Pre THE GIFT OF Pu,t) 1 1 skers. Put Cornell University Library arV13471 Sentence and theme 3 1924 031 275 005 olin,anx B Cornell University M Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031275005 Sentence And Theme COMPOSITION FOR THE FIRST YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL C. H. WARD, M.A. THE TAFT SCHOOL, WATEKTOWN, CONNECTICUT AUTHOR OF "what IS ENGLISH?" MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK Copyright 1917 By Scott, Foresman and Company ROBERT O. LAW COMPANY EDITION BOOK MANUFACTURERS CHICAGO. U. S. A. PREFACE English is so new a subject, the teaching of composition has been done with such a variety of new and old theories, that we teachers are perplexed by the multifariousness of counsel. There is a wide diversity of judgment about each element of composition-teaching. As to spelling, we may be urged to teach 5,000 words in the grades or only 500 in high school or to attend mostly to 100 ' ' demons " ; we may be told that trou- bles are largely oral or that oral difficulties are a small minor- ity; we may be advised to teach spelling every day or not to worry much about spelling in themes. Grammar is insisted on in one quarter as vitally necessary; in another it is taboo. Punctuation is everywhere called for, but is said by many authorities to be a. matter of instinct, hardly reducible to definite rules for teaching pupils definite knowledge. Para- graphs are like geometrical propositions to one text-maker, and are "largely a feeling for appearance" to some who actually write books. School themes should be organized — many text- books imply— with an introduction and a conclusion; "they should begin and end without those appurtenances" is the judgment of many journalists and authors. Even more perplexing than contrary opinions about each of these subjects is the lack of guidance in correlating them. How much of the virtue of a theme inheres in good spelling 1 Is a grammatical error worse than a misspelling or less heinous than a bit of poor diction ? What direct relation has grammar to composition as a whole? to punctuation in particular? Is grammar an isolated subject, or is it a vital component in the sound teaching of sentence-making? What is a theme, any- 3 4 SENTENCE AND THEME way ? Is it a congeries of unrelated mechanical items, or is it a whole to be evaluated by the canons of literary criticism? To all such enigmas Sentence and Theme furnishes, in one sense, some solutions. But they are the solutions forced upon the writer by experience. Nothing in this book is theoretical ; nothing even originated in postulates which were corroborated by practice. Every lesson, every form of emphasis, every direction of attack, every omission of topics usually found in similar textbooks — all have been forced upon the writer by the necessities of experience. "What particular remedy will remove this particular kind of error?" "What particular sort of ignorance is the cause of this particular type of failure?" By seeking the answers to such questions he has found himself following a certain procedure. Parts of his method he would never have accepted as theory ; he has often been as surprised at the results of experiment as a chemist is by an accidental discovery. Like the chemist, he has ac- cepted the facts, incredible as they have sometimes appeared. He taught for seven years without any glimmer of f ai+h in punctuation, and only after several more years of hard knock- ing by facts was the barrier of his dullness broken down, so that the truth could shine in. For years he taught grammar without faith ; he was not even alert enough to observe facts ; but the facts finally beat their way into his mind. For a dozen years he was almost impervious to the most obvious truth about high-school spelling; only slowly and wonderingly did he finally begin to see what is reported in Sentence and Theme. The writer hopes that his very slowness is a guarantee of the validity of whatever method he has evolved. He has been obtuse to the many and intricate difficulties that the average pupil encounters in learning to make good sentences. Have we not all been singularly blind to the child 's perplexities? Arithmetic should have opened our eyes a bit, for nothing is taken for granted there ; every step is thoroughly prepared for and long dwelt upon. But in sentence-making we PREFACE 5 have, as it were, jumped into decimals at the beginning, leaped quickly to x and y abstractions, and after a sally into analytical geometry have gone back to simple division. We have devel- oped no step-by-step method, as the French have, for cultivat- ing a sentence-sense; we plunge into clauses, leap to "variety of forms, ' ' and then drop back to nominative case. This book is an effort to begin at the beginning, to proceed step by step according to a plan, to make all the grammar work subserve punctuation, to make all punctuation conduce to strength and decency of sentence-structure. No such effort can at present be more than a partial success, because our educa- tional schemes vary so extremely: one sixth grade "manipu- lates clauses," and one university teaches its freshmen how to know when they have reached the end of a simple sentence; the first-year class in one high school may have been drilled to distinguish between a comma and a period, but the correspond- ing class in another school may know almost nothing about such a distinction; one eighth grade may attain real knowledge of simple syntax, but another may be left in almost total igno- rance. Hence a text for general use may be too rudimentary for one school and too advanced for another. The author 's experience with a thousand boys from all parts of the country, from all sorts of schools, includes very few cases of those who would have to mark time in the early lessons of Sentence and Theme. The pupil who finds the matter a mere review is a rarity, and even he profits by review. The other ninety-and-nine find their mental powers fully exercised ; seldom protest that they are learning nothing new. Indeed, no mistake of teachers is more frequent or more time-killing than the assumption that high-school freshmen have knowledge and need only to brush it up. The only safe premise is that they have no knowledge. College instructors in languages will testify unanimously that they can assume only a meager sup- ply of grammatical concepts in the freshman brain. A teacher who has the good fortune to discover a high-school class gliding 6 SENTENCE AND THEME effortless through exercises in simple syntax will easily see what he can skip in future ; but a teacher who anticipates such gliding is almost sure to have a violent collision with reality. In that case reality will suffer no injury. For this work in syntax and for the carrying out of all the rest of the plan the chief reliance is upon exercises. Though exposition in the text be clear, and the teacher 's work be ever so vital and forceful, little will be accomplished in the pupil 's mind until he has himself experienced the facts in a thousand sentences and reported his observations. The writer has never seen that much is accomplished by learning definitions in gram- mar or rules for punctuation. He recommends that memoriz- ing of rules be sparingly required, that they should be regarded as mere introductions to explanations, and that explanations should be only preliminary to what counts — to exercises. True practice is not furnished by a mere pile of illustra- tions from literature. If exercises are to be assimilated and become mental tissue, they must be offered as real daily food. Only the power of divination could conceive what poetical and oratorical extracts have seemed like to literal-minded boys — perhaps like a clouded Sinai of awesome mystery, perhaps like a cemetery of paradigms. Exercises should be brought down to earth and kept above ground; should be made — and should appear to the pupil to be — daily food for daily needs. Hence the writer has tried to gather sentences and passages that have plain human content, and that are really adapted to the needs of high-school students. For example, the un- punctuated sentences in "Punctuation Leaves" have been tested in class-work for eight years; a hundred that at first appeared suitable have been removed because they proved somewhat ambiguous or puzzling. Selections for the exercises have been collected from many school classics — quotations that have touches of life and color. A large number of extracts have been gathered from three recent books. The Centurv Company has permitted the use of about two pages of D. L. PREFACE 7 Sharp 's A Watcher in the Woods. Moffat, Yard and Company- have allowed me to outline for themes four of Ellen Velvin's very entertaining true stories told in her Wild Animal Celebri- ties. Special thanks are due to Ginn and Company for many pages of Keller and Bishop's Commercial and Industrial Geography. The variety of topics, the entertaining quality, and the racy style of this book have made it specially useful for the present purpose. Further indebtedness has been incurred to five periodicals from which interesting quotations have been taken. Since the plan of the book would not admit ac- knowledgment in the text, the writer made bold to ask the editors if he might be a privileged thief "for the sake of the young people, to give them something interesting to work with." TheLiterary Digest said," Certamly." The Outlook said, "You are entirely welcome." Popular Mechanics cheer- fully wished the writer success in his effort to appeal to pupils, and has furnished him dozens of striking oddities. The Satur- day Evening Post has contributed its hundred bits of human dialogue. Strange true matters by the score have been culled from Popular Science Monthly, the editor of which remembers how grammar was once made forbidding to him by too much "Give me liberty or give me death." All these editors have been generous, not to oblige a mercenary text-maker, but in the hope of helping young people to understand and use their own language. Much care has been taken to select interesting material. Yet the aim has not been to furnish entertainment. The pur- pose has been to relate study to common life, to the realities of everyday speech and writing. In every particular of his plan the writer has kept his eye on realities, on actual teachers and human pupils. Teachers will find constant forewarning of those peculiar and incredible difficulties that unfailingly appear in every school and that only long experience can anticipate — e.g.: "the inexcusable blunders" in Lesson 5, "grabbing the first noun" in 6, all right 8 SENTENCE AND THEME in 7, "Galling it the object" in 8, "is the subject acting?" in 9. The pupil is not told about academic generalities, but about those particular aids that will help him through those particu- lar troubles that all pupils always encounter: "no word is in itself an adjective" (Lesson 10), "hyphens while you write" (11), "nothing hard about any one step" (12), italicized, prepositions (13). Such difSculties are not provided for by rules and definitions ; in every case there are examples, illus- trations, concrete warnings, or friendly devices. At intervals are offered topics for twenty themes. These are planned to afford a variety of material requiring some imagination, humor, or sympathy; it is hoped that each will rouse a desire in pupils to entertain an audience with a good narrative. Attention is called to the progression in the out- lines: with the first seven themes there are full directions for paragraphing; the directions grow more brief, and disap- pear after the fourteenth theme. Pupils need at first much help in planning, should gradually be taught to do their own planning, must be taught that a plan is always essential ; sug- gestions should always be very concrete, very simple. The writer hopes he has designed something like a step-by-step course toward the understanding of what a real paragraph is, of what unity, coherence, and emphasis are. The assignments require more work and time, assure more advancement in the power of self-expression, than might appear from the space they occupy. "Why is there not more space ?" is a natural query. There are several reasons. (1) Ninth-grade pupils are not likely to receive much benefit from printed advice about the structure of themes. The teacher's voice, the teacher's guidance of each class, is all that really counts. (2) Instead of writing pages about unity, coherence, and emphasis the writer used his time to find such episodes as would, by interesting the pupil, natu- rally induce him to follow one design coherently to a climax. This device, so profitable to human pupils, takes very little PREFACE Q space. (3) Every teacher will wish to intersperse (or in some cases to substitute) topics of a more local and personal nature, and will need no prompting as to suitable subjects. (4) The brief and artless-looking outlines will, if properly enforced by the teacher, secure a better working knowledge of theme- structure than a set of expository chapters on the general nature of paragraphing. This device of seeing the few natural divisions, making an outline by entitling those divisions, and then writing paragraphs about the titles — this occupies hardly any space. Yet the time spent through many years of experi- menting to make sure of this method would have sufficed for writing dozens of chapters of theory. If "hardly any space" deceives the pupil, so much the better ; the teacher should not undeceive him. (5) A long section of the "Pilot Book" (see below) is devoted to themes. Placing the material there frees the text of what might be needless to a teacher who has worked out his own ideas; leaves teachers free to alter and adapt at their discretion; is convenient for teachers who wish suggestions. Finding and presenting the right topics is one of the greatest difficulties in teaching composition. "In my third year of work," says one teacher, "I secured a manual containing a thousand titles ; many looked promising ; but in the end I got almost no help. ' ' This kind of disappoint- ment the writer has done his best to guard against in the "Pilot Book." He has given concrete ideas about theme assignments ; has offered a few dozen topics that he has learned to depend upon himself; has classified them, outlined a third of them, and called attention to ways in which they may be varied. He believes that in this section every user of Sentence AND Theme will find more matter than he needs. More novel and perhaps more useful than any other single feature of the book is the pamphlet of "Punctuation Leaves" that accompanies each copy. Directions for the use of this^ begin on page 180 of the text. The "Leaves" (additional copies of which may be bought separately) prevent the huge 10 SENTENCE AND THEME waste of time caused by copying such exercises, or the destruc- tion that would result from punctuating them in text; they secure a maximum of work in minimum time. They are adapted to either oral or written recitations. Why this form of work is so potent in improving high-school style is too long a story for a preface. The truth is hinted at by the greatly increased attention to the subject in most recent texts, is guaranteed by experience, is explained in the "Pilot Book.' This manual for teachers, which gives comments and sug- gestions for many of the lessons, may be had by applying to the publishers. It is not a guide obtruded upon those who have their own plans, but a set of explanations designed to insure better understanding between the writer of the book and those who use it. Teachers who wish more detailed comments on all phases of composition teaching may consult the writer 's What Is English? — a vade mecum which may not prove inspiring, but which contains a kit of facts and practical devices. Sentence and Theme offers material for a full year's work, but is so designed that the lessons in grammar and punctuation are a complete unit for half-year use with classes that do not need supplementary drill. Selections could be made for ' ' brushing up " an advanced class in a ten-week course ; and backward college freshmen can profitably be put through the seventeen punctuation lessons, which are sufficiently explained within themselves to be used as a separate unit. In other ways the arrangement of lessons is flexible : the spelling lessons can be assigned according to local needs; the elementary rhetoric lessons can be used as the occasions arise ; the themes can be assigned whenever desired. But though the book is so adjustable, the sequence observed is purposeful : it will be found that the order of the grammar and punctuation lessons can hardly be altered. If a class is so forward that it can safely omit certain assignments, well and good; but each lesson is so carefully planned to introduce the PREFACE 11 following lesson, and is so based upon the preceding lessons, that any change of the sequence will be difficult and probably unwise. The closeness of this sequence may not be apparent upon first view : some teachers might suppose, for example, that analysis of simple sentences could be taken up before tbo study of clauses. But the position of every topic has been fixed by the logic of class-room facts. A more conventional and dapper scheme might have looked prettier, but to the eye of the experienced teacher that plan is handsome which handsome does. The writer has preferred to follow an outline determined by the needs of youthful minds. C. H. Ward. CONTENTS LESSON PAGE 1. The Hardest Words to Spell 17 2. The Spelling of Two Verb-Endings 22 3. Some Common Verb-Forms 27 4. How Themes Should Look 31 Theme 1 — Fishing for Wild-eats 34 -5. Why We Study Grammar 35 -6. Subject of the Verb 39 -7. Subject and Predicate Nominative 44 Theme 2 — He Didn 't Ask for Damages 47 —8. Predicate Nominative and Object 48 -»9. Transitive or Intransitive 53 -10. Adjectives 58 11. The Hyphen in Compound Adjectives 63 Theme 3 — The Umbrella Thief 66 -12. Adverbs with Verbs 67 -13. Adverbs with Adjectives, Adverbs, and Verbs 71 -14. Prepositions 76 Theme 4— Belasco's Cat 80 15. Some Less Common Prepositions 81 ~16. Adjective and Adverb Phrases 85 ■^17. Adjective and Adverb Phrases — (Continued) 91 18. Where Phrases Belong 94 Theme 5 — The Hippopotamus That Hated 97 19. Nominatives of Address and Exclamation 98 20. Three Kinds of Objects 102 21. Two More Accusatives 105 Theme 6 — Clean Teeth 110 22. Appositives Ill 23. Participles in ing ■ 116 24. Aimless Eepetition 121 25. Simple Gerunds 128 Theme 7 — The White-feet Mystery 132 26. Active and Passive Participles 133 27. Commas with Participles 138 28. Why the Commas Were Used 141 13 14 SENTENCE AND THEME LESSON P^"^ Theme 8— Old Mose and Number 2 I'iS 29. The Simplest Uses of Infinitives 1^6 30. Infinitives More Difficult to Explain 151- 31. The Apostrophe Beyond the Name 154 32. Infinitives That Are the Object of To 161 Theme 9 — The Amazed Barber 166 33. Infinitives Are Always Like Nouns 167 34. The More Difficult Gerunds 1'2 35. Punctuation, Rules 1 and 2 177 36. Each Paragraph Is About One Topic 181 Theme 10— The Recruit 18^ 37. Punctuation, Rules 3 and 4 1^9 38. Relative Pronouns, Restrictive 192 39. Constructions of Relatives 196 40. Omitted Relatives 200 Theme 11 — General Grant 's Bargain i:02 , 41. Punctuation, Rules 5 and 6 203 42. More About Constructions of Relatives -07 43. Non-restrictive Relatives 210 44. Deciding About Relatives 214 Theme 12— The Singing Donkey 219 45. Noun Clauses 220 46. Interrogatives 224 - 47. Punctuation, Rules 7 and s 22S 48. Letters 231 49. Punctuation 5, Review 236 50. Punctuation, Rule 9 23S 51. Conjunctions That Are Usually Restrictive 240 52. Conjunctions That Are Usually Non-restrictive 243 Theme 13 — An Elephant Hanged for Murder . . -4S 53. Conjunctions of Which We Cannot Say "Usually" 249 54. Punctuation, Rule 10 254 55. Punctuation, Review of Rules 8, 9, and 10 254 Theme 14 — Americans First 255 56. Analysis of Simple Sentences 256 57. Analysis of Simple Sentences — (Continued) 26.i 58. Analysis of Simple Sentences with a Compound Verb 266 59. Analysis of Simple Sentences with a Compound Subject and Com- pound Verb 26S Theme 15 — Sight Unseen 270 60. Analysis of Complex Sentences 271 CONTENTS 15 LESSON PAGE 61. Analysis of Complex Sentences — (Continued) 275 62. Analysis of Compound Sentences 277 63. Punctuation, Rules 11 and 12 283 - Theme 16 — A Real Detective 286 64. Punctuation, Rule 13 287 65. Punctuation, Rule 14 290 66. Variety in Sentences 293 67. Punctuation, Rules 15 and 16 298 68. Omitted Words 301 69. Uses of It 305 70. Independent Words 309 71. Punctuation, Rule 17 313 ' Theme 17 — The Rash Scientist 317 72. Wrong Uses of Words 318 73. Punctuation, Rule 17 — (Continued) 323 Theme 18 — Honest or Dishonest? 323 74. Punctuation, Rule 18 324 - - 75. Punctuation, Rule 19 326 76. Punctuation, Rule 20 328 - Theme 19— The Seal Band 330 77. The Marks Become Our Servants 331 Theme 20— The Man Who Found Himself 337 APPENDIX PAGE I. Sentences Grouped in Lessons, for Review and Supplementary Work 339 A. Constructions of Nouns 339 B. Transitive and Intransitive 342 C. Participles 343 D. Infinitives 345 E. Adverb Clauses 346 F. Noun Clauses 348 G. Review of Adjective Clauses 350 II. Classified Sentences for Oral Recitation 351 III. Notes for Teachers 365 Index 369 16 SENTENCE AND THEME INDEX TO THE SPELLING LESSONS [Reviews are assigned at the head of Lessons 20, 23, 26, 28, 30, 40, 46, 51, 53, 57, 62.] SEC- TION 1-4. Hard words like too, meant, before 5. Dropping final e 6. Doubling a final consonant 7. ying 8. The parts of lie 9. ie* and ied 10. oy verbs 11. Three o verbs 12. Five ea words 13. The parts of write 14. Dropping final e 25. Possessives of personal pronouns 29. Very hard words, like sure, etc., all right 34. Changing y to i, business 39. ful and o^ts 44. dis, second-grade words, solid words 50. com, ad, re, ness 56, 61, 68, 70, 77. ie and ei 84. ly 92. its, whose, the i words, le 107. ia and at, one « and two s's, soft c and g 117. Troubles with o, «, and ou, crowd 125. Troubles with a, doc« 129, 130. Possessives. 136. Troubles with e 154. Contractions, troubles with ou 175. Words queerly pronounced 186. The e before a suffix 190. ism and uf, double letters, seven trouble-makers 194. el, single letters 208. al, dropped e, prophesy, no extra letters, five marvels LESSON 1 THE HARDEST WORDS TO SPELL 1. The hardest word in the language. Which word in the following sentence should you guess is hardest to spell 1 "When she asks me what "anticipatory narrative" is and which constructions are parallel, her words are too big for me; I don't know their meaning. Do you suppose the most difficult one is anticipatory? or parallel? No, it is too. A whole chapter could be filled with stories showing how hard it is to spell too. One pupil, for example, wrote it correctly through the whole of his second year in high school, was sure he knew it, quit worrying about it; but in his final examination misspelled it. Another pupil, who had been specially trained in too for four years, who had spelled it correctly hundreds of times, wrote it the wrong way near the end of his fourth year. . Another ^vrote it wrong four times during his fourth year — and he was one who stood high in scholarship. Of the twenty-six in his class ten "forgot" at some time during the year. One man has collected 75,000 themes from schools in different parts of the country in order to find out what errors are most common ; our friend with two o's stands very high in the list.* Of course you can spell too if the teacher dictates it in a list of words, or in sentences, when you are thinking about spelling. But that kind of knowledge may not amount to much. Are you sure about just what you will do near the end of an ex- citing theme when your mind is full of a railway collision or a storm at sea, and you have forgotten that a young writer can never be too careful ? Have you so firmly fixed that habit that you cannot go wrong under any circumstances? • See note in tbe Appendix, page 365. 17 3.8 SENTENCE AND THEJIE You may defend yourself Iiy saying. "But teaolu-rs forf.'>'t letters and even whole words when they are writing." ^o they do. The most careful person will sometimes forget the y of they when he is writing iurriedly ; and if his mind gets to running ahead of his fingers, he may occasionally fail to put on the second o of too. But everj' educated person, when writing a letter carefully, is almost sure to have two o's in too; and if once in a great while he is careless, he will certainly see his mistake when he reads over the finished letter before sealing it up in an envelope. In that sense he never misspells too. All written tests in school, and all themes, are supposed to be read over thoroughly before they are handed in. The excuse of "forgetting" is no excuse at all. One of the best schools in the country prints at the top of every examination in English: "The only inexcusable fault is carelessness." 2. What business men think about spelling. Business men have just the same feeling about spelling. They may not condemn a stenographer the first time he puts a wrong letter in rhinoceros or leaves an I out of tranquillity, because such errors merely show an ignorance that is not likety to be re- peated. They sometimes have little respect for mere knowl- edge about the right letters, because tliey know that good spellers may be unsuccessful and that poor spellers may be valuable employees. But an employer has good reason to be suspicious of an applicant for a position who misspells too or their or don 't or know, for such mistakes show a heedless and slipshod mind. Here is the way a business man would talk to a high-school graduate who could not spell: "Part of your work in school was to learn to write. But you hadn't even the brain-power to learn to spell their and which and asks and fnV.<. What chance is there that you will do any better i)i business matters 1 ' ' All the spelling exercises in this book are composed of common words that are commonly misspelled by careless pupils in every school in the country. The words are a selected lot ; they are, like too, mor(^ difficiilt than they appear to be. A SENTENCE AND THEME 19 person who always writes every one of these correctly will not be called a poor speller; a person avIio cannot master them completely will always be in danger of making such mistakes as good firms Avould be ashamed to have appearing in the letters they send out. 3. Habit in spelling. The most useful warning you can give yourself at the beginning of the course is that ordinary words must be correctly spelled every time they are written, that you must set up a habit of carefulness. Such a habit in spelling trains the mind for carefulness in all the parts of composition. Spelling is mostly a matter of forming right habits — easy if we start right, very hard if we have got used to a wrong way. If we had had our attention fixed on too and their as soon as we began to write, the words would never give trouble. But sometimes a pupil has been allowed to form wrong habits and to strengthen them year after year by repetition, to fix them almost indelibly. He may suppose that he has learned tries and may write it many times correctly, so that his teacher believes that the form has been learned. Then in the most astonishing way that old habat will assert itself as naturally as if it had never been touched. It was thought to be dead ; it is really alive and flourishing. We may club it into a pulp ; next month it bobs up smiling. Perhaps a whole year of per- sistent hammering may be necessary to kill it. So part of our work will be a fight against the wrong forms that have grown up in our minds. Some may have a hard time to learn asks, others to fix tries, others to establish their or which. Put your mind intently on each black-type word in the lists of § 4. Two or three of them you have been misspelling for years — unless you happen to be an extraordinary student. Every one has been habitually spelled wrong by some of your classmates — unless your school is different from every other school in the United States. Take your time. Look closely at each letter. See if you suspect that perhaps you may at 20 SENTENCE AND THEME. some time in your life have used different letters. If so, if you feel the least doubt, mark the word or write it down on a slip of paper. Study the lists with care, repeating the spelling mentally. If the words seem childishly easy, wait until the teacher reports on the next set of themes. Try to realize that thousands of high-school seniors would be unable to get a per- fect mark if required to use all these forms in a paragraph dictated by a teacher. Try never to think of the wrong form of a word, for that causes confusion which may last all your life. You will notice that the teacher seldom mentions or writes the wrong form. Never compare two different forms — ^that is, don 't try to learn that "with a & it means one thing" and "without k it means the other." Instead think of similar forms together — for example: Inoiu, l;nowh'<]cie : rough, enough; piece, believe. 4. A list of hard words. This is too large The lesson is too easy They were going too fast Jlay I go too You too are guilty In their house I know the lesson lie knew it He threw the ball The ball was thrown He meant to do right He shows good sense He asks questions He turns the crank He speaks in a weak voice Tired after working We got off the road He ought to have told us He sliouldn't have done that Look for a moment at that have in "ought to have told." "shouldn't have done." Notice the heavv letters in the f oUowang : rough across before enough among once which surprise crowd straight every some SliNTENCE AND THEME 21 perhaps piece of paper sentence probably believe stretch again friend a rough road against his will since toward the house Exercises There are two things to do in preparing this first lesson r 1. Have definite answers for the following questions : What stories show how difficult too is? When is ioo specially dan- gerous? In what sense can we say that an educated person never misspells too? Why do business men think poorly of a high-school graduate who cannot spell ordinary words ? What is said about "forgetting"? about old habits? What is the best way to remember correct forms? 2. Write out sentences of j^our own, not less than eight words long, containing all the heavy-type words in the lists, and take them to class. Ton may put two or three of these words into each sentence ; indeed it is better to do so. But you should prepare not less than thirteen sentences. Some of these will be called for in oral recitation ; some will be written on the blackboard with underlining ; and all will then be handed in. Perhaps not a single error will be found. Then some sen- tences like the following will be dictated to you, the papers will be collected, and a report made (in this recitation or the next one) on what words were missed. Before we could get across the stretch of rough water the wind blew straight toward the south. Perhaps you think we were not sur- prised. Everyone among us believed the captain had good sense and meant to do right, but probably some thought he was too careless. If you should miss two of these familiar words in the dic- tation given in class, your mark ought to be zero ; if you miss one, you will hardly deserve a passing grade. LESSON 2 THE SPELLING OF TWO VERB-ENDIXGS 5. Dropping final e. There is an r on the end of irriti ; it disappears in writing. So of dine, dining; of come, coming. Those look like the simplest forms in the world, as if any child could observe them once, get the principle, and with no mental effort always use writing, dining, and coming for the rest of his life. Yet there are bright students in everj^ school — yes, in every college — \\'ho have never learned to use those forms invariably. .The word writing is hard for some skilful writers who formed a wrong habit in youth. In an ordinary class of thirty high-school freshmen there are four or five who cannot learn in one year to "drop the e and add ing." They know the rule, can apply it readily when asked, but cannot always follow it when they are writing an interesting dialogue. It is exactly the same with dining. Let a class in any school be required to describe their homes, and there will be a number of misspellings of dining-room — unless the teacher has given a very strong warning. Let the teacher say nothing about the matter for a month, and the same wrong form will reappear. Coming is so common that it is worth special emphasis. How do you spell comcf If you drop the < and add ing, what have you? Thei"e is a single t in writing, a single n in dining-room, a single m. in coming. Always expect that final silent e to disappear, as it does in the following common forms : hope hoping shine shining become becoming scare scaring argue arguing use using This is easy to reuite, but rehearsing the rule means little. How about the habit of always observing the rule, no matter how 22 SENTENCE AND THEME -23 absorbed you may be in the subject you are writing on? Until that wrong form strikes you as a monstrosity, you have not formed the habit; you do not in any true sj'use know how to spell writing and coming. Any one who has ever been confused will find he can help himself best by thinking of similar words together, especially in short sentences like ' ' I was writing while they were coming into the dining-room.^' This dropping the c is hard for uneducated people, who can seldom spell using and hoping. You must make using "seem right" to your eye, must get so strong a habit of dropping e that anything but using looks freakish. One curious exception is the verb singe ("he singed his eyebrows"), which forms singeing, so as not to look like ^'singing a song" ; another is dye, dijeing ; and the oe verbs keep e — hoeing, toeing, canoeing, shoe- ing. These look queer, unnatural. There is hardly anything else like them in the language. Tet if you could examine a thousand blacksmith-shops that had signs painted by poor spellers, you would never fail to see the correct form "HORSE- SHOEIXG," with the e. Why is this so? Because every uneducated person loves the c 's, and in this one peculiar case he is right by accident. Every educated person drops the e 's and can hardly make himself keep them in the very few, cases where they are proper. 6. When to double a final consonant. Next we take up the opposite kind of verb form, in which a letter has to be added. Have you ever understood why there ere two p's in stopped and stopping.^ This single word is so common, and therefore so important, that it deserves a paragraph by itself. A person who spells the past tense any other way than stopped — with two p's, let us repeat — makes a whole theme ridicu- lous. Any older relative or employer or editor who finds that word wrong knows, without any other evidence, that the writer is careless in a hundred ways. The same doubling is used with every one-syllable verb that ends in one consonant preceded by one vowel. (The vowels are a, e,i, o,u,y.) 24 SENTENCE AND THEME drag dragged dragging slam slammed slamming plan planned planning plot plotted plotting bar barred barring tip tipped tipping scrub scrubbed scrubbing swim swimming The rule seems perfectly simple. Yet one boy who had been careless during eight years of childhood could not set himself straight in the next Ave years of incessant teaching, and so misspelled lAanning in an important examination when he w;is striving to write very accurately. The verb roll is not one of this kind, but should be noticed hei'e. It ends in two Vs. Its forms are rolled, rolling. Suppose you knew a verb gin, with a participle ginning. If you place before this the syllable &e, touching it lightly with your voice and putting the main force on gin, you will have what is called "a word with the accent on the last syllable." The voice hits the last part nard : it sounds the way begin looks. Its participle is spelled just as the one-syllable participle would be, beginning, with two (is. It is the same with cur, nirring: occur, occurring. There are two r's. It is tlie same with compel, coinpilling; rebel, rebelling; refer, referring. The voice gives a strong stress, an accent, to the last syllable of prefer, of omit, of control: the participles have the doubled letter: preferring, am.itting, controlling. The rule is that if a verb ends in a single consonant, pre- ceded by a single vowel, and if the accent is on the last syllable — that is, if all three things are true — the final consonant is doubled before ed and ing. You think that you get the point at a glance ? Very likely. You can recite the rule, give the illus- trations, go to the board and write compelling and omitting without hesitation. But that is no proof that j'ou "know" anythiiisr. The proof will come a month from now, or a year, when the teaclier is dictating punctuation exercises and your mind is all taken up with semicolons. Can you .write occurring tlieu witli two r'sl Perhaps you have not even noticed that there are only seven letters in control, only one m in omit. Pause a few seconds to sec exactly how they look. There was SENTENCE AND THEME 25 once a level-headed, healthy boy who failed on omit fifteen times in one year. Because he was a poor student? By no means. Because he had a wrong habit. Why is departed the correct form ? Because the word ends in tiuo consonants; our rule does not apply to it. Whj' is repeating the correct form? Because the single consonant is preceded by two vowels; our rule does not apply. "Why is opened correct 1 Because the accent is not on the last syllable ; the voice hits the o very hard and touches the pen only lightly ; the word sounds like open : our rule does not apply. So — once again, to make sure — the rule fits only a small number of verbs, only those of which you may say all three things: (1) single consonant, (2) single vowel, (3) accent on the last syllable. There are a few verbs that look like exceptions, such as equip, which has. two vowels before the p. But here the u is not really a vowel; it has the iv sound, as if the word were spelled ekwip. The rule applies, and we write : equip equipped equipping acquit acquitted acquitting Here are the most common verbs that have an accent before the last syllable : happen happened happening develop developed developing suffer suffered suffering open opened offer offered travel traveled opening offering traveling Exercises I. State definitely why each of the following is correct. (Examples: "Strengthened has only one n because the accent is not on the last syllable. ' ' ' 'Repelled has two I 's because repel ends in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, and the accent is on the last syllable ; it sounds like repel. ' ' ) Write out the reasons for the five words in the first line ; the others are to be studied for oral recitation. Underline the words that you are telling about. 