 366, 2. Tor,' its Latin equivalents, 358, i. fore, page 57, footnote 3. fore ut, 270, 3 ; 297, a. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote 2. foris, 228, I, c. Formation of words, 146 f . fors, forte, 57, 2, u. fortior, decl., 69. fortis, decl., 69. fort&na, fortunae, 61. Fourth conj., 107. Fourth decl., 48; dat. in -U, 49, 2 ; gen. in -i, 49, i ; dat. abl. plu. in -nhus, 49, 3. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paxagrapha. fratide, abl. of manner, 220, 2. Free, abl. w. adjs. signifying, 214, i, i. Freeing, abl. w. verbs of, 214, i, a. frenum, plu. of, 60, 2. Frequentatives, iss, 2. fretus w. abl., 218, 3. Fricatives, 2, 7. Friendly, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 192, i, frOcUis, decl., 48. frUgi, compared, 72; 70, 6. frilgis, 57, 6. fruor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fugio, conj., 109, 2, a). fui, fiiisti, etc., for sum, es, etc., in com- pound tenses, p. 60, footnote; p. 61, footnote. Fullness, adjs. of, w. abl., 218, 8; w. gen., 204, X. fungor, w. abl., 218, i ; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fur, decl., 40, I, d). fUrto, abl. of manner, 220, 2. Future tense, 261 ; w. imperative force, 261, 3. time in the subjv., 269. perfect, 264; with future meaning, 133, 2 ; inf., 270, 4. imperative, 281, 1. infinitive, 270, i,c; periphrastic fut. inf., 270, 3, and a. participle, 337, 4. futarum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3. G. gaudeS, semi-deponent, 114, i. gerrio, w. ace, 175, 2, 6. Gender, 13-15 ; in ist decl., 20, 21 ; in 2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d decl., 43 f. ; in 4th decl., 50; in 5th decl., 53 ; determined by endings, 14 ; by signification, 15, A ; heterogeneous noims, 60. gener, decl., 23, 2. General relatives, 312, i; general truths, 259, 1 ; 262, B, I ; 'general' conditions, 302, 2; 3. Genitive, 17 ; in -4 for -ii, 25, i and 2 ; of 4th decl., in -t, 49, i ; of 5th decl. in -», 52, 2; of 5th decl. in -M, 52, i ; in -8, 52, 3; of ist decl. in -di, 21, 2, h); of ist decl. in -is, 21, 2, a) ; gen. plu. -H9I GENERAL INDEX. The leferences are to sections and paragraphs. 273 for -arum, 21, 2, d); -um for- drum, 2S. 6 ; 63, 2 ; -«»» for -»««», 70, 7 ; gen. plu. lacking, 37, 7 ; syntax of, 194 f. of characteristic, 203, i. of charge with judicial verbs, 208. of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefmite value, 203, 3. of material, 197. of measure, 203, 2. of origin, 196. of possession, 198. of quality, 203. of the whole, 201. appositional, 202. objective, 200. of separation, 212, 3. subjective, 199. with adjs., 204; with participles, 204, I, a. with causa, gratia, 198, i. with verbs, 205 f. ; of plenty and want, 212 ; with impers. verbs, 209. position of gen., 350, 1. genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, i. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2 ; adjs., 65, i. Gerund, 95, I ; ist conj., loi ; 2d conj., 103; 3d conj., los; 4th conj., 107; sjTitax, 338; with object, 338, 5. Gerundive, 95, i ; ist conj., 102 ; 2d conj., 104; 3d conj., 106; 4th conj., 108; in periphrastic conj., 115; 337,8. Gerundive, const., 339, 1-6; in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f. ; gen. de- noting purpose, 339, 6; with dat. of purpose, 191, 3 ; 339, 7. gnarus, not compared, 75, z. Gnomic present, 2S9, i; perfect, 262, 1. gradior, conj., 109, 2, t-. Grammatical gender, 15. Srafjo, with gen., ig8, i ; gratia, gratiae, 61. Greek nouns, ist decl., 22 ; 2d decl., 27 ; exceptions in gender, 26, i, c) ; 3d decl., 47 ; Greek ace, 180; Greek nouns in verse, 365. gfus, decl., 41, 2. S« = gv, 3, 3- Guttural mutes, 2, 4. stems, 32. H. h, pron., 3,3; ph, ch, th, 2, t^; 3,3- Meo, with perf . pass, partic, 337, 6. i> 2; scio an, Hadria, gender, 21, i. Happening, verbs of, w. ind., 299, w. subjv., 297, 2. Hard consonants, 2, 3, o), footnote i. Hardening, 367, 4. hatul, use, 347, 2, a; haud 300, 5. have, 137, s- Help, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187, U. Hendiadys, 374, 4. heri, locative, 232, 2.' Heteroclites, 59. Heterogeneous nouns, 60. Hexameter, dactylic, 368. Hiatus, 366, -7, a. hie, 87; 246, i; 246, 2; hie, 364, foot- note. hiems, 35, footnote. Hindering, verbs of, with subjv., 295, 3- Historical tenses, 258; historical present- 2SQ, 3 ; 268, 3 ; historical perfect, 262. B; historical infinitive, 335. honor, decl., 36. Hoping, verbs of, w. inf., 331, 1. . Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hoseine, 87, footnote i. hostis, decl., 38. hHjusce, 87, footnote i. humi, locative, 232, 2. humilis, comp., 71, 4. humus, gender of, 26, i, J). himcine, 87, footnote i. Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a). Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7. ?, I, I ; in diphthongs, 2, i ; pron., 3, * from J, 7, 1, a ; from 5, 7, i, 6 ; dropped by syncope, 7, 4 ; for » in some words, 9, i; changes to e, 39; dropped, 39; final i short, 363, 3 ; becomes j, 367, 4- J. . • J-stems, 37; 39; not always ending m -M, 38, 3- -i, gen. and voc. of 2d decl. nouns m -tus and -ium in, 25, i and 2. gen. of 4th decl. nouns in -us, 49, i. gen. of sth decl. nouns, 52, 2. 274 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. -im, -is in subjv., ii6, 4, d. i-stem, vis, 41. », in abl., 3d decl., 38, i ; 39 ; in adjs., 67, 3. «; 70. S; participles, 70, 3 ; patrials, 7o< S, <:) ; nom. plu., of is, 87 ; as char- acteristic of 4th conj., 98. ■ia, 149. Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370. trimeter, 370. ■HSnus, suffix, 152, I. -ias, suffix, 148, 6, b). •ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, ft). -ibo, in future, 116, 4, b). Ictus, 366, 5. -icus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 152, 2. ti2 aeHUs, 185, 2. Ai ^enjtf, i8s, 1. id quod, 247, i, ft. id temporis, 185, 2. Ideal 'you'; see Indefinite second per- son. idem, 87 ; 248. idem ac, 248, 2. Ides, 371, 2, c). -jdej, suffix, 148, 6, o). ri!(j&s, suffix, 148, 6, a). -idd, suffix, 147, 3, c). idSneiU, not compared, 74, 2; w. dat., 192, 2; vr. ad and ace, 192, 2, and N. ; with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. ^w, suffix, 150, 3. IdHs, fem. by exception, so. -ie, in voc. sing, of adjs. in -ias, 63, 1. tens, pres. partic. from eo, 132. -tens, as ending of numeral adverbs, 97 and N. -ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, u. -iej, nouns in, 51. igitur, 344, I, c). »g»M, decl., 38. -ti, in gen. sing, of ti-stems, 25, 2. its, in dat. and abl; plu. of is, 87. -t2e, suffix, 148, 3. lUon, decl., 27. -ilis, suffix, 151, 2. -ilis, suffix, 150, 4. Illative conjunctions, 344. ille, 87; 'the following,' 246, 2; 'the former' 246, i; 'the well-known,' 246, 3 ; position, 350, s. ft- t//*;, 87, footnote 3. -illus (a, um), diminutive suffix, 148, 1. 4m, in ace, 3d decl., 38, i. impedimentum, impedimenta, 61. Imperative, 281 ; tenses in, 94, 3 ; 281, I ; future indie, with force of, 261, 3. as protasis of a conditional sent., 305, 2 ; as apodosis, 302, 4. sent, in indir. disc, 316. Imperfect tense, 260; conative, 260, 3; inceptive, 260, 3 ; withiom, etc., 260, 4 ; epistolary imp., 265. Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent. referring to the past, 304, 2. Impersonal verbs, 138; gen. with, 209; dat. with, 187, II, 6 ; in passive, 256, 3 ; with substantive clauses developed from volitive, 29s, 6 ; of result, 297, 2 ; with infin., 327, i ; 330. impetus, defective, S7> 4. Implied indir. disc, 323. imus, ' bottom of,' 241, i. in, prep., 143 ; verbs compounded w. in governing ace, 17s, 2, o, 2; verbs compounded w. in governing dat., 187, III. in with abl. of place, 228; with abl. of time, 230, 2 ; 231. -ina, suffix, 148, 5. Inceptives, iss. i. Inchoatives, 155, 1. Incomplete action, 257, i, ft; 267, 3. IndecUnable adjs., 70, 6 ; 80, 6. nouns, 58; gender of, 15, 3. Indefinite price, 225, i ; 203, 4. Indefinite pronouns, 91; 252; in con- ditions, 302, 3. Indefinite second person, 280, 3 ; 356, 3 ; 302, 2. Indefinite value, 203, 3. Indicative, equivalent to Eng. subjv., 271. -in apodosis of conditional sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, 0) and ft). indiged, constr., 214, i, N. 2. indignus, with abl., 226, 2; with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. Indirect discourse, defined, 313 f. : mood in, 313 fit. ; tenses in, 317-18; declara- tive sentences in, 314; interrog. sen- tences in, 31S ; imperative sentences in, 316; conditional sentences in, 319-22; verbs introducing, 331, t; verb of saying, etc., implied, 314, 2; ind. in subord. clauses of indir. disc, 314, 3i inf. for subjv. in indir. disc, 314, 4; sab}, ace. omitted, 314, $', implied indir. disc, 323. questions, 300; partides introduc- ing, 300, I, a; deliberative subjv. in indir. quest., 300, 2; indir. quest, w. si, 300. 3; double indir. questions, 300, 4; in indir. quest., 300, 6; in conditional sents. of 3d type, 322, b. reflexives, 244, 2. object, 187. vnferum, inferior, 73, 2. infimus, 241, x. Infinitive, gender oi, t.%. A, 3; in -ier, 116, 4, a; force of tenses in, 270; 326 £f. fut. perf. inf., 270, 4; periphrastic future, 270, 3. without subj. ace, 326-328; 314, S- with subj. ace, 329-331. asobj., 328; 331. as subj., 327 ; 330! with adjs., 333. denoting purpose, 326, N. in abl. abs., 227, 3. in exclamations, 334. historical inf., 335. mfilias, constr., 182, 5. Inflection, 11. Inflections, 11 £E. mfra, prep. w. ace, 141. ingms, comp., 73, 4. injuria, abl. of manner, 220, 2. injttssu, defective, 57, i; the abl., 219, 2. inl- = ill-, 9, 2. innixus, w. abl., 218, 3. ' inofs, decl., 70, i. inquam, conj., 134, Inseparable prepositions, 139, 3, N. insidiae, plu. only, s6. 3- ittslar, 58. Instrumental uses of abl., 213 ; 218 ff. Intensive pron., 88. Intensives (verbs), iss> 2. inter, prep. w. ace, 141 ; compounded w. verbs, governing dat. 187, III; to express reciprocal relation, 245. interdicS, const., 188, i, a. interest, constr., 210; 211. interior, comp., 73, i. Interjections^ 145. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Interlocked order, 330, 11, d. 275 Interrogative pronouns, 90. sentences, 162; particles, 162, 2; omitted, 162, ^, d); in indir. disc, 31S- intra, prep. w. ace, 141. Intransitive verbs, with cognate ace, 176, 4; in passive, 256, 3; 187, II, 6; impersonal intransitives, 138, IV. ■^nus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 132, i ; 152, 3. •id, verbs of 3d conj., 109. -ior, ius, comparative ending, 71. ipse, 88; 249; as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipsUis and ipsorum, with possessive pro- nouns, 243, 3. -»r, decl. of nouns in, 23. Irregular comparison, 72 ff. ; noims, 42 ; verbs, 124 f. is, 87; 247; as personal pron., 247, 2. ■is, as patronymic ending, 148, 6, 6); nouns in -is of 3d decl., 37 f. ; adjs. in -is, 69. -Is, ace plu., 3d decl., 37 ; 40. — — , -ttis, abl. of partials in, 70, s, c). istaec, 87, footnote 2. iste, 87 ; 246, 4. istic, 6, 4. istUc, 6, 4 ; 87, footnote 2. ita, in answers, 162, 5. itaque, 344, i, a). iter, 42, I. -itia, 149. -ito, frequentatives in, iss. ■', "• ■ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2 ; ending of gen. plu., 3d decl., 37 f.; 39; 40; 147, 3,6); 148, 2. -MM, gen. and voc. sing, of nouns in, 25, I and 2; of adjs., 63,0; 151,2; 152,2; 152, 3 ; -ius for ins, 362, i, a), -ivus, suffix, 151, 2. J, I, 2. jacio, conj., 109, 2, o) ; compounds of, 9, 3; 362, 5. jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4 ; with imperfect, 260, 4. jecur, decl., 42, 3. joco, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jocus, plu. of, 60, a. Joining, verbs of, construction, 358, 3. \jubeo, constr., 295, i, a; 331, 11. 276 GENERAL INDEX. The leferences are to sections and paragraphs. judicor, w. inf., 332, c. jugerum, S9, i. JuKan calendar, 371. jungo, w. abl., 222, A. Juppiter, decl., 41. juratus, 114, 2. jure, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jus est, with substantive clause, 297, 3. jussu, 57, I ; the abl., 219, 2. Jussive subjv., 27s; equiv. to a protasis, 30s. 2. jmat, w. ace, 17s, 2, c) ; with inf., 327, i. JuvenSle, abl., 70, s, b. juvenis, a cons, stem, 38, 2 ; comparison, 73,4- juvo, with ace, 187, II, N. juxtd, prep. w. ace, 141. K. k, I, I. Knowing, verbs of, w. inf., 331, 1. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 204. L. I, pron., 3, 3. Labial mutes, 2, 4. stems, 31; gender of, 43, 3; 46, x. lacer, decl., 65, i. locus, decl., 49, 3. laedo, w. ace, 187, II, N. laetus, w. adverbial force, 239. ia#M, decl., 33. largior, 113. Latin period, 351, 5. Length of syllables, s, B. Length of vowels, s, A. -lenius, suffix, 151, 3. led, decl., 35. Liber, decl., 23, 2. KS«»', adj., decl., 65, i. libero, constr., 214, i, N. i. liberta, libertdbus, 21, 2, e). liberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). licet, with subjv., 295, 6 and 8; 308, a; with inf., 327, I ; 330. Meet, adversative, 309, 4. Likeness, adjs. of„w. dat., 192, i. Limit of motion, ace of., 182. Lingual mutes, 2, 4. Unter, decl., 40. Liquids, 2, 5. • stems, 34. Us, decl., 40, J, d). Litotes, 375,. I. litter a, litter ae, 61. Locative, 17, i; in -ae, 21, 2, c); in -^ 25, S; syntax, 232; apposition with, 169, 4; loc. uses of abl., 213 ; 228 f. loco, locis, the abl., 228, i, b, locus, plurals of, 60, 2. Long syllables, 5, B, 1. vowels, 5, .4, I. longius = longius quam, 271, 3. longum est = Eng. potential, 217, i, b. lubet, hibidS, spelling, 9, i. lildis, the abl., 230, i. -Uis, -la, -lum, diminutives in, 148, i. lux, 57, 7. « M. m, pron., 3, 3 ; changed to » before d, c, 8, 5, c; ffj-stem, 35, footnote; m-fimal in poetry, 366, 10. maereo, w. ace, 175, 2, 6. magisj comparison, 77, i; comparison with, 74. magni, gen. of value, 203, 3. magnopere, compared, 77, i. magnus, compared, 72. Making, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 177. male, comparison, 77, i. maledicens, comparison, 71, 5, a), malim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. mallem, potential subjv., 280, 4. mold, 130 ; with inf., 331, IV, and a ; with subjv., 296, I, a. malus, comparison, 72. mane, indeclinable, 58. Manner, abl. of, 220. mare, decl., 39, 2 ; mari, 228, i, c). mas, decl., 40, i, d). MascuKne, see Gender. Masculine caesura, 368, 3, t. Material, abl. of, 224, 3. mdteries, materia, 59, 2. a). mature, compared, 77, i. matHrus, compared, 71, 3. maxime, adjs. compared with, 74. maxirm, as gen. of value, 203, 3. maxumus, 9, 1. Means, abl. of, 218, abl. abs. denoting, 227, 2 ; denoted by partic, 337, 2, d. med, for me, 84, 3. Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 2. medius, 'middle of,' 241, i. met, as objective gen., 242, 2. mdior, comparison, 72. mdius est = Eng. potential, 271, i, b). memini, 133; constr., 206, 1, o; 2, a. memor, decl., 70, 2. -men, -mentum, sufiSxes, 147, 4. mmsis, 38, 2, footnote i. mentem {in mentem venire), 206, 3. ■met, enditic, 6, 3 ; 84, 2. Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuo, w. subjv., 296, 2. mi, dat., 84, i. mi, voc. of mens, 86, 2. Middle voice, verbs in, 175, i, d). miles, decl., 33. miliUae, locative, 232, 2. mille, mUia, decl., 80, 5. minime, comparison, 77, i ; in answers, 162, s, J). minimus, comparison, 72. minor, comparison, 72. mindris, gen. of value, 203, 3 ; of price, 203, 4. minus, comparison, 77, i ; = minus quam, 217, 3 J QUO minus, 295, 3; si minus, 306, 2 and a. Bisfor, conj., 113. mirus, comparison, 75, 2. miscere, with abl., 222, yl ; with dat., 358, 3- misereor, with gen., 209, a. miseresco, with gen., 209, 2. miseret, constr., 209. Mixed stems, 40. modium, gen. plu., 25, 6, o). modo, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneo, 103; constr., 178, i, d). months, gender of names of, 15, i ; decl., 68, 1 ; abl., of month names, 70, 5, a) ; names, 371, i. Moods, 94, 2. in independent sentences, 271 f. in dependent clauses, 282 f . Mora, 366, I. morior, conj., 109, 2, c). mos, ded., 36; mores, 61. mos est, with subjv. clause, 297, 3. muUebre secus, constr., 185, i. Multiplication, distributives used to in- dicate, 81, 4, c. mulhm, 77, 3 ; compared, 77, i. tiKlNERAL INDEX. 