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 3 1924 029 928 516 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029928516 
 
THE PEIMITIVE INHABITANTS 
 
 OF 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
LONDON 
 
 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOO DR AND CO. 
 
 NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 
THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS 
 
 OK 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 AN ESSAY ON COMPABATIVB 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHT, AND A CONTHIBTJTION TO 
 
 THE HISTORY OP THE DEYBLOPMENT OP MANKIND: 
 
 CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OP THE IMPLEMENTS, DWELLINGS, 
 
 TOMBS, AND MODE OP LIVING OB" THE SAYAGES 
 
 IN THE NORTH OP EUROPE DURING 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 BY SYEN NILSSON. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, 
 
 REVISED BY THE AUTHOK, AND TRANSLATED FKOM HIS OWN MANUSCEIPT. 
 
 EDITED, AND WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 
 SIE JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart. F.E.S. &c. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 
 1868. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 Ip the Science of Prehistoric Archasology had long 
 excited as much interest in this country as it does at 
 present, Professor Nilsson's work on the Aborigines 
 of Scandinavia would not now be appearing in an 
 English translation for the first time. 
 
 M. Morlot has truly observed, that the wonderful 
 advance recently made in our knowledge of ancient 
 men, and particularly the division of European his- 
 tory into the three eras, the Stone, Bronze, and Iron 
 Ages, is ' due chiefly to the labours of M. Thomsen, 
 Director of the Ethnological and Archasological 
 Museum at Copenhagen, and to those of Professor 
 Nilsson, of the flourishing University of Lund.' 
 
 Both these archteologists, however, unfortunately 
 for us, write in languages but little understood 
 in this country, and their labours, in consequence, 
 have remained almost unknown. When, therefore, 
 Messrs. Longman & Co. requested me to edit an 
 English translation of Professor Nilsson's ' Stone 
 Age,' I very gladly undertook to do so. 
 
\i EDITOK'S PREFACE. 
 
 Had Professor Nilsson's object been to exalt "bis 
 own reputation, he would have reprinted his book 
 just as it stood when first published in 1838-43. In 
 its present form, however, improved and somewhat 
 enlarged, his work is an even more valuable con- 
 tribution to our Ethnological literature. 
 
 The present translation was made in Sweden, 
 under the immediate superintendence of the Author. 
 It constitutes, in fact, a new edition, differing con- 
 siderably, not only from the original, but also from 
 that which was published at the commencement of 
 last year. Under these circumstances, I have not 
 liked to introduce too many modifications, lest, in 
 altering the style, I might perhaps change some- 
 what the meaning also. Moreover, although in many 
 places the English has a slightly foreign aspect, I do 
 not think that the reader will find any practical in- 
 convenience; and in the translation of a scientific 
 work, accuracy is of more importance than style. 
 
 As this book may be read by some who have 
 not made a special study of Prehistoric Archaeo- 
 logy, I have prefaced it with a short Introduction, 
 which is substantially the same as the Address which 
 I delivered before the Archaeological Institute at their 
 London meeting in July 1866. 
 
 This is, I think, the more desirable, because no flint 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. vii 
 
 implements of the most ancient, or palaeolithic, types 
 have yet been found in Scandinavia. On this point 
 I can speak with some little confidence, having my- 
 self visited the excellent Museums of Copenhagen, 
 Stockholm, Lund, Flensborg, and Aarhuus, besides 
 many private collections. It seems to me, therefore, 
 probable that Scandinavia was not peopled until the 
 Second Stone, or Neolithic Age, which is so well 
 treated of in the present Work. 
 
 High Elms, Faunbokough, Keni: 
 November 10, 18G7. 
 
EDITOR'S INTEODUCTION. 
 
 Prehistoric Archeology has but lately made good 
 its right to recognition as a branch of science ; 
 and even now, perhaps, there are some who are 
 disposed to question the claim. We can never, it 
 is thought by these, become wise beyond what is 
 written : the ancient poems and histories Contain all 
 that we can ever know about old times and bygone 
 races of men ; by the study of antiquities we may 
 often corroborate, and occasionally perhaps even cor- 
 rect, the statements of old writers, but beyond this 
 we can never hope to go. The ancient monuments 
 and remains themselves may excite our interest, but 
 they can teach us nothing. This opinion is as old as 
 the time of Horace : in one of his best known Odes 
 he tells us that — 
 
 Vixere fortes ante Agamemnona 
 Multi ; sad omnes illacrymabiles 
 Urgentur, ignotique Tonga 
 Nocte, carent quia vate sacro. 
 
 If this apply to nations as well as to individuals — if 
 our knowledge of the past be confined to that which 
 
X EDITOR'S INTKODUCTION. 
 
 has been handed down to us in books — then ArchaBO- 
 logy is indeed restrained within fixed and narrow 
 limits ; it is reduced to a mere matter of criticism, 
 and is almost unworthy to be called a science. 
 
 My object in the present Introduction is to vin- 
 dicate the claims of Archaeology ; to point out briefly 
 the light which has, more particularly in the last few 
 years, been thrown upon the past; and, above all, 
 if possible, to show that the antiquaries of the 
 present day are no visionary enthusiasts, but that 
 the methods of archaeological investigation are as 
 trustworthy as those of any natural science. I pur- 
 posely say the methods, rather than the results, 
 because while I believe that the progress recently 
 made has been mainly due to the use of those 
 methods which have been pursued with so much 
 success in geology, zoology, and other kindred 
 branches of science — and while fully persuaded that 
 in this manner we must eventually ascertain the 
 truth — I readily admit that there are many points 
 on which farther evidence is required. Nor need the 
 antiquar}' be ashamed to own that it is so. Biologists 
 diflFer about the Darwinian theory ; until very lately 
 the emission theory of light was maintained by some of 
 the best authorities ; TyndaU and Magnus are at issue 
 as to whether aqueous vapour does or does not absorb 
 heat; astronomers have recently been obliged to 
 admit an error of more than 4,000,000 miles in their 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 estimate of the distance between the earth and the 
 sun ; nor is there any single proposition in theo- 
 logy to which an universal assent would be given. 
 Although, therefore, there are no doubt great diver- 
 sities of opinion among antiquaries, archaeology is in 
 this respect only in the same condition as all other 
 branches of knowledge. 
 
 Conceding then, frankly, that from several of the 
 following conclusions some good archaeologists would 
 entirely dissent, I will now endeavour to state briefly 
 the principal results of modern research, and espe- 
 cially to give, as far as can be done within the limits 
 of a few pages, an idea of the kind of evidence on 
 which these conclusions are based. 
 
 I must also add, that my remarks are confined, ex- 
 cepting when it is otherwise specified, to that part of 
 Europe which lies to the north of the Alps ; and that 
 by the Primaeval Period I understand that which 
 extended from the first appearance of man down to 
 the commencement of the Christian era. 
 
 This period may be divided into four epochs : — 
 Firstly, the Palaeolithic, or First Stone Age ; secondly, 
 the Neolithic, or Second Stone Age; thirdly, the 
 Bronze Age ; and lastly, the Iron Age. Attempts have 
 been made, with more or less success, to establish 
 subdivisions of these periods, but into these I do not 
 now propose to enter : even if we can do no more as 
 yet than establish this succession, that wUl itself be 
 
xii EDITOR'S INTKODUOTION. 
 
 sufficient to show that we are not entirely dependent 
 on history. 
 
 We will commence, then, with the Palteolithic Age, 
 This is the most ancient period in which we have as 
 yet any decisive proofs of the existence of man. M. 
 Desnoyers has, indeed, called attention to some bones 
 from the Pliocene beds of St. Prest, which appear to 
 show the marks of knives, and M. I'Abb^ Bourgeois 
 has since found in the same locality some flints, which 
 he believes to have been worked by man ; Mr. Whin- 
 copp also has in his possession a bone from the crag, 
 which certainly looks as if it had been cut with some 
 sharp instrument. These cases, however, are not 
 perfectly conclusive, and as yet the implements found 
 in the river-drift gravels are the oldest undoubted 
 traces of man's existence — older far than any of those 
 in Egypt or Assyria, though belonging to a period 
 which, from a geological point of \iew, is very recent. 
 
 The Palceolithic Age. 
 
 As regards the Palaaolithic Age, we may, I think, 
 regard the foUo-sving conclusions as fully borne out 
 by the evidence : — 
 
 1. The antiquities referable to this period are 
 usually found in beds of gravel and loam, or, as it is 
 technically called, ' loess,' extending along our valleys, 
 and reaching sometimes to a height of 200 feet above 
 the present water-level. 
 
EDITOE'S INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 2. These beds were deposited by the existing rivers, 
 which then ran in the same directions as at present, 
 and drained the same areas. 
 
 3. With the exception of the coast-line, the geo- 
 graphy of Western Europe cannot therefore have 
 been very different at the time those gravels were 
 deposited from what it is now. 
 
 4. The fauna of Europe at that time comprised the 
 mammoth, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, the hippo- 
 potamus, the urus, the musk-ox, &c., as well as most 
 of the existing animals. 
 
 5. The climate was much colder than at present. 
 
 6. Though we have no exact measure of time, we 
 can tit least satisfy ourselves that this period was one 
 of veiy great antiquity. 
 
 7. Yet man already inhabited Western Europe. 
 
 8. He used rude implements of stone; 
 
 9. Which were never polished, and of which some 
 types differ remarkably from any of those that were 
 subsequently in use. 
 
 10. He was ignorant of pottery, and (11) of 
 metals. 
 
 I will now proceed to examine these eleven con- 
 clusions at somewhat greater length : — 
 
 1. That these beds of gravel and loam, or, as it is 
 technically called, ' loess,' extend along the slopes of 
 the valleys, and reach sometimes to a height of 200 
 
xiv EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 feet above the present water-level, is a mere state- 
 ment of fact about which no difference of opinion has 
 
 arisen. 
 
 2. That these beds of gravel and loess were not 
 deposited by the sea, is proved by the fact that the 
 remains which occur in them are all those of land or 
 
 freshwater and not of marine species. That they 
 
 were deposited by the existing rivers is evident, be- 
 cause in each river-valley they contain fragments of 
 those rocks only which occur in the area drained by 
 the river itself. As, therefore, the rivers drained the 
 same areas then as now, the geography of Western 
 Europe cannot have been at that period very different 
 from what it is at present. 
 
 3. The fauna, hoAvevcr, was very unhke what 
 it is now, the existence of the annuals above men- 
 tioned being proved by the presence and condition of 
 their bones. 
 
 4. The greater severity of the climate is indicated 
 by the nature of the fauna. The musk-ox, the woolly- 
 haired rhinoceros, the mammoth, the lemming, &c., 
 are Arctic species, and the reindeer then extended to 
 the South of France. Another argument is derived 
 from the presence of great sandstone blocks in the 
 gravels of some rivers, as, for instance, of the Somme : 
 these, it appears, must have been transported by ice. 
 
 5. The great antiquity of the period now under 
 discussion is evident from several considerations. The 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xv 
 
 extinction of the large mammalia must have been a 
 work of time ; and neither in the earliest writings, nor 
 in the vaguest traditions, do we find any indication 
 of their presence in Western Europe. StiU more 
 conclusive evidence is aflforded by the condition of 
 our valleys. The beds of gravel and loam cannot 
 have been deposited by any sudden cataclysm, both 
 on account of their regularity, and also of the fact, 
 already mentioned, that the materials of one river- 
 system are never mixed with those of another. To 
 take an instance. The gravel of the Somme valley is 
 entirely formed of debris from the chalk and tertiary 
 strata occupying that area; but at a right angle to, 
 and within a very few miles of, the headwaters of the 
 Somme comes the valley of the Oise. In this valley 
 are other older strata, no fragments of which have 
 found their way into the Somme valley, though they 
 could not have failed to do so had the gravels in 
 question been the result of any great cataclysm, or 
 had the Somme then drained a larger area than at 
 present. The beds in question are found in some cases 
 200 feet above the present water-level, and the bottom 
 of the valley is occupied by a bed of peat, which 
 in some places is as much as 30 feet in thickness. 
 We have no means of making an accurate calculation ; 
 but even if we allow, as we must, a good deal for the 
 floods which would be produced by the melting of 
 the snow, still it is evident that for the river to 
 
xvi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 excavate its valley to a depth of more than 200 feet,* 
 and then for the formation of so thick a bed of peat, 
 much time must have been required. If, moreover, 
 we consider the alteration which has taken place in 
 the climate, as well as in the fauna, and;, finally, 
 remember also that the last eighteen hundred years 
 have produced scarcely any perceptible change, we 
 cannot but come to the conclusion that many, very 
 many, centuries have elapsed since the river ran at a 
 level so much higher than the present^ and the coun- 
 try was occupied by a fauna so unlike that now ia 
 existence there. 
 
 6. The presence of man is proved by the discovery; 
 of stone implements (figs. 1 and 2). Strictly speak- 
 ing, these only prove the presence of reasoning beings; 
 but this being granted, few, if any, would doubt that 
 the beings in question were men. Human bones, 
 moreover, have been found in cave-deposits, which, 
 in the opinion of the best judges, belonged to this 
 period; and M. Boucher de Perthes considers that 
 various fragments of human bone found at Mouhn 
 Quignon are also genuine. On this point long dis- 
 cussions have taken place, into which I will not now 
 enter. The question before us is, whether men 
 existed at all, not whether they had bones. On 
 
 * Many persons find a difficulty in understanding how the river 
 could have deposited gravel at so great a height, forgetting that the 
 valley was not then excavated to anything like its present depth. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Flint Implement from St. Acteul, near Amiens, 
 Natural size. 
 
xviii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the latter point no dispute is likely to arise, and 
 as regards the former, the works of man are as 
 good evidence as his bones could be. Moreover, 
 there seems to me nothing wonderful in the great 
 scarcity of human bones. A country where the in- 
 habitants subsist on the produce of the chase can 
 never be otherwise than scantily peopled. If we 
 admit that for each man there must be a thousand 
 head of game existing at any one time — and this 
 seems a moderate allowance ; remembering also that 
 most mammalia are less long-lived than men, we 
 should naturally exjoect to find human remains very 
 rare as compared with those of other animals. Among 
 a people who burnt their dead, of course this dis- 
 projjortion would be immensely increased. That the 
 flint implements found in these gravels are implements 
 it is unnecessary to argue. Their regularity, and the 
 care with which they have been worked to an edge, 
 prove that th^y have been intentionally chipped into" 
 tlieir present forms, and are not the result of accident. 
 That they are not forgeries we may be certain : firstly, 
 because they have been found in situ by many excel- 
 lent observers — by all, in fact, who have looked perse- 
 veringly for them ; and secondly, because, as the dis- 
 coloration of their surface is quite superficial, and 
 follows the existing outline, it has evidently been pro- 
 duced since the flints were brought to their present 
 forms. This is clearly shown in fig. 3 (p.xx.), which 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Pi". 2. 
 
 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 FiK. 3. 
 
 represents a fractured surface of fig. 2, and shows the 
 dark natural flint, surrounded by the altered surface. 
 
 The forgeries — for there are 
 forgeries — are of a dull lead 
 colour, like other freshly- 
 broken surfaces of flint. The ■ 
 same evidence justifies us in 
 concluding that the imple- 
 ments are coeval with the 
 beds of gravel in which they 
 are found. 
 
 8. Without counting flakes, 
 Ave shall certainly be within 
 the mark if we estimate that 
 three thousand flint imple- 
 ments of the PalaBolithic Age 
 have been discovered in Nor- 
 thern France and Southern 
 
 Section ot Fig. 2, showing 
 discolouration of surface. 
 
 England. These are all of types which differ con- 
 siderably from those Avhich came subsequently into 
 use, and they are none of them polished ; we may 
 therefore, I think, infer that the art of polishing 
 stone implements was as yet unknown. 
 
 9 and 10. In the same manner, I think, we may 
 safely conclude that the use of metal and of pottery 
 was then unknown, as is the case even now with 
 many races of savages. 
 
 Although flint implements were observed in the 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxi 
 
 drift-gravels more than half a century ago by Mr. 
 Frere, still his observations were forgotten until the 
 same discovery was again made by M. Boucher de 
 Perthes. For our knowledge of the gravel-beds in 
 Avhich they occur, however, we are principally in- 
 debted to Mr. Prestwich. Sir Charles Lyell has the 
 high merit of having carefully examined the facts, 
 and given to the antiquity of man the authority of 
 his great name ; nor must the labours of Mr. Evans 
 be passed unnoticed. To him we owe the first com- 
 parison between the flint implements of this and those 
 of the Neolithic period. 
 
 In what precedes, 1 have relied principally on the 
 researches in the river-drift gravel-beds. Much ad- 
 ditional information has, however, been obtained by 
 the examination of caves. Though 1 cannot here 
 do justice to the numerous archssologists who have 
 laboured at this branch of the science, I must take 
 the opportunity of alluding to two of our fellow- 
 countrymen. Dr. Falconer and Mr. Christy — who 
 have recently, alas ! been lost to us and to science. 
 Mr. Busk, who had been for some time engaged with 
 Dr. Falconer in the study of the Gibraltar caves, will 
 publish the result of the investigations which he had 
 left in an unfinished state, and everyone will admit 
 that the materials could not be in better hands. 
 
 The researches carried on by Mr. Christy, in con- 
 junction with M. Lartet, in the caves of the Dordogne, 
 
xxii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ai-e of great interest. The general facts may be 
 .stated to be, that while thousands of implements 
 made out of stone, bone, and horn, have been col- 
 lected, no trace of potteiy, nor evidence of the use 
 of metals, not even a polished stone implement, has 
 vet been met with. The people who lived in the 
 South of France at that period seem, in a great many 
 respects, to have resembled the Esquimaux. Their 
 principal food was the reindeer, and though traces of 
 the musk-ox, mammoth, cave-lion, as well as other 
 animals of the quaternary fauna have been met with, 
 it is still possible that these may not belong to the 
 same period. These cavemen were very ingenious, 
 and excellent Avorkers in flint ; but though their bone- 
 [)ins, &c., are beautifully polished, this is never the 
 case with their flint weapons. The habit of allowing 
 ofFal and bones to accumulate in their dwellings is 
 indicative, probably, of a cold climate. 
 
 Perhajjs, howcAer, the most remarkable fact of all 
 is, that although in other respects so slightly advanced 
 in civilisation, these ancient French cavemen, like the 
 l<]squimaux, sho-w a wonderful genius for art. Many 
 very spirited drawings of animals have been found 
 represented on fragments of bone, stone, and horn, 
 and M. Lartet has found in the rock-shelter at La 
 jMadelaine a fragment of mammoth-tusk, on which 
 was engraved a representation of the animal itself.* 
 
 ' Seo also nolc 7. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxiii 
 
 On the whole, these remains probably belong to an 
 epoch somewhat less ancient than the implements of 
 the St. Acheul gravels; from the preponderance of 
 the remains of that animal, it has been called the 
 Reindeer period. 
 
 The Neolithic Age. 
 
 We now pass to the later Stone or Neolithic 
 Age, with reference to which the following pro- 
 positions may, I think, be regarded as satisfactorily 
 established : — 
 
 1. There was a period when polished stone axes 
 were extensively used in Europe. 
 
 2. The objects belonging to this period do not occur 
 in the river- drift gravel-beds ; 
 
 3. Nor in association with the great extinct mam- 
 malia. 
 
 4. They were in use long before the discovery or 
 introduction of metals. 
 
 5. The Danish shell-mounds, or Kjokkenmoddings, 
 belong to this period ; 
 
 6. As do many of the Swiss lake-dwellings; 
 
 7. And of the tumuli, or burial-mounds. 
 
 8. Rude stone implements appear to have been in 
 use longer than those more carefully worked. 
 
 9. Hand-made pottery was in use during this 
 period. 
 
:xiv EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 10. In Central Europe, the ox, sheeji, goat, pig, 
 md dog were already domesticated. 
 
 11. Agriculture had also commenced. 
 
 12. Flax was cultivated and woven into tissues. 
 
 13. At least two distinct races already occupied 
 W^estem Europe. 
 
 1 . That there wjls a period when polished axes and 
 jther implements of stone were extensively used in 
 Western Europe is sufficiently proved by the great 
 numbers in which these objects occur : for instance, 
 the Dublin Museum contains more than j2,000, that 
 rf Copenhagen more than 10,000, and that of Stock- 
 holm not fewer than 15,000. 
 
 2. The objects characteristic of this period do not 
 occur in the river-drift gravels. Some of the simpler 
 ones, indeed — as, for instance, flint flakes — were used 
 both in the Neolitliic and Palaeolithic periods. The 
 3olished axes, chisels, gouges, &c. are very distinct, 
 lowever, from the ruder implements of the Palaaohthic 
 Age, and are never found in the river-drift gravels. 
 Conversely, the Palgeolithic types have never yet 
 aeen met ^\lth in association with those characteristic 
 jf the later epoch. 
 
 Again, while the Neolithic implements are re- 
 narkabl}' numerous in Denmark and Sweden, the 
 i'ateolithic types are absolutely unknown there. It 
 s probable, therefore, that these northern countries 
 vcrc IK it inlial)ited by man during the earlier period. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxv 
 
 3. Nor do the types of the Neolithic Age ever oc- 
 cur in company with the Quaternary fauna, under 
 circumstances which would justify us in regarding 
 them as coeval. 
 
 4. The implements in question were in use before 
 the introduction or discovery of metal. It is a great 
 mistake to suppose that implements of stone were 
 abandoned directly metal was discovered. For certain 
 purposes, as for arrow-heads, stone would be quite as 
 suitable as the more precious substance. Flint flakes, 
 moreover, were so useful, and so easily obtained, that 
 they were occasionally employed even down to a 
 very late period. Even for axes and chisels, the in- 
 contestable superiority of metal was for a while coun- 
 terbalanced by its greater costliness. Captain Cook, 
 indeed, tells us that in Tahiti the implements of stone 
 and bone were in a very feAV years replaced by those 
 of metal ; a stone hatchet was then, he says, ' as 
 rare a thing as an iron one was eight years ago, and 
 a chisel of bone or stone is not to be seen.' The 
 rapidity with which the change from stone to metal is 
 effected depends on the supply of the latter. In the 
 above case, Cook had with him abundance of metal, in 
 exchange for which the islanders supplied his vessels 
 with great quantities of fresh meat, vegetables, and 
 other more questionable articles of merchandise. The 
 introduction of metal into Europe was certainly far 
 more gradual ; stone and metal were long used side by 
 
xxvi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 side, and archaeologists are often too hasty in referring 
 stone implements to the Stone Age. It would be easy 
 to quote numerous instances in which implements 
 have been, without any sufficient reason, referred to 
 the Stone Age, merely because they were formed of 
 stone. The two Stone Ages are characterised not 
 I merely by the use of stone, but by the use of stone 
 to the exclusion of metal. I cannot therefore too 
 strongly impress on archaeologists, that many stone 
 implements belong to the metallic period. Why, then, 
 it will be asked, may they not all have done so ? and 
 this question I will now endeavour to answer. 
 
 5. The Danish shell-mounds are the refuse heaps 
 of the ancient inhabitants, round whose dweUings the 
 bones and shells of the animals on -which they fed 
 gradually accumulated. Like a modern dustheap, 
 these shell-mounds contain all kinds of household 
 objects — some purposely thrown away as useless, but 
 some also accidentally lost. These mounds have been 
 examined with great care by the Danish archaeologists, 
 and especially by Professor Steenstrup. Many thou- 
 sand implements of stone and bone have been obtained 
 from them ; and as, on the one hand, from the absence 
 of extinct animals, and of implements belonging to 
 the Palasolithic Age, Ave conclude that these shell- 
 mounds do not belong to that period, so, on the other 
 hand, from the absence of all trace of metal, we are 
 justified in referring them to a jjcriod when metal was 
 unknown. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xivii 
 
 6. The same arguments apply to some of the Swiss 
 lake-dwellings, the discovery of which we owe to 
 Dr. Keller, and which have been so admirably studied 
 by Desor, Morlot, Troyon, and other Swiss archagolo- 
 gists. A glance at the Table A. will show that, 
 while in some of them pbjects of metal are very 
 abundant, in others, which have been not less care- 
 fully or thoughtfully explored, stone implements are 
 met with to the exclusion of metalHc ones. It may 
 occur, perhaps, to some, that the absence of metal in 
 some of the lake-villages, and its presence in others, 
 is to be accounted for by its scarcity — that, in fact, 
 metal will be found when the localities shall have 
 been sufficiently searched. But a glance at the table 
 will show that the settlements in which metal occurs 
 are deficient in stone implements. Take the same 
 number of objects from Wangen and Nidau, and in 
 the one case 90 per cent, will be of metal, while in 
 the other the whole number are of stone or bone. 
 This cannot be accidental — the numbers are too great 
 to admit of such a hypothesis; nor can the fact be 
 accounted for by contemporaneous differences of 
 civilisation, because the localities are too close toge- 
 ther ; neither is it an affair of wealth, because we find 
 such articles as fishhooks, &c., made of metal. 
 
 7. We may also, I think, safely refer some of the 
 tumuli or burial-mounds to this period. When we 
 find a large tumulus, the erection of which must have 
 
xxviii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 been extremely laborious, it is evident that it must 
 have been erected in honour of some distinguished in- 
 dividual ; and when his flint daggers, axes, &c. — which, 
 from the labour and difficulty of making them, must 
 have been of great value — were deposited in the tomb, 
 it is reasonable to conclude, that if he had possessed 
 any arms of metal, they also would have been buried 
 with him. This we know was done in subsequent 
 periods. In burials of the Stone Age the corpse was 
 either deposited in a sitting posture, or burnt, but 
 rarely, if ever, extended at full length. 
 
 8. It is an error to suppose that the rudest flint 
 implements are necessarily the oldest. The Palaeoli- 
 thic implements show admii'able workmanship. More- 
 over, every flint implement is rude at first. A bronze 
 celt is cast perfect ; but a flint implement is rudely 
 blocked out in the first instance, and then, if any 
 concealed flaw comes to light, or if any ill-directed 
 blow causes an inconvenient fracture, the unfinished 
 implement is perhaps thrown away. Moreover, the 
 simplest flint-flake forms a capital knife, and accord- 
 ingly we find that some simple stone implements 
 were in use long after metal had replaced the beau- 
 tifully-worked axes, knives, and daggers, which must 
 always have been very difficult to make. The period 
 immediately before the introduction of metal may 
 reasonably be supposed to be that of the best stone 
 implements, but the use of the simpler ones lingered 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxix 
 
 long. Moreover, there are some reasons to believe 
 that pierced stone axes are characteristic of the early- 
 metallic period. 
 
 9. Hand-made pottery is abundant in the shell- 
 mounds and the lake-villages, as well as in the tumuli 
 which appear to belong to the Stone Age. No con- 
 clusive evidence that the potter's wheel was yet in 
 use has been discovered. 
 
 10. The dog is the only domestic animal found in 
 the shell-mounds ; but remains of the ox, sheep, goat, 
 and pig appear in the lake-villages. There is some 
 doubt about the horse ; and the barn-d oor fowl, as 
 well as th e cat, was unlinown. 
 
 11. The presence of corn-crushers, as well as of 
 carbonised wheat, barley, and flax, in the Swiss lake- 
 dwellings, proves that agriculture was already pur- 
 sued ^vith success in Central Europe. Oats, rye, and 
 hemp were unknown. 
 
 12. Tissues of woven flax have been found in some 
 of the Swiss lake-villages. 
 
 13. At least two forms of skull, one long and one 
 round, are found in the tumuli which appear to belong 
 to this period. Until now, however, we have not a 
 single human skull from the Danish shell-mounds, 
 nor from any Swiss lake-dwelling, which can be 
 referred with certainty to this period. 
 
XXX EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Bronze Age. 
 
 1. The Neolithic Age was followed by a period when 
 bronze was extensively used for arms and implements. 
 
 2. Stone, however, was also in use, especially for 
 certain purposes, as, for instance, for arrow-heads, and 
 in the form of flakes for cutting. 
 
 3. Some of the bronze axes appear to be mere 
 copies of the earlier stone ones. 
 
 4. Many of the Swiss lake-villages and of the 
 tumuli belong to this period. 
 
 5. This is shown, not merely by the presence of 
 metal, but also by other considerations. 
 
 6. The pottery of the Bronze Age is better than that 
 of the earlier period. 
 
 7. Gold, amber, and glass were used for orna- 
 mental purposes. 
 
 8. Silver, lead, and zinc appear to have been un- 
 known . 
 
 9. This was also the case with iron. 
 
 10. Coins were not in use. 
 
 11. Skins were probably worn, but tissues of flax 
 and wool were also in use. 
 
 12. The ornamentation of the period is charac- 
 teristic, and consists of geometrical markings. 
 
 13. The handles of the arms, the bracelets, &c., 
 indicate a small race. 
 
 14. Writing appears to have been unknown; 
 
 15. Yet there was a very considerable commerce. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxxi 
 
 16. It is more than probable that the knowledge 
 of bronze was introduced into, not discovered in, 
 Europe. 
 
 1 . It is admitted by all that there was a period 
 when bronze was extensively used for arms and im- 
 plements. The great number of such objects which 
 are presei'ved in our museums places this beyond a 
 dovibt. 
 
 2. It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that 
 stone implements were entirely abandoned. Arrow- 
 heads and flates of flint are found abundantly in some 
 of those Swiss lake-villages which contain bronze. In 
 these cases, indeed, it may be argued, that the same 
 site had been occupied both before and after the 
 introduction of bronze. The evidence derived from 
 the examination of tumuli is, however, not open to 
 the same objection, and in these objects of bronze and 
 of stone are very frequently found together. Thus 
 I have shown, by an analysis of the investigations re- 
 corded by Mr. Bateman, that in three-fourths of the 
 tumuli containing bronze (29 out of 37) stone objects 
 also occurred. 
 
 3. Some o f the b ronze axes__app£ar _ ±Q Jae mere 
 copies of the stone ones. Such simple axes of iron 
 are still used in Central Africa, where no evidence 
 of a Bronze Age has yet been found, but in Europe 
 they are not met with. 
 
xxxii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 4. Many of the Swiss lake-villages belong to this 
 period. The Table B. (very kindly drawn up, at my 
 request, by Dr. Keller) places this beyond a doubt, 
 and gives a good idea of the objects in use during 
 the Bronze Age, and the state of civilisation during 
 that period. 
 
 5. The absence of metal, though the principal, is 
 by no means the only point which distinguishes the 
 Stone Age villages from those of the Bronze period. 
 If we compare Nidau, as a type of the last, with 
 Moosseedorf, as the best representative of the former, 
 we shall find that, while bones of wild animals pre- 
 ponderate in the one, those of tame ones are most 
 numerous in the latter. The vegetable remains point 
 also to the same conclusion. Even if we kncAV no- 
 thing about the want of metal in the older lake- 
 villages, we should still, says Professor Heer, be com- 
 pelled from botanical considerations to admit their 
 greater antiquity. 
 
 Moreover, so far as they have been examined, the 
 
 piles themselves teU the same tale. Those of the 
 
 Bronze Age settlements were evidently cut with 
 
 : metal ; those of the earlier villages with stone, or at 
 
 any rate with rude and blunt instruments. 
 
 6. The pottery was much better than that of the 
 earlier period. A great deal of it was still hand- 
 made, but some is said to show marks of the potter's 
 wheel. 
 
EDITOE'S INTRODUCTION. xxxiii 
 
 7. Gold, amber, and glass were used for orna* 
 mental purposes. 
 
 8. Silver, zinc, and lead, on the contrary, were 
 apparently unknown. 
 
 9. The same appears to have been the case with 
 iron. 
 
 10. Coins have never been found with bronze 
 arms. To this rule I only know of three apparent 
 exceptions. Not a single coin has been met with in 
 any of the Swiss lake-villages^_of this period. 
 
 11. The dress of this period no doubt still con- 
 sisted in great part of skins. Tissues of flax have 
 been found, however, in some of the lake-villages, 
 and a suit of woollen material (consisting of a cloak, 
 a shirt, two shawls, a pair of leggings, and two caps) 
 was found in a Danish tumulus which evidently 
 belonged to the Bronze Age; as it contained a sword, 
 a brooch, a knife, an awl, a pair of tweezers, and a 
 large stud, all of bronze, besides a small button of tin, 
 a javelin-head of flint, a bone comb, and a bark box. 
 
 We have independent evidence of the same fact in 
 the presence of spindle- whorls. 
 
 12. The ornamentation on the arms, implements, 
 and pottery is peculiar. It consists of geometrical 
 patterns — straight lines, circles, triangles, zigzags, &c. 
 Animals and vegetables are very rarely attempted, 
 and never -with success. 
 
 13. Another peculiarity of the bronze arms lies in 
 
 b 
 
xx-viv EDITOB'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the small size of the handles. The same observation 
 applies to the bracelets, &c. They could not be 
 used by the present inhabitants of Northern Europe, 
 
 14. No traces of writing have been met with in any 
 finds of the Bronze Age. There is not an inscription 
 on any of the arms or pottery found in the Swiss 
 lake-villages, and I only know one instance of a 
 bronze cutting instrument with letters on it. 
 
 15. The very existence of bronze appears to indi- 
 cate that of a considerable and extensive commerce, 
 inasmuch as there are only two places — namely, Corn- 
 wall and the Island of Banca — whence tin can have been 
 obtained in large quantities. There are, indeed, some 
 other places where it occurs, as, for instance. Spain, 
 Saxony, and Brittany, but only (now at least) in small 
 quantities, though possibly it may once have been 
 more abundant. The earliest source of tin was not, 
 I think, any one of those now known to us, but it is 
 probable that, for many centuries before our era, the 
 principal supply was derived from Cornwall. The 
 intercourse then existing between different parts of 
 Europe is also proved by the great, not to say com- 
 plete, similarity of the arms from very different parts 
 of Europe. 
 
 16. Finally, as copper must have been in use 
 before bronze, and as arms and implements of that 
 metal are almost unknown in Western Europe, it is 
 reasonable to conclude that the knowledge of bronze 
 was introduced into, not discovered in, Europe. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxxv 
 
 Two distinguished arch^ologists have recently ad- 
 vocated very different views as to the race by whom 
 these bronze weapons were made, or at least used. 
 Mr. Wright attributes them to the Romans, Pro- 
 fessor Nilsson to the Phoenicians. The first of these 
 theories I beheve to be utterly untenable. In ad- 
 dition to the facts already brought forward, there are 
 two which by themselves are^ 1 think, almost sufficient 
 to disprove the hypothesis. Firstly, the v/ord /e^Twm 
 was employed in Latin as a synonym for a sword, 
 which would scarcely have been the case if another 
 metal had been generally used for the purpose. 
 Secondly, the distribution of bronze weapons and 
 implements does not favour such a theory. The 
 Romans never entered Denmark ; it has been doubted 
 whether they ever landed in Ireland. Yet while 
 more than 350 bronze swords have been found in 
 Denmark, and a very large number in Ireland also,* 
 I have only been able to hear of one single bronze 
 sword in Italy. The rich museums at Florence, 
 Rome, and Naples do not appear to contain a single 
 specimen of those typical, leaf- shaped bronze swords, 
 which are, comparatively speaking, so common in 
 the North. That the bronze swords should have been 
 introduced into Denmark by a people who never 
 
 * The Museum at Dublin contains 282 swords and daggers : un- 
 luckily, the number of swords is not stated separately. 
 
 b2 
 
xxxvi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 occupied that country, and from a part of Europe in 
 which they are almost unknown, is, I think, a most 
 untenable hypothesis. It is doubtless true that a few 
 cases are on record in which bronze weapons are 
 said to have been, and very likely were, found in 
 association with Roman remains. Mr. Wright has 
 pointed out three, one of which however I cannot 
 admit. But, under any circumstances, we must ex- 
 pect to meet with some such cases. My only wonder 
 is that so few of them should exist. 
 
 As regards Professor Nilsson's theory, according to 
 which the Bronze Age objects are of Phoenician ori- 
 gin, I will only say, that the Phoenicians in historical 
 times were well acquainted with iron, and that their 
 favourite ornamentation was of a different character 
 from that of the Bronze Age. If, then. Professor 
 Nilsson be correct, the bronze weapons must belong 
 to an earlier period in Phoenician history than that 
 with which we are partially famihar. 
 
 It would now be natural that I should pass on to 
 the Iron Age ; but the transition period between the 
 two is illustrated by a discovery so remarkable that 
 I cannot pass it over altogether in silence. M. Earn- 
 sauer, for many years head of the salt-mines at 
 Hallstadt, near Salzburg, in Austria, has opened not 
 less than 980 graves in a country apparently belonging 
 to an ancient colony of miners. The results are 
 described and the objects figured in an album, of 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxxvii 
 
 which Mr. Evans and I have recently procured a 
 copy from M. Ramsauer himself. We hope soon to 
 make this remarkable find known in a more satis- 
 factory manner. For the moment, I will only extract 
 the main facts which are necessary to my present 
 argument. 
 
 That the period to which these graves belonged 
 was that of the transition between the Bronze and 
 Iron Ages, is evident, both because we find cutting 
 instruments of iron as well as of bronze, and also 
 because both are of somewhat unusual, and we may 
 almost say of intermediate, types. The same remark 
 applies to the ornamentation. Animals are frequently 
 represented, but are very poorly executed, while the 
 geometrical patterns are well drawn. Coins are entirely 
 absent. That the transition was from bronze to iron, 
 and not from iron to bronze, is clear; because here, 
 as elsewhere, while iron instruments with bronze 
 handles are common, there is not a single case of a 
 bronze blade with an iron handle. This shows that 
 when both metals were in use, the iron was pre- 
 ferred for blades. Another interesting point in the 
 Hallstadt Bronze is the absence of silver, lead, 
 and zinc (excepting, of course, as a mere impurity 
 in the bronze). This is the more remarkable, inas- 
 much as the presence, not only of the tin itself, 
 but also of glass, amber, and ivory, indicates the 
 existence of an extensive commerce. 
 
xxxviii EDIT(JR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Iron Age. 
 
 The Iron Age is the period when this metal was 
 first used for weapons and cutting instruments. 
 During this epoch we emerge into the broad, and in 
 many respects delusive, glare of history. 
 
 No one of course will deny that arms of iron were 
 in use by our ancestors at the time of the Eoman 
 invasion. Mr. Crawfurd considers them to be more 
 ancient than those of bronze, while Mr. Wright 
 maintains that the bronze weapons belong to the 
 Roman period. 
 
 I have already attempted to show, from the fre- 
 quent occurrence of iron blades with bronze handles, 
 and the entire absence of the reverse, that iron must 
 have succeeded and replaced bronze. Other argu- 
 ments might be adduced ; but it will be sufficient to 
 state broadly that which I think no experienced 
 archaeologist will deny — namely, that the objects 
 . which accompany bronze weapons are much more 
 archaic in character than those which are found with 
 weapons of iron. 
 
 That the bronze swords and daggers were not used 
 by the Romans in Cajsar's times, I ha,ve already at- 
 tempted to prove. That they were not used at that 
 period by the northern races, is distinctly stated in 
 history. I will, however, endeavour to make this 
 also evident on purely archteological grounds. We 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xxxix 
 
 have several important finds of this period, among 
 which I will specially call your attention to the lake- 
 village of La Tene, in the Lake of Neufch^tel. At 
 this place no flint implements (excepting flakes) have 
 occurred. Only fifteen objects of bronze have been 
 found, and only one of them was an axe. Moreover, 
 this was pierced for a handle, and belonged therefore 
 to a form rarely, if ever, occurring in finds of the 
 Bronze Age. On the other hand, the objects of iron 
 are numerous, and comprise fifty swords, twenty-three 
 lances, and five axes. Colds have also been met with 
 at this station, while they are entirely absent in those 
 of the Bronze Age. 
 
 The only other find of the Iron Age to which I will 
 now refer, is that of Nydam, recently described at 
 length by M. Engelhardt, in his excellent work on 
 ' Denmark in the Early Iron Age.' At this place 
 have been found an immense number of the most 
 diverse objects — clothes, brooches, tweezers, beads, 
 helmets, shields, coats of mail, buckles, harness, 
 boats, rakes, brooms, mallets, bows, vessels of wood 
 and pottery, 80 knives, 30 axes, 40 awls, 160 arrow- 
 heads, 180 swords, and nearly 600 lances. All these 
 weapons wei'e of iron, though bronze was freely used 
 for ornaments. That this find, as well as the very 
 similar one at Thorsbjerg in the same neighbourhood, 
 belonged to the Eoman period, is clearly proved by 
 the existence of numerous coins, belonging to the 
 
xl EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 first two ceiituL'ies after Christ, although not one has 
 occurred in any of the Bronze Age lake-villages, or in 
 the great find at Hallstadt. 
 
 It is quite clear, therefore, that neither bronze nor 
 stone weapons were in use in Northern Europe at the 
 commencement of our era. 
 
 A closer examination would much strengthen this 
 conclusion. For instance, at Thorsbjerg alone there 
 are seven inscriptions, either in Runes or Roman 
 characters; while, as I have already stated, letters 
 are quite unknoAvn, with one exception, on any object 
 of the Bronze Age, or in the great transition find at 
 Hallstadt. Again, the significance of the absence of 
 silver in the Hallstadt find is greatly increased when 
 we see that in the true Iron Age, as in the Nydam 
 and other similar finds, silver was used to ornament 
 shield-bosses, shield-rims, sandals, brooches, breast- 
 plates, sword-hilts, sword-sheaths, girdles, harness, 
 &c. ; and also for clasps, pendants, boxes, and twee- 
 zers, while in one case a helmet was made of this 
 comparatively rare material. 
 
 The pottery also shows much improvement, the 
 forms of the weapons are quite diff'erent, and the 
 character of the ornamentation is very unlike, and 
 much more advanced than that of the Bronze Age. 
 Moreover, the bronze used in the Iron Age differs 
 from that of the Bronze Age, in that it frequently 
 contains lead and zinc in considerable quantities. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. xli 
 
 These metals have never been found, excepting as 
 mere impurities, in the bronzes of the true Bronze 
 Age, nor even in those of Hallstadt. 
 
 These finds, moreover, clearly show that the inha- 
 bitants of Northern and Western Europe were by no 
 means such mere savages as we have been apt to 
 suppose. As far as our own ancestors are concerned, 
 this is rendered even more evident by the discoveries 
 of those ancient British coins which have been so well' 
 described and figured by Mr. John Evans.* 
 
 In conclusion, I would venture to suggest that 
 the Government should be urged to appoint a Royal 
 Conservator of National Antiquities. We cannot 
 put Stonehenge or the Wansdyke into a museum — 
 all the more reason why we should watch over them 
 where they are ; and even if the destruction of our 
 ancient monuments should, under any circumstances, 
 become necessary, careful drawings ought first to be 
 made, and their removal should take place under 
 proper superintendence. We are apt to blame the 
 Eastern peasants who use the grand old monuments 
 of Egypt or Assyria as mere stone-quarries, but we 
 forget that even in our own country, Avebury, the 
 most magnificent of Druidical remains, was almost 
 destroyed for the profit of a few pounds; while, 
 recently, the Jockey Club has mutilated the remain- 
 * The Coins of the Ancient Britons. 
 
xlii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ing portion of the Devil's Dyke on Newmarket Heath, 
 in order to make a bank for the exclusion of scouts 
 at trial races. In this case also, the saving, if any, 
 must have been very small ; and I am sure that no 
 society of English gentlemen would have sanctioned 
 such a proceeding, if they had given the subject a 
 moment's consideration. 
 
 In this short Introduction I have purposely avoided 
 all reference to history, all use of historical data, 
 because I have been particularly anxious to show 
 that in Archfeology we can arrive at definite and 
 satisfactory conclusions, on independent grounds, 
 without any assistance from history; consequently 
 regarding times before writing was invented, and 
 therefore before written history had commenced. 
 
 I have endeavoured to select only those arguments 
 
 which rest on well-authenticated facts. For my own 
 
 part, however, I care less about the results than the 
 
 method. For an infant science, as for a child, it is of 
 
 small importance to make rapid strides at first : and 
 
 I care comparatively little how far our present views 
 
 stand the test of further investigations, if only we are 
 
 satisfied that our method is one which mil eventually 
 
 lead us to the truth. 
 
 John Lubbock. 
 
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xliii 
 
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 83 = 
 
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 saxy 
 
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xliv 
 
 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 TABLE B. 
 
 Celts and fragments . . 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 67 
 
 Swords 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Hammers 
 
 4 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Knives and fragments . 
 
 10? 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 193 
 
 Hair-pins 
 
 611 
 
 53 
 
 239 
 
 183 
 
 237 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 1,367 
 
 Small Rings .... 
 
 496 
 
 28 
 
 115 
 
 195 
 
 202 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 1,053 
 
 Earrings 
 
 238 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 116 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 440 
 
 Bracelets and fragments 
 
 55 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 145 
 
 Fishhooks 
 
 109 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 71 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 247 
 
 Awls 
 
 95 
 
 3 
 
 49 
 
 98 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 262 
 
 Spiral wires .... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 Lance-heads .... 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 Arrow-heads .... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Buttons 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Needles 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 Various ornaments . . 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 49 
 
 Saws 
 
 ... 
 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Daggers 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Sickles 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 Double-pointed pins . . 
 
 75 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 Small bracelets . . . 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Sundries 
 
 96 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 ... 
 
 
 4 
 
 124 
 
 Total .... 
 
 2,004 
 
 208 
 
 617 
 
 835 
 
 539 
 
 73 
 
 69 
 
 4,345 
 
EDITOE'S INTKODUCTEON. 
 
 xlv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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PEETACE. 
 
 In placing this essay* before an enlightened Public, 
 I feel it to be incumbent on myself to explain briefly 
 the cause which led to its production, and to the form 
 which it has now assumed. 
 
 Besides the study of Zoology, that of Antiquities 
 has from my youth ever been my favourite occupa- 
 tion ; and whilst engaged in collecting materials for my 
 'Scandinavian Fauna,' during frequent visits to almost 
 all parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula, even to within 
 the Polar Circle, I have sought to collect objects illus- 
 trative of Scandinavian Archaeology. 
 
 After having, for a period of twenty-two years, 
 been Professor of Zoology at the University of Lund, 
 I published my first work, ' Essay on the History 
 of Sporting and Hunting in Scandinavia ' ( ' Utkast 
 till Jagtens och Fiskets Historia pi Scandinavien,' 
 Lund, 1834),f in which I introduced, from the few 
 
 * Already in the preface to the first edition in 1838 I have 
 explained that by primitive inhabitants I understand not only the 
 first inhabitants, but all who lived in the country anterior to the 
 period of history — consequently the prehistoric people of Scandi- 
 navia, of one or more tribes. 
 
 f Shortly before this time, Mr. Thomsen in Copenhagen had 
 inserted in Nordisk Tidshrift for Oldhyndighet a treatise, Om 
 Nordisha Oldsager af Sten, of which I did not become cognisant until 
 my essay had already been consigned to the printer and put into type. 
 
xlviii PREFACE. 
 
 materials I had then at hand, the comparative me- 
 thod of instruction, which, under the guidance of the 
 illustrious Baron Cuvier, had been adopted in works 
 on Zoology. 
 
 My first attempt having been favourably received 
 by several eminent scientific men, I felt it to be my 
 duty to continue in the path on which I had entered. 
 But to be able to do this with any hopes of ultimate 
 success, I found that it would be necessary to visit 
 those foreign museums in which were preserved a 
 great number of such implements and weapons as are 
 still used at the present time by people who live in 
 so low a degree of civilisation that they are even yet 
 ignorant of the use of metals, but have for imple- 
 ments and weapons only stone, bone, and other hard 
 substances, suitable for the purpose. I therefore 
 undertook, in 1836, a long journey through Copen- 
 hagen and Hamburg to London, Bristol, and Paris, 
 where were already to be found the richest collec- 
 tions of the kind which I wished to inspect — these 
 collections being thrown open to me with the 
 greatest courtesy and liberality. I also examined 
 several private collections in various other places. 
 
 On my return to Sweden, I arranged the pre- 
 liminaries for publishing this work, which was 
 entitled ' Skandinaviska Nordens Urinvanare' (The 
 Primitive Inhabitants of the Scandinavian North), 
 the first number of which was issued in 1838, the 
 fourth and last in 1843.* 
 
 * Already in the preface to the first number, I called attention to 
 the circumstance, that by this title were understood all the pre- 
 historic inhabitants of Scandinavia. 
 
PREFACE. xlix 
 
 Besides the foreign, I had already visited all the 
 collections, both public and private, belonging to the 
 capitals and universities of the peninsula — Stockholm, 
 Upsala, Christiania, Bergen, Lund, &c., with several 
 in the possession of antiquaries in the country ; and 
 I had then brought together a very considerable 
 private collection of antiquities. 
 
 Even this my first attempt was for the most part 
 favourably received, and, without my knowledge, 
 translated into German by Hr. Masch, who had in- 
 tended to pubHsh it, had he not been requested by me 
 to postpone its publication, until, as I hoped, a new 
 edition would be ready. Hr. Masch died shortly 
 afterwards, having made a donation of the translation 
 to the library of the Museum at Schwerin, where it 
 was first noticed by Pi'ofessor Morlot, by whom seve- 
 ral extracts from it were published. 
 
 Although, as above stated, this first edition was 
 favourably received by most readers, some few 
 voices wei'e raised against my assertion that the in- 
 habitants of the country were from the beginning 
 savages,* and that the very first belonged to the 
 same race as the Laplanders of the present time ; 
 my endeavour to interpret from historical sources 
 the origin of the names Dwarfs, Giants {Jotnar), 
 Elves, &c., which occur in ancient tales, as being 
 people of different races, also met with considerable 
 opposition. 
 
 * This occurred already in my first essay in 1834, in which 
 mention was expressly made of the savages' hunting in Scandinavia. 
 I then also endeavoured to show that our antiquities of stone, &c., 
 were not exclusively weapons of war, as formerly believed, but 
 principally implements for domestic purposes. 
 
1 PREFACE. 
 
 In this work our most ancient antiquities were foi 
 the first time compared piece by piece with those 
 of existing savages. Several forms were there de 
 scribed for the first time which here in the North 
 had not previously been noticed, or had been erro- 
 neously explained ; for instance, the angling-plummet, 
 which was formerly called a sling-stone, whilst at the 
 same time sketches were given of the real sling- 
 stone, which until then was unknown ; harpoons and 
 fishing-forks of various shapes were also sketched; 
 hoes of stone and elk-horn were exhibited; and a 
 long series of tools with which the stone implements 
 were fabricated, and which I have called hammer- 
 stones, or fashioning stones, were likewise for the 
 first time exhibited. 
 
 I may here call the reader's attention to the simi- 
 larity, or rather identity, not only of the simpler im- 
 plements of stone and bone which occur amongst very 
 distant nations in the Old and New World (see PI. V. 
 figs. 99-103; 109-111; 106-108), but also between 
 instruments more or less complicated. I may also re- 
 mark, that people in the same phase of civilisation are 
 in their natural disposition very much alike ; that the 
 savage hates the colonist, and amongst the rude races 
 themselves, those more favoured by nature pursue 
 and endeavour to extirpate those who are, in a phy- 
 sical and intellectual point of view, their inferiors. 
 This appears to be a universal law of nature. 
 
 Certainly no country possesses so many ancient and 
 marvellous tales as Scandinavia. The cause of this 
 
PREFACE, li 
 
 may lie in the long winter evenings, when story-telling 
 about past times was the most cherished occupation 
 of the people, who, dwelling in the thick and gloom}' 
 forests, filled their minds with, mystic images. How 
 marvellous are the tales which originate with rude 
 nations we have endeavoured to show on page 208, 
 and we may thus find the key to those of our own 
 country. In the Eddas, the popular tales being 
 poetised, we do not by them become acquainted with 
 our pagan times ; but by the reports of the first 
 Chiistian missionaries who appeared here, by the cruel 
 proceedings of the corsairs (vikings), and perhaps 
 by the conduct of the Erules. 
 
 I have not ventured to divide the productions of 
 the Stone Period into two classes, according to their 
 age, because I have not found any unvaried lines of 
 demarcation (as, for example, in the divisions of plants 
 and animals) which enable me, at the inspection of 
 each object, to determine to which division it ought 
 to belong. I have, on the other hand, divided them 
 according to shape and applicability, because I have 
 found polished, unpolished, and rough-hewn stones 
 together. I will, however, not deny that such arti- 
 cles of flint, which by some antiquaries are called 
 coast-finds^ and which are also to be seen with us in 
 several places in Scania on the coast of the Baltic, 
 are older than those lying in the tumuli. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock, in his 'Prehistoric Times,' 
 pages 1 and 2, has divided prehistoric archaeology 
 into four different epochs, of which the first two 
 are reckoned to the Stone Period, and of these the 
 
lii PREFACE. 
 
 first to the Palaeolitic Period, or, as it is called by- 
 English geologists, the drift, when man in Europe 
 lived together with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the 
 woollen-clad rhinoceros, &c. 
 
 The second, the Neohthic Period, or the age of 
 polished stones. To this belong the Megalithic graves, 
 and to the older part of it the author refers also the 
 kjokkenmoddings of Denmark (page 96). 
 
 T had intended to insert here the ' Bidrag till den 
 Svenska fornforskningens Historia under de sistfov' 
 flutna nagra och trettio Sren,'* which is inserted in the 
 preface to the former edition, chiefly as a counter- 
 part to Mr. Hindenburg's ' Bidrag til den Danske 
 Archa3ologies Historic,' which is inserted in the 
 ' Dansk Maanadsskrift,' 1859, page 149, and to show 
 what share the antiquaries on each side of the Sound 
 have had in bringino; the science of northern anti- 
 quities to its present state ; but want of space com- 
 pels me to defer doing so for the present; perhaps 
 until publishing tlie next volume of the present 
 work. 
 
 I have, on the other hand, taken the liberty to 
 make a few remarks, more especially intended for 
 those who are not j^rofessed antiquaries. These 
 remarks contain a few rules, which I, for my part, 
 will endeavour to follow when commenting on the 
 works of other ethnographic authors, and which I am 
 desirous others may follow when commenting on 
 
 * Appendix to the History of Stvedish Antirpiifies during some 
 Thirty Years past. 
 
PREFACE. liii 
 
 mine ; and I am the more anxious that these rules 
 may be adopted, as the main object of every critical 
 work should be that of eliciting truth. 
 
 Firstly. When my conviction leads me to reject 
 the opinion expressed by another author on a certain 
 subject, I think it my duty to state the reasons for 
 my rejection, and to explain the view which, on a 
 full consideration of all the circumstances, I consider 
 to be the correct one. 
 
 Secondly. When I wish to refute the opinion ex- 
 pressed by another, it is my duty to enumerate all 
 the proofs he has adduced to confirm it. 
 
 Thirdly. As witnesses throwing light upon ancient 
 times I count not only antiquities, monuments, their 
 different shapes, and the figures engraved upon them, 
 but also popular tales, which most frequently origi- 
 nate from traditions, and are therefore remnants of 
 olden times. 
 
 Fourthly. When a vicious or evil spirit is men- 
 tioned in any tale or popular tradition, I consider 
 it always implies a reminiscence of some being who 
 formerly, during the supremacy of a religion now 
 rejected, was worshipped as a god. He is considered 
 to benefit his worshippers, but to molest those that 
 hold another religious belief. Mankind, when in a 
 rude state, often attribute their own intolerance to 
 their gods. Thvis man creates his own god after his 
 own image. 
 
 Fifthly. The comparative method ought always to 
 be used; but similarities such as the presence of 
 similar stone arrows in Scania and in Tierra del 
 
liv PREFACE. 
 
 Fuego, do not always prove one and the same origin. 
 A sound judgment is required to draw a certain con- 
 clusion from the facts, and this can be acquired for 
 each separate science by long experience alone. 
 
 Sixthly, Should the enquirer wish to discover 
 whence a certain period of culture is derived, whether 
 it was originally indigenous or introduced, he must 
 make it clear to himself how it appeared in its first 
 state, and what changes it assumed whilst pro- 
 gressing. For instance, if we wish to examine the 
 origin of the Bronze Age, we must first clearly 
 understand which form of bronze sAvord is the 
 oldest ; whether it be the handsomest and best fabri- 
 cated, with elegant shapes and beautiful ornaments 
 (double spirals), and of which the sword-hilts are in- 
 variably short, or those less artistically manufactured, 
 with long hilts, and either plain or with ornaments 
 entirely diflFerent from those of the former. I may 
 be allowed to request all who may wish to determine 
 the origin of the Bronze Period in Northern and 
 Western Europe carefully to consider this point. If 
 the former prove to be the oldest, and that culture 
 was at its height when it first made its appearance 
 here amongst a people who, until then, had no other 
 implements and weapons than those of stone, and 
 that it deteriorated by degrees, then it appears suffi- 
 ciently evident that it was introduced. 
 
 \Vith regard to my ethnographical essays, I am 
 certainly desirous that they should be submitted to 
 a just and fair criticism. Whatever, after a strict ex- 
 amination, may be found erroneous, I shall cheerfully 
 
PREFACE. It 
 
 abandon; having at any rate the satisfaction of 
 feehng that I have given to men more learned than 
 myself the clue to works of greater' research and 
 profundity than my own. 
 
 SVEN NTLSSON. 
 
 Stockholm : July 1867. 
 
INTEODUCTION.^ 
 
 In the present volume I have endeavoured, by a 
 new method, to gain a knowledge of the first inhabi- 
 tants of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and thus to con- 
 tribute in some measure to the history of the gradual 
 development of mankind. I feel more and more con- 
 vinced, that as in nature we are unable rightly to 
 conceive the importance of individual objects without 
 possessing a distinct view of nature, considered as a 
 whole, so are we also unable properly to understand 
 the signification of the antiquities of any indi^ddual 
 country without at the same time clearly realising 
 the idea that they are the fragments of a progressive 
 series of civilisation, and that the human race has 
 always been, and still is, steadily advancing in 
 civilisation. To this conviction we are brought by 
 experience, as well as by the analogy of the other 
 natural sciences. Geology, namely, teaches us that 
 organic nature on our earth has only progressed 
 gradually, and by a slow development, during succes- 
 sive ages, and that nature's first-born living children 
 were the lowest and most imperfect organisms, gra- 
 
 * It is to be remembered that this was written for the first 
 edition, 1843. 
 
Ivjii INTRODUOTION. 
 
 dually succeeded by beings more and more cultivated, 
 until we come to the last, which are the most perfect 
 with whicli we are acquainted. Physiology teaches 
 us that every individual organism, including man, 
 continues to develope gradually under our very eyes 
 in the same manner as the whole of organic nature, 
 from the very lowest to the highest condition which 
 nature has destined it to reach. 
 
 The development which is here referred to is ap- 
 parently merely corporeal and material, whereas the 
 development of the human race is spiritual and intel- 
 lectual; but we ought to remember, that the cor- 
 poreal is not the operative or essential, but the 
 immaterial, concealed under it, whereof the material 
 is merely the veil, visible to our outward senses. AH 
 progressive development in nature is, therefore, in 
 reality the development of the immaterial, of the 
 spirit, of the intellect, although its material veil, its 
 shell only, is palpable to our eyes. 
 
 If we contemplate the subject from this point of 
 view, we shall doubtless arrive at the conclusion, 
 that, just as the whole of organic nature has unfolded 
 itself from that period in creation of which the earliest 
 productions are preserved in the transition rocks, 
 until the present organic period of the world, and 
 just as every human individual gradually developes 
 both corporeally and psychologically, from his first 
 most imperfect state until his maturity, so is also the 
 whole human race, notwithstanding apparent or par- 
 tial retrogression, constantly undergoing a gradual and 
 progressive development. Of this even history con- 
 
INTRODUCTTOX. lix 
 
 vinces us, by showing that nations originally rude and 
 barbarous have by degrees progressed to a higher 
 civilisation and more true humanity. It is true that 
 history occasionally seems to give evidence of a 
 contrary result, by informing us that nations, which 
 formerly occupied a higher stage of civilisation than 
 others, have since sunk back into a ruder condition. 
 But we may be assured that the degree of civilisation 
 which a nation has once reached can never perish, 
 but diffuses itself amongst others and becomes the 
 property of mankind in general, although its first 
 organs have decayed. It is seed sown in another and 
 richer soil, since the first no longer brings forth sound 
 and good fruit. Nations spring into existence, and, 
 in their turn, decline and fall; but civilisation and 
 humanity are steadily progressing, spreading them- 
 selves more and more, and will one day be dissemi- 
 nated over every spot inhabited by man. 
 
 In this light I have contemplated, and shall endea- 
 vour to work out, the subject which I have in view. 
 
 I have imagined, in order to investigate the history 
 of the development of the human race, that one ought 
 to search for the earliest traces of man's first ap- 
 pearance in every country; to follow these in order 
 to see whither they lead, and carefully to distinguish 
 from them the more recent footprints which may be 
 found in the same land ; thus we shall be able to 
 discover by degrees the migrations of the different 
 races in early times, and the progressive march of 
 civilisation through the world. But I have also 
 imagined that a knowledge of the primeval state of 
 
Ix IXTHODUOTIOX, 
 
 mankind or of its individual races, could not be 
 gained by the general road of history, because the 
 history of each nation does not begin to write its 
 annals until the civilisation of that nation has reached 
 a high point of development. All which lies behind 
 that period is traditional and enveloped in obscurity. 
 But even tradition could not have sprung into life 
 until the first rude wants were satisfied, and until the 
 scattered individuals had long constituted a united 
 nation and had come into hostile collision with others. 
 We cannot, therefore, expect to gain, either from 
 history or even from tradition, any knowledge of the 
 savage race which originally and alone appeared ia 
 any country. 
 
 Still, it may perhaps not be impossible to extend 
 our researches concerning the human race farther 
 back than the time to which either history or tra- 
 dition throw their light. If natural philosophy has 
 been able to seek out in the earth and to discover the 
 fragments of an animal kingdom, which perished long 
 before man's appearance in the world, and, by com- 
 paring the same with existing organisms, to place 
 them before us almost in a living state, then also 
 ought this science to be able, by availing itself of 
 the same comparative method, to collect the remains 
 of human races long since passed away, and of the 
 works which they have left behind, to draw a parallel 
 between them and similar ones, which still exist on 
 earth, and thus cut out a way to tlie knowledge of 
 circumstances which have been, by comparing them 
 with those which still exist. It is by following this 
 
INTKODUCTIOX. Iri 
 
 method that we shall begin to investigate this subject, 
 during which, however, we have at our command 
 more elements for comparison than the geologist; we 
 have not only skeletons and skulls,* but also imple- 
 ments, weapons, buildings, &c., all of which we shall 
 compare with similar objects still existing and still 
 in use. Farther on in our researches tradition and 
 superstition meet us ; the latter a religious tradition, 
 although, like profane tradition, it has often forgotten 
 its real signification. We shall avail ourselves of all 
 these elements as means for facilitating our researches 
 in order to reach the goal to which we aspire, namely, 
 to contribute to the history of the intellectual and 
 social development of the human race. 
 
 But although we may confidently hope, provided 
 continual researches are instituted in many countries, 
 to penetrate by this I'oad far back into the earliest 
 history of the human race, still we can never obtain 
 any knowledge of the first origin of our race. Thus 
 far science can never penetrate. It is in this respect 
 the same with the whole race as with the individual ; 
 no mortal knows how life was kindled. Nature has 
 thrown a veil over this mystery, which mortal eye 
 cannot pierce. Natural philosophy cannot show us 
 how laan was created. If any philosopher should 
 attempt to solve this problem, the answer would be 
 mere guesswork, and could not be the result of re- 
 searches made in the realms of nature. The natural 
 
 * Hitherto these have unfortunately not been preserved as often 
 as might and ought to have been the case. 
 
Ixii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 philosopher, as such, cannot, as a result of his investi- 
 gations, even answer this question, whether only one 
 couple, man and woman, was created in the beginaiag, 
 or whether at the Almighty's command thousands 
 sprang into life at one and the same time; whether 
 this took place only on one spot of the earth, and at 
 one and the same moment, or whether the life-giving 
 rays of the Creator's sun fell upon the dust in different 
 places and at different periods of time: concernino' 
 all this the philosopher can only tell us what; to him 
 appears to be most probable. But he can no doubt 
 see, that according to the idea which he generally 
 attaches to the word species^ the whole human race, 
 from pole to pole, constitutes one and the same 
 species, however much it may be divided into dis- 
 tinct (so-called) races, differing more or less both 
 physically and intellectually, both in outward form, 
 and in natural disposition. 
 
 Tlie first origin of the human race cannot therefore 
 become the subject of our investigations. These 
 cannot go farther back than to the period when man 
 was already scattered over the earth, and only from 
 this period can we trace and follow his gradual 
 development up to the present day. 
 
 This gradual development of the human race can 
 be perhaps most clearly represented under the image 
 of an iudividual in his childhood, his youth, his 
 manhood, and his old age. ]\Iankind appears, then, 
 before our imagination first as a child^ with child- 
 hood's lovely innocence, but in its budding develop- 
 
IXTRODUCTIOX. Ixiii 
 
 ment, also with childhood's guileless tricks ; * then as a 
 youth, with the spirit of liberty, generosity, and frank 
 open honesty of juvenile years, but also with their 
 thoughtless rashness; then as a man, with courage to 
 defend his own right and that of others, and to 
 execute with zeal and energy the plans which he has 
 formed for his sphere of activity ; and lastly, as the 
 old man, more and more regulating his occupations, 
 cautiously weighing and calculating his enterprises, 
 
 * Should this view be correct, the natural philosopher may 
 imagine that there existed a period when the whole human race, as 
 well as the individual, possessed no articulate language,' and that a 
 language was created only gradually, as in the case of children ; in the 
 beginning partly by interjections and partly by imitating the sounds 
 of the animals or objects which they wanted to denote. It may 
 perhaps be advanced, in confirmation of this supposition, that the 
 oldest languages are those poorest in words, employing one and the 
 same word to denote a number of various objects, and languages 
 have evidently arisen in the same manner as when a child begins to 
 form itself a language, by trying to find sounds or words for its 
 feelings and ideas. The child calls the dog Bow-tvou; the sheep 
 Baa-baa, the cow Boo, and so on. In Greek, the sheep is called 
 Bd (ka), the cow Bu (z), and so on. There is in every language a 
 smaller or greater number of words which imitate sounds (.so-called 
 nomina onomatopoieiica) , which seem to show how a language has 
 sprung up. That such words constitute only a fraction of the whole 
 stock of words in a language, does not refute this supposition, be- 
 cause the only question there is, how a language has been created, and 
 here, as in every other case, the beginning is the most difficult part. 
 
 But be this as it may, at all events it is absurd to suppose that 
 the first language was poetry. I must emphatically dispute such 
 fantastic opinions, and shall endeavour in the course of this wor^ 
 to prove their absurdity. 
 