26 SENTENCE AND THEME dropped moaned transmitting listening complained redeemed reckoned blurred despairing climbing shoveling referred soaring deferred demurred softened stirred opening beginning sinned dragooned besotted forgetting shunned occurred II. Find for yourself the right forms of ianquet. Where does the voice strike? Does it pronounce banquet or banquet? In the same way decide about benefit, conquer, regret, broaden, delight, remit, adopt, condemn. III. Write a sentence of your own for each of the following groups, each sentence containing all the words of that group. (Example: "Tou may be careless when snapping the camera, but you are compelled to take pains in developing your films. ") You may use Take the sen- Draw a line under each of the required words, the words of each group in any order you like. tenees to class, to be used in oral recitation and then handed in- 1. slammed hopped 2. tipping dining-room 3. trapped dragging stopped seared offering planned hoping controlled writing preferred 4. broadened lengthened opening 10. rebelled coming 5. benefited suffered 6. occurred using omitted 11. arguing referred LESSON 3 SOME COMMON VERB-FORMS 7. The ending ying. You know how to spell study- studying and hurry-hurrying, but can you do as well witli accompany-accompanyingf Is your eye used to that ying ^ A few little verbs of different form have the same ending : tie- tying, lie-lying, die-dying. Think of these verbs in sentences : "We were lying in the shade", "Why do you suppose he is tying himself in a bow-knot ? ' ' Tying, lying, and dying are the only ones that often occur in school themes. Think of them with trying : " I am trying to keep him from untying the parcel \ that is lying on the table. ' ' ' 8. The forms of lie. The verb lie, meaning "to tell an untruth," is regular: lie, lies, lied. It is well known by every- o one. But the lie that means ' ' to recline ", " to be in a position, ' ' has to be taught in school. Its past tense is lay. Very few piipils can say, "Last winter, when I had the measles, llay _ahed four days," or "My overcoat lay in a cedar chest all summer," or "The snowjtay two feet deep here last April." « Some young Americans never really feel that lay is a past tense at all, because it sounds incomplete ; they are always skeptical .about' it, always suspicious that it is a grammatical fancy, not actually necessary for flesh-and-blood people. Some seem to suppose that lie is a dead word, but such very live places as business colleges still have to teach it. Get accustomed to it. ]Make yourself say, "The ship lies at anchor", "She had been lying there all night ", " She will lie at anchor several days, ' ' ' ' She lay at anchor in the same spot last week ", " How long did you say she had lain there ? ' ' lie lay lain lying 27 28 SENTENCE AXD THEME 9. The endings ies and ied. The change in tir and he is unusual. The opposite change — from y to i — is most common. try tries tried study studies studied hurry hurries hurried reply replies replied cry cries cried deny denies denied Any sensible person can quickly learn to recite on the change of y to ir.s and ierl. But that does not prove that he knows how to spell cries and replies and all the rest. He does not really Iniow the spelling until he has formed the habit of ies and ied so firmly that the wrong form would look absurd next week or next month if it appeared in his mind when he was writing hurriedly — would look wrong before it ever got on to paper. Make ies look right to your eye. That wrong spelling is in your own brain ; you never saw it in print. Get so used to ied that it would be an effort to write anything else. Go slowly through the paragraph below, pausing a moment at each verb form, remembering that what seems natural enough when displayed in a list may appear different when mingled with other words. You never know spelling until you are familiar with forms in whole sentences. When Da\'id is questioned, lie replies in such a spirited iray that Saul trusts him. He tries on tlie armor, but it is not to his liking. All he wants is a, few pebbles that are lying in a brook. There they have lain for thousands of years, rolled about by the spring floods, until now they are worn smooth. Five of these David selects, putting them into a pouch that he carries at his belt, and then hurries to encounter Goliath. ' ' Am I a dog that j'ou expect to drive ofE with a stick ? ' ' cries the giant. David answers, "You are coming with a spear as big as a weaver's beam, but I come in the name of the Lord of hosts. I will give your carcass to the birds." Thereupon he shies a stone with hi? sling, hitting Goliath right in the middle of the forehead. The big Philistine topples over, and while he is dying David cuts off his head, holds it up, and cries, "Charge them now." The Israelites put the Philistines to flight and keep on pursuing them clear to the gates of Ekron. 10. The ay verbs. Expect aji verbs to be regular. play plays played delay delays delayed pray prays prayed dismay dismays dismayed stay stays stayed relay relays relayed SENTENCE AND THEME 29 You may sometimes see stayed spelled another way, but that way is old-fashioned. There are three — and only three — ay verbs that are irregular. lay, lays, laid; pay, pays, paid; say, says, said The compounds of these verbs also have aid: inlaid, overlaid, repaid, unsaid. Learn lay, pay, and say in that alphabetical order and get used to laid, paid, and said. Don't compare them with the other kind, but think of them as a group of three curiosities. They are very common. Remember ' ' laid, paid, and said. ' ' 11. Three o verbs. Follow this plan of "similar forms together" with any word that troubles you. Group it with other words that are like it. If you put lose with move and prove, you may perhaps set yourself straight for life. Remem- ber "lose, move, and prove." 12. Five ea words. In a similar way group together bear, tear, and wear, putting with them for convenience break and the adjective great. "He can bear the wear and tear that breaks the health of some great athletes. " 13. The past participle of write. You know how to pronounce kitten, mitten, bitten, smitten. How, then, must you spell written in "I have ivritten a letter"? Think of it as a "double t" word, with two black t's — written. 14. Dropping final e. There are two u's in pursue; the e disappears in pursuing. It is not so serious to misspell pursue, because it is only one word, which you don't often use. It is not a serious fault if you misspell canoeing, for that is an uncommon form. But to go wrong with the ending of pursuing is the saddest kind of mistake ; it shows ignorance of a simple, general custom ; it proves that you will go wrong with a hun- dred other verbs, that you have not even begun to learn to spell. After you have once thoroughly understood a principle, the most severe marking will be fair if you ' ' forget ' ' when writing a theme. 30 SENTENCE AND THEME This is always true about spelling. Your written tests and themes will be marked down very little (perhaps not at all) for misspelling unfamiliar words, but there is hardly any limit to what must be taken off for violating a fixed principle that applies to hundreds of words. It may not be a grievous sin to have a wrong letter in eliminate or discipline, but it is inex- _cusable not to be able to "drop the e and add ing" ; the last syllables must be correct : eliminating, disciplining. We have reviewed what was said in Lesson 2. We shall be doing that all the year, ilany in the class have no notion how important the rule is ; few realize how hard it is to apply the rule always, in every letter or written test. Four hours of care in the English class will not balance twenty hours of careless- ness in all other classes. Only by repeating and reviewing constantly in this class can we hope to get rid of vicious habits and gradually set up the right ones. Exercise For each of the following groups write a sentence of your own containing all the words of the group. Underline the words. 1. bear lose tries 2. replies lay (past tense of lie) great 3. tying break tear 4. written denied said 5. tried wear moving 6. lying hurries writing 7. lay (past tense of lie) dying prayod 8. delayed writing paid 9. dismayed writing cried 10. denies studying too 11. lies pursuing across 12. cries denies delayed 13. asks studies surprised 14. reproved played stopped 15. stayed lay (past tense of lie) removing 16. proved tying lies 17. writing tries paid IS. laid paid said 19. losing their moving 20. tying ninth running LESSON 4 HOW THEMES SHOULD LOOK 15. The general appearance. An ordinary theme should look like this : ■VT-e-wx^ 'T.ur-B-ia/W Xcr /T.,»-o-vvi^ ^ jju^ir-A. It looks very different when spaces are left between words. When words are jammed together and letters are spaced, a reader's eye has to be constantly prying apart and splicing together. After you have written a word, move your hand along before beginning the next word. There should be gen- erous spaces between words ; there should be no space within a word. 20. Find the errors. Always read a theme through carefully before handing it in. A pupil who is not learning to find his own errors is hardly learning anything. 34 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 1 No Exercise is given for this lesson; it is merely a set of directions for writing the first theme of the year. Write a theme of about 250 words, divided into four para- graphs, telling the story of "Fishing for Wild-cats." First paragraph: A fisherman's hen-roost had been visited by a wild-cat. Tell briefly what sort of man the fisherman was, what sort of home he had, and how he felt about his few hens. Second paragraph: He baited a big hook, fastened to one end of a long rope; the other end he tied to his wrist when he went to bed. Third paragraph: The wild cat gulped down bait and hook, and waked the fisherman, who began to pull in his catch. When the frenzied animal felt the pull, he ran toward his captor, climbed a vine, and leaped into the room. Fourth paragraph: What happened f LESSON 5 WHY WE STUDY GEAMMAE 21. Hunting for errors. What do you consider the prin- cipal faults in the following dialogue between two boys? "Why are you afraidj^the old cuss can't see us. We can pull off this little stunt and get away before he even thinks of turning around. ' ' ' ' Yes, but there 's a hired man. Don 't you see him ? That 's him over there in back of the big bush. ' ' ' ' He 's got a game leg, I 'm not afraid of him, and the old fellow is so busy that I'll bet you'dTiave to shoot a gun to make him turn around. That it 's absolutely safe to take a whole bushel of apples. ' ' Perhaps you object to the slang. But such words as cuss and stunt may be just what the first boy said, may be true to life, and so make the theme interesting. Slang may be a very bad thing or it may be a good thing; all depends on whether it is used in the right place. Some passages in Shakespeare's plays are full of the vulgarisms of his day. So possibly the slang of this dialogue is not in bad taste. You noticed a grammatical error — "that's him." But what would you make a boy say when he is talking excitedly about stealing apples ? Would you have him use ' ' that is he ? " If you did, you might be unnatural; your theme might sound stupid at that point. Possibly you don 't like ' ' in back of, ' ' because it is clumsy. Yet surely this is a small matter, a question of taste. 22. Fundamental faults. What are the big, inexcusable blunders in that dialogue? There are three of them : (1) using a comma and a small letter where there ought to be a question mark and a capital ; (2) using a comma where there ought to be 35 36 SENTENCE AND THEME a period or a semicolon ; (3) writing "that it's absolutely safe" as if it were a complete sentence. These three errors show thai the writer has no notion of what a sentence is ; he thinlcs thai two sentences are the same as one, and that a piece of a state- ment is the same as the whole of it. He does not know how to state his thoughts, for he can only set down bunches of words by guess-work. If he is to learn to write, he must first learn what a sentence is. "The fundamental thing," says the school superintendent quoted in the Preface of this book, "is the mastery of the sentence. The lack of this funda- mental 'sentence sensf' is the most glaring fault in elementary school compositions." He is speaking of the seventh and eighth grades. The fault is much more glaring in high-school composition. Now, the only way in which a student can become "sen- tence sure " is by learning about the uses of words — by studying grammar. He may not need rules or paradigms or classifica- tions, but he must know uses. He must know the ways in which nouns are used ; else he cannot learn about noun ' ' clauses, " and will suppose "that it's safe" to be a sentence. He must know about all the uses of adjectives and adverbs : else he cannot be taught why ' ' who came in " or " where we had left the car " ' are not sentences. He must know clearly the difference between verbs and verbal nouns, verbs and verbal adjectives ; else he will always be in danger of writing part of a sentence as a whole one. A person who has only hazy ideas about the constructions of words can never be ' ' sentence sure ' ' : but one who under- stands constructions accurately can always feel ii-rtain that his sentences are correct and workmanlike. His knowledge will help him further: it will enable him to write more agreeably and effectively. Every grammar lesson in this book is one step toward that indispensable knowledge. Every exercise is definitely useful in learning how to make good sentences. 23. Verbs. We shall begin this first day s work with two definitions. 1. A verb is a word that makes a statement. SKxXTENCE AND THEME 37 1. Moscow is a city. 3. He knows me. 2. The truth is not known. 4. The truth could never be known. Is, is known, knows, could he known make statements. Many words that come from verbs and are somewhat like verbs do not make any statement. For instance, in the passage quoted below, line 4, hopping describes the rabbit by indicating what the rabbit was doing, but it makes no statement; it does not say that the rabbit ivas hopping. So echoing and sleeping come from verbs, but in lines 5 and 6 they merely describe steps and streets. No ing word can by itself be a verb ; holding cannot make a statement by itself. Dried comes from a verb, but in line 9 it merely describes leaves. 1 The njoon cl imb ed higher up the sky, and the mifljites ran on 2 to ten o'clock. We waited. The night was calm and still, and the 3 keen, alert ai£ br oug ht every mo:tement of the wild life about us 4 to our ears. The soft, cottony fo otfa lls of a rabbit, hopping leis- 5 urely down the moonlit path, seemed not unlike the echoing steps 6 on silent, sleeping streets, as some traveler ga^es beneath your 7 window; a wedge of wild geese honked far over our heads, holding 8 their mysterious way to the South; white-footed mice scurried 9 among the dried leaves; and our ears wejg^so sharpened by the 10 frosty air that we caught their thin, wiry scyjeaks. 24. Nouns. 2. A noun is a word used as a name. With an effort like that of a swimmer before sharks Boyt's mind leaped up from the darkness. A noun may be the name of a person or place (printed with a capital and called a "proper noun"), or the name of some object or condition or quality (like pencil, lake, darkness, speed, height, courtesy, cowardice). It is easy to recognize proper nouns ; others may be known most readily by thinking of them as the kind of word that may naturally have a, an, or the before it : the darkness, a height, an argument. The last word, squeaks, in the passage quoted above, is a good illustration of how to go about all grammar work, Tou 38 SENTENCE AND THEME cannot tell whether it is a noun or a verb until you see it in a sentence. Is it a name, or is it asserting? Exercises I. Write a list of all the verbs in the passage about the rabbits. II. Write a list of all the nouns in the passage. III. Turn back to the dialogue at the beginning of the les- son and find the two places where there ought to be a period or a question mark instead of a comma. Eewrite the sen- tences. IV. Be prepared to recite or to take a written test on the following topics: 1. "Sentence sense." 2. What is important in grammar, and why ? 3. What is a verb ? What words are not verbs? 4. What is a noun? LESSON 6 SUBJECT OP THE VEEB 25. Personal pronouns. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. In this lesson we shall speak of only one kind, the kind which show whether we are referring to the person who is speaking, to the person who is addressed, or to a person or object or idea spoken about. I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us refer to a person or persons speaking, and are called pro- nouns of the "first person." You, your, yours (and such old forms as thou, tliy, thine, ye) refer to a person or persons ad- dressed, and are called pronouns of the second person. He, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them refer to something spoken about, and are called pronouns of the third person. A "personal" pronoun does not have the name be- cause it is used for persons, but because it shows this gram- matical difference of "person" — speaking, spoken to, spoken of — first, second, and third "person." Notice the forms that end in s. Perhaps you have a habit of misspelling them ; the s is put on directly, without any apostrophe. ours yours hers theirs its Fix its in your mind. Even though you have no trouble now, you may get into trouble later, after you have been drilled in forms of nouns. "Its has slaughtered its thousands." 26. How to find a subject. This lesson is about one of the commonest uses of nouns and pronouns, as "subject of a verb. ' ' Every sentence in the Exercise has a verb. About every verb you may ask the question, "Who or what?" You may ask, "Who or what did?" "Who or what sees?" "Who or 39 40 SENTENCE AND THEME what could have been elected?" The answer that you gi't will be the "subject" of the verb. The subjects are easy to find in the following short sentences : 1. He passed out of the engine-room. 2. The door of the tube-room stood open. 3. One side of the room consisted of pigeon-holes. You simply ask "Who or what 'passed?" "Who or what stood?" Yet, strange as it may sound, there are some in the class who might be careless enough to give the wrong answer about stood. There are pupils who will blindly grab the first noun before the verb and give that as an answer. But ' ' Who or what stood f" The rfoor. "Who or what conswffd.'" The side. Find the subjects of the verbs in the following sentences : On the desk, on the walls, everywhere were dials and meters of all sorts. Sticking out from the wall toward his seat was a cluster of speaking-tubes. In front of him were more disks and dials. Here at least was the unusual, the mysterious. Who or what wrrrf Dials and meters. Yes. subjects may come after the verbs ! Certainly they may. Never grab blindly at some convenient noun or pronoun in front of the verb. Always take time to ask that "Who or what?" question, and time to get the light answer. There is no other way to tell what the subject of a verb is. The dullest pupil is almost sure to name the subject correctly if he really looks for the answer to that question ; the brightest pupil may recite foolishly if he forgets that question. In oral recitation you will be required to say aloud "Who or what were?" "Who or what stood?" — etc. One specially common way of putting the subject after the verb is to begin the sentence with there. "There was a great shout when they heard the news. ' ' Who or what was ? In "Sticking out from the wall toward his seat was a cluster of speaking-tubes" who or what icrt.s- .■ou really change y to i — not altering anything else — and add ness .' That would give li u s i n e s s— meaning "the condition of being SENTENCE AND THEME 57 busy." Some pupils are tripped up by that word year after year because their eye has imagined a wrong picture. You can never see in print any form but business, in spite of the queer way we pronounce it. Probably a fourth of all high-school students have had (or still have) trouble with business. This one word may not be such a great matter, but the disci- pline of thoroughly unlearning any wrong form trains a person to fight against other wrong forms. He has fooled himself into believing a lie, for the eye never saw that wrong form at all. In his brain is a deep groove — some nonsense spelling. No teacher, no book, can plane it out. Only the person himself — by writing the words many times in sentences of his own, and frequently thinking of the right form — can unlearn the lie that is stamped so deep in his mind. LESSOiN 10 ADJECTIVES 35. Some words that are not adjectives. In Lesson 6 were the "personal" pronouns — /, you, it, etc. These words are used in place of the nouns that really name persons or things. In place of Helen, James, the automobile, we may use the personal pronouns /, you, it; in place of the noun man we may use he; in place of the noun women we may use they. Any word that is thus used in place of a noun is a pronoun. There are . several kinds. One kind, the ' ' relatives, ' ' will occupy several lessons later in the book. Today, before we can begin with adjectives, we must look at two other kinds of pro- nouns, the "demonstratives" and the "indefinites." ' ' Demonstrative ' ' means ' ' pointing out. ' ' In the following sentences this, that, these, and those are used in place of nouns to point out something that is not named : 1. This is the way. 3. We want these. 2. That is mine. 4. Are those the ones? The "indefinites" may be seen in the following sentences. They are used in place of nouns to refer rather "indefinitely" to persons or things that are not named. 1. Are those the ones? 4. Some are born great: others 2. Each has his own task. achieve greatness. 3. None of us knew the lesson. 5. Here are two questions; answer either or both of them. 36. What an adjective is. But these demonstratives and indefinites are not in themselves pronouns. When we see this or 071C or each, we do not know that they are pronouns. ^Ye can only know that they are pronouns if we see them in sen- 58 SENTENCE AND THEME 59 tences, used in place of nouns. When we see "this man" or "one wheel" or "each brick," we find that this, one, and each are used with nouns; they are pointing out or "modifying" nouns. Any word that thus modifies a noun by pointing it out is an adjective. Any word that modifies a noun by showing how many is an adjective. 1. Five miles away is a city of • 3. All things, in the 7iinth eighty thousand inhabitants. inning, the other day. 2. Feiv persons live to be ninetij 4. Every table is full. years old. Any word that modifies a noun by describing it is an adjective. 1. He owned a small boat. 5. The large house stood on a high 2. The road was rough. knoll, from which tlie view 3. The girl was timid. was 'beautiful on clear days. 4. All men are born equal. 6. Jane, quite happy now, smiled. Any word that modifies a pronoun bj' pointing it out, or telling how many, or describing it is an adjective. 1. Each one is in his place. 4. Pew will be careful. 2. That one is lost. 5. Some could have been better. 3. They are eager. 6. Many are indifferent. Thus we reach the definition: Any word that modifies a noun or pronoun is an adjective. Try to get firmly and clearly in your mind the idea that no word is in itself an adjective. There is no way of classify- ing this or other or five or hoard until we see what they are doing in sentences. If a word modifies a noun or pronoun — if it is engaged in that kind of work — it is an adjective. In "He sawed a board" board is a noun; in "He made a board walk" board is an adjective, because it modifies the noun walk, teHing what kind of walk. We do not know whether gold is a noun or an adjective until we see it in a sentence. The word waste is not in itself any kind of word ; it may be a verb in one 60 SENTENCE AND THEME sentence and an adjective in another. You might suppose that street-car is surely a noun, but it might be called an adjective when we speak of " a street-car conductor. ' ' In "The policeman's club hung at his belt" it would be proper to say that policeman's and his are adjectives, for they modify nouns. But these "genitives" and "possessive adjec- tives ' ' are not to be included in your written work. 37. The articles. The little words a, an, and the are adjectives, though they have a special name, ' ' articles. ' ' These are so easy and so numerous that they may be omitted in the Exercise. 38. Predicate adjectives. Adjectives are commonly used after intransitive or passive verbs, just as predicate noims are, to describe the subject of the verb. Thus we may saj- : 1. He was a Inbtorman. 2. He was brave. Just as we call motorman a predicate nominative, so we call bravo a "predicate adjective," modifying he. Exercise Tell what each adjective modifies in the sentences that follow. Prepare your written work according to the ilodel. SENTENCES MODEL 1. The old man became irritable in 1. Olil modifies man. his eightieth year, so that his Mtable modifi^man as a pred- few friends made their oc- casional Tisits to him much shorter. ieate adjective. Eightieth modifies year. Few modifies friends. Occasional modifies visits. Shorter modifies visits. 2. I have no notion why such prizes 2. No modifies notion, are given. Such modifies prizes. Perhaps if you write out ' ' modifies" in full for every adjec- tive in the lesson you may learn for life that it ends in ies. SENTENCE AND THEME 61 The clue for telling what an adjective modifies is to ask, ' ' Who or what was old ? " " Who or what was shorter 1 ' ' 1. The Adamello, gpieadittg over a h undre d s quar e kilometers, is one i of the great glaciers of the worlds 2. Now it has become the s tranges t \ battlefield on which man ever fought, 3. I can give no bette r idea of jXs conformation than this h omely comparison : Heap up a pan of, l oose, jagged, s plinte red rock, with many of the splinters s tickin g up in the air, and pour over it a pailful of white glue. 4. The glue will settle, before it hardens, into the spaces between the rocky points; and here and there it will pour over the edge of the pile. '5. The splinters of rock are the glacia l peaks; the glue is the et ernal ice; the points of overflow are the passes, like the one upon which we stood now. 6. Two hours later they drew up in the valley of the pass that leads to Baranoif 's on Kamishak Bay. 7. The rugged crag that at the outset of their trip that day had shone red and lustrous in the distance now rose sheer and dark on their right. 8. The day was not yet done. 9. The Maytime sun was still shin- ing. 10. The dogs had demonstrated their breeding; they had covered forty tough miles in record time. r-^ 11. "Well, King, they're pretty fit — feet all seem to be O. K., and if you say so we may as well keep on and wind her up on this day's run. / 12. It's twenty miles. 13. We ought to get to the bluff above i Baranoif 's, if we don 't get chewed up by the crow-feed, in about three ^^ninutes before the sun goes black. ' ' 14. The dogs set to the task as if it were but the beginning of the last mile of home-stretch instead of twenty miles of the hardest, most heart- breaking uphill in Alaska. 39. Spelling: a. adjectives in ful. The adjective that means "full of awe" is awful; the adjective that means "full of pain" is painful; anything which we can use to advantage is useful. Such adjectives end in ful, with only one I. Study for dictation in class : The awful bloodshed of our Civil War was useful in making us a unified nation, but it is painful to think that such a fearful price had to be paid for union. The North was hopeful of a short war, but was- not successful for four years, because the Southern generals were so skilful. In compounds like skilful and fulfil there are only single Vs. b. ous. You know and frequently use in writing several 62 SENTENCE AND THEME adjectives ending in ous, like famous, jealous, enormous. They always have an o in the ending. c. uous. Notice the k sound before u in conspicuous; c sounds just as it does in cute. d. ious. The ci before ous causes an "sh" sound, like "shuss" — as in conscious, unconscious, delicious, precious, sus- picious, luscious, officious, atrocious, ferocious, vicious. Any such word written without the i looks like a face without any nose : the central important feature is lacking. The common- est are unconscious and suspicious. It is the i that is necessary to make c sound like sh. It is / that is necessary to give the right sound to the g in religious. e. Bogus is a very freakish, exceptional form. The only other adjective like it is citrus. These are strange and unnat- ural, for we always expect that o in the ending. LESSON 11 THE HYPHEN IN COMPOUND ADJECTIVES 40. Use the hyphens. If you read the following be- iiinning of a sentence, you suppose that made is a verb : ' ' The tailor made clothes that he wore." But when you read on, you learn differently. "The tailor made clothes that he wore fitted better than 'store clothes'." If you read about ' ' a long lost cousin, ' ' j'ou might suppose that he was a ' ' long ' ' person who had been lost. "A thick skinned person" gives an uncomfortable impression that some "thick" person has been skinned alive ; " a head on collision ' ' suggests a head on a collision. All such compound adjectives should be hyphenated. his tailor-made clothes a thick-skinned person a long-lost cousin a head-on collision Specially common are compound adjectives with numbers. a six-cylinder car an eight-hour day a two-mile run ' ' Three-fingered Brown ' ' a five-dollar bill a four-ply weave a one-horse-power engine a two-hundred-mile run a twenty-million-dollar battleship There is nothing difficult about seeing this and learning it and doing the Exercise perfectly. The difficulty is — just as with Sep A rate and with changing y to i — to form t'.ie habit. The hyphen is often necessary to make business letters easily readable. What is "red ruled paper"? Is it red paper that is ruled, or is it ruled paper that is red? What does "your order for two leaved tables" mean? Was it an order 63 54 SENTENCE AND THEME for two tables, or for some tables with two leaves? Is a "copper lined kettle" a copper kettle that is lined, or is it a kettle that is lined with copper? Does "twenty two inch guns ' ' mean twenty guns or twenty -two guns or some guns of a twenty -two-inch caliber? Exercise Read each of the sentences below and decide whether it contains a compound adjective. If it does, rewrite it, putting in the hyphen while you write the adjectivf. It would do you no particular good to go through these printed sentences and insert the hyphen with a pencil, nor would there be much benefit from inserting them after you had completed the re- writing. The whole point of this exercise is to begin to form the habit of putting hyphens in compound adjectives while you are writing them. Get the ' ' feel' ' of a compound adjective. Do not take it for granted that there is a compound adjective in every sentence. Insert any necessary commas. 1. On a down hill road these low priced cars may be as good as any others. 2. We were halted by a gray bearded old man who asked in an easy going way if we could direct him to a real estate dealer 's oflSce. 3. Sleeve valve motors have lately been much improved, so that many purchasers of high priced cars insist on having them. 4. We walked down town on Broadway, but returned on — as a matter of fact I forget which avenue we came home on. 5. This seedy looking gentleman entered a well known down town restaurant with as self possessed an air as if he were a well dressed well to do broker. 6. A twenty five mile tramp through this fast growing region con- vinced us that before many years Pauhup would be a town of ten story buildings and crowded streets. ■ 7. The mud coated his boots and the sun baked the mud, until pres- ently he looked like "a colossus of clay." 8. No self res|)ectiug man should give over anxious attention to the cut of his clothes; still it must be confessed that ill fitting garments are not a help in business. SENTEXCK AND THEME 65 9. Next a dark haired, brown eyed gypsy offered to sell us a twenty three dollar horse for ' ' a mere hundred, ' ' as she put it. 10. He was a bilious looking individual, with a high pitched voice, who seemed to have no higher interest in life than idly watching a Punch and Judy show. 11. The mud coated boots could hardly be seen at this distance, for they were standing against the sun baked gray colored adobe bricks. 12. Eim fire cartridges are used only in rifles of small caliber. 13. During all this lively give and take joking the good natured fellow was as solemn as a church. 14. He thought old fashioned doughnuts better than new fangled sundaes. 15. He was a clean cut chap who had evidently been used to an out of doors life. 16. Ores of a low grade — as low as $10 to the ton — can be profitably worked by this new process. 17. A blood red sun was setting behind rose colored clouds. 18. The hook and ladder company was then put through a ten minute endurance-test. 19. That bubble like mound that we dimly saw in the dusk proved to be a mosquito proof tent. 20. This well known loop the loop performer formerly made a living by taking seventy foot dives into a, four foot tank. i]Q SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 3 (A TRUE STORY) First paragraph: Mrs. Arber was in a street-car, going to do a number of errands. She sat next to a talkative woman. As she rose to leave the car, she absent-mindedly took up the woman's umbrella. You should make it clear that Mrs. Arber was refined and honest, that the woman was of a different sort. Two very short •paragraphs of dialogue : What the woman shrieked out; Mrs. Arber 's brief and quiet answer. Fourth paragraph: Mrs. Arber 's last errand was to get four umbrellas that had been repaired at a shop. When she sat down in the car on her way home, she found herself next to this same woman. The woman, now cer- tain that Mrs. Arber was a thief, was silent and scornful. Fifth paragraph, very short: But she broke silence at length with, ' ■ A fine haul you made today!" LESSON 12 ADVERBS WITH VERBS 41. Examples of adverbs. A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb is an adverb. In this lesson we shall take up only those adverbs that modify verbs. 1. Come in. 6. He could hardly crawl. 2. He works hard. 7. The ship sailed swiftly. 3. This happened yesterday. 8. There yonder lies his home. 4. Then Jerry spoke up. 9. She stepped down and turned 5. He threw the ball back. around angrily. The italicized words tell "where you are to come", "how he works", "when this happened," etc. Adverbs also modify the "verb-like" words, as in: "The little sloop could now be dimly seen, coming cautiously along. ' ' Coming is not a verb, but it is modified by the adverbs cau- tiously and along. In the following sentence constructed is not a verb, but it is modified by the adverb hastily: "This rude cabin, hastily constructed in four days, was their home for four years. ' ' In the following sentence to do is not a verb, but it is "verb-like" and is modified by the adverb well: "He tries to do well whatever he is told to do. ' ' There are many adverbs of many kinds, so that we cannot learn all about them in one lesson. They generally tell when or where or how when they modify verbs, but in "he spoke up ' ' the up hardly tells anything about the way of speaking ; and in ' ' could hardly crawl ' ' the hardly shows ' ' how much or how little he could. ' ' We shall have to learn about adverbs gradu- ally, taking one step at a time. There is nothing hard about any one step. 42. A caution against adjectives. For example, it ought not to be hard to know adjectives when we see them, to 67 68 SENTENCE AND THEME distinguish them from adverbs, and not to include them in today's Exercise. The following sentence contains no adverb: They were weary and peevish after walking such a long way without drinking-water. Weary and peevish are predicate ad.jectires. modifying theii: such and long are adjectives modifying the noun icay. To put adjectives in your list is worse than to omit adverbs. Keep your eyes open ; think just what you are doing. ' ' Don 't include any adjectives" is the first caution for today's work. 43. A caution against prepositions. The second cau- tion is similar : ' ' Don 't include any prepositions. ' ' This is not so easy, because we have not studied prepositions. But you can avoid them if you keep in mind this one statement: A preposition always has an object. sitting on the deck eoming after us floating under the bridge speaking witliout tlihiking In "They were weary after walking" they were not simply weary after; they were weary after ivalking; after is not used alone as an adverb, but has an object and is a preposition. So in "going without his dinner" leithoid is not used alone as an adverb, but has an object and is a preposition. But without may be an adverb in another sentence, if it is used alone to modify a verb. This is the same old idea: the word without is not in itself an adverb or a preposition ; it is a preposition if we say "with- out any money "; it is an adverb if we say ' ' inside it is cool, but without it is very hot" ; it modifies in. telling "where it is hot." Exercise Prepare written work according to the ]\Iodel. SENTENCES MODEL 1. He did not say it proudly. 