277 The references are to sections and paragraphs. muUus, compared, 72 ; with another adj.. 241. 3- mils decl., 40, i, d). mUtdre, with abl., 222, A. Mutes, 2, 3. Mute stems, 30. N. n, pronunciation, 3, 3 ; »-stems, 3s. n adulterinum, 2, 6. -nam, appended to quis, go, 2, d. Names, Roman, 373. Naming, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 177, I. Nasals, 2, 6. Nasal stems, 35. nMta, S7, I ; maximus natu, minimus ' natu, 73, 4, footnotes 4, s; 226, 1. Natural gender, 14. natus, constr., 215. ndvis, ded., 41, 4. nd, vowel short before, 5, 2, a, -ne, 6, 3 f. ; 162, 2, c) ; 300, i,b); -ne . . . an, 162, 4; in indir. double questions, 300,4. ne, in prohibitions, 276 ; vith hortatory subjv., 274 ; with concessive, 278 ; with optative, 279; in purpose clauses, 282; in substantive clauses, 295 f ., 296 ; in provisos, 310. ne, ' lest,' 282, i ; 296, 2. ne ndn for fit after verbs of fearing, 296, 2, u. ne . . . guidem, 347, i ; :a. Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1. nee, 341, I, d); nee usquam, 341, 2, d). necesse est, w. subjv., 29s, 8. necne, in double questions, 162, 4. nefas, indeclinable, 58. Negatives, 347, 2 ; two negatives strength- ening the negati-n, 347, 2. nemo, defective, 57, 3 ; use, 252, 6. nequam, indeclinable, 70, 6; compared, 72. neque, 341, i, d); neque in purpose clauses, 282, i, e. nequeo, conj., 137, 1. ne quis, use, 91, 5. nequiter, compared, 77, i. nesciB an, 300, 5. nesciS quis, as indef . pron., 253, 6, Neuter, see Gender. 278 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. neuter, decl., 66; use, 92, 1. neve {neu), in purpose clauses, 282, i, d. nf, quantity of vowel before, s, i, a. nihil, indeclinable, 58. nihU est cSr, quin, 295, 7. ningit, 'it snows,' 138, i. nisi, 306, I and 4. nisi forte, 306, 5. nisi St, 306, s. nisi vera, 306, 5. ntior, constr., 218, 3. nix, decl., 40, i, d). No, in answers, 162, s, b. -no, class of verbs, 117, 4. noU, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, b. nolim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. nollem, potential subjv., 280, 4. nolo, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; 276, 2, ; with subjv., 296, 1,1*. ' nomen, decl., 35 ; nomen est, constr., 190, I ; nomen, as part of Roman name, 373. Nominative, 17; 170; used for voc, 171, i; nom. sing, lacking, 57, 6; pred. nom., 168. Nones, 371, 2, b). non, in answers, 162, s, b) ; with poten. subjv., 280 ; with deliberative, 277. non dubito quin, with subjv., 298; non dubito, w. inf ., 298, a; b. non modo for nSn modo nSn, 343, 2, o. nonne, 162, 2, a) ; 300, i, b), N. non quia, with ind., 286, i, c ; with subjv., 286, I, b. non quin, with subjv., 286, i, b. non quod, with ind., 286, i, c ; with subjv., 286, i, b. nds = ego, 242, 3. nostri, as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as possessive gen., 242, 2, u. Nouns, 12 £E. ; 353; derivation of, 147 f. in -is not always l!-stems, 38, i. of agency, force, 3S3, 4. used in plu. only, 56- used in sing, only, SS- used only in certain cases, 57. indeclinable, 58. with change of meaning in plural, 6 1 . syntax, 166 f. predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f. appositives, agreement of, etc., 169 f. Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, a. nom, as pres., 262, A. nomis, compared, 73, 3. ns, quantity of vowel before, s, i, r, conj., 109, 2, c); 113; with inf., 331, ni. Patrial adjs., 70, s, c). Patronymics, 148, 6. pauhifit, formation, 77, 3- paidus, speUing, 9, 2. pauper, decl., 70, i. pedester, decl., 68, i. p^or, quantity of abstract nouns, S, 4, c); nouns used in, only, 56; with change of meaning, 61 ; stylistic use, 3S3, I ; 2. PluraUatantum, %6; 81, 4, i). pluris, gen. of value, 203, 3; of price, 203, 4. plus, decl., 70 ; 70, 4 ; = plus quam, 217, 3- poema, decl., 47, 5. Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b). por-, inseparable prep., 159, 3, e. porticus, gender, 50. port/us, decl., 49, 3. posco, constr., 178, 1, a). Position of clauses, 351, 3. — — of words, 348; 350; 351. Possessive dat., 190; gen., 198; con- trasted with dat. of poss., 3S9, i. Possessive pronouns, 86 ; 243 ; = objec- tive gen., 243, 2; position of, ^43, I, a. Possibility, verbs of, put in indie, in cond. sentences, 304, 3, o. possum, 126; with present infin., 'I might,' 271, I, o) ; in cond. sentences, 304, 3. a- post, prep. w. ace, 144, i ; in expressions of time, 3S7, i. Post-positive words, 343, i, c). postedquam, 287; separated, 287, 3; with imperf. ind., 287, 4; w. pluperf. ind., 287, 3 ; with subjv., 287, 5. posterus, posterior, comp., 73. 2. poslremus, use, 241, a. postridie, with gen., 201, 3, a. posttdo, constr., 178, i, a. Potential subjv., 272; 280. potim, with gen., 212, 2; with abl., 218, I ; in gerundive constr., 339, 4, , adj., 73, I. potius, compared, 77, i. potni, poteram, in apodosis of conditional GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 281 sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, a) ; in indir. disc, 322, 1,. potui, with pres. inf. = 'could have,' 270, 2. poUterim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c. potus, force, 114, 2. prae, prep. w. abl., 142; verbs com- pounded with governing dat., 187, III ; short in praeacuitts, etc., 362, 2. Praenomen, 373. praesenSy 125. praesum, w. dat., 187, III. prdnsus, force, 114, 2. preci, -em, -e, S7, S, «• Predicate, 163. gen., 198, 3; 203, s- Predicate