 ' I now find the same idea expressed already by Diodorus Sieiilus, lib. i. 
 cap. 8, 3. ' Voce autem ad hue confusa et nihil signiflcante pedetentim verba 
 articnlata pronuntiando, et signis unqnamque rem subjectam notando elocu- 
 tionem tandem rerum omnium sibi notam foeemnt.' 
 
Ixiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tmd carefully managing his property. In how far 
 these traits of the various stages of development of 
 the individual can be applied to the whole human 
 race, we shall see in the following disquisition. 
 
 The earliest tribes, of which we find traces in every 
 country, show by what they have left behind, as far 
 as we have been able to discover hitherto, that they 
 have belonged to a race of beings standing on the very 
 lowest point of civilisation : mountain grottoes, sub- 
 terranean caves, or stone caverns, their dwellings; 
 rough-hewn stone-flakes, their hunting and fishing 
 implements ; no domesticated animals except the dog ; 
 no cattle, no agi-iculture, no written' language. Be- 
 tween this, the lowest state in which we can imagine 
 human beings, and the most cultivated state of society 
 Avhich they are able to attain, there are many inter- 
 mediate degrees or stages of development. 
 
 Every nation has had, or has, four stages to pass 
 through, before attaining its highest social develop- 
 ment. It shows itself either as savage, as nomad, as 
 agriculturist, or as possessing a written language and 
 coined money, and labour distributed amongst the 
 various members of society. 
 
 1. The savage has few other than material wants, 
 and these he endeavours to satisfy only for the mo- 
 ment. To appease hunger for the day ; when requi- 
 site, to protect his body against heat or cold; to 
 prepare his lair for the night ; to follow the instinct of 
 propagation, and instinctively to guard and tend his 
 offspring — this constitutes all his care, all his enjoy- 
 ment. He thinks and acts only for the day which 
 
INTRODUCTION. Ixv 
 
 is, not foi' the day which is coming. In this state 
 man is necessarily a hunter and fisherman, especially 
 in zones where fruits and berries are scarce, or totally 
 wanting during the greater part of the year. The 
 savage has, therefore, no other alternative; he is 
 compelled to fish and to hunt, or he must perish. In 
 moments of necessity man has ample resources within 
 himself; the savage finds everywhere materials for 
 implements of fishing and the chase, and necessity 
 teaches him how to fabricate and employ them. The 
 earliest hunting implements of stone in every coun- 
 try are synchronous with the first appearance of the 
 savage there, since he required at once the flesh of 
 wild animals for food, their skin for clothing, and 
 water for drinking. Even amongst the savages, also, 
 we find traces of religion. Experience gradually 
 awakens reflection; hunger is a troublesome guest, 
 but is sure to call, when for a day or two the savage 
 has not succeeded in killing any game. The prudent 
 thought then suggests itself to him of saving a portion 
 of the abundance of the day, and still more, that of 
 carrying away the young calf or fawn, whose mother 
 he has perhaps killed in the chase ; and collecting 
 several more of them, and forming at last a herd, he 
 becomes 
 
 2. A herdsman (nomad), subsisting chiefly on the 
 produce of his herds; the flesh of domestic animals 
 his food, milk his beverage, skins his clothes. The 
 chase and fishing, formerly his chief, now become his 
 occasional occupations. There are various kinds of 
 nomads ; some of them have fixed habitations during 
 
 d 
 
Uvi INTKODUOTION. 
 
 all seasons, grazing their herds in the fields and in the 
 neighbouring forests; others have fixed habitations 
 only in the winter, migrating in summer with their 
 tents fi'om place to place ; others, again, have no fixed 
 habitations, roving about continually with their herds, 
 living in movable huts or sheds on wheels, drawn by 
 cattle, or in tents stretched on poles, and carried on 
 the back of their cattle during their wanderings. 
 When the grass-fodder begins to fail in one locaUty, 
 the nomad breaks up his encampment, and drives his 
 herds to others. There are no boundaries of posses- 
 sion ; property is restricted to tents and herds. 
 Distant excursions are undertaken, frequently also 
 forays: the nomad is more ready to attack than to 
 sufi"er himself to be attacked.* livery family forms 
 itself into a separate horde, in which the oldest 
 member (the father of the family) is the chieftain or 
 head ; the government is patriarchal. Then come tra- 
 dition and legend; the art of poesy springs into life; 
 nomadic life is the element of poetry ; the nomad is 
 the youth of the human race. The first traces of 
 science appear — leechcraffc, botany, astronomy (?);t 
 
 * It is evident tliat tlie first nomads retained their weapons and 
 implements of stone, because it is not very probable that the 
 smelting and forging of metals can have originated amongst herds- 
 men. Native copper, however, can be used by the nomad as well 
 as by the savage. But certain it is, that the nomads which are 
 surrounded at a nearer or greater distance by more cultivated tribes 
 procure from them, by barter or by pillage, both weapons and other 
 implements. 
 
 \ Tlius the Chalda^an herdsmen, who in the night tended tlieir 
 flocks on large open plains, invented astronomy by observing the 
 motions of the stars. 
 
INTJRODUCTION. Ixvii 
 
 but there is as yet no written language,* no coined 
 money ; trade is nothing but barter. 
 
 At last he tires of his wandering life (or, rather, 
 he is obliged to give it up, since the locality has 
 become too small for the increasing population with 
 its flocks) ; he builds sheds for his cattle, and lays up 
 stores of fodder in barns ; he burns a tract of forest- 
 land, and sows corn in the ashes. His first field is 
 a place where the trees are felled^ a clearing in the 
 forest, and his first plough a hoe. Thus the nomad 
 gradually becomes 
 
 3. An agriculturist^ and takes a more stable social 
 position. The movable tent gives place to a perma- 
 nently fixed dwelling; the tilled cornfields yield a 
 richer harvest the more they are cultivated ; the 
 forests surrounding his home give him fuel and 
 building-materials ; the fields provide him with grass 
 and winter fodder for his cattle, and even the waters 
 yield him their tribute. The owner cultivates and 
 guards his territory ; he has devoted all his care and 
 labour to it, it is his own^ he will and he ought to 
 
 * It appears to me probable, nevertheless, that letters may liave 
 been invented by some tribe in this condition, as the owner's mark 
 npon cattle or upon tents. In the Hebrew alphabet the figure of 
 the first letter is taken from the ox, of the second from the house (or 
 perhaps the movable tent), of the third from the camel, which latter 
 seems to imply nomad life, or perhaps is a Phoenician mercantile 
 caravan custom. But the thorough dissimilarity of the alphabets 
 proves undeniably that they were invented by different tribes, 
 which had no intercommunication whatever. In Scandinavia, where 
 the first letters, no doubt, were runes, they seem to have originated 
 only amongst the agriculturists. Neither in the Stone Age nor in 
 the Bronze Age do we find a written language here in the North. 
 
 d 2 
 
Ixviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 possess it for himself and for his descendants. Other 
 agriculturists settle in his neighbourhood ; each builds 
 his own dwelling-house, tills his own ground, and 
 appropriates to himself the territory which he requires; 
 territories are laid out, landmarks between properties 
 are set up ; the right of possession becomes more de- 
 lined, and comprises also the landed territory. The 
 patriarchal life ceases ; every landowner becomes a 
 ' man for himself.' In order to mark his property, 
 the owner of every fixed dwelling chooses his own 
 private mark^ his bomarke, which is the beginning of 
 a written language.* Thus, the first written letter 
 (whether we suppose it to have been invented by the 
 nomad, or by the agriculturist) became a sign of 
 right of possession,! and probably the first written 
 line was an agreement between neighbours relating 
 to mine and thine, consequently a contract — the first 
 step towards a future law in a more settled state of 
 society. 
 
 A man's cornfield and pasture-ground, his forest, 
 his mine, his lakes and rivers, supply most of his 
 
 * At the late Assessor SilfverstrSle's, in Stockholm, I saw, ten or 
 twelve years ago, a large folio, in which, during the time when he 
 presided as judge in the courts, if I recollect rightly, of the province 
 of Gestrikland, he had collected bomarken belonging to the various 
 farms in the province, which bomarken, or marks, the respective 
 farmers or peasants affixed, by way of signature, to public and other 
 documents. Some of these marks had a greater or less resem- 
 blance to runes. Kesearches in this direction might perhaps lead 
 to a more intimate knowledge of the invention of an alphabet m 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 •f Every letter was in the beginning a hieroglyph, signifying a 
 v/hole word, in the Hebraic as well as in the Runic alphabet. 
 
INTEODUCTION. Ixix 
 
 wants; not indeed all, but, on the other hand, some 
 in superfluity. These superfluous things, then, can 
 be exchanged by barter, and bis other needs thereby 
 be supplied; but his personal presence on his pro- 
 perty is constantly required; the original trade by 
 barter thus becomes inconvenient, perbaps impos- 
 sible ; some article which finds a demand everywhere, 
 and which within a small compass contains a large 
 value, is made the means of exchanging all kinds of 
 commodities — ^in other words, it becomes money. At 
 first it derives its value from its weight, but this ar- 
 rangement has its attendant inconveniences; these 
 are obviated when a piece of this article, of a fixed 
 ^^'eight and standard, with its value stamped thereon, 
 becomes coined money. With this and with the 
 written language the agriculturist enters upon 
 
 4. The fourth stage of civilisation, in a still better 
 organised state of society, where labour is divided 
 amongst its various members. Different professions 
 (sometimes ranks so called) arise. Some men occupy 
 themselves in tilling the ground, working the mines, 
 managing the flocks, &c.; others sell superfluities, and 
 procure what is wanting by means of barter or trade 
 with other communities and districts ; others, again, 
 defend the property of the community against foreign 
 and domestic foes; and, lastly, others promote intel- 
 ligence, education, and the cultivation of the mind, 
 and a governor or chief is elected to watch over the 
 whole, and to secure and guarantee the rights of all. 
 Thus the nation is enabled, through the organisation 
 of society, to fulfil more and more completely its 
 
Ixx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 allotted mission — to attain the highest degree of 
 culture and the highest stage of civilisation . 
 
 I have deemed it incumbent upon me to draw this 
 little sketch, in order to give a short review of the 
 course of development, which I believe mankind in 
 general to have passed through from its first dissemi- 
 nation over the globe up to the present time. Fre- 
 quently the so-called savage state — the childhood of 
 the human race — is overlooked; one begins with the 
 poetical stage of development — the youthful age of 
 the human race — whereby, according to my opinion, 
 many erroneous ideas have unavoidably been enter- 
 tained, and the full unravelling of this subject, so 
 important to the history of the development of the 
 human race, has been long delayed. 
 
 In the present work I shall, as far as I may he 
 able, endeavour to delineate the first two of the 
 above-mentioned stages. 
 
 Whatever errors may be found in this work — and 
 it seems impossible to avoid such in a book of this 
 nature — I hope the courteous reader will mildly judge, 
 and, with his greater knowledge, set right : through 
 such corrections, even my very mistakes will be made 
 to tend to the further development of the subject. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IMPLEMENTS OF SAVAGE NATIONS AND 
 THE ANTIQUITIES OF STONE AND OF BONE FOUND IN SCAN- 
 DINAVIA ....... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RETROSPECT OF THE WHOLE COLLECTION, AND AN ATTEMPT TO 
 
 DRAW FROM IT A POSITIVE RESULT - . . .92 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ANCIENT CRANIA FOUND IN SCANDI- 
 NAVIA AND THOSE BELONGING TO THE RACES NOW LIVING 
 THERE ....... 106 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS BELONGING TO THE STONE AGE — COM- 
 PARISON BETWEEN THESE AND THE DWELLING-HOUSES OF THE 
 ESQUIMAUX . . . . . .124 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ABORIGINES MADE USE OF THEIR 
 
 WEAPONS IN THE CHASE AND IN WAR . . .169 
 
Ixxii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE STONE AGE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS THE SODIiCE OF TRADI- 
 TION DWARFS, GIANTS, GOBLINS, ETC., WERE ORIGINALLY 
 
 PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES AND RELIGION . .191 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE PROBABLE CONDITION OF SCANDINAVIA AT THE ARRIVAL 
 
 OF THE FIRST PEOPLE ..... 244 
 
 NOTES BY THE EDITOR . . . . .261 
 
 INDEX . . . . . . . 265 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE T. 
 
 / 1. Stone Hammer, found in Scania. 
 
 ' 2. Stone Hammer, from Green- 
 land, in the Copenhagen Mu- 
 seum. 
 
 3. Stone Hammer, from the Dela- 
 
 ware river, belonging to M. 
 Thomsen. 
 
 4. Stone Hammer. Sweden. 
 
 5. Bitto ditto. 
 
 6. Stone Hammer, found in the 
 
 Kranke Lake, Scania. 
 
 7. Stone Harsimer. 
 
 8. Stone Hammer, with a groove 
 
 for string, &c. 
 
 9. Stone Hammer, with the same. 
 
 10. Ditto ditto. 
 
 11. Stone Hammer, found in a peat 
 
 bog in Scania. 
 
 12. Perforated stone Hammer. 
 
 13. Stone Hammer, from Perigord, 
 
 presented by MM. Christy 
 and Lartet to the Academy 
 of Sciences at Stockholm. 
 
 14. Stone Hammer. Sweden. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 15. Whetstone. 
 
 16. Ditto. 
 
 17. Boulder, probably used as a 
 
 Whetstone. 
 
 18. Probably a Whetstone. 
 
 19. Ditto. 
 
 20. Ditto. 
 
 21. Whetstone for needles, sent 
 
 from Greenland to the Anti- 
 quarian Museum at Copen- 
 hagen. 
 
 22. Ditto ditto. 
 
 23. Flint nucleus from which fiakes 
 
 have been struck. 
 
 24. Flint Flake. 
 
 25. Gimlet or Auger ? 
 
 26. Fishhook of shell, from Ota- 
 
 heite, in the British Muspum. 
 
 27. Wooden Fishhook, with bone 
 
 point, from the Kurile Islands. 
 
 28. Fishhook of flint, found near 
 
 Lomma on the Oresimd. 
 
 29. Fishhook of flint, found on the 
 
 bank of the Kranke Lake. 
 
 30. Bone Fishhook, found in a peat 
 
 bog in South Scania. 
 
 31. Stone found in the province of 
 
 Blekinge, probably a Plum- 
 met. 
 
 32. Grooved Plummet. 
 
 33. Plummet. 
 
 34. Ditto. 
 
 35. Grooved Plummet. 
 
 36. Flint Arrowhead. 
 
 37. Ditto. 
 
 38. Flint Arrowhead. Sweden. 
 
 39. Ditto ditto. 
 
 40. Triangular flint Arrowhead with 
 
 toothed edges. Sweden. 
 
Ixxiv 
 
 LIST OP PLATES. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 41, 
 
 42. 
 
 Harpoon with fixed point, made 
 of tone, with a sharp stone 
 or shell at the point, from the 
 Kurilelslands. 
 
 Harpoon point. North Ame- 
 
 4.3. Harpoon point of flint, found in 
 Scania. 
 
 44. Flint Spear. 
 
 45. Short flint Arrowhead. 
 
 46. Harpoon point. North Ame- 
 
 rica. 
 
 47. Short quartz Arrowhead. 
 
 48. Harpoon point of flint, found in 
 
 Scania. 
 
 49. Harpoon with stone point, 
 
 illustrating the mode of 
 attachment. 
 
 50. Bone Harpoon with immova- 
 
 hle stone point, found in an- 
 cient Esquimaux sepulchre 
 in Greenland. 
 
 51. Bone Harpoon, found in a simi- 
 
 lar sepulchre. 
 
 62. Bone Harpoon with movable 
 
 flint point, from the Kurile 
 Islands. 
 
 63. Bone Harpoon with movable 
 
 54. 
 
 65. 
 56. 
 
 57. 
 58. 
 
 59. 
 
 60. 
 
 61. 
 62. 
 63. 
 
 64. 
 65. 
 
 66. 
 67. 
 68. 
 
 flint point, from the Kurile 
 Islands. 
 
 Flint Spearhead, from Point 
 Barrow, now in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Spearhead from Scania. 
 
 Bone Spear, from the East 
 coast of Greenland, now in 
 the Museum at Bristol. 
 
 Spearhead from Scania. 
 
 Bone Spear, found near Hiigo- 
 moUa in Scania. 
 
 Slatestone Spear, from Kol- 
 marden, now in the Museum 
 of the Academy of Anti- 
 quities in Stockholm. 
 
 Flint Knifeblade. North of 
 Europe. 
 
 Flint Spear. Scania. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 Flint Knife with stone handle, 
 Scania. 
 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 Stone Knife, from New Zealand, 
 now in the British Museum. 
 
 Flint Knife. Scania. 
 
 Part of stone Knife, ditto. 
 
 Bone Spear. Sweden. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 69. Bone Harpoon. Scania. 
 
 70. Bone Harpoon, from Terra del 
 
 Fuego. 
 
 71. Bone Harpoon, found in a Sca- 
 
 nian peat bog. 
 
 72. Bone Harpoon, from the P^ri- 
 
 gord caves. 
 
 73. Bone Harpoon, from a bog in 
 
 South Scania. 
 
 74. Bone Harpoon, from the island 
 
 of Seeland. 
 
 75. Leister, from the north-west 
 
 coast of North America. 
 
 76. Half of a similar Spear, also 
 
 from North America. 
 
 77. Leister, from North America, 
 
 now in the Museum at Co- 
 penhagen. 
 
 78. The same. 
 
 79. Half of a similar implement, 
 
 found in the peat bog of 
 Felsmoose, in Scania, 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Ixxv 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 FIU. 
 
 80. 
 
 81. 
 
 82. 
 8.3. 
 
 84. 
 85. 
 86. 
 
 87. 
 88. 
 80. 
 90. 
 91. 
 
 92. 
 
 93. 
 94. 
 95. 
 96. 
 97. 
 98. 
 99. 
 
 Flint Knifelilade. North of 
 
 Europe. 
 Handle of flint Knife. Nortli 
 of Em-ope. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 Flint Knifeblade. North of 
 
 Europe. 
 Stone Knife. Scania. 
 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Knife obtained from the Es- 
 quimaux, east coast of Green- 
 land, now in the Bristol 
 Museum. 
 Semilunar Knife. Scania. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Ditto ditto. Perhaps 
 also used as a saw. 
 Long stone toothed Arrowhead. 
 Sweden. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Arrowpoint without a tang. 
 Ditto. 
 Ditto. 
 Ditto. 
 Ditto. 
 Stone Harpoon point from 
 America. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 100. 
 
 101. 
 102. 
 
 103. 
 
 104. 
 106. 
 106. 
 
 107. 
 
 108. 
 109. 
 110. 
 
 Ill, 
 
 112. 
 113. 
 
 114. 
 115. 
 116. 
 
 117. 
 
 Stone Harpoon point, from the 
 
 north of Ireland. 
 Arrowhead. Pennsylvania. 
 Stoneheaded Arrow, now in the 
 
 British Museum. 
 Obsidian Arrowhead,fromTierra 
 
 del Fuego. 
 Arrow, from California. 
 
 Ditto. 
 Short stone-headed ArroWjfrom 
 
 Scania. 
 Short stone-headed Arrow, from 
 
 Tierra del Fuego. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 Short stone-headed Arrow. 
 
 Sweden. 
 Flake stone-headed Arrow. 
 
 Greenland. 
 Arrowhead. 
 Arrow point without a tang, 
 
 found in Scania. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 Sling Stone. Sweden. 
 Sling Stone. New Zealand. 
 Ditto ditto. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 118. Stone Spear. 
 
 119. Ditto. 
 
 120. Stone Spear. Ohio. 
 
 121. Stone Spear. Scania. 
 
 122. Javelin,from theKurile Islands. 
 
 123. Iron Javelin, from Greenland. 
 
 124. Javelin. Scania. 
 126. Ditto ditto. 
 
 126. Ditto ditto. 
 
 127, Stone Chisel. Sweden. 
 
 128. 
 
 Bone Chisel, found in Denmark, 
 now in the Copenhagen Mu- 
 seum. 
 
 Chisel of Nephrite, from New 
 Zealand, now in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 The same. 
 131. Bone Chisel, found in Scania, 
 now in the Museum at Stock- 
 holm. 
 
 129. 
 
 1.30. 
 
Ixxvi 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE yi.— continued. 
 
 132. Gouge of bone from Otaheite, 
 
 now in the British Museum. 
 
 133. The same. 
 
 134. Flint Gouge, found in Sweden. 
 
 135. Stone Chisel with stone handle, 
 
 from Nootka, now in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 136. Stone Chisel. Scandinavia. 
 
 137. Square flint Chisel. Ditto. 
 
 138. Ditto ditto. 
 
 1.39. Broad Gouge. Scandinavia. 
 
 140. Ditto ditto. 
 
 141. Ice Chisel, from the Baltic coast, 
 
 142. Axe of stone, from Pitcaim's 
 
 Island, now in Profeasor 
 Nilsson's collection. 
 
 143. Aie, from ancient tomb near 
 
 Ahus. 
 
 144. Stone Axe. 
 
 145. Axe of trap. Scania. 
 
 PLATE VIL 
 
 146. Broad basalt Gouge, from 
 
 Scania. 
 
 147. Axe of shell, from California. 
 
 148. Stone Axe, from Scania. 
 
 149. Axe of clay slate, from Scania. 
 
 150. Axe, from Nootka, now in the 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 101. Stone Axe. Sweden. 
 
 102. Ditto ditto. 
 153. Flint Axe. Ditto. 
 1.j4. Copper Axe. Ditto 
 
 155. Axe with iron blade, from 
 
 Tierra del Fuego, now in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 156. Copper Axe, from Scania. 
 
 157. Rough-hewn ilint Axe. Ditto, 
 
 158. Fluit Axe. Ditto. 
 
 159. Axe, much worn down. Ditto. 
 
 160. Ditto ditto. 
 
 161. Axe. Ditto. 
 
 162. Stone Axe. Ditto. 
 
 PLATE VIIL 
 
 163. Hammer Axe. Scania. 
 
 164. Axe. Ditto. 
 
 ] O.J. Pierced Axe. Ditto. 
 106. Stone Edge Tool of diorite, 
 found in Scania. 
 
 167. Stone Edge Tool of hornblende, 
 
 found in a bog near Lund. 
 
 168. Pierced Axe. 
 
 169. Diorite Hammer Axe, from 
 
 Scania. 
 
 170. Shafted Wedge, made of stag's 
 
 antler. 
 
 171. Hammer of stag antlers, foimd 
 
 in a peat bog in Scania. 
 
 172. Stone Aji% found in a peat bog 
 
 in Scania. 
 
 173. Amazon Axe of stone, from 
 
 South Scania, now in Nills- 
 son's collection. 
 
 174. Ditto ditto ditto. 
 
 175. Ornament of amber. Scania. 
 
 176. Battle Axe of Stone Age, found 
 
 in a gallery-grave. 
 
 177. Ditto ditto. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Ixxvii 
 
 PLATE Tni.—cmtmiied. 
 
 178. Basalt Hammer Axe, found 
 
 at Hurfva. 
 
 179. Hammer Axe. Scania. 
 
 180. Basalt Hoe, fomid in the Oja- 
 
 bog, near Ystad. 
 
 181. Elk-horn Hoe, found in a bog 
 
 at Sjorup. 
 
 182. Pierced stone Disc. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 183. Stone "Wedge. Scania. 
 
 184. Ditto ditto. 
 
 185. Stretching Implement. Ditto. 
 180. Implement of basalt. 
 
 187. Anvil of stone. Scania. 
 
 188. Flint Scraper. 
 
 189. Battle Axe, found in Bobusland, 
 
 now in the Museum at Lund. 
 
 190. Amber Button. 
 
 191. Ditto. 
 
 192. Stone Bead. 
 
 193. Stone Button. 
 
 194. Amber Ornament. 
 
 195. Ditto. 
 
 196. Sandstone Ornament. 
 
 197. Amber Ornament. 
 
 198. Ditto. 
 
 199. Stone Bead. 
 
 200. Ornamental bone object, found 
 
 at Bjellerup, in Scania. 
 
 201. Glass Beads, from Scania. 
 
 202. Ditto ditto. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 :!03. Harpoon Point of flint. Scania. 
 
 204. Punch mad e of horn. 
 
 205. Flint Implement of uncertain 
 
 use. 
 
 206. Brolsen Implement, with new 
 
 bole. 
 
 207. Ditto ditto. 
 
 208. Sandstone Implement, from a 
 
 peat moss in South Scania. 
 
 209. Clay Vessel, found in a tomb 
 
 near Quistofta. 
 
 210. Limestone Vessel, found in a 
 
 gravel pit. 
 
 211. Dolmen of the Stone Age. 
 
 PLATE XL 
 
 212. Bone Javelin, sbowing the 
 
 probable mounting. 
 
 213. The same bone Javelin. 
 
 214. Hunting Whistle of hom,fotmd 
 
 in a bog in Scania. 
 
 215. Bone Awl. 
 
 216. Ancient stone Plummet. Scan- 
 
 dinavia. 
 
 217. Stone Plummet. Pennsylvania. 
 , 218. Skull pierced by the javelin. 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 219. Skull pierced by the javelin. 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 220. Bone of the Urns, pierced by a 
 
 javelin. 
 
 221. Ditto ditto. 
 
 222. Ditto ditto. 
 
 223. Bone of Ursus Spelseus. 
 
 224. Ditto. 
 
 225. Worn Spearhead. 
 
 226. Worn and re-sharpened Spear- 
 
 head. 
 
Ixxviii 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 227. Swedish Cranium. 
 
 228. Ditto. 
 
 229. Ditto. 
 
 230. Bracliyceplialous Cranium, from 
 
 a gallery-grave on iluen. 
 
 231. Bracliyceplialous Cramum,from 
 
 gaUery-grave on Mijen. 
 
 232. Ditto. 
 
 233. Skull of Laplander, from Sten- 
 
 234. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 23.5. Skull of Laplander, from Sten- 
 
 sele parish. 
 230. Cranium, from gallery-grave in 
 
 West Gothland. 
 
 237. Ditto. 
 
 238. Ditto. 
 
 230. Skull of Lapland Woman, from 
 
 Lyksele, now in tlie Museum 
 at Lund. 
 2-10. Copied from a plaster cast; 
 original from a gallery-grave 
 at Mben. 
 
 241. Bone Arrowhead, from the 
 
 Island of Oland. 
 
 242. Roufrh Arrowhead. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 213. Tumulus on the Plain of Axe- 
 valla. 
 
 244. Ditto ditto. 
 
 245. Ditto ditto. 
 
 240. Esquimaux Winter Ilut in 
 
 Greenland. 
 247. F.-quimaux Huts, east coast of 
 
 (irreiiland, after Scoresby. 
 
 248 Esquimaux Huts, east coast of 
 Greenland, after Scoresby. 
 
 249. Gallery-Grave on Glumslbf hills, 
 
 250. Gallery-TomhontheAsahogen, 
 
 near Quistofta. 
 2.51. Esquimaux Winter Huts in 
 
 Greenland. 
 252. Grave with Skeleton. Scanis. 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 253. Cranium, found at StangenSs. 
 
 254. Ditto. 
 
 255. Ditto. 
 
 250. Hoe made of stag's antler. 
 
 Scania. 
 257. Ditto ditt(j, 
 
 258. Sketch of Deer on stag's 
 
 antler, found in a bog in 
 South Scania. 
 
 259. Ditto ditto. 
 200. Rubbing Stone of flint. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Ixxix 
 
 261. Pierced Bear's Tooth. 
 
 262. Ditto Wolf. 
 
 263. Bone Awl. Sweden. 
 
 264. Ditto ditto. 
 
 265. Ditto ditto. 
 
 266. Flint Arrowhead ditto. 
 
 267. Ditto ditto. 
 
 268. Ditto ditto. 
 
 XVI 
 
 
 no. 
 
 
 269. 
 
 Piece of a ground Axe^ roughly 
 
 
 hewn into a Chisel. 
 
 270. 
 
 Stone Disc, probahly used as a 
 
 
 Button. 
 
 271. 
 
 Cranium, from a catacomb at 
 
 
 Malta, now in the Zoological 
 
 
 Museum at Lund. 
 
 272. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 273. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
THE 
 
 STONE AGE. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 COMPAEISON BETWEEN THE IMPLEMENTS OF SAVAGE NA- 
 TIONS AND THE ANTIQUITIES OF STONE AND OP BONE 
 FOUND IN SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 Everybody is aware that in Scandinavia, as well 
 as in many other countries, objects of stone are 
 occasionally met with, which have evidently been 
 fashioned by the hand of man for some special pur- 
 pose. If we carefully examine a collection of such 
 antiquities, we shall not fail to recognise amongst 
 them forms resembling some of those implements 
 which are stiU in use, or have been used within the 
 memory of man, by peasants and fishermen. The im- 
 plements most frequently met with are the axe, the 
 hollow adze, the chisel, the harpoon, the arrow, and 
 others ; and it is scarcely possible that their nature can 
 be misunderstood by anyone who is acquainted with 
 the form of these implements when made of iron, and 
 who can imagine what they must be like when formed 
 of stone. Once convinced of this, it must be easy 
 to understand that people who employed stone for 
 
2 THE STOiS'E AGE. [Ch I. 
 
 implements of daily use must have been ignorant of 
 the use of metals, and were consequently in so low 
 a stage of human civilisation, that they resem- 
 bled those whom we commonly designate as sa- 
 vages* But if this be admitted — and it can with diffi- 
 culty be contested — then it is evident that the best 
 means of gaining an accurate and complete know- 
 ledge of these implements, of the manner in which 
 they were helved and used, of the work done with 
 them, &c., is to enquire whether similar implements 
 are still in use amongst savage tribes now hving, and 
 to discover how they are employed ; since, if we find 
 amongst them implements exactly similar, both in 
 shape and substance, we may safely conclude that 
 they were used in a similar way ; nor can we err 
 if from this we deduce that the mode of life and 
 the degree of civilisation of the savage races still 
 living is essentially similar to that of those tribes 
 ■\vho inhabited our Scandinavian North some thou- 
 sands of years ago, but have long since disappeared. 
 
 • This word is here taken in its most general sense; and com- 
 prcliends the different degrees of civilisation, fi-om the homeless 
 itinerant life in the forests to that in hordes with fixed dwellings 
 and burial-places. That even the earliest inhabitants of Scandinavia 
 long remained in one or other of these low grades of civilisation, we 
 infer from the entire want of metals among the remains of their im- 
 plements and arms, whereas implements formed of stone are found 
 in great numbers. In this respect they resembled many tribes still 
 living, who remain in sucli a low grade of civilisation as to be igno- 
 rant of the fabrication and use of metals, and who therefore employ 
 implements of stone, bone, shell, or other hard and easily accessible 
 substances ; which, however, they invariably throw aside as soon as 
 tliey are able to procure implements of metal. 
 
Ch. L] OUR LIMITED ETHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. 3 
 
 I shall endeavour to draw such a comparison as 
 far as it is possible to do so. But I encounter at 
 the very outset the great difficulty that, as far as I 
 am aware, not even one of the savage nations now 
 living has yet been studied or described from a truly 
 scientific, that is to say, from a comparative ethnolo- 
 gical point of view. All that is hitherto known of them 
 is more or less fragmentary, and the various samples 
 of their implements now found in the museums of 
 Europe consist, for the most part, of scattered speci- 
 mens which have by chance fallen into the hands of 
 travellers, and of which the proper and principal use 
 is not always known. I have had an opportunity of ex- 
 amining, for this purpose, very extensive ethnological 
 collections in Denmark, Germany, England, France, 
 and elsewhere, which have been thrown open to me 
 with the greatest Hberality ; but I must confess I have 
 nowhere found all that I looked for. I have, more- 
 over, made the acquaintance of many highly intelli- 
 gent scientific men abroad, who have hved a longer 
 or shorter time amongst savage nations. Through 
 them I have gathered much information of great in- 
 terest and importance, of which I shall avail myself 
 in this treatise; but none of those I have hitherto 
 met with have been able to enlighten me on all those 
 smaller matters concerning which, for the purpose of 
 comparison, I was anxious to obtain information. 
 Their answer has always been that these subjects had 
 not attracted their attention. In illustration of 
 this, I will mention one instance only; namely, that 
 I have not yet seen in any ethnological collection, 
 
 B 2 
 
4 TPIE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 nor been able to obtain from any of those \vho have 
 visited regions where stone implements are used by 
 the natives, any description of the form of the 
 stone implement which the savages evidently made 
 use of in order to shape their flint spears and arrow- 
 heads, and to sharpen them again when they became 
 blunted.* 
 
 There are thus, on the one hand, great deficiencies 
 in our knowledge of the implements of those savage 
 tribes Avhich still inhabit Australia and America, and 
 on the other, new forms are constantly discovered 
 amongst the stone implements dug up in Sweden, 
 The materials available for a comparison being then 
 up to the present moment very imperfect on both 
 sides, 1 cannot hope, in the present case, to produce 
 a complete work — not even in any part of ethnology 
 — but merely an imperfect sketch : enough, however, 
 I hope, to justify my conviction that by the combuied 
 exertions of the many, a new field for human know- 
 ledge can be opened through this science, and that if 
 ever Ave shall succeed in obtaining an exact knowledge 
 of the origin and dissemination of the various na- 
 tions, it must be by these means, namely, by the help 
 of comparative ethnology. I cannot coincide in the opi- 
 nion which I have frequently heard maintained, that 
 all endeavours in this direction are as yet premature: 
 the first attempt must always be unsatisfactorj', hut 
 it induces fresh research, directs our attention to new 
 objects, and leads ultimately, by its very imperfec- 
 tions, to more profound and more complete results.f 
 
 * See Note 1. f This was written iu 1838. 
 
Ch. I.] FLINT IMPLEMENTS— HOW FORMED. 5 
 
 I have said before that nobody has been able to 
 show me the instrument which our savage predecessors 
 made use of for fashioning their stone axes and spear- 
 heads. Such weapons, for the most part made of 
 flint, and chiefly found in the earth or in peat-bogs, 
 have long been known in Sweden and other parts 
 of Europe ; but it was difiicult to understand how it 
 had been possible to give them their shape, because 
 they were often made with great skill and sometimes 
 even with elegance. Strange as Avere the notions en- 
 tertained regarding the use to which these flint arti- 
 cles had been turned, they were not more strange than 
 the extravagant hj^pothesis which people set up with 
 regard to the manner in which they had been manu- 
 factured. They fancied that in past ages some means 
 had been discovered for softening the flint, so that it 
 could be wrought like wood, or any other still softer 
 material, and that it could thus be easily made to 
 take any desired form. We find ideas such as these 
 expressed even in old and learned antiquarian writ- 
 ings. When the absurdity of this had been made 
 manifest, it was maintained that those who manu- 
 factured the beautiful and elegant weapons which 
 were occasionally exhumed, must, at any rate, have 
 employed steel instruments for such a purpose ; but 
 as this notion, which has not yet been entirely era- 
 dicated, throws many difficulties in the way, not 
 only of the proper classification of antiquities, but also 
 of a true comprehension of the standard of civilisa- 
 tion in those nations or tribes which have fabricated 
 and employed these flint articles, I feel justified in 
 
6 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.I. 
 
 endeavouring to refute the idea. We have in Sweden 
 many beautiful flint knives, &c., which have been 
 found in the gallery-graves in West Gothland, and 
 which, therefore, owe their existence to an age far 
 anterior to the discovery of metal of any kind. This 
 seems to be an incontestable proof that the said flint 
 articles, though elegantly shaped, were made with 
 stone instruments. We must therefore look for such 
 instruments amongst the stone antiquities. 
 
 When, more than forty years ago, I first began 
 to collect, I found here and there stones which 
 had evidently been fashioned by the hand of man 
 for some special purpose, and which showed dis- 
 tinct traces of strokes or knocks against some other 
 equally hard, but more brittle stone. Having from 
 my earliest youth made a practice of chipping flint- 
 stones, and giving them any shape which I desired, I 
 was able to recognise in these stone hammers the 
 instruments by means of which the flint weapons had 
 in ancient times been made. I hope the reader will 
 not take it amiss if I refer to my own experience, 
 gained a great many years ago, more especially since, 
 so far as I know, I was the first who directed attention 
 to the instrument by means of which flint implements 
 were made : and I think it important to have a know- 
 ledge of this instrument in order to be able to form a 
 clear idea of the degree of civilisation of the people 
 by whom these articles were made. I shall here take 
 the liberty of stating the means by which I gained 
 this knowledge. From my earliest youth I have had 
 an irresistible taste for hunting and sporting, and 
 
Ch. I.] FLINT IMPLEMENTS— HOW FORMED. 7 
 
 during more than twenty years I made use of a fowl- 
 ing-piece with the old-fashioned flint lock. I never 
 bought my gun-flints, because, when a boy, I used 
 a small gun, which no purchased flints would fit. 
 Besides, the screw of the cock was fixed in such a 
 manner that I was obliged to knock a semicircular 
 notch into the back of the flint for the reception of 
 the screw, in order to hold the flint firmly. For tliis 
 reason I always chipped the flints myself, generally 
 while on my shooting excursions, which I then made 
 in the south of the province of Scania, where flint- 
 stones are abundant. Whenever in want of a gun- 
 flint, I first selected a large flint; I then looked 
 out for a boulder of a suitable size, and of compact 
 hard granite, or quartz-sandstone; with this I split 
 the flint into flakes, more or less thin, and of course 
 with sharp edges. Having selected one or more 
 splinters suitable for my jiurpose, I went to a large- 
 sized granite-stone, using it as a support for the 
 splinter, which I held in my left hand, while with my 
 right, in which I held the hammer-stone, I managed, 
 by means of some projecting corner or blunt point of 
 the same, to chip the edges of the splinter into a gun- 
 flint of the desired form; lastly, I knocked out the 
 notch for the screw in the back of the flint. But 
 it was of the utmost importance that, during the 
 operation, the point of the splinter on which I was 
 operating should rest upon the support, as otherwise 
 the splinter would instantly break. My habit of 
 shaping the flint in this way, by means of a piece of 
 granite or quartz sandstone, enabled me at once to 
 
8 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 recognise the stone hammer Avhich the aborigines of 
 Scandinavia made use of to chip out their flint imple- 
 ments. The first which attracted my attention was 
 that drawn on PL I. iig. 6. It consists of a hard 
 quartz-sandstone, and, when found in the Kranke 
 Lake, in Scania, bore marks which looked as fresh 
 as if they had only been made a day. It is now 
 preserved in the Museum at Lund, and shows 
 clearly how it was used. Necessity taught me this 
 art, and necessity was also the teacher of the first 
 inhabitants of Sweden. All their flint axes were 
 at first shaped, often very tastefully (PI. VII. 
 fig. 157), by means of a large hammer-stone before 
 they were ground. Every flint implement, indeed, 
 shows the way in which it was made. Take, for 
 instance, the fish-hook (PL II. fig. 28), which was 
 first by a single stroke chipped off as a flake from 
 the flint-block; the workman then resting it on 
 a firm support, and chipping out first one flat side 
 and then the other. I presume that he began by 
 knocking or chipping out the concave side, as the 
 most diflScult; but if in doing this he had not been 
 exceedingly careful to keep the point upon which 
 he wa.3 operating resting upon the supporting stone, 
 the hook would instantly have broken. In the same 
 manner were made the square-edged arrow-heads 
 (PL II. figs. 36, 37) from flint-flakes, by first dividing 
 them into lengths and then fashioning the edges of 
 each piece; in the same manner also, the base, or 
 hind part of the arrow-points was chipped mto shape. 
 But the edges of the javelin-heads, spears, and knives 
 
Ch. 1] FLINT IMPLEMENTS— now FORMED. 9 
 
 (PL III. and IV.) were cut out off-hand, and with- 
 out any support, although, probably, no one would 
 now be able to make so good a flint knife as some of 
 the better ones here drawn. Still, I consider it very 
 probable that if a person had practised such opera- 
 tions from his youth, he might even now attain the 
 same proficiency as the savage of former ages. It 
 would be very interesting to know if those who con- 
 sider iron and steel to be indispensable in the forma- 
 tion of flint instruments believe that any one provided 
 with the very best steel instruments could form a flint 
 knife — such, for instance, as that represented on PL 
 III. figs. 64, 66. I do not believe it. It is not the 
 cutting instrument, but the knack and practice that 
 are wanting. The reason why amongst the flint im- 
 plements which have been brought away from the 
 savages on the American and South Sea Islands, the 
 instrument with which they cut out their tools has so 
 very rarely been found, is, probably, that the savage, 
 after having used for the purpose a common pebble 
 picked up from the ground, threw it away, since 
 he was always sure of finding another equally fit 
 for the purpose whenever he wanted it. I have, how- 
 ever, found, that amongst manj^, although perhaps 
 not all, savage tribes, there were individuals who 
 made for themselves special knocking-stones, and it 
 is remarkable that these are everywhere very similar 
 in form. After this short introduction, we will pro- 
 ceed to consider : 
 
10 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.I. 
 
 DIVISION 1. — TOOLS BY MEANS OF WHICH OTHER TOOLS 
 AND WEAPONS OF STONE WEKE MADE. 
 
 We have already mentioned that the former must 
 have been made of stone, because those who made and 
 employed them were ignorant of the use of metals. 
 We have likewise pointed out that all stone imple- 
 ments were first rough-hewn before being ground, 
 and we shall hereafter show that the savage, when his 
 spears, knives, and other stone implements became 
 blunted, sharpened their edges, which had previously 
 not been ground, but merely chipped to an edge ; we 
 shall also show that the sharpened edges, when 
 blunted, were again sharpened. 
 
 The savage must therefore have had two different 
 kinds of instruments, one used for sharpening the edges 
 of his implements by chipping them, and another 
 for grinding them. For this purpose he must have 
 been in possession of instruments which were port- 
 able, so that he could carry them with him while 
 hunting. Thus, amongst objects of antiquity, there 
 will necessarily be found two kinds of instruments ; one 
 intended to chip out or rough-hew the edge, and the 
 other to sharpen it when blunt. Both kinds invariably 
 consist of hard stone, mostly of quartz, and occasionally 
 of 25ure crystalline quartz, or of quartz-sandstone, but 
 rarely of flint or gneiss. The former we shall call ham- 
 mer-stones, or chipping-stones, and the latter whetstones. 
 
 § 1. Hammer-stones {Vl. I. figs. 1-14). — There are 
 antiquaries who would deny that the stone imple- 
 
Ch. I.] HAMMER-STONES. 11 
 
 ments here represented and described were used in 
 the manner just mentioned; but I have never heard 
 anyone able even to guess for what other purpose 
 they were used. As grindstones for iron they do not 
 answer; and the marks of blows found on them 
 were, as must be evident to everyone not totally 
 ignorant of the subject, occasioned by blows on some 
 hard brittle stone; not against any kind of metal 
 whatsoever. Similar chipping-stones are, besides, 
 found, from the pole to the equator, among all 
 nations who use stone implements. The only 
 objection to my view is, that similar stones have 
 been found among iron articles. I have hinted 
 that possibly these were amulets. That they were 
 grindstones for iron arms is, as above stated, utterly 
 impossible. It rests with the doubter, therefore, to 
 specify for what purpose they were used, according 
 to his opinion. On all these stones, and especially 
 on the originals of figs. 1, 4, 6, 11, &c., we find 
 at the edges marks of the purpose to which they 
 were formerly applied, so unmistakable, that, when 
 once pointed out, no further doubts can be enter- 
 tained on the matter. For reasons which I shall 
 state more explicitly farther on, I am of opinion that 
 all hammer-stones, without exception, were portable, 
 and that the savage was in the habit of carrying 
 them with him while hunting. For this purpose some 
 of them (figs. 8-10) have a groove or furrow running 
 along the outline, round which probably a string was 
 passed, by means of which the stone was tied to the 
 belt ; others are for the same purpose pierced through 
 
12 THE STONE AGE. [Cn.I. 
 
 (fig. 12), and others again, without either groove or 
 hole through the centre, were probably carried in a 
 pouch attached to the belt or otherwise. I have 
 already mentioned, that this Idnd of chipping instru- 
 ment is found in all places inhabited now or for- 
 merly by savage people. PI. I. fig. 2 is a sketch of a 
 hammer-stone from Greenland, the original of which 
 is preserved in the Museum at Copenhagen. In 
 shape it very closely resembles one found in Scania 
 (fig. 6), and with regard to the indentation on the 
 flat sides, another (fig, 1), also found in Scania. 
 PI. I. fig. 3 is from a plaster cast, received from 
 Mr. Thomsen iu Copenhagen ; it is turnip-shaped, an- 
 nularly compressed, badly hewn, and with a shghtly 
 indentated groove on one side. To this cast a label 
 was attached, on which was written, ' Tool for making 
 Arrow-points.'' The stone is said to have been found 
 on the shores of the Delaware River, together with a 
 great number of wrought flint articles. Hammer- 
 stones have also been found amongst the flints and 
 bones discovered by Messrs. Christy and Lartet in the 
 caves of Perigord, which undoubtedly belong to a 
 very early age and the first inhabitants of Europe. 
 PL I. fig. 13 is copied from a plaster cast in a large 
 collection of antiquities which these gentlemen pre- 
 sented to the Academy of Sciences, History, and Anti- 
 quities at Stockholm. It is a simple boulder, on the 
 rounded edges of which are seen distinct traces of 
 blows or knocks against some hard object, probably a 
 flint-stone, indicating the purpose for which it was em- 
 ployed, and showing that it had been used with force. 
 
Ch. I.] HAMMEE-STONEa. 13 
 
 If I am not mistaken, M. Lartet found a similar stone 
 among the antiquities in the cave at Aurignac. All 
 the others figured in the plate have been found in 
 Sweden, and the majority of them in Scania. I divide 
 the hammer-stones into two classes : — 
 
 1. To the first class belong those which have a 
 furrow or notch, more or less distinct, on each of 
 their two flat sides. In all those having a groove 
 round the edge this notch lies with its front end 
 more or less obliquely toAvards the left, and with 
 the other end obliquely towards the right (figs. 8, 
 9, 10) ; this notch has, therefore, just that direction 
 which would have been given to it if the stone had 
 been tied by a strap to the belt, and if the person 
 wearing the belt had held the stone in his left 
 hand, and with the right hand had drawn the edge of 
 his knife or spear across the stone. It is my opinion 
 that this notch was not made by actual grinding, 
 because I do not find the points of arrows, spears, 
 and knives, or other hewn edge-tools, ground ; but it 
 may have been produced in this manner : the edges of 
 the tools having been sharpened, by knocking them 
 with the edge of the hammer-stone, they may have 
 been drawn across the flat side of the stone, in order 
 to make their teeth of an equal length. When through 
 a magnifying-glass we examine a flint knife or spear- 
 point, not used after being sharpened, we feel 
 strengthened in this belief: still, it is a mere suppo- 
 sition, a mere probability, and must remain so until 
 something similar can be shown in the stone imple- 
 ments, of which, for instance, even now the North 
 
14 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 American Indians make use for fashioning their flint 
 spear and arrow-points, and which, as we shall see 
 perfectly resemble those found here. Meanwhile, in 
 whatever manner this notch may have been made 
 it is certain that the stone was used for chipping or 
 shaping flint implements : this is distinctly seen in 
 them all, especially in those which have no groove 
 round the edge, and which, consequently, have not 
 been attached to a string or strap, and with which 
 therefore, heavier blows could be dealt. The origi- 
 nals of the sketches (PI. I. figs. 1-7, &c.) have no 
 groove, the narrow sides consisting of a flat-ground 
 even surface, forming an angle, or rounded edge, 
 with flat broader sides. It is on the narrow side, or 
 edge, especially in figs. 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, &o., that we find 
 uiunistakable marks of strokes dealt with it upon 
 the flint tools, flint being equally hard, but much 
 more brittle than quartz-stone, of which the hammer- 
 stone consists. These marks we see on both side- 
 edges, and they are particularly evident at the corners, 
 with which the heaviest blows have been dealt. It is, 
 moreover, very remarkable, that while, as mentioned 
 above, the notch invariably lies more or less obliquely 
 upon those stones which are surrounded by a groove, 
 and Avhich have been tied to the belt by a string or 
 strap, it always, on the contrary, lies lengthwise upon 
 those which are without a groove, and which therefore, 
 while they were used, were not attached to any string 
 (PI. I. figs. 6, 7). Those hammer-stones which havea 
 notch on the side are of various shapes. They are some- 
 times, as already mentioned, provided with a groove 
 
Ch. I.] HABBIER-STONES. 15 
 
 round the edge (figs. 8, 10), and sometimes, but very 
 rarely, the groove is double. Frequently both sides 
 are of equal length ; but sometimes one side is longer 
 than the other (fig. 8). All are generally elliptical, 
 and more or less tapering towards both ends ; or they 
 are oval and rounded, as in fig. 10. In some instances 
 they are without a similar groove, being bordered 
 instead by a perfectly flat surface (fig. 7). They are 
 occasionally (as in fig. 7) egg-shaped, and sometimes 
 square (as in fig. 6). 
 
 It has been supposed by some that the hammer- 
 stones in this last group belong to the Iron Age, on 
 account of their never having been found in the old 
 Stone Age sepulchres. But it is certain that these 
 hones, consisting of a hard kind of stone, most fre^ 
 quently of quartz or of quartz-sandstone, could never 
 have been employed for sharpening implements made 
 of iron. Moreover, they always show distinct marks 
 of blows against some hard stone. 
 
 2. Amongst the second group of jiortable hammer- 
 stones we class those which are provided with two 
 or more round indentations, in order that they may 
 be held more securely between the fingers while being 
 used (PI. I. figs. 1-5). If we examine such a stone 
 more minutely — for instance, the original of fig. 4 — it 
 is scarcely possible that we should mistake the pur- 
 pose for which it was used. We see on its edges 
 the most distinct traces of blows against some other 
 hard stone, while the sides are perfectly smooth and 
 untouched. This is so evident that it cannot escape 
 our notice when we have once perceived it. We find 
 
15 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.I. 
 
 some hammer-stones which have only one indentation 
 on each side; these are partly oval (fig. 1). The in 
 dentations go occasionally quite through the stone (fig. 
 12), partly spherical (fig. 14), partly square (fig. 2) 
 We also find others provided with several indentations, 
 and of these some are nearly spherical, or of a round 
 cubical form, with six indentations (fig. 5 ) ; others are 
 of an oblong cubical form (fig 4). All these tools are 
 made of hard and heavy stones, and to all of them 
 the savage has, by chipping, sharpening, and drilling, 
 given the form which he considered to be the most 
 suitable. We will now endeavour to describe how 
 he sharpened and drilled them. 
 
 On the banks of his fisheries he picked up a flat- 
 tened silicious stone, rounded by the action of water, 
 and tlais he employed as a hammer-stone ; sometimes 
 he drilled an excavation in the sides of it (such a 
 pebble is in my collection), but at other times he did 
 not even take this trouble, but used the pebble as a 
 hammer-stone just as he found it on the bank. Such 
 a pebble used as a hammer-stone is the original of 
 fig. 1 1 . This pebble, or small boulder, found at the 
 bottom of a peat-bog in Scania, close to a stone axe 
 and flint spear, bears unmistakable marks of having 
 been used for the above-mentioned purpose. It ap- 
 pears that the hammer-stone found in the caves of 
 Perigord (fig. 13) was of the same substance. 
 
 § 2. Whetstones (PI. II. figs. 15-22).— These con- 
 sist, as we have previously stated, of a quartzy kind 
 of stone, frequently of quartz-sandstone, belonging 
 to the old transition sandstone, occurring in strata 
 
Oh. I.] WHETSTONES. 17 
 
 near Cimbritshamn, Gladsax, Andravum, and Harde- 
 berga, in Scania, and in many other jDlaces. On 
 tlie whetstones we always find distinct marks of 
 sharpening or grinding. They vary considerably in 
 size and shape. The majority have not been portable, 
 but have been lying in or beside the huts of the 
 natives. Some of them, however, are small, flat or 
 annular; such a stone may have been carried in the 
 pouch on hunting excursions. Occasionally large hard 
 sandstone blocks are met with, on which we find in- 
 dentations which evidently cannot have arisen from the 
 action of metal, but must have been produced by stone 
 grinding. A block of this kiad is preserved at Barse- 
 back, and belongs to the collection of the late Rev. 
 Mr. Hofverberg. Such whetstones have, of course, no 
 definite form, but they are so far interesting, that, 
 when found in their original position, we can be sure 
 that a savage who has used flint tools has lived in the 
 neighbourhood. The largest whetstone Avhich I pos- 
 sess is of the last-mentioned hard sandstone, and was 
 found near Andrarum. It is an oblong square, about 
 2 feet long, 11 inches broad, and 7^ inches thick, and 
 has, on one of its broad sides, a smooth indentation 
 (the efi'ect of grinding), running lengthwise, almost of 
 the same length and breadth as the stone itself. 
 
 The majority of these whetstones are oblong, poly- 
 gonal, thin in the middle and thicker at the ends ; 
 some of them are from 14 to 15 inches in length (PL 
 n. fig. 15). The ground surfaces, running length- 
 wise, are plane, concave, or convex. Lying beside 
 the whetstones one sometimes finds gouges, which 
 
 c 
 
18 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 exactly fit the concave excavations, showing that 
 these are due to the process of sharpening. These 
 whetstones have sometimes the same shape as a 
 thick thigh-bone; and whenever we hear of a very 
 large petrified bone being found in the earth, we 
 may be certain that it is nothing else than such a 
 whetstone. 
 
 Whetstones are occasionally short and nearly 
 square, but always thinnest in the middle, the surface 
 lengthwise being sometimes plane, sometimes con- 
 cave, as in PI. II. fig. 16, the original of which is 
 9 inches long. I have another in my possession 
 which is only 4 inches long and 1 inch thick, the four 
 sides being plane, or very little rounded. A large 
 oblong boulder (fig. 17) has sometimes been used by 
 the savages as a whetstone. All those now described 
 are of the above-mentioned hard quartz-sandstone; 
 but I have also one which is of crystalline quartz and 
 8.\ inches long. 
 
 It is evident that stone implements have been not 
 only used but also made in those regions where 
 these whetstones have been found. I may, therefore, 
 remark, that these antiquities are found in the earth, 
 at the bottom of fens or bogs, in rivers, lakes, and so 
 on ; not only on plains and in the coast districts 
 of Scania, viz., Hardeberga, Fladie, Hog, Ahlstad, 
 Yngejo, &c., but also in the interior of the country; 
 for instance, at Bleckem§,sa, where, however, as far as 
 I am aware, no stone implements have hitherto been 
 found. But such whetstones are not peculiar to 
 Scania. I have one in my possession which was 
 
Ch. L] whetstones. 19 
 
 found in Sm&land, in the neighbourhood of the town 
 of Grenna, and of the same kind of sandstone as that 
 found in situ in Visingo. It is 5^ inches long by 
 about 2 inches in thickness. 
 
 We also find granite stones, 3-6 inches thick, 
 26-28 long, and 12-14 broad, the upper sides of 
 which have a smooth indentation, more or less dis- 
 tinct, arising from grinding. They are still occa- 
 sionally found embedded in the earth, and are occa- 
 sionally employed as troughs for watch- dogs at farms. 
 That they are antiquities there can be no doubt. It 
 is believed that the large flint axes (PL VII. fig. 
 158) and the ground wedges (PL IX. fig. 183) have 
 been worked upon them. 
 
 To this section belong also, according to my opinion, 
 those portable stones which have been called, although 
 erroneously, touchstones (PI. II. figs. 18-20). That 
 they have not been used for assaying metals is evident 
 from their being found in certain graves which are far 
 older than the use of metals in the North. If gold and 
 silver had been known to the people who used axes 
 and chisels of stone, ornaments of amber, and vessels 
 of clay, these metals would certainly have been found 
 as well as such implements and ornaments ; but this 
 has hitherto never been the case. It is, moreover, 
 easy to convince oneself that they were used as whet- 
 stones, because one finds now and then some with 
 engraved ornaments round the edges; and these orna- 
 ments have been, more or less, worn away towards the 
 point, evidently by grinding. It is easy to see, when 
 
 c 2 
 
20 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I, 
 
 we have once been made aware of this circumstance, 
 that they have all been worn away exactly in the 
 same manner. This cannot possibly be owing to the 
 assaying of metals, because, in assaying metals, it is 
 the metal and not the stone which is worn. The 
 stone in question must, therefore, have been a kind 
 of whetstone. There is almost always a drilled 
 conical excavation at the square-hewn end, and one 
 or two such excavations on the sides, all three of 
 which converge towards one point. We see from this 
 that a strap, or some kind of string, was passed 
 through each of these side holes, and was probably 
 fastened to the stone by a knot, and that the stone 
 Was in that manner carried at the belt. Occasionally 
 the stone is thinner towards the top end, with a hole 
 right through it. Future discoveries may perhaps 
 show whether these so-called touchstones were not, 
 after all, used by the females as whetstones for their 
 needles, &c., which were probably of bone. But 
 still more satisfactory light will be thrown on this sub- 
 ject when the implements of the North American 
 Indians, and above all those of the Esqiiimaux, are 
 more carefully examined. 
 
 Some very similar stones (PI. II. figs. 21, 22) have 
 been sent from Greenland to the Antiquarian Museum 
 in Copenhagen. They are numbered 3872, 3925.* 
 
 * Since the above was written, Mr. Thomsen has informed mc 
 that these stones were , used in Greenland by the women as grind- 
 stones for their bone needles. This confirms what has already been 
 said about the signification of similar antiquities found here in the 
 earth. 
 
Ch, T.] FISH-HOOKS. 21 
 
 DIVISION II. — IMPLEMENTS FOE HUNTING AND 
 EISHING. 
 
 Having seen with what instruments the savages in 
 Scandinavia made and sharpened their implement.-^, 
 we will now proceed to examine what kind of imple- 
 ments these were, and what were the habits of their 
 owners, as indicated by them. 
 
 We will divide and describe specifictiUy the dif- 
 ferent kinds of implements, to show that they were 
 not chiefly or entirely weapons of war, as was formerly 
 believed. We will begin with those which were evi- 
 dently used for peaceable and household purposes, 
 and which could not have served as weapons of war, 
 but undoubtedly evince that the ancient savages here 
 in the North lived by fishing and hunting. 
 
 § 1. Fish-hooks. — Having seen above that the ex- 
 isting tribes of savages are, or at any rate were 
 lately, using instruments for fashioning their imple- 
 ments similar to those employed by the Scandi- 
 navian savages in remote ages, we will begin by 
 describing the fish-hooks, &c., used by the savages of 
 the present day, and then proceed to compare them 
 with those of the savages of former times which have 
 been found here. 
 
 1. PI. 11. fig. 26 represents a fish-hook of shell 
 from Otaheite, preserved in the British Museum. 
 
 2. Fish-hook of Wood, with Point of Bone (PI. II. 
 fig. 27). — This one is from the Kurile Islands. It is 
 easy to understand that in countries situated in the 
 colder zones, where no shells are found so bard and 
 
22 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I, 
 
 thick as to be fit for being made into fish-hooks, these 
 must necessarily have been made of some other hard 
 substance, as, for instance, of wood, bone, or stone. 
 Those found in the graves of the Greenland Esqui- 
 maux are generally made of bone. Such fish-hooks 
 are preserved in several ethnological museums ; and 
 even within the memory of man the inhabitants of 
 Lapland used to fish for perch with a wooden hook. 
 It is evident, therefore, that the Scandinavian abo- 
 rigines, who did not know the use of metals, must 
 have fabricated their fish-hooks out of such hard 
 substances as were obtainable ; but it is clear that 
 those which were made of wood must all have de- 
 cayed ; those, on the contrary, made of flint — in the 
 art of working which the Scandinavian savage showed 
 great skill — have, even when lying in marshes or in 
 water, been able eff"ectually to resist the influence 
 of time. But as most of the fish-hooks were probably 
 of wood, with a point of bone or stone, we can easily 
 explain the reason why they are so very rarely found 
 among our antiquities. 
 
 Meanwhile, in later years, and since archaeology has 
 begun to receive attention, at least two fish-hooks of 
 flint have been found in Scania, both on the banks of 
 the water in which they were used. 
 
 3. Fish-hooks of Flint.— The first of these (PI. II. 
 fig. 28) was found near Lomma, on the shore of the 
 sound (Oresund). It is in length, from the middle of 
 the end of the shaft to the bend of the hook, about 
 1 inch 5", and in breadth, from the outside of the 
 shaft to the outside of the hook, about 1 inch 4". At 
 
Ch. I.] FISH-HOOKS. -^3 
 
 the top it is thick and broken off straight, and below 
 the thick end there is a scai'cely noticeable incision, or 
 neck, round which to tie the line. It tapers down- 
 wards to the point, and has been chipped on both sides 
 towards the front and back ; it has, therefore, as we see, 
 been fashioned with some skill to answer its purpose. 
 Nobody who has seen the fish-hooks of bone, 
 wood, or shell, made by savages, can entertain the 
 least doubt that this one has been used for the same 
 purpose. It is even possible to say, with tolerable 
 accuracy, judging from its size and the place where 
 it was found, what description of fish was principally 
 caught with it. Amongst the fish indigenous to the 
 sound (Oresund), on the shore of which.it was picked 
 up, it would have been too large for the mouth of 
 eels, flounders, or whiting, but it is suitable in every 
 way for the Oresund codfish {Gadus callarias, Lin.), 
 and this species of fish is still caught by hooks, here 
 and elsewhere. There is little doubt, therefore, that 
 the said flint fish-hook was used in ancient times 
 for cod-fishing in the sound. The other fish-hook 
 of fliut (PI. II. fig. 29) was found on the bank of 
 the Kranke Lake, near SUfakra. It is smaller, the 
 length scarcely exceeding 1 inch 1", and the breadth, 
 from the outside of the shaft to the outside of the 
 hook, not quite 6". It has likewise been chipped 
 in front and back, and the shaft widens at the top 
 to allow the line to be tied to it. It has been used 
 for catching smaller fish than the former. The 
 Kranke Lake is still stocked with perch and eel, and 
 an experienced angler has assured me that one would 
 
24 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 still be able to catcb these kinds of fish with this 
 very hook. 
 
 A fish-hook of hone has also lately been found in one 
 of the old peat-bogs in the • south of Scania (PI. II. 
 fig. 30). It is 3 inches long, and about -| inch from 
 the point of the barb to the bar. The bar and the 
 bend are nearly round, and flattened a httle towards 
 the top, which is broad, for the purpose of fastening 
 the line. 
 
 It was found in a bog containing fresh water, and 
 has no doubt been used for catching pike, of wMch 
 enormously large skeletons have been found in the 
 bogs in Scania. I know no other fresh- water fish in 
 Scania for which such a large sized hook could have 
 been used. It appears that fish-hooks made of the 
 horns of the ox were used in Homer's time.* 
 
 § 2. Fishing-plummets. — Everybody practised in 
 the art of angling is aware that, besides the hook, 
 a plummet is used, especially when fishing in the 
 open sea, or in deep waters with a strong current. 
 We have nowadays generally recourse to lead, but 
 before metals were known stones must have sup- 
 plied its lilace.f It is worthy of notice, and it seems 
 to me to prove with how little method ethnographical 
 collections ha\'e been, generally, got up, that al- 
 though we find in them hundreds of fish-hooks, 
 
 * Odyss. xii. 253. 
 
 t That plummets of stone were long used here in the North, when 
 fishing with the hook, we learn from an ancient Poeroe song, printed 
 in theAntiqiiarisk Tidslrift for 1852, page 312, where it says of one 
 who was fishing, ' He lost both hook and stone.' 
 
Ch. I] FISIIING-PLUJIMETS. 25 
 
 which have belonged to the savages on the islands 
 of the Pacific, yet I have never succeeded in find- 
 ing amongst them a single plummet.* I have seen 
 only one in the British Museum, brought from 
 Otaheite, and used for catching cuttlefish. The 
 fishermen on the coast of Greenland use a so-called 
 •pilh of bone, provided with iron hooks, and with a 
 stone pierced through it to serve as a plummet. 
 Plummets for proper fish-hooks from Greenland I 
 have not yet seen; but I was some years ago in- 
 formed by a person who has long resided in Green- 
 land, how the stones were formed wliich were used 
 by tbe natives as plummets. He drew a sketcb of 
 one, which is still in my possession. Subsequently, 
 a student presented me with a stone (PI. II. fig. 31) 
 of exactly the same shape as that represented in the 
 sketch just mentioned. This stone was found in the 
 earth in the province of Blekinge. It has verj' evi- 
 dently been used as a, plummet; but it is also easy to 
 understand that this kind of implement must exist 
 under a great variety of forms. But they must all 
 have this in common : either a groove in which the 
 line could be tied, or a hole pierced through for the 
 same purpose ; in other respects, their form may be 
 either oblong, or round and short. 
 
 Those ancient plummets whicb occur most com- 
 monly are of the form seen in PI. 11. figs. 33, 34, 
 
 * This -was written in 1838 ; possibly these plummets may now 
 be found in the museums, I have, however, since obtained the stone 
 sketched on PL XI. fig. 217, which undoubtedly has been a plum- 
 met : it was brought from Pennsylvania. 
 
26 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 PI. XI. fig. 216, oval, or ovally rounded, and with a 
 groove round the middle. They have been called 
 sling-stones^ but this is a mere supposition, especially 
 as nobody has shown, or even endeavoured to show, 
 any similar forms of sling-stones found amongst those 
 nations who still use such missiles. I shall prove in 
 the sequel, that amongst our stone antiquities there is 
 in reality a form, hitherto overlooked, which in every 
 point resembles the ancient Greek sling-stones of lead 
 and those of stone used by the Indians in America. 
 But whether these sling-stones belong to the very re- 
 mote age which is here in question, deserves a more 
 careful investigation. 
 
 Other plummets have a groove along the middle 
 (PI. II. fig. 32) ; others have not only one across the 
 middle, but also one or two such grooves, crossing 
 each other lengthwise (PI. 11. fig. 35). These plum- 
 mets are generally large, and have probably been 
 used as weights for troUing-nets, &c. They are still 
 occasionally jjicked up in islets and reefs on the 
 coast of Bohus-Lan (west coast of Sweden). 
 
 For plummets^ as well as for sling-stones, no doubt 
 smooth pebbles were chosen ; such as were easily and 
 abundantly found. I do not believe that for either 
 of these implements sharp flints could have been 
 used. Every person acquainted with the subject 
 would consider them useless, as they would soon 
 have cut through the fishing-line or the sling. 
 
 Next in order to the method of fishing with the 
 hook and plummet, we come to that with the harpoon. 
 