1. Not modifies did say. Proudly modifies did say. SENTENCE AND THEME 69 SENTENCES MODEL 2. They were weary and peevish 2. There are no adverbs in the after walking such a long way sentence. without drinking-water. 3. Suddenly we were rudely awak- 3. Suddenly modifies were awak- ened by a voice that sang out ened. down below, "Hustle now! Rudely modifies were awakened. Step lively there ! ' ' Out modifies sang. Down modifies sang. Below modifies sang. Now modifies hustle. Lively modifies step. There modifies step. Select only those adverbs that modify verbs. V.1. Most headaches come from causes which you may easily remove by giving rather more careful attention to what you eat and drink and the way you work, rest, exercise, and sleep. v 2. Nothing effective has e^er been done for the education of the Mexican people. The state schools are ineffective. The teachers them- selves are rarely prepared to teach. 3. We then went out into deeper water and dived jn JieadJong. 4. Sometime s we could not see the mountains at all ; agaifi they would loom u£" griijily far awav inland. [At is a preposition, joining all to could sve.] 5. Often he seemed to care little for food, but occasionally he would gobble the flies ravenously. 6. Naturally the soldiers went forward unfalteringly, though they knew surely that they would never return alive. 7. Thereupon he stood up once more and spoke vehemently again of how deeply grieved the parishioners had been. 44. Spelling, a. The prefix dis. Some very common words begin with dis. "Two friends may agree or they may disagree." Probably every one in the class can spell appear with two p's and can say, "I put dis before it to make disap- pear, ' ' but in spite of this some of your classmates may not on a test write disappear with one s and two p 's. Appoint is per- 70 SENTENCE AND THEME feetly easy, with two p 's ; every one can spell it and every one can say, ' ' I put dis before it to make disappointed. ' ' Yet some pupils fail again and again during a whole year to write the word with one s and two p's. Have you ever written them the wrong way ? If so, you have a fight before you. The old habit will trick you every now and then unless you train your- self by always keeping your mind on what you are doing when you write disappoint or disagree or disappear. The dis is put directly before the verb — whatever it hap- pens to begin with : dis + satisfy = dissatisfy. So with mis : mis + spell = misspell. b. Some second-grade words. Make sure of the fol- lowing words (usually taught in the second grade), thinking of ikere as a sample of all the rest. Of course you can write ihere correctly if a teacher dictates "there are twenty in the class" or "it is warmer over there in the comer"; there is nothing hard about the word in itself ; but have you the habit of always using t-h-e-r-e when you mean "there"? Stay there Wait until six o'clock A new rule (only one /) He has just come. He made a speech every week c. Some solid words. The next four are solid words with only one 1: They are almost ready "Although he almost always It is already eleven o'clock studies hard, he has already He always comes misspelled nineteen words." Although I don't want to go Here are some more solid words ; learn to write them always as solid words : We walked along together He goes nowhere without his purse This is altogether too hard for me Oranges at five cents apiece She writes without thinking Inside this box He does whatever he likes He ran outside of the base Wherever they go They use beads instead of money These are, nevertheless, hard LESSON 13 ADVERBS WITH ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, AND VERBS 45. Adverbs with adjectives. Adverbs often modify adjectives, to show how much or how little of the quality there is. 1. They are very weary. 4. The jar is almost half full. 2. We are somewhat uneasy. 5. Are you quite sure that you can 3. That is ro"onouns that are in the nominative case. Prepare written work according to the Model. SENTENCE MODEL 1. Oh, Lord! My dear fellow, you 1. Lord is used as an exclamation have become a perfect maniac. Fellow is used in address. You is the subject of have become. Maniac is a predicate nominative with have become. This Exercise requires close attention. You are not to guess vaguely that any noun or pronoun is in the nominative case. Try to get every nominative in your list, but remember that it is worse to put in an object than to overlook a nomina- tive. Include such words as this, those, all, some, each, otherx, etc., if they are really pronouns in the nominative case. Two of the sentences contain no nominatives. There should be thirty nouns and pronouns in your list. 1. Imagine a man sleeping soundly through all that! 2. Lincoln showed his book to the judge of the court of appeals. 3. He would run a horse to death getting there, make for the back room of the Turf Club, where all kinds of gambling games are run, and there lose every bit of the money. 4. In such a case, my lord, doa't you think that a little mercy might be shown? 5. On, on they plodded, until they became mere specks in the distance. 6. My dear Mr. Murray, You're in a great hurry To set up this ultimate canto. 7. Each is pleased; neither feels cheated — and that is the best reeult possible. 8. Some are not fond of it, but others like the taste as soon as it hits their palate. 9. When water is heated very hot, steam is generated, and this, if kept under pressure, possesses a, great power of expansion. 100 SENTENCE AND THEME 10. This would not have been a very pleasant meal if choice wines had not been brought from the prince's carriage. 11. Come out into the garden and get a breath of fresh air. 12. Each part of this drill may have been good exercise in itself, but the whole result could hardly be called a success. 13. In the meantime western Canada remained an almost untrodden wilderness. 77. Spelling: the full rule for ie and ei. The first line of our "ie and ei" rule stated what is generally true; the second and third lines gave six exceptions : I before e when sound is long e. Seize, inveigle, either. Weird, leisure, neither. This is one half of the whole rule. The other half is going to be like it : the first line states what is generally true : Ei after c or when sound is not c. What are the exceptions? There are onl.y seven that are common enough to be put into a useful jingle. Two we have already had — financier and fierij. Two more we really know if we learned chief — mischief and }iandker chief ; for chief means "head" or "principal"; mischief used to mean "injurj' in some principal matter," and handkerchief means literally "a head-covering used in the hand. ' ' The last syllables no longer have the long r sound. A fifth exception we had in Lesson 1, frievfl; the sound is not long e. In sieve the soimd is not long c. In view, a common word, the sound is not lom.; e. (And a sim- ilar word, uncommon, is lien — "he took goods in lieu of money.") These seven exceptions may be jingled thus: Financier, fiery, and mischief, Friend, sieve, view, and kerchief. Commit these two lines to memory so thoroughly that they say themselves rapidly in your mind. Make them jingle by using SENTENCE AND THEME 101 three accents in each Ime, where the italic type is in the following : Financier, fieij, and mischief, Friend, sieve, view, and fcerchief. If you will get perfectly familiar with this six-line rule by frequent repetition, by using it quickly in tests on spelling, you will find it as simple as "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November. ' ' A person who knows the six lines, and who sees clearly just what the arrangement is, will very seldom have trouble with ie and ei. Nothing could be simpler than that arrangement; the rule is in two parts : I. When do you expect ie? Six exceptions. II. When do you expect eif Seven exceptions. Here it is : I. I before e when sound is long e. Seize, inveigle, either Weird, leisure, neither II. Ei after c or when sound is not e. _ Financier, fiery, and mischief Friend, sieve, view, and kerchief LESSON 20 THREE KINDS OF OBJECTS Review for a spelling test the words given in Lessons 1, 2, and 3. 78. The direct object. We have studied the direct object of a verb, as in "He found a dollar.'^ There are two other kinds of objects. 79. The indirect object. If we say. "He paid their wages," wages is a direct object. We might insert a phrase to show to whom he paid: "He paid to the clerks their wages.'' But this is made-up English ; it is not an expression that people really use. We express the idea with the noun only : ' ' He paid the clerks their wages." Similarly we say, "I gave the tratirp a dime" or "I bought the boy a coat" or "He gave me a quick glance." Such nouns or pronouns that show, without any preposition, to whom or for whom an action is done are called "indirect objects." An indirect object is never found apart from a direct object,* except in one special construction explained in the next lesson. The following are examples of indirect objects: 1. He made a bow; he made me a bow. 2. He threw a letter ; he threw us a letter. 3. He handed the mdid his card. 4. The king granted Johnson a pension. 5. The islanders told Captain Conk queer stories. 6. He waved the ladii a farewell. 7. He taught the 601/ Greek. s. Satan showed Clirixt all the kingdoms of the world. * See note in .\ii[)rn(Ux, page 305. 102 SENTENCE AND THEME 103 Some pupils have a strange fondness for arguing thus: ' ' But couldn 't you say that he waved a farewell to the lady ? ' ' The answer is : " Yes, we could say that.. If we said it, we could make lady the object of a preposition. But the author said nothing of the kind. In tlie author's sentence there is no io; the author was not thinking of to when he wrote; would not allow to to be inserted. Lady is the indirect ob.ject. " Be sure that you have fixed these two ideas in your mind : (1) With an indirect object there is never a preposition; (2) there is always a direct object. 80. The objective predicate.* The third kind of object is seen in "They elected Harry captain" and "Smith named the region Virginia,." Captain shows what they made Harry become ; Virginia shows what Smith made the region become in name. Captain and Virginia are called "objective predi- cates," meaning "words which are a kind of predicate to explain the direct object." Other examples are: 1. The Eussians called the Czar "Little Father." 2. They made the negroes slaves. 3. We fellows always considered him a coward, but now we think him a hero. An objective predicate is usually after a direct object, showing in some way what the direct object is made to become, to be called, to be considered, etc. It always explains the object and means the same thing as the object. Though direct and indirect objects are always nouns or pronouns, the commonest kind of objective predicate is an adjective. 1. We thought him clumsy. 4. We judged the ice perfectly 2. This made us angry. safe. 3. The boys called him cow- 5. His teachers considered ardly. Grant dull. * The authorized term is "adjunct accusative," which should be used by schools that have no preference for the more descriptive name. 104 SENTENCE AND THEME Exercise Prepare written work on all the direct objects, indirect objects, and objective predicates in the sentences given below. Use the following Model. SENTENCES MODEL 1. The congregation gave their 1. Pastor is the indirect object of pastor a large, solid-silver loving- gave. Loving-cup is the direct cup, vphich made him very happy. object of gave. Him is the direct object of made. Happy ia the objective predicate after made. 2. Since he acted so courteously 2. There are no objects, toward us, we think that he is improving in hia manners. 1. The pirates had for many years made this place a retreat in times of danger. 2. The way all the fellows laughed at him during that first week made him very humble. 3. He would have traded his gold watch for a simple loaf of bread. 4. This daring exploit on the roof of a burning building gained him a great reputation for bravery. 5. When the grandfather died, he left to this young scapegrace a very handsome fortune. 6. Though this god-like aon of a sea-goddesa aulked in his tent for a long time, he finally became once more the terribly active foe of the Trojans. 7. Perhaps he did act according to his conscience, but his delicate conscience is nothing to us; we are going to see that justice is done, and that he is put in the penitentiary. 8. If there was anything marvelous in the Baron 's stories, his hearers were lost in astonishment; and if there was anything hxunorous, they were sure to laugh exactly in the right place. 9. Nowadays many doctors do not consider wine a good thing for the digestion, and most of them offer ua proof that alcohol is not a food. 10. A man who can keep himself free from all contagion during such an epidemic will be peculiarly fortunate. 11. Every good instinct of the human heart arrays itaelf against the man who deserts his helpless children. LESSON 21 TWO MORE ACCUSATIVES 81. Retained object. There is one kind of object which is so exceptional that we should not need to study it if our only business were to understand nouns. But a knowledge of it is necessary for the work with "infinitives" and for the longer and more important campaign with "clauses." It is easily understood by observing a series of examples. 1. Herman showed the letter. 2. The letter was shown by Herman. A sentence containing a transitive active verb may always be changed in that way : we take the object, make a subject of it, ' and change the verb to a passive form. Other examples are : , (The captain gave a command. JA command was given by the captain. 2 (Bob sold his watch. (The watch was sold by Bob. Now consider a sentence with an indirect object in it — "The foreman offered him a place." We may change this to a pas- sive form by beginning with the indirect object, making a subject of it : " He was offered a place by the foreman. A strange thing has happened — that object is "retained" after a passive verb. On no account call it the "object of a passive, ' ' for there is no such thing. It is merely ' ' retained ' ' in that position after the change is made ; it is stranded high and dry. It is an object, just as a ship on dry land is a ship ; but it is no more the ' ' object of a passive ' ' than ships are used for sailing on land. An indirect object may also be retained, as in " The letter was shown him by the steward. ' ' 105 106 SENTENCE AND THEME Don't cultivate this retained object in your writing. It is seldom needed and is usually a weak and tiresome form. But it is fairly common in literature in such expressions as : 1. Here we were shown a beautiful view. 2. He was awarded a pension. 3. We were assigned seats. And clauses are commonly so used. The italicized groups below are an object and a retained object. 1. He told us that the lesson was easy. 2. We were told that the lesson was easy. 82. Adverbial nouns. Nouns may show how much, how far, when, how, etc. 1. The Niagara Falls are nearly 200 feet high. 2. He walked a long time. 3. This morning it rained. 4. He waited an hour. 5. A good deal higher. 6. Dive this way. The word feet modifies the adjective high, and so is used like an adverb ; time modifies walked, and so is used like an adverb ; morning modifies rained: hour modifies waited; deal modifies higher; way modifies dive. It would be proper to call such words adverbs, for they are doing the work of adverbs. But since they are names and are modified by adjectives ("walked a long mile"), they are called "nouns used adverbially." Of course these adverbial modifiers could be expressed with prepositions: "walked for miles", "in the morning it rained." Here the nouns are objects of prepositions, and the phrases modify. But in "we walked a mile," mile is adverbial. 83. Summary of constructions.* Four kinds of objects with verbs have now been explained : (1) direct object (Lesson •An indirect obji'ct is salO to be in the dative case; the otiiers are called accusative. SENTENCE AND THEME 107 8), (2) indirect object, (3) objective predicate, (4) retained object. And with these belongs (5) the adverbial use. Exercise In the numbered sentences below select the nouns and pro- nouns that are in any of the five constructions listed above, and state what the construction is. SENTENCE MODEL 1. Last night we were given a 1. Night is adverbial, modifying hearty reception that lasted two were given. Reception is a hours, and this morning we have retained object after were offered them a return of hospi- given. Hours is adverbial, talities with a two-minute break- modifying lasted. Morning is fast. adverbial, modifying have of- fered. Them is the indirect object of offered. Return is the direct object of offered. 1. She came to the Broad Beach Inn, arriving on the late afternoon train, registered, vanished, and came down to dinner in a gown of hand- painted chiffon which was conspicuous even in that fashionable place. 2. After he had driven the ball about thirty yards into some tall grass he paid the caddy an extra dime and walked sadly home. 3. They say I can talk all the time; but I can keep still if I want to, and I walked to the sawmill, six miles away, in complete silence. 4. After we had driven a short distance we were shown a most unusual sight. . 5. How much trouble that broken chain caused us can be understood only by those who have had a similar experience. 6. We made the little cub a home in a pen only a rod long and seven feet wide. 7. Do it just the way I tell you; you can't give these woodsmen the notion that you have a good deal more knowledge than you really have. 8. Though we were carried part of the way in a wagon, we were mighty tired when we got back. 108 SENTENCE AND THEME 9. This might be considered a fault in some people, but we grant him the privilege of talking as loudly as he likes. 10. By this illness he was taught a good lesson, and so was spared much suffering in later life; but he was always denied perfect health. 84. Spelling: the ly ending. The ending ly is some- times added to nouns to make adjectives: a beastly cold, a cowardly act, the heavenly messenger. But much more com- monly it is added to adjectives to make adverbs : winter will come shortly, speaking pleasantly, evidently embarrassed, evenly divided, queerly arranged. It will do you no harm to remind yourself again that if an adjective ends in y, the y is changed to i before ly is added : luck i ly, eas i ly, bus i ly. happ i ly. You know the adjective final, as in "the final game", "the umpire's decision is final"; but can you put ly on to final, so as to make final -t- ly = finally, with two I's, finally? It is a, curious study for a teacher to watch pupils struggle with an old bad habit of misspelling finally. One pupil has been used to writing it as if it came from the adjective fine; another has picked up — he knows not where — a habit of inserting an extra i; another has been accustomed to spell- ing the adverb as if it came from an adjective fina. Each and all can see at a glance what the right form is, can tell about it perfectly, can write it correctly in a spelling test. Each supposes that he has killed an eight-j-ear-old enemy in his brain. But long-fixed habits laugh at such confidence. They smile, and bide their time. A month later they may send their victim sprawling again. Another al adjective is usual. It is fairly hard in itself — two u 's, you see. But the mental effort required to write iisual with two m's, and then to add ly, so that the adverb has two I's — that is greater than some minds can nerve themselves to. The adverb really is vsnally. And do you see that "really"? It is formed by the adjective real + the ending ly = really, with two I's. SENTENCE AND THEME 109 general + ly = generally natural + ly = naturally accidental + ly = accidentally special + ly = specially especial + ly = especially practical + ly = practically grammatical + ly = grammatically with two m's and three a's The clue is perfectly simple: "What is the adjective?" Do you mean that something happened "in former times"? Then you must write ' ' former + ly = formerly. ' ' Do you mean that something happened "in an evident way"? Then you must write ' ' evident + ly = evidently. ' ' Do you mean that the polite old man acted " in a very formal way ' ' ? Then you must write " formal + ly = formally. " Do you mean that the gun was discharged "in an accidental way"? Then you must write ' ' accidental + ly = accidentally. ' ' Adjectives ending in ic add an al before taking the ly ending : artistic + al + ly = artistically enthusiastic + al + ly = enthusiastically emphatic + al + ly = emphatically sarcastic + al + ly = sarcastically frantic + al + ly = frantically But ly is added directly to public, and we have the very peculiar adverb publicly. 110 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 6 The teacher will read an account of how it was proved in the Cleveland schools that clean teeth are necessary to health. Tell about this experiment in three or four paragraphs, accord- ing to the teacher 's outline. LESSON 22 APPOSITIVEE 85. Ordinary appositives. A noun that is set along- side another noun or a pronoun to explain it is said to be " in apposition ' ' ( from a Latin word meaning ' ' set next to " ) . "In his charming liome, an old farmhouse, we spent a week." Here the noun farmhouse is set alongside the noun home to explain what kind of building the home was. An appositive is usually dropped disconnectedly into a sentence, and so is surrounded by commas or parentheses or dashes. 1. His grandmother, a woman of ninety-two, greeted us cordially. 2. The old corn-cob pipe, his favorite, had disappeared. 3. ' ' Phlegmatic, ' ' a useful word, he would never use. 4. Trolley cars (those that receive power through a "trolley") were unknown in 1880. 5. To call him a renegade, one who denies his faith, is not quite fair. 6. Our next-door neighbor, an old vaquero, was most suspicious. 7. The nearest stream — a mere rill — was three hundred yards away. Sometimes a personal pronoun is in apposition : ' ' That young buck over yonder, he in the red shirt, might sell his pony. ' ' Sometimes a word is repeated as an appositive : ' ' And this one — the one that you overlooked — was worth $25." 86. Separated appositives. An appositive may not be next to the word it explains. 1. There are many idioms in our language — constructions which, for the most part, cannot be justified. 2. Special and repeated drills are given on the real trouble-maTcers — the one hundred words that comprise four-fifths of the mis- spelled words of the schoolroom. 87. Appositives at the end of a sentence. An appositive is often at the end of a sentence, set off by a dash. One thing I have no use for — ruhhers. Ill 112 SENTENCE AND THEME Pinal appositives are often a series Of words explaining one general term. The northern countries raise great quantities of grains which are more hardy, though less valuable, than wheat — rye, oats, and barley. Such a series is very commonly introduced by some word or phrase lilrice ? It is the subject of teas. 177. First take out the clause. There is only one pos- sible way to understand a sentence that contains a clause — first remove the clause. Even pupils who have had a good deal of practice will continue to give foolish answers unless they first think to "remove that clause"; and pupils who have never studied relatives can very soon give sensible answers if they will always "take out that clause first." For a clause is a kind of little sentence within a sentence ; it has a subject and verb of its own ; it may have all kinds of objects and long, com- plicated modifiers ; it may have clauses within itself, and there may be a clause within a clause that is within a clause. Not 196 SENTENCE AND THEME 197 until we have learned to begin at the outside and to go to the innermost clause one step at a time can we know surely how a sentence is put together. Perhaps you are thinking that such a series of clauses would be written only by learned essayists. No, they are not uncom- mon even in easy-going conversation — for example: "Oh, well, the boat that won when you saw the race that we had last summer wouldn't have a show this year." The sentence is arranged like this : The boat wouldn't have a show this year that won when you saw the race that we had last summer When the picture like that is drawn, \,'e can see at a glance that boat is modified by a clause, that a word of that clause, won, is modified by a clause, and that within that clause race is modified by a clause. Make pictures of that kind in your mind- The easiest way to picture relatives is to think of the clause as a group of small words hanging down from the principal words — HE PUT UP A MAP that had red lines on it The grammatical name for these groups is "subordinate clause"; suhordinate means "lower in importance." 198 SENTENCE AND THEME 178. The verb gives the clue. The great secret about getting the correct pictures of clauses is to begin with verbs. It is always the verb that is of first importance; the clue is always given by the verb. Every verb has a sub.ject. As soon as you have a verb and its subject, you can easily tell what modifiers and objects and predicates belong with them; then you have a complete clause. If you find another verb within the clause, that almost surely means that another clause is to be accounted for. There may be a compound verb (Uvo verbs with the same subject), but the maxim to have always in mind is "One verb, one clause." Exercise Write a list of all the relative clauses in the following sen- tences ; say what each clause modifies, and give the construction of each relative. Follow the Model. SENTENCE MODEL 1. The peddler who sold me the 1. Who sold me the knife modifies knife that you are using was an peddler; who is the subject of old Armenian. sold. That you are using modi- fies knife; that is the object of are using. 1. The pistol which he pointed at the burglar who confronted him was not loaded. 2. The beauty and magnificence of the buildings that had been erected by the sovereigns of Hindostan amazed even travelers who had seen St. Peter's. 3. That fellow would never be called a good quarterback by any one who had seen the snappy kind of playing that they have at the bis colleges. 4. In all the shops that we visited he would ask the prices of a lot of articles that he had no idea of buying. 5. He showed me an old rusty broadsword that had been used by a knight who died in the battle of which he had spoken. SENTENCE AND THEME 199 6. There was not one of the judges who had the least knowledge of the customs of the millions over whom they had such boundless authority. 7. A man whose conscience is in good working order will seize every opportunity that is offered to advance himself. 8. He is a manager in whom we have every confidence, but from whom we can't expect many bright ideas. 9. We already have an income tax that is pretty well developed as to the attic. All that it needs is some lower stories. 10. In the big preparedness parade which took place in New York in May Digby Bell, the comedian, led a company that was made up largely of actors, theatrical managers, and playwrights from the Lambs ' and the Players' clubs. 11. I used to know a theatrical manager who lived in San Fran- cisco, and he knew a contractor who did a good deal of work for the city. LESSON 40 OMITTED RELATIVES Eeview for a spelling test the ie and ei words given in Lessons 14, 15, 16, 17, and 19. 179. Understood relatives are objects. Instead of saying ' ' the race that we had last summer ' ' we very commonly omit the relative, saying ' ' the race we had last summer. ' ' So we are more likely to omit some of the relatives that appeared in the previous lesson, writing: "the knife you are using," "the pistol he pointed at the burglar", "the kind of playing they have at the big colleges", "all the shops we visited," etc. We cannot say, "The man sold me the knife was an Arme- nian," but do often say, "the man I like best" for "the man whom I like best." Omitted relatives are objects.* We should be all at sea as to what words are doing in sen- tences unless we knew about "understood relatives." They are important enough for a whole lesson. Exercise Prepare a list of all the relative clauses in which the pro- nouns are understood. SENTE.XOE MODEL 1. The man who sold me the knife 1. [That] you are using modifies you are using was an Armenian. knife ; that is the object of are using. 1. All it needs is a little oil ; get the can you see under the seat. 2. The policeman we had on this beat last year was not nearly so pleasant as the one we have now. • See note In the Appendix, page 366. 200 SENTENCE AND THEME 201 3. Think of the rule we had yesterday and see if you get the answer you ought to give. 4. The debates they hold in Congress may be very interesting reading for a man, but I don 't see how a girl can be expected to g§t any pleasure out of them. 5. Five minutes' work a day on the part of each of them and closer attention to personal cleanliness would keep their rooms in very respect- able shape. 6. Allow him to go ashore, if he so desires, in ports of the United States, but insist on his return from foreign ports with the ship he entered in. 7. The only evidences of the combat we have had have been vague rumors about tens of thousands of lives lost, and an occasional sight of some wounded stragglers from the front. 8. His friend the doctor had passed the crisis and was slowly coming back to the life he thought he had laid down forever. 9. The struggle he had to persuade his mother to give him per- mission lasted all evening. 10. After we had feasted on the contents of the box they sent us from home, we wrote a letter of thanks, trying to give them some faint notion of the pleasure they had given us. 11. The feeling I have about the question you ask me is not at all a pleasant one. 12. We like all the boating and tennis we get at this resort, but we certainly do hate the mosquitos we are bitten by every evening. 13. His country-seat abounds with everything he needs for studious retirement, tasteful gratification, or rural exercise. He puts no con- straint upon either his guests or himself, but, in the true spirit of hospitality, provides everything his visitors need for enjoyment, and lets every one have the kind of pleasure he likes best. 14. All the wealth Captain Kidd ever buried would not tempt me to go out on a night like this in the crazy old boat he showed us this morning. 15. Just imagine the feelings I had when I discovered in the old coat I was throwing away the letter you gave me to mail seven months ago. 16. His nature is so perfectly honest that he cannot hide the dislike he has for the greasy food you set before him every day, 202 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 11 A good title is to be found, paragraphs planned, and a list of brief paragraph-titles given. These directions apply to every theme from now on, and will not be repeated. When General Grant was a youth of sixteen, his father sent him to a county fair to sell a horse. His instructions were to ask $150, but to sell for $100 if he could not do better. Young Grant artlessly told a horse-trader just what his father had said. The trader offered $100. "That's what father said," answered Ulysses, "but I'm not going to sell for less than $175." LESSON 41 Punctuation, Rules 5 and 6 ADDEESSES AND DATES, PAEENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS 180. Rule 5. The items in addresses and dates should be set off by commas. .1. Walt Whitman was born at West Hills, Long Island, New York, on May 31, 1819. 2. On January 3, 106 B. c, near Formiae, Italy, Cicero was assassinated. ■ 3. This was mailed at Vaneleave, Jackson Co., Miss., March 12th, 1915, at 3:30 p. m. 4. She lives at 202 Douglas Avenue, Hyde Park, Chicago. Comment 1. Commas are not used between figures and the names or abbreviations that they modify, because May 31, 106 b. c, 202 Douglas Avenue, etc., are single items in the series. Nor should there be commas in During the year 1906. 2. Miss., Co., etc., are abbreviations; there are periods after them. And b. c, p. m., etc., are usually written with periods. But 12th, 3d, etc., are not abbreviations; there are no periods after them. 3. It is not necessary to put a comma at the end of a line in writing the address at the head of a letter, nor in addressing an envelope. If you write such an address in one line, commas are needed ; they serve no earthly purpose at the ends of sep- arate lines. A great many people still follow the old custom 203 204 SENTENCE AND THEME of using them at the head of a letter, but the following form is better: Mr. Eli W. Custer 27 Carolus Street Manchester, N. H. My dear Sir: The periods after the abbreviations are always required. 4. The most common carelessness in school writing is the failure to use two commas. Notice that the rule reads "set off"; that means on both sides, and applies specially to names of states. At Rutland, Vermont, we changed cars. Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 4. 181. Rule 6. !-5et off by commas any adverb or phrase or clause which modifies loosely — that is, which is "paren- thetical." Comment 1. Since that unpleasant-looking word '^parenthetical" is going to be useful to us all the rest of the year, we shall make sure now of just what it means. You are already familiar with some ' ' parenthetical ' ' adverbs : ' ' There is, in- deed, no other way." "We shall, perhaps, do well to think that over." Those adverbs are dropped in as side-remarks; the writer holds us up with a pair of commas to say, "And, by the way, I won't say flatly that this is true, but perhaps it is." He might have put his "perhaps" into parentheses — "We shall (perhaps) do well." You have seen appositive nouns and ad.jectives and participles set loosely alongside nouns and pronouns, pointed off by commas or parentheses or dashes. Any such "by the way" word is parenthetical, is called a parenthesis ; and the two curves that sometimes enclose it are parentheses. ' ' Parenthetical' ' is a formidable Greek word that means nothing more than "set alongside of." SENTENCE AND THEME 205 2. No word is in itself parenthetical. No rule can say that "the word however must be set off"; it can only say, "If however modifies loosely, it is to be set off." We can seldom learn any rules as to what to do with words ; we always have to think about meanings. 3. Rule 6 says that a modifier is to be set off "if it is parenthetical." Such adverbs as the following are very com- monly parenthetical: however, nevertheless, indeed, secondly, anyhow. The commonest in themes is however, which is prac- tically always to be set off; but indeed is quite as likely not to have a parenthetical meaning. 1. There is, however, one thing to be said on the other side. . 2. It sometimes happens, nevertheless, that soldiers are cowards. 4. Phrases that are often parenthetical are in fact, in the first place, after all, by the way. 1. It is not to be supposed, of course, that he really meant it. 2. In the second place, many reports are exaggerated. •, 3. But then, after all, it's not so bad. 4. There is, in fact, a reason on the other side. 5. Little clauses are often thrown into a sentence paren- thetically, used just like adverbs or phrases, meaning nothing more than probably or indeed: 1. We intend, you may be sure, to do everything we can. < 2. Whitf ord, it seems, was safe at second. 3. But now, it is said, another rule is going to be enforced. 6. It is easy to see that the words we have been speaking of may be closely connected in thought, may be restrictive modifiers — thus : '1. It's raining, but let's walk nevertheless. 2. The Giants are no longer in the first place. '3. You may be sure that we intend to do everything we can. (In sentence 3 "you may be sure" is grammatically the principal part of the sentence.) 206 SENTENCE AND THEME 7. In punctuating the sentences on the Leaves you are always to think of the meaning, always to ask whether the word is loosely thrown in or is a restrictive modifier. 8. The abbreviation "etc." is always set off by commas (unless it is merely quoted, as here), and well, now, and ichy at the beginning of conversational sentences are usually set off. •1. Well, I didn't expect to find you here. 2. Why, I suppose you may. ■• 3. Now, what do you think of that! 9. Don't use commas without a reason. This "loose modi- fier" reason is the most common and the most useful. It is really the same principle that runs all through rules 7, 8, 9, and 10. Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 5. LESSON 42 MORE ABOUT CONSTRUCTIONS OP RELATIVES 182. Separated from the antecedent. There may be words between the relative and its antecedent. 1. The only one of this kind that I know. 2. The man over there in the corner who is beckoning to us. 183. Understood antecedents. The antecedents of who- ever and whichever are usually understood. 1. [He] whoever finds it can have it. 2. [The one] whichever he chooses is sure to be the right one. 3. [He] whosoever will may come. 184. Little "thrown-in" clauses.* Brief statements like "I think", "we know", "you may be sure" are frequently in- serted in a relative clause between the relative and its verb. These are used just like such adverbs as prohably, surely, supposedly . 