nouns, 167; 168; in ace, 177; predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to dat., 327, 2, a; to nom., 328, 2. ■ -adjectives, 232, 2; 177, 2. Prepositions, assimilation of, in com- pounds, 8, 4 ; g, 2 ; with ace, 141 ; with abl., 142; as adverbs, 144; inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N. ; position, 350, 7 ; prepositional phrases as attributive modifiers, 353, s ; anastrophe of, 144, 3 ; 14T, 2 ; 142, 3 ; usage with abl. of Sep., 214 f. ; with abl. of source, 2IS- Present tense, 259 ; gnomic, 259, i ; co- native, 259, 2 ; historical, 259, 3 ; with jam pridem,jam diu, etc., 259, 4; with d/um, 'while,' 293, 1; in Repraesentdtio, 318; pres. subjv., in-jm, 127, 2; pres. partic, see Participle. stem, 97, 1; formation,' 117. perf., 257, I and 2. Preventing, verbs of, w. subjv. clause, 29s, 3- Price, indefinite, special words in gen., 203, 4; also 22s, i. , abl. of, 225. pridie, with gen., 201, 3, a; with ace., 144, 2. Primary tenses, see Principal tenses. primus, 'first who,' 241, 2. princeps, decl., 31. Principal parts, 99; list, p. 251. tenses, 258 f . prior, compared, 73, 1. prius, compared, 77, i. prmsquam, with ind., 291 ; with subjv., 292; separated, 291. Privation, verbs of, w. abl, 214, r, 4 and c. pro, prep. w. abl., 142. procid, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2. prohibed, w. abl., 214, 2; w. subjv. clause, 29s, 3. Prohibitions, method of expressing, 276. Prohibitive subjv., 276. Prolepsis, 374, 5. Pronominal adjs., 233. Pronouns, defined, 82 ; classes, 83 ; per- sonal, 84; reflexive, 85; possessive, 86 ; demonstrative, 87 ; intensive, 88 ; relative, 89 ; interrogative, 90 ; indefi- nite, 91; pronominal adjs., 92; per- sonal, omission of, as subject, 166, 2; syntax, 242 f.; personal, 242 f. ; possess., 243 f . ; reflex., 244 f . ; recip- rocal, 245 f.; demonstrative, 246 f. ; relative, 250 f.; indef., 252 f.; position, 3SO, 5 ; 355- Pronunciation, Roman, 3. prope, compared, 77, i. Proper names, abbreviated, 373. nouns, 12, r. propior, compared, 73, i ; with ace, 141, 3- proprius, with dat., 204, 2,0; with gen., 204, 2. propter, prep. w. ace, 141. Prosody, 360 f. prosper, decl., 63, 1. prosum, conj., 125, N. Protasis, 301 ;• denoting repeated action, 302, 3 ; without si, 30s \ of indef. 2d sing., 302, 2 ; see Conditions. Provisos, 310. proxime, -us, comp., 73, i ; 77, i ; with ace, 141, 3. prUdens, decl., 70. -pte, 86, 3. pudel, with gen., 209; w. inf., 327, 1. puer, decl., 23. pulcher, comp., 71, 3- puppis, decl., 38, I. Purpose, dat. of purpose, 191 ; with dat. and gerundive, 191, 3; yr. ad and ace, 192, 2; subjv. of purp., 282, i; w. quo, 282, I, a ; yr.utne, 281, i,b; with non in purpose clause, 282, i, c; neve (neu) in purpose clauses, 282, i, d; neque, 282, i, e; rel. clauses of pur- pose, 282, 2 ; w. disnus, mdigtms, idd- 282 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. neas, 283, 3 ; independent of principal verb, 282, 4; inf., denoting purpose, 326, N. ; fut. partic, denoting purpose, 337. 4; gerund, w. ad, 338, 3; gerun- dive, 339, 2 ; supine, 340. Q. -?»-, pron., 3, 3 ; both letters consonants, 74, ». guaero, w. indir. questions, 300, i, b), N. quteso, 137, 2. Quality, gen., 203; abl., 224. quam, in comparisons, 217, 2; with su- perl., 240, 3 ; ante . . . quam, post . . . quam, prius . . . quam, see antequam, postquam, priusquam; quam qui, 283, 2, a. quam si, 307, i. quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4. quamquam, with ind., 309, 2 ; with subjv., 309, 6; = 'and yet,' 309, 5. quamvis, with subjv., 309, i ; 6 ; denot- ing a fact, 309, 6. quandS, 286, 3, h. quantii as gen. of price, 203, 4; of value, 203, 3. Quantity, 5. of syllables, 5, B ; 363 f . of vowels, 5, A ; 362 ; in Greek words, 365. quasi, 307, i. quota, conj., log, 2, a). -que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3 ; 6, s ; 341, 1, *) ; 2. ») ; 4. <;)■ queo, 137, 1. Questions, word, sentence, 162 f . ; rhetor- ical, 162, 3 ; double (alternative), 162, 4; indirect, 300; questions in indir. disc, 3x5. qui, rel., 89 ; interr., 90 ; indef ., 91 ; for quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b ; with ne, si, nisi, nam, 91, s; ii purpose clauses, 282, 2 ; abl., 90, 2, a. quia, in causal clauses, 286, i. quicum, 89. Quicumque, decl., 91, 8. quidam, decl., 91 ; syntax, 252, 3. quidem, post-positive, 347, 1. quUibet, decl., 91. quin, in result clauses, 284, 3; in sub- stantive clauses, 295, 3 ; 298 ; = qui mm in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4 ; with ind., 281, 3; in indir. disc, 323 and a ; nulla causa est quin, 295, 7. quinam, 90, 2, d. Quintilis (= Julius), 371. qulppe qui, in clauses of characteristic^ 283, 3- Quirites, decl., 40, i, d. quis, indef., 91 ; interr., 90 ; 90, 2, c ; 252, I ; nescid quis, 253, 6 ; with ne, si, nisi, num, 91, S- quis est qui, 283, 2. quis = quibus, 89. quisnam, inflection, go, 2, d. quispiam, inflection, 91. quisguam, inflection, 91; usage, 252, 4. quisgue, inflection, 91 ; usage, 252, 5. quisquis, inflection, 91, 8. quims, inflection, gi. quo, in purpose clauses, 282, i, a. quoad, with ind., 293 ; with subjv., 293, III, 2. quod, in causal clauses, 286, i ; in sub- stantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a; 'as regards the fact,' 299, 2.' quod audierim, 283, 5; guod sciam, 283, 5- quod {si), adverbial ace, 185, 2. quom, early form of cum, 9, i. quo minus, after verbs of hindering, 29s, 3. guoniam, in causal clauses, 286, i. guoque, post-positive, 347. -quus, decl. of nouns in, 24. R. r, pron., 3, 3 ; for j between voweh ('Rhotacism'), 8, 1. rapid, conj., 109, 2, a), rastrum, plurals of, 60, 2. ratus, 'thinking,' 336, 5. Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2; 245; cf. 2S3. 3. Reduplication in perf ., 118, 4, a) ; in pres., 117, 7. Reference, dat. of, 188. refert, constr., 210; 211, 4. Reflexive pronouns, 85 ; 244 ; 249, 3. rego, conj., 105. Regular verbs, 101-113. rH, 362, 1, b). reicid, quantity, 36i2, S- GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 283 Relative adverbs, in rel. clauses of purp., 282, 2. clauses, of purp., 382, 2 ; w. dignus, indignus, idSneus, 282, 3; of charac- teristic, 283 ; denoting cause or oppo- sition, 283, 3 ; restrictive, 283, 5 ; in- troduced by guin, 283, 4; 284, 3; conditional rel. clauses, 311; 312, i and 2 ; relative as subj. of inf., 314, 4; rel. clause standing first, 251, 4, a. pronouns, inflection, 8g; use, 250 ff. ; = Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6 ; agreement, 250; not omitted as in Eng., 2SI, s; fondness for subordinate clauses, sss- relinguilur ut, 297, 2. reUqui, use, 253, 5. reliquum est, with subjv., 295, 6. remex, decl., 32. Remembering, verbs of, cases used w., 206. Reminding, verbs of, const., 207. reminiscor, constr., 206, 2. Removing, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 2. reposes, constr., 178, i, a). RepraesetUdlid, 3t8. reqmes, requiem, requietem, 59, 2, c). res, decl., 51. Resisting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. Restrictive clauses, 283, 5. Result, ace. of, 173, B; 176; clauses of, 284; 297; in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; sequence of tense in, 268, 6. reverter, semi-deponent, 114, 3. Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a; in indir. disc, 315, 2. Rhotadsm, 8, i ; 36, j.. Rivers, gender of names of, is, A, 1. rogata, abl. of cause, 219, 2. rogd, constr., 178, i, c) ; 178, i, a). Roman prommdation, 3. Root, 17, 3, footnote i. -rs, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, c). riire, abl., place from which, 229, i, h. rwri, abl., place in which, 228, i, c. •"US, 57, 7 ; ace, limit of motion, 182, i, h. S. s, pron., 3, 3; changed to r between Tow<5ls, 8, i; JT, ss, from dt, tt. Is, 8,^. -J, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, i b). i-stems, 36. sacer, ded., 65 ; comparison, 73, 3. saepe, compared, 77, i. s^, S7> 7; siUis, 61. sdlubris, decl., 68, 3. salHtaris, comp., 73, 4. salve, sahete, 137, 4. Samni^, decl., 40, i, d). sane, in answers, 162, 5. sapid, conj., 109, 2, a). satur, decl., 65, 2. Sajdng, verbs of, w. inf. of ind. disc, 331, 1. sdo, quod sciam, 283, 5. -sco-dass of verbs, 117, 6; 155. scribere ad aUquem, 358, 2. si, use, 244. se-, compoxmds of, 159, 3, »■ Second conj., 103 ; ded., 23 ; peculiarities 25; second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302. 2- Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses. secundum, prep. w. ace, 141. securis, decl., 38, i. secus, compared, 77, i. secus (virile secus), 185, i ; s8. secutus, 'following,' 336, 5. sed, se, 85, 3. sed-, compoimds of, 159, 3, e. sed, 343, I, o). sedile, decl., 39. sementis, decl., 38, i. Semi-deponent verbs, 114. Semivowels, 2, 8. sertex, decl., 42 ; compared, 73, 4. Sentences, classification, 160 f.; simple and compound, 164; sentence-struc- ture, 3SI ; sentence questions, 162, 2. senlentia, abl. of accordance, 220, 3. Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d) ; gen., 212, 3; abl., 214. Sequence of tenses, 267 ; 268. sequester, decl., 68, i. sequitur ut, 297, -i. sequor, conj., 113. Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. servos, decl., 24. sese, decl., 85. Sexlilis ( = Augustus), 371. Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i. Short syllables, 5, JB, 2 ; vowels, Si A, 3. 284 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. Showing, verbs of, w. two aces., 177. si, with indir. questions, 300, 3 ; in pro- tasis, 301 ; omitted, 305. signifer, decl., 23, n. sUentio, abi. of manner, 220, 2. Silvester, decl., 68, 3. similis, with dat., 204, 3 ; with gen., 204, 3; comp., 71, 4. si mirms, use, 306, 2. Simple sentences, 164. ^ simul, as prep., w. abl., 144, i. simul ac, w. ind., 287, i ; 2. si non, usage, 306, i and 2. svn, usage, 306, 3. sin Tmmis, 306, 2, u. Singular, second person indefitiite, 280, 3 ; 356, 3 ; 302, 2. sino, with inf., 331, III. siUs, decl., 38, i. Smelling, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 2. -so, verbs in, 155, 2. socer, decl., 23, 2. socium, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). sol, decl., 57, 7. soleo, semi-dep., 114, i. soKtus, used as present partic, 336, 5. solus, 66 ; solus est qui with subjv., 283, •z. Sonant consonants, 2, 3, ft), footnote 2. Soracte, decl., 39, 2. Sounds, classification, 2. of the letters, 3. Source, abl., 215. Space, extent of, 181. Sparing, verbs of, w. dat, 187, II. Specification, abl. of, 226. spli, quantity, 362, i, 6. Spelling, see Orthography. Spirants, 2, 7. Spondaic verses, 368, 2. Spondee, 368, 1. sponte sua, abl. accordance, 220, 3. spontis, -e, defective, 57, 2, ft. Statutes, fut. imperative used in, 281, 1, ft. Stem, 17, 3. , verb, 97; 117. Structure of sentences, see Sentences. Style, hints on, 352 f. su = sv, 3, 3. sub, pfep. with ace. and abl., 143 ; com- pounds of, w. dat., 187, III. Subject, 163; nom., i66; ace, 184; sub- ject ace. of inf., 184; omitted, 314, 5; clauses as subject, 294 ; 29s, 6 ; inf. as subj., 327 ; 330. Subjective gen., 199. Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3. in independent sentences, 272; by attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f.; method of expressing future time in, 269; volitive (hortatory, jussive, prohibitive, deliberative, concessive), 273 f. ; optative (wishes), 279; poten- tial, 280; in clauses of purpose, 282; of characteristic, 283; of result, 284; of cause, 286; temporal clauses with postquam, postedguam, 287, 5 ; tempo- ral clauses with cum, 288-290; with antequam and priusquam, 292; with dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub- stantive clauses, 294 f. ; indir. ques- tions, 300; in apodosis of first tyjM conditions, 302, 4 ; jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 30s, 2 ; with velut, iamquam, etc., 307 ; with necesse est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8; with Ucet, 309, 4 ; with quamvis, quamquam, etsi, cum, 'although,' 390 f. sublatus, p. 99, footnote. subm- = summ-, g, 2. Subordinate clauses, 165. Substantive clauses, 294 f. ; developed from the volitive, 29s, 1-8 ; developed from the optative, 296 ; with non dabilo, 298 ; indir. questions, 300 ; without ut, 295, 8 ; of result, 297 ; introduced by quod, 299. use of adjs., 236-238. suiter, prep. w. ace, 143, i. Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i ; 147 f. sui, 8s ; as objective gen., 244, 2 ; = pos- sessive gen., 244, 2. sum, conj., 100; omitted when auxiliary, 166, 3. summus, 'top of,' 241, i. sunt qui, with subjv., 283, 2. suopte, suSpte, 86, 3. supellex, decl., 42, 2. super, prep. w. ace, 143, i. Sui)erlative degree; of adjs., 71, i; 2; in -^imus, 91, 3; in -Umus, 71, 4; irregular superl., 72 ; 73 ; lacking, 73. 4 ; formed w. maxime, 74 ; of adverbs, 76, 2 ; irregular, 77, i ; force of, 240, 2. superus, compared, 73, 2. 141. oupine, 340. supra, prep. w. ace, -sura, suffix, 147, 3, a. Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i. sus, decl., 41. suslull, p. gg, footnote. suus, decl., 86, i ; 244 ; suus quisque, 244, 4,0. Syllaia anceps, 366, 10. Syllables, division, 4 ; quantity of, s, B. Synapheia, 367, 6. Synaeresis, 367, i. Synchysis, 350, 11, d). Syncope, 7, 4 ; 367, 8. Synecdochical ace, 180. Synizesis, 367, i. Syntax, 160 f. Systole, 367, 3. 3, 3; changes. GENERAL INDEX. 285 The references are to sections and paragraphs. Tetrameter verses, 366, ii. Thematic verbs, 101-113. vowels, 117, footnote. Thesis, 366, 6. Third conj., 105; log f.; decl., 28 f.; gender in, 43 f . Threatening, verbs of, t87, II. -tim, adverbs in,, IS7, 2. Time, at which, 230; during which, 181; 231, I ; within which, 231. timed ne and ut, 2q6, 2. -tinus, suffix, 154. -Ho, suffix, 147, 3. Tmesis, 367, 7. -to as suffix of verbs, 155, 2. -tor, use of uoims in, 353, 4. totus, 66; preposition absent w., in ex- pression of place relations, 228, i, b). Towns, gender of names of, is, 2 ; names of, denoting limit of motion, r82, i, a ; denoting place where, 228, i, a; place from which, 22g, ji, a; appositives of town names, i6g, 4; 22g, 2. trSditur, traditum est, w. inf., 332, N. trans, prep. w. ace, 141 ; constr. of verbs compounded with, i7g. Transitive verbs, 174. Trees, gender of names of, is, 2. ires, decl., 80, 3. Tribrach, 370, 2. trihus, decl., 4g, 3 ; gender, 50. Trimeter verses, 366, 11. trim, use, 81, 4, b). triummr, gen. plu. of, 23, 6, J). -trlx, suffix, 147, I. Trochee, 366, 2. -trvm, suffioc, 147, 4. Trusting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. tii, decl., 84. -tudo, suffix, i4g. tul, as objective gen., 242, 2. -tura, suffix, 147, 3. a). tus, decl, 57, 7. -tus, suffix, 147, 3 ; iSi) 4. tussis, decl, 38. tute, mtemet, tutimet, 84, 2. Two accusatives, 177; 178. Two datives, 191, 2. t, pron., 3, 3 ; th, 2, 3, c 8, 2 ; dropped, 8, 3. laedet, 138, II ; w. gen., 209. Takiiig away, verbs of, w. dat., 188, 2, d. talenltim, gen. plu., 25, 6, a), (amen, 343, 1, /. tametsi, 309, 2. tamquam, tamguam st, w. subjv.. 307. lanton, 6, 4. -tas, 149; gen. -tatis, decl. of nouns in. 40, I, e). Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. Teaching, verbs of, constr., 178, i, b. ted = te, 84, 3. Temporal clauses, w. postguam, ut, ubi, simvl ac, 287; w. cum, 288; 289; w. antequam and priusquam, 291 ; 292 ; with dum, donee, quoad, 2g3. temporis {id temporis), 185, 2. Tendency, dat. of, igi. lener, ded., 64. Tenses, g4, 3; 257 ff. ; of inf., 270; inf. in indir. disc, 317; of participles, 336; of subjv., 266 ; sequence of, 266- 268; in indir. disc, 317 ; 318. Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote i. knus, position, 142, 3. Terminations, 17, 3. terni, how used, 81, 4, b. -ternus, 154- terra marigue, 228, i, c. krrester, 68, 3. of U. », instead of i in some words, 9, i ; ir-. stead of a, 9, i ; g, 4- 286 GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. «, becomes », 567, 4. iSf-stems, 48. a-slems, 41. -fi, dat. sing., 4th decl., 49, 2. liber, decl., 70, i. «W, with ind., 287, i ; 2 ; with gen., 201, 3- -ubKS, dat., plu., 4th decl., 49, 3. iUUis, decl., 66. ulterior, compared, 73, i. ullimus, use, 241, 2. »//ro, prep. w. ace, 141. -ulus, diminutive ending, 150, 2; (a, «m), 148, I. -um, I St decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d) ; 2d decl., 25, 6 ; for -ium, 70, 7. -«nf2»f , -«n(2i, in gerund and genmdive, 116, 2. Cmis, decl., 66 ; 92, i ; ilnus est qui, with subjv., 283, 2. ■«W», ending of desiderative verbs, 15s, 3- ■^rus, ending of fut. act. partic, loi ; 103 ff. ; -Mr»j fuisse in apodosis of conditional sentences contrary-to-fact, in indir. disc, 32T, 2; -urus fuerim in indir. questions serving as apodoses, 322, b. -»J, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2 ; nom. in 3d decl., in -«j, 36 ; gender of nouns in -«m of 3d decl., 43, 3 ; excep- tions in gender, 46, 4. -Us, nouns of 3d decl. in, 43, 2. usque ad, w. ace, 141, i. ilsus est, with abl, 218, ^. ut, temporal, 287, i ; 2 ; ut, uli, in pur- pose clauses, 282; in result clauses, 284; in substantive clauses, 295 f. ; substantive clauses without, 295, 8; with verbs of fearing, 296, a. ut ni = ne, 282, i, h; 29s, r, 4, 5. ut non instead of ne, 282, i, c ; in clauses of result, 284, 297. ut qui, introducing clauses of character- istic, 283, 3. ut si, w. subjv., 307, 1. uter, decl., 66; 92, i. ater, decl., 40, i, d). utercumque, decl., 92, 2. uterHbet, decl., 92, 2. uterque, decl., 92, 2 ; use, 355, a. uterms, decl., 92, 2. iitUiu.t est = Eng. potential, 271, i, J). utinam, with optative subjv., 279, i and 2. utor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. utjiote qui, introducing clauses of char- acteristic, 283, 3. utrdque, 6, 5. uirum . . . fl«, 162, 4; 300, 4. », I, i; pron., 3, 3; developing from «, 367, 4- V, becomes u, 367, S- valde, by syncope, for vaUde, 7, 4. vaia, 363, 2, b). Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3. vatmus, gender of, 26, x, J). Variations in spelling, 9. vds, decl., S9, i. -ve, 6, 3; 342, I, b). vel, 342, I, 6) ; with superl., 240, 3. veUm, potential subjv., 280, d, a. vellem, potential subjv., 280, 4. velut, vehit si, w. subjv., 307, i. venter, decl., 40, i, d). Verba sentievdi et declarandi, w. inf. of indir. disc, 331, I; passive use of these, 332. Verbal adjs., 150, 1-4. Verbs, 94 f . ; persoiml endings, 96 ; de- ponent, 112; archaic and poetic forms, 116, 4; irregular, 124; ddective, 133; impersonal, 138; with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2 ; omission of, 166, 3; transitive, 174; used abso- lutely, 174, o; passives used as mid- dles, 175, 2, (Q ; of smelling and tasting, constr., 176, s; not used in passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives im- personal in passive, 187, II, b ; 256, 3 ; compounded with preps., constr., 187, III; of judicial action, constr., 208; derivation of, 15s f. ; inceptive or inchoative, 155, i; frequentative or intensive, 155, 2; desiderative, ISS, 3; denominative, 156; agreement of, 2S4f- Verb stems, 97; formation of, 117 f. vereor, conj., 113; with subst. clause in subjv., 296, 2. Vergilius, gen. of, 25, i. veritus, with present force, 336, 5. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 287 '*'». 343. ii s) ; in answers, 162, s. Verse, 366, 3. Verse-structure, 366 f . Versification, 361. versus, prep. w. ace, 141 ; follows its case, 141, J. verum, 343, i,b). vescor, with abl., 218, x. vesper, decl., 23, j. vesperi, locative, 232, z. vestri, as obj./gen., 242, 2. vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2 ; as possessive gen., 242, j, u. veto, with inf., 331, II. veius, decl., 70; compared, 73, 3. vi, 220, J. vicem, used adverbially, 185, i; vicis, vice, 57, s, 6. victor, dec]., 34. video, with pres. partic, 337, 3. vigil, decl., 34. vioknler, formation, 77, 4, a. vir, decl., 23. , gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 2$; 6, b). virile secus, constr., 185, ±. virus, gender of, 26, z. vis, decl., 41. viscera, used in plu. only, 56, 3. Vocative case, 17 ; 19, i ; of Greek proper names in -as, 47, 4; of adjs. in -ius, 63, I ; 171 ; in -i for -ie, 25, i ; position of, 350, 3. Voiced sounds, 2, 3, u. Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b). Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a. • Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, 1. Volitive subjunctive, 272 f. vohms, si)elling, 9, i. void, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a ; with subj v., 296, 1, a. volt, spelling, 9, i. aolku, spelling, 8, i. volucer, decl., 68, i. voPmUate, 220, j. comparison of adjs. in, 71, -volus, S- Vowels, 2, I ; sounds of the, 3, i ; quan- tity of, s, A ; contraction of, 7, 2 ; para- sitic, 7, 3. Vowel changes, 7. vulgus, gender of, 26, 2. -imm. -vus, decl. of nouns in, 24. W. Want, verbs and adjs. of, w. abl., 214, t, c; d. Way by which, abl. of, 218, 9. We, editorial, 242, 3. Whole, gen. of, 201. Wills, use of fut. imperative in, 281, I, i. Winds, gender of names of, 15, 1. Wish, clauses with dimi, etc., expressing a, 310. Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; see Opta- tive subjunctive. Wishing, verbs of, with subst. clause, 296, I ; with obj. inf., 331, IV. Word-formation, 146 f . Word-order, 348 f . Word questions, 162, r. I, 2, 9; = cj and gs, 32. -X, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more cons., 40, i, b) ; gender oi nouns in -x of 3d decl., 43, 2 ; excep- tions, 45, 4. Y. y, I. I- Yes, how expressed, 162, $. 'You,' indefinite, 356, 3 ; 280, 3 ; 303, 2 Z. z, I, I ; 2, 9. Zeugma, 374, 2, a).