 § 3. Th^ harpoon is a common fishing and hunting 
 
Oh. I.] IIAEPOONS. 27 
 
 implement among those savages who inhabit islands 
 and the sea-coast. It can be used only in the water, 
 where it is thrown in order to fasten in the animal 
 which is to be caught. Its purpose is not to kill 
 the prey, but to check its career in the water, so that 
 it may be more easily approached and killed with 
 another weapon, the spear, which we shall describe 
 farther on. 
 
 Harpoons occur under a variety of forms, but they 
 all resemble each other in this respect, that they are 
 provided with barbs, by which the instrument fastens 
 in the animal which it has pierced. Harpoons maybe 
 divided into two kinds: harpoons with movable and 
 harpoons with immovable points. To the former be- 
 long those represented on PI. III. figs. 52, 53; to 
 the latter, PI. III. figs. 41, 50, 51, and PI. IV. figs. 
 69-72. We shall begin with the simplest kind. These 
 are: — 
 
 ]. Harpoons with immovable Points (PI. III. figs. 
 50, 51, the sketches being half the natural size). — 
 Both were found in ancient Esquimaux sepulchres in 
 Greenland. The one (fig. 51) is entirely of bone, the 
 other (fig. 50) of bone tipped with a point of stone, 
 lancet-shaped with sharpened edges ; on the side are 
 two holes meeting within, through which passes a 
 strap fastened to the shaft, and several fathoms long, 
 the other end of the strap being attached to a large 
 bladder made of an inflated seal-skin. At the lower 
 end of the harpoon is a hole into which the top of the 
 shaft is inserted, fastening the harpoon to it in such a 
 way that when its point is embedded in the animal. 
 
28 
 
 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 the shaft is diseno;a2;ed, and lies floating on the water. 
 The wounded animal darts off under the water, but 
 the bladder to which the harpoon-line is fastened 
 floats on the surface, showing the direction in which 
 the animal is swimming. It is soon exhausted, when 
 it rises to the surface to rest or to breathe. The 
 hunter, in his ' kayak,' or small canoe, then hastens 
 to approach his prey, and tries to inflict the death- 
 blow by means of the spear (PL III. fig. 54)^ fast- 
 ened to the top of a long pole. 
 
 PI. III. fig. 41 represents a harpoon fi-om the 
 Kurile Islands ; it is of bone, with two barbs on one 
 side, and with a sharp stone or shell inserted in a 
 groove at the point ; below is the strap by which it is 
 fastened to the shaft, which fits on to its lower end. 
 Harpoon- points of flint, exactly hke this one from the 
 Kurile Islands, are also found here in Scania (PL III. 
 figs. 4;5, 48). 
 
 Similar harpoons of many varieties, both of bone 
 
 and of wood, are found amongst savages. They are 
 
 alwa)-s provided with a smaller or greater number 
 
 of barbs at the side. The stone points vary also in 
 
 bhape; sometimes they are as in PL III. figs. 45, 47. 
 
 Siirh arc likewise found in Scania, especially in the 
 
 s;iih1 upon the shore between Ystad and Ahus. The 
 
 br<i;i(l liead seems to indicate that they have been 
 
 ]ini'p()ons rather than arrow-heads. On PL V. fig. 
 
 100, I have sketched such an antique harpoon-point 
 
 i'vom the north of Ireland; and on tie same Plate 
 
 fio-. 99, is a similar one from America. 
 
 It appears to me certain that P]. X. fio-. 203 has 
 
Oh. I.] IIARrOONS. 29 
 
 been the stone point of a harpoon, similarly con- 
 structed. A person who had long resided in Green- 
 land recognised it at once as such; and in order 
 to show me the way in which the stone point had 
 been fastened to the harpoon, and the harpoon to the 
 shaft, he provided it with a piece of wood as repre- 
 sented in the sketch, PI. III. fig. 49. At the lower 
 end of this piece of wood is an indentation into which 
 the shaft of the harpoon enters. Below is the loop 
 by which the harpoon is attached to the shaft as well 
 as the strap, to the end of which a bladder is tied. 
 This harpoon-point of flint (PI. X. fig. 203) was 
 found in the earth near the sea-shore of the sound of 
 Lomma, in Scania. PI. 111. figs. 42, 46, appear to me 
 to be also harpoon-points. I received the originals 
 from His (then) Royal Highness Prince Christian 
 of Denmark (afterwards King Christian YIIL), in 
 whose exceedingly rich museum was also j^reserved 
 a collection of stone antiquities, found in Xorth 
 America, and which, according to the information 
 received therefrom, belonged to a tribe which was 
 extirpated ninety or a hundred years ago.* 
 
 Harpoons of bone, sharp pointed, with barbs on one 
 side, are occasionally found in our ancient peat-bogs 
 in Scania. Such a one is seen on PL IV. fig. 71. 
 This harpoon-point appears, like those from Green- 
 land, to have been fastened to its long shaft in such 
 
 * It is very remarkable that all these antiquities, as has been 
 mentioned before, are exactly like those which are found here in 
 Europe. An antiquarian research in those parts of America where 
 they are found would be of the greatest interest to ethnology. 
 
30 TIIE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 a manner as to be disengaged therefrom when it stuck 
 fast in the harpooned animal, because above the 
 point of attachment is a projection over which the 
 strap or line seems to have been tied. It was found 
 in Scania in a bog near the sea-coast. It may have 
 been used for hunting seals, or small whales, or other 
 similar animals. Meanwhile, it is very remarkable 
 that amongst the objects which Messrs. Christy and 
 Lartet have found in the caves of Perigord, and 
 which may be considered as being among the most 
 ancient traces of man in Europe, are harpoons of 
 bone, which seem to have been helved in the same 
 manner (PL IV. fig. 72). Other harpoons of bone 
 (PL IV. fig. 69) are hkewise found in Scanian bogs, 
 like the former, fig. 71, but showing traces of having 
 been helved in a somewhat different manner, namely, 
 by the point of bone being fastened to the handle. 
 A great number of bone harpoons, more or less like 
 this one, are to be seen in the British I\Iuseum (PL IV. 
 fig. 70), all from Tierra del Fuego, labelled, ' Heads 
 of Fishing-spears used by the Natives of Tierra del 
 Fuego.' * We thus see that these bone points are 
 really fishing-harpoons. The length of those from 
 Tierra del Fuego is 9f to 15f inches. Those from 
 Scania are from 9f to 12f inches in length. They 
 are thus alike both in length and shape, and there is 
 therefore every reason to assume that they were 
 destined for nearly the same purpose. But we are 
 not aware how they were used in Tierra del Fuego, 
 
 * See also Prehistoric Times, %. 156, page 43C!. 
 
Ch. I.] HARPOONS. 31 
 
 whether they were shot from a bow, thrown by the 
 hand, or used for striking, because we have not seen 
 in the British Museum,* or elsewhere, any specimen 
 having a shaft, t We ought also to reckon amongst the 
 harpoons of bone sketched on PL IV., figs. 73 and 74, 
 both found in bogs ; the former in the south of Scania, 
 the latter in the island of Seeland ; one rather like 
 the latter was also found in Scania, in the parish of 
 Tryde, and is preserved in my late collection in Lund. 
 2. Harpoons with movable Points (PL III. figs. 52, 
 53). — These are of a more complicated construction 
 than the former. The flint point, lancet-shaped, is 
 fixed in a round bone shaft, ending in two points, 
 between which points is a hole, into which the end 
 of the central piece projects. Through the side holes 
 goes a strong strap, made of sinews, which connects 
 the two pieces of bone together. Round them and 
 the strap is twisted a strong thread, in order to 
 keep them in a straight position, and a cross-peg is 
 inserted between the two pieces of bone. The lower 
 end of the central piece is fastened to the harpoon- 
 
 * Captain Wemgren informs us that the savages in the islands of the 
 Pacific are in the habit of fishing sometimes with hooks and at other 
 times with well-made nets, and that they occasionally shoot the fish 
 with arrows from their canoes; when the fish rise,'they pierce them 
 with their javelins, then jump overboard and secure their prey. It 
 seems that the harpoons of this kind found in Scania may also have 
 been used by fishermen, while sitting in their boat, to shoot or 
 transfix the fish, especially as these harpoons have been discovered 
 at the bottom of bogs which have formerly been small lakes, where 
 the skeletons of gigantic pike are occasionally found, which may 
 have been proper objects of such fishing with harpoons. 
 
 t See also Note 2. 
 
33 TUB STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 shaft, and the strap ah-eady mentioned is joined to 
 the long cord, at the end of which the bladder is 
 attached. When the harpoon has entered the animal 
 (it is principally used in catching blubber animals, 
 such as seals and whales), the terminal piece buries 
 itself completely in the wound, and then separates 
 itself from the shaft, when, owing to the mode in 
 which the strap is attached, it comes to He across the 
 wound inside the hide of the animal, and operates, 
 of course, as a strong barb. The originals of these 
 figures are preserved in my late collection, and are 
 from the Kurile Islands. The Esquimaux in Green- 
 land also use harpoons of the same construction.* 
 
 There are undoubtedly as many harpoons of wood 
 as of bone, and when made of wood they are always 
 provided with a barb of stone. This was the case not 
 only with those made by the savages of Scandinavia, 
 but also with those of other savages. It is easy to un- 
 derstand that the part of the harpoon made of wood 
 must have decayed, leaving only the stone point ; it is 
 therefore worth enquiring if, among the stone points 
 found in our antiquities, there are any lilce those with 
 which the harpoons of existing savages are provided, 
 as in that case they have probably been handled in 
 the same manner. We have already seen that such 
 articles of flint as those from Mexico and the Kurile 
 Islands are also found in the south of Sweden. It 
 
 * It is worthy of remark, tliat iron harpoons, of nearly the same 
 construction and with movable points, are used on the west coast 
 of Norway for catching sharks {Squahis maximus). I saw some 
 during my first visit to Norway in 1816. 
 
Ch. I.] FISII-SPEARS. 33 
 
 ought, however, to be observed that it is difficult to 
 draw a line of demarcation between the stone points 
 which have been harpoons^ and those which have 
 belonged to arrows^ because the same stone point 
 could have been adapted either to a harpoon or to an 
 arrow. 
 
 § 4. Next in order to the harpoon I shall speak 
 of the leister (or jisli-spear)^ and begin with the one 
 which I saw and sketched in 1836, in the Museum 
 at Bristol (PI. IV. fig. 75), and which, according to 
 the label attached to it, is from the north-west coast 
 of North America. Beside it I have sketched one 
 half of a similar spear (fig. 76), also from North 
 America. We see by the sketch how this instrument 
 was constructed. On the top of a long pole are 
 fastened two tolerably long sharp-pointed bones, the 
 points bent a little outwards, and the inner side pro- 
 vided with teeth pointing backwards, to hold the fish 
 securely when struck. These bones are fastened to 
 the shaft in such a manner that each, independently 
 of the other, is in some way movable inwards and 
 outwards; their sides are therefore flat at the other 
 end, and the inner edge provided with one or more 
 teeth, pointing forwards in order to be tied fast, so 
 that they cannot be torn away by the fish; and, in 
 order to prevent their being bent too much apart, 
 they are tied together by means of a strap at a short 
 distance from the handle. 
 
 A nearly similar leister, from the north part of 
 North America, north of Hudson's Bay (PI. IV. figs. 
 77, 78), is preserved in the ethnological department 
 
34 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 of the Museum at Copenliagen. Its entire length is 
 38 inches, of which the wooden shaft measures 31 f 
 inches; the bone points, in all 11 inches long, are, to 
 a length of 5 inches, fastened to the shaft, and con- 
 sequently protrude 6 inches beyond it. The shaft 
 is round, about ^ inch in diameter, somewhat com- 
 pressed in front of the lower end, the end itself 
 cut off diagonally with an incised broad round notch, 
 showing that a thick bow-string has been resting 
 thereon ; at the end three feathers are fastened length- 
 Avise. It appears, however, that this implement was 
 made rather for shooting birds on the wing than 
 for spearing iish in the water. 
 
 But be this how it may, it is nevertheless very 
 remarkable that the half of an implement, evidently 
 similar to this last-mentioned one, has been found 
 in the peat-bog of Felsmosse, about three English 
 miles from Lund, in the province of Scania. I have 
 sketched this on Plate IV. fig. 79. This bone dart 
 is 7 inches long, round, and compressed ; the back 
 a little thicker, pointed towards the top end, round 
 and bent outwards a little ; the inner side some- 
 Avhat compressed, with five broad incisions form- 
 ing teeth, bent backwards ; the lower end broader 
 and also compressed, the inner edge pro\T.ded with 
 obhque notches forming teeth, pointing forwards, 
 which thus prevent the dart from being drawn for- 
 ward. But what still more shows the perfect like- 
 ness between the North American and the Scanian 
 instrument is, that if we carefully examine the lat- 
 ter we shall find it scratched transversely in two 
 
Oh. I.] nsri-SPEARS. .35 
 
 places, the one at the place where the strings on the 
 American one attach the points to the shaft, and 
 the other a little way higher up, where the shaft ends 
 in the American implement, and where the points 
 are tied round ; the Scanian dart is in other respects 
 entirely even and smooth. 
 
 Thus we see that the Scanian implement was con- 
 structed exactly in the same manner as the American, 
 and it is difficult for us to understand how implements 
 so complicated could have been constructed so com- 
 pletely alike by the Esquimaux of the present day, 
 living in the most northern part of North America, 
 and by the aborigines in the most southern part of 
 Scandinavia, between which two races, so very dissi- 
 milar in origin, and so widely separated as to locality, 
 we cannot suppose any relationship to have existed. 
 That implements so simple in construction as the 
 flint arrow should be alike in most countries, even in 
 Scania and Tierra del Fuego, can be explained by a 
 kind of instinct in man, as man, everywhere, as long 
 as he stands at the very lowest point of civilisation ; 
 but the perfect similarity between implements so 
 complicated as those now in question, I look upon 
 as ontf of the great, still unsolved, enigmas of ethno- 
 logical science. 
 
 § 5. The Spear. — This implement of the chase can 
 also be used for killing marine animals which have 
 been secured with the harpoon. The spear which I 
 have sketched (PI. III. fig. 54) is of flint, and is pre- 
 served in the British Museum, and labelled ^Flint- 
 headed Spear.' It is from Point Barrow. There is 
 
 D 2 
 
m THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 also one from Kotzebue Sound. Both are fastened to 
 a long, somewhat slender and light wooden shaft, of 
 some kind of pine-wood, and measuring 5 to 5| feet in 
 length, tapering towards both ends, especially towards 
 the lower end. The flint point is deeply inserted 
 in the top end of the shaft, and wound roimd with 
 thread. 
 
 Flint spear-points like these are not unfrequently 
 met with here. I possess a number of them of various 
 sizes, found in different parts of Scania. Compare 
 PL III. figs. 61, 62, and others. 
 
 We also often find here spear-heads of a more 
 slender shape and greater length ; they are generally 
 thin ; compare PI. III. figs. 55, 57. Sometimes they 
 are extremely long, broad, and thin. In the Museum 
 of the Academy of Antiquities, in Stockholm, there is 
 one measuring 14| inches in length, and 2f inches in 
 breadth, and very thin. The largest which I have 
 seen was 15 inches long by 2^ inches broad, and not 
 more than §ths of an inch thick. The ordinary length 
 is 7 to 8 inches, by l^ inch in breadth. That these 
 spears, as well as the former ones, must have been 
 provided with long wooden shafts, is more than proba- 
 ble. They must in that case have made most excellent 
 hunting implements for killing the larger mammalia, 
 such as the urus, bison, elk, stag, reindeer, wild boar, 
 and others, which, at the time when these spears 
 were in use, were abundant in the south of Scandi- 
 navia. They were, however, unsuitable as weapons of 
 war against an armed enemy, being too brittle. Even 
 amongst these there is no other difi^erence between 
 
Ch. I.] SPEARS. ;{7 
 
 the blade and the shaft-handle, than that the edges 
 of the latter are more blunt. Such a bone spear is 
 preserved in the Museum at Bristol (PL III. fig. 56), 
 and is labelled : ' Head of an Esquimaux Spear, East 
 Coast of Greenland, Lat. 74° 32' N.' 
 
 We have also found here in Sweden some spears 
 of bone (PI. III. fig. 58 ; PI. IV. fig. 68) made of 
 thigh-bones, so that the shaft was inserted in the 
 lance-head, not the head in the shaft. They were, 
 moreover, secured by a wooden peg passing through 
 both the shaft and the handle. These bone spears 
 are no doubt synchronous with the flint spears, having 
 been found near HogsmoUa, and in other places in 
 Scania, in a deep peat-bog, in which also stone im- 
 plements were discovered. 
 
 In the British Museum a spear is preserved from 
 the interior of Chili; it is of iron, but of the same 
 shape as the flint spear which I have sketched on 
 PI. III. fig. 44. The shaft is of bamboo, and about 
 four fathoms in length. 
 
 There is no doubt that the similar flint spears 
 found in Sweden were also mounted on long wooden 
 shafts, and would have been excellent implements 
 for killing the larger mammalia. Spears of this 
 form occur of various sizes, from 3 to 8 inches in 
 length (compare PI. III. fig. 62). One variety 
 has the haffc shortet and broader (see PL III. fig. 
 61), and resembles PL III. fig. 54. Others have no 
 shaft, but they have been attached to the handle 
 by means of a notch, at the sides near the lower 
 end, as in PL VI. fig. 120, found in the earth in 
 
3S THE STONE AGE. [Cn. I. 
 
 Ohio, nortli of Cincinnati. PI. ^^I. fig. 121 is a 
 spear, the point of attachment of which has been 
 broken off ; the sides near the broken end have after- 
 wards been provided with notches, in order to allow 
 of its beino; tied to the shaft. It was found in the 
 south of Scania. 
 
 The spear which is sketclied on PI. III. fig. 59 is 
 a peculiarly shaped one. None similar to it has 
 been found as yet, either in the south of Sweden 
 or in Denmark ; but it is met with in the northern 
 and central parts of this country. This specimen is 
 from Kolmarden, and in tlie Museum of the Academy 
 of Antiquities, in Stockholm. A similar one is pre- 
 served from Xorrland, measuring 7|- inches in length, 
 and Ig inch in breadth. This form of spear is never 
 of flint, but of a hard slatestone.* 
 
 § 6. Knives: — 
 
 1. The Hunting -knife. — This ranks next to the 
 spear; and, indeed, a spear is, properly speaking, 
 nothing but such a knife fostened to a long shaft. It 
 is, therefore, often impossible to judge from the blade 
 whether it has been a spear or a knife. 
 
 I will begin by mentioning a stone knife from New 
 Zealand, preserved in the British Museum, in London 
 (PL III. fig. 65). The blade, consisting of a kind 
 
 * It is probably not so ancient as the flint spears. Those parts 
 of the country in which it is found with us were, according to some 
 opinions, to which I shall refer by and by, not yet inhabited when 
 stone implements were first used in the south of Sweden and Den- 
 mark. One similar, of bronze, and of about the same length, 10-11 
 inches, was found in England, and copied in the Primeval Antiqm- 
 ties of Denmark, page 30. 
 
' -H. I.] HUNTIXG-KNIYES. ?,£ 
 
 of jasper-like stone, is, exclusive of the handle, 3-^ 
 inches long. If inch broad, lancet-shaped, pointed, 
 and with chipped edges. It is fastened by means 
 of some ^black gum, or cement, to a wooden handle, 
 which has been tightly wound round with some 
 strongly twined thread,* at the lower part of the 
 blade. The handle is about 5 inches long, roundly 
 compressed, a little widened at the back, split at the 
 end, and provided with a small round hole, in which 
 a strong cord is inserted, forming a loop 14 inches 
 long, pi'obably for carrying the knife. 
 
 Similar knife-blades made of flint are often found 
 in Northern Europe. It is clear that in those cases 
 where the handles were made of wood, these latter 
 have decayed, so that only the blade remains. To 
 these belong, without doubt, PI. V. fig. 80, PI. III. 
 fig. 60, and perhaps also PI. V. fig. 83. This last- 
 mentioned flint blade has evidently had a broad 
 handle. 
 
 Other flint knives, which are not common with 
 ns, have the handles also of stone (PI. III. figs. 63, 
 64, 66, G7 ; also PI. V. figs. 81, 22). These handles 
 are frequently nearly of the same shape as the 
 wooden handle which is sketched here, namely, 
 roundly compressed, widened at the back, and even a 
 little indented, as, for instance, PL III. fig. 67. 
 
 It is scarcely to be doubted that the modern New 
 Zealand, and the ancient Scandinavian, stone knife, 
 which in all essentials are perfectly alike, have been 
 used for the same purpose. Of these ancient Scandi- 
 
 * Probably of Phorminm lenax. 
 
40 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 iiavian stone knives^ with handles widened towards 
 the back, there are four varieties : — 
 
 1. Those with the handle roundly compressed, 
 widened towards the back, but not very elaborately 
 finished (PL V. fig. 82). 
 
 2. Those with a similar handle, but with the 
 sides, which form a continuation of the edge, carved 
 (fig. 81). 
 
 3. Those with one of the broad sides carved along 
 the middle, the other flat (PI. III. fig. 67). 
 
 4. Those in which both the long sides, as well as 
 the edges, are carved (fig. 66). These latter espe- 
 cially are frequently worked with great skill. 
 
 Besides those knives with handles widened towards 
 the back, there is a form of knife frequently met with 
 here, with square handles of stone of uniform breadth, 
 and cut off" straight at the back. It is shown amongst 
 those already sketched (PI. III. figs. 63, 64). These 
 also are frequently more or less tastefully carved along 
 the edges ; we have two varieties of them : — 
 
 1. With the blade longer than the handle, lancet- 
 shaped, and pointed (fig. 64). 
 
 2. With the blade shorter than the handle, less 
 pointed, and more oval (fig. 63). In the former, the 
 handle forms an acute angle with the edge, and in the 
 latter, with the flat side of the blade.* 
 
 2. Cutting-knife — Under this name I propose to 
 
 denote a variety of flint knife which is more rarely 
 
 found amongst our antiquities. It has a sharp edge 
 
 along one side, and a broad chipped curved back 
 
 * See Note 2. 
 
Cn. I.] KMVES. 
 
 along the other (PL V. figs. 84, 85) ; it resemble 
 consequently, very much what is called a ' Dutchman 
 knife,' or kitchen-knife, and is generally from 5 to 
 inches long, by If to If inch broad. The edge 
 always chipped, never ground or notched, except tl 
 back, which is notched across. That it has been pr( 
 vided with a wooden handle cannot be doubted. Tl 
 edge is always sharpened on the right side, whic 
 shows that it has been made for cutting away fror, 
 not towards, the person using it (fig. hS), provide 
 Avith a broad hewn notch to bind it to the handle 
 both the specimens figured were found in Scania. 
 
 3. Semilunar Knife. — This shape I have nothithe 
 to found amongst the implements belonging to an 
 other tribes than those living in the Polar regioi 
 of North America; but amongst the Esquimaux 
 appears to be common. There is one preserved i 
 the Museum at Bristol (PL V. fig. 86), which 
 entered in the Catalogue as '•Knife obtained fro\ 
 the Esquimaux Indians^ East Coast of Greenlani 
 Lat. 74° 40' N.^ It is made of iron, and has bot 
 ends broken ofi^; but both Sir John Ross, and D: 
 Richardson, who happened to be in Bristol at \h 
 time of my visit there in 1836, and who, as is we 
 known, have long resided amongst the Esquimaux i 
 North America, agreed with me that the Esquimau 
 knife in question is of an unusual shape, dependin 
 on that of the piece of iron from which it was mad( 
 Dr. Richardson assured me that he had often see 
 knives of stone amongst the Esquimaux of Nort 
 America, of the same shape as those semilunar knive 
 
42 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. I. 
 
 of which I shall speak farther on ; and Sir John Ross 
 told me that he had seen similar ones of bone amongst 
 the Esquimaux in Boothia. 
 
 The handle is of wood, frequently like the one 
 sketched here, but sometimes of a somewhat different 
 shape. This one is of some kind of fir-wood, badly 
 cut, and wound round with a strap of seal-skin, in 
 order to hold fast the blade in the slit of the handle 
 in which it has been inserted. The Esquimaux call 
 these knives olomik^ or ulomik^ which, I beUeve, is the 
 plural of olo or ulo. 
 
 Such flint forms are frequently found here in 
 Sweden ; they occur in a great variety of shape and 
 size (see PI. Y. figs. 87, 91). Some are shorter, 
 broader, with one side bent, the other straight (fig. 
 88) ; length from 4 to 4^ inches, breadth 1| to 2 
 inches. The edges of these are merely roughly 
 sharpened. Others are narrower and longer, from 6 
 to 7^ inches long. Amongst these the most bent 
 side is almost alwaj's sharpened ; the other side 
 is occasionally a little bent inwards (fig. 87), some- 
 times straight or bent outwards a little, and toothed 
 (fig. 91). This implement seems, in that case, to 
 have been used both as a knife and as a saw. 
 Lastl}', we find occasionally specimens of the latter 
 shape, roughly toothed on both edges (fig. 90). 
 These appear to have been used as saws. There is 
 reason to believe that in some specimens the handle 
 has enclosed one edge, the edge having been in- 
 serted in a groove running lengthwise. It is pro- 
 bable that the curved knife formed as a saw (PI. Y. 
 
Ch. I.] ARROWS. 
 
 fig. 91) has had such a handle. These so-called sem 
 lunar knives occasionally, as in fig. 89, have one er 
 chipped up, so that it may fit into a handle. 
 
 § 7. Arrows. — Everybody knows how the arrow 
 shot from a bow, provided with a string. For tk 
 purpose it has a round, slender, wooden shaft, mo 
 or less long. Arrows, headed with stone, are st 
 used by many savages. We may divide arrow-heai 
 into such as have, and such as have not, a tang 
 projection for insertion into the shaft. Of the form 
 we have two forms, both amongst the ancient ones, ai 
 also amongst those still used ; the long and the slw. 
 An arrow of this description (PI. V. fig. 102) is pi 
 served in the British Museum. The shaft is slend( 
 light, 2 feet 8 inches long, and at the lower end, 
 usual, provided with feathers. Of the latter for: 
 PI. V. fig. 107 represents one from Scania; fig. 1( 
 another from Tierra del Fuego. Those provided wi 
 shafts, which 1 have had, were from California (PI. 
 figs. 104, 105). The shafts are about 2 feet lor 
 and the heads tied on by means of strings of gi 
 which have dried on round the shaft. 
 
 Long stone arrow-heads with a shaft-tongue (pi 
 are not unfrequently found in the ground in Swede 
 These have been chipped out of flint-flakes, mc 
 or less thin ; sometimes they consist only of flii 
 splinters with a chipped tongue (PL II. fig. 3S) ; son 
 times they are chipped along the edges (fig. 39 
 sometimes toothed (PL V- fig. 92), when they i 
 proach more nearly the triangular form. Lastly, 
 find those which are triangular, with the sides a 
 
44 THE STONE AGE. [Gh. I. 
 
 angles equal, and with chipped edges, occasionally- 
 more or less distinctly toothed (PI. II. fig. 40). Such 
 a flint arrow-head resembles a small bayonet. 
 
 There is a kind of arrow-head made of an oblong, 
 three-cornered piece of bone, pointed at both ends ; 
 and on both sides provided with a narrow groove, 
 running lengthwise (PL XIII. fig. 241). As far as 
 I know, arrow-heads of this kind have hitherto been 
 found only in the island of Oland, and it is un- 
 certain whether they belong to the Stone Age. 
 
 The short arrow-head, with a pin or tang, is more 
 slender and flat. To this form belong PL III. figs. 
 45, 47, and others. The larger ones of this form 
 cannot be distinguished from harpoons ; fig. 47 is of 
 quartz; fig. 45 of flint; fig. 103, PL V., is of obsi- 
 dian, from Tierra del Fuego, and was used, I am 
 informed, as a knife. 
 
 Arrow-points icithout a Tang. — These are always 
 tolerably thin and broad, both side edges chipped, 
 and more or less excavated at the base (PI. V. figs. 
 94-98, 113, 114); sometimes they are provided on 
 both the flat sides with a notch, in order to be tied to 
 the shaft (PL V. fig. 104). This form comes near 
 the harpoon-head (PL X. fig. 203), and can be dis- 
 tinguished from it only by the size. They are often 
 without any side grooves, in which case they are 
 fastened in a sht at the end of the shaft (PL V. figs. 
 94-98). I saw, in London, in 1836, at Mr. Stokes's, 
 arrows from California, headed with a triangular piece 
 of metal of exactly the same shape as the flint arrow- 
 head found in Scania (PL V. fig. 113); and in the 
 
Ch. I.] SPEARS AND JAVELINS. 
 
 collection of the late King Christian VIII. we 
 similar ones of flint from North America.* 
 
 § 8. Next in order to spears and arrows stands 
 peculiar group of stone implements, all known frc 
 their being two-edged, more or less sharp-pointe 
 broadest at the lower end, which is chipped thinn 
 in order to allow of its being inserted in a slit at t 
 end of a wooden shaft. To this class belongs t 
 stone spear (PL VI. fig. 119). It is round, coi 
 pressed, with sharpened side edges, pointed in froi 
 at the back thin and sharpened, so tliat it can 
 inserted in a shaft. Length up to 10 or 12 inche 
 breadth from 1 inch 3" to 1 inch 5". We ofti 
 find some shorter, broader, and thinner; the low 
 end sometimes straight, sometimes cut out rouD 
 but always sharpened, and the front part alwa 
 pointed (PL VI. fig. 118). Length 7f inches, bread 
 2 inches; or length 6 inches, breadth 1-5 inche; 
 or length 7 inches, breadth If inch. These form t] 
 transition to harpoons and arrows. 
 
 § 9. Javelins. — This hunting implement we find st 
 in use amongst the inhabitants of the Kurile Islan 
 and in Greenland. The one sketched here (PL V 
 fig. 122) is from the former place. They are of bo: 
 or wood, 6 to 10 inches long, round, but along o: 
 side usually provided with an edge, and that ed; 
 notched so as to form two or three points or bar 
 directed backwards, the top sometimes armed wi 
 
 * In tlie collection made by Sir George Simpson in the Huds 
 Bay territory, are similar arrows, some tipped witli stone, oth 
 witli metal. 
 
4li THE STONE AGE. [Ch. L 
 
 a small sharp stone-flake, but sometimes merely 
 sharpened; the lower end pointed so as to be in- 
 serted in a wooden shaft about 5 feet long. This 
 implement is now, in Greenland, made of iron, and 
 provided with one or two barbs (PI. VI. fig. 123) 
 (see also Craiitz, ' History of Greenland,' PI. V. figs. 
 (", 7); formerly it was made of bone (as we may 
 see by those found in ancient Esquimaux graves). 
 H. Egede says of them, in ' Gronland's Perlustration,' 
 page 56 : — ' On the water they (the Greenlanders) do 
 not shoot birds by means of a bow and arrows, as on 
 land, but kill them with the javelin, which, at the 
 point, is provided with a sharp bone or iron.' This 
 proves that even as late as the time of Egede, the 
 javelin was in Greenland sometimes made of bone. 
 
 We find now and then in our peat-mosses im- 
 plements (PL YI. figs. 124, 125, 126) which have 
 evidently been used in the same manner as the 
 javelin from the Kurile Islands, above described. 
 These implements are of bone, 6 to 10 inches long, 
 2| to 3 or 4 lines broad, occasionally round, but 
 generally rather compressed, tapering to a point 
 towards both ends, and either provided along both 
 sides with a deeply indented groove (figs. 125, 126), 
 into which thin sharp flakes of flint are inserted, and 
 lastened by means of black putty resembling pitch,* 
 
 * This burns with n strong flame, and is a resin exactly like 
 that which forms the chief ingredient in the 'pigmy-bread,' or 
 ' incense-loaves,' which are here found in the earth or in bogs and 
 which Huhnefeld quite seriously considered to be petrified Seanian 
 bread. See Isis, 1836, page 718. 
 
Ch. 1.] JAVELINS. 4 
 
 or the gi'oove with the flint-flakes is found only alon 
 one side (fig. 124).* The front end is pointed, an 
 behind, the point is occasionally widened, in shap 
 like a spear-point, so that the whole bone represent 
 a spear in miniature, with its long shaft ; the groov 
 holding the flint- splinters does not reach quite to th 
 point. Such is the implement in its original form, bu 
 by degrees, as it wears out and is again sharpened t 
 a point, the spear-shaped expansion disappears an 
 the point is worn down to the grooves. The hinde 
 end is likewise sharp-pointed, and has evidently bee: 
 inserted in a wooden shaft. Generally this end i 
 to a certain distance less smooth than the remainde 
 of the bone, and sometimes the resin, by means c 
 which it has been cemented in the shaft, remains u 
 to a little more than 1 inch (fig. 12G). This imph 
 ment is principally found in bogs in the south c 
 Scania, also in the province of Bohusland on Tjor 
 (west coast of Sweden) ; it is said to have been als 
 found in the island of Oland. In the Museum of th 
 Academy of Antiquities, in Stockholm, there is 
 specimen, the longest which I have seen (10 inche 
 in length), found during the digging of the Goth 
 Canal, between Pafvelstorp and T8,torp, in peal 
 earth, under a bed of clay, and 8 feet under grounc 
 But where there is peat-earth there must hav 
 been water; consequently, everything that is foun 
 on, and especially under, peat-earth, has sunk t 
 the bottom in some water. It is probable, therefore 
 
 * The point is said to have been occasionally armed with a flin- 
 splinter, as in the Kurile Islands. 
 
48 THE STONE AGE. [t'a. I. 
 
 that the implements in question, while being used on 
 the water, have dropped therein and gone to the 
 bottom. In order to form a correct idea of the 
 manner in which these implements were used by the 
 Scandinavian aborigines, we ought to enquire how 
 they are employed amongst the nations where they 
 are still in use. 
 
 The Greenlander uses this weapon only on the 
 water, in the pursuit of aquatic birds. It is provided 
 with a shaft five feet in length, ending at the back 
 with some ornament, generally a reindeer foot or 
 something of that kind, and is thrown by hand at 
 birds while they are resting on the water. It strikes 
 usually at the distance of from fifty to sixty paces, 
 and Egede relates that the Greenlander can hit his 
 prey at a tolerably long distance, as surely as a 
 good shot could do it with a fowling-piece. From 
 his early childhood the Greenlander begins to prac- 
 tise throwing the bird-javelin. It is thrown by 
 means of a throwing -stick or board^ with such force 
 that it flies whizzing through the air, and with such 
 wonderful skill that it generally pierces the head of 
 the duck. 
 
 There is scarcely any doubt that the darts here 
 sketched have been the same kind of hunting: im- 
 plements, and that they have been employed in 
 the same way. That they have been, and were in- 
 tended to be, thrown by hand, we can easily see, be- 
 cause they could have been used only on the water ; 
 for if thrown on land they must infallibly have 
 been broken to pieces and destroyed. They are, 
 therefore, found only in peat-bogs, which in former 
 
Ch. L] slings. 49 
 
 times were open waters, sometimes of considerable 
 extent. They occur not unfrequently in the south 
 of Sweden. Our museums contain a great number 
 of them ; but in Denmark they are rare. 
 
 After the javelin^ we shall here speak of another 
 kind of weapon, also intended to be thrown, namely, 
 the sling-stone. 
 
 That slings and sling-stones are used both as wea- 
 pons of war and implements of the chase amongst 
 many savage nations now living, we know from 
 accounts received from travellers, and by the slings 
 and sling-stones brought home by them, and preserved 
 in several of the European ethnographical museums. 
 We see, from accounts of the ancients relating to 
 their battles, that, even as late as the Iron Age, the 
 inhabitants of Scandinavia, as well as the Greeks, in 
 their wars with the savage hordes of Asia, used 
 the shng and sling-stone amongst their weapons. 
 The practice of throwing with the sling dates, pro- 
 bably, amongst ourselves, as far back as the time of 
 the pure Stone Age. 
 
 From the remotest times two kinds of slings have 
 been in use : wooden slings * and ribbon-slings. Since 
 this was written, I have seen Ed. Vischer's ' Antike 
 Schleudergeschosse.' Basil, 1866. The author does 
 not seem aware that any other than ribbon-slings 
 have been found; but besides having myself, as a 
 
 * It appears that it was with such a sling that David flung the 
 stone at Goliath's forehead, because Goliath said to him, 'Am I a dog, 
 that thou comest to me with staves ? ' i.e. the shepherd's staff and 
 sling-handle. 1 Sam. xvii. 43. 
 
 E 
 
60 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. I. 
 
 boy, used the wooden sling, and frequently seen it 
 used by other boys, I can refer to one described in 
 Lepsius's work. The wooden sling consists of a 
 stick, in the upper part or near the end of which is a 
 slit or hole, in which the stone is put ; such a sling 
 with a hole is sketched in Lepsius's great work on 
 Egypt, where a man is represented, at whose feet lies 
 a heap of small stones, and who holds in his hand a 
 wooden sling of this description, which he appears 
 to be using very actively in the fight. 
 
 The other kind, the ribbon-sling, consists of a string 
 or strap, of the breadth of about one to two inches, 
 and is about three feet long. One end is twisted 
 round the forefinger of the right hand, the other 
 held between that finger and the thumb; the sling- 
 stone is placed in the loop formed by the ribbon, 
 and the sling then swung round the head until the 
 stone has obtained a sufficiently swift motion, when 
 one end of the ribbon is let go, and the stone flies 
 forward with immense speed through the air. Those 
 who have long practised the use of this weapon are 
 able to take a good aim with it. We see by this that 
 the sling-stones must be smooth, and, in preference, 
 oval ; but they need not be so carefully fashioned as 
 was formerly thought necessary. All round articles 
 of antiquity were, until lately, considered to be sling- 
 stones, as, for instance, those which are seen on 
 Pi. I. figs. 1, 9, 12, 14, and others, PL XI. fig. 216, 
 and almost all plummet-stones as well. But a httle 
 reflection will convince us of the absurdity of sup- 
 posing that a man would give himself all this trouble 
 
Ch. I.] THE EIBBON-SLING. 51 
 
 to fashion sling-stones, which were to be thrown 
 away the next moment, when he could find many 
 natural pebbles quite as suitable. The stones called 
 by the Danish antiquaries flinte-knuder have also been 
 regarded as sling-stones ; * but they are too irregular 
 and too sharp-cornered, so that they would soon wear 
 out the shng, even if it were made of leather. I pre- 
 sume that these sharp-cornered stone balls were the 
 first hand-missile weapons of the earhest and rudest 
 savages, and used by them to throw at wild animals 
 or enemies. I have since had many proofs that the 
 stone (PI. V. fig. 115) which was sketched in the first 
 edition of this work, twenty-eight years ago, actually 
 was a sling-stone as I then conjectured. During 
 my visit to England and France, I saw, in the British 
 Museum, and in the Louvre, many such sling-stones, 
 both fi'om New Caledonia and from New Zealand, 
 made of a greyieh-white, sometimes bluish, very 
 heavy kind of stone, which I took to be a kind of 
 spar. On PI. V. two such (figs. 116, 117) are sketched 
 by the side of the Swedish one. The one from New 
 Caledonia, which I measured, was 2 inches long and 
 1 inch in diameter; another from New Zealand was 
 If inch long, and also 1 inch in diameter. They are 
 all somewhat smaller than those found here, of which 
 three are preserved in the Museum at Lund and 
 two at Stockholm, being of a heavier kind of stone. 
 Not only the sling-stones^ but also the slings, are 
 preserved in the said museums. They are made 
 of bast, artistically plaited into long strong ribbons, 
 
 * See Prehistoric Times, PI. I. fig. 12, page 60. 
 E 2 
 
52 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 and widened in the middle so as to form a kind 
 of cushion woven of bast threads, on which the 
 stone rests when it is to be thrown. M. De Long- 
 perier, conservator of the Museum at the Louvre, in- 
 formed me that one occasionally sees ribbon-slings 
 di-awn on Greek monuments and Etruscan vases* 
 There are also at the above-named museums, sling- 
 stones of lead with Greek inscriptions; they are gene- 
 rally a little smaller than those of stone, on account of 
 thfir greater weight; the usual length is If inch, 
 only one as much as If inch in length, but they are 
 all nearly of the same shape as the stones, though 
 not round like them, but somewhat compressed. The 
 Romans called them acorns (glandes)^ from their 
 shape, and cast them of 'lead (glandes liventis plumbi, 
 Virg. ' /Eneid,' vii. 687). Compare ' J2neid,' ix. 586- 
 589, where the poet describes how the lead acorn is 
 slung and kills. There is no doubt that such slings, 
 probaljly made of a leathern strap cut out of the hide 
 of some animal, were used by the northern savages 
 both in war and in hunting ; and this weapon, in their 
 expert hands, was a never-faiHng one. The reason 
 why such carefully prepared sUng-stones are so very 
 rarely found, appears to be that the savage, like 
 David when he slew Goliath, chose smooth stones out 
 of the brook, which he could pick up on the banks of 
 the rivers and lakes beside which he dwelt, and carry 
 with him on his hunting excursions. These smooth 
 and round stones, fashioned by Nature's hand, were 
 
 * It is probably this kind of sling to which Homer alludes in the 
 Iliad, xiii. 599-600. 
 
Oh. I.] CARPENTER'S OR MECIiANIO'S TOOLS. 53 
 
 probably used by warriors even at a comparatively 
 late period. 
 
 How far the dexterity in throwing stones by the 
 hand, or by a sling, can be carried, we see by what 
 Strabo (lib. v. c. 17-lM) relates about the inhabi- 
 tants of the Balearic Islands, which islands have 
 derived their name from the Gi'eek word |3aAXE(i/, to 
 throw. He says, ' with slings they throw large stones 
 better than other people. They attain this dexterity 
 by constant practice from their youth up, for the 
 mothers fix a loaf of bread on the top of a high pole, 
 and the boys must starve until they have hit and 
 knocked down the bread.' * 
 
 DIVISION III. — carpenter's or mechanic's tools, 
 
 WITH THEIR EDGES LYING ACROSS ONE END. 
 
 The edge-tools, of which we have spoken hitherto, 
 are all provided with a point, and they all have 
 chipped, but never ground, edges along one or both 
 sides. We come now to tools which are distinguished 
 by the end opposite to the shaft being broad, rough- 
 sharpened, and frequently having a ground edge. To 
 this series belong the chisel, the axe, and others. We 
 divide them into two classes, those with and without 
 a hole for the handle. 
 
 Class I. — Implements without a Hole for the Handle. 
 
 § 1. Chisels. — These well-known implements occur 
 in the ancient graves in Scandinavia, sometimes of 
 
 * See Appendix, Note 3. 
 
54 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 Stone, sometimes of bone, but exactly alike in form, as 
 amongst the inhabitants of Otaheite and New Zealand. 
 We divide the chisels into narrow and broad chisels, 
 and we subdivide these again into square chisels and 
 hollow chisels (or gouges). We shall speak of each 
 sepai'ately. 
 
 1. The narrow square Chisel. — .A chisel of nephrite 
 (a green serpentine stone), from New Zealand, is 
 preserved in the British Museum. It was used by 
 the natives as a chisel, as lately as within the last 
 fifty years. In order to show the manner in which 
 this kind of stone implement is handled, and how it 
 has been used, I have given two sketches of it 
 (PL VI. figs. 120, 130). The stone chisel itself is 
 about 4i inches long, square, and somewhat rounded, 
 especially on the two sides; the edge is straight, and 
 sharpened from both sides. The handle, which is of 
 wood, has on one side a deep notch, against which 
 the heel of the chisel rests, and on the other side is a 
 small indentation for a string, by which the chisel is 
 tied to the handle. This string is of a coarsely 
 twined thread of the Phormium tenax. It is easy to 
 see by the crushed end of the handle that this imple- 
 ment has been used exactly in the same way as our 
 own modern iron chisels, namely, it has been driven 
 into tlie wood by means of a wooden mallet, in order 
 to produce therein square holes or indgntations. 
 
 Stone chisels, exactly similar to the New Zealand 
 one, are frequently found here in the ground. They 
 are mostly of flint, but occasionally of other kinds of 
 stone. I have seen one made of quartz, and there is one 
 
Ch. I.] STONE CHISELS. 55 
 
 of diorite preserved in my collection. The majority, 
 and the most beautiful ones are, however, as before 
 mentioned, of flint. These occur of various dimen- 
 sions, from 4 and 5 to 10 inches in length, and from 
 i to 1^ inch in breadth (PL VI. fig. 127 ). Sometimes 
 they are entirely square with flat sides; sometimes 
 more cylindrical, with the sides a little convex, and 
 with rounded edges. Like all flint instruments with 
 ground edges, they have been rough-hewn before 
 being ground. We find also some which are only 
 rough-hewn and which there has been no time to 
 grind : these have never been used. The upper part, 
 which has been covered by the wooden handle, is 
 generally rough ; the lower, uncovered part is usually 
 more even and smoothly ground ; the edge straight 
 and equally ground from both sides. We see by 
 the foregoing how this implement has been handled 
 and used (PL VI. figs. 129, 130). 
 
 Similar implements made of bone are also found in 
 our ancient funeral vaults. The one represented in 
 PL VI. fig. 128, was found in Denmark, and is pre- 
 served in the Museum of Antiquities in Copenhagen. 
 PL VI. fig. 131 represents another similar one, but 
 round, found in Scania, and preserved in the Museum 
 of Antiquities in Stockholm. That these have been 
 handled in the same manner as the stone chisels and 
 used in the same way, namely, driven into soft wood 
 by blows from a mallet, will be evident when we exa- 
 mine the bone chisel from Otaheite, of which we shall 
 speak presently. 
 
 2. The narrow hollow Chisel^ or Gouge. — This is 
 
56 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 distinguished from the square chisel merely by its 
 having one side of the lower end scooped out, the 
 other rounded, so that the edge is curvilinear. It is 
 of about the same size as the square chisel, but gene- 
 rally somewhat rounded, and the edges quite so. As 
 far as I am aware, all those hitherto found in Sweden 
 were made of flint (PI. VI. fig. 134). There can be 
 no doubt that they were handled and worked by 
 means of blows from a mallet, in the same manner 
 as the former. 
 
 I have certainly not yet met with this implement 
 amongst those which have belonged to any tribe 
 now extant in the islands of the Pacific ; but it 
 is evident that it must occur there also, especially 
 as we have several similar implements made of bone 
 from those regions. In the British Museum is a 
 narrow gouge of bone from Otaheite (PL YI. figs. 
 132, 133). It is provided with a wooden handle, 
 twisted round with a cord. But what deserves the 
 greatest attention is, that this wooden handle also 
 shows unmistakable marks of blows from some mal- 
 let. Thus the bone^ as well as the stone chisels^ have 
 been used for working in wood. 
 
 3. Chisels with Randies. — In the British Museum is 
 preserved a stone chisel, with a handle also of stone, 
 from Nootka, which is sketched on PL VI. figr. 135. 
 This implement is not of flint, but of a species of 
 dioritic stone. The handle there evidently supplies 
 the place of a wooden handle, while blows from a 
 wooden mallet are applied to the widened knob. I 
 have no doubt that this implement has been used in 
 
Ch. I.] CHISELS. 67 
 
 the same manner as the stone chisel with a woodeu 
 handle from New Zealand. 
 
 An implement which, both as to general shape and 
 material, resembles the one from Nootka, occurs also 
 amongst our articles of antiquity here in the North 
 (PL VI. fig. 136). It has repeatedly been found in 
 Denmark, and several specimens of it are preserved in 
 the Museum of Antiquities in Copenhagen. (Compare 
 Mr. Thomsen's treatise, ' Nordiske Oldsager af Steen,' 
 inserted in ' Nordisk Tidskr. for Oldkyndighet,' 1 vol., 
 page 27 (PI. III. fig. 17)). Owing to this implement 
 being made of a talcose or dioritic species of stone, 
 which very easily decays, the surface has become soft 
 and the edge blunt, and it was supposed to be unfit for 
 being used as an instrument for working in wood ; it 
 was therefore inferred ' that it was used at sacrificial 
 festivals for flaying the animals or victims about to be 
 immolated, the hide or skin having previously been 
 ripped open by means of some more cutting instrument. 
 But having seen that even chisels of hone have been 
 used as cutting instruments, there is no further room 
 for this supposition. The implement in question has 
 probably been used in the same way as the similar 
 one from Nootka, and as the stone chisels previously 
 mentioned. 
 
 Next to the narrow chisels there occurs a sort of 
 tool which differs from it merely in size. I shall call 
 these the broad chisels, and divide them in the same 
 way as the narrow chisels, namely, into broad chisels 
 with straight and with curved edge. To the former 
 belong : 
 
58 THE STONE AWE. [Ch. 1. 
 
 A. The broad square Chisel (PL VI. figs. 137, 138). 
 It is square, thick (never thin), and its section 
 forms a square, cut short oif. The edge is ground 
 convexly from both sides, but generally more from 
 one than the other. 
 
 Like all flint implements, these chisels have been 
 rough-hewn before being ground. We find, therefore, 
 specimens which have been only rough-hewn, others 
 which have been ground on the two broad sides, and 
 others again which have been ground on all sides. 
 
 a. With those sides straight which lie at right 
 angles with the edge (fig. 137), and b, with the same 
 sides bent inwards (fig. 138). The former are the 
 most numerous and the largest. Through interme- 
 diate forms they merge into the narrow chisel ; and I 
 have two in my possession which, from equally valid 
 reasons, can be classed either amongst broad chisels 
 or amongst narrow chisels. The last-mentioned form 
 (fig. 138) is not actually rare, but is less frequently met 
 with than the former, and is generally of smaller size. 
 
 There can be no doubt that this implement was 
 provided with a wooden handle, attached to it in 
 the same manner as in the New Zealand stone chisel 
 (PL VI. figs. 129, 130) ; and that it was driven 
 into the wood by blows from a mallet. The upper 
 part is consequently square and thick, to prevent its 
 penetrating into the handle whUe being used. 
 
 B. The broad Gouge (PL VI. figs. 139, 140).— 
 Amongst the etone implements brought home to the 
 museums in Europe from existing savage nations, I 
 have certainly not met with this form of chisel ; but 
 
Oh. I.] THE BROAD GOUGE. 59 
 
 some flint implements exactly similar are preserved 
 in tlie collection lately belonging to King Christian 
 at Copenbagen, which were sent here from North 
 America, where, together with several other stone 
 implements, all exactly like our Scanian ones, they 
 have been discovered in ancient burial-mounds, and 
 are said to have belonged to a tribe expelled 80 or 
 100 years ago. Meanwhde, it is easy to see how this 
 tool has been used. It is rounded, more or less 
 smooth, and often chopped off short at the upper 
 end. It has therefore evidently been made to grasp 
 with the left hand, and to be driven by blows from 
 a mallet, held ia the right hand, into the wood which 
 it was intended to scoop out. The marks left by the 
 mallet are almost always seen on the upper end. 
 But this implement is sometimes short, sometimes 
 more or less pointed ; in these cases it seems to have 
 been provided with a wooden handle, on which the 
 blows from the mallet have been inflicted. 
 
 To this division belongs, no doubt, the imple- 
 ment which has been sketched on PI. VII. fig. 146. 
 It is of an oblong conical shape, pointed at the top, 
 convex at the bottom, and with a flat-ground surface 
 on one side, sloping towards the lower end, by which 
 a somewhat rounded edge is formed. This kind of 
 implement, which is never made of flint, but gene- 
 rally of basalt, is frequently found in Scania and 
 West Gothland, especially in and near former or still 
 existing water. While digging the West Gotha canal, 
 a great number of them were found in Billstromen. 
 Probably, the implement now in question has been 
 
60 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 helved as a chisel, and been used for scooping out 
 trunks of trees for canoes, or some similar purpose. 
 
 A stone implement of exactly the same description 
 is in the British Museum amongst the ethnogra- 
 phical collections from the north-west coast of 
 North America. It is not on record in what maimer 
 it Avas helved, nor for what purpose it was used ; but 
 it would perhaps not be impossible to obtain infor- 
 mation on this subject. 
 
 § 2. Hatchets or Axes Next in order to chisels 
 
 stand axes. It is, indeed, often difficult to distinguish 
 between them; in both the cutting part is broad, 
 square, and provided with an edge. But in the chisels 
 the handle has the same direction as the blade, being 
 in fact merely a prolongation thereof; in the axe, on 
 the contrary, the haft forms either a right or an acute 
 angle with the blade. The upper part in the chisel 
 is square ; in the axe it is compressed. 
 
 We divide the axes, according to the direction of 
 the edge in reference to the haft, into straight axes 
 and cross-axes. In the former the edge lies parallel 
 with the haft ; in the latter its direction is across the 
 handle. 
 
 1. The Cross-axe. — Next to the broad chisels, of 
 which we have already spoken, stands the cross-axe, 
 or adze, which varies greatly in substance, shape, and 
 size. Of aU tools, indeed, the cross-axe offers the 
 greatest variety of forms, whether we examine the 
 modern ones preserved in ethnological museums or 
 the ancient ones which are found with us in the earth. 
 
 a. The Cross-axe, with a flat chipped Edge only on 
 
Ch. I.] CROSS-AXES. 61 
 
 one Side (PI. VII. fig. 147).— This axe is from Cali- 
 fornia, where it is used by the natives, we do not 
 know exactly for what purpose. It is made of a hard 
 and thick shell ; its form is oblong with two narrow 
 sides, the broad front side somewhat convex, the other 
 flat, and on the lower part of the latter is a flat surface, 
 which forms a very open obtuse angle with the broad 
 side of the back part, and an edge with the front 
 convex broad side — the edge is therefore a httle 
 curvilinear. 
 
 We see from this how these cross-axes are generally 
 handled, another illustration of which is PL VII. fig. 
 150. I have a stone axe, in shape exactly like fig. 147, 
 from the parish of Willand, in Scania, where it was 
 found in the ground with other antiquities of stone 
 (PL VII. fig. 148). It consists of black basaltic 
 stone. Its length about 6 inches, greatest breadth 2 
 inches, and thickness |- inch. It has no doubt been 
 helved like the former, and used in the same manner. 
 
 A cross-axe of day-slate, belonging to the same 
 class (PL VII. fig. 149), is distinguished by having, 
 both its broad sides flat. That it is short is probably 
 owing to its having lost more or less of its original 
 length by frequent grinding. It was found near Boke, 
 in Scania. One often finds, in ethnological collections 
 from North America, small axes of the same shape 
 as this. 
 
 It is very remarkable that the savage in Sweden, 
 thousands of years ago, and the savage in America in 
 the last century, used both hard and soft substances 
 for edge-tools, such as hard and soft stone, and bone. 
 
63 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 and that he made them of the same shape in both 
 places. 
 
 To this same group of cross-axes belongs also the 
 one sketched in PI. VII. fig. 150, being one-sixth of 
 the actual size. The original is in the British 
 Museum ; it is from Nootka. The blade is of black . 
 basaltic stone. How it is fastened to the shaft and 
 how the axe is used is easily seen by the sketch. 
 
 b. Cross-axe vnth edge ground on both sides, but 
 more on one than the other. — I possess an axe- 
 blade of stone from Pitcairn's Island, in the Pacific 
 (PI. VI. fig. 142), which, both with respect to the 
 species of stone, the size, and shape, resembles some 
 of those which are found in our ancient tombs, on 
 the coast between Ahus and Cimbrishamn (PI. VI. 
 fig. 143). It seems to me that there can be no doubt 
 that they have both been cross-axes. 
 
 Hereto belongs also PI. VI. fig. 145. Axes of this 
 form are alwaj's of trap, and are also found in the 
 above-mentioned coast district in Scania. They are 
 small, compressed on both the broad sides, slightly 
 rounded, without narrow sides, tapering upwards, 
 sometimes pointed, the edge sharpened on both sides. 
 They are not un frequently found with handles in 
 ethnographical collections. 
 
 A nearly similar form is that sketched on PI. VII. 
 fig. 161 ; but the broad sides are flat and the narrow 
 sides rough-hewn. It is found in sepulchral barrows 
 and in peat-bogs, especially in the south and west of 
 Scania. Next to this comes the form of an axe re- 
 presented in PI. VI. fig. 141, which has provisionally 
 
Ch. I.] AXES. 63 
 
 been called ice- chisel. (See the paragraph about it 
 among undetei-mined antiquities. ) 
 
 2. Straight Axes. — That is to say, those of which 
 the haft has the same direction as the edge. The 
 blade is wedged into the handle. They are, therefore, 
 known by their being thinned off towards the top, 
 and having no plane or square surface. The edge, 
 which is straight, and equally, or nearly equally, 
 sharpened from both sides, wears out, for very obvious 
 reasons, more in front than at the back, which causes 
 it, if looked at sideways, to appear crooked. (Com- 
 pare PI. VII. figs. 159, 160.) 
 
 In the British Museum there is an axe from 
 Tierra del Fuego, which I have sketched here 
 (PL VII. fig. 155), one-sixth of the actual size, 
 in order to show how such axe-blades were fast- 
 ened to the handle.* The handle of this axe is 
 club-like, of a hard ponderous wood, badly shaped, 
 evidently by means of a cross-axe of stone, which has 
 had a somewhat curved edge, because the marks 
 left by it are a little concave. The blade of iron 
 appears to have been flattened and fashioned between 
 stones, is inserted deeply in the shaft, and is a little 
 broadened towards the cutting end. The edge is 
 blunt, with sides somewhat convex. 
 
 Axes of copper, of precisely a similar form, are 
 occasionally found here in the earth in Scania. ( See 
 PL VII. figs. 154, 156.) Like the former, they have 
 two broad and two narrow sides, all flat, and the 
 former widened towards the edge; towards the top 
 
 * See Note 4. 
 
64 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 they are thinner, evidently in order to be inserted in 
 a wooden handle like the former. There cannot, 
 therefore, be any doubt about the manner in. which 
 this axe has been helved, and that it has been used 
 in the same way as our wood-cutter's and carpenter's 
 axes are still.* 
 
 We also find here in Sweden axes made of Jlint, 
 precisely like the aforesaid metal axes, I have 
 sketched such an one on PI. VII. fig. 153. This form 
 of flint axe is not rare here. Its breadth is three or 
 four times its thickness. There is no doubt that it 
 has been helved in the same way as the former, 
 namely, in such a manner that the upper thinner end, 
 which was made thinner on purpose, has been inserted 
 in the side of a thick wooden shaft ; it is also easy to 
 see how it has been used. 
 
 Another form of flint axe which is commonly found 
 here, is the one sketched on PL VII. fig. 158. It 
 resembles the former one in this respect, that it has 
 been thinned in the upper part and sharpened 
 (though without an edge) in order to be inserted in a 
 wooden handle, in the same manner as the axe from 
 Tierra del Fuego; but it difi^ers therefrom in this, 
 
 * I have seen three sucli copper axes, all found in the earth in 
 Scania, but there was no account whether they were discovered lying 
 alone or amongst other antiquities. Although they are of copper, I 
 still think it most likely that they belong to the same early times as 
 the sharpened stone axes, and that they are older than the bronze 
 swords; because, although evidently made as edge-tools, they are 
 nevertheless composed only of copper, without any admixture of tin, 
 which shows that they have belonged to a people so rude that they 
 have not understood how to temper the edge by smelting and adding 
 tin. 
 
Ch. I.] AXES. 65 
 
 that the broad sides, which in the former are flat, are 
 here a Httle convex, and the narrow sides, which in 
 the former are bent outwards in the lower part, here 
 are straight. Besides, this axe is thicker and larger 
 than the former. Its length is sometimes 12^ inches 
 and more, the breadth across the middle 3| inches, and 
 thickness 1^ inch. The usual length is 9-10 inches. 
 
 The flint axe here sketched has not been worn or 
 its edge re-ground; but I possess sevei'al of exactly 
 the same breadth and thickness, which from constant 
 use have become more or less worn and shorter. 
 Fig. 159 shows the remaining part of such an axe, 
 which from constant use and repeated grinding is 
 nearly worn out. The piece resembles exactly the 
 upper part of the axe, fig. 158, and we cannot doubt 
 that it was at first of the same length. 
 
 If we more closely examine the shape of the edge 
 of these worn and frequently re-ground axes, we 
 can see how they have been helved and used. The 
 edge, namely, of such axes is never straight, but, 
 seen sideways, obliquely bow-shaped ; it has the 
 same shape as a rod, a little bent, and which is 
 thinner and more flexible at one end than at the 
 other. (See the edge in fig. 160.) The edge of 
 our common wood-cutter's axe with a long shaft has 
 just the same shape when it has been used a long 
 time, and been re-ground. The reason is this, that 
 the blow dealt by it affects more especially that part 
 of the edge Avhich lies farthest from the hand holding 
 the shaft. 
 
 We therefore learn herefrom, first, that these axes 
 
66 THE STONE AGE. [Cn. I. 
 
 have been provided with shafts like our wood-cutter's 
 axes; and secondly, that they have been employed 
 in every-day use, during which they have become 
 blunted, have been re-ground and worn, until they 
 were entirely worn out. This is evident. It is pro- 
 bable, at least, that the handle has originally been 
 fixed over the middle of the axe (fig. 158), and that 
 the latter has been more firmly fastened in the cleft 
 of the handle by -straps tied crosswise, and that by 
 deo-rees, as it became more worn, it has been moved 
 lower down. 
 
 Plate VII. fig. 157 is a flint axe exactly like the 
 one at fig. 158, but it has not yet been ground, only 
 rough-hewn. I have already observed, that all ground 
 stone implements have been chipped out before being 
 ground. In almost all flint implements, however well 
 the grinding may have been performed, we see dis- 
 tinctly some few traces of rough-hewing. I have exa- 
 mined a great number of implements either wholly 
 ground or only chipped, or ground on two and chipped 
 on two sides (this difl^erence is therefore not at all 
 material), but I have not met with one upon which I 
 Inu'C not found marks of preliminary rough-hewing. 
 This last-mentioned form is sometimes thin and broad, 
 ]-esLinbling PI. VII. fig. 153, except that the broad 
 sides are always a little convex. 
 
 Straight axes of other stone than flint, usually of 
 basalt, occur not unfrequently, especially in those 
 districts where flint is wanting. The edge is sharp- 
 ened equally on both sides. In shape they resemble 
 most frequently PL VII. fig. 158; namely, they have 
 
Ch. I.] AXES. 67 
 
 the broad sides a little convex, and the narrow sides 
 flat, sometimes concave. The narrow sides are even 
 occasionally convex, and the Avhole axe has then a 
 compressed round appearance; at other times they 
 > are tolerably thin and broad, and at others again this 
 form is even more flatly convex than fig. 151, and 
 instead of narrow sides, there is a rounded edge. 
 (See PL VII. fig. 152.) Occasionally also it is less 
 tapering. These axes occur also both ground and 
 rough-hewn, especially in the north-east part of Scania, 
 where, however, they mostly are of diorite. Occa- 
 sionally this form of axe is quite round (PI. VII. 
 fig. 162) ; it resembles the former in so far that it 
 tapers towards the upper part, sometimes almost 
 into a point, both sides at the lower part being equal 
 and roundly sharpened. An axe of this form is said 
 to have been once found in a bog in Scania, still 
 fixed in its rude shaft. 
 
 Straight axes of the same general form as fig. 158, 
 but always smaller and with a hole in the broad side 
 near the upper part (PL VIII. fig. 165), though 
 rather scarce, are occasionally found in the south of 
 Sweden and in Denmark. They are never of flint, 
 but always of a talcose material or of greenstone. As 
 I have previously mentioned, there are never any 
 drilled holes in flint tools. These axes have been 
 mounted as fig. 158, and through the hole a strap or 
 a wooden peg has been passed, in order to fasten it 
 more firmly to the handle. (Compare ' Nord. Tidskr. 
 for Oldkyndighet,' vol. i. page 425, Tab. II. tig. 11.) 
 I have seen such an axe found here in Scania, with a 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 projection a little above the middle, as also one with a 
 
 projection, but without any hole. (PI. VIII. fig. 164.) 
 
 To this division belong, probably, the edge-tools 
 
 round which runs a transverse furrow (PI. VIII. figs. 
 
 166, 167), unless, indeed, they have not rather been 
 
 wedges Avith which to split wood. The haft has 
 
 rested in the furrow, and may have consisted of some 
 
 round flexible withe (a willow-shoot, for instance), 
 
 which has been twisted round the blade, foi-mlng a 
 
 handle to steady the wedge while it was driven into 
 
 the wood by means of a club. This form is never of 
 
 flmt. Fig. 167 is of hornblende, and was found in a 
 
 bog near Lund; fig. 166 is of diorite, and was found 
 
 in the ground near Gaddarod, in the parish of Horrod, 
 
 also in Scania. 
 
 Class II. — Implements jyrovided icith a Hole for the 
 Handle. 
 
 These are never of flint, but generally of basalt or 
 of diorite, occasionally of gneiss, potstone, or of horn. 
 Implements of this kind are not so numerous as those 
 above mentioned, in the ethnographical collections 
 Avhich I have had an opportunity of examining. This 
 may be owing either to their being rarely found 
 amongst existing savages, or perhajjs more to their 
 not having been preserved bj'^ travellers, because, ge- 
 nerally, it is the war weapons of the savages rather 
 than the implements used in daily life which have 
 been brought to our museums. But that these arti- 
 cles of antiquity, pierced for handles, have belonged 
 to the aborigines of Scandinavia, is proved by their 
 
On. I.] HAMMERS AND HAMMER-AXES. 69 
 
 being found together with the implements described 
 above, even in the gallery-tombs, which belong exclu- 
 sively to the Stone Age. 
 
 They may be divided into : — 
 
 A. Those in which the Edge, or sharjyened Part, has 
 the same Direction as the Handle. 
 
 To this belong : — 
 
 § 1. Rammers (Plate YIII. fig. 172) of stone, and 
 (fig. 171) of stag-antlers, found amongst stone im- 
 plements in a peat-bog. They have a shaft-hole close 
 under the centre, and they end in a straight or flatly 
 convex square bottom, the top being sharpened lilie a 
 wedge. They are of a variety of shapes. The first, 
 fig. 172, is of diorite, and of a very convenient shape. 
 It was found in a bog in Scania, and fell into the 
 hands of a carpenter, who provided it with a handle 
 and used it a long time in his workshop as a hammer. 
 Fig. 171 is made of a stag's antler, and has an oblong 
 square hole for the handle, formed, no doubt, with a 
 small straight chisel. 
 
 Hammer-axes. — In these, as in the former variety, 
 the hole for the handle is near the middle ; but they 
 are distinguished by a diff^erent form. Among them 
 I reckon PI. VIII. fig. 179; it is nearly boat-shaped, 
 roundly compressed, broadest in the middle, with the 
 side edge either sharp or rounded off, or cut straight 
 off into a flat surface ; it ends below in a more or less 
 distinctly marked knob, and the haft-hole in its back 
 is surrounded with a raised edge. Hammer-axes of 
 this form are often made of a grey diorite, and some- 
 
70 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. I. 
 
 times of black basalt. The haft-hole is small in com- 
 parison to the weight of the hammer itself, which 
 seems to prove that the handle must have been short. 
 