1. The train that (we thought) was on time. 2. A policeman who (we supposed) was our friend. They are seldom included in parentheses. Indeed they are often not even set off by commas. Hence, because they are so short and fit so closely into the clause, they are very likely to be overlooked. The money which we supposed was lost was right in his pocket. This looks at first sight as if which was the object of supposed; but when we remove that little clause, "we supposed," we see that which is the subject of tvas. Look through the sen- " See note in the Appendix, page 366. 207 208 SENTENCE AND THEME tenees below, noticing the little "thrown-in" clauses, and deciding what the constructions of the relatives are. 1. The habit which you may think is easy to break is really very hard. 2. The second game, which I had imagined was going to be dull. proved exciting. 3. But his uncle, whom we feared the loan-sharks had cheated, was able to look out for himself. 4. A driver who they thought was nervier was now hired. Exercise Prepare a list of the relative clauses in the sentences below, giving the antecedent in each case and the construction of the relative pronoun. Supply understood relatives and understood antecedents. Put parentheses around any little "thrown-in" clause. Follow the ]Model given on page 200. 1. Whoever goes out must stay out. 2. The vice of smoking, which he asserts he did not acquire till his thirtieth year, may ruin his health. 3. That ig a matter that every man must settle for himself. 4. The priests are subject to the Archbishop of Mexico in spiritual matters, and in temporal matters to the governor-general, who is the great civil and military head of the country. 5. The holystone is a large, soft stone, smooth on the bottom, with long ropes attached to each end, by which the crew keep it sliding fore and aft over the wet, sanded decks. 6. The only thing in the way of poetry that he ever read was Fal- coner's "Shipwreck," which he was delighted with, and whole pages of which we found he could repeat. 7. And put away the gods which your fathers served on the other side of the flood; and serve ye the Lord. 8. I went to see a blood specimen which Eamaji had mounted. 9. It roared through a rocky canyon whose bottom we could not see. 10. Give me one of those oranges you say you brought along. 11. That was the very object I had in mind. 12. He had a knack of tripping whoever got in front of him. 13. The fruit that our customers think is best is often of the poorest quality. 14. He went to a broker who he thought would lend him the money. 15. We gave the Indians everything we had. SENTENCE AND THEME 209 16. Prairie dogs must hate the snakes, which may be seen at all times among their holes, into which they always retreat when disturbed. 17. There were also a considerable number of Shiennes, many of whom wore gaudy Mexican ponchos, swathed around their shoulders, but leaving the right arm bare. 18. They lived for some time on wild cherries, which the squaws had dried on buffalo robes. 19. The throne was held by a king who historians say was insane. 20. There 's nothing in Widdington's notes that we need be afraid of. 21. One came at last who won Eynhallow. 22. He was a nabob whom I suppose nearly everybody envied. 23. It belongs to whoever draws the longest slip of paper. 24. He has no hope who never had a fear. 25. Who's this that dare usurp such power? LESSOX 43 NON-EESTEICTIVE RELATIVES 185. Non-restrictive means "and." We learned in Lessons 27 and 28 that participles are not set off because they are appositive ; we have to think about the meaning ; we set them off only when they are non-restrictive. So it was said of hoiv- ever in Lesson 41 : " We can seldom learn any rule as to what to do with words ; we always have to think about meanings. ' ' Exactly the same sort of remark can lie made about all kinds of words and clauses : we must always decide whether the parts of a sentence belong closely together in meaning or are loosely connected in meaning. In the ease of relative pronouns we are always inquiring whether an antecedent is closely restricted by a clause that means "that particular," or whether the clause means "and I will say in addition." Suppose you had been reading about the henpecked Rip Van Winkle, whose wife's tongue was in- cessantly going, who scolded him from morning till night, fre- quently driving him out of the house. Tou read that he often found refuge at an inn, where a kind of perpetual club of loafers was always gathered, discussing old news in tranquil security. The story sa,\s : ' ' Even from this stronghold the unlucky Eip was at length routed by his termagant wife, who would suddenly break in upon the assemblage and call the members all kinds of bad names for encouraging her husband in idleness." That "who" clause is not restrictive. It surely does not mean "his particular wife who," because he had onl}^ one wife ; nor does it mean ' ' that kind of wife who would suddenly break in." Here we have a relative that adds on another idea; it 210 SENTENCE AND THEME 211 means the same as "and she would suddenly break in"; it is non-restrictive. You will find that all relative clauses which are set off by commas mean "and he," "and this," etc. Exercise Make a list of all the relative clauses in the following sen- tences, explaining why each is restrictive or non-restrictive. SENTENCE MODEL 1. Then I tasted the contents of 1. Which was as sickish means the bottle, which I found was ' ' and I found that the contents as sickish as the licorice-water werq as sickish" — non-restric- that we used to make when we tive. That we used to make were children. means "that kind of licorice- water that we used to make ' ' — restrictive. It is well to vary the wording of your explanations, so as to get as near as possible to the true meaning. For instance, suppose you were writing about this clause : "So we had to reject Perkins, whose eyesight was poor." You could say: "And the reason was that Perkins's eyesight was poor." In the ease of ' ' Gulliver, who was only six feet tall, was no longer than the giant's hand" you might say: "And I will remind you again that he was only six feet tall. ' ' In bringing out the meanings follow your own devices, but in the form of your work follow the Model precisely, under- lining the clauses, quoting your explanations, and using dashes. Follow these two directions: 1. "Write only the principal words of the clauses (that is, the relative, the verb, and any subject or object or predicate nominative). 2. Include the antecedents in your explanations that come after "means." 1. Then there was a lot more joking between Master Simon and a ruddy-faced farmer, who appeared to be the wit of the village. 212 SENTENCE AND THEME 2. I looked in "Ten Thousand Familiar Quotations" for a line that might serve as a text to my tale. 3. There was many a day on which he returned home with nothing to show for his twelve weary hours of labor. 4. Our young artist pictured his mother seated on an upended box, which had once contained oranges, surrounded by her eight little children, '). I walked round the yard and through .i gate to another door, at which I took the liberty of -knocking. 6. Zillah showed me into a small, tidy, carpeted apartment, in which, to my inexpressible joy, I beheld Linton stretched upon a little sofa, reading one of my books. 7. Shortly after my son came running in, with looks all pale, to tell us that two strangers, whom he knew to be officers of justice, were coming towards the house. 8. When he saw the resolute front which the English presented, he fell back in alarm and consented to make peace with them on their own terms. 9. By the time we reached the vessel, which was so far off that we could hardly see her in the increasing darkness, the boats were hoisted up and the crew ate supper. 10. Among these section-hands every sentimental feeling about "home and mother" was made the subject of rude jokes, to which Clarence did not dare make any answer. 11. The men often referred to him as a " good kid, ' ' which meant in their lingo something very different from ' ' good boy. ' ' 1'2. The whole life of Egypt depends upon the Nile River, which periodically overflows its banks and deposits silt upon the laud. 13. The Dutch merchants who do business in Batavia do not live in the city itself; every evening they go out to the suburbs, which are on higher land, and so are cooler. 186. Spelling: e before a suffix. The following little particles are called "suffixes" because tliey are "fixed to the end of" a word to form another word: ing, cd. est, able. ible. er, or, ous. Before any suffix that begins with a vowel a final silent c is dropped. write + ing = writing (one t) write + er = writer (one/) save + ed = saved distribute + or = distributor able + est = ablest fame + ous = famous love + able = lovable grieve + ous = grievous force + ible = forcible SENTENCE AND THEME 213 We have seen only two exceptions, each for a special and peculiar reason: (1) The e is kept in hoeing, toeing, etc., for fear that if we wrote "hoing" the sound might seem to be the same as the sound of the vowels in coin; (2) the e is kept in peaceable in order that the word may not look like ' ' peakable. ' ' The regular rule, however, is "Drop the silent e before a sufiix beginning with a vowel. ' ' But before a suffix that begins with a consonant the e must usually be kept. nine + teen = nineteen safe + ty = safety nine + ty = ninety arrange + ment = arrangement Fix your eye for a moment, letter by letter, on arrange; there are two o-'s, two r's and an nge. The e before ly needs special attention. sure + ly = sureZi/ entire + ly = entirely sincere + ly = sincerely extreme + ly = extremely affectionate + ly = affectionately immense + ly = immensely im + me + di + ate + ly = immediately That word ' ' immediately ' ' almost deserves a paragraph by itself, but we shall have to reserve such an honor for definitely. It is a marvelous word. It comes from a Latin word finis, with two i's,, meaning "an end or limit." Finite, with two long *'s, means "that which can have limits put upon it"; infinite, with the same i's, means "without any limit." When we set limits to a thing we make it, with the very same pair of i 's definite, and when we make an adverb of it by using the suffix ly, we have de + fi + nite + ly = definitely. The few exceptions to this rule — two of them very common words — will be spoken of in a future lesson. LESSON 44 DECIDING ABOUT RELATIVES 187. The difference in meaning. By using or not using commas with a relative clause a writer shows his meaning. Consider the meaning of this sentence : The old gentleman gave a dollar to the boy who thanked him. This means that ' ' the boy who thanked him ' ' got a dollar, but that the other boys probably got nothing; only "that particu- lar boy who thanked" got a reward. But with a comma the meaning is entirely different : The old gentleman gave a dollar to the boy, who thanked him. This means that we are speaking of only one boy; the old gentleman gave him a dollar, "and he then thanked the man." If a person writes, "I don't want to wear the overcoat which has a moth-hole in it," he clearly indicates that there is another overcoat ; his sentence means, " ' That particular coat will not do ; I will wear another one. '' But if he uses a comma, he shows that he is telling of only one overcoat, ' ' and is adding a statement about that one coat." Suppose we read about a lunch that was cooked by a party of twenty persons who took an all-day tramp. Three tires were built; everybody helped in preparing the meal. We come upon this sentence : The coffee which was cooked in an old tomato can tasted very good to the hungry crowd. This means "that particular coffee which"; it indicates that there was some other coffee made in a more respectable way. If the sentence is written with commas, the meaning is "and, 214 SENTENCE AND THEME 215 by the way, I will say that our coffee was all cooked in an old tin can." 188. Cases that must be non-restrictive. Often the form or the meaning of a sentence shows clearly whether a clause is restrictive or not. We shall examine a few sen- tences in which the clauses are unquestionably non-restrictive. He stopped to listen, which was exactly what we had expected. This is a relative that has no one word for its antecedent; it refers to the whole statement, meaning "an action which." The clause is very loosely connected in thought. It means "and that action was just what we expected." We could not supply "that particular." Other examples are: 1. We fellows all cheered him, which was very embarrassing to such a modest man. ■ 2. The captain's astonishment was intense, which convinced us that he had not been in the plot. 3. Thirty-seven pupils have enrolled since the opening of school, which brings our total up to sis hundred and seventy-two. Another kind of unmistakable non-restrictive is with proper names — "He told us some things about the youth of Wash- ington, who must have been much more of a real human boy than I ever supposed. ' ' It would be impossible to talk about "that particular Washington who" unless we had in mind several gentlemen by that name ; and of course we are not speaking of "that kind of Washington who," for there was only one kind of George Washington. Other examples with proper names are : 1. New Zealand, which is herself at war, has given to Belgium ai the rate of $1.25 per capita. 2. Philadelphia had a Damrosch orchestra play for it at Laun.! Park, which is an ideal place for music during a hot spell. 3. The Atlantic winds were covering with, sand some 300 miles of coast-line on the Bay of Biscay, which is the most fertile portion of the country. This "proper name" idea applies to many cases in which we have in mind only one thing or person. 216 SENTENCE AND THEME In another class of cases we can know by some particular conditions that a restrictive clause would make a ridiculous statement — for example : ' ' She lifted her eyes which were of the deepest blue with an appealing look. ' ' Printed thus with- out commas the sentence means that she lifted ' ' those particu- lar eyes that were of the deepest blue, but kept all her other eyes cast down." "Which were of the deepest blue" should have been set off by commas, because it is merely an added-by- the-way description. So we can see that the comma is neces- sary in "He talked a lot about 'voltage,' which he compared to the height of a waterfall that is turning a water-wheel." The physics teacher had not been telling about "a kind of voltage that is like the height of a waterfall," because that is the only kind of voltage there is ; he had told about voltage, and the writer adds the teacher's way of explaining the subject. But in the case of the waterfall it was not any cascade; it was "such a kind of waterfall as is harnessed to make power. ' ' You can give a similar explanation for the following : 1. They build their houses out of ' ' adobe, ' ' which is a black mud that is used for making bricks. 2. We ought to use the metric system, which measures all weights and distances by a decimal scale. 3. Along with their fencing the Japanese had an art that was called jiu-jUsti, which was a clever system of making your opponent help you out in wrestling. 189. The one simple principle. You have not been studying a lot of different principles, but only one very simple principle, for which many illustrations have been given. The written work today is an exercise in going through uupunctu- ated sentences to decide whether the clauses are more like 1. "That particular", "that kind" or 2. "And it may be said in addition." The sentences have been so selected that it ought to be easy to decide about every one by these two tests. You will probably find that a large ma.iority of the class agrees, if the question SENTENCE AND THEME 217 is put to vote, on any relative that you may feel doubtful about. And in a vote like this a big majority is usually right. Try to apply the tests in such a way that you will be on the winning side. It is likely that the class will be unanimous as to most of the relatives. Here is the great clue in case you don't feel sure after applying one test : Try the other and see which is more nearly a fit. Exercise Select all the relative clauses — remembering that sometimes restrictive relative pronouns are omitted — and arrange them according to the Model. SENTENCE MODEL 1. The kind of house they build 1. [That] they build modifies in this locality fits the condi- house; it is restrictive because tions of the climate which are it means "the kind of house most peculiar, according to our that. ' ' Which are most pe- northern notions. culiar modifies conditions; it is non-restrictive and ought to have a comma before it, because it means ' ' And I may add that those conditions are peculiar. ' ' 1. Parliament handed Ireland over to Mr. Lloyd George^who prompt- ly arranged a settlement that was agreeable to all concerned. 2. Anybody who heard the debates between Lincoln and Douglas could see the difEerenoe in their mental make-ups. 3. During the past year we have destroyed 1,816,682 tons of the enemy's shipping; which brings the total for the war up to 2,574,205 tons. 4. A man who is instantly killed by a bullet almost invariably falls on his face, but an actor who wants to please a movie audience must go through a lot of agonizing and fall with his face upward. 5. The largest gyroscopic steadier that was ever made has been turned out at Chester, Pa., for the United States government,.which will install it on a new transport that is now being built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. 6. Under ordinary circumstances a sailor in the United States Navy saves one-half of his pay^ which is deposited in the ship 's bank at 4 per cent interest. 218 SENTENCE AND THEME 7. One of the names that professional criminals give to policemen is "harness bulij' which is certainly a suggestive title. s. A most significant feature of this strike is the way in which the workers stuck togetheri 9. The sparrows thought that the whole house had been built for them, which seemed really too much honor. [That is not a relative.] 10. So the poor girl went on with her little naked feetj which were quite red and blue with the cold. 11. He asked me if I had taken care to provide myself with a bedj which was a circumstance I had never once attended to. 190. Spelling, a. The suffix ism. One who decides by careful judgment whether a thing is good or bad is a critic. His opinion is a criticism — with three i's and no other vowel. That ism is a sufSx regularly added to nouns and adjectives; it sounds like two syllables, as in prism, but has only one vowel. hero + ism = heroism Mormon + ism = Mormonism social + ism = socialism critic + ism = criticism American + ism = Americanism b. The suffix ize. A great many common verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives by the suffix ize: natural + ize = naturalize ci\il + ize = civilize penal + ize = penalize macadam + ize = macadamize burglar + ize = burglarize critic + ize = criticize c. Double letters. Fix your eye on the double letters in the following : supplies approach address arrive d. Seven trouble-makers. Some pupils are unable in two years to form the habit of always putting an c on before. A man who can foretell (tell before) what is going to happen is a prophet. If he foretells the weather, he is a weather- prophet. The prediction that he makes is a prophecy. IMost prophecies never come true. There is only one p in o + pinion = opinion. Fix your eyes on the syllables of ias + ci + uSite = fascinate. And have you been seeing that syl + lab + le = syllable f There are t«o t's in .stretch. SENTENCE AND THEME 219 THEME 12 (A TRUE STOBY) A ' ' singing donkey " in a circus had been taught to bi'ay while the band played a certain tune. He really did chime in after a fashion. The owner of the donkey earned a large income. During the winter he arranged to play at a theater. The house was packed; the band struck up — but not a sound would the donkey make; he merely whisked his tail and looked pleased. Next spring in the circus he ' ' sang ' ' as lustily as ever. Perhaps a short theme will be more interesting if it closes when the donkey "balks" in the theater. But perhaps not. All depends on how you manage. Know beforehand about how much space you are going to have for each division; know exactly where and how you are going to end ; don 't make the first or the second part too long. LESSON 45 NOUN CLAUSES 191. Examples of noun clauses.* If a group of words containing a subject and verb is used like a single noun, it is called a "noun clause." (I heard the story. 1l heard that you had caught a five-pound trout. !I saw a studious girl. I saw that she was studious. iFair weather is doubtful. Whether the weather will fee fair is doubtful, f The wrong appears in this. )That you have wronged me appears in this. The words that join noun clauses to verbs are called "con- junctions." 1. I don 't know how I can thank you enough. 2. He said that he would. 3. She asked if I had been ill. 4. Tell me whether you agree. 5. Let us know where you are living. 6. Mother inquired why I had not cut the kindling. 7. We wanted to find out when it happened. We never can say that "because" a clause begins with where it is a noun clause. The word where is not in itself any particular kind of conjunction. We always have to inquire, "What kind of clause is it joining?" 1. He lives in a country where there is never any snow. 2. He lives where there is never any snow. 3. He inquired where the snow got in. • See note in the Appendix, page 367. 220 SENTENCE AND THEME 221 In number 1 a clause is joined to a noun; therefore it is an adjective clause. In number 2 a clause modifies lives by telling where he lives ' ' ; therefore it is an adverb clause. In number 3 a clause answers the question ' ' What did he inquire ? " ; it is the object of inquire; therefore it is a noun clause. 192. The conjunction that.'^ You have grown familiar with that as a relative pronoun, but it is the commonest word used for joining noun clauses. "We do not know what part of speech that is until we fina out what it is doing in any given sentence. There is no other conjunction that does so many kinds of work as that. The antelope's glistening eyes turned up towards my face with so piteous a look that it was with feelings of infinite compunction that I shot him through the head with a pistol. The first that joins a clause which shows "how piteous"; the clause is just like an adverb. The second that begins a noun clause which is the subject of ivas. That I shot him was with feelings. How may the conjunction that be distinguished from the relative that? By seeing whether who or whom or which can be put in its place. Compare : (I dread the thought that he will never come iaclc. 1 1 dread the thought that Iceeps coming into my mind.. We cannot say, ' ' I dread the thought which he will never come back," because the which has no construction. But we can say, "I dread the thought which keeps coming," because which is the subject of keeps. 193. Noun clauses without conjunctions. Sometimes there is no conjunction for a noun clause. 1. He said he would. 2. She told us there were no fish in that hrooTc. 3. Lueile knew she was going to he elected. * See note In the Appendix, page 367. 222 SENTENCE AND THEME Exercise Make a list of all the noun clauses in the sentences that follow, giving the construction of each as a noun. Abbreviate your work by writing out only the main words — (1) subject, (2) verb, and (3) any predicate nominative or object. SENTENCE MODEL 1. That he had a lot of courage 1. That he had a lot is the object you could tell by the fact that of could tell. That he asked if, he asked as soon as it got dark etc., is in apposition with fact, if we wanted him to keep guard If we wanted him to keep is the till midnight. object of asked. 1. As soon as we saw that Percy was getting tired, we asked him whether we shouldn't stop and have lunch. 2. Adams gradually led up to the idea that he wanted to know how much we would ask for the house. 3. We are sorry you feel you must hurry away so soon. 4. Tou might as well admit that everything we have tried to do with a view to helping him has only resulted in injuring him. 5. His enemies have never denied that he had a fearless and manly spirit; and his friends, we are afraid, must acknowledge that his temper was irritable, that his deportment was often rude and petulant, and that his hatred was of intense bitterness and long duration. 6. How he ever did it is a mystery to me, for we never thought he had strength enough to swim half the distance. 7. Malaria, an entirely preventable disease, may attack nearly one million of our people this summer, with a consequent loss in earnings and expense of $100,000,000. 8. It has been demonstrated that the rural communities can be almost freed of typhoid fever, that the amount of malaria can be greatly reduced, and that the general death rate can be appreciably lowered. To this end it is necessary that appropriations for publicity be increased. 9. One day last fall when the newspapers were heavy with inky headlines about Bulgaria's entry into the war I took occasion to ask a class of forty representative freshmen in English composition whether they could tell me how that country felt toward the various warring nations. 10. Jorian Ketel came to Peter's house to claim Margaret's prom- ise; but Margaret was ill in bed, and Peter, on hearing his errand. SENTENCE AND THEME 223 affronted him and warned him off the premises, and one or two that stood by were for ducking him; for both father and daughter were favorites, and the whole story was in every mouth, and the Sevenbergens were in that state of hot irritation which accompanies popular sympathy. 11. That the fellow should have had the nerve to ask us where we had been is positive proof that he doesn't know how a gentleman ought to behave. 194. Spelling, a. Nouns in el. The following common nouns end in el: an angel from heaven. tunnel nickel shovel channel level b. Single letters. The following words are not com- pound ; they have single letters : image imagine imagination- There is a Greek preposition "apo" which forms the be- ginning of a great many English words like apoplexy, apostle, apostrophe, apothecary. One very commonly misspelled word begins with the same ' ' apo, ' ' with one p. apology apologies apologize There is only one r in around, arouse. He is going around to arouse the people. LESSON 46 INTERROGATIVES Review for a spelling test the words given in Lessons 21, 22, and 25. 195. Examples of interrogatives. When ivho, which, and ivhat are used to ask questions, they are called "interroga- tives." 1. Who are you? 3. Which shall I take? 2. Who's who in America? 4. What do you want? Which and what may also be used as adjectives in asking questions. 1. Which one shall I take? 2. What difference does it make? 196. Constructions of interrogatives. The construc- tion of an interrogative pronoun may be found by changing the sentence into the form of a statement. 1. You are who (predicate nominative) 2. In America who is who (subject and predicate nominative) 3. I shall take which (object) 4. You do want what (object) 197. Indirect questions are noun clauses. A question may be written as a direct quotation — thus : Norman asked, "What do you want?" This same idea can be expressed as an "indirect" quotation — thus : Norman asked what I wanted. SENTENCE ANI) THEME 225 In this sentence what I wanted is an "indirect question." Other examples are : 1. He asked who I was. 2. He wanted to know wlio was president in 1846. 3. They inquired which was the better road. 4. We needed information about who would he the best man for secretary. 5. Which road we should choose was a puzzle. These indirect questions are noun clauses. Hereafter you cannot say, as soon as you see who or which, that you are dealing with an adjective clause. For ivho and which in the above sentences have no antecedents; the clauses that they introduce are objects of verbs or prepositions, or they are subjects. 198. What forms a noun clause.* What is called a relative in "He gave us wliat we ashed for," because it has a construction in its own clause, being the object of for. But the queer thing about this pronoun is that it never has an antece- dent ; we never say, ' ' He gave us the thing what we asked for.' ' Always give the construction of what in its own clause, and then say that the clause is a noun clause. 1. What you say is perfectly true. 2. He asked us what we were doing. 3. What bothers me is what we ought to do next. In number 1 what is the object of say, and the clause is the subject of is; in number 2 what is the object of were doing, and the clause is the object of asked ; in number 3 the first what is the subject of bothers — and you can easily say the rest of it for yourself. Exercise I. Go through the sentences selecting all the relative clauses — that is, those that are attached to an antecedent. Write only the principal words of each clause on your paper, saying * See note In the Appendix, page 367. 226 SENTENCE AND THEME what antecedent it modifies and whether it is restrictive or non-restrictive. II. Go through the sentences again to find all the noun clauses, explaining their constructions as nouns. Include all the kinds of noun clauses described in this lesson and in the previous one. In the case of what clauses give the construction of what in its clause. 1. I wonder what you would have thought of having to tell eveiy one you met on the road ' ' where you lived when you were at home. ' ' 2. It is often said that on a, cold night a saucer of hot water will freeze sooner than one of cold. 3. I used to read newspaper dispatches concerning the superstitious beliefs of these people and smile at what I regarded as the "vivid imagination ' ' of the correspondents. 4. Variations in the intensity of the inner and outer ring of Saturn are also shown in the different photographs. 5. This herd of elk was in poor condition as the result of a hard winter and was infested with "moose" ticks. It was feared that a large proportion of the animals would die unless the ticks were eradicated. Cattlemen doubted if the elk could be dipped, but Forest Service officials determined to make the experiment. 6. The city authorities insisted that the railroad company should turn most of its line into tunnels. 7. The boat has proved a success in all ways, and the inventor believes that with an improved design he will have a craft capable of making sixty miles an hour without being crowded. 8. Theoretically it is the push and not the pull that causes the water to run through a siphon. The pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the upper vessel pushes the water up to take the place of what would be a vacuum. The action is similar to the pull on the part of two pulleys, in which one is heavier than the other. 9. It was wonderful to see how the poor fellow would every once in a while continue to misspell the simplest words — like asls, separate, divide. 10. I made some experiments with a reflecting telescope of fifty-six- foot focus and fourteen-inch aperture to ascertain what might be revealed by photographing the moon with ultra-violet light. 11. The portico of the church was hung with black, and soon the Pope and cardinals, who had entered the church by another door, issued forth and stood with torches on the steps, separated by barriers from the people. SENTENOJlJ AND THEME 227 12. They said they had seen no Indians and had no fear except that their provisions might give out. 13. Dupleix clearly saw that the greatest force which the princes of India could bring into the field would be no match for a small body of men trained in the discipline of Europe. 14. He now gave orders that a picked regiment should advance and make the desperate charge. 15. We were then informed that the price of these two scanty little meals — which were not hearty enough to satisfy a dyspeptic bookkeeper — was $5.25. 16. It is hard to believe that two important business men should have quarreled over the question of which is the better way to make coffee. 17. Perhaps those who have watched airplanes at work have won- dered why an aviator almost always outs a spiral course as he approaches the earth. 18. Bets were freely offered that he would be disfigured for life. 19. It was easy to see that they all remembered what Sandy had said to them on his arrival. 20. It was ia 1825 that the Erie Caual waa completed. LESSON 47 Punctuation, Rules 7 and 8 LOOSE MODiriEBS, NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES 199. Nominative absolute. In preparation for Rule 7 we must take up one peculiar construction of nouns and pro- nouns. It is seen in ' ' The next morning, the sky being clear, we decided to move on." We know about morning; it is adverbial. But what about .sA;// .^ It is modified by &£!/!(/ and clear, and is set very loosely in the sentence.* We call it "nominative absolute." This absolute noun is not a good construction to cultivate, because pupils overwork it, sometimes growing fond of such monstrosities as "Oscar declaring: that the fish were not biting very well on the side of the wharf, we all moved along to the end." It is better to begin with as or because or ichen, and to use a vel-b. Yet this absolute is fairly common in literature. It always consists of a noun or pronoun modified by a participle (though the participle maj- be iinderstood ) . 1. The team havin/j ieen defeated, we felt very blue. 2. The )cmg having died, a regency was appointed. 3. Two of us being cripples, our total strength was small. 4. We at length got alongside, our boats [being] half full of water. The point for today's lesson is that any absolute construc- tion is such a loose modifier that it must be set off by commas. 200. Rule 7. Absolute nouns and loose appositive modi- fiers are set ofl' by commas. 1. The hostile fleet was close to the coast, its thousand guns sweep- ing the sea before it. 2. Then the Black Knight, seeing that his help was needed, began to take part in the fight. * It may be said to modify the ypi-h. Soi> § 231. 228 SENTENCE AND THEME 229 3. The white rock, visible enough above the brush, was still some eighth of a mile farther down. 4. Such was the condition of the island, jogging along contentedly under the rule of the most antiquated feudal government in Christendom, which woke up one morning to find itself under the most democratic of governments. 5. Thinking he might be seriously injured, we ran for a physician. Comment 1. This rule is the same in principle as the three that you have just had and the three that you are to have next. They are divided into seven merely for convenience, so as to give better opportunity for practice and illustration. They all deal with expressions that modify loosely. 2. It usually destroys the sense to set off participles used as predicate adjectives. 1. The wind goes whistling through the trees. 2. His body could be seen dangling from the broken girder. You can easily feel the difference between these and the fol- lowing forms, in which the participle is separated from the verb. 1. The wind blows fierce and cold, howling through the trees. 2. His body could be seen against the blue sky, dangling from the broken girder. Sometimes, however, an author wishes a predicate participle to mean "aiid I will add the description." Then down across the ice McKenna came, staggering and stumbling. 3. A participle used as an objective predicate is not set off. We found him hunting frantically for his lost money. 4. No participle which means "that particular" is set off. 1. A watch costing only fourteen dollars cannot be solid gold. 2. The man kicking off is Harding. 3. Boots treated in this way are waterproof. 4. Anyone wishing to be excused may go. 230 SENTENCE AND THEME These participles mean exactly the same as the restrictive clauses "that costs only", "who is kicking off", "that are treated." 5. In the following sentence the mg word is a gerund, the object of a preposition. There should be no comma after the phrase. After rounding the buoy we were well in the lead. Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 6. 201. Rule 8. Non-restrictive relative clauses are set off by commas. 1. Wheeling, which was once the capital of the state, is the principal city of West Virginia. 2. We hunted over an hour for the rascal, who was all the while calmly sleeping in the boat. Comment 1. A few noun clauses beginning with what and that are included in the sentences on Leaf 7. Noun clauses used as subject or predicate or object should not be set off by commas any more than nouns would be in the same constructions. Even noun clauses used as appositives are not set off unless they are purely parenthetical. This explanation, that it means "closely bound together," has probably been forgotten. But ordinarily appositive clauses are without commas. the fact that you have; the notion that ghosts appear; the question whether school should be closed. 2. A clause within a sentence must either be set off by two commas or not punctuated at all. There is no excuse for "sticking in" one comma at the end of the clause. Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 7. LESSON 48 LETTERS 202. Heading. There are two principal forms of head- ings for letters. The first is the kind used in business corre- spondence. The name of the firm and its address are printed in full; the date is written at the right-hand side of the sheet, and at the left the name and address of the person who is being written to : Practigatl, Drawing Company PUBLISHERS AND DEALERS IN teachers aids and art supplies Dallas, Texas, Mtrch 10, 1917. Scott, Foresman and Company, 623 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, Oantlemen; The above letter-head is formal; it is the kind commonly used in all sorts of offices ; it is the proper kind in writing to a firm or a person with whom we are not well acquainted. If a person who has no printed stationery wishes to use this form of letter, he writes his own address at the right, thus : 23] 232 SENTENCE AND THEME ^ djUdwt— You will notice that each line in the heading begins one step farther to the right than the line above, but that "My dear Sir" begins back at the margin. Another common ar- rangement in typewritten letters is this ' ' block ' ' style : Wr. Myron E. Shelley 466 West Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio My dear Sir : This is not recommended for handwriting. The second form of letter-head is the one ordinarily used in friendly or informal correspondence ; the address of the person to whom we write is omitted. If we are using printed stationery, we have only two lines to write. Harriman National Bank New York. OFnce OF THE Vin PRtSIDCIIT January 30, 1917. 1^ dear Joyce: SENTENCE AND THEME 233 If we are not using printed stationery, we put our address at the right. 203. Salutation. The usual "salutations" are these, ar- ranged in order of their formality : Dear Jack My dear McLean Dear Oakford Dear Miss Shields My dear Mr. Wallace Notice that 3Iiss has no period after it. Mr. and Mrs. must always have the period. Titles must be written out in full. Dear Doctor Black My dear Captain Hahn Dear Professor Cairns In writing to a person whose name is not known to you — for instance, the editor of a paper or some official of a company — use "ily dear Sir" or "IMy dear Madam." In writing to a company use "My dear Sirs" or "Gentlemen." Notice that dear begins with a small letter unless it is the first word. 204. Margin and indention. The first line of a letter should begin under the end of the salutation; there should always be a margin at the left, and it is common to have a margin at the right of typewritten letters. Paragraphs should be indented, as in themes. 205. Conclusion. For closing a letter "Yours truly" is the most usual phrase. This is proper for almost any letter, from a friendly note to a formal epistle. Other expressions in common use are : ' ' Yours very truly ", " Sincerely yours, ' ' "Yours very sincerely." 234 SENTENCE AND THEME 206. Addressing. The envelope is usually addressed thus : Mr. Allan Kay Needham 24 East 14th Street Louisyille Kentucky The block style is also common when the address is typewritten. No commas are needed at the ends of lines on envelopes. nor in letter-heads. Use periods always for abbreviations. 207. The complete letter. Here is a complete informal note in two paragraphs. SENTENCE AND THEME 235 Exercise I. Write a formal business letter, using the address of a company, ordering a year's subscription to some newspaper or magazine. In the letter you should give your name and ad- dress, written very clearly, just as you wish it to appear on the wrapper of the magazine ; and you should tell how much money you are enclosing, and when the subscription is to begin. II. AVrite a brief, familiar note to some friend, explaining why you will not be able to meet him as you had promised. III. Write a brief letter to some older relative thanking him (or her) for a present. Make the uncle or grandmother feel that you are grateful. This cannot be accomplished by using a dozen exclamations and adjectives, for they may sound insincere ; make your thanks sound as if you meant them, LESSON 49 Punctuation 5, Review Punctuate Leaves 8 and 9. These are for further drill on Rule 8. Remember that every Leaf is understood to be a review of all that has gone before. Think of nouns of address, question marks, appositive participles, etc. 208. Spelling, a. Adjectives in al. A great many adjectives end in al: real, final, actual, general, usual. a practical man the principal man my principal reason his principal objection The "principal teacher" in a school is the "principal." The "principal contestants" in a boxing-bout are the "principals." b. An e has been dropped. In a few common words a final silent e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a consonant. the ninth inning yours truly duly notified argument judgment acknowledgment abridgment c. The verb prophesy. To foretell what is going to happen is to propli csy. ' ' Jeremiah pi-ophesied. " "He proph- esies fair weather." SKNTENCE AND THEME 237 d. No extra letters. The following words are shorter than some people think. Beware of putting extra letters in them. an elm tree at the helm of a ship ath + let + ics = athletics trans + late = translate trans + lation = translation pos + sib + ly- possibly li + bra + ry = library e. Five marvels. The following five words seldom occur in high-school themes that are written about modern topics, but they frequently have to be used in tests on literature. They are five marvels. If you can become familiar with them now, before you get any wrong habits, you will save trouble for yourself later. goddess has two d's nymph ends in ph shep + herd = shepherd CO + med + y = comedy tra + ged + y = tragedy Remember that one who herds sheep is a " sheep-herd, ' ' which is shortened to shepherd. Think of the e in comedy ; it is the e that makes the trouble. We have a gr in tragic; that poor g is often abused ; give the g its place in tragic and tragedy. LESSON 50 Punctuation, Rule 9 WHEN AND WHERE 209. Adverb clauses — when and where. If a clause is used like an adverb, it is an adverb clause. 1. We left then. 4. Come here. 2. We left at that time. 5. Come into the house. 3. We left ichcn the time came. 6. Come where it is warmer. When and where are common enough in school use to de- serve a separate lesson, but that is not the only reason for spending a day with them. They furnish good exercise for learning how to know whether an adverb clause is restrictive or not. If we are sure about when and where, we shall be far on the way toward feeling confident about all adverb clauses. There is no new principle to learn. The tests are just what they are for relatives. If a clause means "at that par- ticular time when" or "in that particular place where,'' it is restrictive. If it means ''and then something else happened" or "and there something else happened," it is non-restrictive. 210. Rule 9. Set off by commas a "when" or a "where" clause that is not restrictive. 1. They began to think how they might best secure the monstrous horse, when suddenly a, prodigy occurred which left no room to doubt. 2. At Lehigh, where he anticipated curious developments, nothing at £,11 happened. Comment 1. Such clauses as number 1 above are tiresomely common in themes ; the fewer of» them you write, the better. This 238 SENTENCE AND THEME 239 splicing on what is really the main statement by means of a subordinating conjunction is apt to result in a poor sentence when attempted by inexperienced writers. But most authors use the form, and when we employ it we must put a comma before the conjunction. 2. Why is such a sentence likely to be poor? Because a when or where clause is unimportant in appearance; as a matter of grammar it is called "subordinate"; it is in its construction a modifier. When a skilful writer uses non- restrictive ivhcns and wheres, he makes them mean "at which time" or "at which place." But careless pupils who use them aimlessly often build a sentence on this plan : ' ' HERE WAS AN UNINTERESTING SITUATION, when suddenly something big and exciting happened. " It is more ship-shape to begin with the modifier, to say: "While we were in this uninteresting situation, SUDDENLY SOMETHING EX- CITING HAPPENED." 3. The sentences to be punctuated require the same kind of thinking that you used with relatives. "He came when we were at dinner" means that he came "at that particular time when we were at dinner." "I want to go where it is quiet" means "to that kind of place where it is quiet." 4. But "We had just stepped out on deck, when there came an awful crash" means that "we had stepped out, and after that the crash came." "Next I went to Indianapolis, where I tried to find a job" means "and after I reached there I tried." This "after" test will often apply. The simple, general idea is this: Does it mean "and then" or ' ' and there ' ' ? 5. With proper names a where clause is almost sure to be non-restrictive. Tou could hardly go to "that particular New Orleans," because you know of only one. Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaves 10 and 11. LESSON 51 CONJUNCTIONS THAT ARE USUALLY RESTRICTIVE Review for a spelling test the words given in Lessons 27 and 29. 211. Subordinating conjunctions. This Lesson and the next two deal with eon.junctions that "subordinate" their clauses — that is, attach the clauses to a word in such a way as to make them of "lower rank"; sub means "down" or "below." A noun clause is of " low rank ' ' because, though it contains a subject and verb, it is of no more grammatical importance than a single noun ; relative clauses are ' ' subordinate ' ' because they are of no more grammatical importance than a single adjective; all when and where clauses — no matter how important in mean- ing — are grammatically subordinate, because they amount to nothing more than single adverbs. Hence while is subordinating if it joins a clause that merely tells the time of another verb — "Make hay while the sun shines. ' ' 212. Subordinating conjunctions that are usually re- strictive. An adverb clause joined by while always is restrict- ive in ordinary writing. After is regularly restrictive — as in "I will eat after you have finished." "It will be cooler after it has rained. " But we can seldom sa>' ' ' al\\a>-s " ' about any English word. A writer might want to dash off an unexpected turn of thought by after: "He will be a good boy — after he is dead." Before is regularly restrictive. Turn back before it is too late. 240 SENTENCE AND THEME 241 But a writer may sometimes want to use any kind of clause parenthetically. I want to say, before I go further, that I am no scientist. The compound conjunctions as if and as though are regu- larly restrictive. 1. He acted as if he was hurt. 2. Jim talks as though he were doubtful. But is regularly restrictive in a few common idioms where it is subordinating. 1. I don 't know but I will. 2. I have no fear tut that he will come back. 3. There was not a man in the crowd iut was afraid of Lynn. You may expect that, in all its various uses, to introduce restrictive clauses — e.g. : 1. It was about midnight that we came (adverbial, modifying was). 2. There is no reason that we should study this (adjective, modify- ing reason) . 3. We learned all the ways that nouns are used (adjective, modify- ing ways). Whenever and wherever are usually restrictive. 1. He comes whenever you call. 2. They grow wherever it is moist. The most restrictive kind of modifier can be best under- stood by beginning with simple sentences containing the adverb very. 1. He was very tired. 2. He was a very tired mau. If we put the adverb so or the adjective such in place of very, the sentences are still complete grammatically. 1. He was so tired. 2. He was such a tired man. 242 SENTENCE AND THEME But in meaning they are incomplete. We need a clause to explain so and such. We are asking, "Well, so tired as what?" "such as what?" The clause that our mind expects is very closely connected in meaning. We think of "so that" and "such that" in the closest connection. 1. He was so tired that he could not move. 2. He was such a tired man that he fell asleep. All similar "clauses of comparison" are very closeh' re- strictive and must not be separated by commas. The usual ones are : 1. so that 2. such that 3. as as 4. so as 5. more than 1. There was so great a rush for seats at the concert last night that we had to return home. 2. I was reading such an interesting novel last night that 1 didn't get to bed till one o'clock. 3. He eats as much food at one meal as I do in three. 4. The water was not so high when we returned as when we went up. 5. He gives more space to accounts of murders and drownings and suicides and social events than he does to important imrld- affairs. Exercise For each conjunction in the following list write a sentence containing not less than fifteen words, using the conjunction to begin a closely restrictive clause. Each clause must follow closely upon, and closely restrict the meaning of, the statement it modifies — like this : I feci like jumping up and shouting ichcnever an announcement Hie that is made in the assembly-room. if whenever after as if unless while as though where since (showing time) before when as (showing time) LESSON 52 CONJUNCTIONS THAT ARE USUALLY NON-EESTKICTIVE 213. Conjunctions that mean "but." In "The food was good, though it did not look good" we may say that the clause is subordinate, because it means "The food was (in spite of not looking good) good" ; it modifies was. Although is used in the same way. These two are so ' ' disjoining ' ' in meaning that they can very rarely be used restrictively. Hence we need a comma in every ordinary sentence like the following. 1. It is springtime, though you would hardly think it. 2. My watch runs accurately, although it has not been cleaned for four years. Most conjunctions that mean "but" are "coordinating" — that is, they contrast two statements of the same rank. A comma is always required before such a conjunction. 1. We are untrained, but we are brave. 2. We are trained, while they are not. 3. We are brave, although we are untrained. 4. We are untrained, yet we are brave. 5. We can still see, only we have to use other lenses. This is perhaps the most usual, most easy, and most necessary use of a comma. 214. The tiresome and childish so. One of the com- monest conjunctions in speech and writing is so. Some people can hardly use a clause in conversation except by beginning with " so. " The so is used with tiresome frequency in ordinary themes.V It is going to be colder, so you had better take an overcoat. Yet half a century ago this overworked word was not recog- nized as a conjunction ; it was an independent adverb ; careful 243 244 SENTENCE AND THEME editors alwaj-s put a semicolon before it, just as we do nowadays before ht )ice and accordinghj. 1. This is good; hence it is expensive. 2. We are happy; accordingly we sing. 3. It will be colder; so provide warm clothing. If they wanted to use so with a comma, they regularly put the conjunction that after it or and before it. 1. The day was fair, so that they could set out. 2. You grow unfriendly, and so I must depart. These two forms are still preferred by careful writers. There is no better small test of whether a writer is mature or childish than to notice whether he uses so that or and so in place of a very frequent so. But in present-day magazine literature the so that shows a result is common. When it is used in themes, it must always have a comma before it. 1. Lumber is getting dearer, so you had better buUd now. 2. The roads were muddy, so we made poor time. This word so wants to go further. It wants to make itself a conjunction to show purpose. Young writers commonly say, "I go to school so I can get an education." But in this sense it has not yet established itself.* If we wish to show pur- pose, we must say, "I go to school so that I can get an education." In the last four paragraphs about so and so that we have not learned any new principle. These ideas are just the same old one idea : "Do you mean and. or do you mean that particular?" Sometimes so that is restrictive, but it is usually non-restrict- ive, as in "Listen attentively, so that you may get the point." 215. Conjunctions that show a reason. When for is i conjunction showing a reason its meaning is non-restrictive. • Sep note in the Appendix, page 367. SENTENCE AND THEME 245 1. You would like him, for he is a fine fellow. 2. We had poor luck, for we started on Friday. 3. The shoes ought to wear a long time, for they cost eight dollars. Less common than for is since. Try to use the conjunction since more often in your writing, especially for beginning a sentence ; and always use a comma with the clause if it shows a reason. 1. Since we started on Friday, we had poor luck. 2. Since the shoes cost eight dollars, they ought to wear a long time^ 3. His meaning is doubtful, since he has used no punctuation. 4. The metric system is more useful, since it is entirely decimal. The commonest word used in school composition for giving a reason is as. "When as is a conjunction that adds a reason, it is never restrictive. A good little test of whether a stenog- rapher has been well trained is to see whether she can put a comma before ^^as that shows a reason." 1. We cannot place an order now, as our stock is full. 2. Harvey was much disappointed, as he had always won easily before. 3. Not a fish would bite, as the sun was shining brightly. 4. I can pay my debts before they are due, as my salary has been increased. As, for, and since, when they show a reason, are never restrictive. There is no exception to this statement. Repeat it and fix it in your mind: "As, for, and since, when they show a reason, are never restrictive. " If we wish to express "the particular reason why," we must use because, which is explained in the next lesson. Another common use of as with a non-restrictive meaning is seen in the following. /i. Price is an erratic player, as you know. 2. Words are not in themselves any particular part of speech, as we have frequently heard. 3. This is, as you might say, an eye-opener. 4. As the captain had said it would, the fog soon lifted. 5. I am writing in great haste, as you can easily see. 6. But money did not grow on the bushes, as I very soon found outr 246 SENTENCE AND THEME The as in these sentences means "and you already know this," "and this was according to his prediction", "and I needn't tell you," etc. 216. The "ever" pronouns. Whoever, ivhichever, and whatrvpr often form adverb clauses, meaning "no matter who", "no matter what," etc. These are nearly always non- restrictive. 1. I fear him not, whoever he may be. 2. He will be quite happy, whichever he gets. 3. I will speak out, whatever he may say. The above clauses modify the verbs fear, will be, and will speak. Exercise Make a list of all the adverb clauses in the sentences below, explaining briefly why each is restrictive or non-restrictive in meaning. The sentences are all printed without commas, though some ought to have commas. So you can get no clues from any punctuation marks. Neither can you tell an}i;hing by the conjunctions themselves. For instance, you may see a since clause. If it shows a reason, you know it is non- restrictive. But if the meaning is "since that partieidar time when," the clause is closely restrictive. The ]Model is based on three different sentences, so that you may have plenty of illustration of how to go to work. SENTENCES MODEL 1. His money gave out so that 1. So that he had to beg = "and he had to beg from the passen- as a result. ' ' There should be gers. a comma before it. 2. Wp suspected him whenever he 2. Whenever he was = " at every was not in sight as he had a particular time when. " It is sneaky look. restrictive. .Vs he had a sneaky look is non-restrictive because as shows a reason. There should bj a comma before it. SENTENCE AND THEME 247 SENTENCES MODEL 3. The natives acted as if they 3. As if they were = " in that par- were delighted with whatever we ticular way. " It is restrictive, said though we could see that In though we could see though they were really as unfriendly is like "but." There must be to us now as they had been be- a comma before it. As they fore we had a conference with had been = a clause of eompari- them. son with as unfriendly. It is very closely restrictive. Before we had a conference = ' ' before that particular time. ' ' It" is restrictive. In your written work include no relative clauses. Select only the adverb clauses. 1. Morrison was now exhausted while his companions were fresh. 2. There they lie for forty-eight hours when they are taken out and rolled in wheelbarrows to where the vats of brine are waiting for them. 3. Geologists who work in Alaska have to protect themselves from mosquitos even when they are working in deep snow. 4. On this track the machines go whizzing about as if it were an indoor speed contest. 5. "We had no sooner alighted than we were shown into a splendid drawing-room. 6. "We watched him closely while he measured the depth for we wanted to learn his tricks. 7. Mr. Birdseye's face wrinkled and twitched almost as though he meant to shed tears. 8. All eyes were fastened upon him very intently so that he had to be specially careful. 9. He has not been seen since he registered here eight days ago. 10. Jim did not lift his eyes so was unconscious of the look Marie bent upon him. 11. Walker was now confident of making huge profits since his com- petitors could not manufacture the strips so cheaply. 12. He may never have been in Nicaragua though he seems to know^ all about it. 248 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 13 (A TRUE STORY) One of the elephants in a traveling circus was exceptionally well trained and valuable. But she was vicious; had hilled seven persons. After she had killed her eighth victim, her trainer, at a town in Tennes- see, her execution was ordered. The other elephants were made to push her to a big crane that was mounted on a railway construction-car; a noose of chain was put about her neck; she was hoisted and hanged. LESSON 53 CONJUNCTIONS OF WHICH WE CANNOT SAY "USUALLY" Review for a spelling test the words given in Lessons 32 and 34. 217. That. One kind of non-restrictive clause is intro- duced by a participle and that. 1. He plays pretty well, considering that he has had so little practice. 2. You may go now, seeing that your work is finished. Such participles are not attached to any noun ; we do not think of any one who is ' ' considering " or " seeing. " So it is best to call them what they really are, parts of a compound conjunc- tion. There is a tendency to drop the that, and this tendency has been adopted in some cases. 1. I will buy you a horse, providing you take care of him. 2. No objection will be made, provided you do not ask such a favor again. 218. Comparatives. A clause that you might never detect is seen in "The longer I live, the happier I grow." This means "I grow happier in proportion as I live longer." The main verb is grow, which is modified by an adverb clause, the longer I live. Other examples are (the adverb clause coming first in each case) : 1. The deeper the well, the cooler is the water. 2. The higher you go, the colder it gets. 3. The more you humor him, the less he respects you. 4. The less I worry, the better off I am. This is one of the few eases in which custom is not settled, but such clauses a.re usually called non-restrictive. 249 250 SENTENCE AND THEME 219. Four conjunctions that are more likely to be restrictive. An adverb clause introduced by whether is more likely to be non-restrictive. 1. I am going to eat a third piece, whether it is good for me or not. 2. You will have to submit, whether you like to or not. These "whether or" clauses modify the verbs am going and wUl have; they are adverbial. They are not at all like the noim clauses that you are familiar with — such as " I asked whether it was good for me or not. ' ' In the case of till and imtil a decision is easily made. Does the sentence mean that an action ' ' kept right on to that partic- ular time when" or is not to take place "before that particular time when"? 1. We walked tiU we were all fagged out. 2. I read imtil the lights went out. 3. You can't vote till you are twenty-one. This is the ordinarj' use. But sometimes an author wishes to show the meaning of "and at last", "and finally after a lot of this." He frequently wheezed and coughed and shivered, until finally I was alarmed. You can see from the following pair how as may mean ' ' in just that particular manner, ' ' or how it may mean ' ' that, by the way, is the manner." 1. I have done as you told me to. 2. I planned to serenade her with my guitar, as the eaballeros do in Spain. If is more likely to be restrictive, meaning "under the par- ticular condition that." 1. Of course I '11 buy if there 's a profit to be made. 2. Ralston wouldn 't say so if he didn 't think so. 3. We can't catch anything if it's cloudy. SENTENCE AND THEME 251 But it may show a "dashed off" idea equivalent to " — that is, provided this is the case " or " even though this is the case. ' ' 1 I prefer to be quiet, if you don 't mind. 2. Come down stairs, if you please. 3. I am healthy, if I do drink coffee. That last sentence is a fine illustration of the whole principle of Lessons 51-53. If no comma were used, the sentence would mean that I can ' ' be healthy only when I drink cotf ee ' ' — only under that particular condition. The same idea applies to u nless. It may mean ' ' except under the particular condition that." 1. I won't go unless I am invited. 2. He thinks nothing is true unless his father says it is true. 3. Don 't promise unless you really want to. Or it maj' mean "by the way" or "that is, of course." 1. There's not the least thing to be afraid of, unless you are super- stitious. 2. I can 't make any sense out of this letter, unless he means that he 's going to cut our acquaintance. 220. Because. The conjunction hecause is quite as likely to have one meaning as the other. Now that you have grown familiar with several hundred examples of the difference be- tween restrictive and non-restrictive, because ought not to give any difficulty. It is exactly the same old story. "For the particular reason that" 1. I dance because I like to. 2. I go to the theater because I like plays, but he -goes only because he has to. 3. The fellows admired him because he never bragged. 4. The girl was very much embarrassed; she didn't feel like refusing to dance with him just because he was clumsy. 5. I don't shave because I like the feeling of a razor; I do that unpleasant work because I want to look decent. 252 SENTENCE AND THEME "Arid the reason is" 1. He never goes to the theater, because the light hurts his eyes. 2. I never enjoyed dancing with him, because he was clumsy. 3. He doesn't dare drink ice-water, because it's bad for him. 4. But I bought a very different kind of shoe, because I knew that he had no idea of what was needed. In a majority of eases a because clause will make sense either way. A writer must always decide about the comma by first deciding "What do I want the reader to understand?" If his feeling is that he means ' ' and the reason is, ' ' he puts in a comma. Exercise Prepare written work on the following unpunetuated sentences following the Model of the previous lesson. A few cases may be debatable, so that you will feel that the sentence might be taken either way. Decide which is more likely, more natural, more sensible. Include only the adverb clauses. 1. The government will not operate these steamers unless it finds that private corporations will not buy them. 2. I should have to make myself master of you if you seemed likely to be troublesome. 3. He took his seat just as the band was beginning to play "Oh, Thou Sublime Evening Star. ' ' 4. She was not permitted to breathe the dangerous air of Newport until she was engaged to a man worth several millions. 5. In this photograph the roots are shown just as they were when removed from the pipe. 6. The operation of this amusing device is perfectly easy as all yoa have to do is to move the feet of the tin animal to which the pointers are attached. 7. I don't like to go over that road at night without a lantern because I once wrenched my ankle badly while I was walking in the dark. 8. As I was a visitor of rather high pretensions I was ushered into a misshapen little back room. 9. We stood watching the storm until nearly one o 'clock in the morning. 10. I should like the book very much better if there were not so much negro dialect in it. SENTENCE AND THEME 253 11. This is not much of a bargain after all seeing that the back is considerably shop-worn. . 12. But doubtless God made these bothersome flies for some good purpose whether you enjoy them or not. 13. The more slowly you go in those early lessons the more easy it will be to go fast later. 14. This rope will break very soon unless you repair it. 15. He offered to do as I wished if I would lend him the necessary books as he is fond of reading. 16. He went on like that with his rules and exceptions and exceptions to the exceptions till at last I was all up in the air. 17. He still has that habit of whistling softly when he is puzzled as he used to do when he was young. LESSON 54 Punctuation, Rule 10 221. Rule 10. Non-restrictive adverb clauses are to be set off by commas. Exercise Punctuate Leaves 12 and 13. Remember that noun clauses are not set off unless there is some specially good reason. Remember that every lesson in punctuation is a review of aU previous lessons; some of the sentences do not contain any adverb clauses. This lesson is short in order that you may have plenty of time to consider each clause and to make sure that you are right. LESSON 55 PUNCTUATION, REVIEW OF EULES 8, 9, AND 10 Punctuate Leaves 14, 15, and 16, which are a review of Rules 8, 9, and 10. 254 SENTENCE AND THEME 255 THEME 14 The teacher will read an account of how they make "Ameri- cans first" at Detroit. What is read will be three times as long as a theme. Don't try to crowd all the points into what you write ; don 't feel that you must follow the plan used by the author. But get the main idea : How much better off Detroit is because all the foreigners are learning to think of themselves as "Americans first." Bring out this main idea by telling about the night-schools, how the Italian felt, and how the business men felt, LESSON 56 ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES 222. The four forms of expressing thoughts. The great majority of sentences make a statement that something is true or not true. These are called ' ' declarative. ' ' 1. That is not the way they do in France. 2. Sam asked me why I was so happy. A sentence that asks a question is called "interrogative." 1. Isn't that the way they do in France? 2. Sam, why are you so happy? A sentence that expresses a command is called "imperative." 1. Don 't act that way when you are in France. 2. Sam, cheer up. A sentence whose main purpose is to express emotion, to ' ' exclaim ' ' over something, is called ' ' exclamatory. ' ' 1. Oh, what a burial was here ! 2. What a funny thing to say! 3. How he has changed! A declarative or interrogative or imperative sentence may be used in an emotional way, not so much to state or inquire or command as to show strong feeling. "When so used (printed with an exclamation mark) they are also called exclamatory. 1. Don't act so! 3. Who would have thought it ! 2. Cheer up ! 4. Wlio s there ! 223. The "simple" sentence. These four ways of ex- pressing thoughts are easy to understand at a glance, and will 256 SENTENCE AND THEME 257 not need any further explanation or drill. This lesson and the next five lessons are about another matter. We are to classify sentences according to their grammatical construction as "simple", "complex," and "compound." A "simple" sentence is one containing only one subject (or one series of subjects) and one verb (or one series of verbs). It may contain any number of infinitives or gerunds or parti- ciples or adjectives or adverbs or prepositional phrases, but it makes only one statement. In the following simple sentences the subject and verb are italicized. 1. They are not coming today. 2. Why should any man in his right senses borrow money to buy an automobile ? 3. Ah, what a joy it was to his friends to see him persevere against all adversities and win out so nobly! 224. The practical value of knowing about the kinds of sentences. A person who had never learned about infinitives would not kaow what kind of sentence that last one is — would probably suppose it contained several verbs. So he might not try in a theme or letter to write one as long as that or as different from his other sentences. He would be ignorant and confused, afraid to vary his sentence-forms, likely to set down a series of this sort : " He kept persevering, and this made his friends glad, and finally he won out nobly." That is a child's way of writing — to set down something "and" then another little something "and" then another small bit, and so inch his way through a composition. Such a writer is tiresome and uninteresting. Instead of showing on paper what kind of person he really is — fairly bright and original — he appears dull and undeveloped. The purpose of this whole year 's work is not to learn names and rules, not to classify and draw plans, but by means of the many illustrations and exercises to get so familiar with all sorts of sentences that we shall no longer be ignorant and afraid. The purpose is to learn how to be more interesting on paper. And ' ' being interesting ' ' is not a fanciful notion, but a 258 SENTENCE AND THEME practical, business-like idea. All over this country there are firms that want to be "interesting" to their customers. Xo matter how good their wares and low their prices, they will make bigger profits if the ofiice force can write interesting letters — not tiresome because they are full of errors and juve- nile sentences, but of the kind that will convince patrons that the\' are dealing with a reliable and careful company. All over this country there are heads of firms who groan at igno- rant stenographers who cannot make decent sentences. "Why do they groan ? Because such ignorance makes the firm appear "sloppy" and unreliable, misrepresents them on paper, spoils business. 225. Compound subjects and verbs. In that last sen- tence there is only one subject, ignorance. It is the subject of three verbs — makes, misrepresents, and spoils. Since it be- longs with one verb as much as with another, we call the sen- tence simple. There may also be a series of verbs that have a series of subjects, every subject belonging with one verb as much as with another. Ignorance of spelling, heedlessness with punctuation, and childish / inability to construct sentences mahe a firm appear unreliable, cause distrust, and spoil business. Though that sentence has three subjects and three verbs, its arrangement is "simple"; one set of statements is made about one set of subjects. The name ' ' simple ' ' does not mean ' ' short and easy " ; it is a technical name in grammar for a sentence which contains no statement within a statement — that is, which has no subordinate clause.* There is no other limit to the pos- sible length and variety of "simple" sentences. They are given to all kinds of marvelous beliefs, arc subject to trances and visions, frequently sec strange sights, and hear music and voices in the air. • This Is not a definition. For the sake of clearness at this point the compound sentence Is not mentioned. SENTENCE AND THEME 259 On parting -with the old angler I inquired after his place of abode, and happening to be in the neighborhood a few evenings afterwards, had the curiosity to seek him out. A person who knew nothing about verbals might suppose that this thirty-one-word sentence contained five verbs and was very complicated. But one who has been trained sees at a glance that the sentence is simple : there is one subject, I, and two verbs, inquired and had. Here is a simple sentence sixty- three words long : Me pretended to fumble for his money, then suddenly thrust his staff fiercely into Sybrandt's face and drove him staggering, and lent Cor- nells a back-handed slash on the ear, sending him twirling like a weathercock in March, then whirled his weapon over his head and danced about the road like a figure on springs, calling them "thieving loons" and bidding them * ' come on. ' ' 226. The need of knowing about simple sentences. Perhaps you are asking, ' ' Well, what of it 1 What advantage is there in knoAving the name of it ? " There is not the slightest advantage in knowing the name, but the most necessary knowl- edge in all the study of sentence-making can be acquired only by first reaching a point where we can clearly see whether a sentence is simple or not. All our fifty-five lessons have been preparing us for that. Many lessons that follow are leading up to "Rule 17," the most important thing in the book. No one can master that rule until he first knows unmistakably what a simple sentence is. In that sentence about how Sybrandt and Cornells were put to rout there are commas before then. These show that then is jiot beginning a new sentence. We have here a simple sentence — one subject and a series of verbs. These verbs are separated by commas and modified by the adverb then, for they are a series of similar items. But if you in your writing should reach the end of a simple sentence without knowing where you are and should use then to join another simple sentence, you would be committing that primal sin called a "sentence- error." No one can begin to compose sentences until he knows 260 SENTENCE AND THEME when he has reached the end of a sentence, until he knows the difference between one sentence and two sentences. That does not sound difficult, and it is not for those who learn, step by- step, all about the uses of words. 