 That this form belongs to the pure Stone Age we 
 may infer from the circumstance, that one of them 
 was found together with other things made of stone, 
 namely, an axe of flint, one of greenstone, a narrow 
 gouge, and a polygonal grindstone (PI. II. fig. 15). 
 They were in a bank of gravel at Arendala, near Lund. 
 
 A hammer-axe of this description was found, in 
 1842, at Katslosa, together with three broad gouges 
 of flint. They were lying in a stone cist 12 feet long, 
 4 feet broad, and 4 feet high, constructed of boulders 
 cemented together, each of which was a heavy load 
 for a man. In another similar grave were lying a 
 broad chisel and several flint-flakes. 
 
 Hammer-axes of this shape are sometimes very 
 beautifully wrought ; as PI. VIII. fig. 178, the ori- 
 ginal of which is made of basalt, well polished, and 
 was found in a heap of stones at Hurfva. A similar 
 one was found in the so-called King Roe's Cairn. 
 
 The specimen figured in PI. VIIF. fig. 169 is dis- 
 tinguished by having a keel ridge along the side, and 
 by the haft-hole, which is not surrounded by a pro- 
 jecting edge; the top consists of a large convex knob. 
 It is made of diorite. 
 
 Specimens resembUng PL VIII. fig. 163 I also 
 take to be hammer-axes. It is remarkable that they 
 are, in most instances, made of porphyry, which does 
 not occur in Scania, where, however, this form of 
 hammer-axe is frequently met with. PL VIII. figs. 
 
Cn. I.] AMAZON AXE. 71 
 
 176, 177, which also have the shaft-hole near the 
 centre, appear to me to have been battle-axes used 
 during the actual Stone Age, as well as during a later 
 period, even so recently, indeed, as the Iron Age. The 
 former is proved by their being found in the gallery- 
 graves; the latter, by their being found sketched 
 amongst the war weapons from the Iron Age, on the 
 incised rocks in the province of Bohusland. (Com- 
 pare Nilsson, ' Bronsaldern,' page 56.) 
 
 § 2. Amazon Axe (fig. 173). — Stone weapons of 
 this kind are rather variable, and the central part is 
 often much shorter than the figure here referred to, 
 resembling that sbown in fig. 174. The original 
 of this sketch is from the south of Scania, and is 
 preserved in my collection, but is not finished, there 
 being no hole for the handle; but this weapon is 
 always known by both ends being much expanded 
 and more or less sharpened. It is exactly like the 
 axes with, which the Amazons are armed, wherever 
 we see them represented. On a marble sarcophagus 
 in the Museum of the Louvre, at Paris, bearing 
 the inscription, '• Sarcophage trouve a Salonique en 
 Macedoine,^ the warriors wield axes with one edge 
 and a pointed sharp back ; but all the Amazons have 
 such two-edged axes as the one here sketched. The 
 Amazons are represented with such axes even in 
 other places also; for instance, on some antique 
 friezes in the British Museum. In a treatise on 
 ' The Sword of Tiberius ' (in German, 4to., with 
 coloured engravings), an Amazon is also represented 
 with a similar axe. It is called ' Amazon axe.'' 
 
72 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 Xenophon mentions it in the ' Anabasis,' iv. 4 ; and 
 Horace speaks of ' Amazo7iia securis ' in the Odes, iv. 
 4, 20.* 
 
 § 3. Helved Wedges (PI. IX. figs. 183, 184).— These 
 are commonly very large, thick, and square, made of 
 a heavy kind of stone, and have one end sharpened, 
 the other forming either a rounded or a square flat 
 surface. The shaft-hole lies nearer the butt than the 
 cutting end. 
 
 These have been called axes for throvring; it has 
 been thought that in battle they were thrown at the 
 enemy, and various accounts have been referred to 
 in confirmation of this opinion. It has been alleged 
 that Thor's hammer, Mjolner, was thrown from the 
 hand, but it has been ovei'looked that Mjolner had the 
 peculiar property of returning of its own accord to the 
 hand of its owner. Reference has also been made to 
 a sentence in Wilh. von Poitier's ' Historia Guilhelmi 
 Conquestris,' in which he says : '■Jactant Angli cuspides 
 
 * This form of axe occurs with us during the Stone Age, not only 
 of the full size of stone (PI. VIII. figs. 173, 174), but also in the shape of 
 small ornaments of amber for women (PI. VIII. fig. 175), found also 
 in gallery-graves in West Gothland amongst other ornaments of amber. 
 But Avhat appears to me to be very remarkable, in an ethnological 
 point of view, is that exactly the same form of axe which was worn 
 as an amber ornament by the women in the North during the Stone 
 Age, was worn by Grecian women, being, however, in that country 
 made of gold. In the comedy of 'Eudens' (the Shipwreck), by Plautus, 
 Act iv. Scene 4, vv. 112-116, it is said that the girl Palcestra, from 
 Athens, amongst the ornaments given to her as a child by her parents, 
 had also received such an axe, in miniature, of gold (' securicula 
 anceps'), inscribed "ivith her mother's name. This coincidence is very 
 difficult to account for. It appears to me to be one of those circum- 
 stances which deserve the attention of the comparative ethnographer. 
 
Ch. I.] WEDGES AND IIOES. 7:3 
 
 et diversorum generuTn tela, scevissiviasque secures et 
 lignis imposita saxa;' but one ought to remember 
 that the word jactare does not always signify to throw 
 from the hand^ but that it often signifies to brandish, 
 or swing backwards and forwards ; for instance, jac- 
 tare ccestus, to brandish the battle-axe. Liv., '•jactare 
 brachia,^ to throw one's arms about. Virg., ' Jineid,' 
 V. 376 : 
 
 alternaque jactat 
 
 BraoHa protendens, et verberat ictibus auras. 
 
 That these stone implements now in question could 
 not have been used with a long handle is evident from 
 their being too heavy and unwieldy, and the shaft-hole 
 being too small. The shaft which was fastened in this 
 little hole must therefore have been too slender to 
 allow such a heavy axe being brandished as a weapon, 
 or applied in daily use to wood-cutting or any similar 
 purpose. These wedges appear to me to be most 
 suitable for being held in the left hand by a short 
 handle, and driven into wood by blows from a club 
 held in the right hand. I have therefore called this 
 form handled wedges ; that is to say, a wedge intended 
 for a handle or shaft. I also class among the shafted 
 wedges, PL VIII. fig. 170, made of a stag's antler. 
 
 B. Those in which the Edge, or sharpened Part, lies 
 across the Shaft. 
 
 Hoes. — It is certainly possible that there may also 
 be found axes of this form, but they must then have 
 been cross-axes, or cooper's adzes. But I have never 
 yet seen any of this kind with shaft-holes. The only 
 
74 THE STONE AGE. [Off. I. 
 
 implements of this shape which I have met with 
 have evidently been hoes. I have two (PI. YIII. 
 figs. 1^0, 181), which resemble each other in this, 
 that the sharpening in both is more rounded on the 
 front part, otherwise thick and convex, and that the 
 hole is nearest to that part which is not sharpened. 
 One of them (fig. 180), which is of basalt, has the 
 shaft-hole lying upwards in an oblique direction, so 
 that the person using the hoe may be able to avoid 
 stooping while at work. In the other (fig. 181), 
 made of the horn of an elk, the shaft-hole is straight 
 and oval ; it has not been drilled, but scooped out 
 with some sharp instrument, probably a flint. We 
 see distinctly how this hoe has, by constant use, been 
 worn quite smooth up to, and even above, the shaft- 
 hole. Both these hoes were found in peat-bogs in 
 Scania ; the one of stone in the Oja bog, near Ystad, 
 and the other, of elk-horn, in a bog at Sjorup. A hoe 
 made of a stag's antler is sketched on PI. XV. figs. 
 256, 257, a third of its natural size. It was found in 
 the south of the province of Scania, and probably in a 
 peat-moss. It is not certain that these implements 
 have belonged to the same time and to the same 
 people as those who built the gallery-graves, nor is it 
 quite certain that these hoes have been used in actual 
 agriculture. It must, nevertheless, be acknowledged, 
 that if agriculture, as seems most probable, consisted 
 originally in burning tracts of forest, and then somng 
 among the ashes, these rude hoes must have been very 
 suitable for such operations. Future discoveries will, 
 no doubt, in time, solve this as well as other questions. 
 
Cn. I.] BATTLE-AXES. 75 
 
 PL IX. fig. 186 shows US the form of an imple- 
 ment, of basaltic material, not unlike a hoe, but with- 
 out a shaft-hole. It is possible that it may have 
 been fastened by means of a strap, or by bast, to a 
 shaft bent at the end, something like the cross-axes 
 of the savages (for instance, PI. VII. fig. 150), and 
 that it actually has been a hoe, notwithstanding the 
 want of a shaft-hole. 
 
 DIVISION IV. SOME TORMS OF STONE IMPLEMENTS 
 
 WHICH CANNOT SATISFACTORILY BE CLASSED 
 AMONGST ANY OF THE FOREGOING DIVISIONS. 
 
 To these belong, first, the Battle-axe (PL IX. fig. 
 189). — This implement is provided with a shaft-hole, 
 and has four pointed arms projecting in different direc- 
 tions. It was found in the province of Bohusland, 
 and is preserved in the Antiquarian Museum of Lund. 
 It was formerly regarded as the anchor of a boat — an 
 opinion which I also shared ; but it seems to me now 
 more probable that it has been a battle-axe. This 
 is, however, by no means certain. A nearly similar 
 instrument, on which are engraved several zigzag 
 lines, has been copied and described by Mr. G. Bruse • 
 witz, in his beautiful work, ' Elfsyssels Historiska 
 Minnen,' page 271. This specimen was also found 
 in Bohusland, and is preserved in the Museum at 
 Gothenburg. It seems also to have been a hattle- 
 ajie, provided with a handle. I have not, however, 
 yet found this form among weapons used by modern 
 savages. 
 
70 THE STONE AGE. [On. I. 
 
 2. Flint-flakes (PI. II. fig. 24).— These are long, 
 thin, occasionally somewhat bent inwards towards the 
 point; sharp on both sides; on the inner side flat, 
 on the outer provided with one, two, or even several 
 longitudinal ridges. They were obtained by a single 
 blow on the upper end from a hard stone, as though 
 peeled off from a flint-core or nucleus. These nuclei 
 are not rare: one is represented in PI. II. fig. 23. 
 For evident reasons, no two are exactly alike. They 
 are sometimes found of considerable length. Flint- 
 flakes are the simplest and oldest among the flint 
 implements known. They were used as knives, and 
 also for various other purposes. 
 
 Of these flint-flakes, for instance, different weapons 
 have been formed. The arrow-point (PI. II. fig. 38) 
 is merely such a flake, at one end of which a shaft- 
 point for attachment has been chipped. Fig. 39 re- 
 presents another, the edges of which have also been 
 chipped. The square-edged arrows (PL II. figs. 36, 37) 
 are made of such flakes, which have been chipped 
 crosswise, after which the edges of the flakes have 
 been formed. 
 
 3. Scrapers (PI. IX. fig. 188). — This implement of 
 flint occurs of various forms, though the one end is 
 always rounded, the other elongated sometimes to a 
 slender handle ; on one side convex, on the other flat, 
 or even concave, being a flake struck right off by a 
 single blow. Similar stones have been met with in 
 use amongst the Greenlanders, for scraping the hair 
 off skins or hides. There is, in the Museum at Copen- 
 hagen, a similar scraper, from the most northern 
 
Ch. I.] ICE-CHISEL. 77 
 
 parts of North America, provided Avith a handle of 
 wood, with indentations for the fingers of the person 
 using it. 
 
 4. The stretching Implement, represented in PL IX. 
 fig. 185, ought, I think, to stand next in order. The 
 widened part, representing the edge, has been rounded 
 ofi" by constant wear^ probably from being rubbed 
 against leather or something of that kind. A person 
 who has lived many years as a mechanic in Green- 
 land, thinks that he has discovered a great resem- 
 blance between this stone implement and the bone 
 implement, provided with a handle, which is there 
 used for stretching the skuis in order to give them 
 the requisite softness. A somewhat similar stretchuig 
 implement of iron is stUl used in those parts of Scania 
 where the winter dress of the peasantry consists of 
 sheep-skin coats. 
 
 5. The Ice-chisel (PL VI. fig. 141).— The imple- 
 ment here sketched veiy closely resembles the ice- 
 chisel of the Greenlanders, and I have therefore given 
 it the same name. They occur chiefly near the coast, 
 and are found in greatest number at Lindormabacken, 
 on the coast of the Baltic, and below the Widskofte 
 estate. It may possibly have been intended for an 
 axe ; but the greater number are so rude, and of such 
 forms, that it is impossible to guess for what purpose 
 they were intended. 
 
 6. The rough-edged Arrov} (PL II. figs. 36, .37). — 
 These small hewn flint articles are found in abun- 
 dance on Lindormabacken, among the above-named ; 
 they are of the same form, though less in size, and 
 
78 T[1E STONE AGE. [t!H. I. 
 
 like them, but are rarely found in other localities. 
 Their purpose has long been a matter of doubt, but 
 in a bog in Denmark a similar flint-stone has been 
 found attached to a slender shaft, which proves it to 
 have been an arrow. Regarding this, it may be re- 
 marked that in the Egyptian department in the 
 British Museum there are a great number of arrows, 
 M^hich are provided in front or at the point of at- 
 tachment with a metal pin, and end in an expanded 
 transverse edge. The shafts are of wood, very long, 
 and have m the back end an indentation for the bow- 
 string. One of these arrows was provided with a 
 flint-flake lying crosswise. 
 
 In Rosellini's 'Monument!,' PI. XV., is the figure of 
 a man shooting an arrow from a bow just Hke those in 
 the British j\luseum. On PI. CXVII. many warriors 
 are sketched with bows and rough-edged arrows. 
 
 7. Gimlet or Aiigerl (PI. 11. fig. 25). — Amongst our 
 antiquities we find some with drilled holes, even from 
 the pure Stone Age. The savage of that age under- 
 stood the art of drilling holes. Implements with 
 bored holes are, however, never of flint, generally of 
 basalt and traj), sometimes of gneiss and potstone, 
 even of horn. The savage did not understand boring 
 holes in flint. We sometimes find among collections 
 of antiquities, flint axes with shaft-holes; but if we 
 oljserve them more carefully, Ave shall find that these 
 holes have not been made by the hand of man, but 
 are the traces of some natural hole in the flmt. The 
 savage did not drill the hole, but sometimes chipped 
 the edge of it more or less, so as to be enabled to use 
 
Ch. 1.] GIMLET. 79 
 
 it as a shaft-hole. I have seen several such flint axes, 
 both in the Museum at Copenhagen and elsewhere. 
 
 Though we have only been able to guess hitherto 
 how the savage bored the shaft-hole in his axes, j'ct 
 we seem near the truth, as we are even able to call 
 experience to our help. During a visit to Oro pilot- 
 station, on the coast, in the province of Ostro-Gotha, 
 I saw a fisherman engaged in drilling holes in flat 
 slate boulders, to use as plummets for his fishing-line. 
 He worked his gimlet, or auger, with a drill-bow 
 (spcirrborr), and the gimlet itself was of iron, not 
 pointed, as one would suppose, but of the above-men- 
 tioned form and with a rough edge, like a small chisel, 
 or screwdriver. The hole made in the stone with it 
 was not rough in the bottom, but scooj^ed out, just 
 such as is found in those stone implements where the 
 bored hole is more or less deeply indented from the 
 surface, or like the indentations on hammer-stones, to 
 place the fingers upon during use. I conclude from 
 this, that the savage used a similar gimlet, or drill, 
 and that his flint gimlet had the same form as that 
 of the Oro fisherman, namely, that of a small chisel. 
 If, as I suppose, the stone (PI. 11. fig. 25) has been a 
 gimlet, then the pointed end has, probably, been 
 fastened in a handle, and the rough end used for 
 boring. We meet with stone axes now and then, 
 made of basalt or diorite, and bored with a centre-bit ; 
 and Avhen they have not been quite bored through, 
 a plug is always present in the intended hole. These 
 stone implements, which are never found in gallery- 
 graves or in our oldest bogs, I consider as belonging 
 
80 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. I. 
 
 to the age when metals were in use, and most likely 
 to the Iron Age. I have heard it said that such 
 bored holes were made with a wooden pin and wet 
 sand, but this I consider as an impossibility. I have 
 before me now an axe of diorite, on which there is 
 the commencement of such a hole. It consists of a 
 circular ring, very small, and evidently made with a 
 metal instrument. 
 
 8. Anvil. — The instrument sketched on PL IX. 
 fig. 187 is rough, and made of a hard quartzy sand- 
 stone. The lower half of this instrument is nar- 
 roAver than the other, nearly square, with two broad 
 and two narrower sides; the upper part is thicker, 
 somewhat rounded, and finishes with a flat even sur- 
 face. It is considered to have been a smith's anvil, 
 but this is somewhat doubtful. The age even to which 
 it belonged is uncertain. 
 
 9. PI. XI. fig. 214 seems to have been a hunting- 
 whistle. It is made of an antler, and is found at the 
 bottom of one of the bogs in Scania. It is evident 
 that it has been a whistle^ and it does not seem impro- 
 bable that it was used on hunting excursions, particu- 
 larly as we know that even during the pure Stone Age 
 dogs existed, and were probably used in the chase. 
 
 10. PL X. fig. 204. A punch, made of an antler. 
 
 11. The Saw (PL V. fig. 93).— This mstrument, 
 which has already been mentioned, is very like a lance- 
 point, sharpened and thin at the base, where it was 
 fastened to the haft; but from the many teeth at 
 regular distances from each other, I am disposed to 
 think that it has probably been a saw. 
 
Ch. I.] SAWS AND STONE BEADS. 81 
 
 12. PI. X. fig. 205 is an implement of flint, the 
 use of which I cannot guess. It is oblong square, 
 very thin, chipped on both sides, and with all four 
 edges sharpened. It is not a common type. 
 
 13. Stone Beads Generally of a porous kind of 
 
 fine sandstone, and provided with a round hole in the 
 centre. They are of various forms and sizes; from 1 
 to If inch in diameter, either flat on both sides, in 
 which case the}' are generally smooth (PL IX. fig. 
 199), or tapering upwards, and in that case usually 
 fluted horizontally, or also rounded on both sides with 
 a raised border round the hole (PL IX. fig. 192). 
 
 The former are the rudest, and appear to be the 
 most ancient. They are found in the earth and in 
 peat-bogs, and where they are met with at all they 
 generally occur in great numbers. I suppose that 
 they were used as plummets for drag-nets^ and con- 
 sequently for the same purpose for which leaden balls 
 are now employed. Some of these stone plummets 
 are considerably larger, and appear to me to have 
 been used as flies in a spinning-wheel. 
 
 14. (PL X. fig. 208.) This is an instrument made 
 of hard sandstone, oblong, and with six grooves 
 running lengthwise, between which are rounded ele- 
 vations. Possibly this was used to keep the threads 
 separate while bast-rope was twisted. It is out of a 
 peat-moss in the south of Scania. 
 
 15. (PL XV. fig. 260.) An oblong round pebble of 
 flmt. Along the one side it is evenly ground, flat 
 convex, and seems to have been used as a rubbing- 
 
 G 
 
82 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. I. 
 
 stone, for pressing down smooth seams. This form 
 is not uncommon. 
 
 DIVISION V. — ORNAMENTS. 
 
 To these belong all wrought and pierced articles of 
 amber, whether large or small. They vary in shape; 
 sometimes they resemble stone plummets, but are 
 more frequently smaller in size (PI. IX. figs. 194, 197), 
 occasionally, however, as large (PI. IX. fig. 198; com- 
 pare 199 of stone and 197 of amber); sometimes 
 they have other forms, resembling stone implements 
 in miniature. Thus we have those which in shape 
 resemble axes, hammers, wedges, hammer-axes, and 
 so on. The form shown on PL IX. fig. 195 is no 
 doubt intended to represent on a small scale some 
 kind of stone implement not yet discovered. That 
 these amber ornaments have been worn round the 
 neck is quite certain, as they have actually been 
 found surrounding the neck of skeletons in gallery- 
 graves.* 
 
 Together with stone implements and the amber 
 beads just described, glass beads (PL IX. figs. 201, 
 202) of a very rude manufacture are sometimes found 
 in the old Scanian bogs, and in galleiy-graves. The 
 hole in them is not diilled, but has been either blown, 
 or made by passing some hard instrument of metal 
 or burnt clay through the molten mass ; and there is 
 no other trace of grinding than that the edge, pro- 
 jecting round the hole on one side, has been gromid 
 
 * Gotheborgs Handl., 1806, page 93. Monuments on Axevalla 
 Plain. 
 
Ch. I.] ORNAMENTS. 83 
 
 away. They thus show us the infancy of the art of 
 glass-blowing ; but yet it is scarcelj^ to be supposed 
 that they could have been fabricated by the same 
 people who made use of axes and chisels of stone. 
 They must be referred, undoubtedly, to some foreign 
 nations who had commercial intercourse with the 
 savage aborigines of Scandinavia, and who bartered 
 their glass beads and similar wares for amber, furs, 
 and other produce, in the same manner as in our own 
 days goods are exchanged between Europeans and the 
 savages in North America and in the islands of the 
 Pacific. The teeth of wild animals, pierced through 
 and used as ornaments, have also been found in 
 gallery-graves. 
 
 To this series belong also some objects made of 
 stone. Such an ornament, consisting of fine sand- 
 stone, is shown on PL IX. fig. 196 ; they are but 
 rarely met with. With these are probably to be 
 classed the articles shown on PI. IX. figs. 192, 193, 
 which are sometimes made of stone, sometimes of 
 burnt clay. I am also of opinion that the ornamented 
 ohject of bone represented on PI. IX. fig. 200, has 
 belonged to this class. It was found in the earth 
 at Bjellerup, in Scania. There is another in the 
 Copenhagen ]\Iuseum, made of amber, and ornamented 
 with the same figures. 
 
 § 3. Buttons of Amber (PI. IX. figs. 190, 191).— It 
 is not difficult to see how these have been used; 
 a strap, provided with a knot at one end, has been 
 passed through the hole, and has been attached with 
 the other end to one side of the dress (the skin 
 
 G 2 
 
8i THE STO>!E AGE. [Ch, I. 
 
 with which the savage was clothed) ; to the other 
 side of the dress was attached a strap, forming a loop 
 by way of button-hole. A great number of such 
 buttons are often found lying together. It is possible 
 that the stone objects shown on PL IX. figs. 192, 193, 
 may have been buttons, and that they may have been 
 used in the same way. 
 
 DIVISION VI. — VESSELS OF BURNT CLAY OK STONE. 
 
 The vessels of burnt clay, which are found together 
 with stone implements and skeletons in the most an- 
 cient graves, cannot have been placed there to hold 
 the ashes of the dead, as in those times dead bodies 
 were not burnt. They were evidently deposited in 
 the grave from the same motive as other household 
 furniture belonging to the departed; it may there- 
 fore be assumed that they were in daily use by the 
 aborigines : we do not know for what particular 
 purposes, but these may have been manifold. The 
 larger vessels have no doubt been used as kitchen 
 utensils for boiling meat, because those who know 
 how to burn clay for pots would also understand how 
 to boil meat for food. Most of the existing savages 
 understand this mode of cooking, although they more 
 frequently broil or roast their meat, fish, and other 
 food. The natives of the Brazils also possess burnt 
 clay vessels, which are made by hand. After having 
 first formed the bottom of the vessel, they roll the 
 clay into a long thin cylinder, lay it in a circle on 
 the bottom, and form the border out of it ; on the 
 
('II. I.] BUILNT CLAY AND STONE VESSELS. Sr, 
 
 top of this they place another similar cylinder, then 
 paste the two together with water, and polish the 
 vessel inside and outside with a shell. Continuing 
 their work in this manner, they give the vessel any 
 shape and form they please. When completed, they 
 impress some kind of ornament on the surface. When 
 the vessel has been finished, they burn it in fire, in the 
 open air, as verbally described to me by Dr. Katterer. 
 The clay vessel here represented on PI. X. fig. 20D, 
 and which was found by the Rev. M. Bruzelius in the 
 above-mentioned tomb, in the Asahbgen, near Quis- 
 tofta (see ' Iduna,' vol. ix. p. 2":' 5), has evidently been 
 made by hand, without a potter's wheel, and in the 
 same manner as the clay vessels of the South Ame- 
 rican savages, and the ornaments on the surface seem 
 to have been made with a wooden peg, or something 
 of that kind. The vessel has no ears, but the edge, 
 which runs round the middle, is on both sides pro-\dded 
 with two holes, and there are two smaller similar 
 holes just below the border round the top. It is 
 evident that a strap has passed through these holes, 
 forming a kind of handle, and that it has been fastened 
 in the border at the top by means of another thinner 
 strap, which has passed through the two smaller holes. 
 The vessel not being more than 4f inches deep, and 
 of about the same width at the widest part, it can- 
 not well have been used for cooking; but it has 
 most probably been employed for raising and car- 
 rying water for drinking. 
 
 Burnt clay vessels are found among most of the 
 existing nations, savage as well as civilised, and they 
 
86 TUB STONE AOE. [Ch. I. 
 
 are likewise found in all sepulcliral mounds, from 
 the earliest period up to the close of paganism. 
 Fragments of vessels from North America, exactly- 
 like ours from the earliest ages, and ornamented in 
 the same manner, are found together with stone imple- 
 ments also resembling ours. 
 
 I have, however, not had an opportunity of care- 
 fully examining a sufficient number of clay vessels, 
 out of graves from diiFei'ent ages. This subject, 
 therefore, I must leave to the more careful researches 
 of others. 
 
 Plate X. fig. 210 represents a vessel rudely formed 
 and scooped out of a compact limestone belonging to 
 the chalk formation. It has been tolerably round, 
 not deep, and provided with a thick round border. 
 On one side is a small scooped-out ear: whether a 
 corresponding one was found on the opposite side, 
 where the border has been knocked off, cannot now 
 be seen. It was discovered in a gravel-pit; it is 
 therefore doubtful to what period it belongs. 
 
 DIVISION VII. IMPLEJIENTS WHICH HAVE BECOME WOEN 
 
 OUT OK BROKEN THROUGH USE. 
 
 By carefully enquiring into the manner in which 
 implements have become worn, we can frequently as- 
 certain the way in which they have been used. We 
 have already du-ected the reader's attention to the 
 sloping edge of the worn and re-ground square axe, 
 and inferred therefrom that this axe must have been 
 provided with a long handle or haft, somewhat like 
 that of our wood-cutter's axe. 
 
3h. I.] WORN AND BROKEX IMPLEMENTS. 87 
 
 We have further shown that in a great number of 
 ;he implements which are provided with a haft-hole, 
 ;his has been very small in comparison to the size 
 )f the implement itself; and we have from this cir- 
 jumstance drawn the conclusion that the handle could 
 lot have been long. It must have been tolerably- 
 short in the hammers (PL VIII. figs. 169, 172, 178, 
 179), in the hammer-axes (PL VIII. figs. 176, 177), 
 rery short in the helved wedges (PL IX. figs. 183, 184) ; 
 Dut it may have been tolerably long in the Amazon 
 ixe (PL VIII. fig. 173), and very long in the hoes 
 ^Pl. VIII. figs. 180, 181, and PL XV. figs. 256, 257). 
 We find, further, in the hammers, distinct traces of 
 tnuch wear on the knob and on the sides, as well as 
 3n the sides of the wedge. If they had been used 
 merely as weapons of war, they could not have been 
 svorn in the same manner. We find, moreover, 
 imongst the helved wedges some so much worn down 
 that only a small part of them stil] remains (PL IX. 
 fig. 184). We draw from hence the conclusion that 
 they must have been used in every-day life, and that 
 they could not have been worn in such a manner as 
 they are, if they had merely been battle-axes; still 
 less if they had been lying in pagan temples as 
 symbols : whereas this would have been the result if 
 they had been used for wood-splitting or some such 
 work. 
 
 This remark applies also to some of the carpenter's 
 ixes(PL Vn.figs. 158-160, as well as figs. 151, 152). 
 We can easily see by the sloping edge of the much- 
 R'-orn and frequently re-ground axes (figs. 159, 160), 
 
88 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 that they have been employed for working in wood. 
 Sometimes implements with shaft-holes have been 
 broken right across while being used at work ; after 
 Avhich they have been provided with a new hole (PL X. 
 figs. 206, 207). Equally illustrative of our subject is 
 the manner in which the spear (PI. XIII. fig. 225) 
 has been worn while being used. This spear has 
 evidently been of the same length, size, and shape as 
 PI. in. fig. 55. It has been inserted in the shaft to 
 about 1^ inch of its length ; but has, while being 
 vised, been broken straight off near the shaft ((he pin 
 having previously been broken off"), and has then with 
 its broader end been wedged into the shaft to a depth 
 of about 1^ inch. Afterwards, having become blunted 
 by frequent use, it has been repeatedly sharpened on 
 both edges, almost down to the shaft, by means of a 
 hammer-stone, in shape Hke PL I. figs. 6, 10, or PL I. 
 figs. 1, 5. The broad part fixed in the shaft gould, of 
 course, not be worn, for which reason the spear-point, 
 when inserted in the shaft, lias got a marked indenta- 
 tion in both edges. I have in my collection several 
 such worn-down and broken-off^ spear-heads. 
 
 This wear and tear shows that the savage was in 
 the habit of always sharpening his pointed hunting 
 weapons by means of a hammer-stone; and there is 
 no doubt that he carried with him on his hunting 
 excursions a portable instrument for this purpose. 
 The spear-head (PL XIII. fig. 226) has evidently also 
 been sharpened by means of such a tool, so that its 
 blade, which originally resembled the spear-head (PL 
 III. fig. 44), has ultimately become almost as sharp 
 
III. I.] IMPLEMENTS REMODELLED. Kf» 
 
 ,s an awl. Spear-points worn in the same manner 
 ire not uncommon in collections. 
 
 All this coincides perfectly with the explanation 
 vhich I have given already (at p. 10) of the articles 
 )f antiquity (PI. I.) which I have called hammer- 
 itones, i.e., chipping-stones or hones, and to which ex- 
 planation I have been led by the unmistakable traces 
 ivhich they show of blows against some hard stone. 
 
 In several of the antiquarian museums in Europe 
 there are knives and harpoons of flint obtained from 
 ihodern savages, worn and sharpened in a similar man- 
 ner ; and we know now that in such cases hammer- 
 stones have been used very much like those of ancient 
 times. 
 
 On the upper end of broad gouges, such as PI. VI. 
 figs. 139, 140, we often see distinct marks of blows 
 dealt upon them by clubs while scooping out wood. 
 
 DIVISION VIII.- — IMPLEMENTS WHICH HAVE BEEN TEANS- 
 rOEMED INTO IMPLEMENTS OE ANOTHEE KIND. 
 
 We meet not unfrequently with stone implements 
 which have evidently been formed out of a broken 
 fragment of a tool belonging to a totally different 
 class. I will mention a few which are preserved in 
 my former collection, now in the Academy at Lund ; 
 but as it would be very difficult to make any intelli- 
 gible sketches of them, I do not attempt to do so. 
 
 1. Square narrow chisels made out of a spear-shaft, 
 as is perfectly evident at a glance. 
 
 2. Axe made out of a large broken knife-blade. 
 
00 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. I. 
 
 3. Axe, narrow and rounded at top, formed out of 
 a worn-out broad axe. 
 
 4. Spear-head, somewhat like PI. III. fig. 44, made 
 out of a large knife-blade. 
 
 5. Arrow-head, like PI. III. fig. 48, made out of 
 tlie point of a knife-blade. 
 
 6. Semilunar knife, transformed into a saw or 
 toothed spear-head, PI. V. fig. 90. 
 
 These facts show (what, however, now scarcely 
 needs a proof) that the above-mentioned stone objects 
 have been employed as tools in every-day use ; and 
 that they have, while being so used, become worn, 
 reshai'pened, and broken, and that the fragments have 
 been made into other kinds of tools. 
 
 I ought, finally, to remark that sometimes, though 
 very rarely, we find that even the aborigines of this 
 country, who possessed weapons and implements only 
 of stone, bone, and similar materials, endeavoured to 
 sketch outlines of their animals. I have figured 
 two such sketches (PL XV. figs. 258, 259) on a hoe 
 made of a stag's antler (PL XV. figs. 256, 257), found 
 in a bog in the south of Scania. These are evidently 
 first attempts in the art of drawing, and can in no 
 wise be compared with the masterly sketches of the 
 savages in Perigord, who have so well figured their 
 reindeer and other animals. 
 
11. 1.] AWLS. 01 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PI. XVI. figs. 263-265 are of bone, and seem to 
 afi^e been a kind of awl for boring holes in skin, and 
 30 on. That they could not have been used as needles 
 is proved by the projecting knob on the upper end : 
 the hole at the end and sides shows that these, like the 
 small whetstones (PI. II. figs. 18-20) were carried in 
 a strap attached to the belt. These forms, so far as 
 I know, were not known before their recent simulta- 
 neous discovery in Sweden and Denmark.* They 
 belong to the Stone Age, and have been found in 
 Sweden in a gallery-grave at Luttra, in West Goth- 
 land, and in Denmark, in a similar tomb on the island 
 of Seeland;f formed of a bear's and wolfs tusks 
 pierced through, and having served doubtless as 
 ornaments worn round the neck. Figs. 26(', 268, 
 belong to the variety already described on page 77, 
 and sketched in PI. II. figs. 36, 37. They are again 
 brought forward here to show how much this form 
 varies. Fig. 269 is a piece of a ground axe, very 
 roughly hewn into a chisel. Fig. 270 represents a 
 stone disc, ornamented with circular concavities, and 
 was probably used as a button. Figs. 271, 273, we 
 will describe in Chapter III. 
 
 * See the AntiquarisTc Tidskrift for Sverige, vol. i. page 262, fig. 
 17 ; Aarboger for Nordish OldJcundighet, vol. iii. page 213, PI. 
 III. figs. 7, 9. 
 
 I AntiquarisTc Tidskrift, vol. i. page 2G4, figs. 201, 2G2. 
 
i>2 THE STONE AGE. [Cii. II. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EETEOSPECT OF THE "WHOLE COLLECTION, AND AN ATTEMPT 
 TO DKAW FROM IT A POSITIVE EESULT. 
 
 I WILL coramence this chapter by citing a few 
 opinions which have been expressed about these an- 
 tiquities, but which I cannot consider correct. 
 
 As long as it was taken for granted, without any 
 proof, that all these implements had belonged to one 
 and the same tribe, namely, to the warlike, man- 
 sacrificing Goths, from whom we ourselves descend, 
 so long these antiquities were pronounced to be wea- 
 pons of war and instruments of sacrifice, or sym- 
 bols of worship of the Gothic heathen god, Thor. 
 But it appears to have been forgotten that the most 
 ancient records of this very people unmistakably in- 
 dicate the then existence of still ruder tribes, whom 
 they had found in the country on their arrival, 
 and with whom they had bloody feuds ; nor does it 
 appear to have been remembered that these more 
 ancient, and still ruder people, in order to subsist, 
 must necessarily have had implements, which were 
 doubtless rude, like themselves. We must either sup- 
 pose that no other race than the present ever lived 
 in the country, or else we must admit that many of 
 our ancient implements may have belonged to this 
 more ancient people. We shall enquire in the fol- 
 
'n. II.] IMl'LEMEXTS, NOT WEAPONS. 0.3 
 
 owing chapter whether several separate tribes did 
 ive here ; in this, we will enumerate the usual modes 
 )f explaining these antiquities, and state why we 
 ;aTmot consider them to be satisfactory.* 
 
 Thus, first, respecting the supposition that they 
 ivere merely weapons of war. Let us glance over 
 :hem, from the first to the last, to decide which of 
 chem were exclusively made use of for that purpose. 
 
 No one can suppose the fish-hooks (PL 11. figs. 
 28, 29, and 30) to have been ofi"ensive or defensive 
 weapons. Fishing-weights (PL II. figs. 31-35), if 
 they were fixed at the end of a string, might certainly 
 be used as weapons of war in case of need ; but that 
 they were not intended for this purpose may be 
 inferred, partly because similar sinkers are still used 
 by savage people, and partly from the fact that 
 they have nowhere been met with, so employed, 
 amongst savages, although it is to their weapons of 
 war that the attention of Europeans has been espe- 
 cially directed. 
 
 Plate III. figs. 43, 45, 47, 48, represent harpoons, 
 which are so similar to those still used by savage 
 people, that their purpose cannot be questioned. The 
 small flint arrows (PL V. figs. 94-98) resemble those 
 which are still used in some places for shooting game ; 
 that they have, however, in case of need, sometimes 
 been used as weapons of war, we have also evidence. 
 As to the curved knives (PL V. figs. K7-90), the 
 
 * The reader will please remember that this was written for the 
 first edition, upwards of twenty years ago. Now, perhaps, some of it 
 may be considered superfluous. 
 
04 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. II. 
 
 chisel, the convex axe, the cross-axe, &c., no one, I 
 think, can suppose that any of these instruments were 
 manufactured expressly to be used in war. The re- 
 maining forms are, the spear, the knife, the flint-pointed 
 pike-shaped arrow, the straight axe, the hammer, and 
 the hafted wedge. 
 
 1. With regard to the spear (PI. III. figs. 55, 57), 
 it appears at first sight as if it may have been a 
 formidable weapon of war ; but if we look into the 
 matter a little more closely, we shall probably come 
 to a different opinion. A man who goes to war does 
 not go like an assassin against a defenceless victim, 
 but in open battle against an armed foe. Thus it is 
 evident that a warrior armed with such a thin brittle 
 flint spear would get it broken at the first onset, and 
 become disarmed. This long and thin flint spear 
 could not therefore be fit for a weapon of war. It has 
 been asserted that it would be the more fatal if it were 
 broken in the wound; but here again the thought 
 is of murder, not of war. I will not deny that the 
 lance may possibly, on some occasions, have been 
 used as a weapon of murder ; various things have 
 been used for the same purpose. But that it was 
 chiefly used as a hunting weapon we may learn from 
 the savages of North America, who still use similar 
 flint spears for the chase (PI. III. fig. 54, page 39). 
 
 2. The axe is so necessary an instrument of daily 
 use, even amongst the rudest savages, that we can- 
 not suppose it to have been exclusively a weapon oi' 
 war. The savage here in the North required wood 
 for warmth, timber for building Ids hut, a boat for 
 
;h. II.] IMPLEMENTS, NOT WEAPONS. or, 
 
 ishing, &c. For all this the axe would necessarily 
 )e required. How this was worn down by use, was 
 sharpened and again worn, so that the edge became 
 lacked like that of our own wood-axes, we have 
 ilready shown (PI. VII. figs. 159, 160). 
 
 It is quite impossible that an axe, which was only 
 used for war, could be thus worn out to the stump, 
 and get a hacked edge: this could arise only from 
 daily use. 
 
 3. Thehaftedwedge(Pl.VI.figs. 129, 130). This 
 has been called the mace of war, and the hammer 
 (PL VIII. figs. 172, 179, &c.), the hammer of war; 
 as if in those remote times mankind did not require 
 anything to subsist on, but only to fight with ; they 
 are not. allowed to have had any implements, but 
 only weapons. But, it is manifest, by the manner in 
 which these antiquities were worn by daily use (in 
 particular the haffced wedge), that they Avere em- 
 ployed as wedges to be driven into wood by a mallet. 
 We do not, however, mean to deny that the savage, 
 in case of emergency, may have seized upon it, to 
 defend himself against an attack. 
 
 4. The knife exactly resembles the New Zealand 
 stone knife on PI. III. fig. 65, which certainly was 
 used for domestic pui'poses. 
 
 5. The sharpened arrow (PI. II. figs. 39, 40) may 
 no doubt have been used in war ; but it is likewise a 
 suitable hunting weapon, and well adapted for killing 
 the larger mammalia.* 
 
 * That suoh sharpened arrows as PI. II. figs. 39, 40, have been 
 found in tumuli on the plain of Marathon, where the Persian army 
 
90 THE STONE AGE. [Cn. II. 
 
 From this we can perceive that all the stone imple- 
 ments which have been described and sketched here 
 are perfectly suitable implements for a rude tribe, 
 Avhich subsisted here in the North principally by 
 hunting and fishing; that most of them could not 
 even have been used for weapons of war, and that 
 almost all the rest while in use were worn in such a 
 manner as to show that they were employed for 
 peaceable and domestic purposes.* 
 
 It has likewise been asserted that all spears and 
 knives were used as sacrificial knives in the worship 
 of Odin. It is perhaps possible that a few may 
 have been used for that purpose, and that the wor- 
 shippers of Odin, who, however, evidently already 
 had metal for implements and weapons, used flint for 
 sacrificial knives. f 
 
 was beaten by the Athenians, under the command of Miltiades, a 
 countryman of mine, who has visited the battle-field, told me a 
 few years since. But this kind of arrow was likewise used for 
 hunting larger animal^, and it is probable that it was with such an 
 aiTow that the Urus, the skeleton of which is now in the Zoological 
 Museum at Lund, was woimded (though not killed). 
 
 * I do not, however, mean to deny that some of them were ui=cd 
 in war. 'We have reason to suppose that every tribe, when they 
 still remained, in the lowest degree of civilisation, would use both 
 implements and weapons of war made of flint, when this kind of 
 stone was to be found. Even the Egyptians appear, during the most 
 ancient times, to have made use of flint points for arrows and spears 
 as weapons of war. Such were found by Mr. Brugsch on Mount 
 ^inai, where, in olden times, according to tradition, an Egyptian 
 garrison had been quartered. — Wandeningen nach den Tiirlcis-Mineii 
 i/nd der Sinai-Halbinsel. Leipzig, 1866. (Page 71.) 
 
 •]■ It is quite possible that flint knives were occasionally used at 
 these divine services, but neither history nor even tradition, as far 
 as I have hitherto been able to ascertain, relate anything of the sort. 
 
E. II.] RELIGIOUS IMPLEMENTS OF STONE. 97 
 
 Such was, we know, the case with several ancient 
 ations, and many instances of it occur in history. 
 V^hen the Jews journeyed out of Egypt, they were 
 Iready well acquainted with iron, and yet Zipporah, 
 be wife of Moses, circumcised her son with a sharp 
 tone ; * and when Joshua again introduced the sacra- 
 lent of circumcision, which had been forgotten during 
 he wandering in the desert, he used the same instru- 
 lent that had formerly been used for that purpose, 
 amely, the stone knife.f As far as we know, circumci- 
 ion was practised by the Egyptian priests — it belonged 
 
 the ceremonies of reception in their order ; and 
 ,ccording to Herodotus,^ the Egyptians used a sharp 
 ilthiopian stone at the embalming of their corpses. 
 This last-named statement corresponds also perfectly 
 vith the fact that there are in the Egyptian antiquarian 
 collections which I have seen at Berlin, and at Paris, 
 n the Louvre, besides arrows and other weapons 
 aade of metal, some sharp-edged implements of flint, 
 vhich probably, therefore, were used at the embalm- 
 ng. 
 
 The Phoenicians, likewise, after they had become 
 .cquainted with the use of metals, took sacred oaths 
 
 Q Stiirloger's Saga (chap, xviii.) we are told of a house of offering 
 
 1 Bjarmaland with the images of Thor and Odin. The priestess 
 raved in her hand a short two-edged sword — perhaps a sacrificial 
 nifc — the two edges of which appeared to sparkle. Therefore it 
 ras bright, and consequently of metal. Nowhere in our records is 
 lention made of a sacrificial knife of flint ; such were, however, 
 robably in existence nevertheless. 
 
 * Ex. iv. 25. 
 t Josh. v. 2. 
 
 X Herod., book ii. chap. Ixxxvi. 
 
 II 
 
98 THE STONE AGE. [On. II. 
 
 at the altar in this manner. The person about to be 
 sworn held a lamb in the left hand and a flint knife in 
 the right, vowing by gods and man that if he broke the 
 promise given, the god might slay him the same way 
 that he killed the lamb.* When the Horatii and the 
 Curiatii were to decide the fate of Rome and Alba 
 by single combat, the Romans were no doubt well 
 acquainted with weapons of metal, and yet Livy re- 
 lates (' Histor.,' chap. i. 24) that the priest, at the 
 sacrifice, killed the victim with a flint knife ; and other 
 instances might be mentioned. In the same manner 
 it is possible that the worshippers of Odin (who evi- 
 dently, until the introduction of Christianity, offered 
 human sacrifices,! in accordance with a barbarous 
 custom, which, no doubt, had its origin far back in 
 ancient times) used flint knives at their sacrifices; 
 although, if such had been the case, it appears strange 
 that it is nowhere mentioned. But even if the prac- 
 tice of human sacrifice be admitted, independently of 
 historical testimony, there is no connection between 
 it and the flint knives and flint spears which lie in 
 the gallery-tombs ; at the most it may serve to explain 
 those which, with metal weapons and burnt bone- 
 splinters, are occasionally to be found in more recent 
 
 * Corn. Nep. Ilainiib., edit. Kuchen. 
 
 f It is singular, liowever, that human sacrifices are nowliere 
 spoken of in the Eddas. (Comp. Finn Magmisen, Edda Sam.) This 
 is nevertheless a proof, amongst many others, that the Eddas are not 
 much to be depended on for historical knowledge as to the worship- 
 pers of Odin and their devotional customs. More trustworthy 
 information is obtained from the first missionaries and from the 
 proceedings of the worshippers of Odin in foreign counti-ies. 
 
Cn. II. J RELIGIOUS IMPLEMENTS OF STONE. 09 
 
 heathen tombs. The former have, as already sliowii, 
 no doubt been used chiefly for hunting. 
 
 It is well known that some antiquaries have thought 
 themselves justified in pronouncing these stone wea- 
 pons to be symbols of a primeval fire-worship. It 
 has been asserted, e.g., that the flint axe was a re- 
 ligious symbol, which in its substance (the flint) con- 
 tained the holy fire, and in its shape (the wedge) 
 betokened the quality of lightning ; namely, to cleave. 
 Such explanations may possibly be considered inge- 
 nious, but they want every trace of historical as well 
 as ethnological proof. They betray, moreover, a 
 paucity of information which alone ought to have 
 prevented any such rash suggestions. Any one who 
 will but glance over an extensive collection of these 
 antiquities, may easily convince himself that objects 
 of exactly the same shapes occur, not only of flint, 
 but likewise of greenstone (aphanite, diorite), basalt, 
 slate, &c., even of bone, deer's horn, and other sub- 
 stances, which certainly do not contain any ' holy 
 fire ; ' and yet they had undoubtedly the same signi- 
 fication and object, and answered the same purpose 
 as the articles of flint, together with which they are 
 found. By this simple observation, the hypothesis is 
 thus thoroughly refuted. The very small specimens 
 which are sometimes to be met with, resembling the 
 large ones in everything but their size, and which 
 have likewise been regarded as symbols, if they were 
 not ornaments, were perhaps made for boys, to give 
 them an early training in the use of arms. Thus the 
 Greenlanders are said to provide their boys with 
 
 H 2 
 
100 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. II. 
 
 suitable small ' kajaks ' and darts. Such, on the other 
 hand, as are made of amber in the shape of axes, &c., 
 were ornaments like those of the Greeks, which were 
 made of gold. (See page 72.) 
 
 Having, in the preceding part, described and 
 sketched, one by one, our most ancient antiquities of 
 stone and bone, and having, as far as possible, com- 
 pared them with those instruments of the same mate- 
 rials which are still made use of in some countries, let 
 us again throw a glance over the whole collection, 
 that we may, as it were, bring together into one 
 single view the scattered ideas which it has given us 
 respecting the degree of civilisation and mode of living 
 of the people who used them. 
 
 In the first place, we find similar implements 
 among all people who still remain at a very low stage 
 of human civilisation ; and amongst them only. We 
 have seen that similar implements, as late as the last 
 century, were used by the savages of New Zealand, 
 'J^ahcite, Easter Island, Nootka, California, Boothia, 
 Greenland, Australia, and pai'ts of North America; 
 but wherever civilisation has diffused her light they 
 haA'e been thrown aside. Hence we may safely come 
 to the conclusion, that the people who, in Scandinavia, 
 made use of similar implements, stood in the same 
 low degree of civilisation as these savages. 
 
 Secondly, we have seen the very same kind of 
 chisels, both of stone and of bone, from New Zealand 
 (PI. VI. figs. 129, 130, 132, 133), and from Scania 
 and Moen (PL VI. figs. 127, 128, 131) ; similar chisels 
 with hafts, from Nootka (PI. VI. fig. 135), and from 
 
On. II.] MATERIALS OF EARLY IMPLEMENTS. 101 
 
 Denmark (fig. 136) ; spears of flint and bone from 
 Scania (PI. III. figs. 55, 57, 58), and from the most 
 northerly parts of North America (PI. III. figs. 54, 
 56) ; fish-hooks of flint and bone from Scania (PI. II. 
 figs. 28-30), and of the same kind of bone and shell 
 from Taheite (PI. 11. figs. 26, 27) ; straight axes from 
 Tierra del Fuego (PI. VII. fig. 155), both of flint 
 (PL VII. fig. I53) and copper (PI. VII. fig. 148), 
 and one perfectly similar of shell, from California 
 (PL VII. fig. 147); hammers from Scania made of 
 diorite (PL VIII. figs. 169, 172) and of stag's horn 
 (PL VIII. fig. 171), &c. From all this, we come to 
 the conclusion that in Scandinavia, as in the South 
 Sea Islands and in America, the savage did not con- 
 fine himself to one single material for his imple- 
 ments, but had resort to any suitable substance that 
 he could obtain. 
 
 Thirdly, we may infer the mode of living of the 
 people who made use of them. That these people 
 practised angling, both in the sea and the lakes, is 
 apparent by the fish-hooks and the places where 
 these have been found ; that they practised hunting 
 on the water with harpoons and spears, like the 
 savages of North America, we can tell by their per- 
 fectly similar implements. They also, like the 
 latter, made use of the dart or the fowling-arrow 
 (PL VI. figs. 124-126), which could not be used 
 except on the water. The savages of Scandinavia 
 consequently had boats. These seem to have been 
 excavated trunks of trees, for the broad gouge ( PL VI. 
 figs. 189, 140) has evidently been used for excavating 
 
102 THE STOXE AGE. [Ch. II. 
 
 wood.* They knew the use of fire, for they under- 
 stood how to burn clay into vessels, veiy much like 
 those made by the savages both of South and North 
 America. They also had, no doubt, like these latter, 
 huts in which to live. These huts were probably 
 of the same shape as the sepulchral huts (PI. XIV. 
 figs. 243-246, or figs. 249, 250), in which latter the 
 aborigines were deposited after their death, doubled 
 up in their graves in the same posture as that in 
 which they had during their lifetime been accustomed 
 to sit in their huts. (See Chapter III.) In order to 
 build their huts, they must have used various kinds 
 of tools: the felling-axe (PL VII. figs. 158-160, 153) 
 for felling the trees and chopping the logs ; the chisel 
 (PL VI. figs. 127, 134) to cut holes in them, etc. For 
 splitting wood, they probably used the hafted wedge 
 (PL IX. figs. 183, 184), which they drove in with a 
 mallet, for traces of blows are to be seen both on the 
 plane of the mallet and on the wedge. 
 
 They used buttons (PL IX. fig. 191); conse- 
 quently, they did not merely wrap themselves up in 
 whole hides, but had clothes which were cut out. 
 These clothes were probably made from the skins of 
 those animals which they killed in the chase.f For 
 
 * It is remarkable that the denomination iha, which is still the 
 name for such excavated boats, both in Scania, where they also are 
 called eka, as well as in Norway, is derived from a Lapland word 
 {Ui-dn,\. 3, page 27G). Christie has found a number of Lapland 
 words in the Norwegian dialects, and a great many of those which 
 he cites are to be found as well in the Scanian dialect. 
 
 + If we carefully examine the earth roiuid the skeletons in our 
 gallery-tomba, or tumuli, we may possibly find in them hair from the 
 skins in which the corpses were wrapped when they were deposited 
 
Ch. II.] LIFE OF SCANDINAVIAN SAVAGES. 103 
 
 cutting these clothes they must have used a knife; 
 perhaps chiefly the curved knife (PL V. figs. 87, 88, 
 91): possibly also such an instrument as PI. VII. 
 figs. 151, 152, They possessed the dog, like almost all 
 other savage nations; but, like them, they had hardly 
 any other tame animals, at least we have no satisfac- 
 tory evidence that any bones of other animals have 
 been found in their tombs, while there are many of 
 the dog and various wild animals, such as the "wild 
 boar, the hedgehog, the wild cat ( ?), the stag, the 
 elk, etc. No images are found amongst them, and 
 they had evidently no knowledge of written language ; 
 neither letters nor hieroglyphics ; for on their monu- 
 ments, tombs, urns, or implements, we never meet 
 with any sign of letters. Neither do we find amongst 
 them any evidence of the use of metals, either ham- 
 mered or cast. 
 
 A remarkable fact in this branch of ethnography is 
 the great resemblance that exists amongst the stone 
 implements of nations of difi"erent tribes, during very 
 difierent periods and in the most distant countries 
 of the earth. If the question were asked, whether 
 we could infer from the resemblance of the imple- 
 ments that they had belonged to one and the same 
 tribe, we must, after a strict examination, answer No ; 
 they only indicate the same degree of civilisation. To 
 give a few decisive proofs of this thesis, I have here, 
 on PI. V. figs. 99-103, 106-111, sketched similar stone 
 arrow-heads, with a tongue for the shaft, from various 
 
 in the tomb ; and in that case we can infer whether these skins 
 were of deer, seal, etc. 
 
10 i THE STONE AGE. [Ch. II. 
 
 distant parts of the world; also (fig. 113) a triangular 
 arrow-head from Scania, and (fig. 114) a similar one 
 from Pennsylvania. But above all, the small heart- 
 shaped arrow-heads (fig. 106) of flint, fi'om Scania, 
 and (fig. 107) of obsidian, from Tierra del Fuego, 
 both of which are, with regard to shape and mode of 
 construction, even in the most minute details and 
 Avhen closely viewed with a microscope, surprisingly 
 similar, as if they had been made by the same hand 
 and on the same day.* And yet there is between 
 their places of origin such a vast distance as the 
 space between Sweden and Tierra del Fuego; and 
 such a gulf of time, that the one was made about 
 twenty years ago, and the other is at least from 2,000 
 to 3,000 years old. 
 
 Indeed, it is hardly possible to explain the close 
 resemblance between the fishing-tools and hunting 
 weapons of the most distinct savage nations, as to 
 time, place, and origin, without assuming that all of 
 them, in one and the same low degree of civilisation, 
 contrived these hunting weapons f instinctively, and 
 in consequence of a sort of natural necessity. We are 
 urged to this supposition, as we find even very com- 
 plicated fishing and hunting implements of exactly 
 
 * The resemblance is even gre.'Hter than is here shown on the 
 Plate. 
 
 •j" If any one objects that the difference of the implements as to 
 materials (see page 78) proves that they were made at will, and 
 refutes the theory of instinct, I will only remind the reader that 
 although the beaver builds its houses, and the birds their nests, by 
 instinct, every zoologist knows that they are modified, more or less, 
 even in one and the same species, according to access to different 
 materials and local circumstances. 
 
)h. II.] HUMAN AND BRUTE INSTINCT. 105 
 
 he same kind with all savage people from pole to 
 )ole. Thus, for instance, the bow and arrow, thovtgh 
 I very ingenious contrivance, is found amongst almost 
 ill, even the rudest savages; and, as already shown, 
 i'ery different races of men have instruments which 
 u'e, not only similar, but even, so to say, identical. I 
 lave in another place enlarged on this subject.* I 
 see here the evidence of a higher Wisdom, which has 
 iistributed to man natural weapons, with, however, 
 ;he power of discarding them as he improved in civili- 
 sation. The lion received from nature his shai^p 
 jlaws, the bear his muscular arms, and the wolf his 
 powerful teeth ; Ijut they received them as parts of, 
 and inseparable from, the individual. They cannot be 
 improved.f Every lion is still, with regard to disposi- 
 tion and action, exactly such as lions were thousands 
 af years ago. Man alone can make progress ; he alone 
 3an throw aside his first rude weapons and alter them 
 according to his improved cultivation and more refined 
 activity. I may here add, that man, in order that he 
 might become the most powerful, was made at first 
 the weakest. Through that alone he was induced to 
 develope his higher talents ; for it was not by bodily 
 strength, but by the power of the mind that he was 
 to be the king and lord of the earth. 
 
 * Public discourse at the meeting of the Scandinavian Naturalists 
 at Stockholm, 1842. 
 f See Note 5. 
 
106 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. HI. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ANCIENT CEANIA POUND 
 IN SCANDINAVIA AND THOSE BELOHGING TO THE RACES 
 NOW LIVING THERE. 
 
 With the stone implements, which were described in 
 the first Chapter, there are not unfrequently found in 
 our ancient tumuli, skeletons of the people who used 
 these ancient weapons in life, and were buried with 
 them after death. In our oldest peat-bogs we like- 
 wise occasionally discover ancient crania associated 
 with implements of stone. 
 
 I have in another place expressed an opinion that 
 it would be easy to decide to what particular race 
 and tribe those people belonged who in Sweden 
 employed implements of stone and of bones of ani- 
 mals, etc., if we would only carefully examine the 
 skeletons, and more especially the crania, found be- 
 side the implements in ancient sepulchres. 
 
 I now propose to undertake such an investigation, 
 in as far as it is feasible with the assistance of the 
 materials which I have at my command. I propose 
 to compare the fossil crania vsdth those of the races 
 now living amongst us. 
 
 But before proceeding to my task, I ought to pre-- 
 mise that this subject (craniology), so highly im- 
 
Ch. in.] COMPARISON OF CRANIA. 107 
 
 portant to ethnography, Avas in a very unsatisfactory 
 condition until our illustrious countryman, Professor 
 Anders Retzius, published his system of classification 
 of human skulls. He first enunciated this system in 
 his remarkable discourse at the Meeting of Naturalists 
 at Stockholm in 1842, ' On the Form of the Crania of 
 the Inhabitants of the North,'* when the races of man 
 were for the first time classified, according to the 
 shape of the skull, into gentes dolichocephalce (long- 
 headed) and brachycephalce (short-headed), and each 
 of these again were subdivided into orthognathce and 
 prognathce. Since then the learned professor has com- 
 pleted his system, with indefatigable diligence and 
 sagacity, by unceasingly working upon the foundation 
 which he then laid down, so that craniology has at 
 last grown into a science resting upon a firm and 
 solid foundation. f Before the publication of this sys- 
 tem, which made an epoch in the craniological depart- 
 ment of ethnology, it was generally supposed that the 
 Laplanders and the Esquimaux, for instance, be- 
 longed to one and the same race. J Professor Retzius 
 has proved that they belong to entirely different 
 
 * Report of the Third Meeting of the Scandinavian Naturali.sts at 
 Stockholm, 1842, page 157. 
 
 f After the lamented death of Professor Anders Retzius, his son, 
 Dr. Gustaf Retzius, collected his father's lectures on this subject, and 
 published them in the German language, in a very well illustrated 
 edition, under the title of EthnograpMsche Schriften von Anders 
 Retzius, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt. Stockholm, 1864. 
 Filial love has thus raised an imperishable monument to an illustrious 
 father. 
 
 J Cuvier also adopted this view in Le liegne Animal. Paris, 
 1829. Vol. i. page 84. 
 
108 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. III. 
 
 races : that the Laplanders are bracliycefhalce ortho- 
 gnathce ; and the Esquimaux, on the other hand, doli- 
 chocefhalce prognathce. 
 
 The two most essentially heterogeneous races, now 
 inhabiting the Scandinavian peninsula, belong to the 
 gentes orthognathce ; but one, the Laplanders, are, 
 as already mentioned, brachycephalic^ while all the 
 others are dolichocephalic. These latter being com- 
 paratively the most numerous, we shall begin by 
 examining them. 
 
 I consider the sketches given here of a cranium 
 of a Swede (PL XIL figs. 227-229) to represent the 
 true type of the so-called Germano-Gothic race, now 
 the most general in Sweden, and the more so as Pro- 
 fessor A. Retzius himself has acknowledged it to be 
 such in his paper at page 166 (page 6 of the German 
 translation). The sketch given by Professor Retzius 
 in ' Ethnologische Schriften' (PI. I. fig. 1) also agrees 
 with this. In my first edition, 1838, 1 have described 
 in the following manner the same cranium, of which I 
 here reproduce the figure on a somewhat reduced scale. 
 - Seen from above (fig. 228), the skull presents an 
 oval, or rather, an elongated oval figure, a little 
 broader at the back than in front, but rounded in 
 both parts. The greatest length, measured from the 
 most prominent part of the forehead to the most 
 prominent part of the occiput, is, in proportion to the 
 greatest breadth, measured across the crown of the 
 head, as 4 to 3, or as 9 to 7 ; the line of contour at 
 the sides of the frontal bone is directed forward, not 
 obliquely inwards. The coronal suture, formed by 
 
n. III.] TYPICAL SWEDISH CRANIUM. 100 
 
 he frontal and parietal bones, divides the cranium 
 ito two parts, of which the one situated behind the 
 uture is much longer than that in front of it. 
 
 Seen sideways (fig. 227), the upper contour of the 
 lead forms an evenly curved arch, descending in front 
 ,t the forehead almost perpendicularly, and a little 
 nore sloping behind the vertex, with a slight depres- 
 ion over the projecting occiput. If a line be drawn 
 )arallel with the upper edge of the jugal arch, the 
 lighest part of the arch formed by the contour of the 
 (•ertex Avill generally be at, or in front of, the coronal 
 suture. The height from the external auditory aper- 
 ure to the crown is equal to two-thirds of the dis- 
 tance from the arch of the eye-brows (arcus supra- 
 jiliares) to the most projecting part of the occiput. 
 
 Seen in front (fig. 229), the forehead is high and 
 roundly arched, the jugal arches passing obliquely 
 backward : the face appears to have been rather oval 
 than round, which form is chiefly the efi'ect of the 
 hio'h forehead and the more elongated upper jaw- 
 bones. 
 
 More or less projecting brow-ridges ; a more or less 
 deep depression beneath them, above the root of the 
 nose ; a longer or shorter, a straight or more aquiline 
 nose, with a more or less projecting bridge, and a 
 lai'ger or smaller nasal aperture, etc., are only in- 
 dividual and casual varieties. The same is the case 
 with the greater or less unevenness of the facial bones 
 in those places where the muscles have their attach- 
 ments; the former indicates strong, and the latter 
 weak facial muscles, and in this respect we meet with 
 
310 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. III. 
 
 p;reat individual varieties in the existing race to 
 which we ourselves belong. 
 
 As I think that the method adopted by Professor 
 Retzius in describing human crania is undoubtedly 
 the right one, and as, moreover, it is the one now 
 most generally followed, I shall here give an extract 
 from his description of a cranium, such as I have 
 described above. He says : * — 
 
 ' The shape of the skull, seen from above, is oval ; 
 the greatest length is in proportion to the greatest 
 breadth as 1,000 to 773, or nearly as 9 to 7. On 
 an average, the greatest length from the glabella to 
 the most projecting part of the tuber occipitale is 
 0"190m. ; the breadth in front (between the anterior 
 part of the temporal fossas) 0'107 m. ; the greatest 
 breadth posteriorly (immediately behind the temples), 
 0"147 m. ; the greatest circumference of the skull over 
 the glabella and the tuber occipitale, 0*540 m.; the 
 height of the cranium, from the anterior edge of the 
 foramen magnum to the highest part of the crown, 
 0-135 m. 
 
 ' The contour of most skulls is somewhat straight in 
 the front part of the forehead ; the superciliary ridges 
 are in general strongly developed, and the skull 
 behind its line of greatest breadth becomes narrower 
 towards the occiput, and is produced into a strongly 
 projecting, rounded prominence. 
 
 ' The greatest breadth of the cranium falls most 
 frequently below, and a little in front of the parietal 
 
 * Keport of the Meeting of tlie Naturalists at Stockholm, 18-12, 
 jDage 162. 
 
H. 111.] TYPICAL SWEDISH CRANIUM. Ill 
 
 minences which lie in front of the commencement of 
 he occiput and more at the side of the sliiill; these 
 minences are, however, often wanting, or they are 
 ounded off and project but slightly. 
 
 ' The hinder part of the parietal bones and the 
 agittal suture between them slope backwards. Tlie 
 ipper angle of the occipital bone is situated low 
 lown ; the lambdoidal suture is visible on the lateral 
 lurfaces of the cranium. The margins of the attach- 
 nents of the cervical muscles (lineaB semicirculares 
 najores) meet together at nearly a right angle, lying 
 jelow and in front of the very projecting occipital 
 ipine, which generally projects, forming in adult males 
 I considerable eminence. 
 
 ' When the skull is viewed sidewaj^e, the occipital 
 protuberance also appears very large, as a prominence 
 bounded superiorly by an indentation above the angle 
 Df the lambdoidal suture, or at the spot where the 
 large fontanelle was situated, which constitutes an 
 essential characteristic of crania of this type. 
 
 ' In consequence of this considerable elongation of 
 the occiput, the outer auditory opening comes to lie 
 farther forward than in the skulls with short occiputs. 
 If, for example, one imagines a plane, passing through 
 the two outer auditory openings, intersecting the 
 cranium at right angles, this plane will intersect 
 the longitudinal diameter very near its middle ; fre- 
 quently it intersects it exactly in the middle, more 
 rarely in front, but occasionally a few millimeters 
 behind the middle. Another consequence of the 
 lengthened occiput is, that the temporal lines do not 
 
113 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. III. 
 
 extend so far back as in the skulls with short occi- 
 puts, but are situated, like the inferior and posterior 
 angle of the parietal bone, entirely upon the side of 
 the cranium and do not encroach at all upon the 
 occipital aspect. It should be remarked that these 
 lines diverge posteriorly from the borders of the 
 attachments of the temporal muscles, which pass 
 nearer the squamous suture of the skull directly 
 across to the zygomatic process. 
 
 ' Seen from underneath also, the Swedish crania 
 are characterised by an elongation of the occiput, 
 which causes the outline to be elliptic. In order to 
 define this elongation, we may imagine a straight 
 line drawn through both the outer auditory orifices. 
 If on this line, as a chord, an arc be drawn roimd 
 the most convex part of the occiput, the height of 
 the arc will be nearly equal to the chord. It is to 
 be observed that the line referred to will intersect the 
 anterior border of the foramen magnum, and that the 
 arc at first coincides with the borders of the mastoid 
 processes. The distance between these points, there- 
 fore, easily defines the length of the chord, whilst 
 the distance between the front edge of the occipital 
 foramen and the most projecting part of the occiput 
 represents the height of the arc. The surface to 
 which the cervical muscles are attached, and which 
 is bounded by the superior curved lines, falls entirely 
 within this segment. This surface, corresponding to 
 the cerebellar fosste, in which the cerebellum rests, is 
 in the Swedes nearly horizontal, and does not ascend 
 on the hinder part of the head, but lies in the base 
 
Dh. Ill] TYPICAL SWEDISH CRANIUM. 113 
 
 3f the cranium, and is very slightly convex. The 
 accipital protuberance corresponding to the cerebral 
 Ebssee, in which are lodged the posterior lobes of the 
 brain, projects considerably behind the cerebellar por- 
 tion. The shape of the occipital foramen is oval ; its 
 iverage length is 0-036 m., and breadth 0-029 m. : in 
 some crania it is pointed, both towards the front and 
 towards the back; in others either only towards the 
 Front, or only towards the back. The mastoid pro- 
 cesses are in most cases large and strong, and are 
 iivided on the inner side lengthwise by a deep narrow 
 iigastric fossa. The pterygoid processes are almost 
 perpendicular. 
 
 ' If we now direct our attention to the framework 
 3f the bones of the face, we shall find that, looked at 
 From above, it projects very little beyond the circum- 
 Ference of the brain-case; thus the external angular 
 Drocesses of the frontal bone are small, and the lower 
 orbital edge nearly vertically below the upper one. 
 The malar prominences (the tubera zygomatica) lie 
 mmediately below the external angular processes. 
 This formation is consequent upon the slight prolon- 
 gation or prominence of the jaws. The jugal arches in 
 some individuals pass backwards almost in a straight 
 ine, and widen only near the insertion at the temporal 
 3ones ; in others they form nearly a regular arch, the 
 ongest convexity of which is in the middle. The dis- 
 ;ance between the greatest convexity of the zygomatic 
 irches is generally from 0-130 to 0-135 m. The 
 ygomatic bone is flattened externally, occasionally 
 ounded and large, and has a malar prominence pro- 
 
 I 
 
114 THE STONE AGE, [Ch, III. 
 
 jecting perpendicularly, whereby the whole of the 
 lower edge of the zygomatic arch becomes strongly 
 S-shaped, and an indentation arises frequently below 
 the adjoining malar process of the superior maxillary. 
 
 ' The circumference of the orbits varies in shape ; 
 in some people it forms a rhomb inclining obliquely 
 outwards and downwards, with rounded angles ; in 
 others a parallelogram, also with rounded angles: 
 sometimes this circumference is oval, sometimes 
 nearly circular ; but generally it inclines obliquely 
 outwards, so that the corner of the malar bone is, as 
 it were, drawn downwards. 
 
 ' The distance between the orbits, which is occupied 
 by the root of the nose and the ethmoid, is in general 
 broad, as in the other northern races. 
 
 ' The palate is generally highly arched ; but in 
 many instances it is also seen flattened in front. 
 
 ' The alveolar process (processus alveolaris) of the 
 upper jaw is high; the distance from the sjsina nasalis 
 externa to the alveolar edge varies from 0'020 to 
 0"025m. Aline drawn and produced backwards in 
 the direction of the lower edge of the alveolar process, 
 falls a little below the point of the mastoid process, 
 and on the centre of the ascending branch of the 
 lower jaw. The face becomes, for the same reason, 
 long. The average length in men, from the junction 
 of the bones of the nose with the frontal bone to the 
 alveolar edge of the front teeth, is 0"077 m. The canine 
 fossa is, in the majority of skulls, tolerably deep.' 
 
 With the exception of the Laplanders, who belong 
 to the short-headed people {gentes brachycephalce), 
 
Ch. III.] SWEDES AND GOTHS. 115 
 
 all the inhabitants of Scandinavia have, from time 
 immemorial untU the present day, belonged to the 
 class dolicJiocephalce. These have, ever since pagan 
 times, chiefly consisted of Swedes (Svear) and Goths 
 (Goter), of which the latter are by far the oldest 
 inhabitants of the country, and their arrival here 
 dates far anterior to the commencement of history, 
 when they were spread over the southern and western 
 districts of the country. The Swedish colonists ha^-e 
 immigrated at a much later period, and were at first 
 settled in the country surrounding the Malar Lake, 
 whence they have gradually spread themselves over 
 the rest of the country. 
 
 In dialect, as well as in idiosyncrasy, the difference 
 between the two is still very noticeable ; but I must 
 confess that, with respect to the shape of the skulls, 
 they do not appear to me to offer any distinct features 
 by which they can be certainly distinguished from 
 one another. We find also in Gotha (Gota rike), in 
 different districts, a marked dissimilarity in dialect 
 and features ; for instance, in the neighbourhood of 
 . Cimbrishamn, in Scania, in certain districts of Sma- 
 land, and elsewhere ; all which seems to me to imply, 
 that in ancient times settlers arrived from different 
 parts and fixed their habitations in various places. 
 Whether, by assiduously studying the peculiar expres- 
 sions and words in the dialect of each, we shall ' be 
 able to throw any light upon this subject, time must 
 prove. I have in another place* endeavoured to show 
 
 * Bronzcddern, by S. Nilsson. 
 I 2 
 
116 THE STONE AGE. [Cn. 111. 
 
 that colonies of Semitic people, employing implements 
 and weapons of bronze, have settled in various places 
 in the southern and Avestern parts of the country; 
 but their crania do not belong to the period now in 
 question. 
 
 I cannot omit mentioning here a skull of widely 
 different shape, especially on account of the place 
 where it was found. 
 
 At the meetins: of the Scandinavian Naturalists in 
 Christiania, in 1844 (see 'Reports,' 1847, page 101), 
 I referred to some human skeletons which were dis- 
 covered in the shell-beds, in the province of Bohusland. 
 They were situated high above the level of the sea ; 
 their position, and the undisturbed layers of shells 
 resting upon them, seem to prove that they were 
 not buried there, but that they accidentally perished 
 at the time when these shell-beds were stUl the 
 bottom of the sea. In the year 1843, two human 
 skeletons were found in a shell-bed at Stangenas, in 
 the parish of Bro. They were discovered lying about 
 three feet below the surface of the bed, and the shells 
 in the bed as well as those above the skeletons were 
 found in horizontal layers in a perfectly undisturbed 
 state. The skulls of the skeletons were lying about 
 two feet distant from each other, but the skeletons 
 themselves were lying in different directions ; the legs 
 of one were spread out, the other one was lying 
 straight. Everything seems to indicate that they had 
 perished by some accident, and that part of the beds 
 had afterwards been formed over them. This bed 
 is now at least 100 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
:)H. III.] SKELETONS FOUND IN SHELL-BEDS. 117 
 
 Duly the two crania were preserved, and they were 
 n a fragmentary condition; they are now in the 
 Museum at Lund. I have here (PI. XV. figs. 253, 
 254, 255) sketched the larger. But it is not ascer- 
 ;ained whether it belongs to the Stone Period. It is 
 musually large, and appears to me to resemble most 
 learly, though not perfectly, a plaster cast of a cra- 
 lium sent by Sir W. R. Wilde, of Dublin, to Profes- 
 sor Retzius, and said to have belonged to O'Connor, 
 A^ho is called the last King of Ireland, and of whose 
 ikull a plaster cast is preserved both in the Museum 
 )f the Caroline Institute at Stockholm, and in the 
 Zoological Museum at Lund. This cranium is ob- 
 ong, and almost of equal breadth and length, with 
 Doth sides convex and even, above the temporal fossa, 
 50 that the outlines of the sides form uninterruptedly 
 I rather arched line. In other crania a depression 
 ibove the temporal fossae, more or less perceptible, 
 ivill be observed ; the upper outline is slightly 
 ;onvex; the forehead low. The same form of cra- 
 lium is occasionally met with even in persons now 
 iving. 
 
 Another cranium which was found many years 
 iince in a niche of one of the catacombs at Malta, and 
 s now pi'eserved in the Zoological Museum at Lund, 
 las a strong resemblance to this form. It was much 
 lecayed, and fell altogether to pieces while being 
 ransported, but it has been skilfully restored. 
 
 I have, for the sake of comparison, given a pho- 
 ograph of it on PL XVL figs. 271-27 3, and will 
 low briefly describe this cranium, notwithstanding 
 
118 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 [Ch. hi. 
 
 that it does not belong to the Stone Age. The fore- 
 head is high and prominent, sloping above and 
 between the eye-brows, which protrude but little, and 
 there is only a slight indentation at the root of the 
 nose. The upper outline is rather straight across the 
 crown of the head, more arched in front, with a 
 small concavity above the eye-brows (glabella), but 
 sloping backwards still more towards the protube- 
 rance of the occiput; the pars hasilaris of the occi- 
 pital bone almost horizontal. The teeth in the upper 
 jaw appear rather protruding. 
 
 Another form of cranium, which undoubtedly be- 
 longs to the stone age in Scandinavia, is that which 
 occurs in the gallery-graves in West Gothland, and 
 of which I have given sketches on PL XIII. figs. 236, 
 237, 238. 
 
 Some of those found in 1863, while searching a 
 gallery-grave near Lock-Garden, in the parish of 
 Luttra, Professor Baron G. von Diiben has measured 
 and described in the following manner : — 
 
 Length . 
 
 . 
 
 19'00 centimeters 
 
 Height . 
 
 . 
 
 14-20 
 
 Breadth across 
 
 forehead . 
 
 9-70 
 
 )J 7J 
 
 crown 
 
 13-80 
 
 Zygomatic arch 
 
 . 
 
 1-2-70 
 
 Circumference 
 
 
 52-60 
 
 Height of face 
 
 . 
 
 6-90 
 
 jaw 
 
 
 3-20 
 
 With regard to the shape, Baron von Diiben says, 
 in the ' Antiquarisk Tidskrift for Sverige,' vol. i. p. 2 79 : 
 ' The crania are, with one exception, dolichocephalic. 
 
;h. III.] SKULLS FOUND IN WEST GUTIILANP. 119 
 
 n the present Swedish race, the length in propor- 
 ion to the breadth is as lOOO'OO to 771'87. In 
 Avelve of those exhumed in these tumuh, and in 
 vhich the proportions could be measured with great 
 Lccuracy, the length in proportion to the breadth was 
 IS 1000-00 to 731-45. Most of them also were rela- 
 ively narrow across the forehead, but they presented 
 n other respects the usual curvature and breadth 
 icross the parietal protuberances, zygomatic arches, 
 fee, and projecting occiput of the Swedish cranium. 
 But by the size of the superciliary ridges and the 
 proportions of the face, they are easily distinguished 
 Tom the existing race. The superciliary arches pro- 
 ect enormously in most of them, and are high and 
 thick. In several of them the face is nearly pro- 
 gnathous; the alveolar edge of the upper jaw projects 
 strongly. If we can in any way judge of the shape 
 jf the nose by the bones, it must have been a very 
 prominent one. The vertical diameter of the orbits 
 svas smaller than in the crania of the existing race ; 
 the horizontal diameter of the usual size. The palatal 
 irch is very high. The teeth, in tvhich caries occurs 
 rather frequently, were for the most part so much 
 svorn at the crown, that the edges had become sharp 
 md cutting ; the masticating surfaces sloping in- 
 (vards.' 
 
 I have quoted from Baron Diiben this accurate 
 ind minute description of the skulls found in the 
 gallery-graves in West Gothland, in order that we 
 may be able in future to discover by comparison 
 whether the gallery-graves found in other parts of 
 
120 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. HI. 
 
 Western Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, have also 
 been constructed by the same ancient race which 
 constructed those found in the south and west of 
 Sweden. 
 
 We now come to the second essential shape of cra- 
 nium, viz., the brachycephalous. It belongs to the 
 European polar race, which we call Laplanders, and 
 to many other races in various parts of the world. 
 
 A skull of a Laplander, from Stensele parish, is 
 figured on PI. XII. figs. 233, 234, and on PL XIII. 
 fig. 235. If we compare these figures with figs. 
 227-229, we see at once how much they differ from 
 one another. Seen from above, the head of the Lap- 
 lander presents a much shorter and broader oval 
 shape, which, therefore, much more approaches to 
 the spherical form. This form is not only broader 
 at the back, but also much more square and less 
 protuberant. The greatest length, from the most 
 projecting part of the forehead to the most prominent 
 part of the occiput, is, in proportion to the greatest 
 breadth across the vertex, about as 8 to 7, and to the 
 breadth across the zygomatic arch about as 5 to 4. 
 The contour lines at the sides of the frontal bone 
 slope obliquely inwards. The coronal suture divides 
 the calvaria into two parts, of which the hinder is 
 much broader, but not longer than the one in front. 
 
 Seen sideways (fig. 233), the upper contour of the 
 head forms an arch rather sloping in front and de- 
 scending rather perj)endicularly at the back, therefore 
 just the reverse of what is the case in the cranium of 
 the Goth. If a line be drawn parallel with the upper 
 
!h. III.] . SKULL OF THE LAPLANDER. 121 
 
 idge of the jugal arch, the highest part of the curve 
 Lbove it will be found to lie behind the coronal 
 suture, or nearly in the centre between it and the 
 ambdoidal. The height from the external auditoiy 
 jrifice to the summit of the crown is more than three- 
 burtbs of the entire length of the head. 
 
 Seen m front (fig. 235), the forehead is rather flat, 
 ow, and sloping backwards; the jaw-bones some- 
 what prominent. The face appears to have been much 
 shorter, in comparison with its breadth, than in the 
 joths, and this chiefly proceeds from the low fore- 
 head, the protubei'ant cheek-bones, and the short 
 ipper jaw-bones. 
 
 Sometimes, but very rarely, a cranium of this kind 
 las been found in Stone Age tumuli amongst the cra- 
 nia of dolichocephalous shape, which is the common 
 iype in such tombs ; the one which I have sketched 
 lere (PI. XII. figs. 230-232) of this description was 
 found many years ago in a gallery-grave on Moen. It 
 'esembles very much that of a Laplander. (Compare 
 ags. 233, 234, and 235.) 
 
 The skuU figured on PI. XIII. fig. 239 is that of 
 1 Lapland woman from Lyksele, preserved in the 
 Museum at Lund; the one given on the same Plate, 
 fig. 240, is copied from a plaster cast, the original of 
 svhich was found in a gallery-chamber at Moen, and 
 iescribed by Professor Eschricht in ' Dansk Folkblad,' 
 Sept. 15, 1837, page 111. 
 
 Some isolated brachycephalous crania have there- 
 hre been occasionally found in our stone sepulchres ; 
 3ut it may be taken for granted that the people who 
 
122 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. III. 
 
 constructed these sepulclires belonged to one of the 
 dolichocephalous races which still inhabit the greater 
 part of the country. We may, however, infer that the 
 Laplanders have been more disseminated in former 
 times than now, partly from the fact that we occasion- 
 ally find crania in our bogs which appear to have 
 belonged to that race, and partly from sundry local 
 names, said to be of Lapland origm, of which we shall 
 treat further in another chapter. There is stUl much 
 wanting to complete our investigations concerning the 
 skulls of all the different races which have inhabited 
 tlie Scandinavian peninsula; but we trust that this 
 department of ethnological science may also reach its 
 full development, since a desire to open and examine 
 scientifically our numerous sepulchral monuments of 
 different kinds has been more generally awakened. 
 We will, in conclusion, here give a synoptical table of 
 the dimensions of the various crania to which we 
 have referred. 
 
Cn. III.] 
 
 SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF CEANIA. 
 
 123 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 OB 
 S 
 
 •S 
 
 00 
 
 S 
 
 > 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 Fh 
 
 o o ^ o o 
 
 » 
 
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 CD 
 
 to '^t Oi (M 03 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 rH I— ( rH 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 r§ 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 III 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 OS O O CO o 
 
 t> 
 
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 t^ lO O CO r-( 
 
 y-( 
 
 CO 
 
 
 I— ( rH I— I rH rH 
 
 
 IQ 
 
 
 rt 
 
 t- t~ 00 (M O 
 
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 ■ CO 
 
 
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 CO -^ rH <M rH 
 
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 CO 
 
 
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 r—{ y—<i—{T--i r-i 
 
 
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 ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 C3 QJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
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 <N 
 
 ira 
 
 
 K <D 
 
 rH rH rH 1 ' 
 
 
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 f^g 
 
 
 
 
 
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 C5 CO 00 1 1 
 
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 f3 
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 t* CO O 1> iO 
 
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 QO CO 05 (M O 
 
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 r~i r~t rH rH 
 
 
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 1 1 1 1 1 
 
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 C3 OO 00 <£i t^ 
 
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 OO CO OS (N O 
 
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 7—^t^ rH rH 
 
 
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 m 
 
 o >o 
 
 
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 CO ^ C3 CO o 
 
 rH 
 
 Tt< CO 
 
 
 ■I* 
 
 rH r-i 1-H rH 
 
 
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 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 00 00 00 (^^ (M 
 
 -* 
 
 T 
 
 H Oi 
 
 
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 <M 
 
 T 
 
 K ^ 
 
 
 
 T—iy—t'j—ir-f 
 
 
 lO 
 
 
 
 ,4j . . . . 1 
 
 f-i • 
 
 <D • • 
 
 
 
 CO tn 
 
 ea 
 
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 rO 
 
 
 
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 8 
 
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 ^ . 
 
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 0) • 
 
 CI 
 
 © ■ 
 
 
 
 ^ g .3 =« rt 
 
 '^ 
 
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 tn the forehe; 
 g part of the 
 eadth of cran 
 ross forehead 
 ross the jugal 
 tween the poi 
 iesses . 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 § . 
 
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 m the orbit tc 
 alar bone . 
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 ^.a^ssjo 
 
 ^. 
 
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 ^.2>lm^^^^^^ 1 
 
 
 
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 ^t 
 
 +3 +3 = 
 
 
 
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 S i^ 
 
 C O (H 
 
 
 
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 QJ 
 
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 T2 
 
 
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 y 
 
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 t3 
 
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 ft 
 
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 P. 
 
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 ri^ 
 
 Cf-t 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
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 -rt 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
124 THE STOXE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SEPTJLCHRAL MONUMENTS BELONGING TO THE STONE AGE 
 COMPAEIRON BETWEEN THESE AND THE DWELLING- 
 HOUSES OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 We know scarcely more of the tombs of the primitive 
 inhabitants of Sweden than of their dwelhngs. It 
 is probable that they wandered about scattered in the 
 woods, without any fixed dwellings or burial-places. 
 The sepulchres which we shall here describe were 
 erected of large stones, collected together by main 
 force. They are of two kinds, which in different lan- 
 guages have different names. The one kind we call 
 passage-graves, or gallery -graves (gang-grifier) ; the 
 other dosar (dolmens). We shall first describe the 
 former. Every such tomb has evidently been erected 
 for a whole horde, or for the family of their chief, and 
 was intended to last a long time. These sepulchral 
 monuments do not therefore betray the first stage of a 
 savage state, and we observe that the people who built 
 them had already established a certain social order, 
 although they belonged to the proper Stone period, 
 which preceded all use of metals. They had probably 
 their dwellings in the vicinity of their burial-places. 
 But as regards this distant period, when stone imple- 
 ments only were as yet used in Scandinavia, we cannot 
 with certainty find any traces of dwelling-liouses, inns- 
 
Ch. IV.] PIUMEVAL BURIAL-HOUSES. 125 
 
 much as these were built more or less below ground, 
 and probably of small stones, or of earth and wood, 
 and would therefore, by the influence of time, have 
 been reduced long ago to dust. 
 
 But if we do not meet with houses for the living, 
 we do meet with sepulchral chambers, in which the 
 corpses of the dead were successively deposited; and 
 these having, as above mentioned, evidently been 
 burial-places for whole families and generations, it is 
 more than probable that they were built after the 
 same model as the common family-huts, although of 
 more solid materials, and far gi'eater durability. 
 
 These primeval burial-houses, in which we find 
 stone implements, and skeletons with crania like 
 those already described, and sketched on PI. XIII. 
 figs. 236-238, and on PL XIV. figs. 243, 244, 245, 
 249, and 250, present a peculiar style of architecture, 
 which cannot be confounded with that of any ex- 
 isting European nation. Nevertheless it is far from 
 being incidental or only of occasional occurrence. 
 On the contrary, a Avhole class of ancient tumuli are 
 of this form, and in them are found, as above stated, 
 implements and weapons of stone only, never of 
 metal. They have special denominations, and are 
 called in North Germany, Hunenhetten ; in Denmark, 
 Jettestuer; and with us, Gang-yrifter. And with re- 
 spect to the people who constructed and occupied 
 them, the skulls found show that with few, perhaps 
 incidental, exceptions, they belong to the dolicho- 
 cephalous race. 
 
 In order to give at once a diagnosis by which they 
 
126 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 may easily be distinguished from others, I will observe 
 that they have the following appearance and con- 
 struction. 
 
 They form, generally, an oblong square (sometimes 
 a circle), with flat roof and a long narrow gallery, 
 pointing either to the south or to the east, which, in 
 the square ones, proceeds from the centre of one of 
 the longest sides, and is lower than the sepulchral 
 chamber itself. 
 
 These tumuli vary in size, but they are all con- 
 structed to contain a number of corpses, occasionally 
 up to twenty or more, of diflPerent ages and of both 
 sexes, according as the individuals of the family or 
 horde by degrees expired. 
 
 One of the tumuli of this kind which has been most 
 completely described and most skilfully sketched, is 
 that which was opened in 1805 on the plain of 
 Axevalla, in West Gothland (Gotheb. Wett. o. Witt. 
 Sam. Hand., 1.'06, page 82, with Plate; Id., 1808, 
 page 87, with Plate, and also the annexed PI. XIV. 
 figs. 243-5). Two tumuli of an exactly similar form 
 as the one now mentioned were opened by Mr. Hage, 
 in 1836, near Stege, on the island of Mijen, and these 
 I had an opportunity of examining while on a journey 
 there the same year. 
 
 The walls of such tombs always consist of large, 
 erect, and, at least on the inner side, flat slabs of 
 granite, joined together as closely as possible; the 
 crevices between them are carefully filled up with 
 fragments of stone, to prevent animals of prey from 
 
Ch. IV.] PRIMEVAL BUIUAL-HOUSES. 127 
 
 penetrating, and attacking the corpses ; the wall inside 
 is tolerably smooth, although we have never observed 
 that the stones were hewn or ground.* The floor of 
 the chamber is sometimes paved with flat stones, 
 sometimes covered only with sand, and the roof con- 
 sists of massive oblong and broad granite-stones, 
 which lie with the flat side downwards across the 
 tomb (fig. 245), the height of which, fi'om floor to 
 ceiling, is from 5 to nearly 6 feet. In the centre of 
 one of the long side walls is an opening from which 
 proceeds towards the east or south (i.e. towards the 
 sunny side, and never in any other direction) a long 
 narrow gallery of upright granite-stones, but lower 
 than those which form the walls of the chamber. This 
 gallery is also covered with smaller granite-slabs, and 
 is commonly 16 to 20 feet long, 2-^ to 3 feet wide, 
 and 3 feet high, having the farther end closed up with 
 a flat stone, by way of door. We find here a remark- 
 able resemblance to the grotto at Aurignac (Haute- 
 Garonne), discovered by Lartetf In this grotto the 
 corpses had also been buried one by one, together 
 with their weapons or ornaments and whatever else 
 
 * The coarse wall-stones, of which these tombs are constructed, 
 are never hewn. If they were split by the Tiand of man, which 
 seems to have been the case occasionally, it must have been done 
 by placing on the rock burning piles of wood to heat it, and then 
 suddenly cooling it by pouring cold water on it, when it would split. 
 Some of the inhabitants of our forest districts still have recourse to 
 this mode of splitting rocks. 
 
 + See Lyell, Antiquity of Man, page 182. Lubbock, Prehistoric 
 Times, page 262. 
 
128 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 -was considered to be of use for the life wliich they 
 were thought to continue after death. The chamber 
 itself is usually 24 to 32 feet long and from 7 to 9 
 feet broad, the breadth generally being about one- 
 fourth of the length. 
 
 In these burial-vaults the corpses are placed along 
 the sides of the walls in a sitting or lying position ; they 
 are less frequently placed in the centre of the cham- 
 ber. The corpses, often very numerous, being those of 
 men, women, and children, have evidently been buried 
 at diflferent times, and probably during a long series 
 of years. The vault was consequently finished and 
 covered over before any burials took place therein; 
 and the corpses were carried into the tomb through 
 the entrance-door, and this was again closed after 
 each funeral. 
 
 The chamber appears to have been frequently 
 divided round the walls into cells or stalls, and in 
 each stall a corpse was deposited. The partitions 
 between the stalls were sometimes, when circum- 
 stances permitted, made of flat stone slabs- (as in the 
 tumulus at Axevalla), and where this was the case 
 the corpses are in such good preservation that they 
 were found sitting in their original position, with the 
 legs bent double under the trunk and the fore jiart 
 of the arm raised against the chin. For the most 
 part, however, the walls of the cells were of wood, m 
 which case, when these became rotten and decayed, 
 the skeletons fell to the ground. But that the 
 bodies had originally been sitting in an upright 
 position, we can see by the bones of each skeleton 
 
On, IV.] PIUMEVAL BUKIAL-HOUSES. 1:29 
 
 lying crosswise in a heap, on the top of which the 
 skull was lying. All the skeletons found in the 
 above-mentioned tumulus at Stege, on Moen, were in 
 this position. I will not, however, deny that skele- 
 tons may also have been found buried in an ex- 
 tended position ; children at least seem to have been 
 buried in that wa}-. With regard to this, it is also 
 possible that the same tribe, in different districts and 
 at different times, may have had a somewhat different 
 way of burying their dead. With each skeleton we 
 find generally one or two, sometimes several, stone 
 implements or wrought pieces of amber ; the former 
 are found amongst the male, and the latter most 
 frequently amongst the female skeletons. Amongst 
 some skeletons which were discovered sitting in a 
 cell filled with sand, were amber beads stiU lying 
 round the neck ; these had, therefore, evidently been 
 worn as ornaments. (' Gotheb. Handl.,' page 93.) 
 
 These tumuli are, as far as I know, never bare, but 
 always covered, both at the top and round the sides, 
 so that the roof or top-stones are never seen above, 
 and at the sides scarcely ever the outermost gallery- 
 stones. I have since seen such quite bare, and of a 
 gigantic size, on the heath Ekorrewallen, in West 
 Gothland. But the covering material is different in 
 different districts ; in the isle of Moen the tombs were 
 covered with earth forming mould-hills, but in West 
 Gothland they were mostly covered with larger or 
 smaller boulders, and have outwardly the appear- 
 ance of large cairns. (See 'Gotheb. Handl.,' 1806, 
 page 84; Id. 1808, page 87, and ' Iduna,' Part VIII. 
 
 K 
 
130 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 page 110, PL 11. fig. 1.) All cairns or tumuli, how- 
 ever, do not contain such stone huts as are here de- 
 scribed. It is impossible to judge from the outer 
 form of a tumulus, or cairn, what kind of tomb 
 may be contained therein, or whether such a monu- 
 ment belongs to the Stone, Bronze, or Iron Age. 
 It is only by seeing the tomb itself that we can tell 
 with certainty to which period it belongs ; and if a 
 side gallery be found, we may be perfectly sure that 
 no metal will be found in the tomb. 
 
 Such half-cross graves, or gallery-tombs, as those 
 described, are mentioned and sketched in many 
 works (' Antiquar. Annaler,' vol. iii. PL II.), and fig. 3 
 on the same Plate, which represents one found in the 
 isle of i\Ioen ('Antiquar. Annaler,' vol. ii. PL II.). 
 This latter presents this peculiarity, that the gallery 
 is a double one, and that there is a partition-wall 
 in the vault between the two wings. 
 
 To this ancient time, and to this same people, be- 
 longs also the tumulus which was opened in IS 19 on 
 the Asa-hog, near Quistofta, as described and sketched 
 in ' Iduna,' Part IX. page 285, PL I. figs. A, B, 
 b}' the Bev. Magnus Bruzelius. This ancient sepul- 
 chre is especially remarkable in two resjiects. That 
 it belongs to the same class of ancient monuments 
 as those sketched here, on PL XIV. figs. 243-245, will 
 at once be seen by the long gallery pointing to the 
 south (see 'Iduna,' PL I. fig. B), and we are still 
 more fully convinced thereof by the description, which 
 informs us that a number of flint implements and 
 ornaments of amber were found in it, but not a trace 
 of any metal. 
 
Oh. IV.] PKLMEVAL BURIAL-HUUSES. 131 
 
 The sepulchral chamber itself is not, like the former 
 ones, an oblong square, but round (see sketch in 
 ' Iduna,' and PI. XIV. fig. 250). This form is unu- 
 sual and highly ]-eraarkable, as we shall show pre- 
 sently. The vault seems, besides, to have been divided 
 by a partition- wall. Another remarkable circumstance 
 which Ave notice in the description of this sepul- 
 chre is that an older series of corpses were interred 
 therem, without any regard to order or regularity, 
 forming a layer, which was covered by a bed of sand, 
 forming a floor, upon which other corpses had in their 
 turn been deposited. This mode of interring the 
 dead has also been noticed in the tumuli in West 
 Gothland. This proves also that the same sepul- 
 chral chamber had been used as a sepulchre for a 
 long period. 
 
 We occasionally meet with tumuli, especially in 
 cultivated districts, containing square stone graves 
 without a side gallery, in which stone implements 
 have been found; but if we examine them more 
 closely, we shall see that they are mutilated, and that 
 they constitute a wing only of the original gallery- 
 grave; in such cases we always notice more or less 
 distiact traces of the destroyed side gallery. 
 
 The tumuli here described do not often lie singly, 
 but there are generally several in the same district, 
 frequently placed close together. Most of them lie 
 on high ground, not far from where water was for- 
 merly or is still found, on the banks of which the 
 inmates of -the tumuli appear to have dwelt. Whether 
 any of these tumuli were actually dwelling-houses, 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE STOIs^E AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 it is impossible either to prove or to deny. It is 
 Avortli noticing, that in one of the stone huts opened 
 at Stege, on the isle of Moen, no trace of any skele- 
 tons was found, but instead, a great number of stone 
 implements, clay vessels, and amber ornaments. This 
 was also the case Avith one of the gallery-graves, 
 which was examined on the Glanslofs hills. 
 
 From what has hitherto been stated concerning 
 the ancient tumuli, it appears to me to follow, that 
 the gallery-graves which were constructed by one of 
 the ancient nations here, during the Stone Age, are 
 distinguished from all other ancient monuments by 
 a narrow side gallery, running south or east, and by 
 the chamber itself being sometimes an oblong square, 
 sometimes round. This form, whether of the graves 
 or of the dwellings for the living, we look for in vain 
 amongst any of the German nations.* 
 
 Neither amongst them, indeed, nor amongst any 
 people of the so-called Caucasian race, so far as I 
 know, have any counterparts to these tumuli been 
 found ; but if we turn to the Esquimaux in Greenland 
 and in North America, we shall find in their winter 
 huts a most surprising similarity to our tumuli. We 
 shall not here enlarge upon this; but so much we 
 may venture to say without being considered as 
 
 * ' The grave of Harold Harfager, described by Sturlesson, has 
 quite a different form and construction.' (Sturlesson's Kunga Sagor, 
 translated by Jacob Aal, vol. i. page 83.) Such tombs, surrounded by 
 stone columns and with a higher stone at the head and feet, were 
 still a few years since to be seen in the old churchyard at Dahlby, 
 near Lund. The same is the case with the grave of Thyre Dancbod 
 and others. 
 
Cn. IV.j SBLILARITY OF HOUSES AND TOMBS. l.'i-'i 
 
 advocating any hypotheses, since there must be, to 
 every intelligent reader, a great difference between a 
 similarity founded upon comparison and a hypothesis. 
 And whether the similarity here alluded to does in 
 I'cality exist, the reader can easily determine by a 
 glance at PL XIV., wherein fig. 243 represents a 
 tumulus on Axevalla plain, in West Gothland, and 
 fig. 246, an Esquimaux winter hut in Greenland. 
 
 It is, however, not only the outer contours which 
 are identical, but also the construction, the dimensions, 
 and the interior arrangement. In order to show this, 
 we shall first describe an Esquimaux winter hut in 
 Greenland, partly according to the information which 
 Captain Graah gives us in his ' Journey,' page 49,* in 
 which also the sketch of a Greenland hut is given, 
 which is copied on PL XIV. fig. 246, and partly 
 to the verbal statements of persons who have long 
 resided in that country. 
 
 The hut forms an oblong square. The size varies 
 according to the number of families who agree to 
 inhabit it together. The largest huts are about 60 
 feet long by 14 to 16 feet in breadth, which therefore 
 is about one-fourth of its length. The walls are 6 to 
 8 feet high, constructed of stone, and the crevices 
 between them filled up with turf.f The floor is 
 
 * Undersogelse-Reise till Osthysten af M. A. Graah. Kjobenh., 
 1822. In the sketch I have made the side gallery a little larger than 
 in Captain Graah's sketch, because it is so in reality, both accord- 
 ing to the verbal account of those who have seen Greenland winter 
 huts and according to Captain Graah's own description thereof. 
 
 f There are also dwellings^in Greenland, the walls of which consist 
 of stones alone. 
 
134 TliE STONE AGE. [Cn. IV. 
 
 usually paved with flags. The roof is flat, and con- 
 structed of drift-timber, stretching across from one 
 wall to the other. Upon this, smaller timber, or balks, 
 are piled crosswise, and on the top of these rafters 
 are thrown sweet-broom and juniper- twigs, then turf 
 and a thick layer of earth. In the centre of the 
 longest wall, towards the sunny side, is the passage 
 or entrance, also covered ; this is from 20 to 30 feet 
 long, sometimes a little curved, about 2^ to 3 feet 
 broad, and so low that one must rather crawl than 
 walk to get in. In most cases, indeed, it is necessary 
 to crawl on hands and knees. (PL XIV. fig. 251.) 
 The interior of the hut is loftier, but still not more 
 than 5 or 6 feet high from floor to ceiling. With regard 
 to the interior arrangements, it is only along the walls 
 that the inmates of the house can sit or lie. Benches 
 are placed there for that purpose, and the room is occa- 
 sionally partitioned off, along the inside of the wall, 
 by means of hides, into separate cells, like the stalls 
 in a stable. Each family occupies one stall, but the 
 unmarried women have one to themselves. 
 
 Tlie reader will please to compare this descrij)tion 
 of an Esquimaux winter hut in Greenland with the 
 description (page 110) of our ancient tombs in the 
 south of Scandinavia. They are, in fact, identical in 
 all essentials — the form, })roportions, height, size, and 
 direction of the long narrow side gallery, the division 
 of the vault into stalls along the walls, etc. 
 
 I have previously mentioned that Esquimaux huts 
 have been found in Greenland, the walls of which 
 were constructed, like those of our tumuli, altogether 
 
Ck. IV.] ESQUIMAUX WINTER HUT. 135 
 
 of Stone. In the ' Ticlskrift for Nordisk Oldkyndio^het,' 
 vol. ii. pages 332, 333, there is a very interesting de- 
 scription of such ancient huts in a mountain district in 
 Greenland. The walls of these huts were not, as in the 
 Greenland Esquimaux huts in general, constructed 
 of stone and turf, but only of stone ; in their form, 
 however, they resembled the Greenlanders' ordinary 
 winter dwellings. The stones in most of them were 
 of moderate size, but in others the walls were con- 
 structed of large flat stones, partly square, placed 
 upright, and so accurately fitting one with the other, 
 that they hardly required smaller stones to fill up the 
 crevices. In one of the sides there was an opening 
 leading to a gallery, consisting of a row of stones at 
 each side of the opening. Having been abandoned 
 long ago, these huts are now without roof, and open 
 at the top. The place where they were situated in 
 considerable numbers, was on three sides surrounded 
 by a large lake. One cannot but be astonished, when 
 reading the description of our Scandinavian gallery- 
 graves, to find it applicable, almost word for word, to 
 the Greenland huts. It is not difficult to see the 
 reason why these Greenland stone huts were not 
 roofed in with stone, like our tumuli. They were 
 disposed in groups like ours, and, like them, in the 
 vicinity of water.* 
 
 * It is true that the Greenland guide of the traveller who has 
 described these huts endeavoured to make him believe that they 
 were monuments of the colonies of the ancient Norsemen in 
 Greenland. This is easily accounted for, because, as he was bound 
 on a voyage for discovering such monuments, his followers probably 
 expected some reward for every such discovery which they assisted 
 
13G THE STOXE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 But it is not in Greenland only that we meet 
 with dwellings constructed as here described; we 
 find them amongst all Esquimaux tribes, wherever 
 they are domiciled. They are invariably and every- 
 where characterised by the long, narrow, straight, or 
 curved covered side gallery, pointing to the south or 
 east, and by the chamber about 5 feet high. The 
 latter, however, varies in circumference and building 
 materials. 
 
 The Esquimaux huts, sketched in PL XIV. figs. 
 247, 248, were found by Scoresby the younger on 
 Jameson's Land, in lat. 71° N., on the east coast 
 of Greenland. They were nine or ten in number, 
 deserted by the inmates, and lay close to each other, 
 near the declivity of the shore. The roofs had either 
 fallen in or been removed. What remained of 
 each hut was an excavation in the ground about 
 4 feet deep, 15 feet long, and 6 to 9 feet broad. 
 The side walls consisted of unhewn stones, and the 
 floor of sand and clay. The entrance, as usual in all 
 Esquimaux huts, was a horizontal covered gallery, 
 
 him to make. They were therefore so zealoiis, that they tried to make 
 out even Esquimaux pitfalls for foxes, and natural cavities in rooks, 
 to be monuments left by tlie Norsemen. We might, perhaps, be in- 
 duced to credit the statement, that the said stone huts with their 
 long narrow side gallery were of foreign origin, and that they had 
 served as models for the Greenland winter huts, did we not know 
 that huts constructed after this same model are met with not only 
 amongst the Greenlanders in those districts where foreign colonists 
 have dwelt, but everywhere throughout the whole of Greenland and 
 North America inhabited by the Esquimaux race. This form of hut 
 belongs, therefore, originally to this race, as we shall presently show 
 by further evidence. 
 
Cn. IV.] ESQunrAUX wixtJ':r hut. w? 
 
 which led from the hut to the south or south-east, 
 under ground, a distance of about 15 feet, having an 
 egress to the open air lower down and nearer the 
 shore. This gallery was so low that an entrance to 
 the hut could be gained only by crawling on hands 
 and feet; the top was covered with flags, and this again 
 with turf. The roof of such huts is very little elevated 
 above the ground, and being covered with turf and 
 overgrown with moss or grass, it so much resembles 
 the surrounding ground as scarcely to be distinguish- 
 able therefrom.* Who does not fancy he sees in this 
 description our gallery-graves hid under an earthen 
 mound ? What Scoresby mentions afterwards deserves 
 likewise our attention in the hisrhest degree. He tells 
 us that two or three huts, to all appearance of older 
 date than the others, seemed to have been used as 
 sepulchres, because in them were found graves con- 
 taining human skeletons. Several graves contained, 
 besides human bones, fragments of such implements 
 as are used by the Esquimaux, when fishing or 
 hunting, and which had been deposited amongst 
 the corpses, to be employed by the dead in another 
 world (page 236). 
 
 Another proof that the Greenlanders' winter huts 
 were occasionally used as sepulchres, is afforded by 
 the following circumstance. A credible person, who 
 had been domiciled a long time in Greenland, has 
 informed me that there existed, about 1830, at Kan- 
 garsak-Tange, two miles from Godhavn, an ancient 
 
 * See Tagehucli einer Beise avf den Wallfisclifang, by W. 
 Scoresby, Jun., page 234, PI. VIII. See also Note 6. 
 
138 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 Greenlander's hut, in which were found a number of 
 corpses provided with implements and ornamenis. 
 Tliey -were placed in a sitting posture along the walls, 
 consequently exactly in the same manner as in the 
 tumulus on Axevalla plain. Several similar cases 
 are mentioned by Sir John Lubbock in the 'Annual 
 Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 
 1863,' pages 3"26, 327, in an article reprinted from 
 the ' Natural History Review.' The Baschkiers, for 
 instance, hurj their dead also in a sitting posture. 
 (See Erman's 'Reise,' vol. i. page 436.)* 
 
 We have seen that the sepulchral hut in the 
 
 o 
 
 Asahogen, near Quistofta, was quite circular, but 
 had, as usual, its long narrow gallery towards the 
 south. It is worth noticing that, in the most 
 northerly parts of North America, the winter huts 
 of the Esquimaux are, according to Sir John Ross, 
 of a similar shape (PI. XIV. fig. 251). They are 
 there built entirely of frozen snow, with windows of 
 ice. These have likewise a long gallery, occasionally 
 curved, leading to the interior of the chamber, which 
 forms a circle of about 10 feet in diameter, when 
 intended for only one family, but when for two f it 
 forms an oval of about 15 feet by JO. These winter 
 huts are constructed very rapidly; in about half an 
 hoiu-'s time the edifice is completed. When the 
 Esquimaux, on their travels in dog-sledges, are over- 
 taken by a snow-storm, which stops their progress, 
 
 * See also Lubbock's Prehistoric Times, page 409. 
 ■\ Captain Sir John Ross, Ziveite Entdeckungs-Reise nacli den 
 Gegenden cles Nordpols, 1829-1.S3;5, vol. i. pages 322-.324. 
 
Cn. IV.] SNOW-HUTS. 1.30 
 
 they immediately erect such a snow-hut. The man- 
 ner of constructing it we leai-n from Sir John's nar- 
 rative, page 390. They never forget, even when 
 buikling such temporary dwellings of snow, to con- 
 struct the long gallery. This gallery constitutes, 
 therefore, an essential part of the Esquimaux dwel- 
 lings, whether round or square, and whether the 
 walls are constructed of stones, of turf, or of snow. 
 The same is the case with our earliest tumuli, in 
 which stone implements are found ; they also have 
 the long narrow side gallery, whether they are round 
 or square, large or small. 
 
 What, therefore, the Esquimaux huts and the 
 tumuli have in common with each other is that they 
 all have flat roofs, that they contain a chamber about 
 5 feet high, and are provided with a long, covered 
 side gallery, 2 or 3 feet broad and 3 feet high, 
 always pointing to the east or south. They resemble 
 each other also in their form, which varies, being 
 sometimes round and sometimes an oblong square. 
 Their interior arrangement also is in the main the 
 same. In both the centre of the floor is unoccupied, 
 but the chamber is divided along the walls into cells 
 or stalls, and in these stalls the inmates — of the 
 sepulchres as well as of the dwellings — sit in the 
 same stooping position which all polar people afifect. 
 It seems scarcely possible to assume that all these 
 various important and minute similarities should be 
 only accidental. And yet it appears impossible, with 
 the knowledge which we noiv possess of the essential 
 dissimilarity of the tribes, to suppose that there 
 
140 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. IV. 
 
 should be anytliiug in common, or any connection 
 between them. There must be some other reason, 
 for which we cannot as 3'et account. 
 
 We have ah-eady seen that the Esquimaux, like the 
 aborigines of Sweden, place the implements of the 
 dead beside them in the grave. The missionary 
 Cranz relates, in his ' History of Greenland,' page 301, 
 that they place the boat (kajak) of the departed, his 
 arrows, and every-day utensils beside his grave, 'in 
 order that he may use them in the next world for 
 his support.' Even in this circumstance we find a 
 similarity between them. 
 
 This same missionary, Cranz, relates in another 
 place, that a great many Greenlanders, even in his 
 time, used to lay the head of a dog beside the grave 
 of a child, ' in order that the soul of the dog, which 
 can always find its way home, may show the helpless 
 child the road to the country of souls.' Whether 
 this beautiful idea belongs to the Esquimaux or to 
 the missionary, has not been ascertained ; but it is at 
 all events certain that the skulls of dogs have been 
 found in Esquimaux graves also in other places. 
 Thus Scoresby informs us, on page 230, that he had 
 found in Jameson's Land the skull of a dog 'in a 
 small grave, which probably was that of a child.' 
 
 But be this as it may, it is nevertheless a fact, that 
 there have also occasionally been found in Sweden 
 a few skulls of dogs amongst human skeletons in our 
 tumuli. Continued researches will decide whether 
 these skulls of dogs, when found thus, usually indicate 
 the skeletons of children. 
 
ch. iy] aboriginal huts. i-ii 
 
 The result of the researches communicated in this 
 chapter is this : that the remains of tlie architecture 
 of the aborigines which are found in Sweden do not 
 in the least resemble the architecture of the Gothic, 
 or of any other known tribe of the German race; 
 but that, on the contrary, they present an unmistake- 
 able resemblance to the architecture of the people of 
 the polar race — the Esquimaux, who have, even to 
 the present day, retained their ancient manners and 
 customs. 
 
 Tliis applies equally to the custom of our aborigines 
 of interring their dead, and apparently to other re- 
 ligious ceremonies in connection therewith ; and yet 
 these did not belong to the same race of people. 
 There is not the least sign of Scandinavia haAdng 
 been inhabited by people of the Esquimaux race. 
 The similarity must be ascribed to the fact that they 
 were in the same grade of civilisation and in similar 
 circumstances.* During the years which have elapsed 
 since I first discovered and pointed out this resem- 
 blance between our ancient graves and the houses of 
 the Esquimaux, I have carefully examined many of 
 the former, and found my former statement more and 
 more confirmed. But what I now consider myself 
 entitled to assume, if I cannot fully prove, is that some 
 of these gallery-graves are ruins, or actual dwelling- 
 houses, although most of them have, I admit, been 
 sepulchres for the dead. It is evident from what I have 
 quoted on page 116, from Scoresby's Travels and from 
 verbal narratives, that even amongst the Esquimaux, 
 
 * See Note 7. 
 
142 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 at all events in some districts, the custom of burying 
 the dead in tombs exactly resembling their dwelling- 
 houses has pi-evailed up to recent times. And, in truth, 
 if "we compare dwelling-houses more closely with se- 
 pulchres, we shall find that they resemble each other 
 amongst all rude nations ; and if we enquire into the 
 cause of this curious ethnological fact, we feel con- 
 vinced that it must be so, and cannot be otherwise. 
 The rude child of nature has a kind of presenti- 
 ment, although dim and confused, of a continuation 
 of life after death. But unable to soar to a purer 
 and nobler conception thereof, he believes that the 
 departed are destined to continue after death the 
 same activity which marked their life in this world. 
 Therefore he builds the same kind of dwellings for 
 the dead as for the living ; therefore he places them 
 in the grave in the same position Avhich they were 
 wont to take while alive in their hut, and therefore he 
 hangs upon, or places beside them their implements 
 of daily use. I shall show farther on that this is in 
 perfect harmony with the oldest traditional history of 
 most nations. What I have now adduced may be 
 enough to prove that if any ruins of dwelling-houses 
 from the period now in question and the people 
 belonging to it are found amongst us, they must be, 
 in respect to form and construction, exactly lUve the 
 sepulchres of that period and of that rude tribe. The 
 truth of this assertion must be obvious to everybody 
 who is inclined to enquire more closely into the same. 
 We may therefore rest assured, that before the sa- 
 vage of the forest plains of Scania and West Gothland 
 
Cn. IV.] ANCIENT DWELLING-HOUSES. 14.3 
 
 began to build gallery-chambers for the dead, he had 
 already constructed shnilar ones for the living. Such 
 ruins of ancient dwelling-houses have indeed already 
 been observed in Sweden. They are distinguished 
 from the sepulchral chambers by never containing 
 any skeletons, and, as far as I have been able to 
 ascertain, by their having rarely, if ever, an^^ stone 
 blocks as covering stones; but they stand open, which 
 implies that they had the same kind of roof of rafter- 
 work as the Greenland and North American Esqui- 
 maux houses, which they completely resemble in size, 
 form, and construction. I will here describe the ruins 
 of a couple of such supposed ancient chambers, of 
 which one lies to the right, close to the turnpike-road 
 from Skifvarp to Ystad, west of the Bay of Skar, not 
 far from the shore. It is called Holingen, lies on a 
 low eminence, and is in shape rather an oblong square 
 than an oblong oval, stretching from west to east. It 
 is constructed of coarse upright granite-stones, placed 
 with their corners side by side ; of these a few have 
 tumbled down, but the others are still standing erect. 
 From the centi-e of the long south side goes a gallery 
 in an ESE. direction, consisting of smaller and lower 
 stones than those of the chamber itself. This was 20 
 feet long by 8^. The coarse wall-stones were placed 
 ujDon a pavement of small stones, in order that they 
 might not settle down, and were about 5^ feet high. 
 The gallerj^, which was 15 feet long, had a breadth at 
 the opening of 2, and at the entrance of the chamber 
 of 2^ feet. The stones of the gallery, which were lower 
 than those of the walls, were not measured. This 
 
Ui THE STONE AGE. [Uh. IV. 
 
 open hut ruin stood about half, or a little more, above 
 the surrounding ground. Beneath the greensward, 
 inside the ruin, the soil was found to consist of a quan- 
 tity of small stone-splinters, nlingled with earth, and 
 when these had been removed, and the floor, which 
 consisted of clay mixed with sand, had been reached, 
 we discovered several fragments of flint-flakes (PL 11. 
 fig. 24), which no doubt were the most ancient and 
 rudest knives, and a few pots of burnt clay of vari- 
 ous shapes, with graven ornaments on the outside. 
 They were all broken, and of some of them we could 
 find only one or two fragments — a proof that they 
 were broken already when the hut was erected ; they 
 were all empty, and no trace was seen of burnt bone- 
 splinters, but there were a few amber beads, scarcely 
 recognisable from decay (see PI. IX. figs. 191-195), 
 and a few pieces of bone, which certainly were not 
 human. In the northern wing were found charcoal 
 and ashes — a proof that the fireplace had stood there, 
 and near these were lying two or three broken clay 
 vessels : nothing was discovered in the southern wing. 
 If we now imagine (and it must at any rate be ima- 
 ginable to everybody) that we have here before us 
 the ruins of a hut, which two or three thousand 
 years ago was inhabited by savages, and that it had 
 been covered in the same way as the Greenland Es- 
 quimaux huts described at page 134, namely, with a 
 flat roof, consisting of timber and trees lying cross- 
 wise on the wall-stones, on which, probably, small 
 stones, brushwood, heather, juniper, and, lastly, earth 
 was lying ; then, when the wood- work had decayed 
 
Cn. IV.] PKIMEVAL DWELLINGS. 145 
 
 in the course of time, it would of course fall in and 
 become dust, so that the ruin would have come to 
 the exact condition in which we found it. I am of 
 opinion that the stone fragments which are always 
 found in great quantities in and about such ruins 
 were placed in the chinks between the wall-stones, in 
 order to make the wall air-tight. This is the more 
 certain as such fragments are always found remaining 
 in the chinks between the wall-stones of those gallery- 
 huts which are covered by a heap of earth, and of 
 which the walls have consequently been protected and 
 preserved in their original condition. 
 
 In the month of May, 1842, I examined two gal- 
 lery-huts which are situated upon an eminence run- 
 ning past the village of Glumslof, and called Glumslof 
 Hills ; the most northern of these huts is sketched on 
 PL XIV. fig. 249. In the same district, in Glumslof, 
 Quistofta, Barslof, and other neighbouring parishes, 
 ruins of this kind, more or less demolished, are fre- 
 quently met with ; and, owing to there being still a 
 good supply of stone, they have not been disturbed. 
 In other districts, however, where stone is more scarce, 
 they have been demolished, in order to make use of 
 the stones for houses, bridges, and field enclosures. 
 
 The hut here sketched is nearly oval, 15 to 16 feet in 
 length and 8 broad, and the wall-stones nearly 5^ feet 
 high from the floor. The gallery, which runs south, 
 with a slight inclination towards east (ESE.), is about 
 16 feet long and 2 feet broad. Here also the surface 
 of the earth inside the chamber, as well as round the 
 outside, was mingled with a great quantity of stone 
 
 L 
 
140 THE STONE AGE. [On. IV. 
 
 fragments. Amongst these, near the surface, a broken 
 flint spear or spear-point (PI. III. fig. 57) was found. 
 Nearer the floor — which was of sand — or on it, but in 
 the earth, mingled with stone fragments, were found 
 other eff'ects of the dead, consisting of several vessels 
 of clay, all broken, of various shapes, some of which 
 were very shallow, and widening towards the top, like 
 small basins. Some were ornamented with graven 
 figures on the outside, others plain. A great number 
 of fragments were discovered, and many ornaments 
 more or less decayed; viz., beads and buttons of am- 
 ber; a flint knife with a handle, like that on PL III. 
 fig. 64, and several spears, axes, and flakes, all of flint. 
 Amongst the amber articles was lying a needle whet- 
 stone, sketched on PI. VIII. fig. 182, and described on 
 page 81. Here also were found in the chamber ashes 
 and charcoal, more especially on one spot, where the 
 fireplace probably had stood. 
 
 Here likewise the ruins were uncovered to more 
 than half their height ; but inside, as well as around 
 them, the earth was a little raised above the sur- 
 rounding ground, and was more than usually mixed 
 with angular stone fragments, which, as it seems to 
 me, must have served to fill up the chinks in the walls. 
 I found here likewise a few broken bones, which 
 certainly were not human. Neither here, nor in any 
 other half-cross building, have any traces of burnt 
 human bones ever been discovered. 
 
 I repeat here what I stated above, that supposing 
 these ruins to have been, two or three thousand years 
 ago, dwelling-houses, provided with roofs of the same 
 
On. IV.] PRIMEVAL DWELLINGS. U7 
 
 materials and construction as those Greenland huts, 
 which they exactly resemble in shape, they must now, 
 after the lapse of thousands of years, and since the 
 decay of the wood-work which fell down into and 
 round the house, present themselves to us exactly 
 in the same condition as the ruins which I have here 
 described. 
 
 It appears to me that the objection raised against 
 my view, that the ruins in question are those of 
 dwelling-houses and not of sepulchres, has been re- 
 futed by the fact, that traces of human skeletons have 
 never been found in them, but always a greater or less 
 quantity of the household furniture of their former 
 inmates, and invariably also a place which seems to 
 have been the fireplace. 
 
 Since this has been shown, we ought to observe, 
 before proceeding farther in our investigations, that 
 the name half -cross tombs, by which these monuments 
 of past ages were formerly designated, is, in more than 
 one respect, a misnomer, and gives rise to erroneous 
 ideas ; partly because, as it now appears, they Avere not 
 all sepulchres, and partly because the chamber only 
 forms a half-cross with its gallery when the former is 
 an oblong square ; whereas this is not the case when 
 it is round (see PI. VIII. fig. 250). The form of the 
 chamber is either an oblong square, an oval, or a 
 circle ; the form is therefore indeterminate ; but what 
 is never wanting in this kind of ancient dwelling is 
 the more or less long gallery, consisting of two rows 
 of stone running east or south. This is the most cha- 
 racteristic feature of these monuments of antiquity, 
 
 I- 2 
 
148 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. IV- 
 
 and one which at the first glance distinguishes them 
 from all others. In order to get a clear conception of 
 the subjects of our investigation, we ought to designate 
 them by their peculiar and essential feature, viz., the 
 more or less, long gallery, and as they all consist of 
 stones raised on end, and, consequently, were built, we 
 shall call them 
 
 Gallery-Houses. 
 
 And these being, as we suppose, of two kinds, 
 namely, houses for the dead, or tombs, and houses for 
 the living, or dwellings, we shall class them accord- 
 ingly, and call them (1.) Gallery-huts and (2.) Gal-, 
 lery-tombs. We have already mentioned, that these 
 ancient buildings vary in shape, and may therefore 
 be divided into — 
 
 1. Round Buildings. — To this class belongs the 
 gallery-tomb on the Asahogen, near Quistofta (page 
 112), here represented (PI. XIV. fig. 250) in the con- 
 dition in which it was before some portion of the 
 side stones had tumbled down, but without the im- 
 posts, or roof-stones, with which it was formerly pro- 
 vided.* It derives its name from its site upon an 
 ' ^s,' i.e. u]3on the top of a ridge of hills. Between 
 this and another chain of hills, on which lies a tu- 
 mulus, called Stenshogen,f is a watercourse reach- 
 ing down to the river, which formerly was more con- 
 siderable than now. These gallery -houses with round 
 chambers are less common, but are nevertheless 
 
 * See the periodical Jiuna, Plate III. fig. 9. 
 I Uiiiia, Plate, fig. 6. 
 
Ch. IV.] GALLERY-HOUSES. 149 
 
 occasionally found, in Sweden, as well as in Den- 
 mark and in other places, even down to France. In 
 ' L'Institut, Chronique Scientifique,' for February 
 24, 1839, it is related that some labourers at Sau- 
 mur found an ancient tomb, in which human skel- 
 etons and stone implements were discovered. The 
 wall-stones forming the tomb in which these anti- 
 quities were discovered stood in a circle ; upon them 
 was lying a large block of stone 6 to 7 metres in 
 length, about the same in breadth and 1 metre in 
 thickness. In this tomb a large quantity of human 
 bones were lying in such a manner that thigh and 
 arm-bones, etc., were all lying crosswise in a heap, 
 and on the top of it the skull, which shows that here 
 also the corpses had been interred in a sitting posture. 
 It is indeed worth observing that here, as in the 
 Asahogen tumulus (page 113), was discovered, un- 
 derneath the first layer of bones, another similar one 
 in which the bones were found in the same position as 
 the upper ones. Amongst the bones were found flint 
 axes, flint arrows with very sharp heads and toothed 
 edges, besides others of a ruder shape, but also of 
 flint. There were, moreover, found two dirks, the 
 handles of which consisted of an oblong piece of bone, 
 in one end of which was fixed the tusk of a wild boar 
 by way of blade. The whole were buried under a layer 
 of earth, 50 centimetres in thickness. 
 
 This description presents an astonishing resem- 
 blance to the one given in ' Iduna' of the Asahogen. 
 In this were also found two or more layers of 
 bones, as was observed in the West Gothland tombs ; 
 
loO THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 the side stones in the tomb were standing upright 
 in a circle, and above them were lying large top- 
 
 o 
 
 stones, or imposts. In the Asa tomb were also 
 found, besides axes and arrows of flint, etc., a wild 
 boar's tusk, probably used as a dagger, the handle of 
 which, having perhaps been of wood, was decayed. 
 It is not recorded whether at Saumur the chamber 
 had a gallery of two rows of stones issuing from the 
 round chamber. Yet such a one must evidently have 
 existed. 
 
 In the periodical ' Das Ausland' for May 1840, page 
 579, there is also mentioned a very similar sepulchral 
 hut lately discovered in France. A gallery led to 
 a large grotto or chamber, consisting of nine stones, 
 standing upright, on the top of which a flagstone of 
 26' 3" was resting. The interior was filled with skele- 
 tons in a sitting posture, with their heads leaning 
 against the wall ; behind and beside them stood ves- 
 sels containing victuals for the dead. Nuts and acorns, 
 contained in them, were in perfect preservation.* 
 There were also found two axes and two knives of 
 stone; several small sharp implements, the use of 
 which was not known; two necklaces, one of shell 
 and the other of burnt clay;f several boar-tusks, the 
 bones of a dog, and a stone slab upon which traces of 
 a rude sketch were discernible. We see at once that 
 this was a gallery-tomb. 
 
 * Nothing similar has ever been found here with us, as far as I 
 am aware. The savage here probably for the most part subsisted 
 on meat, as now in higher latitudes. 
 
 I We often find here similar ones of burnt clay, and especially in 
 Oland. 
 
Ch. IV.] OVAL AND OBLOXG GALLERY-HOUSES. 151 
 
 2. Oval Chambers. — This shape is more common 
 than the former, and is that of most of the gallery- 
 huts which I have had an opportunity of examining 
 closely. Many of them, however, approximate to the 
 following. One of these, lying on the Glumslof Hills, 
 is sketched in PL VIII. fig. 249. 
 
 3. The Oblong Square This is also a very com- 
 mon shape, both with us and in Denmark. 
 
 Houses of this kind, covered with earth, and at 
 a distance resemliling tumuli, are still used by the 
 Esquimaux in Greenland, and were formerly found 
 in far more southerly districts in America than now. 
 In the ' Antiquitates Americanse,' * we are told, 
 on page 43, that when the Icelander Thorwald and 
 his followers arrived in Winland (east coast of the 
 United States of North America, about 40°-42° lat. 
 North), they saw some mounds on the shore in a bay, 
 and they took them to be habitations, which proved 
 to be the case, because the Icelanders were soon after- 
 wards attacked by a number of Skralingar — the 
 name given by them to the Greenland and American 
 Esquimaux. Our oldest legends tell us that the 
 houses were of old built after the same model, which 
 indeed is indicated by our ancient ruins, so that these 
 houses must have resembled earthen mounds. 
 
 From what has been already remarked, it follows 
 that gallery-houses may be considered either as monu- 
 ments belonging to ancient times, or as dwellings 
 still used in various parts of the world, far separated 
 
 * Antiquitates Americance, sive Scriptores septentrionales rencm 
 ante-Columhianarwn in America. Hafnia;, 1837. 
 
152 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 from each other; in Boothia (the most northern part 
 of North America), in Greenland, in the ancient 
 Winland, in Sweden, in Denmark, in the north of 
 Germany, even down to France; and it is highly 
 probable that they occurred formerly in various 
 districts where now no perceptible trace of them is 
 left. 
 
 The remarkable fact that these dwellings and tombs 
 are so similar in countries so widely separated, and 
 inhabited by such different races, cannot perhaps be ex- 
 plained in more than one way : that, namely, in which 
 we have in Chapter I. endeavoured to account for the 
 phenomenon that we find everywhere, all over the 
 earth, implements and weapons of stone so exactly 
 alike. All savages which inhabit nearly the same cli- 
 mates,* and stand upon an equally low point of civilisa- 
 tion, must resemble each other in all outward essen- 
 tials: they clothe themselves in fur skins, they fish, 
 they hunt, and finally, their dwellings must be alike, 
 namely, caves, into which they crawl, like the animals, 
 thi'ough a low narrow entrance. (See PL VIII. fig. 
 251.) But with regard to the gallery -huts in ques- 
 tion, it is easy to understand that the first habitations 
 of man were not of this character. 
 
 Let us picture to ourselves a race of savages ar- 
 riving, fi-om some cause or other, in a climate which, 
 
 * Did the same climate prevail in France as in Greenland, at 
 the period when these buildings were constructed? This ques- 
 tion seems to be naturally prompted by the figure of the mam- 
 moth found in Perigord with skeletons of other arctic animals. It 
 appears to me, however, that the gallery-graves belonged to a period 
 comparatively much more recent. 
 
Ch. TV.] THE CAVERN-DWELLING. 153 
 
 though milder on the whole, was characterised by 
 occasional periods of great cold. If even the nights 
 only were cold and the days hot, still this would 
 force the inhabitants to seek some shelter. This they 
 would find in mountain-caverns, Avhich would pro- 
 tect them against the cold of the night and the heat 
 of the day.* The mountain-cavern was therefore 
 man's first dwelling. All the oldest traditions refer 
 to this fact. The earliest inhabitants of Greece dwelt 
 in mountain-caverns. People in Siberia, anterior to 
 the Samoyedes, lived in subterranean caves. f The 
 Cyclopes of Homer, dwelling on the coast of the 
 Black Sea, although endowed by the fancy of the poet 
 Avith many extravagant attributes, are to sober prose 
 nothing but nomads, living in inountain-caverns.t 
 The country between the Black and the Caspian Sea 
 has generally, and with every reason, been looked 
 upon as the region of the world from which a race 
 of human beings, endowed with great susceptibility 
 of civilisation, has emanated, and most of the earliest 
 traditions of existing European nations point to 
 that region. There man dwelt in mountain-caverns, 
 and thence the nations were disseminated over far 
 distant lands, carrying with them their earliest 
 memories, their native customs and manners. But 
 a great many remained behind, and their numbers 
 increased more and more; so much so that the 
 
 * The same idea is expressed by Diodorus Siculus, lib. i. chap, 
 viii. : ' hieme in speluncas refiagere,' &c. 
 ■f Erman's Reise, page 710. 
 X Odyss., b. i. vr. 113-115 ;" 182, 399, 400. 
 
154 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 caverns formed by nature could not shelter them all 
 any longer; they then dug out caves for themselves 
 in the softer rocks ; the number of these increased, 
 and thus by degrees whole villages or towns of 
 caves * sprang into existence. The nations of the 
 South and East also buried their dead in the same 
 kind of habitations in which they themselves had 
 originally dwelt (see page 119). The Hittites, a 
 tribe in Canaan in the time of Abraham, buried their 
 dead in mountain-caves. Abraham bought from 
 them a double cave, in which to bury his deceased 
 wife,f and this custom of burying the dead in that 
 manner was kept up afterwards amongst the Jews 
 in Jerusalem; hence the crypts, etc., found there. 
 We may ascribe to the same origin — namely, a copy 
 of the primitive dwellings (the mountain-caves), 
 and afterwards of the tombs — all catacombs, crypts, 
 temple-grottoes, etc. 
 
 But when the people who dug out and dwelt in 
 the crypts of the Caucasus were expelled by more 
 powerful hordes, and forced to retreat to countries 
 where either no mountains existed, or none of such 
 soft material that they could dig out habitations 
 in them, they found themselves compelled to buUd 
 such dwellings by means of heaped-up stones or tim- 
 ber. I imagine that the art of architecture arose out 
 
 * We find sketches of these artificial mountain-caves in the works 
 of several travellers. I will only mention Dubois de Montpereux's 
 Voyage autour du Caucase, Atlas, sir. iv. PI. I., II., and III. In 
 Ainsworth's Voyage whole villages of artificial caves are mentioned. 
 Compare Das Ausland, 1842, No. 170. 
 
 j- Genesis xxiii. 
 
Oh. IV.] THE CAVERN-SEPULCHRE. 155 
 
 of this circumstance, and was gradually developed; 
 it emanated from the mountain-cave man's earliest 
 dwelling, thence developing itself in two different 
 ways, as dwellings for the living, and tombs for 
 the dead : in the former it grew into palaces, in the 
 latter into temples. We should here observe that 
 as long as a people continues to dwell in mountain- 
 caves, it will also bury its dead in such caves; and 
 this custom, like all religious customs (less sub- 
 ject to change than profane ones), survived long 
 after people had commenced to inhabit proper houses. 
 Thus it was -with the Jews in Jerusalem, and so with 
 many other nations. This proves that religion with 
 them is ancient — almost as ancient as their o"«m 
 race. But if a nation changes its religion, or re- 
 ceives it long after having possessed regular dwelling- 
 houses, it frequently gives to its tombs the shape 
 and appearance of its dwellings. The tombs of the 
 Tartars in Kasan. resemble exactly, but on a small 
 scale, their dwelling-houses, and are built in the 
 same manner of balks attached one to the other.* A 
 Circassian tomb resembles a Circassian house.f The 
 tombs of the Karaite Jews in the Valley of Jehosh- 
 aphat resemble houses and churches. J The tombs of 
 the modern Greeks in the Crimea resemble churches. 
 But in the hotter zones of the South, the savage 
 sought out the mountain-cave, not so much for a 
 shelter against the cold as for a cool retreat from the 
 heat of the sun. ■ 
 
 * Erman's Reise, vol. i. page 248. 
 
 t Dubois, Atlas, s^r. iv. PI. XXX. f. 1. J Ibid. fF. 7, 9. 
 