227. Diagraming simple sentences. Today's Exercise requires the diagraming of simple sentences. Every simple sentence may have four parts — never more : 1 2 3 4 Subject Verb Objects Modifiers ( or series (or series or of any of of subjects) of verbs) Predicate the other nominatives three parts If we examine the following sentence, we shall see that there is only one subject, one verb, one object, one objective predi- cate — I found Mm living. All the rest is modifiers. I found him living in a small cottage, containing only one room, a perfect curiosity in its method and arrangement. Subject I Verb found Object him Obj. Pred. living in a small cottage C containing only one small room Incuriosity (appositive) 'a perfect in its method and arrangement Here is another example : I How comforting it is to see a cheerful and contented old age and to behold a poor fellow, like this, after being tempest-tossed through life, safely moored in a snug and quiet harbor in the evening of his days! SENTENCE AND THEME 261 As we read this through we see that is is the only verb and that the subjects are to see and to behold. Then as we go back to sort out the third and fourth parts we see that comforting is a predicate participle, that old age is the object of to see. But like this is doubtful. At first it seems to modify fellow, mean- ing "a fellow like this one." But why should it be set off by commas? As we read on it seems more likely that the author meant "safely moored like this." Either way is possible. After being, etc., modifies moored by telling the time when he is moored, and in a harbor and in the evening also modify moored. The diagram can then be quickly written down, put- ting it above the subject, because it is a mere "filler out," a "dummy" subject, as you learned in Lessons 29 and 33. Subject it To see (object) old age — ; a cheerful and contented and (object) to behold a poor fellow moored like this after being tempest-tossed through life safely in a snug harbor in the evening of his days Verb is Pred. nom. comforting how 262 sentence and theme Exercise Diagram the following simple sentences. Arrange your work neatly, thinking in advance where the bulk of the diagram is going to fall — whether in connection with the sub- ject or with the verb or with some object. Each sentence in this Exercise has only one subject and one verb. 1. The horse, a fine, sleek animal, was stamping impatiently, with ringing shoes, on the paved court. 2_ 2. The only difficulty in this experiment, aside from making the joints tight, is to fill the pipe at the start. 5 . 3. In the neighborhood of one bank, the Lincoln State Bank, masked Viandits swarmed at all hours of the day, victimizing fifteen patrons in a single week. .- 4. Probably the pilot, bewildered by the injury to the power-plant and handicapped by relatively weak controls, failed to counteract some air disturbance. I. 5. Because of the shortage of horses in Germany it has been found wise to dye white and dappled horses a field-gray, thereby giving them the protective color of the soldiers' uniforms and making them available for military purposes. [Say that giving and making modify to dye, though participles of this kind are very loosely "stuck on," hardly modifying anything, being almost "absolute."] LESSON 57 ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES— Confinwed Review for a spelling test the words given in Lessons 38 and 43. 228. Imperative sentences. The subject of an impera- tive verb is seldom expressed. It is usually you understood. In diagraming put this understood subject in parenthesis. In all your work from the baek-eourt think constantly of ' ' over the net, ' ' of keeping your eye aiming ' ' over the net. ' ' Subject (you) Verb think in all your work from the back court constantly of "over the net" (obj.) (obj. pred.) of keeping your eye aiming "over the net'' 229. Omitted subjects and verbs. Subjects and verbs of interrogative sentences are sometimes understood. "Why take all that trouble?" means "Why should you take?" or "Why do you take?" 263 264 SENTENCE AND THEME In quick dialogue, or when the topics are fully in the mind of a reader, both subject and verb may be omitted. "Xo matter ' ' means ' ' That is no matter [of importance] . " " Why not?" means "Why should he not?" or something of that sort. An author does not need to tell us laboriously, " It is a strange thought to think of his getting rich so rapidly." He may simply exclaim, ' ' To think of his getting rich so rapidly ! ' ' A pupil who does not understand about these omitted words may not realize that he has come to the end of a simple sen- tence, and so may carelessly put down a comma and rush ahead. That is the worst of errors — a ' ' sentence-error. ' ' 230. Ing modifiers of the verb. The following con- structions with participles (or with ing words that were for- merly participles) modify the verbs: j Generally speaking, the mile run is dangerous for boys. ' l(It is, if we say what is generally true.) 2. 3. Considering his ability, he lias done poorly. (He has done, if his ability is considered.) ^Barring accident, we shall arrive on time. ^(We shall arrive, if accident does not occur.) (Regarding the second point there is little to sa}'. Owing to the speed-law we had to slow down. (These are prepositions.) 231. Nominative absolutes modify verbs. Nominative absolutes are most like modifiers of verbs. They often cive some kind of reason. SENTENCE AND THEME 265 ("All tilings considered, this is not so bad. [(This is, if all things are considered.) 2. 3. His watch being slow, he missed the train. (He missed because his watch was slow.) iMy friend being unwell, I had to travel alone. (I had to, because.) 1'The siDi having gone behind the cloud for a moment, the island was no longer visible. The island was not visible, because.) Or they tell the manner of an action. There he lay, his muscles twitching violently. Exercise Diagram the following simple sentences. There is only one subject and one verb in each. 1. Going to sell that watch, that Christmas present! fi. 2. Look for a moment at this extraordinary picture of a man going 9ver Niagara Palls in a barrel. ?>. Is every movement of this fellow during the last seven weeks accurately known in your office? 4. To be perfectly frank with you, your record, judging by your own statement, is not at all good. Ij" 5. Knowing all about these crooked streets by daylight is very dif- ferent from being able to find your way about at night. 6. He was of the aristocracy of the country, his family being of pure Spanish blood and of great importance in Mexico. 7. The captain stood on the quarter-deck, his eyes flashing with rage and his face as red as blood, swinging the rope and yelling to his officers. ' 8. Picking himself up and shaking his fist at the man on the omnibus, hie called out something about ' ' getting even before tomorrow morning. ' ' LESSON 58 ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES WITH A COMPOUND VEEB 232. Diagraming a compound verb. The following simple sentence has three verbs. The commas are used to separate this series of verbs. Suddenly the bull stopped, plunged his front hoofs into the soft mold of the stable yard, and swept his head from side to side with a hoarse bellow. Subject the bull 'stopped suddenly plunged Verbs • (object) hoofs into the soft mold his front of the stable yard and swept (object) his head [from side to side I with a hoarse bellow Exercise Diagram the following sentences, most of which contain two or more verbs. 266 SENTENCE AND THEME 267 I 1. The wall was broad, afforded a comfortable footing, and inclosed a straw-littered yard. 5~ 2. A native guide, left to his own devices, first hunts for a water- hole, then selects the top of a knoll, and pitches his little tents here, there, and everywhere, according to his fancy for this or that thicket or clumj) of grass. (Of course you see that left is not a verb, for it is set off by commas.) 3. Having appropriated considerably more than one and a half billions, thereby beating all records by five hundred million dollars or so. Congress will probably adjourn and will take up its serious occupation of electioneering. '' 4. The forecastle was large, was fairly well lighted by bull's-eyes, and, being kept tolerably clean, had quite a comfortable appearance. ^ 5. Keeping our headway on with all our strength and the help of the captain's oar, the two after-oarsmen giving way regularly and strongly, we tumbled into the bows, keeping perfectly still for fear of hindering the others. C 6. Presently, in the midst of these pleasantries, she gave a loud shriek, and bounded out of her chair like a rabbit from its hiding-place, and ran backwards out of the room, uttering little screams and holding her mantle close about her with both hands. 7. We all landed safely at last, crossed a little plain, descended a hollow, and, riding up a steep bank, found ourselves before the gateway of Fort Laramie, under the impending blockhouse erected above it to defend the entrance, LESSON 59 ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT AND A COMPOUND VERB 233. Examples of diagraming. Here is the diagram- ing of a simple sentence that contains three subjects and two verbs. The handsome, supercilious daughters, the dashing sons arrayed in the extremity of fashion, and the haughty, pompous parents were a cause of wonderment to the country people and stirred up quite a commotion in the little church. Subjects the daughters • fhandsome Isupereilious sons Verbs 'dashing arrayed , in the extremity of fashion parents haughty pompous 268 (pred. nom.) were cause of wonderment to the country people and ~ (obj.) • stirred a commotion up quite in the little church SENTENCE AND THEME 269 Exercise Diagram the following sentences, all of which contain either a compound subject or a compound verb, or both. v^ 1. On the twenty-fifth _of_Julj;,, late in_tha afternoon, we broke up camp, with the usual tumult and confusion, and moved once more, on horseback and on foot, over the plains. Jl 2. Borrowing money from a thrifty cousin on the plea of wishing to better herself ' ' in the States, ' ' Lily made the passage to America in steerage, and landed in New York, sick, broken-hearted, and terror- stricken. ^ 3. The loss of a housekeeper at this critical time and the disap- pearance of the cook forced him to do his own work and obliged him to get his own meals and to attend to all the household drudgery. ^ 4. Gaston, completely taken by surprise, sat motionless in his chair, gripping the edge of the table with his hands, and stared at the grim iigure by the door. X, 5. Building such a furnace in such a marvelously short time meant team-work in industry, required enthusiasm, loyalty, arid efficiency of the highest order among a thousand workmen, speaking many tongues, but all intent upon one purpose — the breaking of the world's record for quick construction. [Sentence 5 is a fine illustration of how useful this diagraming is in learning how to compose good sentences. Pupils would not be likely to use the verbs meant and required in just that way; they would be more likely to start out with a new subject after "meant team-work in indus- try"; they would probably use "it required." The little "it" — small as it is — would completely change the sentence. " It " would start a new sentence. A mere little comma before it would be that primal sin, a ' ' sentence-error. ' '] 6. Long after leaving him, and late that afternoon, in the midst of a gloomy and barren prairie, we came suddenly upon the great trail of the Pawnees, leading from their villages on the Platte to their hunting-grounds, and met a concourse of thousands of savages. 7. But I compelled her to sit down on a chair, and made her drink, and washed her pale face, chafing it into a faint color with my apron. 1 8. The twinkling lights in the valley grew brighter and brighter and more numerous, and could be seen moving to and fro through the streets of a village. 270 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 15 A woman on her way home from a day of Christmas shopping was held up by a robber, who demanded her purse. She pleaded with him not to take a poor woman's money, but he was relentless. "At least," she said, "let me have enough for car-fare home. " He grabbed the purse, gave her a quarter from his pocket, and hurried off. On the ear the woman counted up her loss. She had started out with $30 in a shabby, worn-out purse; she had spent — she counted up three times to make sure —$29.85! LESSON 60 ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 234. Find the principal verb. A sentence which has only one principal verb (or series of verbs) is complex if it contains a subordinate clause. We are well prepared for complex sen- tences because we have made such a thorough study of all kinds of clauses and of simple sentences. In diagraming complex sentences noun clauses may be subjects or objects or predicate nominatives or appositives, and among the adjectives and adverbs and phrases we may have to place adjective clauses and adverb clauses. But our main task is just the same — namely, to find that principal verb and to group all the other parts properly about it. Watch the steps by which a complex sentence may be built up. The verbs in the subordinate clauses are italicized. The principal verb is printed in heavy type. 1. A healthy man enjoys his food. 2. A man who is healthy enjoys his food. 3. A man who is healthy enjoys eating what is set before him. 4. He said that a man who is healthy enjoys eating what is set before him. 5. That a man who is healthy enjoys eating what is set before him is the statement of a doctor who knows his business. 6. That a man who is healthy enjoys eating what is set before him when dinner-time comes is a statement that is made by a doctor who knows what he is talking about. 235. Diagraming complex sentences. This complex sentence containing seven subordinate clauses is thus dia- gramed : 271 SENTENCE AND THEME (obj.) (obj. of eating) Subject That a man enjoys eating What is set before him I I . who is healthy when dinner- time comes (pred. nom.) Verb is a statement that is made by a doctor who knows (obj. of l-noivi:'^ ^ A ^ what he is talking about 236. As, so, and than clauses. In our study of adverb clauses we found that one kind was always restrictive — the clauses of comparison introduced by than, as — as, so — that. etc. (See Lesson 51.) Such clauses modify adjectives or adverbs. 1. He was more tired than he would admit. 2. I was as helpless as if I had been paralyzed. 3. The air was so clear that it was a pleasure to breathe it. More is modified by than he would admit: as is modified by as if I had been paralyzed; so is modified by that it was a pleasure to breathe it. These are the only kinds of clauses that do modify adjectives and adverbs. The clauses introduced by as and than are often shortened by omitting the verbs and by not repeating the adjective or adverb. 1. I was as helpless as an infant [is helpless']. 2. This is larger than the other [is large]. But in some cases the verb appears. 1. I was as happy as I eould he. 2. This was more than we had bargained for. SENTENCE AND THEME 273 237. // clauses. Other kinds of adverb clauses modify verbs. We should feel thoroughly acquainted with them by this time, but a word needs to be added about if clauses. Com- pare the following sentences : CI shall not go if it rains. )If it rains, I shall not go. In each case the clause modifies the verb go. (When it is placed directly after go, it is not set off by a comma if it is re- strictive in meaning ; but when it is put first in the sentence, at a distance from go, it is set off.) All if clauses that begin sentences modify some verb that comes later. Some pupils, even after they have had practice, will thoughtlessly begin a diagram with an if clause. They ought to look ahead for the main verb. Keep looking ahead for it in the following sentence : If we had not thoroughly trusted the man who told us that, in spHe of the clear sky, it would surely rain before another day dawned, we should have gone rashly forward. The if clause modifies should have gone. The sentence is thus diagramed : Subject we Verb should have gone rrashly J forward (obj.) I if we had not trusted the man thoroughly who told us (obj.) that it would rain fin spite of the clear sky surely before another day dawned 274 SENTEXCK AND THEME This same warning applies to all sentences that begin with subordinating conjunctions like since, though, when, as. Exercise Diagram the complex sentences given below. Each con- tains only one main verb, and each main verb has only one subject. >^l.' People who visit the Chicago Board of Trade are perhaps most imxiressed by the sign-language that is used in buying and selling grain for future delivery. ■•C 2. If you want a moving-picture of something that happens very suddenly, ybu tna z train this camera in any direction as accurately and as quickly as a cowboy can draw a gun. 3. An odd feature about the machine is that it spells words as they sound, and not according to some fat dictionary. 4. Matters were thus when, returning one day from the town-hall to his own house, he found a woman waiting for him in the vestibule, with a child in her arms. 5. If a rabbit ever forgets, if he pauses one moment for a wordless, noiseless game with his fellows, he dies. 6. When I stroked her soft, bright fur while she lay purring herself to sleep in my lap, it was with a feeling of sadness I could not easily disguise. 7. Her mother always cautioned her to remember that she was to be a society lady, and that these young men she met were useful only because they could help in learning business methods. 8. The distuncc is increased five miles a week until he reaches thirty miles, which is the point of endurance they wish him to attain. LESSON 61 ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES— Coniwiwed 238. Examples of diagraming. Here is the diagram of a complex sentence that contains a compound subject and a compound verb in the principal clause. A man who did not know how he could earn a dollar a day and a woman who could not make a, loaf of bread if her life depended on it were now penniless and had to support themselves and the three children that were dependent upon them. Sub- J jects. a man (obj.) who did not know how he could earn a dollar a day and a woman who could not make a loaf of bread were if her life depended on it (pred. nom.) penniless Verbs - now and had (obj.) (obj.) to support themselves and ^the three children that were dependent upon them 275 276 SENTENCE AND THEME 239. The childish "and." If a child had to express the ideas in that complex sentence, he would be likely to say: "This man couldn't earn a dollar a day and the woman couldn't make a loaf of bread if her life depended on it and now they were penniless and they had to support themselves and they had to support the children too. ' ' The experienced writer used and to join two nouns, to join two verbs. He put all but one statement into subordinate clauses. Exercise Diagram the complex sentences given below. Pour of them have compound subjects or compound verbs in the main clause. 1. When the little swimmer has mastered the front dive, allow him to dive off and, upon coming to the surface, drift along on his face, doing / what is known as the "dead man's float." ' 2. The explosion of the powder so startled the thief /that he found himself looking down the barrel of the dentist's revolver' before he could assemble his wits and escape. . 3. When she wanted to know how much money I was worthi and who my ancestors were,; I had to confess; that, though my father was president of a bankj I hadn t a cent in my own name. 4. After another hour of dusty tramping,) during which ^ he three times asked his directions from the touristd ne met on the trailj he finally brought his companion to the Axis Inn and turned him over to the parents ihe had run away from. 5. lie was tickled to death with the notion and enjoyed his new job immensely! untU, after the second load of about a hundred pounds, some cowardly assassin shot at him from the brush one morning about the time/ the stage went down past his ranch. 6. At length, however, we eamo upon a forest tract, and had no sooner done sojthan we heartily wished ourselves back among the rocks agaiiil for we were on a steep descent, among trees so thickjithat we could .scarcely see a rod in any direction. | 7. He took it on the palm of his right hand, then put it close to his eye to sea what it was,land afterward turned it over several times with a pinVthat he held in his left hand,', but could not make outlwhat it was. 8. Godfishing is a dangerous business, (because "the fishing-grounds lie in the path of the huge ocean steamships,! which' plow through the fogs at high speed and not infrequently crash into a fishing vessel, cutting it in two and destroying life. I LESSON 62 ANALYSIS OP COMPOUND SENT3NCE8 KEVIEW POE A SPELLING TEST THE WORDS GIVEN IN LESSONS 44, 45, AND 49 240. Coordinating conjunctions. There are a few conjunctions that link together words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of the same rank, showing that one statement is as important as the other. The commonest is and. pen and pencil on land and on sea where the sun shines and the breezes blow The sun shines brightly, and the warm breeze blows. Another is or. one or the other by hook or by crook whether we live or whether we die You must learn this, or you will be laughed at. The choice between two statements is made more emphatic by using either before the first one. Either you must learn this, or you will be laughed at. In the same way nor and neither . . . nor are used. He is not trained, nor can he now be trained. But neither . . . nor is seldom used to join two sentences ; ordinarily it links only minor parts of sentences. 1. He is neither Hind nor deaf. 2. We neither Icnow the way nor cam learn it. 3. He knows neither when he should come nor how he should leave. Another way of linking statements of the same rank is to contrast them by some conjunction that means "on the other hand." (See § 213.) 277 278 SENTENCE AND THEME 1. You are sorry, hut they rejoice. 2. I am sorry, yet I must refuse. 3. Their work is all done, while ours is not begun. A contrast may be made more emphatic by using not only before the first statement. Not only has our plan been discovered, 6«t we are suspected of worse things. These three words, or the four words of not only . . . but also, are used all together as one conjunction. When independent statements of the same rank are thus joined together by coordinating conjunctions, they form a compound sentence. Examples are given below ; the numbers indicate where the independent statements begin. Soon after the foresail was reefed, (2) and we were sent up to reef in the topsail. The ship's head pitched into the sea, (2) and the water rushed through the hawse-holes, (3) and the chain surged so as to frighten us. The pieces were thrown into the dust-bin, (2) and the next day there stood a new money -pig on the cupboard, (3) but it had not a farthing in its inside yet, (4) and therefore it could not rattle like the old one. That last sentence is taken from a fairy-story written for children, and so has a childish "one, two. three, four" con- struction. Don't imitate it. It is almost impossible to write a good firm sentence by using four successive independent statements, unless they are merely items of one description. A young writer's lack of practice is most likely to be shown by this "and, and, and" effect. Use complex sentences. There are only a few coordinating conjunctions. All that can be done in linking statements of the same rank is (1) to couple them with an ' ' and ' ' meaning. (2 ) -to offer a choice with an "or" meaning, (3) to oppose them to each other with a "but" meaning. 241. The semicolon as a "half period." Since the "and, and, and" form is unpleasant, it is avoided by using a semi- colon between independent statements of a description. SENTENCE AND THEME 279 The front gardens blossom with flowers; (2) onions, cabbages, and strawberries grow at the sides of the houses; (3) two or three trees shelter the front windows; (4) and almost every cottage has its trellis of vines. Between parts three and four the semicolon is used even with the and; this is done in order to make it clear to a reader that there are four parts of the same kind. A semicolon used in this way may be thought of as a "half- period. ' ' It does the work of a period in separating inde- pendent statements — statements that could be written as full sentences with periods if we preferred. But no capital is used after it; it separates only such statements as are closely con- nected in thought ; and the statements are not called full sen- tences. The semicolon does the work of a " half -period. ' ' To use a comma for such a purpose is the "sentence-error" de- scribed more fully under Rule 17. 242. Counterfeit conjunctions. There are some ad- verbs used in reasoning — in hooking thoughts together log- ically — which are very much like conjunctions. But as a matter of grammar and punctuation they are independent adverbs. They are never used with a comma to link independ- ent statements into a compound sentence ; they can be used only with semicolons or periods — thus: 1. The wind is in the north; the weather will therefore be colder. 2. Do you really need help? Then tell me your troubles. 3. I am not entirely well; however, I will join the party. 4. There are many attractive people here; nevertheless, I cannot feel at home. 5. I confess it looks pretty spooky down there. Still I '11 risk it. 6. I have an engagement; accordingly I must decline. 7. The hawk was poising; now was the time to shoot. Since these words are dangerous and troublesome for young writers, since they are punctuated in an entirely different way from but, or, yet, etc., they must be spoken of and thought of as independent adverbs. Use semicolons before them. 280 SENTENCE AND THEME 243. Examples of diagraming. Here is the diagraming of two compound sentences: Some confessed to him on their knees, and he heard them and laid his hands on them and absolved them as if he had been in a snug chapel instead of on the deck of a sinking ship. [Subject some [Verb confessed to him on their knees and II Subject he (obj.) heard them and (obj.) laid his hands Verbs < on them and (obj.) absolved them as if he had been [ in a snug chapel "I instead of on the deck of a sinking ship SENTENCE AND THEME 281 The sun had just gone down ; it was getting dusky ; the damp night wind was beginning to blow; and the heavy swell of the Pacific was setting in and breaking in loud, high ' ' combers ' ' upon the beach. ["Subject the sun 1 Verb had gone [just 1 down Subject it II ' (pred. nom.) Verb was getting dusky Subject the wind III^ damp night (obj.) Verb was beginning to blow and 'Subject the swell IV heavy of the Pacific setting Verbs was. in and breaking Jin loud, high "combers" J^upon the beach 2,S2 SENTENCE AND THEME 244. A repeated subject. If a subject is repeated with another verb, or even if it is repeated with the same verb, the sentence is called compound. 1. I was in doubt about what to do, and I was still more in doubt about what not to do. 2. Carver was now on the scene, but Carver was not now the leader he had once been. If the author has not repeated a subject, it is not best for us to say that it has been "omitted." Say that the verb is com- pound and that the sentence is simple. In your diagraming today be cautious about these compound verbs; some of the sentences may not contain as many independent statements as you think. Exercise Diagram the compound sentences given below. 1. In its present form the apparatus weighs thirty -eight pounds, and it is estimated that three or four like it could be conveniently carried by a military biplane. 2. The rose-bush on the wall hung over the water, which resembled a picture (except that everything was upside down) ; but when the water was set in motion, the picture disappeared. .3. The spinning-wheel, which had been in every cottage, fell into disuse ; and since these new machines were better adapted to the factory than to the home, spinning began to be done in factories and ceased to be a home industry. 4. We could get along without silk clothes and without velvet car- pets, but we must have food to eat, and much of it has to be manufac- tured l)y working over the raw materials. 5. The crowd had noticed the episode, and when the sergeant said this they rose up with some of the old Parisian mob-spirit and shoved the dandy lieutenant into the gutter. 6. The storekeeper in a small town is the first to hear about sickness 'or trouble in a, family ; and if the minister inquires of him as he sets out to make pastoral calls, he will not only save much time and travel, but will also be able to go soonest to those who need him most. • LESSON 63 PUNCTUATION, RULES 11 AND 12 245. Rule 11. It is still a common custom to put a comma after an adverb clause that begins a sentence, even though it is restrictive in meaning.* 1. If you wish to have me, I will walk along with you. 2. When all the reports had been handed in, the results were posted on the bulletin board. Comment 1. Never use commas after introductory prepositional phrases unless they are really parenthetical. 1. At daybreak they got under way. 2. One bright morning in the latter part of May we were awakened by a fire-alarm. 3. From the summit of Jordan Mountain in the park the view of the bay is one never to be forgotten. The use of commas after such phrases was once the common custom, so that in your reading you will frequently see them. But the custom is dead. 2. Of course a parenthetical word or phrase often comes first in the sentence, and so has a comma after it. But the meaning of the comma is "This is a by-the-way phrase, not a close modifier." In the third place, there appears to be no rule against it. 3. Suppose that we wished to quote indirectly the state- ment If it strikes the tape, it is good. * See note in the AiiBendix, page 367. 283 284 SENTENCE AND THEME We should put before it " He says that, ' ' just as in " He says that he will." "We use no comma at the beginning of an indirect quotation. He says that if it strikes the tape, it is good. 4. Be reminded that this rule is ahont. adverb clauses. A sentence may begin with a noun clause that should on no account be set off. Just as you would not use a comma in "Him we love," so you would not use one in Whatever we are used to we love. But an adverbial clause beginning with that same word would be set off. Whatever you think, you must obey me. (See §216.) Exercise Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 17. 246. Rule 12. Place a comma before such conjunctions as bill, though, ii£i.,_nor. 1. They went, but we stayed. 2. He was elected, though by a majority of only one. 3. He was not a good player, yet he was elected captain. 4. On Thursdays I have an eight o'clock recitation, while on Fridays I have nothing till ten. 5. I won 't be a politician, nor do I want my son to be. 6. England has remained uneonquered, not because of the English Channel, but because of patriotism. Comment 1. Notice the comma before not in the last sentence. If ■vve wished not to be a close modifier, we should have to say "has not remained uneonquered because of." SENTENCE AND THEME 285 2. No comma is placed before "nor" when it is used in combination with "neither." I will neither vote for him nor support him in any way. 3. Often the subject and verb of a clause introduced by these conjunctions are omitted. He went, though [he went] very unwillingly. 4. "But" is often a preposition or an adverb of degree. 1. There is no one but me in the room. 2. It is but a step to where they live. 5. No comma is needed before hut if it is contrasting two adjectives. 1. Poor but honest parents. 2. Eich but not gaudy. 6. Rule 12 is not in the least hard, but it is hard for some pupils to form the habit of always applying it in their writing. BXEECISE Punctuate the sentences on Leaf 18. 286 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 16 Mr. Burns, the noted detective; has described how he hunts down criminals by following very slight clues. The teacher will read a maga- zine account of the shrewdness and patience of another detective, Sergeant Brenner of the New York police. The story is true in every particular. LESSON 64 PUNCTUATION, RULE 13 247. Rule 13. Place a comma before and when it is not adding another item in a series, but is joining another form of statement. This rule usually makes it necessary to place a comma before the and that joins two parts of a compound sentence. The old man bowed his head over the sheets in silence for a while, and the curator lit another pipe. Comment 1. A comma should never be used with and when it is clear that the word joins two similar words or phrases or clauses. 1. He was very high and mighty. 2. We looked in his desk and under the sideboard. 3. Louis knew that he was in danger and that he must act quickly. 2. But if a reader might suppose at first sight that and is joining a pair of words, whereas it really is joining two statements, his eye should be warned by a comma. In the sentence We elected him secretary, and he has always done his work faith- fully. the reader might suppose, if he were not warned by the comma, that "We elected him secretary and" — something else, probably "treasurer." If there is no comma, the eye has to travel on through "he has always," then see that it has gone on a wrong track, then go back to "secretary" again, then figure out what the and is really joining. You will get the idea by noticing the confusion and loss of time caused 287 288 SENTENCE AND THEME by the absence of commas in the following sentences, where the necessary commas have been purposely omitted. (The sentences were all written, with the commas, by careful authors.) ' ' The queen loved her land and her subjects and the people of England were quick to feel the new sense of har- mony." "Three days later A hires B and C and D quits work. " " These buckskin leg- windings were devised as a pro- tection against snakes and present-day wearers retain them as a matter of fashion." "Toward the end everybody lost all sense of decency and mothers heard language not included in the bills." It would not be hard to discover the meaning of each of the above sentences. You might not suppose at first reading that leg-windings were a protection ' ' against snakes and pres- ent-day wearers," nor that everybody lost all sense "of de- cency and mothers. ' ' But it requires a halt and a little reck- oning to be sure you understand. The reader ought to be warned by a comma that he is not to expect another item in the series. 3. Sometimes two verbs are not really "similar items in a series," because different constructions depend on them. Eat, and drink this wine. If there were no comma, this would be a command to "eat wine." Bathe, and refresh your soul. If there were no comma, this would be a command to "bathe your soul. ' ' 4. If two verbs or clauses show different time, the comma should be used. Finally we got the hang of it, and then could move along com- fortably. The specially common cases in themes are and when, and finalbj. and after. The same idea applies to verbs that are of SENTENCE AND THEME 289 different "mood": — for example, when one verb makes a statement and the other gives a command. Try it, and you will soon see. These verbs are not really ' ' similar items in a series. ' ' 5. Use a comma before and not. He was very busy, and not at all glad to see us. 6. The commonest and most useful way of using the comma before and is when the second part of a sentence tells about a different person or thing — thai is,__when the subject^ ciianges. 1. I was seared, and they knew it. 2. It then turned colder, and the ice formed more rapidly. 7. A comma ought to be put before an or that adds another form of statement. In Rome you must do as the Eomans do, or you will be thought provincial. 8. It is wrong to use the comma before and when it is reasonably clear that you are joining two verbs or two nouns in the same construction. We walked up slowly and ran as fast as we could down the other side. 9. It is wrong — ridiculously wrong — to use a comma before and unless there is some definite reason. To write "We ate, and drank greedily" is like driving a spike into a window pane — the sentence, like the glass, is shattered to pieces. 10. Among the sentences are a number in which no comma is needed. Exercise Punctuate Leaves 19 and 20. (Additional sentences for Kule 13 are on Leaf 21.) LESSON 65 PUNCTUATION, RULE 14 248. Rule 14. An ordinary quotation begins with a capital and is surrounded by quotation marks. The words that introduce (such as he said, answered James, etc.) are set off by commas. COIIMENT 1. This rule deals only with single sentences. Quotations of more than one sentence will be taken, up under Rule 17. 2. There are three types of single-sentence quotations. a. When the introducing words come first. Then he shouted out, ' ' Can 't you hear me ? " b. "When the introducing words come last. ' ' I wonder what lies on the other side, ' ' whispered Carthy. If the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, no comma is used in connection with it. 1. "Is she to go with us?" Joseph demanded. 2. ' ' Oh, rubbish ! ' ' bellowed Mr. Oanthorpe. c. When the introducing words are within the sentence. ' ' One swallow, ' ' he replied sneeringly, ' ' doesn t make a summer. ' ' When a quotation is thus divided, the part after the intro- ducing words bejiins with a small letter if it is merely a part of one sentence. (It is an entirely different matter when a new sentence begins there.) SENTENCE AND THEME 291 3. Ordinarily a question mark or exclamation mark belongs inside the quotation marks. "Why should I go!" asked Ted. This is because the question mark is a real part of Ted's words ; it shows that he asked a question. But suppose he had said Come here, and we wish to ask him Why did you say that? The sentence becomes Why did you say, ' ' Come here ' ' ? The question mark is not part of the quotation, but belongs at the end of the whole sentence — outside the quotation marks. 4. There should be no comma before a.n indirect quotation. He asked why we wanted to 'know. 5. The quoted sentences that we have been speaking of are grammatically noun clauses, the objects of shouted, whispered, iellowed, etc. But the introducing words may be separate sen- tences. 