15C THE STONE AGE. [Oh. IV, 
 
 On the other hand, if we direct our looks towards 
 the more frigid zones of the earth, we shall find that 
 the case is somewhat diiferent. Let us picture to 
 ourselves savages appearing, for some reason or other, 
 on the shores of waters in these zones and in those 
 wild forests, where the soil during the greater part' of 
 the year is covered with ice and snow; we shall find 
 that their first care is to hunt and to kill wild animals, 
 in order to procure from them flesh for food and skins 
 for clothing, and their next to find protection in deep 
 mountain-caves from the terrible cold of the winter. 
 Caves were in this instance not sought out in order to 
 afibrd cool retreats in summer, but for peace and pro- 
 tection against snow-storms, tempests, and bitter cold. 
 This being the object which the savage had in view, 
 it naturally follows that he should seek out and pre- 
 pare for himself mountain-caves with a long gallery 
 pointing towards the sun;* and where such an 
 entrance was wanting, it was constructed. We have 
 ample proofs that such was the case, and that savage 
 nations, even va the cold and temperate climate of 
 Europe, lived in mountain-caves. I have already, 
 in Chapter IV., stated that the Laplanders formerly 
 lived in such caves. In several of the bone-caves in 
 Germany and France, fiUed with bones of now extinct 
 animals, human remains have been found, together 
 with axes and implements of the chase, made of flint; 
 and the most plausible explanation which has been 
 given of this circumstance is probably this — that those 
 
 * Animals have the same instinct. See Scandinavian Fauna, 
 vol. i. page 217. 
 
Ch. IV.] GALLERY-DWELLINGS. 157 
 
 mountain-caves, in which the bones of animals occur 
 in such large numbers (occasionally also of animals 
 which had served for food) were inhabited by savages, 
 who died in them, and there left behind their wea- 
 pons and sometimes their bones. Jordanes had heard 
 of people in Sweden (Scama) which, like the wild 
 animals, lived in caves cut out in the rocks.* 
 
 But the savage could find such dwellings only where 
 there were mountains with caves. If he wandered 
 out of such a district into the plains, and wanted 
 to fix his habitation there, he was compelled to 
 collect blocks of stone, and to form with them caves, 
 resembling as much as possible the mountain-caves. 
 In this manner the gallery-houses arose, where the 
 long narrow gallery corresponds with the narrow 
 entrance to the mountain-cave, and the chamber with 
 the cave itself. This may, therefore, vary in shape, 
 but the gallery is never wanting. 
 
 By this definition of the gallery -buildings, that they 
 are with several distinct nations originally an imitation 
 of the mountain-cavern, I believe we may explain the 
 remarkable phenomenon, that those of the same shape 
 are to be met with in countries so widely separated, 
 and where they were undoubtedly erected and inha- 
 bited by diiferent nations. 
 
 But if this explanation be correct, which I think 
 we must admit, it follows also that gallery-houses 
 constructed of stones collected for this purpose can 
 
 * Jordanes, de Eeb. Geticis, cap. iii. I believe that I must thus 
 interpret ' Hi (populi) exesis rupibus quasi castellis inhabitant, ritu 
 belluino.' Jordanes' accounts of Sweden are, however, very confused. 
 
158 THE STONE AGE. [Ce. W. 
 
 never occui' in mountainous or rocky districts, where 
 such caves are formed by nature. And this agrees 
 exactly with real facts. Here in Sweden they occur 
 only in the large plains of Scania, West Gothland, 
 etc. ; nay, even in Scania, where in some parts of the 
 plains they are very numerous, and where, conse- 
 quently, a great number of the people who erected 
 them must have lived, especially on hilly grounds near 
 or between waters now dried up ; they are, on the 
 other hand, completely wanting in all districts where 
 there are mountains and rocks, containing caves and 
 crevices. This is the general view, and, as far as I 
 know, without exceptions. It is very remarkable also 
 that in such mountain districts there are crevices to 
 which tradition attaches similar stories or legends, as 
 to certain hillocks on the plains, namely, of giants, 
 goblins, pigmies, etc., which were said formerly to have 
 inhabited them. Certain gallery -houses in the plains 
 are called giants' caves, giants^ tombs, goblin caves, 
 pigmies^ hillocks ; and exactly similar names are given 
 to certain mountain-grottoes in the mountainous dis- 
 tricts. Thus there is in the single district of Scania a 
 goblin-cave, in BjornekuUa Crag, and one with the same 
 name in Billeshall ; two giant-caves on Skarali, one in 
 Klofvahallar and one in Rostanga village, etc. These 
 exactly similar designations of the mountain-cave and 
 the gallery-house, handed down to us from former 
 ages, intimate that according to tradition they were 
 applied to the same purpose in ancient times. This 
 appears to me to be a ground for exjilaining the real 
 fact, that gallery-houses occur only in plains. 
 
On. IV.] GALLERY-SEPULCHEES. loO 
 
 I have already expressed my conviction that several 
 tribes in Scandinavia have employed stone implements ; 
 that is to say, the earliest savages, who certainly had 
 no fixed habitations, as well as the later settlers, who 
 built the gallery-graves; and it appears to me more 
 than probable that several kinds- of stone implements 
 continued to be used even long after the time when 
 the people had ceased to build gallery-graves. Such 
 implements are found scattered everywhere also in 
 Central and Northern Sweden, sometimes in greater 
 quantities, and consisting sometimes of large heavy 
 articles, which could not have been amulets, as was once 
 supposed. Sometimes also tools are discovered with 
 which stone implements were manufactured (hammer- 
 stones, PL I.). The stone implements found in Central 
 and Northern Sweden are, besides, frequently made 
 of those species of stone which are indigenous to the 
 disti'ict in which they are found, which clearly proves 
 that they have not been brought there from other 
 parts of the country. * 
 
 The other kind of sepulchral monument belonging to 
 the Stone Age also occurs with us. They are called in 
 Scania dos^ in Denmark dyss^ in England cromlech, and 
 in France dolmen. They consist of three to five stones, 
 raised in the shape of a ring, with a large block on 
 the top of them. (PI. X. fig. 211.) They were erected 
 in order to contain one coi'pse, which was always 
 
 * This is most easily explained by assuming that stone implements 
 were used also by people who had neither gallery-houses nor gallery- 
 tombs, the more as these are' not always to be seen in the districts 
 where stone implements are to be met with. 
 
163 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 placed in a sitting posture, and beside it implements 
 and weapons, which are always of flint. Whether 
 these dosar and the giants' huts before described were 
 coeval, and built by the same people, does not appear 
 to me to be fully proved, although it is probable. 
 They are to be seen here and there, both in Scania 
 and West Gothland, in the same districts as the former. 
 Sometimes we meet with several lying in a row, sur- 
 rounded by a circle of raised stones. 
 
 Whether the so-called dolmens^ which have been 
 found in Africa, near Constantine, and are sketched 
 in the ' Magasin Pittoresque,' 1864, page 80, belong 
 to this category, or should be counted to the trilithic 
 class, and consequently, to the Bronze Age, I do not 
 venture to decide. A glance at the previous page 79 
 Avill show a striking resemblance with the construction 
 of Stonehenge. To this may be added, that in them 
 have been found objects both of bronze and iron. 
 
 It cannot be supposed that the interment of the dead 
 was the original purpose to which the gallery-tombs 
 were applied. Some naturahsts think that they 
 were charnel vaults, in which human bones were 
 deposited after having been stripped of the flesh in 
 some way or other. It has been ascertained, for 
 instance, that human bones of people of all ages and of 
 both sexes were deposited in these tombs, and they 
 remain there in separate layers, in such a number and 
 so closely packed, without order or arrangement, that 
 one has been led to suppose that the flesh must have 
 been by some means removed from them before they 
 were thrown into the grave. 
 
Ch. IV.] GALLERY-TOMBS. 161 
 
 As far as I am aware, the Rev. M. Bruzelius was the 
 first person in this country who (see page 130) made 
 any observations bearing on this circumstance, while 
 examming the Asagrafven in Scania, which he de- 
 scribed in his periodical 'Iduna' for 1822, No. IX. 
 page 285. Besides stone implements, clay urns, 
 and a number of amber ornaments, he found therein 
 a vast quantity of human bones, divided into two 
 layers by a bed of sand of about six inches in thick- 
 ness. It was the opinion of the Rev. M. Bruzelius 
 that the bones had been stripped off the flesh before 
 being deposited in the vault, from the circumstance 
 that he found in one place only the bones of the ex- 
 tremities and no vertebrEB (page 290); in another a 
 quantity of skulls (page 293; compare page 328 and 
 others) ; and he relates on page 312, that the natives of 
 Otaheite and Siam have a similar manner of burying 
 the dead. 
 
 The Danish antiquary, Mr. V. Boye, who in the 
 year 1863 examined a gallery-tomb at Hammer, in the 
 south-east part of the island of Zeeland (Denmark), 
 has given a detailed description thereof, and, like the 
 Rev. M. Bruzelius, has given us sketches of the articles 
 of antiquity found therein.* In this gallery-tomb, the 
 
 * This treatise of Mr. Boye's is interesting and instructive, be- 
 cause it shows that in one and the same gallery-tomb (PI. I.) there 
 were found not only the rudest pieces of flint, figs. 11-19, but also 
 some exceedingly well made, and even drilled, stone implements, 
 on account of which fact a doubt arises as to the proposed division 
 of the Stone Age into two series, in proportion as the antiquities 
 are in a rude state or ground, which has been adopted by several 
 antiquaries. We see from this and various other facts, that they may 
 be coeval. (See Note 8.) 
 
 M 
 
162 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 bones were likewise found lying in several layers, 
 without any order or arrangement, and as they had 
 evidently been thrown in after being divested of the 
 flesh. In explanation of this, Mr. Boye refers to Mr. 
 Schoolcraft's statement in his ' Historical and Statis- 
 tical Information respecting the History, etc., of the 
 Indian Tribes,' vol. i. pages ' 0, 102, that when a 
 person died, the corpse was rolled up in hides and de- 
 posited in some high place in a cave, to protect it from 
 the voracity of v/ild animals. There it remained until 
 the flesh, through the influence of atmospheric air, had 
 fallen off from the bones. When several corpses had in 
 this manner been changed into skeletons, the bones 
 were collected at certain times of the year and depo- 
 sited in large common vaults together with sundry 
 weapons, implements, and ornaments. Many such 
 bone-graves (ossuaries) of large size have been disco- 
 vered there. Mr. Bo}'c supposes that the gallery-tomb 
 at Hammer Avas an ossuary of this character. 
 
 In the summer of 18(:3, about the time when 
 Mr. Boj^e opened the grave at Hammer, two gallery- 
 tombs were opened and examined in West Gothland 
 by Prof. Hildebrand, Baron G. von Diiben, and Mr. 
 Retzius, M.D., the first of whom has inserted in the 
 'Antiquarisk Tidskrift for Sverige,' vol. i. page 265, 
 descriptions of these tombs and of the articles of 
 antiquity found in them. In page 256 he describes a 
 gallery-tomb near Luttra. It was filled with closely- 
 packed black loam, with which a few boulders were 
 mingled. After removing this layer to the depth ol 
 about 4 feet, a great quantity of human bones were 
 
Oh. IV.] GALLERY-TOMBS. 163 
 
 found, packed together indiscriminately in the loam 
 and between the boulders, part of them, especially the 
 skulls, more or less crushed and broken. All the 
 bones were lying in the greatest confusion. Only a 
 few implements of flint and bone were found. The 
 greatest number were discovered in the lower part 
 of the bone-layer and upon the lowest layer of closely 
 packed mould. The descriptions are given in much 
 detail, as well of the graves as of the discoveries 
 made in them; besides which, the work contains 
 woodcuts of some of the most remarkable articles of 
 antiquity found in the tombs. 
 
 Mr. Hildebrand says, finally, page 271: — 'As a 
 general result of our researches, I believe I may as- 
 sume that the two gallery-tombs which we have opened 
 may be considered as a kind of ossuaries, rather than as 
 tombs in the usual acceptation of the word ; because 
 it is not possible that the bones could have been in so 
 confused a position, packed between mould and stones, 
 as here described, if the corpses had been carried into 
 the grave whole, and deposited therein either in a 
 straight or in a sitting posture. Besides, in the latter 
 case we should, on the strength of our experience from 
 the Axevalla tomb and some other similar gallery- 
 tombs, have expected to find the grave divided by 
 slabs or fragments into several smaller compartments, 
 each enclosing one or more corpses, etc' 
 
 I will not dispute the opinion given by several 
 scientific men, ' that the gallery -tombs were ossuaries ; ' 
 but I must candidly confess that I cannot coincide 
 with them; and having said thus much, I consider 
 
 M 2 
 
164 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV. 
 
 myself bound to state my reasons for entertaining a 
 different view. 
 
 None of the authors who consider our gallery- 
 tombs to have been ossuaries have informed us by 
 what process the corpses were divested of their flesh 
 before being thrown into the tomb as skeletons. 
 Was it done by depositing the corpse in some other 
 place until the flesh had rotted and fallen off? But 
 wliy should it be so, when they had the large and 
 costly granite mausoleums, in which the dead might 
 have been placed? Or perhaps they suppose that the 
 flesh was cut away from the bones by means of sharp 
 flint-knives? Those who know how much the igno- 
 rant classes of tlie people, even at the present time, 
 dread laying their hands upon a corpse, and that very 
 few could be induced, even by a promise of a con- 
 siderable reward, to cut off a hand or a foot from 
 a dead body, cnnnot suppose that anybody could be 
 prevailed upon to cut away the flesh from the bones, 
 least of all during the Stone Age. here in the North, 
 when the inhaljitants were in the hiiihest degree rude 
 and superstitious. We know, besides, that the people 
 here who built the gallery-tombs had the same cus- 
 toms as tlie Greenlanders in pagan times (compare 
 page 130), and that they placed at the side of the 
 deceased men the weapons and implements which 
 they were wont to use while alive, and at the side 
 of the women their ornaments — all evidently for the 
 purpose (of which also, as regards Greenland, the 
 Christian missionaries were aware) that the deceased, 
 who were supposed to carry on in the tomb the same 
 
Oh. IV.] GALLEEY-TOMBS NOT OSSUARIES. 165 
 
 occupation as when on earth, might avail themselves 
 thereof. That the pagans, who built the gallery- 
 graves in West Gothland, had the same religious belief, 
 we may conclude from their depositing the corpses 
 in the same sitting position as they had in their houses 
 when aUve, and placing beside them their weapons 
 and ornaments, as, for instance, in the gallery-tomb 
 on Axevalla plain. And it follows, therefore, that 
 they had evidently some dim presentiment of immor- 
 tality. The belief in the immortality of the soul 
 our Creator has deeply implanted in the human race 
 from its very first appearance upon earth ; it is only 
 since speculation has gained some ascendency over 
 the still voice of conscience, that doubts have arisen 
 here and there. But no one who had this religious 
 behef could have been induced to lay hands upon the 
 dead, in order to remove the flesh from the bones, 
 either by means of fire or sharp cutting instruments. 
 We have seen that some of the corpses in the Axevalla 
 tombs were ornamented with necklaces. The flesh 
 had certainly not been removed from them before they 
 were interred. We must therefore suppose that at 
 least some corpses were placed intact in the grave. 
 We might at first suppose, however, that others were 
 transformed into skeletons before the bones were 
 laid into the tomb ; but on more mature reflection, 
 it is easy to see that this could not have been the 
 case, and that all must have been buried in exactly 
 the same manner. 
 
 For my part, I must assume that all the bones 
 found in a gallery -tomb were formerly deposited there 
 
106 TPIE STONE AGE. [Ch.IV. 
 
 as whole corpses, and we shall see whether this my 
 conviction is not confinned by the facts which the 
 investigation of the West Gothland tombs brings to 
 light. We should here remember that the tomb must 
 have been in reality completed, and that the roof- 
 stones must have been in their place, before a corpse 
 or any bones could be deposited in it ; otherwise foxes 
 and wolves would have run away with the bones. 
 How anxious the aborigines were to protect the re- 
 mains of their dead in the tomb we can see by theu' 
 having, as before mentioned, closed up the chinks be- 
 tween the larger stones with fragments of stone. We 
 ought likewise to remember that every tomb had its 
 side gallery, through which the access to the vault 
 itself was opened whenever the owners chose, and that 
 it was closed by an end-stone against any attempt of 
 ravenous animals to penetrate into the grave. 
 
 After these observations we shall now enquire what 
 has been the result of the researches of Baron von 
 Diiben in the so-caUed Luttra tomb. On page 279 
 the Baron says : ' When the intervening mould and 
 larger or smaller stones had been carefully removed, 
 we saw the broken bones lying in regular order and 
 arrangement ; for instance, leg-bones, vertebrae, and so 
 on, and amongst them a skull was lying.'* Here, cer- 
 tainly, there can be no question of anything but a com- 
 plete connected skeleton, which, as a corpse, had been 
 buried in a lying posture on the floor. ' Occasionally 
 
 * This observation could hardly have been made by anybody but 
 an anatomist. I beg, therefore, to mention that Baron von Diiben is 
 professor of anatomy, and perhaps the first anatomist ex professo 
 who has investigated any gallery- tomb in our country. 
 
Oh. IV.] THE LUTTRA TOMB. 1C7 
 
 we could see the bones of the trunk and of the ex- 
 tremities crossing each other in all directions, and 
 on the top of the heap a skull.' It is evident that 
 these skeletons were placed in the grave as corpses, 
 and in a sitting, not a lying posture. The Baron 
 says, farther on : — ' The mould in which the bones 
 were embedded was very fat and unctuous, more so 
 than the mould which was lying farther off.' Every- 
 body must see, when this is pointed out, that the ' fat 
 unctuous ' mould about the bones was the decayed 
 flesh which had surrounded the bones, and conse- 
 quently, that the bones had not been deposited in 
 the tombs as skeletons, but as whole corpses, pro- 
 vided with flesh and blood. ' But,' says the Baron, 
 ' the bones in most cases adhered so firmly to one 
 another, that it was impossible to say which belonged 
 to one and the same individual.' 
 
 How are we now to account, on the one hand, for 
 the large quantity of bones which occur in the 
 separate layers, and on the other for the utter dis- 
 order in which they were lying — sometimes closely 
 packed together? The ansAver does not to me appear 
 diflB.cult, if we only from the beginning picture to 
 ourselves the case as it most probably was. There 
 can, it appears to me, be no doubt that these burial- 
 vaults, constructed of colossal stones, collected from 
 a greater or smaller distance, and then raised on 
 end, were built in order to last for a long time, per- 
 haps for centuries, as sepulchres for a whole tribe, 
 or perhaps only for the chief of the tribe and for his 
 relatives.* After such a vault had been finished, and 
 
 * Aristocracy is strongly developed amongst all savage natiqns. 
 
168 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. IV, 
 
 the floor made level by means of earth, sand, or 
 clay, the corpses were deposited in it by degrees, as 
 some member of the tribe, or of the chiefs family, 
 died. For this purpose the gallery was constructed. 
 When, in course of time, the whole floor had been 
 covered with corpses, sitting or lying, the owner of 
 the vault, in order to prepare the necessary room for 
 a fresh series of corpses, ordered those which had al- 
 ready become skeletons to be levelled with the floor, 
 and those last placed in the vault, whose bodies had 
 not had time to become skeletons, were at the same 
 time flattened down on the floor, and on the top of this 
 crushed la3^er of bones was thrown a layer of earth 
 or sand, and in some instances of stones, like a pave- 
 ment, by which contrivance another solid floor was ob- 
 tfiined for a new series of corpses. When this second 
 floor, after many years, had also been fiUed up, the 
 same process was renewed, as often as required. In 
 tliis way we can account for the fact of the bones 
 lying in the confused and partly broken state in 
 which they were found by the excavators. 
 
 The hypothesis that the corpses were reduced to 
 skeletons before they were deposited in the grave, 
 is refuted by the following considerations: — Istly, 
 that no one is likely to deposit implements and orna- 
 ments with skeletons ; and 2ndly, that the graves 
 being family graves, into which one corpse at a 
 time was deposited only every tenth, fifteenth, or 
 twentieth year, the previous one would certainly have 
 been changed into a skeleton before a new one would 
 be deposited there. 
 
Ch. v.] MISSILES OF THE OHASE, 100 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OP THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ABOEIGINES MADE USE OF 
 THEIE WEAPONS IN THE CHASE AND IN WAR. 
 
 Having, in the previous part, shown in what man- 
 ner and by what means the savages of Scandinavia 
 prepared their implements and flint and bone wea- 
 pons, and the shape of them, we will now give a few 
 examples of how these weapons were used — partly in 
 the chase and partly in war. The following account 
 may serve as a specimen of the former. 
 
 § 1. Evidence of the Manner in which Missile Weapons 
 are used in the Chase by Savages. 
 
 During the summer of 1840, there was exhumed, 
 in my presence, out of the bottom of a deep bog in the 
 south of Scania, a complete skeleton of the gigantic 
 wild hull with flat forehead {Bos Urus, ' Scandina- 
 vian Fauna,' vol. i. page 537).* This ox had, some 
 few years previous to its death, been hit in the 
 
 * I have in my Fauna endeavoured to prove that this is the real 
 Unis of Caesar, Gesner, and others, vrhich the ancient Germans 
 called Ure. It has in much later times been called Bos primigenius 
 by Bojanns, which denomination seems to have originated through 
 ignorance of the fact that the former denomination (Urus) belongs 
 to the present fossil species. 
 
170 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 back by a javelin, fitted, to all appearance, with a flint 
 point, like some of those which have been sketched 
 on PI. III. figs. 55, 57, or 60. 
 
 The javelin, which must have been thrown at the 
 animal from in front, probably while rushing upon 
 the hunter, struck the processus spinosus of the first 
 vertebra lumbaris (PL XL figs. 220-222) at an angle 
 so acute with the surface of the bone, that it ap- 
 pears almost incredible that the spear could have 
 penetrated ; and this would have been impossible, 
 had it not been exceedingly shai'p-pointed and pro- 
 pelled with great speed by some means which I shall 
 explain hereafter. It passed, as I have already said, 
 through the processus spinosus of the first vertebra 
 lumbaris from front to back, and penetrated into the 
 second, where it stuck fast (figs. 221, 222). The 
 hole which it had made (fig. 220) became rounded 
 in consequence of suppuration, but on the other 
 side, where the javelin had passed out (fig. 222) 
 we see, by the shape of the wound, that the weapon 
 was compressed like a flint spear; and the scar left 
 where it passed into the second processus spinosus 
 shows that it must have been sharp-pointed. The 
 animal, according to the opinion of Mr. Nordling, a 
 veterinary surgeon, who saw the skeleton, was not 
 above five years old when it was killed, probably by 
 falling through a hole in the ice on the bog, where it 
 was found lying with the horns embedded in the clay ; 
 and by the bone formation (caUus), where the javelia 
 had passed out, we see that it must have lived for some 
 time after it was wounded. It must, therefore, have 
 
Oh. v.] MISSILES IN WAR, 171 
 
 been a very young animal when it was struck by the 
 javelin.* 
 
 Professor Japetus Steenstrup has given me other 
 proofs of flint arrows having been used in the chase, 
 by showing me fossil skulls of stags, in which small 
 arrow-heads were embedded; and in the Hunters' 
 Hall in the castle at Schwerin, several flint arrows 
 are preserved which have been found in bogs together 
 with skeletons of stags. 
 
 § 2. The Mode of using Missile Weapons in War. 
 
 These small flint arrows have likewise been used as 
 weapons against man. Mr. Strunk, at Copenhagen, 
 has shown me a human skull in which a flint arrow 
 was embedded, which had penetrated through one of 
 the eye-holes. 
 
 But, in one respect, the most remarkable of all the 
 antiquities with which I am acquainted is the follow- 
 ing, by which we learn that the savages of our country 
 used to attack the first settlers when they commenced 
 to clear the woods. When, about thirty years ago, a 
 level piece of ground near the village of Tygelsjo, 
 in the south of Scania, was to be cultivated, there were 
 found, close under the surface of the earth, a num- 
 ber of skeletons of human beings who had been in- 
 terred there, and round each skeleton was a row 
 of stones forming an elongated square 7 feet by 3 
 (PI. XIV. fig. 252). This manner of interring the 
 
 * I have presented this skeleton to the Zoological Museum at 
 Lund, where it is preserved amongst other bones from the peat-bogs 
 of Scania. 
 
172 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. V. 
 
 dead occurs only amongst those nations who used 
 weapons of bronze, and probably only amongst the 
 poor, never amongst people who use only stone 
 weapons. As a further proof that these skeletons 
 belonged to a tribe which, when settling in the south 
 of Sweden, were in possession of bronze, I may men- 
 tion that one of the skeletons, probably that of a 
 woman, had round one of the arm-bones a spiral ring 
 made of semicircular bronze wire, such as was worn 
 by the people of the Bronze Age. 
 
 The skull of one of the skeletons was pierced with 
 a javelin of bone (PI. XL fig. 213, half-size) made 
 from the point of the antler of an elk, which, when it 
 came into my hands, was mutilated (fig. 213), hut, 
 when found, had been quite perfect; about 7 inches 
 long, round, having the smaller end pointed, the 
 thicker cut off straight, and about an inch in dia- 
 meter. The surface was scraped lengthwise, and 
 made smooth with some sharpened instrument, pro- 
 bably of flint, which had had a hacked edge, and 
 caused the scratches along the surface. 
 
 In order to show how this missile was fixed to the 
 shaft, I have sketched it on a reduced scale on PL XL 
 fig. 212. The string or strap, which no doubt was tied 
 more closely, I have represented loose in the sketch, 
 to show how well the savage understood the construc- 
 tion of his weapons in the most approved manner. An 
 even straight surface of the spear, resting against an 
 even straight surface of the haft, gives the greatest 
 possible strength to the latter to impel forward the for- 
 mer. In the same way the stone chisels of modern 
 
Oh. v.] MISSILES IN WAE. 173 
 
 savages are helved (PI. VI. fig. 129), and so were also 
 evidently the ancient chisels (PI. VI. figs. 127, 134) 
 in old times. The spear- shaft now mentioned must 
 have been both long and heavy, probably of oak, 
 whereby great speed was given to the weapon thrown 
 with the whole force of the arm. 
 
 This missile, which had pierced the left parietal 
 close to the angle between the sagittal suture and 
 coronal suture (PL XI. fig. 219), had penetrated 
 about five inches into the skull, and was so firm that 
 it could not be wrenched out without force, having 
 made a round hole such as would have been caused 
 by a musket-ball. The circumstance that the bone 
 of the skull was not cracked or splintered proves that 
 the javelin had been thrown with extraordinary force, 
 and not thrust in by the hand at a short distance, 
 because in the latter case the bone would inevitably 
 have been splintered. It must astonish everybody 
 that the point of one bone could penetrate another 
 like a rifle-bal], and force a round hole in it with- 
 out even cracking the bone pierced through. We 
 may therefore infer that the savage of ancient times 
 understood the art of which the savages of the pre- 
 sent day avail themselves to impart the requisite 
 speed to their missiles. The Esquimaux in Green- 
 land employ a narrow throwing-board, provided with 
 a groove running lengthwise, in the middle of which 
 is a pointed wooden peg, bent forward, and in about 
 the middle of the spear- shaft is a hole running in the 
 same direction, into which the peg fits. When he 
 wants to throw his spear, he lays the throwing-board 
 
174 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 along the under part of his arm, whicli he bends till 
 it lies horizontally, throws forward the arm instanta- 
 neously, retains the throwing-board in the hand, and 
 allows the spear to fly out with an astonishing speed, 
 causing it to whiz in the air. This was related to 
 me by eye-witnesses.* By the manner in which this 
 spear-head, made from the antler of an elk, had no 
 doubt been fastened to the shaft (PL XL fig. 212), 
 Ave can easily explain how it could remain unbroken 
 in the head ; namely, the shaft must, in consequence 
 of the sudden jerk which the flying weapon received 
 when its point pierced the hard skull, have snapped 
 in its weakest part, or just where it was tied at a 
 thin part to the bone point. 
 
 If the savages of Scandinavia had any implements 
 with which they could increase the velocity of their 
 missiles, they must have been made of a substance 
 Avhich has been destroyed by time, and we can there- 
 
 * The New-IIollander uses for the same purpose a nearly similar 
 throwing-board ; at its lower end is a peg, bent forward, and in the 
 lower end of the long javelin is a hole into which the peg is passed. 
 When the spear is thrown it is therefore impelled forward with an 
 incredible velocity. 
 
 In New Caledonia, New Zealand, and other neighbouring islands, 
 no throwing-board is used, but the savage throws his javelin by 
 means of an implement which he calls ' sipp,' a short thong or 
 plaited ribbon, which at one end has a loop through which he puts 
 his forefinger ; he then lays the thong round the middle of the spear- 
 shaft, to which he imparts a vibratory motion before throwing it out, 
 when it flies oiF with an immense speed and hits the mark. 
 
 It is remarkable that the Eomana had also such an implement, 
 with which they imparted great speed to their javelins, namely, a 
 throu'inij-strap, which in their language was called amenfem. (Virg., 
 yEneid, i.x. G65.) 
 
Ch. v.] ETHIOPIAN MISSILES. 175 
 
 fore scarcely expect to meet with any such. But 
 from the effect produced by their missiles we can, with 
 the greatest probability, conjecture that they also pos- 
 sessed some such implement. 
 
 It is worthy of remark that we find javelins of the 
 same kind as that described above amongst another 
 half-savage tribe, belonging, moreover, to another part 
 of the world than Scandinavia. 
 
 Herodotus, in the seventh book of his ' History,' de- 
 scribing the arras and accoutrements of the various 
 nations composing the army led by Xerxes against 
 Hellas, mentions in the sixty-ninth chapter also the 
 Ethiopians, who were so uncivilised that their weapons, 
 like those of the savages in Scandinavia, were made 
 only of stone and bone. Thej^ were clothed in the 
 skins of wild animals ; they had long bows made of the 
 stem of the leaves of the palm-tree, and arrows made 
 of reeds with sharp-pointed flint heads. They had, 
 further, javelins to which they had fixed the pointed 
 horn of the gaTielle, in the same manner as a spear. 
 We observe that our savages were armed exactly in 
 the same way, with the diff"erence only which different 
 latitudes required. 
 
 On the same occasion, Avhen the savages at Tygelsjo 
 used the bone-point now sj^oken of as a javelin, they 
 used also the flint point for the same purpose, because 
 several spear-points made of flint, partly in good pre- 
 servation and partly broken, were found amongst the 
 skeletons where this skuU, pierced by the bone point, 
 was exhumed. 
 
 I have said that the bone point had hit and pene- 
 
176 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 trated the skull near the angle formed by the sutura 
 sagittalis and the sutura coronalis, consequently on 
 the top of the head, which seems to indicate that the 
 person who was killed with it was in a reclining posi- 
 tion when attacked. The assault on the colonists 
 was probably made at night-time by a horde of the 
 savages. That they were many in number is ap- 
 parently proved by the circumstance that several 
 spear-heads of flint, partly whole and partly broken, 
 were found amongst the skeletons, and had probably 
 been used in the combat. 
 
 After the assault the savages withdrew, and allowed 
 the surviving colonists to inter their dead according 
 to their own custom. Similar scenes of murder to this 
 between the savage aborigines of the country and the 
 first settlers in Scandinavia still occur between the 
 savages of America and the European colonists who 
 destroy their hunting-grounds. But it was formerly 
 even more fierce here, though the passion of extir- 
 pation in the stronger race against the weaker one is 
 by no means extinct. We will here cite an instance 
 which may illustrate certain passages of our legends. 
 It will likewise prove that the savage of America at- 
 tacks his victims when they are asleep, as was appa- 
 rently the case at Tygelsjo. 
 
 For this purpose we shall here insert some extracts 
 from Hearne's ' Journey in North America,'* in which 
 the tribe-hatred of the savages is depicted by an eye- 
 witness in all its ghastly colours. 
 
 * A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort to the Northern Ocean. 
 By Samuel Hearne. 4to. London, 1795. 
 
Ch. v.] HEARNE'S NARRATIVE. 177 
 
 In order to examine the Copper-mine River down 
 to its mouth, liearne had joined a tribe of Copper 
 Indians, and commenced his march along the bank of 
 the river. The Copper Indians are savages of the 
 American, or copper-coloured race, and are generally 
 tall powerful men. Although in language, as well as 
 in appearance, religion, etc., they are di-^ided into 
 diiFerent tribes, frequently waging war, pillaging, 
 and murdering each other's women, etc., still they 
 intermarry, and look upon each other as human 
 beings. But their conduct towards the Esquimaux is 
 quite different; these they consider scarcely human, 
 or at least far inferior to themselves. They have, 
 without the least cause, and from mere wantonness, 
 an insatiable desire to murder these poor defenceless 
 people. 
 
 Hearne continues his narrative as follows : — 
 'During our stay at Clowey, a great number of 
 Indians entered into a combination with those of my 
 party to accompany us to the Copper-mine Eiver ; 
 with no other intent than to murder the Esqui- 
 maux, who are imderstood by the Copper Indians to 
 frequent that river in considerable numbers. This 
 scheme, notwithstanding the trouble and fatigue, as 
 well as danger, with which it must obviously be at- 
 tended, was nevertheless so universally approved by 
 these people, that for some time almost every man 
 who joined us proposed to be of the party. Accord- 
 ingly, each volunteer, as well as those who were 
 properly of my party, prepared a target, or shield, 
 before we left the woods of Clowey. These targets 
 
178 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. V. 
 
 were composed of thin boards, about tbree-quarters 
 of an inch thick, two feet broad, and three feet long, 
 and were intended to ward off the arrows of the 
 Esquimaux.* 
 
 ' Soon after our arrival at the river-side, three 
 Indians were sent off as spies, in order to see if any 
 Esquimaux were inhabiting the river-side between us 
 and the sea. On their return, it being about noon 
 (July 16, 1771), they informed my companions that 
 five tents of Esquimaux were on the west side of the 
 river. The situation, they said, was very convenient 
 for surprising them; and, according to the account, 
 I judged it to be about twelve miles f from the place 
 we met the spies. When the Indians received this 
 intelligence, no further attendance or attention was 
 paid to my survey; but their whole thoughts were 
 immediately engaged in planning the best method 
 of attack, and how they might steal on the poor 
 Esquimaux the ensuing night, and kill them all while 
 asleep. To accomplish this bloody design more ef- 
 fectually, the Indians thought it necessary to cross 
 the river as soon as possible ; and by the account of 
 the spies, it appeared that no part was more con- 
 venient for the purpose than that where we had met 
 them, it being there very smooth, and at a consider- 
 able distance from any fall. Accordingly, after the 
 
 * In one place (page 166), Heanie tells us that the arrows of the 
 Esquimaux were pointed either with a triangular black stone (con- 
 sequently like ours on PL V. fig. 98), resembling slate, or with a 
 bit of copper, but the former were the most common. 
 
 f About If Swedish mile. 
 
Oh. v.] HEARNE'S NARRATIVE. 179 
 
 Indians had put all their guns, spears, targets, etc., 
 in good order, we crossed the river, which took up 
 some time. 
 
 ' When we arrived on the west side of the river, each 
 painted the front of his target, or shield ; some with 
 the figure of the sun, others with that of the moon, 
 several with different kinds of birds and beasts of 
 prey, and many with the images of imaginary beings, 
 wliich, according to their silly notions, are the inha- 
 bitants of the different elements, earth, sea, air, etc. 
 
 ' On enquiring the reason of their doing so, I learned 
 that each man painted his shield with the image of 
 that being on which he relied most for success in the 
 intended engagement. Some were contented with a 
 single representation ; while others, doubtful, as I 
 suppose, of the quality and power of any single being, 
 had their shields covered to the very margin with a 
 group of hieroglyphics quite unintelligible to every 
 one except the painter. Indeed, from the huriy ia 
 which this business was necessarily done, the want of 
 every colour but red and black, and the deficiency of 
 skill in the artist, most of those paintings had more 
 the appearance of a number of accidental blotches 
 than " of anything that is on the earth, or in the water 
 under the earth;" and though some few of them 
 conveyed a tolerable idea of the thing intended, yet 
 even these were many degrees worse than our country 
 sign-paintings in England. 
 
 ' When this piece of superstition was completed, we 
 began to advance toward the Esquimaux tents ; but 
 
 N 2 
 
180 THE STONE AGE. [Cn. V. 
 
 were very careful to avoid crossing any hills, or talk- 
 ing loud, for fear of being seen or overheard by the 
 inhabitants, by which means the distance was not only 
 much greater than it otherwise would have been, but, 
 for the sake of keeping ia the lowest grounds, we 
 were obliged to walk through entire swamps of stiff 
 marly clay, sometimes up to the knees. 
 
 ' It is perhaps worth remarking, that my crew, 
 though an undisciplined rabble, and by no means ac- 
 customed to war or command, seemingly acted on this 
 horrid occasion with the utmost uniformity of senti- 
 ment. There was not among them the least altercation 
 or separate opinion; all were united in the general 
 cause, and as ready to follow Avhere Matonabbee led, 
 as he appeared to be ready to lead, according to the 
 advice of an old Copper Indian, who had jouied us on 
 our first arrival at the river where this bloody busi- 
 ness was first proposed. 
 
 ' Never was reciprocity of interest more generally 
 regarded among a number of people than it was on 
 the present occasion by my crew, for not one was a 
 moment in want of anything that another could spare ; 
 and if ever the spirit of disinterested friendship ex- 
 panded the heart of a northern Indian, it was here 
 exhibited in the most extensive meaning of the word. 
 Property of every kind that could be of general use 
 now ceased to be private, and every one who had 
 anything which came under that description, seemed 
 proud of an opportunity of giving it, or lending it to 
 those who had none, or were most in want of it. 
 ' The number of my crew was so much greater than 
 
Oh. v.] HEARXE'S NARRATIVE. 181 
 
 that which five tents could contain, and the warlike 
 manner in -which they were equipped so greatly 
 superior to what could be expected of the poor 
 Esquimaux, that no less than a total massacre of 
 every one of them was likely to be the case, un- 
 less Providence should work a miracle for their 
 deliverance.* 
 
 ' The land was so situated that we walked under 
 cover of the rocks and hills till we were withm two 
 hundred yards of the tents. There we lay in ambush 
 for some time, watching the motions of the Esquimaux. 
 While we lay there, the Indians performed the last 
 ceremonies which were thought necessary before the 
 engagement. These chiefly consisted in painting their 
 faces ; some all black, some all red, and others with 
 a mixture of the two ; and to prevent their hair from 
 blowing into their eyes, it was either tied before and 
 behind, and on both sides, or else cut short all round. 
 The next thing they considered was to make them- 
 selves as light as possible for running ; which they did 
 by pulUng off their stockings, and either cutting off 
 the sleeves of their jackets, or rolling them up close 
 to their armpits ; and though the mosquitoes at that 
 time were so numerous as to surpass all credibility, 
 yet some of the Indians actually pulled off their 
 jackets and entered the lists quite naked, except their 
 breech-cloths and shoes. 
 
 * It makes our blood freeze with horror when we see that 
 an enlightened Christian could be prevailed upon to witness such 
 a horribly preconcerted massacre of defenceless innocent fellow- 
 creatures, instead of doing all in his power to prevent this crime. 
 But see Note 9. 
 
182 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 ' By the time the Indians had made themselves thus 
 completely frightful, it was near one o'clock in the 
 morning (July 17), when, finding all the Esquimaux 
 quiet in their tents, they rushed forth from their 
 ambuscade, and fell on the poor unsuspecting crea- 
 tures, unperceived till close at the very eaves of their 
 tents, when they soon began the bloody massacre. It 
 was shocking beyond description; the poor unhappy 
 victims were surprised ia the midst of their sleep, 
 and had neither time nor power to make any 
 resistance; men, women, and children, in all upwards 
 of twenty, ran out of their tents stark naked, and 
 endeavoured to make their escape ; but the Indians 
 having possession of all the land side, to no side could 
 they fly for shelter. One alternative only remained, 
 that of jumping into the river; but as none of 
 them attempted it, they all fell a sacrifice to Indian 
 barbarity ! 
 
 ' The shrieks and groans of the poor expiring 
 wretches were truly dreadful; and my horror was 
 much increased at seeing a young girl, seemingly 
 about eighteen years of age, killed so near me that 
 when the first spear was stuck into her side she fell 
 down at my feet, and twisted round my legs so that 
 it was with difficulty that I could disengage myself 
 from her dying grasps. As two Indian men pursued 
 this unfortunate victim, I solicited very hard for her 
 life ; but the murderers made no reply till they had 
 stuck both their sj)ears through her body, and trans- 
 fixed her to the ground. They then looked me 
 sternly in the face, and began to ridicule me by 
 
Ch. v.] HEARNE'S NARRATIVE. 183 
 
 asking if I wanted an Esquimaux wife ; and paid not 
 tlie smallest regard to the shrieks and agony of the 
 poor wretch, who was twining round their speare like 
 an eel. Indeed, after receiving much abusive language 
 from them on the occasion, I was at length obliged 
 to desire that they would be more expeditious in 
 dispatching their victim out of her misery, otherwise 
 I should be obhged, out of pity, to assist in the 
 friendly office of putting an end to the existence 
 of a fellow-creature who was so cruelly wounded. 
 On this request being made, one of the Indians 
 hastily drew his spear from the place where it was 
 first lodged, and pierced it through her breast near 
 the heart. The love of life, however, even in this 
 most miserable state, was so predominant, that, though 
 this might justly be called the most merciful act that 
 could be done for the poor creature, it seemed to be 
 unwelcome, for, though much exhausted by pain and 
 loss of blood, she made several efforts to ward off the 
 friendly blow. 
 
 ' The brutish manner in which these savages used 
 the bodies they had so cruelly bereaved of life was so 
 shocking that it would be indecent to describe it. 
 
 ' When the Indians had completed the murder of 
 the poor Esquimaux, seven other tents on the east 
 side the river immediately engaged their attention : 
 veiy luckily, however, our canoes and baggage had 
 been left at a little distance up the river, so that they 
 had no way of crossing to get at them. The river at 
 this part being little more than eighty yards wide, 
 they began firing at them from the west side. The 
 
184 THE STONE AGE. [Oh, V. 
 
 poor Esquimaux on tlie opposite shore, thougli all up 
 in arms, did not attempt to abandon their tents ; and 
 they were so unacquainted with the nature of fire- 
 arms, that Avhen the bullets struck the ground, they 
 ran in crowds to see what was sent them, and seemed 
 anxious to examine all the pieces of lead which they 
 found flattened against the rocks.* At length one of 
 the Esquimaux men was shot in the calf of his leg, 
 which put them in great confusion. They all imme- 
 diately embarked in their little canoes, and paddled 
 to a shoal in the middle of the river, which, being 
 somewhat more than a gun-shot from any part of the 
 shore, put them out of the reach of our barbaiians. 
 
 ' When the savages discovered that the surviving 
 Esquimaux had gained the shore above mentioned, 
 the northern Indians began to plunder the tents of 
 the deceased of all the copper utensils they could 
 find, such as hatchets, bayonets, knives, etc. ; f after 
 which they assembled on the top of an adjacent high 
 hill, and standing all in a cluster, so as to form a 
 solid circle, with their spears erect in the air, gave 
 man}- shouts of victory, constantly clashing their spears 
 against each other, and frequently calling out Tima ! 
 fima ! J b}' way of derision to the poor surviving 
 Esquimaux, who were standing in the shoal almost 
 knee-deep in water. After parading the hill for 
 
 * They behaved exactly like children. Compare Introduc- 
 tion. 
 
 f There occurred lumps of pure copper in the neighborhood, 
 which the Esquimaux beat between stones into axes, knives, etc. 
 
 J This word is, in the Esquimaux language, meant to be a friendly 
 acclamation, signifying How are you ? It was here used as a cruel 
 derision. 
 
Oh. v.] HEAIINE'S NARRATIVE. 185 
 
 some time, it was agreed to return up the river to 
 the place where we had left our canoes and baggage, 
 which was about half a mile distant, and then to 
 cross the river again and plunder the seven tents on 
 the east side. This resolution was immediately put 
 in force ; and as ferrying across with only three or 
 four canoes took a considerable time, and as we were, 
 from the crookedness of the river and the form of the 
 land, entirely under cover, several of the poor surviv- 
 ing Esquimaux, thinking, probably, that we were gone 
 about our business, and meant to trouble them no 
 more, had returned from the shoal to their habita- 
 tions. When we approached their tents, which we 
 did under cover of the rocks, we found them busily 
 employed tying up bundles. These the Indians 
 seized with their usual ferocity ; on which, the Es- 
 quimaux having their canoes lying ready in the 
 water, immediately embarked, and all of them got 
 safe to the former shoal, except one old man, who 
 was so intent on collecting his things, that, the 
 Indians coming upon him before he could reach his 
 canoe, he fell a sacrifice to their fury : 1 verily believe 
 not less than twenty had a hand in his death, as his 
 whole body was like a cullender. 
 
 ' I ought to have mentioned in its proper place, 
 that in making our retreat up the river, after killing 
 the Esquimaux on the west side, we saw an old woman 
 sitting by the side of the water, killing salmon, which 
 lay at the foot of the faU as thick as a shoal of 
 herrings.* Whether from the noise of the fall or a 
 
 * She was fishing with a leister armed with a few points. The 
 fish were so abundant, that when the leister was thrust into the water 
 
186 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 natural defect in the old woman's hearing, it is hard 
 to determine, but certain it is she had no knowledge 
 of the tragical scene which had been so lately trans- 
 acted at the tents, though she was not more than two 
 hundred yards from the place. When we first per- 
 ceived her, she seemed perfectly at ease, and was 
 entirely surrounded with the produce of her labour. 
 From her manner of behaviour and the appearance of 
 her eyes, which were as red as blood, it is more than 
 probable that her sight was not very good ; for she 
 scarcely discerned that the Indians were enemies till 
 they were within twice the length of their spears of 
 her. It was in vain that she attempted to fly, for the 
 wretches of my crew transfixed her to the ground in 
 a few seconds, and butchered her in the most savage 
 manner. There was scarcely a man among them 
 who had not a thrust at her with his spear; and 
 many in doing this aimed at torture rather than 
 immediate death, as they not only poked out her 
 eyes, but stabbed her in many parts very remote 
 from those which are vital. 
 
 ' When the Indians had plundered the seven tents of 
 all the copper utensils, which seemed the only thing 
 worth their notice, they threw all the tents and tent- 
 poles into the river, destroyed a vast quantity of dried 
 salmon, much oxen-flesh, and other provisions, broke 
 all the stone kettles, and, in fact, did all the mischief 
 they possibly could to distress the poor creatures they 
 could not murder, and who were standing on the shoal 
 
 and drawn up, it rarely failed to transfix two or three fish. (Com- 
 pare chap. i. page 70.) 
 
Ch. v.] ESQUIMAUX REGAEDED AS SORCERERS, 187 
 
 before mentioned, obliged to be woful spectators of 
 their great or perhaps irreparable loss.' 
 
 The author then goes on to describe the ceremonies 
 which the Indians performed after the massacre, which 
 show that they considered themselves unclean from 
 having touched such despised and detested beings as 
 the Esquimaux. In another passage (page 333), the 
 author informs us that the main cause of these perse- 
 cutions is that the Esquimaux are looked upon as 
 sorcerers ; and that when any Indian chief dies, it is 
 said generally that the Esquimaux have killed him 
 by witchcraft. In the summer of 1756, upwards 
 of forty Esquimaux were treacherously assailed and 
 murdered by Indians, from no other motive than 
 that two of their chiefs had died the preceding 
 winter. 
 
 We shall now more closely contemplate the relation 
 here described between savage people of different 
 races and tribes. It is evident that religious fanati- 
 cism had a share in this tiger-Hke ire of the Indians 
 against the Esquimaux ; they looked upon them as 
 gobUns. That each of them painted their god, or 
 gods, on their shields before the combat, proves that 
 they hoped for victory from him ; and to him it was 
 also afterwards ascribed. This is hkewise proved by 
 the ceremony on the hill.* 
 
 It is clear as daylight, that after such deeds and 
 victories as now described, stories must arise in which 
 the god of the Indians, whatever his name may be, 
 
 * The religious ceremony after the battle reminds us of the purifi- 
 cation of the Jews after slaying the Midianites. Num. xxxi. 19 . 
 
188 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 is represented as the killer of goblins, as the de- 
 stroyer and extirpator of the cave-dwelling people,* 
 and so on ; and that these stories, when handed down 
 from father to son, became more and more intermixed 
 with marvellous additions. Let us imagine that 
 European civilisation, or a written language, had 
 never been introduced in America, but that the In- 
 dians themselves had transmitted these stories by 
 word of mouth to their posterity. What prose could 
 not achieve, the Skalds would do, for even half-savao-e 
 nomads have their bards; and, therefore, the recital 
 of these occurrences would, after thousands of years, 
 or perhaps even sooner, after the introduction of some 
 civilisation amongst the Indians, and when tales and 
 lays of ancient times were written down, appear no 
 less extravagant and marvellous than the most im- 
 probable of our own Sagas and lays of antiquity. I 
 
 Eveiybody who reflects upon this, and impartially 
 studies our ancient Sagas, in which it is related how 
 imps, dwarfs, goblins, and other enemies of the saga- 
 tellino- nations were either slain en masse and extir- 
 pated by their gods, or hunted down by them and 
 pursued into the depths of their caverns, mangled 
 by blows from axes, and pierced with red-hot arrows, 
 and so on, must undoubtedly recognise m these 
 our ancient Sagas the same hostile relation between 
 
 * The winter habitations of the Esquimaux are earth-caverns, 
 see page 133. 
 
 t And in the same way so ne historian might also, in the course of 
 time, assure his contemporaries and posterity that all these tales and 
 lays from ancient times were mere creations of fancy, mere myths 
 and allegories, which had no foundation in reality. 
 
On. v.] HEREDITAEY HATRED BETWEEN RACES. 189 
 
 the earliest savage and semi-savage tribes of Scan- 
 dinavia as that existing between the savage tribes of 
 America of our own day, as related by Hearne and 
 otlier travellers. 
 
 But although this hereditary hatred is more or less 
 intense between all savage nations, and consequently 
 also amongst the different Indian tribes (page 164), 
 still it manifests itself nowhere perhaps with so much 
 bitterness and with so little apparent cause, as when 
 the more powerful races, gifted with more suscepti- 
 bdity and capable of a high civilisation, come into con- 
 tact with the now so-called polar race in America and 
 Europe.* It is evident that this race, so weak in a 
 physical and mteUectual point of view, was formerly 
 spread more widely over both the hemispheres ; but, 
 probably in consequence of this hereditary hatred be- 
 tween the races, has been extirpated in many regions. 
 
 We have here already seen with what fury the 
 Copper Indians, without any provocation, murder the 
 poor Esquimaux. We find the same contemptuous 
 hatred against this defenceless people amongst the 
 Icelanders, who discovered Winland (the east coast of 
 North America, under lat. 40°-42°). We are told 
 (in ' Antiq. Americ' page 42) that 'when Thorwald 
 and his followers had landed there, having seen on 
 the beach of a small headland three mounds, they 
 went there, and discovered three boats, made of the 
 skins of wild animals, and three human beings (Skra- 
 lingar f ) under each boat. They then divided and 
 
 * The same has probably been the case also in Asia, 
 f That is to say, Esquimaux. 
 
190 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V. 
 
 pursued the natives, seizing all excepting one, who 
 escaped in his boat. They slew the remaining eight, 
 and then returned to the headland, whence they 
 saw at a distance in the bay several other mounds, 
 which they supposed were houses,' etc. 
 
 We see thus, that in the tenth century the Gothic 
 tribes of the Caucasian race were animated by the 
 same desire as the Indian tribes of the American race, 
 to steal upon the helpless Esquimaux and to murder 
 them without any provocation whatever. The same 
 deadly hatred of the dwarf people in Europe, as of 
 the Skralingar in America, is expressed in strong and 
 unmistakable features in our ancient Sagas. To what 
 end has this murderous propensity been implanted, 
 as it appears, by Nature herself ? The paragraph in 
 the code of Creation which ordains that everything 
 meaner, when it has fulfilled its mission here on earth, 
 shall perish and make room for something better, 
 does it also refer to the different races of man? This 
 subject may deserve to be more fully considered 
 and reflected upon by the philosopher. 
 
Ch. VI.] STONE AGE OF DIFFEKE^^T NATIONS. 191 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE STONE AGE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. THE SOUECB OF 
 
 TRADITION. DWARFS, GIANTS, GOBLINS, ETC., "WERE ORI- 
 GINALLY PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT TRIBES AND RELIGION. 
 
 Every nation, even those most anciently ci\'ilised, has 
 had its Stone Age, * and Avhere this has disappeared 
 before the commencement of history, traces of it have 
 still often been preserved in religious observances and 
 ceremonies, as already mentioned in Chapter II. of 
 this work. 
 
 Of all the different phases of civilisation through 
 which a nation must pass before it attains the highest 
 grade of development, the first rude state is the most 
 enduring and the most difficult to get over. An im- 
 portant ethnological discovery was made by Ermaii 
 during his travels, namely, that the Argippseans of 
 Herodotus are the now existing Baschkirs of the Ural 
 mountain-districts, and that their present mode of 
 life is exactly like that described by Herodotus more 
 than 2,300 years ago; f and this people had no doubt 
 lived in the same wild state long before Herodotus 
 described them. 
 
 * As regards the Egyptians, see Chapter II. page 7, note. 
 Besides this, during a visit to the British Museum in 1847, I saw, 
 among the Egyptian rough-edged arrows, one tipped with a rough 
 flint-flake. 
 
 I Erman's Travels in Siberia, vol. i. p. 297. 
 
102 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI, 
 
 That tills first period of cultivation, the Stone Age, 
 
 was of long duration, even with our forefathers, a 
 
 people of the Indo-Germanic race here in the North, 
 
 we may conclude from the occurrence of many facts, 
 
 of which several will be mentioned in the following 
 
 chapter; we would only notice here, that this first 
 
 period of civilisation with us is so remote that neither 
 
 our history nor our traditions mention the use of any 
 
 other weapons than those of iron. The Bronze era 
 
 is not even mentioned,* and in all cases when arrows 
 
 of stone are mentioned, reference is invariably made to 
 
 the most ancient time of the Sagas, and to an entirely 
 
 different race. Certain, however, it is, that I have 
 
 been unable to find, either in history or in the ancient 
 
 Sagas, a single passage where any other weapons of 
 
 war than those of iron are mentioned as being used 
 
 by our ancestors (the people of the Gothic race). 
 
 This is certainly only a negative proof, and may 
 therefore be looked upon as indecisive, but it gains 
 strength from the circumstance, that our ancestors, 
 especially the more wealthy and enlightened amongst 
 them — those, therefore, who have left records to pos- 
 terity — were a warlike people, and occupied them- 
 selves almost exclusively with the manufacture and 
 management of their weapons. Ancient laws contain 
 
 * Nor, indeed, is it mentioned with any other European people in 
 the North or West. With the Eomans it was only known by tradition 
 that the Bron?e era had preceded that of iron (' prior seris erat quam 
 ferri cognitus usus,' Luoret.). Hesiod regretted that he lived during 
 the Iron Age. Homer's heroes belonged to the so-called heroic age. 
 The iron weapons of the Eomans can be traced as far back at least 
 as Tarquinius Prisons. 
 
Ch. VI.] STONE AGE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 193 
 
 strict rules regarding the kind of weapons which 
 were to be furnished and employed. In hundreds of 
 Sagas, various weapons are described and extolled, but 
 every epithet there found proves that reference is made 
 to iron weapons only, and not to weapons of bronze 
 or of stone. Swords inlaid with gold and silver, 
 gilt helmets, and harness ' shining like ice,' are men- 
 tioned in our Sagas from the earliest historical period.* 
 I have visited several places in Norway which the 
 national traditions indicate as having been battle- 
 fields in ancient times, but the weapons which have 
 been dug up there have all, without exception, been 
 of ii'on. The weapons used in the battle of Stickler- 
 stad, in 1030, were of iron and steel. Rusty pieces 
 of such weapons found on that battle-field have been 
 figured in several works. It may be supposed that 
 the iron weapons found there belonged to the 
 fallen Norsemen, and that the pagan army of peasants 
 used stone arrows. But this is not the case, at 
 least not generally. It is, moreover, an indubitable 
 fact that one arrow at least shot from the hostile 
 ranks was of iron. Thormodr Kolbrunnarskald, 
 who, on the morning previous to the commencement 
 of the battle, and at the king's request, sang the 
 beautiful song : 
 
 Dagr er uppkominn, dynia liana ijadrir ; 
 Mai er vilmogum at vinna erfitlii,| etc., 
 
 received during the engagement an arrow in his 
 chest. The arrow broke ofi" in the wound, and the 
 
 * John, Om Krigsvdsendet, page 192. 
 ■f Iduna Tidskrift, vol. i. page 58. 
 
 
104 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 surgeon, who, according to the custom of those times, 
 ■was a woman, endeavoured to extract it by means of 
 a pair of pincers, but in vain, the wound having be- 
 gun to swell. Thormodr therefore desired her to cut 
 into the flesh until the iron could be reached, and she 
 having done so, he himself pulled out the arrow-point, 
 which had become bent.* That the skald died from 
 the operation is irrelevant, but not so the fact, that 
 the murderous arrow, which had become bent, must 
 have been of iron, and not of stone. 
 
 In the battle on BravaUa plain, which was fought 
 at a much more remote date, viz. about the year 700 f, 
 and in the records of which many weapons and 
 various kinds of armour are described, nothing is 
 stated which will in any way justify the inference 
 that stone weapons had been used by any of the 
 various hordes which took a part in the battle. | As 
 those, however, by whom records of these events have 
 been left to posterity belonged to the more wealthy and 
 distinguished class, who used iron weapons, they no 
 
 * Fostbradra-sagan, page 215. 
 
 f The time is differently stated by different authors; namely, 
 from the year 680 to 735. 
 
 J AH this, however, does not prove that the use of stone weapons 
 was entirely abolished. We cannot suppose it possible that iron 
 came into general use all at once, but rather gradually and by 
 degrees, until it came down to the soldiery, and that the latter used 
 their weapons of stone for a long time, while the chiefs and richer 
 men had weapons of iron. We also see them together on sculptured 
 stones. {Urinv&narne, vol. i. page 56.) The Bronze era did not 
 succeed in rooting out the use of stone weapons (even then stone 
 only was employed here for missile weapons) ; it was during the 
 Iron Age that the use of stone was at first gradually, and at last 
 altogether abolished. 
 
Ch. VI.] ANTIQUITY OF STONE WEAPONS. 196 
 
 doubt considered the weapons of stone employed only 
 by the soldiei's as too insignificant to be mentioned. 
 
 In the same way it may be explained that our 
 Eddas and ancient Sagas, which, as regards this sub- 
 ject, go back to the most remote antiquity, do not in 
 any single passage speak of war weapons of stone as 
 having been used by the people of the historical race, 
 whereas their wai' weapons of iron are frequently 
 mentioned, and extolled in the most exaggerated 
 terms. Their swords would cut stone as well as 
 cloth, and in order to test the sharpness of the 
 edges, a lock of wool was thrown into slowly running 
 water; the sword was held in it with the edge 
 towards the current while the wool was driftins 
 down upon it. If it cut the wool through, the wea- 
 pon was considered to be sufficiently sharp.* 
 
 It is also remarkable that stone weapons were, as 
 far back as we are acquainted with their history, used 
 neither by the Gothic race in Germany nor in Scan- 
 dinavia. Tacitus relates ('Germ.' vii.) that the Ger- 
 mans had war weapons of iron, and states that the 
 reason why few of them used swords or large spears, 
 like the Romans, but lances, which ui their language 
 were called /ramea (ohrime, awl, a kind of pike armed 
 with a narrow and short piece of iron) was, that iron 
 was not abundant with them.f The only people 
 
 * Didr. of Bern's Saga, chap. xxi. 
 
 t It appears to me incomprehensible that notwithstanding Tacitus 
 relates this as a fact in plain words, there are antiquaries who in 
 later times declare that the framea of Tacitus were of bronze, and 
 resembled the so-called paalstav of the Danes ; which is certainly 
 neither narrow nor pointed, but broad at the edge, and like a chisel. 
 
 o 2 
 
106 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 known by Tacitus who were so poor and rude that 
 they were not even acquainted with iron, were the 
 Fenni. These Fenni were the same people who at 
 a later period were throughout the North called 
 Finns, i.e. Laplanders. For want of iron, they armed 
 their arrows with a sharp-pointed bone, as was the 
 custom of the Laplanders even as late as a century 
 ago. 
 
 We see by all this, that the people who have 
 transmitted to us some account of their history from 
 ancient times, as far back as history relates and the 
 Sagas recount their adventures, have not, either in 
 Scandinavia or in Germany, spoken of weapons of any 
 other kind of material than of iron, but that, on the 
 other hand, the Laplanders had, at any rate, their 
 arrows tipped with hone. We also find that all na- 
 tions who are unacquainted with the use of metals, 
 and Avho employ arrows and other implements made 
 of honi\ have also others of stone, and we know- 
 that the Laplanders employed them even at a much 
 later period. From this circumstance alone, we come 
 to the conclusion that the dwarf people of the Saga, 
 who clearly belonged to the race of Laplanders, must 
 have had implements of stone and of hones of animals, 
 but not of metal. But we have a still more positive 
 proof in favour of this opinion. There is, at all events, 
 one passage in the Sagas in which it is distinctly 
 shown that the arrows of the dwarfs were of stone. 
 This remarkable passage occurs in ' Orvar Odd's Saga,' 
 
 (See Lisch Jahrbiicher, vol. ix. page 335, fig. 6, page 376.) I 
 can see no reason why f en-urn should be translated bronze. 
 
Ch. VI.] 'ORVAR ODD'S SAGA.' 397 
 
 which, as some of our readers are perhaps aware, is a 
 very interesting romance, and which has this in com- 
 mon with our modern so-called historical novels, that 
 real facts are mingled with imaginary adventures. It 
 is there related that the Viking Orvar Odd, having 
 in- several battles lost his bravest and most faithful 
 followers, wandered about alone and restless, from 
 one country to another, seeking adventures. Finally, 
 he came to Huneland, where, in a forest, he met an 
 old man cutting wood near a small cottage. The 
 old man was of short stature, and his name was Jolf. 
 Orvar, wishing to conceal his real name, called himself 
 Yidforul, passed the night in the old man's cottage, 
 and in the morning, on leaving, presented him with a 
 knife. As a return present, the old man wished to 
 give him three stone arrows, when Orvar observed: 
 ' It is a good present, old man, but I am not aware 
 that I need carry stone arrows about with me.' ' It 
 may happen, Odd,' said the old man, ' that these stone 
 arrows may help thee, where the Guse arrows cannot 
 avail.' ' Knowest thou then that my name is Odd ? ' 
 ' Yes,' replied the old man. ' Then,' said Odd, ' it 
 may be that thou knowest also why thou didst now say 
 that I shall have occasion to use thy stone arrows ; I 
 shall therefore accept them, and I thank thee much 
 for them ; ' and he put them into his quiver. 
 
 An explanation of this passage stands in immediate 
 connection with our subject. It is indeed not dis- 
 tinctly mentioned here that the little old man Jolf 
 was a dwarf (i.e. Laplander) ; but from many parallel 
 passages in the Sagas, and from his demeanour, his 
 
198 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 cunning, his skUl in witchcraft, and his prognosti- 
 cations, we clearly infer that he belonged to the 
 dwarf race. I must further remind the reader that 
 the Guse arrows which Odd carried in his quiver, aad 
 of which circumstance Jolf was aware, were three 
 magic arrows taken from the Lapland chief Guse 
 which arrows had the property of hitting everything 
 at which they were aimed, after which they returned 
 of their own accord to the bow-string. Odd's answer 
 which in a romance would of course be considered as 
 expressing the general opinion at that period, has 
 therefore the following meaning : The present is in 
 itself valuable, but I am not aware that I shall need 
 these magic stone arrows, as I already carry in my 
 quiver the Guse arrows, which have a certain magical 
 power. But the old man, who was a sorcerer, and 
 who could read the future, gave Odd to understand 
 that he should one day be exposed to sorcery, against 
 which only his own magic arrows, and not the Guse 
 arrows, would be able to protect him. The old 
 man's prediction was soon verified, for • Odd became 
 the leader in a battle, in which an invisible witch, 
 Gyda, caused him great loss of men. Odd aimed 
 at her first with the Guse arrows. 'When Gyda 
 heard them whistling through the air, she held 
 up the palm of her hand to receive them, but they 
 made no more impression thereon than upon a stone. 
 Odd shot oflf all the Guse arrows, but they all fell 
 amongst the grass. " Now," said Odd, " what Jolf 
 predicted has come to pass : the Guse arrows are lost; 
 it remains now to try his stone arrows." Thereupon 
 
Ch.VI.] superstitions. 199 
 
 Odd took one of the stone arrows and aimed at Gyda; 
 she heard it whistling through the air, and held up her 
 wrist; the arrow pierced her hand, entered her eye, 
 and came out at the neck. Odd shot off the second 
 arrow, which flew the same way. Then he let off 
 the third arrow, and it hit Gyda in the forehead, and 
 immediately she fell down dead.' 
 
 This ancient romance shows very clearly that at 
 the time when it was composed, neither arrows, nor 
 other weapons of stone, were in common use as 
 weapons, but that even then the opinion was generally 
 cuiTent that these stone weapons, which owed their 
 existence to the dwarf race, skilled in sorcery, were 
 endowed with a magic power against witches and 
 witchcraft, which no other weapons possessed. 
 
 We still find, here and there, traces amongst 
 the peasantry of the superstition that stone imple- 
 ments possess inherent magic power. Some of the 
 peasantry even now believe that stone wedges are a 
 protection against lightning, and they have therefore 
 always a few of them in their possession, which they 
 cannot easily be prevailed upon to part with. In 
 some districts they were formerly placed in the bed 
 beside women near their confinement, in order to 
 lighten the pains of labour. They are still occasion- 
 ally used by the peasantry against a cutaneous disease 
 in children called the ' white fire.' With the aid of 
 a piece of steel, sparks are emitted from them which 
 are made to fall upon the head of the child. 
 
 Superstitions notions of the same kind appear to 
 be entertained also by the peasantry in Ireland and 
 
THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 land. Mr. E. Lloyd relates, in his ' Observations 
 ¥ales,' that during his journey in Scotland, he 
 particularly amused with the many different kinds 
 mulets preserved by the inhabitants. Amongst 
 3 he mentions stone arrows, which were believed 
 bem to have belonged to the elves. In ' Nenia 
 annica,' London, 1793, page 154, is the figure of 
 )ne arrow from Ireland (like that given on Pl.V. 
 96), mounted in silver ; and the author states 
 
 the peasants call these flint arrows 'elf-arrows,' 
 they mount them in silver, and wear them round 
 bhroat as amulets against ' elf-shots.'* We must 
 
 remember that the elves of the Eddas and 
 is were of two kinds, and that one of them, the 
 k. elves, were identical with the dwarf people, 
 Laplanders (' Snorr Edda,' pages 119, 123). Thus 
 ' elf-shots ' of the Irish peasantry are identical 
 
 the ' Lap-shots ' of the Swedish peasantry, and 
 equently, this is a further proof that the magical 
 e implements belonged to the dwarf people. Some 
 le may think it strange that a person should carry 
 .t with him ' Lap-arrows ' as a protection against 
 )-shots,' but this is in perfect accordance with an 
 popular superstition, and is not more strange than 
 lereditary conviction of the same people that stone 
 
 Dhese accounts are very instructive. They prove that it was 
 le Celts themselves, but a people considered by them to be 
 I in magic, who fabricated and used these stone arrows, 
 jrly stones shaped like a heart were set in the same way in 
 and worn round the throat as amulets, probably as a pre- 
 ive against ' Lap-shots ' and other sorceries carried on in the 
 [ have never seen them made of flint, but only of amber. 
 
Ch. VI.] ANCIENT INHABITANTS OP SWEDEN, ETC. 201 
 
 bolts, which have fallen during thunder-stprms, are a 
 protection against lightning. This accords with an 
 old popular belief already mentioned in the Edda, 
 namely, that the same matter which has hurt can also 
 cure : thus the flesh of the snake, or hair of the dog, 
 which has bitten a person, is laid as a salve upon the 
 wounds. 
 
 We have already seen by the description, as well 
 as the sketches of skulls in Chapter III. (both short- 
 headed, brachy cephalic, and long-headed, dolichoce- 
 phalic, the former resembling those of the Laplanders, 
 the latter those of the other inhabitants), that people 
 of different tribes inhabited this country even during 
 the Stone Age. It may be assumed, for several 
 reasons, that the race of people of which the Lap- 
 landers form the remnants was spread over Sweden, 
 Denmark, and other places ; since, on the one hand, 
 crania, which evidently belong to this race, have been 
 found in many places in the earth, and in bogs in the 
 south of Sweden; and, on the other hand, because 
 many words in the Swedish and Danish languages 
 have a great similarity to synonymous words in the 
 Lapland tongue. Profound investigators, as Rask, 
 Petersen, Christie, and others, have already proved 
 this. Those who doubt it may perhaps reply, that at 
 any rate some of them might just as weU have origi- 
 nally been adopted from the Swedish into the Lapland 
 tongue, as vice versd, and though this mixture of lan- 
 guages certainly proves an intercourse between both 
 races, it does not prove that the Laplanders necessa- 
 rily inhabited those places where, in the language, one 
 
THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VI. 
 
 1 with Lapland words, and therefore it has 
 een proved that the Laplanders formerly inha- 
 the central and south part of Sweden. But 
 es the Lapland skulls found in ancient tombs, 
 iresence of Lapland local names strongly sup- 
 the above-mentioned opinion. Those who are 
 acquainted with the Lapland tongue have re- 
 sed several such names, not only in the central 
 outhern parts of Sweden and Norway, but also 
 )untries south of Sweden. The distinguished 
 ist, Mr. Rask, assumes, in consequence of this, 
 the Laplanders in ancient times inhabited the 
 e of Denmark.* According to his interpretation, 
 lame Samso is from the Lapland language. The 
 ds of Hvidn, anciently Hoidn, owe their name to 
 pi and word, apparently derived from voudn (bay, 
 •ith). A great number of other names in the 
 h, which cannot be traced to Gothic roots, seem 
 to have been derived from the Lapland language ; 
 nstance, Falstr, Fjon, llledra, Thotn, in Norway, 
 Dthers. Trollhdttan is said to be derived from the 
 aame troll (goblin) and the Lapland word hailte^ 
 ids). On the Dovrefield, the people assert that 
 local name Jerkin was of Lapland origin, and 
 ice of the residence of the Laplanders in that 
 ; the lake Jerkin, in the province of Upland, 
 the same name. The Allvar of Oland may 
 asily traced to the Lapland words all (high) and 
 (hill). There is a similar locality in Scania, the 
 mt name of which, Allvar^ seems to have been 
 
 * Ovi det Nordisk Sprogs Oprindelse, page 114. 
 
Ch. VI.] THE SOURCE OP TRADITION. 203 
 
 retained for a farm in that province, AUvarstorp, 
 pronounced Alfvastorp by the peasantry. The word 
 all has been retained in a great number of names of 
 hills and eminences in Scania. Thus, the Lapland 
 words stoch (sound, inlet) and gam (lake) seem to 
 enter into many Swedish local names. 
 
 If we now consider, that besides Lapland local names 
 peculiar to the south of Sweden there are a great 
 many ancient Sagas, which have evidently been handed 
 down from generation to generation, relating to 
 dwarfs^ cavern-people^ or goblins^ who formerly lived 
 in such or such a mountain-cave, and in such or such 
 a crag — and many such places are still shown by the 
 country people, especially in those districts where 
 crags are found, but sometimes also in districts 
 where only larger earth-mounds are met with ; and if, 
 moreover, we remember that to these places are at- 
 tached detailed Sagas of occurrences which are said to 
 have happened there, and in which Sagas the student 
 easily recognises ethnological features which cannot pos- 
 sibly have been invented — then we are compelled to 
 admit that these stories, still current amongst the 
 people, must have some historical basis, and that it is 
 impossible they can be merely creations of fancy; 
 we are forced to assume that individuals of the Lap- 
 land people have lived at all events near or about 
 those places which the national Sagas indicate as 
 their dwellings. 
 
 Thus, this smaller and weaker tribe have been ex- 
 pelled, even here in the North of Europe, by a 
 stronger and larger race of people ; as is also the case 
 
THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VI. 
 
 N^orth America, where the Esquimaux, the polar 
 } of the New World, were the first settlers, but 
 e by degrees expelled by a larger and stronger 
 5, namely, the copper-coloured Indians, 
 ^ery nearly the same thing happened long ago 
 e in Europe, as is now taking place in America, 
 can thus trace a similarity between the two 
 -Ids, inasmuch as in both the conquering and 
 re powerful tribes believed the polar race to be 
 led in sorcery, and for that reason expelled and 
 secuted them. I have alluded to our Sagas and 
 iitions. It appears to me evident, that during the 
 g period extending, probably, over thousands of 
 rs, when the aborigines of the country were unable 
 ler to read or write, verbal traditions began, and 
 'e handed down from generation to generation; it 
 ) appears evident, that when the more civilised 
 iple arrived in the country, where they gradually 
 ame settlers, and fell in with a ruder people of 
 )ther race, with different features, and of different 
 ; from their own, with dress, language, manner of 
 ng, and religious ceremonies also different from 
 irs, whom they then conquered, expelled, or extir- 
 ;ed, just as is the case now with savage and half- 
 age nations, the memory of these occurrences, 
 highly important to them, must have taken deep 
 t in their minds, and have been transmitted from 
 ents to children through succeeding generations: 
 torted, probably, by numerous additions, in conse- 
 ;nce of their religious views changing with time, but 
 1 preserving so much of its original characteristics, 
 t, if treated without prejudice, these may easily be 
 
Cn. VI.] THE SOURCE OF TEADITION. 205 
 
 recognised. The national traditions and Sagas, of 
 which Scandinavia possesses so rich a store, having 
 been here alluded to, I must beg the reader to remem- 
 ber that they are of two kinds, secular and religious^ 
 both resting upon historical ground. In favour of the 
 former, we have no other evidence than that they are 
 related by the people, but exactly alike in districts 
 very remote from one another : this was, at least, still 
 the case sixty or seventy years ago. He who does not 
 remember that time, and stUl more, he who has been 
 brought up in a large toAvn, cannot easily form an idea 
 of the veneration with which they were told and list- 
 ened to by the country people. Other times have suc- 
 ceeded to these, and the enlightened man of the world, 
 or the town-resident, if occasionally he has an op- 
 portunity of listening to these Sagas, looks upon them 
 as mere foolish prattle, unworthy the attention of an 
 educated man. The religious Sagas seem to have a 
 little more foundation than the others, because they 
 continue to live in certain religious customs and rites 
 among the people. By the enlightened they are called 
 superstition. Every remnant of a religious worship 
 subverted in the course of time through changed 
 ideas, becomes superstition. No superstition can have 
 arisen isolated and of itself. When it arose, and 
 for a long time afterwards, it was & faith^ and formed 
 part of a distinct religious worship ; but when this 
 worship was destroyed, the external forms, which were 
 still continued by the people, l^ecame mere super- 
 stition. Superstition is, therefore, nothing else than 
 the spectre of a formerly living faith ; it is the ruin 
 of an ancient temple long overthrown. 
 
THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 5uch remnants of pagan worship are still found 
 Dngst the people here, and the impartial enquirer 
 I be able, without much difficulty, to distin- 
 eh which of them have belonged to the worship of 
 or, Baal, or Odin. Every religious change in a 
 pie is in fact only an intermixture of religions; 
 ause the new religion, whether received by means 
 jonvincing arguments, or enforced by the eloquence 
 ire and sword, cannot at once tear up all the wide- 
 eading roots by which its forerunner has grown in 
 
 heart of the people: this must be the work of 
 ny years, perhaps of many generations, 
 liooked upon in this light, enquiries into national 
 ditions and superstitions are of great interest to 
 
 ethnologist, as they enable him to trace the ear- 
 t history of the race to which they belong. In my 
 acity of ethnographer I must contemplate the na- 
 lal Sagas from an historical, not from an aesthetic, 
 nt of view, although I am well aware that there are 
 ny who consider the latter as the only right one. 
 ^n my researches relating to this subject, I intend 
 owing the method hitherto adopted; namely, to 
 it the same as comparative ethnology. And in 
 er to prove tliat our national traditions rest upon 
 ;orical foundation, I may be permitted, first, to 
 lind the reader of what has previously been said — 
 k' savage tribes in America conquer and expel 
 iker ones, even in our own days; and we sliali 
 ti endeavour to discover, in the earliest tra- 
 ons of our own native land, the traces of similar 
 arrences. 
 
Cn. VI.] DWARFS, GIANTS, GOBLINS, ETC. 207 
 
 We shall begin by enquiring wliether the names 
 in the ancient traditions, dwmfs^ giants, goblins, and 
 elves, really refer to human beings, or whether they 
 denote mythical and allegorical beings, which have 
 had no historical existence. 
 
 Proofs that the Dwarfs and Pigmies of the Sagas were 
 Human Beings, that they belonged to the same 
 Race as the Laplanders of the present Day, and 
 that our Ancestors considered them to be skilled in 
 Witchcraft. 
 
 It has often been asserted that the dwarfs men- 
 tioned in the ancient Sagas were not real men, but 
 mythical and allegorical beings, meant to typify 
 certain powers and conditions of nature. This mode 
 of explanation is a very convenient one for fancy; 
 since if we can only succeed in transferring any given 
 object to the realms of fiction, we can then treat 
 it according to our own fancy, and play with it as 
 a child with its doll. 
 
 But in the description of dwarfs as given by the 
 Sagas we find too many and too distinct ethnological 
 characters to admit of any such theory. The reason for 
 supposing that the dwarfs have no historical reality is, 
 probably, in the first instance, that they are said to 
 have performed several supernatural and impossible 
 feats, or, in other words, that they practised sorcery.* 
 
 * Poets and inventors of Sagas in olden times were always in the 
 habit of embellishing their stories with extravagancies, and yet these 
 were always founded upon real events. Thus Homer describes the 
 giant Polyphemus and the Princess Circe as sorcerers ; and yet 
 
THE STONE AGE [Ch. VI. 
 
 t this does not fully entitle us to deny their 
 :orical existence. In that case not only the Lap- 
 lers in Europe, but also the whole Esquimaux 
 3 in America, ought for the same reason to be re- 
 ded as mythical and allegorical, because it is not 
 <y since that people living in their neighbourhood 
 ^eved (and possibly still believe) the former to 
 sorcerers ; and the Indian tribes in America 
 ik, even to this day, that the latter are still ac- 
 inted with the black art. This is the chief reason 
 y they wish to extirpate the Esquimaux race, 
 ■^either is it reasonable to consider the dwarfs as 
 gorical beings, merely because a great many ex- 
 i^agant things have been told about them in the 
 ;a8 ; for we ought to remember, that rude nations 
 ays relate the most exaggerated stories of people 
 on gin g to a strange race. I will endeavour to elu- 
 xte this by an example. When Mr. Mackenzie was 
 i'ellingin North America, the Esquimaux described 
 
 ois de Montp^reux, ivlio visited tlae localities where the adven- 
 s described by Homer are said to have happened 3,000 years 
 has, in our own days, shown, by local and ethnological evidence, 
 these fictions had an historical foundation ; that the Black Sea 
 its shores ■were the scene of the wanderings of Ulysses ; that 
 Greeks were rovers, like the Vikings of the North ; and that the 
 ms whom they visited during their expeditions were more 
 ised than they were themselves. (Compare Dubois, Voyage 
 ir du Caucase, vol. i. pages 60-61, and also a subsequent 
 me.) This fact is very remarkable in an ethnological point 
 iew. What was the nation that 1,200 years before Christ was 
 vilised ? Without doubt a people of Semitic race, which spread 
 isation to many regions of the earth and was also the teacher 
 le Greeks, although these in the course of time fax sui-passed 
 
Oh. VI.] DWARFS, GIANTS, GOBLINS, ETC. 200 
 
 to him certain white peoi^le (the English), who were 
 said to have a citadel on the banks of a river near 
 the west coast — in terms quite as extravagant as any 
 that are to be met with in the Sagas. The Esqui- 
 maux, for mstance, believed firmly that the white men 
 were giants; that they had wings; that they could 
 kill with a glance of then' eye, and swallow a whole 
 beaver at a mouthful. 
 
 If the dwarfs mentioned in the Sagas are to be 
 regarded as mythical beings, the English and other 
 Europeans might just as reasonably be so described; 
 and the whole white population of America might, 
 in the course of ages, come to be looked on as a 
 mere myth and allegory. 
 
 We find a counterpart to the Esquimaux descrip- 
 tion of the whites in the Saga of Olof Trygvadson, 
 relating to a couple of Finns (Laplanders), with 
 whom the fair Gunhild was staying in order to learn 
 the science of sorcery. They also could kill with 
 a glance, because when anything living encountered 
 their eye, it fell down dead at once, and when they 
 were angry, the earth recoiled at a look. They missed 
 nothing at which they aimed; they could follow 
 the trail like dogs, on frozen as well as on damp 
 ground, and they could run in snow-shoes so swiftly 
 that neither man nor beast could overtake them. 
 
 Yet this description is not in reality more ex- 
 travagant, neither does it deserve more to be looked 
 upon as a myth or allegory, than the description 
 which the Esquimaux gave of the Englishmen with 
 their gigantic stature, etc. 
 
 p 
 
210 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.V] 
 
 Scarcely anything of an uncommon character ha 
 escaped exaggeration and distortion by ignorance 
 It would be wrong to believe that nothing whicl 
 becomes thus changed, while going from mouth t( 
 mouth, ever existed in reality ; but no sensible persoi 
 will believe that it has existed or occurred exactly a; 
 it is described in our ancient tales. 
 
 In many passages of our early Sagas we are tolc 
 that the dwarfs were corporeal and human beings 
 and considered as such by the narrators themselves 
 although of another race. The dwarf Sindre, Avh( 
 dwelt in a mountain-cavern on the small island o 
 Brannon (in the province of Bohusland), had tw( 
 children, a boy and a girl, whom Thorstein Vikingsoi 
 found playing together near a brook in the island 
 In order to procure an interview with their father 
 he made some presents to the children, by whicl 
 the father, who was very fond of his children, wai 
 won over to give Thorstein the advice and assist 
 ance which he required. Thus it ii told, that when h 
 single combat, one of EigU's hands had been choppec 
 off, he met near a brook in the forest a dwarf's child 
 coming with a bowl to fetch water. Eigil dropped ! 
 gold ring into the child's bowl, for which the fathe: 
 (the dwarf), in order to prove his gratitude, in 
 vited Eigil into his mountain-cave, where he curec 
 his wound (' Eig. Saga,' page 46). In the vicinity o 
 Odin's castle (which in the Saga of Hedin and Hogn^ 
 is transferred to Asia), there lived some men skillec 
 in the art of fabricating all sorts of things. 'Sucl 
 men are called dwarfs.' ' They dwelt in caverns, bu 
 
Oh. VI.] DWARFS, GIANTS, GOBLINS, ETC. 211 
 
 at that time they had more intercourse with "men" 
 than now.' 
 
 I must remark in passing, that all rude nations 
 apply the designation 'men' to themselves only, all 
 others being differently designated. To the Green- 
 landers, Greenlanders alone, and to the Samoyedes, 
 Samoyedes alone are men. When, therefore, in any 
 Saga, dwarfs and Jotnar (giants) are mentioned in 
 contradistinction to men, it proves only that they did 
 not belong to the same race as those who narrated 
 the Saga. So it is in Didrik of Bern's Saga (chap. 
 XX.), etc. In Sturleson's 'Ynglinga Saga,' it is said: 
 'In Sweden (Suithiod) there exist several nations, 
 and sundry languages ; there are giants and there arc 
 dicarfs.' We cannot doubt that by dwarfs is here 
 meant a certain race of people. 
 
 In Thorstein Bejarmagn's Saga we are told that 
 Thorstein came once with his ship to Jemtland, 
 where he went ashore. On an open plain he saw 
 a large stone, and beside it a dreadfully savage- 
 looking dwarf wailing aloud. It appeared to Thor- 
 stein as if the dwarf's mouth was open from ear to ear. 
 'Wherefore dost thou weep?' enquired Thorstein. 
 ' Dost thou not see,' answered the dwarf, 'the large 
 eagle flying yonder? He has carried off my son, and 
 I believe that the brute has been sent by Odin. 
 I shall die if I lose my child.' The dwarf, therefore, 
 was no Odin worshipper, which indeed the Laplanders 
 never were. Thorstein shot the eagle, and brought 
 the dwarf-child unscathed to the father, who, in his 
 joy, made Thorstein a present of some magical im- 
 
 p 2 
 
312 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VI, 
 
 plements, ■which afterwards became very useful tc 
 him. 
 
 From what I have now stated, we see that the 
 dwarfs lived in mountain-caves. The Laplanders 
 likewise dwelt in similar caves during later times. 
 Mr. Hogstrom saw caverns in which they had for- 
 merly lived, in order to escape the persecutions oi 
 the Karels, In the Pitea Lapland district it is said 
 that traces are still to be found of such caverns in 
 several places. The Lapland families took shelter 
 in them, ' in order to conceal themselves from their 
 enemies, while they were ravaging the country.' 
 P. Lajstadius* narrates as follows: — 
 
 ' There is a Saga which tells us how some hostile 
 people once discovered such an earth-cavern by hear- 
 ing a woman from within calling out to somebody 
 who was in an inner room to fetch the cooking-ladle. 
 This was overheard by the enemy outside, who forth- 
 with broke in upon them, and slew those who were 
 in the cavern.' f 
 
 The Laplanders, however, now live almost generally 
 in huts, called gamniar, and there is no other people 
 
 * Forstattning af Jfigf:io)i.<:rcfoi', page 48G. 
 
 f This narrafive recalls very vividly to my mind a great many 
 Sagas in tlie south of Sweden, in which we are told of people who 
 happened to pass some mountain-crag or earth-mounds, or who had 
 laid down to rest and who overheard the cavern-people speaking in 
 tlie mound, or heard their children cry, or had peeped through a chink 
 to see what they were doing, or had seen smoke issue out of a hole in 
 tlie mound. In Scania there are several crags of which simihir 
 things are reported by tradition. Amongst others, there is the Saga 
 of Finn, who built the cathedral at Lund. 
 
Ch. VL] dwarfs, giants, goblins, etc. 213 
 
 in the world, except the Laplanders, who live in 
 such dwellings. It is therefore very elucidative of 
 our subject that at least in one of our ancient Sagas it 
 is expressly mentioned that a dwarf was living in a 
 gamm. In Didrik of Bern's Saga (chap, xvi.) we are 
 told how one day Didrik was out hunting on horse- 
 back in a forest, and that while chasing a stag, he saw 
 a dwarf running at some distance from him. He 
 hastened after him, and seized hold of him ' before he 
 had time to reach his gamin.'' The name of this 
 dwarf was Alfrik ; he was a famous thief and a great 
 artihcer. He had forged the sword Nagelring^i ^\K\Q\\ 
 was owned by Grim, whom he (the dwarf) advised 
 Didrik to challenge. 
 
 That the dwarfs, in their scattered dwellings, still 
 used stone implements, even after moi-e civilised 
 people had settled in the country, the following story 
 (told in Scania) leads us to infer : — A peasant who 
 had gone out to look for his horses, Avandered 
 about nearly the whole day without finding them. 
 Towards evening, Avhen he came into a previously 
 unfrequented tract, he met with a dwarf who was 
 working in the forest. The dwarf, on perceiving 
 the peasant close beside him, became so alarmed that 
 he immediately threw down his tools, and ran away 
 as fast as he could. The peasant then approached 
 the place where the dwarf had been, and found there 
 an axe, a chisel, and some other tools ; but he could 
 not make any use of them, ' because the dwarf, before 
 running away, had transformed them all into stone.' 
 
 This Saga contains too much genuine truth not to 
 
214 TPIE STONE AGE. [Oh. VI 
 
 be a fact. It shows the opinions held by the Gothic 
 peo]3le of the scattered dwarf race ; namely, Istly, thai 
 the dwarfs worked like other people, and had humar 
 wants to satisfy; 2ndly, that they were shy, anc 
 would run away as soon as a person of another rac( 
 appeared to them ; and, Srdly, that they could deceiv( 
 one's visual organs, and change themselves, or an] 
 other object, into what they pleased; or, in othei 
 words, they were sorcerers. To those who do no 
 believe in sorcery, this Saga only proves that th( 
 dwarf tools were not transformed into stone, but tha 
 they iccre really of stone. 
 
 We have mentioned above, that stone amulets ar( 
 still worn by the peasantry in Scandinavia, Scotland 
 and Ireland. It is clear that the Christian religion 
 during the thousand years it has been preachec 
 amongst us, has swept away most of the pagan super 
 stitions, and that, therefore, such stone amulets wer( 
 formerly much more generally worn than now.* Thai 
 
 * Some remnants of paganism may still be traced in severa 
 customs of the common people ; but being perfectly harmless, am 
 containing nothing which is oifensive to the Christian mind, thei 
 neither cast reproach on the popular teachers, nor do they neec 
 contradiction. They are, however, interesting to the historica 
 enquirer, as the ruins of a religious edifice, crumbled into dust tei 
 centuries ago, and they tell him, perhaps, much upon which histor; 
 is silent. It would be an interesting undertaking, and one at thi 
 same time of considerable importance in its results, to collect all th- 
 remnants of popular customs which have their root in paganism 
 I shall here state one instance. 
 
 Those who have travelled in the south of Sweden, and perhaps u 
 other countries, have no doubt often observed a mound of stone 
 piled up, and near it a wooden cross, bearing an inscription informinj 
 the traveller that such or such a person has perished by somi 
 
Oh. VI.] LIFE-STONES, VIOTOllY-STONES, ETC. 215 
 
 such is the case we are told ui our ancient Sagas. In 
 them are mentioned life-stones^ victory -stones^ etc., 
 which the Gothic warriors carried about with them 
 in battle, in order to secure victory. In Didrik of 
 Bern's Saga, chapter xxv., it is related that King 
 Nidung gathered a large warlike host, with which he 
 mai'ched against his enemies. He was only one day's 
 march distant from the hostile army, expecting to do 
 battle on the following day, when he discovered that 
 he had forgotten his victory-stone^ which he had left 
 at home. ' This stone was an heir-loom in his flimily, 
 having passed from father to son during many gene- 
 rations, and it possessed the virtue of ensuring victory 
 
 accident near the spot. This heap of stones is the pagan cairn, 
 beside which Christianity has planted its cross. 
 
 I remember well how astonished I was in my childhood when I 
 saw old men amongst the peasantry never daring to wallc or to ride 
 past such places until they had found a stone to throw upon the 
 heap. If no stone could be found, they took pieces of wood, brandies 
 of trees, or twigs of bushes, or such like, to throw upon it, since it was 
 held to be a sacred duty that the cairn should be in some way 
 increased. But why ? This they could not themselves explain. 
 The only answer that I could obtain from them was, that some 
 mischance would befall them if they neglected this duty. This 
 ancient custom is, however, now less conscientiously observed. 
 
 May we not reasonably conclude that this practice, whicli has 
 fallen very much into disuse during the last fifty or sixty years, was 
 held more sacred one or more centuries ago, and that it was honoured 
 most particularly during pagan times ? And may we not be certain, 
 that the large cairns, which date from that period, and which are 
 found lying for the most part near the more public roads, "were not 
 raised at once, but were built up by degrees by the passers-by ? 
 I remember having read somewhere, that it was considered as 
 honouring the dead to increase his cairn with one or more stones. 
 See Note 10. 
 
216 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. V 
 
 to him who carried it in the fight.' The king, dreadin 
 to lose the battle if he had not his victory-stone aboi 
 him, especially as his army was weaker in numerici 
 force than his adversary's, promised the hand of h 
 daughter, together with a third of his kingdom, 1 
 him who should bring him this valuable stone befoj 
 the commencement of the battle. Valent, the a 
 mourer, rode back to fetch the stone; he gave it 1 
 the king, who thereupon attacked the enemy and wc 
 the battle. 
 
 In the ninety-sixth chapter of this Saga there is 
 still more elucidative narrative concerning such 
 victory -stone. Ditlew, a youthful champion from Ti 
 matorp, in Scania,* encountered an old warrior, Sigui 
 by name, in single combat. Towards evening, Sigui 
 became fatigued, and observed that he had left h 
 victory-stone at home. He therefore invited Ditle 
 home with him to spend the night in his house, s 
 Ihat they might continue the fight on the foUowin 
 day. Here Ditlew made the acquaintance of Sigurd 
 brave daughter Gunhild, and they forthwith fell i 
 love with each other. Old Sigurd, as soon as 1 
 entered his house, hung his victory-stone round h 
 neck ; but having drunk deeply during the night, 1 
 fell into a heavy sleep. Gunhild then stole the stor 
 from her father, and gave it to her sweetheart. "VVhc 
 the combat was renewed on the following day, Sigui 
 received three wounds, whereupon he owned himse 
 vanquished. 
 
 * Now Tomerup, or Tomarp, a hamlet of Gladsax, formerly 
 town of some importance. 
 
Cn. VI.] CHAEAOTER ASCRIBED TO DWARFS. 217 
 
 It follows from this, first, that the amulets which 
 the warriors carried about with them in order that 
 they might be victorious were of stone ; secondly, that 
 they were worn on a string, or strap, rowid the neck. 
 
 We find in collections several other stones, which 
 appear to have been worn as victory- stones ; e.g. a 
 hammer-stone with an iron hoop and loop.* 
 
 Among other qualities, the dwarfs were supposed to 
 have the power of rendering themselves invisible. In 
 the Swedish, as well as in the Danish folk-sagas, there 
 are often narratives of how the goblins (as the dwarfs 
 are sometimes called f ) attended a wedding, but in- 
 visibly, and ate all the food of the guests. 
 
 In the vicinity of Romeleklint, in Scania, where 
 formerly many tales were told about pigmies who 
 dwelt in tbe Mint (crag), it is also narrated, that 
 whenever the dinner-bell was rung in Heckeberga 
 Hall, the goblins ran thither from the crag and carried 
 off all the eatables prepared for the inmates. As this 
 was of constant occurrence, the family was ultimately 
 reduced to great poverty. 
 
 An exactly similar story is related by Sturleson in 
 his 'King's Sagas' (vol. i. page 79). We are there 
 told that King Halfdan Svarte (the Black) one day 
 was a Yule guest in Hadeland, and that on Christmas- 
 eve, while at supper, and a great many guests being 
 assembled, all the eatables and drinkables suddenly 
 
 * Urinv&narne, first edition, PI. XII. fig. 154. 
 
 \ Goblin is an appellation which seems generally to be applied to 
 those who did not belong to the Svea (Asa) or Gothic race. They 
 might thus belong as well to the Jotna as the dwarf race, though 
 mostly to the latter. 
 
218 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. V 
 
 disappeared from the banquet-tables. The king sa 
 sorrowfully in his seat, whilst all the guests returne( 
 to their respective homes. 
 
 In order to learn who had played him this unplea 
 sant trick, the king ordered a Finn (Laplander), wh( 
 Avas much skilled in witchcraft, to be seized, and h( 
 had him tortured in sundry ways to compel him t( 
 reveal the truth ; but he revealed nothing. The Fini 
 then made his escape, and with him fled the king's 
 son, Harold, then ten years old. On their flight thej 
 came to the dwelling of a chieftain (without doubt £ 
 Finn chieftain), by whom they were well received, 
 and with whom they remained until the foUowino 
 spring. One day the chieftain said to Harold : ' Thy 
 father was very wroth that I took some victuals from 
 him last winter; but I will now make amends by 
 telling thee some good news. Thy father is dead, 
 and now thou shalt return home and take the kinar- 
 dom which was his ; and I will give to thee besides 
 the whole of Norway to reign over.' 
 
 It was therefore, as we see, the Finn chief who, 
 ■with the assistance of the Laplanders, had enchanted 
 away the viands from the Yule-board. This Saga 
 and its solution thus explain also how the sorcery 
 at Romeleklint was managed. Nearly similar witch- 
 eries, now generally called thefts, are said to be still 
 practised amongst those Norwegians who live in the 
 neighbourhood of the mountain-ridofes, alone which 
 the Laplanders wander with their reindeer herds. 
 The Laplanders — at least, many of them — are still 
 believed to be as thievish, cunning, and skilled in 
 
Cn. VI.] LAPLANDERS AND DWARFS. 219 
 
 witchcraft as formerly. Everybody who Avishes to 
 do so, can easily convince himself that stories similar 
 to those which are told in the old Sagas about Finns, 
 dwarfs, and goblins, and which are still told by the 
 country people in the south of Sweden, of pigmies 
 and goblins who formerly dwelt in such and such 
 a mountain-district, are related even to this day by 
 the peasants in the northern parts of Norway of the 
 Finn Laplanders. The locality has been changed, 
 but the scene is the same, with the difference only 
 which a different degree of civilisation must create. 
 
 It is possible that against a comparison between the 
 Laplanders of the present day and the dwarfs of 
 ancient times, the objection may be raised that the 
 Laplanders from time immemorial have been a nomad 
 race, leading a roving life with their reindeer herds ; 
 but that it is never related in the Sagas that the 
 dwarfs owned any reindeer. This objection would 
 only betray very little acquaintance with the real facts, 
 which are these, that the Laplanders, fi-om being 
 originally only hunters and fishermen, did not be- 
 come nomads and owners of reindeer herds until 
 some centuries after the Christian era. Procopius 
 describes the migratory Finns, which evidently are 
 Laplanders, not as nomads, but as roving hunters. 
 Paulus Yamefredi, who lived in the eighth century, 
 speaks of them also as being only a tribe of hunters, 
 and Tacitus, who wrote his ' Germania ' towards the 
 close of the first century, knew also that Fenni 
 (evidently the Finns of the Saga) were wild huntsmen, 
 and the most savage of all the tribes which had come 
 
220 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. \ 
 
 under his notice. The picture which he draws ' 
 them is classical but exaggerated, and it is easy to s( 
 that the materials were supplied to him by some tril 
 hostile to the Fenni. He says : ' Amongst the Feni 
 great barbarism exists, and a disgusting poverty ; the 
 possess neither arms, horses, nor dwellings. The 
 food is herbs, their clothing skins, their bed tl 
 ground. Their only dependence is on their arrow 
 Avhich, for want of iron, they arm with a bone poin 
 The chase is the support of the women as well as ( 
 the men ; for they hunt in common, and divide tl 
 spoil between them. Their children have no otlu 
 protection against wild beasts and storms than a hov^ 
 made of the branches of trees. This is the resort ( 
 youth, this is the receptacle of old age; yet the 
 consider this manner of living happier than groanin 
 over the plough, toiling in the erection of houses, c 
 subjecting their o^vn fortunes and those of others 1 
 the agitations of alternate hope and fear. Havir 
 nothing to fear from man, nothing to hope from tl 
 gods, they have attained that, which is most difficu 
 to gain, namely, that they have not even a wish.'* 
 
 We see thus, that the Fenni were even at that tin 
 a tribe despised and detested by the Germanic rac 
 holding about the same relation to the Germans i 
 that which the Esquimaux of the present day hold i 
 the Indian tribes of North America. f ( See Chap. \ 
 We see, further, that they had no reindeer, th 
 they were not nomads, but subsisted solely \ 
 their arrows (' sola in sagittis spes '). So it was aL 
 * Tacitus, O'eni. xlvi. -j- See Note 11. 
 
Ch. VI.] THE DWARFS A LAPLAND RACE. 221 
 
 in Scandinavia previous to the immigrations of more 
 cultivated tribes. Consequently, the dwarfs, driven 
 out from amongst the people and leading an isolated 
 life, could not have had any reindeer. It is not 
 known with certainty in what century the Laplanders 
 here in Scandinavia first began their nomad life. We 
 find, however, from many passages in the earliest 
 history, and in the Sagas, that this people, even after 
 having been expelled from the southern and also from 
 the central part of Sweden by more powerful ti'ibes, 
 enjoyed for a considerable period a much higher re- 
 putation (for instance, in central Norway) than now. 
 They had their own chiefs and their own popular assem- 
 blies. The daughters of their chiefs Avere occasion- 
 ally married to men of the Gothic race. The mother 
 of Orvar Odd's father was a Lapland woman, for 
 Orvar was a son of Grim Lodikin, and he was a son 
 of the niece of the Finn cliief Guse by Kettil Hang. 
 Kettil Hang seems also to have descended from the 
 same race, because he was the son of Halbji3rn, sur- 
 named HalftroU (Half-goblin), which shows that his 
 mother was descended from a goblin {troll) race. 
 Harold Harfager was, according to Sturleson, married 
 to Snafrid, * the daughter of the Finn (Laplander?) 
 Svase. 
 
 * In the title of the Saga, Svase i.s called Jotun, but in the Saga 
 itself Finne. That this last was the right name, we are led to infer 
 from his daughter Snafrid being expressly called ' the Finn-woman.' 
 The king, when he became aware of her witchcraft, was roused to such 
 violent, anger, that he drove away her sons fi-om liim. We see by 
 her being able to practise ' Seid,' that she was a Lapland woman, and 
 we also find by Thiodolfer's words to the king (that he ought not to 
 
222 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 In addition to what I have ah-eady adduced in proof 
 of the dwarfs of the Saga being people, and of the 
 same race as the Laplanders, I will here add the 
 following. The dwarfs, or, as they are commonly 
 called in the Sagas, mountain-pigmies, or goblins, are 
 always represented as having formerly dwelt in moun- 
 tain-caverns, crags, or hillocks, i.e. earthen mounds, 
 mostly in solitary tracts, and generally in the vici- 
 nity of water. They were little and ugly, and were 
 of both sexes. They had children, and sometimes ser- 
 vants. They were believed to possess large trea- 
 sures, mostly silver and copper (' as rich as a goblin ' 
 is still a proverb among the peasantry). They were 
 very thievish, and frequently visited the farm-houses 
 and country seats in order to steal, especially victuals, 
 ale, and such like. Sometimes they wanted to borrow 
 some things, and they then approached the houses of 
 the country-people, in the evening, to ask for them; 
 they never dared to pass the threshold, but stood 
 outside the house, calling in a loud voice for what 
 they wanted. They generally sent one or two of 
 their children on such an errand. If what they asked 
 
 despise his sons by Sniifrid, ' because they \vould willingly liave had 
 a better and nobler lineage by the mother's side, if thou hadst let them') 
 that Sniifrid belonged to a despised race. But the Jotna race was 
 not despised ; Odin himself married Shade, the daughter of a Jotne, 
 and through many of his chief warriors he endeavoured to befriend 
 this powerful race. It may, however, seem strange, tliat if Sniifrid 
 was of the ugly Laplander race, she could so captivate or enchant 
 the powerful Harold Harfager by her beauty, as is related in his 
 Saga. I may, however, observe, that the Lapland girls are not always 
 ugly ; on the contrary, even at the present time we occasionally 
 meet with some who are very pretty. 
 
Oh. VI.] THE DWARFS A LAPLAND RACE. 220 
 
 for was given to them, it was always found lying early 
 in the morning, a few days after, in the same place, 
 and beside it, as a gratuity for the loan, a silver coin, 
 or something else of value. They held no social 
 intercourse with ' human beings,' but only with each 
 other. They frequently gave feasts, celebrated wed- 
 dings, etc., to which the goblins from other moun- 
 tain-crags were invited. They were cowardly; they 
 shunned man and daylight. 
 
 Although, at first sight, all this may be regarded as 
 mere superstition, it has, nevertheless, its root far 
 down in the most remote antiquity, which can easily be 
 shown by ancient Sagas. The ancient original hatred 
 to the dwarfs (mountain -goblins), Avhich manifests 
 itself in the oldest Sagas, telling how they were per- 
 secuted, shot through with red-hot arrows, cut to 
 pieces with axes, etc., has died away in the later 
 national Sagas. In them they figure mostly as a 
 degraded race, often thievish and dangerous, often 
 generous and beneficent, but with whom, nevertheless, 
 nobody wished to become legally more closely united. 
 I infer from all this, that when the Indo- Germanic 
 people, now inhabiting the greatest part of the country, 
 settled here, there remained of the Lapland race in 
 the south of Sweden a few households, living isolated 
 in remote districts. It was only in Norway, and 
 especially in its more northern parts, that they still 
 formed a united people, having their chiefs and hold- 
 iag their popular meetings. 
 
 In order to complete the evidence, that the dwarfs 
 of the Saga and the pigmies of popular tradition 
 
224 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 belonged to the same race as the Laplanders of the 
 present day, I mil here sketch the outlines of a 
 parallel between them : — * 
 
 1. The Laplanders are ugly and short, just as the 
 dwarfs of the Sagas are represented to be. 
 
 2. The Laplanders are clothed in a grey reindeer- 
 kirtle, and they wear a blue or red cap. The pigmies 
 are also so described in the Sagas. (Compare Thiele's 
 ' Danske Folkesagn,' vol. i. page 122 ; vol. ii. page 3.) 
 
 3. The Laplanders, for instance, in Norway, speak 
 the language of the country very badly. When the 
 Norwegians imitate the Laplanders, it is done nearly 
 in the same way as when the Danish peasant imitates 
 the pigmy. (Thiele, vol. i. page 114.) 
 
 4. The Laplanders are cowardly, they are unfit to 
 be soldiers. The dwarfs of the Sagas are represented 
 as exceedingly cowardly. When they see a human 
 being, they try to steal away. A child can van- 
 quish them. An, a child twelve years old, compelled 
 the dwarf Lit to forge arrows for him. 
 
 5. The Laplandei's are considered to be cunning 
 and deceitful. In Norway it was a saying, that if a 
 merchant wished to keep the custom of a Laplander, 
 he must cheat him a little, and let him know it at 
 parting. In order to be revenged, the Laplander 
 would return again; but if he had succeeded in 
 
 * I need scarcely observe, that the question here is less what the 
 Laplanders are, than what they are considered to he, and how they 
 are represented by their neighbours. Whether they, in reality, have 
 all the faults which national hatred attributes to them, is not the 
 subject of this disquisition. 
 
Ch. VI.] IDENTITY OF DWARFS WITH LAPLANDERS. 22.> 
 
 cheating the merchant, he would return no more. 
 This characteristic feature we find also in the dwarfs 
 of tlie Sagas. They are cunning, sly, deceitful, and 
 thievish. 
 
 6. The Laplanders are skilful; they are even able 
 to manufacture their own rifles. The skill of the 
 dwarfs as craftsmen is spoken of in many Sagas. 
 
 7. The Laplanders delight in collecting glittering- 
 metals, especially silver. They do not willingly re- 
 ceive any other than silver coin. Many an old 
 avaricious Laplander is thought to have concealed 
 his silver in some out-of-the-way place amongst the 
 mountains, kno^vn only to himself, Avhere he pays now 
 and then a visit. The dwarfs are also spoken of in 
 the Saga as beino; rich in silver. 
 
 8. It was thought that the dwarfs were skilled in 
 sorcery ; the same was believed of the Laplanders. 
 They were aware of this, and threatened to ' sdtta gan 
 V (bewitch) those who did not give them what they 
 asked for. We hear also occasionally, in the south of 
 Sweden, Lappskott^ etc., sjjoken of. The Laplanders 
 were, and are still, considered by many to be a weird 
 race of sorcerers. 
 
 9. The Lapland race is considered inferior to, and is 
 despised by, the Goths living in their neighbourhood. 
 In consequence of this hereditary hatred between the 
 tribes, a Swede or a Norwegian rarely marries a Lap- 
 land woman. Mr. P. Lsestadius, although a great friend 
 of the Laplanders, says : ' The races appear to be so 
 distinctly divided from each other, that it seems to be 
 repugnant even to physical nature to unite them.' 
 
226 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VI. 
 
 10. The Laplanders therefore marry and hold feasts 
 only amongst themselves, as was the case with the 
 mountain-pigmies . 
 
 This comparison might be carried much farther, 
 and even into the smallest details ; but what I have 
 already adduced may suffice to prove that the dwarfs 
 of ancient times and the Laplanders of our own day 
 are identical. 
 
 Having proved that the dwarfs of the ancient Saga 
 were men, we will now endeavour to show the same 
 of the Jotnar^ or giants, of the ancient Saga, though 
 they belonged to a different race. 
 
 All nations make their own stature the scale by 
 which they measure the stature of others. Certain, 
 therefore, as it is, that it must have been a race of 
 low stature which gave the epithet of giants (Jotnar) 
 to another race, it is equally certain that it must 
 have been a tall race which gave to another the epi- 
 thet of dwarfs. Consequently, the giants need not have 
 been taller than people in general of Celtic, Germanic, 
 or Gothic races, in order to have been called giants 
 by a dwarf race such as the Laplanders or Esqui- 
 maux. We can prove this by examples. In Ikare- 
 sarsuk, in the district of Fredrikshaabs, in Greenland, 
 an ancient Saga still exists amongst the Greenlanders, 
 which evidently has some connection with the fall 
 and ruin of the ancient Norwegian colony there. 
 Thus, it is related that a Greenlander, by name 
 Poviak, had once upon a time come up amongst the 
 mountains, and there met accidentally with two 
 
Ch. YL] 'JOTNAR; or giants. 2-27 
 
 Avomen of supernatural stature, who lived in the 
 interior of the country. They seized hold of him 
 and cari'ied him along with them. After having 
 lived with them for some time, it happened one day 
 that they all three came down to the seashore toge- 
 ther, at the moment when several travelling Green- 
 landers had landed. Poviak called out to his country- 
 men, who hastened to his assistance. The women 
 tried to escape, but only one of them succeeded in 
 getting away ; the other was taken, and carried off 
 by the Greenlanders. They took her on board one of 
 their women's boats, but she was so tall and strong, 
 that every one of her movements threatened to upset 
 the boat. She thenceforth resided amongst the Green- 
 landers, until she gave birth to a child, which cost 
 her her life.* 
 
 This national Saga amongst the Greenlanders, in 
 connection with the tale of the Esquimaux, referred 
 to before (page 208), about the 'gigantic' English- 
 men in -North America, proves, beyond a doubt, that 
 the Sagas of giants have originated amongst a race of 
 short stature. And as we know that there never 
 has been found in Europe any other dwarfish race 
 of people than the Laplanders, it follows that the 
 notions about, and the epithet of, Jotnar (giants) 
 have emanated from them ; and since wp know, be- 
 sides, that there never has existed in Europe a race 
 of larger stature than the Goths, Svear, and those 
 whom we in Sweden call Finns {alias Quanes), it fol- 
 lows that these races (either one or all of them) were 
 
 * Nordish Tidskriftfor Oldkyndighet, vol. ii. page 324. 
 a2 
 
228 THE STONE AGE. [Ch- "VI. 
 
 the Jotnar of the polar race ; and hence follows one 
 circumstance which seems not to have been noticed 
 hitherto, namel}^, that all our ancient Sagas about 
 ' Jotnar' have originally emanated from the dwarf race 
 — the Laplanders. But if such be the case, then there 
 must still exist amongst the Laplanders Sagas about 
 Jotnar in which the dwarf peoples have expressed their 
 opinion of their gigantic conquerors, j ust as the notions 
 of these latter about the Laplanders are illustrated by 
 their Sagas about the dwarfs. According to the accounts 
 of Mr. LaBstadius* there are still a great many giant 
 Sagas current amongst the Laplanders. The funda- 
 mental features are the same in them all; t\i& jotna 
 (giant) is there described as being unwieldy, large and 
 strong, but awkward and stupid when compai'ed with 
 the cunning Laplander, who, of course, arrogates the 
 epithet, the honour, and the dignity of ' human being ' 
 (man), and who always cheats the simple giant into 
 whose hands he happens to fall.f It does not follow, 
 that because the giant in the Lapland Sagas is repre- 
 sented as being a cannibal, he was one in reality, 
 but merely that the childishly timid Laplander had 
 a panic terror of him. J The giant in the Lapland 
 Saga is called stallo., or jatton, and he wh.o dupes him 
 is called 'man.' This latter is frequently a cun- 
 ning boy, who is called ' Askovis' — an epithet which, 
 
 * Fortsattniiig (if Jourii., pago 4G0. 
 
 I The Greoulander also ridicules the European on the sly, and 
 considers his manners awkward and simple. "What the opinion of 
 the Laplander is now upon this subject I am not aw^are. 
 
 \ Compare, however, Xord. foriiij. Saga, vol. ii. page 107. 
 
On. VI.l '.TOTXAR; OR OIAMS. 220 
 
 according to LfBstadius, has been imported by settlers. 
 Such an Askovis, whom we will call simply a T^ap- 
 lander, had once fallen into the hands of a giant. 
 One day, when they were abroad together, the Lap- 
 lander pretended that he saw a great many things 
 happening at a great distance, of which he informed 
 the giant. The giant, who of course could see nothing 
 of all this, wondered what made the Laplander so 
 clear-sighted. The Laplander made him believe that 
 one became so by pouring melted lead iii one's eyes. 
 The stupid giant believes it. After becoming blind 
 from the cure, he endeavours to catch the Laplander, 
 who, however, deceives him, and gets away from him 
 in the same manner as Ulysses from the cave of 
 Polyphemus.* 
 
 It is the same in all our giant Sagas ; inferior 
 weakness vanquishing superior physical force by cun- 
 ning. This fundamental idea pervades all giant 
 Sagas, amongst what people soever they may be 
 current ; and if we consider the matter more closely, 
 we shall find this trait of character psychologically 
 true, founded upon human nature, and therefore 
 common to all. 
 
 The reason why such giant and dwarf Sagas, so 
 very similar, should have been invented amongst so 
 many races differing so materially one from the other, 
 is no doubt this, that each of these races has occa- 
 sionally, in the course of time, while in a state of 
 barbarism, come into hostile contact Avith some other 
 
 * The story -will be found in Lsestadius, Fortsattning af Jown., 
 page 463. 
 
2.^0 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI, 
 
 race, either larger or smaller than itself. We may 
 safely conclude that this must have been the case, 
 not only in Europe, but in all quarters of the world, 
 because races of diverse statures are found in them 
 all, and these races were of course formerly far less 
 mixed than they are now. And we may be sure, 
 that where such hostile meetings did take place, 
 Sagras more or less resemblinoj ours must also have 
 arisen. 
 
 1 have shown, on page 217, § 1, how dwarf Sagas 
 have been invented, and on page 208 I have shown, by 
 historical facts, how the English in North America 
 have given rise to giant Sagas amongst the Esqui- 
 maux dwarf people there. Something similar has 
 occurred in the Old World. 
 
 How easily an excited imagination can create 
 exaggerated forms, is proved by the following his- 
 torical fact. When jMoses was wandering through 
 the desert with the Israelites, who went out of Egypt 
 after having lived there in a state of bondage, and 
 when arrived in the desert of Paran, he sent spies 
 into Canaan, in order to procure information of the 
 fertility of the country, the number of its inhabitants, 
 the strength of its to-wns, etc. The spies returned, 
 after the lapse of forty days, with the report that, 
 amongst others, there were also living ' Anakims' (the 
 children of Anak), 'and,' added the messengers, 'we 
 were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we 
 Avere in their sight.' 
 
 Hearing this report, 'all the congregation lifted up 
 their voice, and cried ; and the people wept that night. 
 
Cn. VI.] EVIDENCE FROM SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 231 
 
 And all the children of Israel murmured against Moses 
 and against Aaron;'* and they were so frightened, 
 that they wished to return to Egyptian bondage 
 rather than face these formidable giants. 
 
 Thus much Holy Writ tells us ; but what it does 
 not say, and what, nevertheless, we may take for 
 granted, is that in a rude and timorous people, 
 where such a foolish panic is created by the mere 
 mention of a tall race, imagination must also create 
 exaggerated and ludicrous images, and these, being 
 handed down from generation to generation, became 
 ultimately the giant-Sagas of ancient times. Several 
 passages in the Bible show that the Anakims were 
 looked upon as giants. ' And the land of the children 
 of Ammon also was accounted a land of giants ; giants 
 dwelt therein in old times.' They were 'a people 
 great, and many, and tall, as the Analdms.'f In the 
 desert of the Moabites ' the Emims dwelt in times 
 past, a people great, and many, and tall, as the 
 Anakims.' I 
 
 These giants, the Anakims, were the same people 
 as the Philistines, and of Phoenician origin. Joshua 
 vanquished them several times, and destroyed them 
 in the interior mountain districts of Hebron, Debir, 
 and Anab (Josh. xi. 21), and they remained only in 
 the coast districts, in Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod.§ Thus, 
 then, Joshua extirpated the giants of Canaan, as Asa 
 Thor did those of Scandinavia. 
 
 * Num. xiii. 83; xiv. 1,2. f Deut. ii. 20, 21. ' 
 
 \ Deut. ii. 10. § Philistine cities. 
 
■2:VJ THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 The same scene which took place amongst the 
 Israelites on the borders of Canaan, out of fear of the 
 Anakim giants, was enacted in the Roman camp, Avhen 
 Ca3sar marched against the giant people, the Ger- 
 mans, under Ariovistus. When Ctesar had arrived at 
 Besangon, a report was spread by Gauls * and mer- 
 chants throughout the Roman army of the gigantic 
 size of the Germans. This caused such a panic 
 amongst the officers and soldiers, that many of the 
 former returned home, under one pretence or an- 
 other, and those who did not dare to ask for furlough, 
 ' wept and groaned in their tents.' They all made their 
 wills ; terror seized even veteran soldiers and chiefs.f 
 It is scarcely possible to read the historical account 
 of tlicse events without feeling convinced that they 
 would give rise, amongst the lower classes of people, 
 to all kinds of exaggerated Sagas; and, knowing this, 
 it is also impossible to read Sagas about giants with- 
 out seeing that tliey are founded upon some such 
 occurrence. 
 
 From what has now been said, it is evident that 
 the Sagas about giants and dwarfs (which epithets 
 are relative, because the one could not exist without 
 the other) are not a mere play of fancy, but have an 
 historical foundation, although a frightened imagina- 
 tion has exaggerated and clothed them in the garb of 
 fiction. 
 
 ♦ This does not prove that the Gauls were a very large people, 
 at least, not like the Germans, although taller than the Romans. 
 (Cses. de Bell. Gall. ii. 30.) 
 
 t Ca?s. de Bell. Gall. i. 39. 
 
Ch. VI.] GIANT AXD DWARF SAGAS. 2S3 
 
 And consequentl}' : — 
 
 1. The Philistines were the giants of the Israel- 
 ites, and these were the dwarfs of the former. 
 
 2. The Cimbrians were the giants of the Greek 
 adventurers, and these were the dwarfs of the former.* 
 
 3. The Germans and the Celts were the giants of 
 the Komans, and these were their dwarfs. 
 
 4. Icelanders, Normans, Englishmen, and others, 
 were the giants of the Greenland and North American 
 Esquimaux, and these latter were their skralingar, 
 i.e. dwarfs, etc. 
 
 We can easily see in every giant and dwarf Saga 
 whether it has emanated from the dwarf or from the 
 tall race: because the race amongst which it origi- 
 nated always styles itself ' man' (human being), and 
 considers itself only to be of the proper size; the 
 strange race is always described, when the Saga has 
 been invented by the large size, as being wretchedly 
 small and weak, and when by the small people, as 
 being enoi'mously bulky and strong. The stronger 
 race boasts of its strength, and treats the weaker one 
 with insolent contempt : thus Thor kicked the dwarfs 
 into Balder's funeral pile ; the Anakims of Canaan 
 despised the Israelites as grasshoppers ; and the Gaul 
 looked down with contempt upon the smaller-sized 
 Roman. •!■ 
 
 * Od)/ss. ix. 105-230 ; 231-566. Dubois de Montpereux has 
 shown that the Cyclopes, on the coast of the Bosphorus, pointed out 
 by Homer as frightfiil giants, hurling huge pieces of rook at the 
 Grecian ships, were a gigantic nomad race of Cimbrians, and the 
 Greeks adventurers comparable to the Vikings of the North. 
 
 + Cffis. de Bell. Gall. ii. 30. 
 
234 THE STONE AGE. [Ce. VI. 
 
 Those, on the other hand, who in physical strength 
 are inferior to their gigantic oppressors, avenge them- 
 selves by calling them awkward and stupid, and ar- 
 rogate to themselves greater intellect and cunning: 
 thus, Ulysses in the cave of Polyphemus ; thus, the 
 Eoman smiHng at the simplicity of the Gaul, when 
 he makes it the subject of a proverb;* thus, the 
 Greenlander, who, behind his back, smiles at the awk- 
 ward and simple European;! thus, 'Askovis,' and, 
 indeed, everybody who, under the name of 'man,' 
 appears in a giant Saga. 
 
 With regard to the giants (Jotnar) of the Scandi- 
 navian Saga, they belonged to a gigantic tribe who 
 worshipped the god Thor. 
 
 We know that the statues of the gods in the heathen 
 temples were painted wooden images, clothed in their 
 costumes, and provided with their attributes. Thor's 
 figure was very large, | and he had a red beard; he 
 was frequently called the Bed-bearded One, or Red 
 Beard, by friend as well as by foe. As we may as- 
 sume with certainty that the god was a representa- 
 tive of the people amongst whom his worship first 
 arose (because every people creates its god after its 
 own image), we have, then, here two ethnological 
 marks of recognition for ascertaining the origin of 
 Thor. Thor's people were of large stature, and had 
 red hair and beard, and consequently blue eyes. 
 
 * Camd. Brit, page 2. 
 
 •f According to the verbal statement of a Dane who has resided 
 a considerable time in Greenland. 
 
 I Olofthe Holy's Saga, chap, cx-yiii. and others. 
 
Ch. VI.] THOR WORSHIP. 2;W 
 
 According to authentic accounts, there are still 
 many Finnish tribes dwelling in the interior of 
 Kussia, and these are divided into two main branches, 
 of which one has red hair and blue eyes, and much 
 resembles Finns (Quanes) and Esthonians,* namely, 
 the Bjormer (Permians), Sirans, the Obi Ostiaks,f 
 Yotiaks, and Tschuwaschers ; | and what, in connection 
 herewith, deserves our attention, is that, at any rate 
 amongst some of these tribes, God is even to this day 
 called Thor. Pallas informs us, in ' Zoographia Rosso- 
 Asiatica,' vol. i. page 529, that the swallow is called 
 by the Beresow Ostiaks Torom sischH, which signifies 
 God's bird, and at Irtis it is called Toromvoi, God's 
 animal. Erman relates, in his ' Reise um die Welt,' 
 vol. i. page 700, that the Ostiaks, which are a tall, well- 
 built, handsome people, call God Torium (page 677) or 
 Torum (page 699), which means with them the Su- 
 preme Being. Also the Votiaks are tall, broad-shoul- 
 dered, and powerful men, with hair and beard red 
 (page 253). The TschuAvaschers call God Tora^ and 
 the god of thunder and weather of the Esthonian 
 Finns was Tara.\ 
 
 Hence we may be induced to suppose that the name 
 of Thor, and his worship, were introduced into Scan- 
 dinavia, and spread amongst the inhabitants, by some 
 
 * Portraits of Esthonians are given by Kruse in his Necrolivonica. 
 
 t Ostiaks and Vuguls, who dwell on both sides of the Ural 
 mountain-chain, are of the same original race, but the one is dark 
 and the other red-haired. (Prichard, vol. iii. page 214.) 
 
 X Eask, Om den nordiske Sprogs oprindelse, pages 96, 97, after 
 Dobrowsky. 
 
 § Geij. Sv. Rih. Hafd., vol. i. page 290, note 3. 
 
230 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 Finnish tribe; but we may likewise remember that 
 Thor was also worshipped by the Goths, and that the 
 national tales relate that he had conflicts with the 
 diminutive aborigines anterior to the time of Odin. 
 To this class of prehistoric Sagas belong also all Sagas 
 of Thor, still living on the hps of the common people 
 in the south of Sweden, and all relating to the 
 period preceding the introduction of the Walhalla 
 worship in Scandinavia. 
 
 In all our national Sagas about Thor, his conflicts 
 with goblins and pigmies are therefore related, and as 
 a remembrance thereof, thunder and lightning are still 
 called Thordon in the whole of the south of Sweden. 
 When a child, I often heard old people say, when 
 there was a thunderstorm, that Thor was driving his 
 carriage through the clouds, striking the goblins with 
 his lightning.* "When the thunder was rolling con- 
 tinuously, they said : ' Noav he f is in a hurry to chase 
 the goblins ; ' and the goblins were always unagined to 
 be pigmies dwelling in mountains, in hollow trees, 
 earthen mounds, etc. Formerly, it was proverbial 
 that ' if there were to be no thunderstorms, the world 
 would be destroved by goblins.' When I was a child, 
 I often heard old people say : ' It thunders much less 
 now than formerly, because most of the goblins are 
 now killed.' How small the goblins, which Thor Avas 
 chasing, were sometimes represented to be, we can 
 infer from the following. When a violent thunder- 
 
 * I have never heard it said that he slew giants. 
 f Without mentioning Thor's name, the people merely said ' he,' 
 or ' he, the old one.' 
 
Ch. VI.] WALHALLA AVORSHIP. 237 
 
 storm was. raging, and the harvest-labourers were 
 overtaken by showers of rain, the peasant-women did 
 not venture to cover their heads with the skirts of 
 their gowns (as they always did in rain), for fear that 
 the goblins should hide themselves therein. 1'his 
 did occasionally happen, but the woman had then 
 been warned by some strange voice, and had dropped 
 the skirt of her goA\Ti, when the goblin, falling out, 
 rolled like a ball of thread along the field, and was 
 instantly killed by lightning. 
 
 When the Walhalla worship was introduced into 
 Scandinavia, the Thor worship was the one most gene- 
 rally spread, although not the only religion.* But it 
 was politically important and prudent on the part of 
 the Asar,f a princely priest- caste, who settled here on 
 the borders of the Malar Lake, and who had brought 
 with them Odin's Walhalla worship, to unite in 
 themselves all the gods of the country, in order to be 
 enabled to rule ,all the difi"erent tribes. J The more 
 ancient gods of the country were therefore adopted as 
 Odin's sons. And as the Goths, who were worship- 
 pers of Thor, § were a numerous, probably the most 
 
 * There was also a Baal-Balder worship. 
 
 f Under this name I comprehend those priests who introduced 
 the Walhalla worship of Odin, and of whom I shall say more in 
 the treatise on the Iron Age. 
 
 f The Eomans did the same ; the gods of the conquered nations 
 were received amongst their own gods. 
 
 § Demonstrable by the historically true traditions. (See below.) 
 That the Thor worship is very ancient, and arose amongst a people 
 who were in a low stage of civilisation, we can infer from Thor's 
 war weapon, which was a hammer (' malleus sax.^) or club {clava 
 
238 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI, 
 
 numerous people,* Thor was pronounced, to be the 
 first-born of Odin ; f and in order to flatter tbe power- 
 ful tribe whose god be was, his image was placed in 
 the cbief seat in Odin's principal temple in Upsala, 
 where Odin| (the principal god of the race which 
 had last immigrated) stood on one side, and the 
 Vendian god Fricco, or Freyr, on the other. § 
 
 Many passages in the ancient Sagas seem to inti- 
 mate tbat the Asa race, immediately on its arrival in 
 the valley of the Malar, allied itself with the powerful 
 Jotna families. Niord, Odin, Frey, and others, were 
 married to Jotna maidens. The Jotna women were 
 
 sax.') ; because the club (the hammer is but a different kind of 
 club) is older than the sword, and even older than the axe. It is 
 the patoo-patoo of the savage ; it is a war weapon made of a log of 
 a tree, thicker at one end than at the other. Hercvdes is thus 
 represented exactly like a savage — naked, with the root of a tree as 
 a weapon, and a wild animal's skin thrown over his shoulder. 
 
 * Procopius, de Bello Got. ii, 15. 
 
 •(■ According to the Edda. 
 
 J Odin was the god of the Indo-Germanic race, whose name, 
 with various pronunciations, appears amongst many ancient people 
 of this race. The priests of the Odin worship were called Asir, 
 Osser, Asar, etc., and the most ancient knoivn place of that worship 
 was called Asg&rd, or Ashof. Tacitus mentions an Asburg (Aschi- 
 burgium), in the south of Germany, dating from such a remote 
 period, that by some it was thought to have been founded by 
 Ulysses, who lived more than twelve hundred years before Tacitus 
 {Germ. iii.). It is scarcely possible to refer this Asburg with any 
 degree of probability to the Odin described by Sturleson. It may 
 rather be assumed that the Odin worship existed, and was spread in 
 the south of Gerrnany, many centuries earlier than it was reformed 
 into "Walhalla worship and introduced into Scandinavia by the 
 Herulean invasion of settlers there in the sixth century after Christ. 
 I shall treat of this in my work on the Iron Age. 
 
 § Adamus Bremens, vol. i. page 25. 
 
Cn.VL] THOR WORSHIP. 239 
 
 beauties of a fair complexion, with golden (light-red) 
 hair and blue eyes, as, for instance, Gerda, the daugh- 
 ter of the Jotun Gymer, and Skade, the daughter of 
 the Jotun Thjasse, and others. 
 
 Several Norwegian princes, aware, from authentic 
 family traditions,* that they derived their descent, 
 through father and mother, from the Jotun race, 
 remained, therefore, always faithful to the Jotna god 
 T/tor, and sacrificed to him, although, as princes, they 
 did not disdain the delights and glories of Wal- 
 halla. 
 
 The Norwegian Hlade-Jarls, who, from their mo- 
 thei"'s side, traced their descent to Skade, daughter 
 to ' the pomp-loving Jotne Thjasse,' sacrificed there- 
 fore mostly to Thor. The powerful Hakon Jarl, who 
 was chiefly devoted to the Jotun worship,f had a 
 temple in which, with other Jotna gods and god- 
 desses (amongst which the statues of the witch- 
 sisters Thorgerdr Haurgabruds and Yrpas),J stood 
 
 * Before the art of writing was known in this country, tradition 
 must have been far more lively, determinate, and clear than after- 
 wards. The art of writing is the death of tradition, and we see proof 
 of this amongst our own countiy-people. 
 
 f When it is said of Hakon Jarl that the goblins made a boast of 
 his friendship, it is evident that by goblins are meant the same as 
 the descendants of the Jotnar, who remained in the countrj'. The 
 name troll (goblin) is never given to any man or woman of the 
 Saga relating to the Asa race ; it was given only to the foreign 
 tribes who were looked upon as conquered, for troll, or troll, seems 
 to be the same as thrall, and signifies serf, because prisoners of war 
 were made slaves. Thus the name of Slavonians, Slavians, signifies 
 in most European languages serf or thrall. 
 
 X Her temple in Norway. See Urda, vol. iii. page 7. It was 
 to this, his guardian-goddess, to whom Hakon Jarl offered up his 
 
240 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.VI. 
 
 also the statue of Thor, ornamented with golden 
 rings and placed on a chariot,* consequently the 
 ancient Ohu Thorr. 
 
 Nor could the Odin doctrine gain ground amongst 
 the bulk of the people ; because this doctrine, with its 
 princely Walhalla, was not qualified ever to become a 
 popular religion. f The Walhalla doctrine of Odin 
 was therefore adopted chiefly in Svealand, and, as it 
 appears, also by some royal courts, related to the so- 
 called Asar^ in other provinces of Sweden, Denmark, 
 and Noi'way. For these traced their descent up to 
 ' the high gods ; ' but the bulk of the peoj)le, and a 
 few princes in Norway and Gothland, continued to 
 remain worshippers of Thor. 
 
 Therefore the Thor ivornhip was at the introduction 
 of the Christian religion more widely disseminated 
 amongst the common people, and consequently more 
 difficult to exterminate ; and thence it also follows, 
 that the traces of paganism which are still to be found 
 in Gothland and Norway are principally the remnants 
 of Thor worship. 
 
 Thurs-day (in Swedish the day of Thor) was still, 
 about a hundred years ago, considered in certain 
 parts of the country as a kind of holiday,^ on which 
 no serious or heavy work was to be done. When a 
 
 soil Erling, then seven years old, in order to obtain a victory over 
 the Joms-Vikings (Olof Trj-ggva's Saga, Schoning Norg Hist. 
 vol. iii. page 269. Compare Urda, page 8.) 
 
 * Compare Geijer, pages 282-283. 
 