1. Then AUerton spoke up. "I don't see the justice of that." 2. ' ' But why " (it was Mrs. L 's voice that we now heard) ' ' shouldn 't you?" No examples of this sort are included on Leaves 22 and 23. 6. Quoted words and phrases that are not thus introduced as somebody's speech should not be set off. It is not allowable to use ' ' bunch of fellows " in a formal essay. 7. If a quotation begins at the beginning of a line, the marks must never be left stranded at the end of the line above. They belong next the first word of the quotation. 292 SENTENCE AND THEME 8. Once in a great while you may find it necessary to write a quotation within a quotation. In such a ease use single marks around the inner one. 1. John asked in a low tone, "Did you hear that woman whisper, ' Pass it to me ' f " 2. "Come in," she said, "and hear our 'vitaphone'." A quotation within this inside quotation would have the double marks around it. Exercise Punctuate Leaves 22 and 23. Put in the necessary capitals for the quotations that begin after introducing words. LESSON 66 VARIETY IN SENTENCES 249. Aimless repetition of one form. If you examine anj- good novel, you will find many simple sentences, many short ones, and quite a number of compound statements with and. Each of these kinds is natural and proper. But if a story were mostly composed of short sentences, we should dis- like it ; if it contained nothing but and sentences, we could not abide it. We want variety. When you write a letter or a theme, keep in mind what sort of sentence you have just used, in order to follow it with another kind — or, at least, not to have two or three of the same type and length following each other. If you have some purpose in writing a series of similar forms, that is an entirely different matter. But pupils do not ordinarily have any such artistic plan. They are more likely to "repeat aimlessly" one sort of sentence that they unconsciously got into the way of using. Ordinarily the exhortation needed in school is "Vary your sentences." 250. Monotonous "subject and verb first." A very short simple sentence beginning with the subject is not in itself a poor form — it is a good, strong form. But an unbroken series of statements of that kind makes a poor, weak paragraph. Think of your sentences in action, along with other sentences ; vary the forms. Give your reader a pleasant surprise every now and then by beginning with an adverb or a phrase. How does the following strike you? He turned into South Street and looked toward the Battery. The barn-like piers crowded low on his left and the houses huddled to his right. They were like a crowd jammed against the ropes of an inclosure. 293 294 SENTENCE AND THEME There was a junk-shop, a tobacconist, and a barber. There were saloons, ship agencies, and marine supplies. The tangy odor of the docks crept into his nostrils like a spice. He could smell a faint mixture of salt water and tarred rope. A sailor passed him carrying a macaw in a huge cage. The motley population of the port eddied about him like a carnival. There were square-headed, erect Scandinavians, and every one was a gentleman. There were stolid Germans and laughing negroes, and a Greek and a Turk here and there. There was a pig-tailed Chinaman, and a Spaniard rolled a cigarette with long, tawny fingers. Great drays creaked by, and these were drawn by Percherons. The drivers demanded way of one another with loud, truculent curses. The bows of ships were about him. They were hawsered to moorings and looked like horses in a manger. There were white, broad boats from the tropjics and sloppy Greek liners, and a great red Argentine boat. This boat looked ungainly and out of place, like an overgrown child. Another boat was from Mar- seilles. It was a great schooner with a tarnished figurehead in gilt. There are so many varied details here, such a variety of nouns and adjectives, so much variation in the lengths of sen- tences that we can live through it. We are not in distress during the first six sentences. But then something makes us distrustful ; soon we are irritated ; and at the end we are all out of patience.. Why? Because of that unchanging subject first, subject first, subject first, subject first. If you hunted a hundred hours, you could not find any similar passage in a magazine story that you like. If there were repeated nouns and commonplace details, the theme would be unbearable. 251. Variety is interesting. Begin sometimes with modi- fiers, use appositives, use clauses, mingle short sentences with long ones. See how an author handled the material; notice especially his use of dashes. He turned into South Street and looked toward the Battery. As far as ho could see, the barn-like piers crowded low on his left and the houses huddled to his right like a crowd jammed against the ropes of an inclosure — junk-shop, tobacconist, barber, saloons, ship agencies, and marine supplies. The tangy odor of the docks crept into his nostrUs like a spice, a faint mixture of salt water and tarred rope. A sailor passed him carrying a macaw in ii huge cage, and the motley population of the SENTENCE AND THEME 295 port eddied about like a carnival — square-headed Scandinavians, erect, and every man a gentleman; stolid Germans; laughing negroes; here and there a Greek and a Turk; a pig-tailed Chinaman; a Spaniard, roll- ing a cigarette as he passed, with long, tawny fingers; gnarled sailormen from Gloucester and Newport News. Along the street great drays, drawn by Percherons, creaked by, whose drivers demanded way of one another with loud, truculent curses. And about him, to his left, were the bows of ships, hawsered to the mooring-bits of the docks like horses in a manger — white, broad boats from the tropics, and sloppy Greek liners; a great red Argentine boat, ungainly and out of place, like an overgrown child; here and there a coastwise vessel, high in the bow and low amid- ships; and farther on a great schooner, with a tarnished feminine figure- head in gilt, which had come from Marseilles. Notice how in the following passage the sentences are varied: (1) simple, (2) long compound, (3) short com- pound, (4) simple, (5) long complex, (6) simple (not begin- ning with the subject), (7) simple (beginning with the subject), (8) compound of three parts, (9) compound (along second part explaining a short first part), (10) complex, (11) very short simple, (12) very long simple with participles, (13) short complex. The climax of all discoveries and inventions for harvesting grain is the combined harvester. A single machine will cut the wheat, gather it, thresh it, clean it, and even sack it; and during the process the hand of man does not need to touch the grain. Before the harvester goes by, there is a field of grain; after its passage a row of sacks of wheat. Every operation excepting one — sewing up the sacks — is done by horse power or steam power. The combined harvester can be used to advantage only where the climate is dry — that is, where it is not likely to rain during the harvest season, where the dews are slight, and where there is little moist air coming in from the ocean. In the United States the machine can be used to best advantage, therefore, on the Pacific coast. Some of these harvesters are worked by animal power, some by steam. A standard machine drawn by horses wUl cut a swath from sixteen to twenty feet in width; it requires from twenty-four to forty horses to draw it, four men to operate it; and it will cut from twenty -five to forty acres a day. There is a division of labor between the workmen: one is the driver, another regulates the cutting bar and operates all the ma- 296 SENTENCE AND THEME chinery, a third attends to the steering of the machine, and a fourth takes care of the sacks and ties them up. The steam harvester requires a rather complicated outfit, costing about seventy-five hundred dollars, so it is used only on the largest farms. Two-thirds of the wheat of California is harvested in this way. "It is a novel, interesting, and picturesque vaUey scene to see this pon- derous harvester sweeping through miles upon mUes of ripened wheat, devouring swaths from sixteen to forty-two feet in width, raising its cloud of yellow dust, and leaving behind a long train of sacked grain, ready to be hauled to the warehouse, railroad, or mill. It is estimated that three thousand combined harvesters were operated on the Pacific coast in 1903." The sentences vary in length from twelve to fifty-six words. Though most of the subjects come first, not all of them are immediately followed by the verb — that makes a vast differ- ence. You may find whole pages of Irving in which every sentence begins with a subject, but he varies the forms so skilfully in other ways that there is no monotony. AU of us who lack his genius will do better not to attempt such daring feats. "We had best begin frequently with modifiers, change from one type to another, use fewer compound sentences, more complex sentences. Exercise Write brief statements, arranged in a list, showing how each of the following sentences begins, and what kind of sen- tence each is (that is, whether it is simple, complex, or compound). A runaway car apparently is as depraved as any criminal. It hides on a lonely siding, or gets lost in a short swamp line. One such runaway rested nearly a year on a siding in southern Texas simply because it got lost, and no one seemed to know just what to do witli it. The nearest freight agent had no record of it, and no tracer had requested its return. Going on the principle thnt what is ' ' everybody 's business is nobody 's business, ' ' this local agent made no efEort to hunt up the owners. If the order had been received by him to return it, he would have obeyed, but lacking such orders, he left it on the siding. In the course of time it was SENTENCE AND THEME 297 occupied by a family of squatters, wlio lived quite comfortably in it for six months, and were routed out only when, quite by accident, the car- tracer discovered it. A car that left Minneapolis loaded with flour for New York was unloaded in the usual way, and sent back with machinery to Albany, after which it was supposed to be reloaded for the continuation of its trip to its starting point. Instead of that it got astray somewhere be- tween Albany and Buffalo, and started south. It got as far as Bing- hamton, and then took a notion to visit Florida. Once down there among the orange groves it decided to stay. Years later the owners found it on an abandoned siding being used as a bungalow for a family of "crack- ers. ' ' The attempt to evict the family resulted in a row, and court proceedings had to be resorted to. When the car-tracer came into pos- session of his company's property, he found that the abandoned siding was no longer connected with the main track, and to get his car away he would have to lay a mile of new track. After much correspondence with the railroad, he offered the oar to the family that had been evicted for a nominal sum, but the indignant cracker refused to pay a cent for it. The tracer finally left it on the abandoned siding, and the family of squatters took possession again. According to last accounts they were still living in it free of rent. It does not always follow that a runaway car does not earn its keep. The roads charge one another a certain mile percentage for the use of freight cars, a small amount for common box and flat cars, and a higher percentage for refrigerator cars. This fraction of a cent per mile per car does not seem to amount to much, but when you count over a mUlion freight cars and the billions of miles they travel in the course of a year, the total runs into big figures. A runaway car may be traced, and yet not actually captured for six months or a year. The tracer, however,, knows how many miles it has traveled over the lines of a given road to reach certain points, and can compute the charges for its use. Thus one car that had been a runaway for over a year had eai'ned over a thousand dollars for its company, although it had not traveled over its lines once. LESSON 67 PUNCTUATION, RULES 15 AND 16 252. Rule 15. Within a sentence the colon is always used in one way, with one particular meaning: to show that what follows it is an illustration of the statement that has (lime before it. It is always a mark of introduction, equiva- lent to: "Here are the items." or "Here is the fact I have mentioned," or "Here is an illustration of what I have said." 1. The princess declared that she would give a free complimentary notice to the author who would procure for her the three fol- lowing things : a bottle of ink that would stay black, a pen that would write without scratching, and a blotter that would absorb ink without smooching. 2. The Cardinal thus exhorted the bishops : ' ' The most eflScient way to relieve the little ones will be to take up a general collection in your dioceses. ' ' 3. These types are true to life as I have found them, and the moral is: Much money does more harm to the individual than to the world at large. Comment 1. An independent sentence after a colon (like No. 3 above) may begin with a capital. A list of particulars (like No. 1) begins with a small letter. 2. The colon is the ordinary mark after the salutation of a letter. My dear Archer: I was very glad to hear — etc. 3. Rule 14 says that a quotation is introduced by a comma. A colon is used, as in No. 2 above, when the introduction is formal, usually after such words as thus, as follows, etc. SENTENCE AND THEME 299 4. The most common use is to introduce a list of particulars after such phrases as for example, as follows, namely, for instance. Two articles on the problem have recently appeared — namely: ' ' Fighting the Hailstorm ' ' and ' ' Hailstorm Insurance. ' ' (More is said under Rule 19 about this use of a dash before namely, etc.) Sentences illustrating Rule 15 are not to be used until you have studied Rule 16. 253. Rule 16. Use a semicolon between long members of a series — members which are themselves punctuated by commas. 1. Notice a few of the dramatic incidents in this trip : the encounter, secretly contrived by the King; the mysterious, alarming inter- view with Hayraddin; the foiling of the band of German cut- throats. 2. In the administration of their government there are three condi- tions which the Cubans desire to prevail: first, security from foreign invasion or interference; second, a force adequate to suppress interior disturbances; and, third, opportunity to hold a reasonable share of the public offices. Comment 1. In the sentence about the Cubans the semicolon is used with the "and" that joins the third member. This is for the same purpose that we have in using a comma with an and that joins a third word : We want the eye to see the series, not as a + (b -i- e) , but as a + b -f c. 2. As a matter of grammar it would be proper to use commas for separating the items in the list of ' ' dramatic inci- dents in this trip ' ' or the list of ' ' conditions which the Cubans desire to prevail' ' ; for the items are merely a list of three modified nouns. But a series of four or five commas would be confusing to a reader, because they would be doing different kinds of work : the first would be setting off the non-restrictive 300 SENTENCE AND THEME participle contrived, and the second would be separating rncounter from interview. This separating of the large items is a more important business than setting off a little modifier inside of one item. Hence we need a "doubly important comma"; it would 'be convenient to have one of double size. But such a comma has never been devised, and would look awkward. We use a semicolon instead. A semicolon thus used may be thought of as a "double-comma." It shows clearly just where the second item begins and just where the third item begins. 3. This "double-comma" use is very convenient between the parts of a compound sentence that contain commas within themselves. In an ordinary compound sentence a comma before hut is sufficient, and so we might write, "If the season is dry, there will be a small crop, but if it is very wet, while there will be a large crop, its quality will not be good." But since these four commas look just alike, we have to go slowly and figure out for ourselves which are the two main state- ments. The author who made the sentence felt this and saved his reader from confusion by putting a "double-comma" before hut. A semicolon here would show us at a glance that the sentence is in two parts: (1) the crop in a dry season, (2) the crop in a wet season. 4. In § 241 we learned of the semicolon as a " half-period. ' ' This use is convenient when we wish to show that a series of independent statements all contribute to one description. I have seen tables suspended in the air without visible support; I have seen curtains blown about as though by a strong breeze; I have seen objects floating in the air ; I have heard notes struck upon musical instruments several feet away from Eusapia. Exercise Punctuate Leaves 2-t and 25. LESSON 68 OMITTED WORDS 254. Ellipses previously studied. We have already seen six common ways of omitting words that are important grammatically, but that are not needed for making our mean- ing clear. Such an omission is called an ' ' ellipsis " (a " leaving out"). 1. [I will say] to make a long story short, three of them died. §145. 2. This was something [that] I liked to do. §179. 3. He said [that] he would. §193. 4. There he sat dejected, his face [being] in his hands. §199. 5. [You] give me that oar. §228. 6. A fish as long as my arm [is long]. §236. 255. Ellipsis of home. One Jones or one Otis or one Hopkins does not make a family ; there is a family of Joneses, of Otises, or of Hopkinses. Instead of saying that an evening was spent "at the Joneses' home" we commonly omit home. But that apostrophe is not omitted. We cannot spend an evening "at some people." 256. With as. A great variety of constructions with as have come about by ellipsis. 1. We may as well go one way as [we may go] another [way]. 2. In some machinery a drop of oil will last for years — as [is the ease] in watches. 3. I don 't believe there is any such thing as a ghost [is] . All kinds of illustrations and appositives and objects and predi- cate nominatives and objective predicates are attached by means of as. 1. These by-products of petroleum — such [by-products] as chewing- gum, soap, etc. [are products] — were not thought of thirty years ago. 301 302 SENTENCE AND THEME 2. He wag thought of as [being] a good candidate. 3. These honors were as empty bubbles [would have been] to him. 257. To avoid tiresome repetition. The commonest ellipses are those which avoid a tiresome repetition of words. 1. The last meal is the heartiest [meal]. 2. A cross on one arm and an anchor on the other [arm]. 3. I will go if you want to [go]. 4. We stayed only as long a? we had to [stay] . Especially in writing dialogue we are often more interesting if we do not make a character repeat words that have just been said. ' ' ASThat has happened ? ' ' "Nothing [has happened], madam." "And why are you so lazy? [You are so lazy] Because God made you so. ' ' 258. Of words that are only grammatically impor- tant. Verbs and subjects, the parts of a sentence that are most important grammatically, are often the least important for expressing our meaning — indeed they would sometimes spoil emphasis. Hence in expressing emotion we frequently omit them. 1. [That is] Splendid! 2. [There is] One snort, one struggle — and down he goes! 3. [I am] Not [saying] that he was impudent — [he was] far from it. 4. [The efforts were] In vain; the man was dead. 5. [It is] No matter ; don 't worry. 6. [That is] All right; I'll try again. 7. [Now that I] Come to think of it, there is no real difference. 8. When [he was] an old man, he still remembered. 9. While [I was] waiting, I picked up a newspaper. 10. Generations [that are] yet unborn shall siTffer for this. 11. In the years [that are] to come you shall rejoice. 12. This building, [which was] formerly so beautiful, is now defaced. 13. An Irishman, [who had] recently landed in New York, was look- ing for employment. 14. [Do you mean] "Me!" said Catherine angrily. SENTENCE AND THEME 303 259. The important ellipsis — subject and verb. The most important matter in this lesson is the omission of subject and verb. Expressions from which the subject and verb have been omitted are independent statements just as much as if all the words were printed out. They must be punctuated with semicolons or periods or question marks or exclamation marks. They must be understood before we come to ' ' Rule 17. ' ' Here are a few illustrations : 1. Forward! Who's afraid? 2. Not out of bed yet? He must be ill. 3. Why all this noise? Something lost? 4. Not on your life. You can 't fool us. 5. No matter; that will be all right. 6. No, not today. Please don 't ask again. Exercise Rewrite the following unpunetuated sentences, separating properly the independent elliptical statements or commands or questions or exclamations. Don't assume that there is such an ellipsis in every case. Decide whether there is one. Insert capitals, quotation marks, and all other necessary punctuation. 1. No there's no particular reason for staying 2. Yes a little later can 't you see that I 'm busy now .S. There she stood her face flushing and her eyes dilated 4. Not at all my dear sir the pleasure is all mine 5. Where then I 've already looked in every little corner 6. If not why must we be so careful 7. To see him posing there at his mirror you might think he was conceited 8. Because I want to that's why 9. Want a ride the driver sang out sure thing I answered 10. These fractional coeflfieients are handled very differently from the way they were in arithmetic 11. Why because I tell you to 12. No matter keep cheerful 13. Who I wrong again 14. When beating up against the wind the " Bonaventure " gained a little 304 SENTENCE AND THEME 15. Not a drop of water in the house how do you suppose I can cook without water 16. All in vain not a hundred yards could we gain after an hour of frantic rowing 17. He was the kind of fellow who is always putting every ounce of strength into every play but who never makes a sound during the whole game 18. What next isn 't there something else we can do all right good bye LESSON 69 USES OF IT 260. "The child's error." Various names are used in high schools to describe a sentence-error : ' ' the child 's error, ' ' ' ' the baby 's mistake ", " the hopeless error. ' ' Every lesson in this book has been leading up to a clear understanding of what a sentence is, so that we may always know absolutely whether we have reached the end of a statement or are still in the middle of it. Only one lesson remains between this and Rule 17 — the rule against sentence-errors. 261. It is independent. All that we lack is a study of some ' ' independent words. ' ' One of these, the pronoun it, will occupy us today, for it causes more of the "Child's Errors" than any other word in the language. Since this pronoun looks insignificant and often refers to ideas without naming them strikingly, it is easy to "stick in a comma" and speed along. Hence a study of it, while not specially useful in itself, is most useful if it makes us realize that it is grammatically an independent and important word. This pronoun is used in three ways. 262. It referring to an antecedent. 1. It stands in place of some noun or idea previously mentioned. It is not dependent, like which, but forms independent statements, writ- ten after semicolons or periods. 1. We liked the house ; it was well planned. 2. The view is extensive; it is also striking. 3. Charity is the greatest virtue. It may, however, be an evil. 4. We ought not to delay ; it may be dangerous. 5. Play for us; it will cheer us up. 6. It is the most astonishing news that ever came over the wires. 7. It is merely a wild dream. ,S0.'5 306 SENTENCE AND THEME In 1, 2, and 3 it stands in place of nouns ; in 4: it represents the infinitive to delay; in 5 it means the whole idea of "your play- ing for us " ; in 6 and 7 if refers to some news or scheme men- tioned in a previous sentence. Be wary of such a use as that in the fifth sentence ; always make sure that an it is reaUy referring to something. Even experienced writers find that an "unrelated it" will occasionally slip into their work if they are not careful. Especially is this true when an adjective has been used and the writer 's mind is thinking of the correspond- ing noun. If we have spoken of a " dissipated man, ' ' we cannot use it in place of dissipated; we must use some such noun as dissipation for it to refer to. 263. Impersonal it. 2. It is used "impersonally," refer- ring to nothing that can be named. 1. It may rain. 5. It was a cloudy day. 2. It looks as if it might snow. 6. It seldom thunders in March. 3. It is getting dark. 7. It is five o 'clock. 4. It is clearing in the west. 8. It was nearly Easter. This impersonal subject is used mostly of weather and time. But there are other idioms — e. g., "It is going hard with him." ' ' Has it come to this ? ' ' We are not thinking of anything that is raining or that is five o 'clock or that is going hard ; it simply means "the fact about the weather", "the fact about the time of day ", " the fact about his business. ' ' It is used as an impersonal object, not referring to any thing or idea. 1. We are roughing it in the woods. 2. They are going to ' ' hoof it ' ' where the roads are poor. 3. Have it your way. 4. He can't come it over us fellows that way. 5. Curse it I 6. You're in for it now. 264. Expletive it. 3. We have already studied the very common use of it for pushing infinitives and clauses on to a later position in the sentence. SENTENCE AND THEME 307 !To see the reason is hard. It is hard to see the reason. {That he has retired is announced. It is announced that he has retired. A similar use of it is seen with the following nouns and phrases, in which the unpleasant repetition is avoided by omitting the repeated word. fThe way to London is a long way. It is a long way the way to London. It is a long way to London. We have the same pushing and omitting with relative clauseSr {The person who spolce was not Holt. It was not Holt the person who spolce. It was not Holt who spolce. (The thing that he wanted was aot popularity. It was not popularity the thing that he wanted. It was not popularity that he wanted. Thai does not refer to popularity, but to some understood "thing" which was decidedly not popularity. Questions are transferred by the same operation. {Is that person that is coming Joe? Is it 3 oe that person that is eoniing ? Is it Joe that is coming ? The relative does not refer to Joe, but to an unknown person whom we are asking about. To sum up the whole lesson — there are three uses of it: 1. As an ordinary pronoun referring to a noun or idea previously named 2. As an impersonal subject or object, not referring to anything that we can name. 3. As an expletive standing in place of the real subject (or object), which it has pushed on to a later position in the sen- tence. The test for an expletive is: "Is there another real subject (or object) ?" 308 SENTENCE AND THEME Exercise Write a list of all the it 's in the following sentences, briefly- explaining how each is used. PoUow the Model. SENTENCES 1. We thought it best to use per- oxide on the wound; for it had been made by a rusty nail, and we knew that it is wise to be careful in such cases. 2. It was not we who started the fight. 3. It is not working the problems that I dislike. 4. It was all on fire. MODEL 1. (a) It is expletive, in place of the real object to use. (b) It has an antecedent, wound, (c) It is expletive, in place of the real subject to be careful. 2. It is expletive, in place of the understood "persons." 3. It is expletive, in place of an understood "work" or "task." 4. It has an antecedent in the pre- ceding sentence. 1. It now became intensely cold in Canada. 2. Is it right to go without permission? 3. Who is it that keeps tapping that way with his fingersf 4. It was all worn out before we threw it away. 5. It is funny to see him try to stop it. 6. Will it ever be day? 7. The young cockerel thought he could lord it over us. 8. What is it you have in your hand? 9. When it was almost noon, they hauled down the flag and stowed it away. LESSON 70 INDEPENDENT WOEDS 265. It is independent. The whole principle of "Rule 17" (in the next lesson) is this : "Use a semicolon or a period between independent statements." We need to get a clear notion of what kinds of words make independent statements. An entire lesson has been devoted to the. personal pronoun it, so that we may realize that this little word, when it is the sub- ject of a verb, begins a complete statement^— a statement that may stand all by itself as a full sentence. 1. It rains. 4. It has not been tried. 2. It seems so. 5. It is anarchy. 3. It was not our friend. 6. It won 't do. 266. Independent pronouns. The same remark applies to all personal pronouns — he, she, it, they, we, you, I. 1. He will not. 2. She is going. 3. They can't. It applies to the demonstratives — this, that, these, t.'iose. 1. That is wrong. 3. These are better. 2. That will not do. 4. Those Icok right. It applies to the indefinites — one, some, many, any, each, either, few, etc. 1. One has been tried. 5. Each must decide for himself. 2. Some arrived. 6. Either wUl do. 3. Many don't know this. 7. Few realize the danger. 4. Have any been forgotten f 8. All are now accounted for. All pronouns except relatives are independent in nature; when used as the subjects of verbs, not in connection with relatives or subordinating conjunctions, they form independent 309 310 SENTENCE AND THEME statements which require semicolons or periods. The same Wcirning applies, with even more force, to nouns. 267. Independent adverbs.* Our long study of adverb clauses had for its chief object the getting of a secure knowl- edge about subordinating conjunctions. These join subor- dinate clauses ; commas are used with them if the clauses are non-restrictive in meaning. When this is fully understood, we can see how different adverbs are. Adverbs are independent ; they announce a new statement ; semicolons or periods must be used before them. 1. First it rained; then it began to snow. 2. We looked; there they were. 3. I'm hungry; indeed it does look good. 4. It 's a damp place ; still we might do worse. 5. He is talkative ; however, I don 't mind him. 6. The odds were all against him. Nevertheless, he succeeded. 7. The lightning was incessant. Finally the rain came. 268. Independent phrases. Prepositional phrases are independent and require semicolons or periods when they introduce statements. 1. It's not bad; in fact I like it. 2. That isn't likely; of course it may be so. 3. His strength failed; at last he surrendered. 4. This is wrong. At least I think it is. 5. Cheer up; after all, what's the difference? 269. But no words in themselves require semicolons. We cannot say that '^thrn must never have a comma before it." because that may be parenthetical or may be an adverb before one part of a compound verb. 1. Can you, then, get the point! 2. He stumbled, staggered, then fell prostrate. And adverb phrases may be parenthetical. There is, in fact, no doubt of it. * Soc note in the .Appendix. paj:e 'Wi. SENTENCE AND THEME 311 And if a sentence begins with a clause, an independent pronoun may appear with a comma before it. Since it was cold, he closed the window. AVe are not saying that ' ' a comma never can come before such words. ' ' We are giving illustrations of very common kinds of independent statements, and are saying that such statements must be written with periods or " half -periods. " If we want to emphasize the importance and independence of a statement, we use a period. If we wish to show that a statement, though grammatically independent, is closely con- nected in thought, we use a semicolon. If we should w'ish to show still closer connection in thought, we should use a con- junction and a comma. It is a matter of degree. Exercise Eewrite the following sentences, putting in the proper semi- colons before independent statements. If you prefer a period in some cases, use it, stating your reason briefly. Remember that some of the sentences contain no independent statements. Your Avork is not "sticking in semicolons," but deciding ivhether a semicolon is needed in this sentence. Put in all needed punctuation. 1. As a matter of fact a minimum of two rifles for each man is required at the outset of a war 2. These holes are then plugged up after this has been done the gases penetrate to the remotest chamber and the gophers are suffocated 3. The muzzle of this new kind of revolver protrudes from the front of the policeman's helmet it can be aimed and fired without the use of the policeman's hands i. Later the workers were huddled together in an Ul-smelling and poorly -lighted ' ' sweatshop " in a remote part of the city where the conditions were very unwholesome 5. In 1905 New York had 225 shirt-making establishments capitalized at nearly $9,000,000 there were over 10,000 workmen engaged in the industry and the value of the output was over $20,000,000 312 SENTENCE AND THEME 6. They filed past in rapid succession some were on horseback others went on foot and all were squalid and wretched 7. A drowsy spring-like sultriness pervaded the air the voices of ten thousand young frogs and insects rose in varied chorus from the creek and the meadows 8. Come and tell me about it why do you always avoid me this way 9. The chance of winning stimulates him to his best efforts in fact it is difficult to bring him to the top of his speed without this particular stimulus 10. Any appeal for aid in time of flood fire pestilence famine or earthquake meets with an instant and generous response from the average American 11. Many of the mines are isolated others are open pits many miles in circumference 12. Perhaps you're right I don't know 13. Last month a bearded sergeant appeared on a Parisian boulevard he was wearing a stained uniform and a dented helmet and he carried a ragged kit LESSON 71 PUNCTUATION, RULE 17 270. Rule 17. The semicolon is used like a half-period. It shows that two sentences, while grammatically able to stand alone, are closely connected in thought. 1. Jupiter was the greatest of the gods; he had power over Nep- tune and Pluto. 2. I like him; he is a thoroughly fine fellow. 3. It must be getting very late ; the moon has nearly set. Comment 1. Rule 17 is the most important in the book. A good deal of comment and illustration is added to it. Don't regard what follows as a set of rules. It is not. Only by talk- ing things over and using plenty of illustrations can Rule 17 be made alive, so that it will seem natural to apply it when you next write a theme or letter. 2. In the first place, to use a comma instead of a semicolon in the sentence "I like him; he is a fine fellow" is to make a blunder five times worse than you can possibly make in any other way. It is a failure to see the difference between one statement and two statements. It is the one unpardonable offense in composition. If you cannot tell where one statement ends and the next begins, you cannot write the language. You are like a mason who supposes that two bricks are the same as one brick, and so need no mortar between them. 3. This mortar between the bricks of composition may be supplied in two ways : (a) By a semicolon. 313 314 SENTENCE AND THEME (b) By a conjunction with a comma before it. It is equally proper to write: 1. I like him ; he is a fine fellow. 2. I like him, for he is a fine fellow. 4. This is a purely arbitrary ruling. Novelists often separate statements by commas, especially when what follows the comma is clearly a reason, as in "Let's take off our over- coats, it 's very warm. ' ' But this last sentence is a form that cannot be tolerated in school. If pupils are permitted to use it, they do not stop there, but go on to such limits as this: ' ' Finally we boarded the train for Albany, it took three hours to get there" — a form which custom has made intolerable. No ad.iective is too harsh to describe this sentence-error. A student in the first year of the high school who writes a perfect theme except for three sentence-errors deserves a mark of zero. 5. Independent statements may sometimes be separated by commas if they are short, if they are very similar in form, and if there are three or more of them. 1. He made the nine, he was in the glee club, and he was class secretary. 2. The visitor giggled, the boys laughed, the teacher bit his lip. It is an odd, illogical ruling that allows such a series of three while forbidding a series of two ; but it is very generally observed. Even this degree of freedom is dangerous in school. Use semicolons. 6. Certain words masquerade as conjunctions, and are very successful in betraying guileless writers into sentence-errors. Nevertheless is one. It must begin a new sentence, or have a semicolon before it. The ice looked thick and firm; nevertheless, we decided to test it. Then is a gold brick from which the gilding is almost worn off — the devil of Heedlessness has handed it to so many easy- going pupils. It must begin a new sentence, or have a semi- SENTENCE AND THEME 315 colon before it. It has not the slightest resemblance to ivhen. Finallij is frequently able to pass itself oft on the simple- minded as a conjunction. It must begin a new sentence or have a semicolon before it. We strained our eyes; finally we could see it. The difference between a comma and a semicolon here is the difference between black and white. The same remarks apply to there, which cannot begin a subordinate clause. 