 I It was more properly an aristocratic military religion, and the 
 life in their heavenly kingdom (Walhalla) was that of a barrack. 
 
 J This I was told by old people in my childhood. 
 
Ch. VI.] SUPERSTITIONS RESPECTING THURSDAY. 241 
 
 child, I remember having occasionally seen, in the 
 south of Sweden, some old woman who would never 
 churn butter or spin on a Thursday. 
 
 Many ancient Sagas of warnings given by tlie old 
 one with the heard not to desecrate Thursday-eve by 
 any kind of work, are told. This was evidently a 
 remnant of Thor worship. On the other hand, all 
 kinds of pagan superstitions and sorceries were to 
 be practised on the Thursday, in order to make them 
 efficient. On a Thursday, people were to go to the 
 necromancer, in order to see in a pail of water the 
 face of the thief who had robbed them ; on a Thurs- 
 day (Maundy-Thursday), all witches rode to ' Bla- 
 kuUa ' on a broomstick ; on a Thursday morning, he 
 who suffered from toothache had to walk silently into 
 the forest, carrying with him a nail with which he 
 had to pick his teeth, after which the nail was to be 
 stuck into a tree, when the toothache would be cured ; 
 he who was born on a Thursday could see spectres, 
 and so on. All this was evidently a remnant of Thor- 
 ism, and such was the case in Gothland. It seems 
 to have been much the same in Norway. Finn 
 Magnusen relates* that the peasants in certain moun- 
 tain districts in Norway, even as late as the close of 
 last century, used to preserve stones of a round form, 
 and reverence them in the same manner as their 
 pagan ancestors used to worship their idols. They 
 washed them every Thursday evening, smeared them 
 before the fire with butter, or some other grease, then 
 
 * Annalerfor Nordisk Oldkyndighet, 1838-1839, page 133. 
 
 R 
 
242 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VI. 
 
 dried them and laid them in the seat of honour upon 
 fresh straw ; at certain times of the year, they were 
 steeped in ale, and all this under the supposition that 
 they would bring luck and comfort to the house.* 
 Such a remnant of Thor worship in Norway, in those 
 more modern times, I consider to be very remarkable 
 and illustrative. 
 
 Even in the ceremonies of our Christian Church 
 there are still, here and there, traces which seem to 
 imply that the Thursday has long been looked upon 
 as a pagan day, on which no Christian religious cere- 
 monies of any importance ought to be performed. 
 This is still the case, at all events in the rural dis- 
 tricts in the south of Sweden. On a Thursday no 
 Christian funerals are held, no weddings, no baptisms 
 celebrated, and so on, because nobody would ever 
 think of requesting the jjerformance of these cere- 
 monies ; but if asked_ the reason why they do not 
 wish them to be performed, they are at a loss for an 
 answer : they merely say that it is not customary, 
 
 • Finn Magniisen, who ia perfectly correct in believing that the 
 pagan ceremonies of the peasantry were Thor worship, is also of 
 opinion that the Thor worship must have consisted in stone worship, 
 because these amulets were of stone. This conclusion is evidently 
 too hasty ; they were not worshipped because they were of stone, 
 but because they were heathen amulets. Had they been of wood, 
 or metal, or of bone, the peasants would have reverenced them 
 equally. It was only accidentally that they were of stone. The 
 Sagas mention no stone images of Thor, but of wood when of a 
 large size, and of bone when small. Halired Vandrada- Skald was 
 accused by Rolf before Olof Trygvardson of having, after being 
 christened, made oiferings in secret, and of having Thor's imaqe of 
 bone in his possession. Miiller, Saga, vol. iii. page 276. 
 
Ch. VI.l SAGAS FOUNDED ON HISTORY. 243 
 
 and nobody cares to find out the origin of this ancient 
 prejudice. 
 
 I have mentioned this to show that our Sagas are 
 founded on history. Most of the Sagas belong, how- 
 ever, to a less ancient period, or to that part of the 
 subject which relates to the Iron Age, which I pur- 
 pose to describe in a future work. 
 
 B 2 
 
2U THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VII. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE PROBABLE CONDITION OP SCANDINAVIA AT THE 
 ARRIVAL OP THE FIRST PEOPLE. 
 
 To form a clear idea on this subject, let us cast a 
 retrospective glance on the far more ancient state of 
 this part of the earth after the glacial period, when 
 it had been entirely covered by ice, and was in about 
 the same condition as Greenland and Spitzbergen are 
 at present. We meet with unmistakable traces of 
 such a state in innumerable places in our peninsula. 
 They consist in the granite rocks being smooth, 
 polished, and often furrowed, the ground being in 
 many places bestrewn with more or less colossal 
 blocks, which usually have their origin in far distant 
 places, and which are themselves sometimes smoothly 
 polished and grooved, and here and there lying in 
 heaps, so that we plainly recognise in them the re- 
 mains of moraines. 
 
 We may assume that this fearful destruction has 
 occurred during the present organic period of creation; 
 but we cannot with the least probability even guess 
 at the immeasurable space of time which has since 
 elapsed, nor do we know whether, previous to this 
 period of destruction, there were human beings in the 
 north of Europe. It is certain that similar changes have 
 
Ch. VII.] PROBABLE CAUSE OF PHYSICAL CHANGES. 245 
 
 likewise taken place in other countries, and indeed, 
 apparently, all over the northern hemisphere ; but we 
 think we have reason to suppose that they have hap- 
 pened in different places at different times, and that 
 no new creation was required to refurnish a part of 
 the earth, thus depopulated, with animals and plants. 
 
 The causes of the beginning, continuation, decline, 
 and end of this period of destruction may have been 
 manifold, and have by some been sought for in astro- 
 nomical circumstances : for our part, we think it suf- 
 ficiently accounted for by a phenomenon, which is 
 still continued in our days, namely, the oscillation of 
 the earth's crust. For if we consider it possible for 
 the motion which is now going on (and which consists 
 in the rising of the northern parts and the sinking of 
 the southern of our Scandinavian peninsula) to be 
 continued without interruption during a sufficiently 
 long time, the same period of destruction would 
 again indisputably return; the whole country would 
 be changed into an ice-field, where everything that 
 has life would perish. 
 
 To prove this, we have only to call to mind that 
 the atmosphere around our earth is cold, and that the 
 heat which is given off from the earth diminishes as 
 we ascend, until, at an inconsiderable distance above 
 its surface, we arrive at what is called the snow-line, 
 above which is perpetual snow and ice. This line has 
 been imagined to be in the shape of a parabola round 
 the earth, from the one pole to the other, so that its 
 position is highest above the equator, and sinks to 
 the surface of the sea towards the poles. 
 
246 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VII. 
 
 From this it is evident that if the rising of the 
 country, which is now going on, were to continue 
 constantly until a sufficiently large portion of the 
 surface of the earth would lie above the snow-line; 
 and if not only that portion, but likewise surrounding 
 parts, were thus changed into ice-fields ; a state of 
 things would arise resembling that of which we find 
 the above-named traces belonging to an age long past. 
 But before the motion can reach to this height it may 
 cease, and become a return in an opposite direction, 
 as has evidently been the case once before. For, 
 during the latter part of the ice-period, the northern 
 regions, which were high up, had sunk down deep 
 below the surface of the sea, and we consider our- 
 selves likewise authorised to suppose that, after this 
 motion had reached to a certain extent, the opposite, 
 which still continues, again commenced ; so that when 
 the northern parts, which then were sunk in the deep, 
 had again risen nearly to the surface of the sea, those 
 shell-fish which live in shallow water collected on 
 them. Moreover, inasmuch as the water after the 
 ice-period must still have had a very low degree of 
 temperature, these mollusca were of those varieties 
 and species which now live only in the waters on the 
 icy shores of Spitzbergen and Greenland. 
 
 By degrees, after the ice on the surface of the sea 
 had melted and the temperature of the water had 
 become milder, other mollusca which required water 
 less cold made their way into our seas ; at the same 
 time the land rose more and more, until at leneth the 
 water of the sea had the same temperature as it 
 
Ch. VII.] FOSSIL SHELLS. 247 
 
 has now, and in it were produced the same mollusca 
 that are now living in the sea round our shores. 
 
 That the circumstance here described has taken place, 
 we shall find if we examine those shell-banks which 
 are met with in various places of the north-western 
 part of Sweden and NorAvay, frequently to a height 
 of scA'eral hundred feet. We shall then discover that 
 those species which are in the highest shell-banks 
 belong to an icy climate, and that their fellow-species 
 now live in the cold zone of Spitzbergen; but if 
 we descend the sides of the mountain to shell-banks 
 lower down, we shall find that these are composed 
 of species which belong to a more temperate water ; 
 and finally, we meet with those that stUl live on our 
 coasts.* 
 
 That a gulf had passed from the Arctic Ocean 
 across Finland, which was then the bottom of the 
 ocean, down to Gothland, or farther, we think we 
 may conclude from the fact, that Professor Erman 
 has met with fossil shells in the boulder-clay of the 
 coasts of the Baltic, in the central part of Sweden, 
 which are now seen alive only at Spitzbergen ; 
 amongst others, for instance, Yolida pygmcea.f 
 
 * This circumstance has been observed both in Scandinavia and 
 Scotland. Professor Sven Lov^n reported it to the Academy of 
 Sciences at Stockholm in 1839, and more fully in the Review of the 
 same Academy, 1846, page 254. Mr. Smith has observed the same 
 in Scotland. See Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. viii. 
 chap. i. page 49. 
 
 f In the shell-banks at Uddevalla the foUovfing species have been 
 found : Pecten islandicus, Area glacialis, Terehratula Spitzbergensis, 
 Yolida arctica, Margareta undata, &c., defined by S. Lov^n and 
 0. Porell. 
 
248 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VH. 
 
 Moreover, Arctic Crustacea are still to be met 
 with alive at the bottom of the deep lakes Wemier 
 and Wetter, which proves that these lakes were once 
 connected with the gulf that formerly passed down 
 from the Arctic Ocean.* 
 
 After the northern part of the peninsula had by 
 degrees risen a little, but was still uninhabitable, and 
 the southern part was higher than now, this latter 
 appears then first to have become qualified to receive 
 plants, animals, and finally mankind, from the south- 
 ern parts which had not simultaneously been visited by 
 a glacial period. And it is not difficult to determine 
 with a high degree of probability in what order these 
 immigrations took place. 
 
 Plants must have first appeared, beginning with 
 those which need for their support the least amount 
 of black humus, and afterwards the others in pro- 
 portion as they required more of it. Of animals, 
 the phytivorous first presented themselves when vege- 
 tation had so far increased as to afford them the 
 necessary subsistence; then came the carnivorous, in 
 order to subsist on the former; and at last, man, who 
 at first could subsist as well on the roots and fruits 
 as on the flesh of animals, while clothing himself mth 
 the skins of the latter. 
 
 Then, and long after man had settled in the south 
 of Sweden, the southern part of that country was 
 connected by land with the continent of North Ger- 
 
 * S, Lov^n, Review Ac. Sc, 1861, page 285. These crustaoea 
 ai-e Mysis relicta, Gammwus loricatus, Idothea entomon, Pontopereia 
 qffinis. 
 
Ch. VII.] STATE OF SWEDEx\. 249 
 
 many, and those animals whose migratory habits lead 
 them to wander from place to place, roved at large 
 during certain seasons from the one country to the 
 other. In this manner the reindeer, the Ure-ox, the 
 bison, etc., wandered from Germany into Scania, and 
 back again at will. 
 ( If we now take a retrospective view of the state of 
 the south of Sweden during this period, it will appear 
 to have been as follows. The ground was as yet 
 uncultivated, the whole country covered with forests, 
 lakes, and marshes (bogs). In the forests wandered 
 stately elks and stags, gigantic Ure-oxen and bisons, 
 while each of these restricted its wanderings to its 
 own district.* In swampy places roved herds of wild 
 boars of large size, and from the mountain districts 
 of the southerly continent immigrated from time to 
 time flocks of wild reindeer. f In the rivers beavers 
 
 * I Have never yet seen skeletons of Ure-oxen and bisons found 
 in the same peat-bogs; they were deadly enemies, and there is 
 still an unconquerable enmity between the tame cattle and the 
 bison of Lithuania. As yet, it has not been possible to malte a 
 bison-bull breed with a tame cow. The former will immediately 
 gore the latter to death. 
 
 I The reindeer annually makes extensive peregrinations. (See 
 Blasius, Reise in Russland, vol. i. page 265.) The reindeer, 
 skeletons of which are met with in the peat-bogs of Scania, belong 
 to quite a different race from those of Lapland. They had no doubt 
 immigrated to Scania from some more southerly part, and may 
 possibly belong to the same race as the reindeer, which during Ca2sar's 
 time still lived in the Hercynian forest. No zoologist who reads what 
 Csesar states in the twenty-sixth chapter oi De Bello Gallico, lib. vi., 
 of that animal which has ' cervi figwa,^ with horns that were longer 
 than those of any other animal that he had seen, and from the upper 
 endof which, as if from the palm of ahand,branches(points) extended, 
 
250 THE STONE AGE. [Ch. VII. 
 
 built their ingenious houses, and in the lakes, which 
 abounded with fish, were river-turtles {Emys lutaria) 
 and enormously large pike, skeletons of which are 
 occasionally found. 
 
 The first people that came to the country seem to 
 have had their haunts in the thick forests and along 
 the shores of lakes and water-courses, in which they 
 practised fishing and hunting, then their only means 
 of subsistence; here, therefore, we find the imple- 
 ments they have left behind. 
 
 That this first migration of people to the southern 
 parts of Scandinavia took place at a period far removed 
 from us, we find from the fact that human productions 
 and bones of the cave-bear ( Ursus spelceus, PI. XI. figs. 
 253, 224) are met with together, in our oldest peat- 
 bogs, even in those that lie under the Jara-Wall, of 
 which we shall speak farther on, and consequently pre- 
 vious to the phenomenon that threw up this ridge.* j 
 
 and the female of which had horns like the male, etc., can indeeddoubt 
 that Cajsar had seen at least one horn of a reindeer, and by misun- 
 derstanding the language, believed that the animal had but one, 
 as likewise that from the same cause he had obtained but a con- 
 fused idea of the animal itself That the reindeer had not by 
 degrees proceeded from Scania up towards Lapland, is also proved 
 by there never having been found n skeleton nor even a bone of a 
 reindeer in any of the provinces that are situated between Scania 
 and Lapland. The Lapland reindeer have, in a comparatively much 
 more recent period, crossed over Finland to the Norwegian mountain- 
 ridge, where they are now mostly to be found. 
 
 * That the time when man first made his appearance here in the 
 North was far distant from the present, we can conclude from the 
 following reasons : — Firstly. Human implements have been found 
 with bones of the cave-bear ( Ursus spelmus), and yet this was by 
 no means the first mammal that came to this country, it having been 
 
Oh. VII.] UNCERTAINTY AS TO TIME. 251 
 
 But "we do not know what space of time has since 
 elapsed, and as yet we have found no means of ascer- 
 taining it, even within thousands of years. ) We have 
 certainly found, about one hundred feet above the 
 present surface of the sea, a couple of human skeletons 
 in a shell-bank which lay under the surface of the sea 
 at the time when it was formed, and when the two 
 persons were drowned; but we do not know what 
 time was required to raise the shell-bank and the 
 mountain on which it lies to their present height. 
 For although the motion of the earth's crust is now 
 taking place uninterruptedly, we must not take it 
 for granted that it has always been so ; on the con- 
 trary, we have reason to think that the motion, at the 
 commencement of the rising, took place suddenly, and 
 at long intervals ; and that during these long intervals 
 it may have continued uniformly and slowly. As a 
 reason for this supposition, I may mention that on 
 the sides of the mountains in the district of Bohus, 
 we meet with unmistakable marks of beaches lying 
 horizontally one above the other, at long distances, 
 and that barnacles and other productions of the sea 
 remain even to the present day entire on the stones 
 
 preceded by ruminants, with which came man. For he probably 
 made his appearance before the large beasts of prey. Secondly. 
 Human works occur in the submarine peat-bogs, and are there- 
 fore older than the great phenomenon which separated Scania Irom 
 Pomerania. Thirdly. Some arrows and spears have been altogether 
 reduced to a soft white substance. I have seen several such. Compare 
 PI. XIII. fig. 242. See also Revue des Beiix Mondes, avril 1867, 
 page 645 : ' Ces silex dont la patine blanchatre denote I'excessive 
 antiquity ; ' therefore still more those which are entirely reduced 
 to a chalky substance. See Note 12. 
 
252 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.VH. 
 
 of these beaches, which would not have been the case 
 had not the shore, on which they grew, been, with 
 them, quickly raised to a height where the dashing of 
 the waves could not reach them; otherwise they 
 would have been crushed by the stones of the shore. 
 These considerations caused me to believe that the 
 elevations which have occurred in other places have 
 also been sudden. Hence I am led to explain the 
 following phenomenon . 
 
 Along the coast of the Baltic, from Ystad to the 
 part between Trelleborg and Falsterbo, there lies a 
 ridge, in many places more or less imperfect, con- 
 sisting of gravel and stones, called the Jara-WaU; in 
 some places it is high and broad, in others, several 
 such walls seem to lie behind and above each other, 
 which proves that the cause which raised them has 
 been several times repeated. Under the ridge there 
 are in several places peat-bogs, which lie below the 
 surface of the sea. 
 
 How these ridges have been produced may perhaps 
 long remain undecided. For my part, and taking 
 into consideration several well-ascertained facts rela- 
 ting to this subject, I can only conceive these ridges 
 to have originated in one way, namely, by a violent 
 momentary motion in the waters of the Baltic, caused 
 by a simultaneous sinking of the southern and rising 
 of the northern part of the surface of the earth under 
 this sea.* 
 
 * It will be remembered that geology, as well as history, records 
 several sudden risings and sinkings of the earth's crust. AmongBt 
 other instances of rising is the following : — On November 19, 1822, 
 
Cn. Vir.] GEOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL PROOFS. 2o3 
 
 It can be made manifest, both by geological and 
 zoological proofs, that, during a very ancient period, 
 a broad gulf passed from the Arctic Ocean at Ai-ch- 
 angel over Finland, which then was the bottom of 
 the sea, down to about Gothland, or Oland, and that 
 Sweden south of this gulf was, as above mentioned, 
 connected with the German continent. At the time 
 of such a sudden rising in the north and sinking in 
 the south, I imagine that a mighty mass of water 
 must have been brought into violent motion and 
 thrown itself impetuously over the land then existing 
 between Pomerania and Scania, changing them into 
 a sea, breaking out through the Sound and the Belts, 
 raising walls on the Scanian coast and the so-called 
 ' havstokkar ' on the Danish islands ; in a word, mo- 
 delling the shores to their present configuration, and 
 
 it was found, after a violent earthquake, that a long range of 
 the coast of Chili had been lifted from three to four feet, so that 
 oysters, limpets, etc., became fixed on stones above the surface 
 of the sea. In 1819 a long range of land in the delta of the Indus 
 was raised to the height of ten feet, etc. 
 
 Proofs of a sudden sinking are given in Holland. In 1530 an 
 inundation occurred which carried away seventeen villages, and in 
 1569 another occurred which deluged the Dutch coast and submerged 
 a great portion of Friesland. By this inundation of the sea 20,000 
 people lost their lives. It is plain that this overflow was caused by 
 a sinking of the land, and that a corresponding rising had taken place 
 simultaneously in some other place. 
 
 During the time of Ceesar, Flevus was a lake ; in 1225 a large 
 portion of the country sank, and now it is the broad bay called the 
 Zuyder Zee. The statue of Hercules which Tacitus speaks of as 
 standing on the coast has long been sunk in the sea. The Dutch 
 antiquaries ought not, therefore, to conclude from the absence of 
 Phoenician monuments that such did not formerly exist there. 
 
254 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VII. 
 
 lowering numerous peat-bogs to the bottom of the 
 sea in the southern part of the Baltic, where they now 
 lie at a depth of from ten to fourteen feet beneath the 
 surface of the sea.* Likewise a peat-bog under the 
 Jara-Wall, having a thickness of 10 feet, 2 feet 5 inches 
 of which lay above, and 7 feet 7 inches below the sur- 
 face of the sea. The turf under this stone wall is 8o 
 compressed, that when dry it is almost as hard as 
 brown coal; the trees are also, like the layers of 
 coal, pressed together, and when a fir-chip is broken it 
 is found to be black and shining in the cross section, 
 all the results of great pressure and of age. The turf 
 has here, as in the submarine peat-bogs which he out- 
 side Falsterbo, been formed in fresh water, of which 
 the bottom, when the turf was formed, lay above the 
 surface of the sea ; inasmuch as in it were found the 
 same species of shrubs as those that are found in the 
 other Scanian peat-bogs, situated farther in the inte- 
 rior of the country. But on the bottom of this peat- 
 bog, on the fine blue clay itself, there have frequently, 
 during the cutting of the turf, been found arrows^ 
 knives^ etc., of flint, which proves that human beings 
 
 * The vegetable products which are met with in these submarine 
 peat-bogs are — stems of the fir, birch, alder, oak, etc., but never 
 the beech ; numerous moorland plants — Equisetum palustre and 
 fluviatile, Arundo phragmites, Polygoniwn amphibium, Calamagrostis, 
 Ilypnum fiuitans, etc. ; the insects also belong to fresh water — 
 Dytiscus marginalis, a Gyrinus; insects attached to moorland plants — 
 two species of Donacia, etc., which all prove that the bog was 
 formed in fresh water, and consequently surrounded by land. In- 
 deed, I do not doubt that traces of human workmanship may hkewise 
 be found here. 
 
Ch.VII.] antiquity of peat-bogs. 255 
 
 already existed in these districts at the time when 
 the bog was an open water, and peat began to grow 
 in it. 
 
 Consequently, there were people here even before 
 the great phenomenon which raised the ridge in 
 question, and threw a wide sea between the south 
 of Scandinavia and the north of Germany. How 
 many thousands of years have passed since this event, 
 and from the end of the glacial period until now, we 
 do not know, but that it did happen during a very an- 
 cient period we may safely conclude from there being 
 found under the same ridge, in more than one place, 
 bones of the cave-bear ; and as such have likewise been 
 found on the bottom of other peat-bogs with bones of 
 the reindeer^ for instance, in the peat-bog on Kulla- 
 berg (in which flint-flakes, PL II. fig. 24, have also 
 been found in great numbers), we may suppose that 
 these peat-bogs are coeval with the one under the 
 Jara-Wall, and consequently they also are more ancient 
 than this remarkable ridge. Moreover, it should be 
 remarked, that in these ancient peat-bogs there has 
 never been found a vestige of metal, and therefore 
 we can likewise conclude that the above-mentioned 
 cataclysm took place during the Stone period, before 
 bronze had yet been introduced into the North, and 
 during an early part of the Stone Age, inasmuch as 
 not a single stone axe or any other ground stone in- 
 strument was found there, but only flint-flakes, arrows, 
 and knives. 
 
 The tribe which had then migrated to the south 
 of Sweden came, no doubt, from more southerly coun- 
 
256 THE STONE AGE. [Ch.VII. 
 
 tries, and it appears that the northern districts of the 
 country had not yet risen sufficiently from the con- 
 dition of the glacial epoch, but were in such a state 
 that they could not be inhabited by man or beast. 
 ( But we do not positively know what tribe came 
 first, for we have not yet found any human skeleton 
 which can with certainty be said to have belonged to 
 this ancient period ; that is to say, we have not found 
 any such, under the Jara- Wall or elsewhere, with bones 
 of the cave-bear .J They belonged, however, probabl}', 
 to a brachy cephalic race ; for skulls of this race have 
 been found in the old peat-bogs of Scania, and of this 
 race the Laplanders are the last remnants on our 
 peninsula. They were mid hunters long before they 
 became nomads. They were by degrees exterminated 
 and gradually driven up to the most northerly parts 
 of the peninsula, by the stronger people belonging to 
 a dolichocephalic race. 
 
 The reindeer appears to have become extinct in 
 Scania very soon after the separation of Scandi- 
 navia from North Germany.'"' The people who 
 left behind them the celebrated Kjokkenmdddings, 
 or shell-mounds, most likely lived somewhat after 
 thi s period, and hence we can explain why it 
 is that bones of the reindeer have not been found 
 in these mounds, though they occur in the peat- 
 bogs both in Denmark and Scania. But if the 
 reindeer, which necessarily made extensive migra- 
 tions annually, died when such migrations were 
 
 * It is not even certain that at the time wlien this catastrophe 
 happened there were as yet any reindeer in Scania. 
 
Oh.VIL] REMAIXS op URE-OX. 257 
 
 no longer possible, the Ure-ox, on the other htincl, ap- 
 pears to have been more enduring ; for a specimen of 
 this colossal beast, which is preserved in the Museum 
 at Lund, and had evidentl}" been wounded while young 
 with a flint weapon, shows that the Urus lived in 
 Scania durhig the Stone period* (see PL XL figs. 
 220, 222). This species, indeed, remained here a 
 longer time, and was still to be found during some 
 part of the Bronze Age, for the war-trumpet of 
 bronze which is described in my work on the ' Bronze 
 Age,' page 93, and sketched on PL IV. fig. 50, is 
 evidently copied from a horn of the Ure-ox. 
 
 The people who built the tumuli, and who were a 
 strong and robust race, had already appeared before 
 the Bronze people, and during the proper Stone 
 period. (PL XIIL figs. 236, 238.) They knew the 
 use of fire ; they cooked their food, and on their ves- 
 sels soot is sometimes to be seen. They had perhaps 
 learjied the use of fire from seeing branches in the 
 woods ignite from being rubbed against each other. 
 They are said to have had tame cattle, perhaps even 
 to have practised agriculture. (Pigs. 180, 18L) 
 
 It was probably during this period that people of 
 Semitic origin founded colonies in the western coun- 
 tries of Europe and in the south and west of Scan- 
 dinavia, where they introduced, besides bronze,f the 
 
 * Nay, it appears to have been older in tlie country than the 
 cave- bear itself; smaller beasts of prey had probably previously 
 made their appearance. 
 
 f If we wish to understand the phenomenon of the origin of 
 hrome in Scandinavia, it is quite necessary to realise the fact that 
 the best made swords with spiral ornaments and short hilts, as well as 
 
 S 
 
2o8 
 
 THE STONE AGE. [Oh. VII. 
 
 Phoenician worship of Baal. In the meantime, people 
 of Cimbrian origin appear to have settled in Denmark 
 and the southern parts of Sweden. Of them we have 
 traces both in local names and in certain antiquities ; 
 for instance, the Cimbrian ox, cast in copper and evi- 
 dently worn as an amulet. 
 
 We have alread}^ mentioned that the so-called Jara- 
 Wall consists of various ridges which were raised 
 one after the other, and which indicate inundations 
 that had taken place at diiFerent periods. One of 
 these is called the Cimbrian Flood, because it was 
 after this inundation that a great number of Cim- 
 brians emigrated from Scania and Denmark, and were 
 beaten by Marius near Verona, 101 B.C. Ammianus 
 Marcellinus relates (book xv. chap. 9) that it was a 
 tradition amongst the Druids that some of their fore- 
 fathers had come from the farthest islands on the 
 other side of the Khine, and that frequent attacks 
 by the neighbouring tribes and an inundation of, the 
 sea were the first cause of their marching southwards. 
 
 Even during my time there were traditions about 
 them in Scania, ANdiere it is said they assembled before 
 the emigration on a plain which, during my youth, 
 was still a heath, and called the Cimber Ground, 
 situated between the villages of Gislof, Aby, Isie, and 
 
 the small armlets, are the oldest, and that the workmanship by 
 degrees became more and more deteriorated. The supposition that 
 the oldest are the worst and that the bronze culture here has been 
 more and more developed and improved, is founded on ignorance, or, 
 still worse, on an unrestrained national vanity. It is painful to no- 
 tice that several eminent authors of classical works have expressed 
 this erroneous opinion. 
 
Ch.VIL] immigration of swedes. i!50 
 
 the Baltic. The name of Cimbrishamn is likewise 
 supposed to be derived from this circumstance. 
 
 By degrees the Scandinavian peninsula assumed its 
 present appearance, boundaries, and people. The last 
 immigration consisted of the Swedes, who brought 
 with them the worship of Odin's Walhalla ; but this 
 period belongs to the Iron Age. 
 
NOTES BY THE EDITOE. 
 
 Note ] , page 4. 
 
 Sir E. Belcher, in Ms paper ' On Works of Art among the Esqui- 
 maux ' (' Transactions of the Ethnological Society,' Ser. 2, vol. i. 
 page 139), gives the following account of the implement with which 
 that ingenious people make their flint tools. The handle, he says, 
 ' is of fine fossil ivory. That would be too soft to deal with flint or 
 chert in the manner required. But they discovered that the point 
 of the deer-horn is harder, and also more stubborn ; therefore, in 
 a slit, like lead in our pencils, they introduced a slip of this sub- 
 stance, and secured it by a strong thong, put on wet, but which on 
 diying becomes very rigid. Here we cannot fail to trace ingenuity, 
 ability, and a view to ornament. It is the point of deer-horn 
 which, refusing to yield, drives off the fine conchoidal splinters from 
 the chert.' 
 
 Note 2, page 40. 
 
 I confess it seems to me that the difference here pointed out is 
 a matter of age and use. As the blade wore down, it was re-sharp- 
 ened, and thus became shorter and shorter. 
 
 Note 3, page 53. 
 
 See also Judges xx. 16. 'Among all this people' (the tribe 
 of Benjamin) ' there were seven hundred chosen men lefthanded ; 
 every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss.' 
 
 Note 4, page 63. 
 
 I have in my collection an almost exactly similar axe from 
 Central Afi:ica ; but the blade is of iron, and has rather straighter 
 sides. 
 
■2(',2 THE STO>rE AGE. 
 
 Note 5, page 105. 
 
 I need hardly say that many of our most eminent biologists 
 would demur to this proposition. 
 
 Note 6, page 137. 
 
 Very similar dwelling-places occur in Scotland. Mr. Petrie has 
 described one examined by him in the Orkneys. See Captain 
 Thomas, ' On Orkney Antiquities ' (' Archaeologia,' v. 34). A hollow- 
 was scooped out of the side of a hill, and walls were built of unhewn 
 stones, converging towards the top. On the outside, smaller stones 
 and earth were heaped up, so that the whole building had the 
 appearance of a conical mound, about 115 feet in length and 55 in 
 breadth. The central chamber, which was surrounded by several 
 smaller ones, was about 40 feet long, 5 feet broad, and 10 feet high 
 in the centre, communicating with the outside by a long, low, narrow 
 passage, 18 feet long and 2 feet 8 inches high. Semisubterranean 
 huts of this character are known in Scotland as ' weems,' from 
 uamlia, a cave. Several such, more or less subterranean, dwellings 
 are described in the ' Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of 
 Scotland ' (see, for instance, vol. iii. Part II. page 189), and Captain 
 Thomas has figured {I. c. vol. iii. Part XII.) a group of ' beehive 
 houses ' in Lewis, which are still actually inhabited. These, however, 
 are entirely above ground. 
 
 Note 1 , page 141. 
 
 My friend Mr. Boyd Dawkins, in his memoir on the ' British 
 Fossil Oxen ' (' Geological Journal,' No. XCI. page 183), boldly 
 asserts that the cave-men of Perigord were ' a people more closely 
 allied to the Esquimaux than any other,' and sums up as follows the 
 evidence in favour of this assertion. 
 
 ' The identity of four of the harpoons, or fowling-spears, marrow- 
 spoons, and scrapers ; the habit of sculpturing animals on their 
 implements; the absence of pottery; the .same method of crushing 
 the bones of the animals shiin in hunting, and their accumulation 
 in one spot ; the carelessness about the remains of their dead 
 relatives ; the fact that the food consisted chiefly of reindeer, 
 varied with their flesh of other animals, such as the musk-sheep ; 
 and especially the small stature, as proved in the people of the 
 
NOTi'.S BY THE EDITOrj. 263 
 
 Dordogiie caverns, by the small-handled dagger figured by MM. 
 Lai'tet and Christy in the "Revue Archeologiqvie " and in "Pre- 
 historic Times," p. 255. This combination of characters is found, 
 so far as I know, among no other people on the face of the earth 
 except the Esquimaux ; and therefore I cannot help believing that 
 this people in South Gaul occupies the same relation to the Esqui- 
 maux as the musk-sheep and reindeer, on which they lived, hold 
 to those now living in the northern regions.' 
 
 Since this was written Mr. Bu»k has shown that the Vrsus prisons 
 of om- caves is undistinguishable from the Grizzly bear of the Rocky 
 mountains. There is therefore some reason for the belief that the 
 Esquimaux once inhabited Western Europe. 
 
 Note 8, page 161. 
 
 If the coexistence of ground and unground flint implements 
 suggests doubts as to the division of the Stone Age into Paleolithic 
 and Neolithic, a fortiori the very frequent occurrence of stone imple- 
 ments with those of bronze would compel us to give up the Stone 
 Age altogether. The lesson, however, which such cases teach us is 
 that of caution, not of doubt. 
 
 No one knows better than Professor Nilsson that every flint 
 implement was rudely chipped out before it was ground, and some 
 of them, as, for instance, arrows, were never ground. Moreover, the 
 Palffiolithic Age is not characterised only by the rudeness of the 
 stone implements ascribed to it. 
 
 The absence of pottery, the presence of extinct animals, and the 
 nature of the strata in which the implements occur, must all be 
 taken into consideration. I have, however, already referred to these 
 points in my Introduction. 
 
 Note 9, page 181. 
 
 Hearne does not, I think, deserve this severe reproach. We 
 must remember that he was the only white man among this band of 
 ferocious savages; that he was completely at their mercy, being far 
 from any settlement, and had already suffered much ill-treatment at 
 - their hands. Any interference on his part would evidently have 
 been useless, and the language in which he expresses his horror at 
 the massacre is as strong even as that of Professor Nilsson : ' Even 
 at this hour,' he conchades, ' I cannot reflect on the transactions of 
 
204 THE ST0>;E AGE. 
 
 that horrid day without shedding tears.' It is fair also to remember 
 that Ilearne was not a man who used strong language ligbtly. 
 When some northern Indians met him on his return to the Fort, 
 and plundered him of almost everything he had, he remarks quietly, 
 that his load being thereby ' materially lightened, this part of my 
 journey was the easiest and most pleasant of any I bad experienced 
 since my leaving the Fort.' 
 
 Note 10, page 215. 
 
 Professor Nilsson alludes probably to the Scotch proverb, ' Curri 
 ml clach er do cuirn,' i. e. I will add a stone to your cairn. 
 
 Note 11, page 220. 
 
 The Norwegian peasants were not alone in regarding the Lap- 
 landers as scarcely human. Eegnard, in his ' Journey to Lapland,' 
 thus concludes his account of them: — 'Such is the description of 
 this little animal, called a Laplander ; and it may safely be said that, 
 after the monkey, he approaches neai-est to man.' When Frobisher's 
 crew, in 1570, captured an old Esquimaux woman, they took ber for 
 a witch, and pulled off her boots to see if she had cloven feet. It is 
 not necessary, however, to go so far afield for illustrations. Down 
 to the last century, and even now in out-of-the-way places, old 
 women were regarded as witches, even by their own countrymen 
 and countrywomen. 
 
 Note 12, page 251. 
 
 Thi.s alteration of the surface does, no doubt, indicate a certain 
 lapse of time, and is a \ery good evidence of genuineness. I bave, 
 however, some reason for thinking that, under certain circumstances, 
 the process is not one requiring any great lapse of time. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 AFR 
 
 A FRIOA, the so-called dolmens 
 
 A 
 
 of, 160 
 
 Agriculture, in what it probably 
 
 originally consisted, 74 
 Amazon axe, 71 
 Amber ornaments, 82 
 
 — buttons, 83 
 Amulets, stone, 200, 214 
 
 — life-stones and victory-stones, 
 215 
 
 — worship of, 242 
 
 Anakim, the, of Scripture, 230 
 
 Anvil, 80 
 
 Archieology, present condition of, x 
 
 Argippaeans, the, of Herodotus, 
 identical with the Baschkirs of 
 the Ural mountains, 191 
 
 Arrows, long and short, 43 
 
 — arrow-points without a tang, 44 
 
 — square-edged, 76 
 
 — rough-edged, 77 
 
 — flint arrows used by the Egyp- 
 tians, 191 note 
 
 — bone- and stone-tipped arrows of 
 the Laplanders, 196 
 
 — property of the Guse aiTows, 
 108 
 
 — and of other magic arrows, 199 
 Asa-hog, tumulus of the, 130, 148 
 
 — mode of interring the dead in 
 this tumulus, 131 
 
 Asar, their introduction of the 
 worship of Odin into Scandin- 
 avia, 237 
 
 Askovis, the, 228 
 
 Augers, 78 
 
 Aurignac, primeval human remains 
 at, 127 
 
 Awls, 91 
 
 Axes, implements, not weapons, 94 
 
 — conjectures as to the symbolical 
 meaning of flint axes, 99 
 
 — see also Hatchets 
 Axe vail a, tumulus of, 126 
 
 "DALEARIO islanders, their use 
 
 -•-* of the sling, 53 
 
 Baschkirs, identical with the Argip- 
 
 pseans of Herodotus, 191 
 Battle-axes, 75 
 Beads, stone, 81 
 
 — .glass, 82 
 
 Bison, the, its deadly enmity to 
 
 tame cattle, 249 
 Boats of the Scandinavians, 101 
 BrSvalla Plain, weapons used in the 
 
 battle of, 19-4 
 Bronze Age, conclusions respecting 
 
 the, XXX 
 
 — not mentioned in history, 192 
 Buttons, amber, 83 
 
2C6 
 
 BUT 
 
 Buttons of the aboriginal Scandi- 
 navians, 102 
 
 /^AIRNS, pagan, in Sweden, 215 
 notes 
 
 — practice of adding a stone to a 
 cairn, 215, 264 
 
 Carpenter's tools, 53 
 
 — implements without a hole in 
 the handle, 53 
 
 chisels, 53 
 
 hatchets, or axes, 60 
 
 — implements provided with ahole 
 for the handle, 68 
 
 hammers, 69 
 
 hammer-axes, 69 
 
 Caucasus, cavern-dwellings of pri- 
 mitive man in the, 153, 154 
 Cavern-dwellings of man, 151, 156 
 
 — remains of cavem-dweUings in 
 Lapland, 212 
 
 — the ' weems ' of Scotland, 262 
 
 — the cave-men of Perigord, 262 
 Cavem-sepulchres, 1 54 
 Charnel- vaults, 160 
 
 — of Asagrafvfn, 161 
 
 Chase, manner in which weapons of 
 
 the, are used by savages, 169 
 Chisels, 53 
 
 — narrow square, 54 
 stone chisels, 54 
 
 — narrow hollow chisel, or gouge, 
 65 
 
 — with handles, 56 
 
 ■ — broad square chisel, 58 
 
 — broad gouge, 58 
 
 — ice-chisel, 77 
 Cimbrian immigration — 
 
 — the Cimbrian march southwards, 
 and defeat by Marius, 268 
 
 — the Cimbrian immigration into 
 Denmark and Southern Sweden, 
 258 
 
 Circassian houses and tombs, 156 
 
 IXDF.X. 
 
 DWA 
 Circumcision, stone knives used by 
 
 the Jews in, 97 
 Clay, burnt, vessels of, 84 
 
 — of the Scandinavians, 102 
 Clothes of the aboriginal Scamdi- 
 
 navians, 102 
 Crania of the ancient and modem 
 Scandinavians compared, 106 et 
 scg. 
 
 — Retziua's classification, 107 
 
 — Swedish typical cranium, 108 
 
 — crania of Swedes and Goths, 115 
 
 — skuU discovered in shell-beds, 
 116 
 
 — at Malta, 117 
 
 — skulls found in AVest Gothland, 
 118 
 
 — skulls of the Laplanders, 120 
 
 — synoptical view of the crania 
 described, 123 
 
 Cromlechs, the, of England, 169 
 Crimea, tombs of the modem Greeks 
 
 in the, 155 
 Cyclopes of Homer, their cavern- 
 dwellings, 153 
 
 TVEAD, modes of the Esquimaux 
 and Baschkiers in burying the, 
 
 133, 134 
 Denmark, anciently inhabited by 
 
 Laplanders, 201 
 
 — the Cimbrian immigration into, 
 258 
 
 Dog, the, of the aboriginal Scandi- 
 navians, 103 
 
 — skulls of dogs buried with chil- 
 dren, 140 
 
 Dolmens of France, 159 
 
 — so-called dolmens of Africa, 160 
 Dos, the, of Sweden, 159 
 Dwarfs of the Sagas, who they 
 
 were, 207 
 
 — their power of rendering them- 
 selves invisible, 217 
 
INDEX. 
 
 207 
 
 DWA 
 
 GAL 
 
 Dwarfs, comparison between the 
 dwavfs of ancient times and tlie 
 Laplanders of the present day,2] 9 
 
 Dwelling-houses of the aborigines, 
 their similarity to the gaUery- 
 graves, 131—143 
 
 — description of one near the Bay 
 of Skar, 143 
 
 — and at Glumslof, 145 
 
 — with round, oval, and oblong 
 square chambers, 148, 151 
 
 — huts of the Skroelingar in Win- 
 land, 151 
 
 — the mountain cavern man's first 
 dwelling, 153 
 
 — houses of heaped-up stones or 
 timber, 154 
 
 — dwellings of the first visitors to 
 the frigid zones of the earth, 156 
 
 — gallery-dwellings, 157 
 Dyss, the, of Denmark, 159 
 
 EARTH'S crust, motion of the, 
 taking place in Scandinavia, 
 245, 251 
 
 — the Jara-Wall, 252 
 
 — sudden risings and sinkings of 
 the earth's crust, 252 
 
 Egyptians, their use of stone knives 
 in circumcision, 97 
 
 — flint arrows used by them, 191 
 note 
 
 Esquimaux, shape of the crania of 
 the, 107, 108 
 
 — similarity of their winter huts 
 to the tumuli of Scandinavia, 
 1S2, 133 
 
 — tbeir snow-huts, 138 
 
 — their throwing-boards for giving 
 velocity to their spears, 173 
 
 — murder of the Esquimaux on the 
 Copper-mine river by the Indiana, 
 177 
 
 — regarded as sorcerers by the In- 
 dians, 187, 204, 208 
 
 Esquimaux, Sir E. Belcher's account 
 
 of the manufacture of their flint 
 
 tools, 261 
 — probably once inhabited Western 
 
 Europe, 263 
 Ethiopians, arms and accoutrements 
 
 of the, in the time of Xerxes, 175 
 
 T7IN"i^S (Fenni), their arms in the 
 J- time of Tacitus, 196 
 
 — Tacitus' account of them, 221 
 Fire-wnrship, conjectural remains 
 
 of a primeval, 99 
 Fish-hook of shell, 21 
 
 — of wood, with bone-point, 21 
 
 — of flint, 22 
 
 — ■ fish-hooks not weapons, but im- 
 plements, 93 
 Fishing, implements for, 21 
 
 — fish-hooks, 21 
 
 — fishing-plummets, 24 
 
 — harpoons, 26 
 
 — spears, 33 
 
 — mode of, of the Scandinavians, 
 102 
 
 — fishing weights implements, not 
 weapons, 93 
 
 Flint implements of the Palaeolithic 
 age, xvii 
 
 — and Neolithic period, xxv 
 
 — how formed, 5 
 Flint-flakes, 76 
 
 Flood, the Oimbrian, 258 
 
 pALLERY-GEAVES, form of 
 ^ skull found in the, in West 
 Gothland, 118 
 
 — description of gallerv-graves,124, 
 159 
 
 — question as to their having been 
 dwelling-houses, 181, 132 
 
 — implements found in gallery- 
 graves, 159 
 
 — one at Hammer, 161 
 
2(iR 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 lEO 
 
 Gallei'y-graves,those in West Goth- 
 land, and at Luttra, 162 
 
 — examination of the opinion that 
 they were ossuaries, 162, 163 
 
 — huts with round chambers, 148 
 
 — with oval chambers, 151 
 
 — with oblont; square chambers, 
 151 
 
 — gallery-houses of Scania and 
 V,''e3t Gothland, 158 
 
 Germans, terror of the Romans 
 
 under Caesar of the giant, 222 
 Germany, weapons of war of iron 
 
 in the time of Tacitus, 195 
 Giants of the ancient Saga. See 
 
 Jotnar 
 Gimlets, 78 
 Glass beads, 82 
 Glass-blowing, infancy of, 83 
 Glumslof, ancient dwelling-house 
 
 at, 145 
 Gothland, West, skulls found in, 
 
 118 
 
 — gallery-tombs in, 162 
 Goths, crania of, 116 
 
 Gouge, the, or narrow hollow chisel, 
 55 
 
 — broad, .'>S 
 
 Greece, cavern-dwellings of, 15.) 
 Greeks, modern, their tombs in the 
 
 Crimea, 155 
 Guse arrows, property of the, 108 
 
 TTALLSTADT, discoveries in the 
 -^ grave.^ at the salt-mines of, 
 
 xxxvi. 
 Hammer, gallery-tomb at, 161 
 Hammer-axes, 69 
 Hammers, 69 
 Hammer-stones, or chipping-stones, 
 
 10 
 
 — found in various place.?, 12 
 Harpoons for iishing, 26 
 
 — with immovable points, 27 
 
 — of bone, 29 
 
 Harpoons with movable points, 31 
 
 — harpoons implements, not wea- 
 pons, 93 
 
 Hatchets, or axes, 60 
 
 — cross-axe, 60 
 
 with a flat chipped edge only 
 
 on one side, 60, 61 
 
 — — with edge ground on both 
 sides, but more on one than on 
 the other, 62 
 
 — straight axes, 63 
 
 — hammer axes, 69 
 
 — Amazon axe, 71 
 
 — helved wedges, 72 
 
 — battle-axes, 75 
 
 Hittites, their cavem-sepulchre8,154 
 Hoes, 73 
 
 Holingen, the ancient dwelling- 
 house of, 143 
 Hunting, implements for, 21 
 
 — manner in which the aborigines 
 made use of their implements, 
 169 
 
 Huts of the aborigines, 102. See 
 Dwelling-houses ; GaUery-huts. 
 
 TCE- CHISEL, 77 
 -*- Implements of stone not neces- 
 sarily weapons, 92 
 
 — materials of early implements, 
 100 
 
 — resemblance between the stone 
 implements of nations of different 
 tribes, 103 
 
 j Indians of North America, their 
 ossuaries, 162 
 
 — their murder of the Esquimaux 
 on the Copper-mine river, 177 
 
 — regard the Esquimaux as sor- 
 cerers, 187 
 
 Instincts, human and brute, 104, 
 
 105 
 Iron Age, observations on the, 
 
 xxxviii 
 — the, mentioned in ancient history, 
 
 192 
 
INDEX. 
 
 2G9 
 
 JAR 
 
 MIS 
 
 JAKA-WALL, probable cause of 
 the, 252 
 Javelins, 45 
 
 — flint, 46 
 
 — bird-javelin of the Greenlanders, 
 48 
 
 — mode of using the, in the chase, 
 169, 170 
 
 — javelin of bone in a skull, 172 
 
 — how this missile was fixed to 
 the shaft, 172 
 
 Jews, their use of stone knives in 
 circumcision, 97 
 
 — their tombs, 154, 165 
 
 Jotnar, or giants, of the ancient 
 Saga, 226, 234 
 
 — origin of the notion of giants, 
 228 
 
 — the Anakim of Scripture, 230 
 
 — the German giants under Ario- 
 nstus, 232 
 
 T7J0KKENM0DDINGS, or 
 •^ shell-mounds, 256 
 Knives, hunting, 38 
 
 — of flint, 39 
 
 — cutting-knives, 40 
 
 — semilunar, 41 
 
 — knife and saw, 42 
 
 — knives implements, not weapons, 
 93,95 
 
 — stone knives used by the Jews 
 in circumcision, 97 
 
 — and by the Egyptians in the 
 process of embalming, 97 
 
 — flint knives in use among the 
 Phoenicians, Romans, and Scan- 
 dinavians, 97, 98 
 
 TAKE -DWB L L I N G S, Swiss, 
 
 xxvii. 
 Laplanders, shape of the crania of 
 the, 107, 108 
 
 Laplanders, their weapons of war in 
 the time of Tacitus, 196 
 
 — formerly spread over Sweden, 
 Denmark, and other places, 201 
 
 — Lapland local names i-emaining 
 in Sweden, 202 
 
 — proofs that the dwarfs and pig- 
 mies of the Sagas were Lap- 
 landers, 207 
 
 — their skill in sorcery, 209 
 
 — remains of their ancient carem- 
 dwellings, 212 
 
 — their modern houses, 212 
 
 — their late use of stone imple- 
 ments, 213 
 
 — their character at the present 
 day, 218 
 
 — comparison between the Lap- 
 landers of to-day and the dwarfs 
 of ancient times, 219, 224 
 
 — Tacitus' account of the Fenni, 
 219, 220 
 
 — as shown in the Sagas, 222 
 
 — their notions as to. giants, 228 
 Leister, or fish-spear, 3:3 
 Letters, probable invention of, Ixvii. 
 
 note 
 
 — no evidence of their being known 
 to the aboriginal Scandinavians, 
 103 
 
 Life-stones, ancient, 215 
 Luttra, gaUery-tomb near, 1G2 
 
 — Baron von Diiben's description, 
 166 
 
 MALTA, ancient cranium found 
 at, 117 
 Men, the word, applied by all rude 
 
 nations only to themselves, 211 
 Metals, no evidence of the use of, 
 among the aboriginal Scandi- 
 navians, 103 
 Missiles used by the ancients in 
 war, 173 
 
 — of the Esquimaux, 173 
 
 — of the New Hollanders, 174, note 
 
270 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 "RATIONS, stages through which 
 
 -'-' they must pass before attaining 
 their highest social development, 
 Ixiv 
 
 Neolithic Age, conclusions respect- 
 ing the, xxiii. 
 
 Xorway, weapons used in, in 1030, 
 193 
 
 — remnants of Thor worship in 
 Norway at the present day, 241, 
 242 
 
 OATH, Phoenician mode of taking 
 an, 08 
 Odin, sacrificial knives used in the 
 worship of, 90, 98 
 
 — human sacrifices offfered to, 98 
 
 — worship of, in Scandinavia, 2-')7 
 Ornaments, 82 
 
 Orvar Odd, the vikiiig, his ad- 
 ventures in Huneland, 197 
 
 Ossuaries of the North American 
 Indians, 162 
 
 — examination of the opinion that 
 the gallery-tombs of Scandinavia 
 were ossuaries, 10.') 
 
 I 
 
 sions respecting the, xii 
 Peat-bogs under the surface of the 
 sea, 2o3, 254 
 
 — their antiquity, 255 
 
 I'igmies of the Sagas, who they 
 
 were, 207. See Dwarfs 
 Plio=nicians, their use of flint knives 
 
 in religious ceremonies, 97, 98 
 Plummets, fishing, 24 
 
 — stnue-beads for, 81 
 
 Pdttery, hand-made, of the Stone 
 
 Age, xxix 
 Punch, 80 ' 
 
 "DEIXDEER, extinct in Scania 
 -^'' soon after the separation of 
 
 Scandinavia from North Ger- 
 
 inanv, 255 
 
 Religious implements of stone, 97 
 Romans, flint knives used by the 
 
 OACRIFICES, human, of the 
 ^ worshippers of Odin, 98 
 Sagas, the secular and religious, 
 205 
 
 — view of the Sagas from an his- 
 torical, not sesthetic, point of 
 view, 206 
 
 — enquiry as to the dwarfs and 
 pigmies of the Sagas, 207 
 
 — the Sagas founded in histoiy, 
 242, 243 
 
 Savages, relation between, of dif- 
 ferent races and tribes, 187 
 
 — their hereditary hatred of each 
 other, 189 
 
 Saws, 80 
 
 Scandinavia, arms and accoutre- 
 ments of the people of, 175 
 
 — formerly peopled by the Lap- 
 landers, 201 
 
 — Scandinavian source of tradition, 
 205 
 
 — remnants of pagan worship, 206 
 
 — introduction of Thor worship 
 into, 2:)5 
 
 — and of the Walhalla worship, 
 237 
 
 — probable condition of Scandi- 
 navia at the arrival of the first 
 people, 244 
 
 — possible cause of its physical 
 changes, 245, 251 
 
 — shell-banks and fossil shells, 247 
 
 — uncertainty as to the time of the 
 arrival of man, 251 
 
 — implements found in the peat- 
 bogs, 254, 255 
 
 — Phoenician and Oimhrian immi- 
 grations, 258 
 
 Scotland, the ' weems ' of, 262 
 Scrapers, 76 
 
INDEX. 
 
 2ri 
 
 Shell-tanks and fossil sheila of 
 Scandinavia, 247 
 
 Shell-beds, crania found in, 116, 
 117 
 
 Shell-mounds, the, xxvi. 25i} 
 
 Siberia, the cavern-d-svellings of, 
 153 
 
 Sljar, Bay of, ancient dwelling- 
 house in the, 145 
 
 Skrcelingar, huts of the, in Win- 
 land, 151. See Dwarfs 
 
 SUngs, 49 
 
 — wooden and ribbon, 49, 50 
 Sling-stones, 26, 49 
 
 Snow-huts of the Esquimaux, 138 
 Sorcery, the Polar tribes .believed 
 
 to be skilled in, 187, 204, 207 
 Spears, fish, 33 
 
 — flint, 35 
 
 — of bone, 37 
 
 — of iron, 37 
 
 — not necessarily weapons of war, 
 94 
 
 Stege, tumuli near, 126 
 Stenshijgen, tumulus of, 148 
 Stioklerstad, weapons found on the 
 
 battle-field of, 193 
 Stone age of different nations, 
 
 191 
 
 — great antiquity of stone weapons, 
 191—195 
 
 — superstitions of the peasantry as 
 to the inherent magic power of 
 stone implements, 199 
 
 Stone implements, not weapons, 
 
 92 
 Stone vessels, 84 
 Stretching implements, 77 
 Superstitions as to stone implements 
 
 and weapons, 199, 200 
 
 — what superstition is, 205 
 Sweden, different tribes of people 
 
 in, at different times, 201 
 
 — Laplanders, 201 
 
 — pagan cairns and Christian crosses 
 in, 214, note 
 
 Sweden, remnants of Thor worship 
 in Sweden at the present day, 
 240, 241 
 
 — state of the country at the ar- 
 lival of the first people, 249 
 
 — uncertainty as to the time of 
 their arrival, 251 
 
 — the Cimbrian immigration into 
 the South, 258 
 
 — the immigration of the Swedes, 
 259 
 
 Swedes, crania of the, 108 
 
 — crania of, compared with those 
 of the Goths, 1)6 
 
 Swords, the, mentioned in the Ed- 
 das and ancient Sagas, 195 
 
 — bronze swords, xxv. 
 
 TA.RTARS, their tombs in Kasan, 
 155 
 Thor, the gigantic tribe who wor- 
 shipped, 234 
 
 — the name still used at the pre- 
 sent day, 235 
 
 — Thor worship, 235 
 
 — his conflicts with goblins and 
 pigmies, 236 
 
 — remnants of the worship in 
 Sweden and Norway at the pre- 
 sent day, 240—224 
 
 Thormodr Kolbrunnarskald, his 
 
 death, 193, 194 
 Thor's hammer, Mjolner, 72 
 Throwing-board of the Esquimaux, 
 
 173 
 
 — and of the New Hollanders, 174 
 note 
 
 — the throwing-strap of the New 
 Caledonians, New Zealanders, and 
 Romans, 174 note 
 
 Thiu'sday, superstitions respecting, 
 
 in Sweden, 240, 241 
 Tombs of the stone age, 124 
 
 — passage-graves, or gallery-graves, 
 124 
 
273 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 WHI 
 
 Tombs, architecture of these prime- 
 val burial-houses, 125 
 
 — their names in various places, 
 125 
 
 — their form and size, 126 
 
 — double gallery-graves, 130 
 
 — similarity of the winter huts of 
 the Esquimaux to the tumuli of 
 Scandinavia, 132, 133 
 
 — half-cross tombs, 147 
 
 — cavern-sepulchres, 154 
 
 — tombs of the Jews and modem 
 Greeks, 154, 155 
 
 — gallery-graves, 118, 124, 159 
 
 — the dos, dyss, cromlech, or dol- 
 men, 159 
 
 — charnel-vaults, 160 
 
 Troll, meaning of the word, 239 
 note 
 
 Tumuli of the ancient Scandi- 
 navians. See Tombs 
 
 — of the Neolithic period, xxvii. 
 Tygelsjo, human remains and war- 
 like missiles found at, 175, 176 
 
 TTPSALA, Odin's temple at, 238 
 ^ Ure-ox, skeleton of the, 169 
 — enmity of the Ure-ox and bison, 
 249 
 
 Ure-ox, period of its existence in 
 Scania, 257 
 
 VESSELS of burnt clay, or stone, 
 84 
 Victory-stones, ancient, 215 
 
 TIT ALHALLA worship, introduc- 
 
 ' ' tion of, into Scandinavia, 237 
 
 War, mode in which weapons of, 
 
 are used by savages, 171 
 Weapons of war, iron and steel, 
 
 found 8n the field of Sticklerstad, 
 
 193 
 
 — great antiquity of stone weapons, 
 193—195 
 
 — the iron weapons of the Gothic 
 races of Germany and Scandi- 
 navia, 195 
 
 Wedges, helved, 72 
 
 — the hafted wedge not necessarily 
 a weapon, but an implement, 95 
 
 ' Weems ' of Scotland, 262 
 
 Whet-stones, 10, 16 
 
 Winland, huta of the Skrcelingar 
 
 in, 151 
 Whistle, hunting, 80 
 
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INDEX, 
 
 ieiON's Modem Cookery 20 
 
 Alcock's Residence in Japan 16 
 
 Allies on Formation of Christianity 15 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 16 
 
 AlVEKSLEBEs's Maximilian in Mexico 4, 
 
 iPJOHN'3 Manual of the Metalloids 9 
 
 ' Aknold's Manual of Englisli Literature . . 
 
 iixoTT'B Elements of Physics 8 
 
 Arandines Cami 18 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson 6 
 
 ArKE's Treasury of Bible Knowledge 11 
 
 Bicos's Essays by M'nAiELV 5 
 
 Life and Letters, by Speddikg . . 3 
 
 Works 4 
 
 ■ Biis on the Emotions and Will 7 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 7 
 
 i on the Study of Character 7 
 
 Bail's Guide to the Central Alps 10 
 
 ' Guide to the Western Alps IG 
 
 Guide to the Eastern Alps Ifl 
 
 BiEiTiED's Drawing from Nature 12 
 
 BiTLDON's Bents and Tillages 13 
 
 Beaten Tracks 16 
 
 Bsckee's Charicles aud Gallvs 17 
 
 Beethoven's Letters 4 
 
 Bextey's Sanskrit-English Dictionaiy 6 
 
 Bjeet's Journals 3 
 
 BucE'a Treatise on Brewing 20 
 
 BiiCEiET and Feiedlahdeb's German 
 
 and English Dictionary 6 
 
 BlUNE's Rural Sports 19 
 
 ■ Veterinary Art 19 
 
 Blight's Week at the Laud's End 17 
 
 Booth's Epigrams 6 
 
 Bouehe on Screw Propeller 13 
 
 ■ '8 Catechism of the Steam Engine . . 13 
 
 ■ Handbook of Steam Engine 13 
 
 — Treatise on the Steam E ngine .... 13 
 
 Bowdlee'b Family Shakspeaeb 18 
 
 Be aklet-Mooee's Six Sister> of theTaJleys 17 
 Beahde's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 10 
 
 Beat's (C.) Education of the Feelings .... 7 
 
 Philosi pphy of Necessity 7 
 
 ■ ' On Force 7 
 
 BsiKTON on Food and Digestion 20 
 
 BsiSTOW's Glossary of Mineralogy 8 
 
 Beodie's Constitutional History 1 
 
 (Sir C. B.) Works 11 
 
 Beowne's Exposition 39 Articles 14 
 
 Buckle's History of Civilisation 2 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers 20 
 
 Maternal Management of Children . . 20 
 
 Bdnsen's Ancient Egypt 3 
 
 God in History 3 
 
 ■ Memoirs 3 
 
 BuKsaif (E. De) on Apocrypha IS 
 
 'a Keys of St. Peter 15 
 
 BuEKE's Vicissitudes of Families 4 
 
 BuETON'a Christian Church s 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 20 
 
 Calvebt's Wife's Manual 16 
 
 Cates's Biographical Dictionary 3 
 
 Cats and Faklie's Moral Emblems 12 
 
 Chorale Book for England II 
 
 Christian Schools and Scholars 6 
 
 Clough's Lives from Plutarch 2 
 
 CoLEWao (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book 
 
 of Joshua 15 
 
 CoLliNS'a Horse Trainer's Guide 19 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country o 
 
 CoHiifBTOjr's Chemical Analysis 10 
 
 Translation of Virgil's jEneid 18 
 
 CoNTAirsEAn's Two French and English 
 
 Dictionaries 6 
 
 CosYBEAEEandHowsoif'aLifeandEpistles 
 
 of St. Paul 14 
 
 Cook's Acts of the Apostles 14 
 
 CoPLAND'a Dictionary of Practical Medicine 11 
 
 CouLTHAET's Decimal Interest Tables .... 20 
 
 Cox's Manual of Mythology 17 
 
 Tales of the Great Persian War 2 
 
 Tales from Greek Mythology 17 
 
 Tales of the Gods and Heroes 17 
 
 Tales of Thebes and Argos 17 
 
 Ceawley's Billiard Book 20 
 
 Ceesy's Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 13 
 
 Critical Essays of a Country Parson 6 
 
 Ceowe's History of France 2 
 
 Ceump on Banking, &c 19 
 
 CusSAira'a Gram:iiar of Heraldry 12 
 
 Daet's Iliad of Homer 18 
 
 D'AUBiGNE's History of the Reformation in 
 
 the time of CALVIlf 2 
 
 DAVirsoH'a Introduction toNewTestament 14 
 
 Dayman's Dante's Divina Commedia 18 
 
 Dend Shot (The), by Maeksmam- 19 
 
 De Bdegh's Maritime International Law.. 20 
 
 De la Rive's Treatise on Electricity 8 
 
 De Moegan on Matter and Spu-it ........ 7 
 
 De Tocqueville's Democracy in America . 2 
 
 DiSEAELi's Speeches on Reform 5 
 
 DoBSON on the Ox 19 
 
 Dote on Storms 8 
 
 Dyee's City of Rome 2 
 
 Eastlake's Hints on Household Taste .... 13 
 
 Edwaedb's Shipmaster's Guide 20 
 
 Elements of Botany 9 
 
2i 
 
 NEW WORKS PDBUSHBD BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 SEWELL'a Passing Thoughts on Eeligion . . 13 
 
 Preparation for Communion 15 
 
 Principles oi" Education 15 
 
 Readings for Confirmation IC 
 
 Readings for Lent 15 
 
 Examination for Confirmation .. 15 
 
 Stories and Tales 17 
 
 SHATV'a Work on "Wine 20 
 
 SHEPHEKD'a Iceland 16 
 
 Shipxet's Church and the World 15 
 
 Tracts for the Day 15 
 
 Short Whiit 19 
 
 Shoet's Ohuroh History 3 
 
 Smith's (Sotjthwood) Philosophy of Health 20 
 
 ■ (J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck 14 
 
 — (G.) Reign of King David 14 
 
 — — Wesleyan Methodism 3 
 
 (Sydney) Miscellaneous Works . . 6 
 
 Moral Philosophy (i 
 
 Wit and Wisdom fl 
 
 SMTTn on Cavalry Drill and Manoeuvres .... 19 
 
 SournET'B (Doctor) 5 
 
 Poetical Works 18 
 
 Springdale Abbey 17 
 
 Stas ley's History of British Birds 9 
 
 Stebdikg's Analysis of Mill's Logic 6 
 
 Stephes'8 Essays in Ecclesiastical Bio- 
 graphy 4 
 
 ■ Lectures on History of Franco 2 
 
 SiiELIBG'i Secret of Hegel 7 
 
 Stosehehqe on the Dog 19 
 
 on the Greyhound 19 
 
 STisASaE on Sea Air 11 
 
 Restoration of Health 11 
 
 Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Cliuich . . 6 
 
 Taylob's (Jeremy) 'Srorks. edited by Eden 13 
 
 (E.) Selections from some Cun- 
 
 temporary Poets 18 
 
 Tennent's Ceylon 9 
 
 WildElophant 9 
 
 Thielwall'b History of Greece 2 
 
 Timbs's Curiosities of London 17 
 
 Thomsok's (Archbishop) Laws of Thought 5 
 
 (A. T.) Conspectus 11 
 
 Todd (A.) on Parliamentary Government . . 1 
 's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physio- 
 logy 11 
 
 and BoW-MAN's Anatomy and Phy- 
 siology of Man 11 
 
 Tbollopb's Barohester Towers 17 
 
 Warden 17 
 
 Twiss's Law of Nations 20 
 
 Tyndall's Lectures on Heat 8 
 
 Lectures on Sound 8 
 
 • Memoir of Faeaday 4 
 
 Uee's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and 
 
 Mines 13 
 
 Van Dee Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology.. 8 
 Vauohak's (R.) Revolutions in English 
 
 History 1 
 
 Way to Rest 7 
 
 Walkee on the Rifle 19 
 
 Waed's Workmen and Wages 4 
 
 Watson's Principles and Practice of Physio 10 
 
 Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry 10 
 
 Webb's Objects for Common Telescopes. ... 7 
 
 Webstee & Wilkinson's Greek Testament IS 
 
 Weld's Florence 16 
 
 Wellington's Life, by Gleig 8 
 
 Wells on Dew 8 
 
 Wesdt's Papers on Maritime Law 20 
 
 West on Children's Diseases 10 
 
 Whatelt's English Synonymes 6 
 
 Life and Correspondence 3 
 
 Logic 5 
 
 — Rhetoric 5 
 
 on Religious Worship 16 
 
 Whist, what to Lead, by Cam 20 
 
 White and Riddle's Latin-English Dic- 
 tionaries 5 
 
 Willich'8 Popular Tables 20 
 
 WiNSLOW on Light 8 
 
 Wood's Bible Animals 9 
 
 Homes without Hands 
 
 WooDWAED's Historical and Chronological 
 
 Eueyclopsedia S 
 
 Weight's Homer's Iluid 18 
 
 Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon 5 
 
 Abridged ditto 5 
 
 Horace 18 
 
 Young's Nautical Dictionary 20 
 
 YouATT on the Dog 19 
 
 on the Horse 19 
 
 SPJITISWOODB