1. At evening we descended into a deep gorge. There we decided to spend the night. For the same reason we must use a semicolon before now, which is an adverb. Below is a list of the most common of these bogus conjunctions. Learn once for all never to' use commas before them. 1. then there finally now '^ 2. nevertheless accordingly consequently however still indeed 3. in fact at last at least 7. This seventh comment ought to be printed in red ink. Make your mind "see red" as you read it. Suppose a boy spoke tivii sentences: "Why should I? Nobody will know the difference." If you put introducing words between these tu'o sentences, they must still appear as two. ' ' Why should I ' ' asked John. ' ' Nobody will know the difference. ' ' In handling quotations notice whether you have one sentence or two. ilore sentence-errors are made with little innocent- looking quotations than in any other way. After "asked John" there must be a period and a capital. A quotation is sometimes introduced by an independent sentence. 1. Then Lawton spoke up. "When the time comes, trust me." 8. An even more monstrous kind of sentence-error is writ- ing a mere phrase or clause as if it were a sentence : ' ' thinking 316 SENTENCE AND THEME that by this time we were safely past all the dangers that had threatened", "on the morning after, when the sky was clear and all the woods had been refreshed by the rain", "who was not the kind of man we had supposed we were going to meet." Nominative absolutes, however important in meaning, are grammatically dependent and need only a comma. In the fol- lowing sentence the whole italicized expression is connected with (tpptaring, a mere participle. "Leaving Santa Barbara, we coasted along down, the country appearing level or rnexler- ately uneven, and, for the most part, sandy and treeless." 9. Experienced writers often acquire a fondness for using a semicolon before a«cZ and but. This is done to indicate that what follows is more nearly independent in importance, more like a new sentence. It is (like the semicolon after yes and no) a matter of degree. 10. A semicolon never introduces. It is never used after the salutation of a letter. It is never used before a list of par- ticulars. It is never used before a quotation. A semicolon never introduces. 11. To sum up : A semicolon is used to show that what fol- lows is grammatieally independent, though c'losely related in thought. It is used like a half-period. 12. Thus far the Leaves have given only single sentences: the periods and capitals have all been supplied for you. But on Leaf 26 and on any Leaf thereafter you may expect selec- tions that ought to be separated into parts by semicolons, or into sentences by periods and question marks. When you separate into sentences, make capitals. Exercise Punctuate Leaves 26 and 27. .SENTENCE AND THEME 317 THEME 17 (A TRUE STORY) A famous scientist, lecturing in California, spoke of the foolish beliefs people had about the weather, the moon, the hypnotizing power of snakes. ' ' Now, there is the little harmless lizard that you call a horned- toad. Some people believe it can shoot blood from its eyes. Nonsense I ' ' A boy in the audience rose to say that this was true. A horned-toad was caught, put in a wash-bowl, and teased until it spurted out several drops of red liquid from one eye. LESSOX 72 WRONG USES OF WORDS 271. "Good" and "bad." Xo expression is good or bad in itself. jMany respectable words were once the merest slang. Some that once had a high, poetical station have become vul- gar and unpleasant. Forms that are "good" in one century- may become "bad" in the next, like catched; and what is "right" in one generation, like dived, gives way to dove in the next generation. Combinations of words that were "good" in former centuries, like nor nobody else, are vulgar now. These are purely matters of fashion ; and fashions change from time to time. 272. "Near-by." Occasionally these changes take place so rapidly that dictionaries cannot keep pace with them. Ten years before this book was written near-by was called a "bad" fashion ; careful writers avoided it and it was not allowed in themes. But now it is to be seen everywhere, and so may be called ' ' good. ' ' The only thing wrong with it is that it is over- worked. Every man who is injured in an accident is taken into a ' ' near-by ' ' drug-store ; every frightened animal runs into some ' ' near-by ' ' bushes ; every fireman seizes a ' ' near-by ' ' axe ; every tired person in a park drops upon a "near-by" bench. Pupils who have not been cautioned will write themes about "near-by" canaries and "near-by" pencils and "near-by" neighbors. 273. "However." Another strangely overworked word is however. Some pupils seem to put it in at a venture about every so often, saying such remarkable things as "I was very tired after that long jaunt ; however, I sat down to 31S SENTENCE AND THEME 319 lost. " Don't use however unless you mean "but in spite of this." If the world should suddenly decide that however meant nothing in particular, but was to be used as a mere convenient sound between anj' two ideas, then that use would be right. There is nothing sacred about hoivever in itself. We are not abusing it when we misapply it, any more than we should ' ' abuse ' ' a piece of red flannel if we wore it for a necktie. The only injury would be to ourselves: we should make ourselves absurd. That is what happens when a person carelessly decor- ates his writing with a bit of language that may be all right for other purposes, but that is never thus used by people who notice what they are about. 274. "So as." An infinitive that shows purpose or result may be joined by so as, but with a clause we must always use so that. 275. The wrong verbs after "in order that." Some pupils use will or would, can or could after in order that. The proper words are may or might. !He does this in order that he may. He did that in order that he might. nVe study grammar in order that we may learn what a sentence is. J "Washington pretended to retreat in order that he might deceive the British. 276. "Kind of a." Notice where the a is placed in each case in the list below. Notice that there is only one a, or no a. a family of squirrels a sort of dim light a species of pine a queer kind of animal a class of citizens He made a kind of salute a sort of people What kind of sled is that ? a sort of agreement He wrote a kind of slanting hand Use a before kind and sort. Do not use another a. Since we use a before sort and kind, we can know that the words are singular. We should speak of one kind or seventeen 320 SENTENCE AND THEME kinds just as much as we say one stone or seventeen stones. Notice that sort and kind are singular in the following: 1. I like that sort of cereal. 2. We bought this kind of fish-line. 3. I can't use this kind of ink. 4. Try this kind of nose-guard. It is just the same when a plural noun comes after sort and kind. 1. He hated that kind of pencils. 2. We made a lot of that kind of snowballs. 3. Oh, he likes that kind of people. 4. Don 't use this kind of slang words. Say this kind and that kind, even if there is a plural noun. 277. "Is when" and "Is where." In the following sen- tences the wlien and where clauses refer to a definite time and place. 1. The best hour is when father comes Iwme from work. 2. This block is where the big fire was. But if we say that "A polynomial is where there are several terms, we use baby -talk; for a polynomial is not "a place where. " It is the same kind of mistake to say that ' ' The tide is wlien the moon rai^ses the water," for a tide is not "a time when. ' ' Never try to define a word by ' ' is when " or "is where." Use a noun: ''A polynomial is an expression consist- ing of," etc. "The tide is the raising," etc. AYhen speaking of newspapers, don't say, "I saw in the paper where there was a fire." Use that. Say, "I saw by the newspaper that there had been a fire." 1. I see by the paper that the Canal is blocked again. 2. I saw by the newspapers that the Canal was blocked. 3. I noticed in the paper that Col. Barr had died. 278. "Had ought." See whether you can discover any had in this next list. 1. You ought to have told me. 2. They ought not to hesitate. SENTENCE AND THEME 321 3. We ought not to liave hurried. 4. Oughtn't you to pay him? 5. No, I ought not; he ought not to be paid. 6. 'Why oughtn't he? 7. Nathan ought not to have gone. s. Ought he to have stayed at home? 9. He surely ought. 10. I ought to— oughtn't I? 11. I think you ought. Don't use had with ought. If you want to speak of "past per- fect " ' time, meaning that some one had a duty before that other time mentioned, use ought — just plain ought — and put a per- fect infinitive after it. 1. Frances ought to have been ready before he came. 2. This ear ought to have been cleaned before they started. 3. You ought to have learned that before coming into class. Don 't use had in answering questions about ought. Repeat the ought. Don't use had, don't understand had, don't think of had in connection with ought. Tou ought to have learned this when you were a child. Tou ought not to have to learn it in high school. Ought you 1 'No, indeed, you oughtn't. 279. Will and would. Many careful business houses will not use will and ivould with / and we unless they are giving a promise or showing that they are very determined. They are careful to say "I shall" and "I should", "we shall" and "we should."* 1. We shall be pleap^d to have your order. 2. I should not object to trying these goods. 3. I shall not forget your kindness. 4. We should like to call your attention to this. "I would" is somewhat a matter of taste and opinion, and ' ' near-by ' ' is merely tiresome ; but the other expressions com- mented on in this lesson ought not to appear in high-school themes or in the letters of good business firms. * See note in the Appendix, page 36S. SENTENCE AND THEME EXEKCISE Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the bad idioms. Don't take it for granted that there is an error in every sen- tence ; some of them are correct. It is not your task to ' ' change something, ' ' but to see whether any change is needed. 1. We should like to know where the fire was last night. 2. They ought not to have spoken to us in that kind of a way 3. A "squeeze play" is when the runner steals home from third base as soon as the ball is pitched. 4. I should be sorry to miss such a chance; however I will be there if I can. 5. Hadn't you ought to buy that other kind of pen — that kind that has sort of a knob on it? 6. We should spoil all our happiness if we worried about those kind of criticisms. 7. In order that his wound could be attended to better we hailed a near-by driver of a wood-wagon and hired him to carry the poor fellow back to town. 8. Finally I bought an expensive desk-light, so as I could make the fellows think that money was no object to me. 9. I have read in a book where Stanley was hired by a newspaper to go into Africa and rescue Livingstone. 10. I shall not be able to get all of the lesson unless I skim through it in kind of a hurry. 11. We wUl do everything you ask, even though we generally pay no attention to these kind of requests. 12. A yawl is when a sloop has a short mast in the stern. 13. As the speed of the train increased, she clung to the near-by back of the seat and got into a sort of a trance of fear. 14. We shall be much disappointed if she has to leave us, for we don t know where to find another clerk who is so good. 15. We saw by a notice in the post office where men were -wanted for the United States navy. 16. San Diego was the only harbor where boats could be really safe in a storm; however, there is one chapter in the book where they weath- ered an awful gale in the Santa Barbara Channel. 17. Cancer is where healthy tissue grows all through the flesh or fills up the stomach. 18. These kind of diseases frighten mo. I should think doctors would be afraid to attend to patients. However, they ought to be very careful to use antiseptics — hadn't they? LESSON 73- PUNCTUATION, RULE 17— Continued Punctuate Leaves 28, 29, 30, and 31. THEME 18 A king of Sweden, Charles XII, was an obstinate man who liked to oppose advisers and preferred hard undertakings to easy ones. The king of Austria feared that Charles was going to attack Austria; he therefore wanted to get Charles to go to war with Russia. He offered Charles's confidential adviser 100,000 florins if he would persuade his master to declare war on Russia. The adviser was loyal, but wanted the money. How could he earn the bribe and yet not be a traitor? He proceeded to dissuade Charles from war with Russia, kept urging that such a war would be too dangerous. Finally he grew so bold as to say: "On no account, sire, should you risk this enterprise. Austria hopes you will take this course. That country has offered me 100,000 florins if I will persuade you to go to war," He received his pay, 323 LESSON 74 PUNCTUATION, RULE 18 280. Rule 18. Put in parentheses any matter that you think is really needed at that point as a side-remark of explanation. 1. If we add to this the average railway rate from the local ship- ping-points to all seaports (40 cents a hundred), we see what a fair estimate of the cost is. 2. I robbed that home one spring of its entire batch of babies (no one with any love of wild things could resist the temptation to kidnap young flying-squirrels) and tried to bring them up in domestic ways. Comment 1. In the sentence about "estimating the cost" the writer's main purpose was to show how we get at the cost, but he thought some readers would like to know the figures for the railway rate ; so he added the information in parentheses. In the sentence about the tlying-squirrels the author felt that it sounded rather brutal to speak of stealing babies ; so he put in a long and slightly humorous explanation to show that he stole because he loved the babies so much. 2. Sometimes appositives are put in parentheses. These Kanakas (Sandwich Islanders) had names very difficult to/ pronounce. This parenthesis means "I will explain, so that you may not misunder,stand. " And that is what parentheses always mean. 3. Parentheses are helpful to a reader for enclosing a series of appositives so that the eye can see the whole arrangement at a glance. In the folhnving form the eye sees a lot of items looking all alike. Four of us, Hugh, Arvin, Horace, and Walker, not wisliing to vote, the other three, Gregg, Paul, and Chester^ could not carry the motion. 324 SENTENCE AND THEME 325 Parentheses make the two parts of the sentence stand out. Four of us (Hugh, Arvin, Horace, and Walker) not wishing to vote, the other three (Gregg, Paul, and Cheater) could not carry the motion. 4. The words within parentheses are punctuated just as they would be anywhere — with one exception : a sentence within a sentence has no capital or period. If Gary wins ^we think he will), how happy I shall be I If Gary wins (can he fail?), how happy I shall be! 5. There is never any mark of punctuation before a paren- thesis except for some extraordinary reason. (No. 12, page 302, might have been a case.) The mark after it must be the one that is required by the words before it. 6. An explanation of our own in a passage written by some one else is put in brackets. When sparkling stars twire [twinkle] not, thou gild'st the even. 7. Parentheses are not much used in school writing, but occasionally a pupil becomes over-fond of them. Perhaps the explanations are not needed; if they are needed, it is likely that they should be put in as modifiers. One very common fault in themes is : " Jeems (I forgot to say that that was the name he went by) was now perfectly happy." A parenthesis is not for the convenience of writers who ' ' forget. ' ' Exercise Punctuate Leaf 32, putting parentheses around the side- remarks of explanation. Don't take it for granted that there is such a side-remark in every sentence. Also punctuate the miscellaneous sentences on Leaf 33. LESSON 75 PUNCTUATION, KULE 19 281. Rule 19. A pair of dashes may include parenthetical matter. My second reason — it is the chief one — is that there ought to be some reward for high marks. Comment 1. If a writer wishes to step aside from his main business to give information, he may use parentheses : but if he wishes to add more emphasis or interest, he uses dashes. In the following sentence the author wants us to realize how much he means by many: Many of them — one half it is estimated — will remain at home. 2. A common use of dashes is to set off appositiv^s more conspicuously. These two bodies — the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies — are thoroughly democratic, for they are elected by the rank and file of church-goers. This use is specially helpful to the eye in the case of a series of appositives. The other two-thirds comprise exports employed both in war and peace — breadstuffs, cotton goods, leather, glassware, etc. In the following sentence the first romma is correct according to rule, but it makes us think that he gave his friend four things to eat: "He sometimes regaled a friend witii a plain dinneTTa 'tfcal pie, or a lei; of lamb, and a rice pudding."' A dash would show that the last three items explain dinner. He sometimes regaled a friend with a plain dinner — a veal pie, or a leg of lamb, and a rice pudding. 326 SENTENCE AND THEME 327 3. Appositives that thus help out the principal meaning of the sentence are often introduced by such parenthetical words as namely, that is, for example, for instance, or by such non-parenthetical words as such as, like. 1. Five nations — namely, England, France, Servia, Italy, and Russia — are represented in the army. 2. Some of the strikers — for example, John Alar — were killed in clashes that the gunmen had caused. 3. Nearly 18,000,000 pounds of rubber — that is, over a third of the total quantity imported — was used for boots and shoes. 4. Such "dashed-otf" appositives very commonly come at the end of a sentence. 1. His incurve broke at the same point — namely, about fifteen feet in front of the plate. 2. I want to speak of a conviction which is most dangerous to Americans — that is, that you must have a "pull." 5. Matter between dashes is not to be capitalized, nor can a period be used with it ; but question marks and exclamation marks may be used. I longed — oh, how I longed! — for a drink of lemonade. 6. It was customary a generation ago to use commas with dashes, and in literature you will frequently see this combina- tion. But the custom is dead. Never use a comma or semi- colon or colon in connection with a dash.. 7. "We have learned that a colon is used before quotations or sentences or lists of items that are formally introduced. It may be used for the same reason before appositives. Two old maxims were forever on his tongue — namely: "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush" and "Don't count your chickens before they 're hatched. ' ' Exercise Punctuate Leaf 34, every sentence on which has a group of words that ought to be set off by dashes. Punctuate Leaf 35, which contains a miscellaneous lot of sentences. LESSON 76 PUNCTUATION, RULE 20 282. Rule 20. A dash is used to indicate an abrupt change in either (1) the thought or (2) the grammatical structure of a sentence. 1. Nerve, ' ' sand, ' ' everlasting cheerfulness — these are what en- deared him to us. 2. He is the hardest-working creature in the world — when anyone is looking. Comment 1. This use of the dash is convenient for bringing in an unexpected turn of thought. 1. Of course they failed miserably — failed to make a lot of money. 2. And there the jealous Anna discovered them — merely "happened" to find them, of course. It is of use to authors in a great variety of ways for giving life and interest to sentences, instead of rounding them out in a normal, ordinary way. 1. She had lost that small security and had gained — what? 2. Come here, Eli-r4sn 't that your name f 3. The door gently opened-r-whether of its own accord or not my uncle could not tell. 2. In the second illustration under the Rule the author begins with a list of three qualities that made the man popu- lar — and then breaks off abruptly, sums them up with the words these, and completes a sentence. These is in apposition with the three nouns. Another illustration is The long whitewashed farmhouse, the massive stable and byre, the white dairy, the giant ricks of hay — all were photographed upon his mind. 328 SENTENCE AND THEME 329 3. Young writers often make an abrupt change of construc- tion without realizing what they have done; and since their thoughts are closely connected in meaning, they "stick in a comma" and hurry on. The right use of a dash — notice the ' ' right ' ' — would prevent a world of sentence-errors. Commas in the following examples would cause sentence-errors. 1. Let's go in — this is something I've always wanted to see. 2. I'm growing downright stupid — I can't work at all, nor think of anything. But this lively mark ought to be employed with care. Use it only when you want to give an impression of abruptness and change. Tour reader doesn't care to be jerked about too often with quick turns of speech. Story-writers use the dash frequently for indicating all kinds of quick turns of thought, broken-off constructions, excited exclamations — any sort of disconnected speech that is not formulated in sentences. ' ' For you know high blood will not run tamely, like the blood of the canaille — poor lady! — But I have a little family pride, that — excuse me — we will change the subject, if you please " My uncle's curiosity was piqued. The double-length dash shows that the speaker stopped abruptly. No period is needed after it. Exercise Punctuate Leaf 36, on which every sentence contains some expression that ought to be set off by a dash — ^or by two dashes. Punctuate the miscellaneous sentences on Leaf 37. 330 SENTENCE AND THEME THEME 19 An account of the trained seal, Toby, will be read in class. Your theme should bring out what kind of seal he was, how he learned his greatest trick, how delighted the audiences were. This last part will be more vivid if you put yourself in the audience, with a child on either side of you, tell what happened on the stage, and describe the eifect on the two children. LESSON 77 THE MARKS BECOME OUR SERVANTS 283. The simple outline of all the rules. All the punc- tuation that we have studied may seem like a big array of knowledge, yet the principles can be put into one short list: Commas 1. To separate items in a series a. Similar words, phrases, or clauses b. Appositives c. Addresses and dates 2. To set off disconnected expressions a. Yes, no, nouns of address b. Parenthetical words c. Non-restrictive clauses d. And that adds "another form of statement" e. Quotations Semicolon 1. Double-comma 2. Half-period Colon introduces Parentheses explain Dashes 1. Show important, appositive ideas 2. Abrupt change of construction 284. The rules might be learned unconsciously. We have been learning this code of rules carefully in school, but most editors and authors acquired it in a very different way — by absorbing it gradually from their reading. They have "picked it up" or "felt their way" to it or "trusted their 332 SENTENCE AND THEME instincts," and hence many of them deny that there are any "hard-and-fast rules." Some of them would tell you, if you remarked that you had been learning rules, "There are no such things; it's a matter of instinct." But if you examine anything they write, you will find that they actually do follow by their "instinct" .just the principles that you have been studying as school exercises. They have learned — often un- consciously — by observing modern punctuation. They know by experience — without any rule-book — what the marks mean to readers. They have learned by noticing what others do — .just as professional baseball players or chauffeurs get their knowl- edge, not out of books, but from the life they live. If any of us had been brought up from childhood in the daily practice of sentence-making, daily copying of good sen- tences, we should have no need of twenty ' ' rules. ' ' But most of us have had no such experience. We grow up ^^'ithout ob- serving commas, are as unacquainted with semicolons as an immigrant is with professional baseball. We have to get the information quickly, in compact form, out of a book. 285. Our definite knowledge is a good servant. Now that we have it, we should apply it. We are no longer working with other people's sentences, deciding what marks nuist he put into those given words; but we are the authors, expressing our own ideas, and we want to use the marks so as to show other people clearly what our meaning is. We have been looking at punctuation from the outside, asking what an author meant, so that we might put in the right marks. Now we are on the inside, composing our own sentences, using marks to make our meaning clear. Look at a few illustrations of the difference. 1. Prom the outside we learned that an interrogative sen- tence should end with a question mark. Now, the words Will you please come here form an interrogative sentence, so that if you had found this on Leaf 2, you would have used a question mark. But how SENTENCE AND THEME 333 about it from the inside ? We know that the character in the story we are writing did not say this as a question. It was merely the polite way in ^vhich a mother asked a small daugh- ter to come to her. ^Ye sJioiv a reader our meaning by writing the sentence with a period, which means "This sentence is a polite command." So you would judge from the outside that He is dead is a statement. But an author may show us that it was actually spoken as a question — He is dead? There is no "hard-and-fast rule" about what mark must follow those three words, but the meaning of the mark that we use is hard and fast. 2. Suppose that on Leaf 37 you had found That the one in the corner From the outside you argue that the one is in apposition with that, and so put in a comma. But if you are the author, you may want to show in your story that a detective who hated to use many words was telling an assistant which umbrella to bring him; he pointed with his finger and said "That" as an entire sentence ; then, because the assistant had not seen the gesture, the detective spoke a pronoun and a modifying phrase as a complete sentence. So from the inside, as authors show- ing how people talked, we write : That. The one in the corner. 3. Under Rule 2 we learned that yes and no might be fol- lowed by either a comma, a semicolon, or a period. There is no "hard-and-fast rule" about what mark must follow those words, but there is an absolutely hard-and-fast piece of infor- mation conveyed to a reader by each mark. Compare the three following: No, that 's folly. No; that's folly. No. That's folly. The comma means "Spoken as a mere adverb of reply, con- nected in meaning with that's folly." The semicolon means 334 SENTENCE AND THEME "Spoken as grammatically independent, but connected in thought with what follows." The period means "Spoken as a separate sentence, showing that his refusing to assent was a complete thought in itself; then the speaker goes on to express another complete thought." No author can escape these meanings. He cannot reason out what he would like to have the semicolon mean, any more than a baseball player could "reason out" what a foul is. 4. Under Rule 17 all sorts of hard names were applied to the punctuating of a clause as if it were a sentence. Yet authors occasionally do this very thing. Why is it right for them if it is so entirely wrong for us? Because they, from the inside, may venture to show us that they have not set down the principal clause, but have purposely omitted it in order to avoid needless words, or in order to get variety of sen- tence forms. ' ' This proposal threw the old chief into a fit of violent anger. Which was just what we wanted." "We know that there are many reasons why you should prefer to remain here, surrounded by all your home comforts. That you love your corner as much as any cat." Even for an author this is venturesome. He will not often startle his readers by using punctuation to announce, "This clause is to be regarded as a sentence." Pupils are never al- lowed to do so in themes, because it is their business to show that they realize when they are using subordinate clauses. When they have shown that they know unfailingly what a clause is, and after their school or college education is com- pleted, they are at liberty to be as peculiar as they like. 5. The same remarks apply to independent statements, especially to those made with personal pronouns. As was said under Rule 17, an author may prefer a comma in "Let's take ofl: our coats, it's so warm," because he knows just what that comma means. He argues that so shows an idea of comparison and that his second statement is subordinate in meaning; he uses a comma with his eyes wide open and his mind fully awake. Pupils may look forward to such liberty after they SENTENCE AND THEME 335 have shown that their eyes are always open and their brains alert — not before. 6. We have seen that a comma should never be used with aitd unless there is a good reason — and we have tried to learn the reasons. It is always a matter of sympathizing with a reader, of warning him that and is not joining the two words on either side, but is joining the whole group of words before with the whole group after. We always have to put ourselves in his place and ask, ' ' Can he see the big groups at a glance, or may he be confused for a moment?" Hence it is impos- sible to state any ' ' hard-and-fast rule ' ' about a comma before and. But there is never the slightest doubt that an author is warning us when he uses the comma. He means ' ' I warn you, reader, that this and is not joining the two small items on either side of it, but is joining the big groups that begin and end here." Or he may mean "You are warned, reader, that the items joined by this and are not exactly similar; there is a difference of some kind in time or mood or person or shade of meaning. ' ' This choice is always a matter of judgment on the part of authors. One will go to an extreme by saying, "Oh pshaw! I'll leave it to the reader. He doesn't need such constant little attentions. He has eyes of his own. ' ' Another will be over- careful, saying, " I 'm afraid that even in the shortest compound sentence my reader may hesitate momentarily unless I put that comma before and; I ought not to ask him to run his eye on ahead and see for hiijaself . ' ' All that any book of rules can do is to state what the comma means if it is used. It means issuing a warning to the reader, and the modern custom is to give that warning unless it is clearly needless. 336 sentence and theme Exercise State what the authors meant by the numbered punctuation marks in the following sentences. Say why no commas were used before the starred and's. 1. Ouch! My finger! (1) It's bleeding! (2) 2. You — (3) he saw you attracted me. 3. It grew in volume, (4) to break off sharp in a hard, coughing gasp. 4. Say, (5) the big fellow certainly can sing! 5. Then you sit down and* smoke a cigar and* swap a few stories, (6) and presently he is softening. 6. The old man poured coffee again from the decanter, (7) and went on. 7. Tonight we'll have a feast, (8) like the old times. 8. Fetch me a torch, (9) some of you. 9. They abandoned their prey and* retreated up the rocks, (10) the soldiers after them. 10. She went at it, (11) then, in earnest. 11. She gave little Marcia a quarter and* sent the child forth to buy two kinds of soap — (12) human and laundry. 12. Dan kept his head cool and* his matches dry in this crisis; (13) but during the rest of the way aU they had to cook was a few fat, muddy fish and,* for a delicacy now and then, lizards. 13. Dan made a step toward him, (14) and suddenly, with one leg in a patch of darkness that resembled shadow, fell into water up to the thigh. 14. Not the nephew, (15) I trust? (16). 15. Mr. McAllister — (17) I want — can you — I wonder if you would mind — I want to go to school. 16. Fifty dollars! Was he actually going to lend it to me! (IS) 17. Call him, (19) then, but lose no time. How then are we to escape? 18. After that — (20) for ten years — ^my debts went up and* down; but for ten years following that period I steadily increased my bank- account. 19. "He'd take four thousand pounds," his father answered. (21) ' ' Maybe less. ' ' 20. "No; (22) thank you, " Grant replied a little surlily. 21. No, (23) thank you. (24) Not any for me. 22. "One horse; (25) and there are three of us!" (26) said the Count. SENTENCE AND THEME 337 THEME 20 You may have read accounts of how people sometimes lose all memory of who they are. They may remain sensible and capable — are not insane at all — but do not know anything about themselves as they were before the accident that caused the loss of memory. Such a person will prob- ably not realize that there is anything peculiar about himself; perhaps if he does feel strange, he will be afraid to say so. At any rate, the fact — frequently reported in newspapers — is that he begins to live in some new surroundings without telling about himself. Here he may show an entirely different sort of character from what he used to have. The memory of his past life is likely to return in a moment after an interval of several months or years. Describe what happened to a man who tiius "lost his personality. ' ' APPENDIX PART I SENTENCES GROUPED IN LESSONS FOR REVIEW AND SUPPLEMENTARY WORK LESSON A t CONSTRUCTIONS OP NOUNS For each noun in the first thirty sentences below write a brief sentence explaining the construction. Follow the Model. SENTENCE MODEL 1. So sensitive are herring to aeids 1. Herring is the subject of are. that the scientists propose that Acids is the object of to. they be used to detect chemicals Scientists is the subject of pro- in the water next summer. pose. Chemicals is the object of to detect. Water is the object of in. Summer is adverbial^ modifying to detect. 1. I gave the porter a quarter. 2. The difference between Macbeth and Banquo is shown in the first act. 3. He was a year in completing the house. 4. He uses a stethoscope, an instrument for the examination of the- movements of the heart. 5. After one has lived eighty years he thinks frequently about deatB. 6. He ran through the list very hastUy, paying attention only to the big items. 7. The shoe was several sizes too large. 8. He walked all the way to San Francisco. 339 340 SENTENCE AND THEME 9. This will be 750 feet high. 10. He can run a mile in less than five minutes. 11. They promised to be here an hour ago. 12. They named their place "El Nido." 13. He was elected secretary. 14. They considered McClellan a failure. 15. He bought the poor fellow a warm suit of clothes. 16. This caused General Jackson a great deal of trouble. 17. They allow the clerks only one short vacation each year. 18. We had a good view of the channel. 19. That lesson he could never learn. 20. Who hath believed our report? 21. They called him' ' ' Counselor, ' ' a title which he did not deserve. 22. I owe more dollars than Alexander did. 23. Look at the distant sail! 24. The coat would cost more money in a, retail store. 25. This happened years ago. 26. He went without food for three days. 27. After she had finished her story we took up a collection for her benefit. 28. We walked down the slope to where the old miU was grinding a grist of flour. 29. Out of the scabbard flew his sword. 30. He could not climb up the icy shrouds. Sentences foe Additional Lessons 31. This is only a sample of what can be done. 32. Keep to the right. 33. They called this plant "Indian Corn." 34. We forgave the man, a simple-minded fellow, for the loss he had caused us. 35. Fisher was awarded second prize. 36. Swiftly sailed the ship. 37. Charles, where is the ticket I gave you last night f 38. This ought to be the right answer, but, according to the book, it is an entirely wrong result. 39. An English cottage is merely one kind of real estate. "■40. " Bully, ' ' a word that I abominate, may some day be a respect- able adjective. 41. O earth, I will befriend thee. 42. He gave the king- his unhesitating obedience. SENTENCE AND THEME 34] 43. You ought not to bear an old friend a grudge if he meant no harm. 44. Miss Peyton handed the dragoon a fourth dish of coffee. 45. Tomatoes used to be esteemed poisonous vegetables. 46. We thought this a very singular reason for not going. 47. The pious John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, was Chancellor for fourteen years. 48. He denied his prisoner every common comfort. 49. Why are you vexed, lady? 50. His knee having been injured, he was unable to play. 51. We send the Canadians huge consignments every year. 52. This afforded England the opportunity for which she had so long been waiting. 53. This couch, his favorite resting-place, they now took away. 54. Her husband, Orpheus, had been the idol of the Thracians. 55. The urchin's mishap made the bystanders sympathize with him. 56. Still stands thine ancient sacrifice — a humble and a contrite heart. 57. They granted the Moors this permission on one condition. 58. Peed your horses more grain. 59. Carnegie 's offer they would not accept. 60. It may make a man hurry, but it does him no harm. 61. Dark, deep, and cold the current flows, unto the sea where no wind blows. 62. There is no place like home. 63. He told the children many stories. 64. He built his nephew a splendid home. 65. I sent a ring, a little band of emerald. 66. sleep, my babe; hear not the rippling wave. 67. This shrewdness made him after only a few years a millionaire. 68. To give eyery man his due requires a mighty delicate judgment. 69. The deer 's horns I could not see. 70. Thor and Woden, Norse gods, have given their names to two of our week-days. 71. He wouldn't allow Smith any leeway at all. 72. Make me an exile if you will, but don 't cause my soldiers any suffering. 73. He proclaimed himself emperor after this very unexpected victory. 74. A " f annel, ' ' an embroidered scarf, was worn on the priest 's left arm. 75. Seelin stood by, his napkin tucked under his arm, observing what was done. 76. We did not know where he lived, how he subsisted, or what he had been. 342 SENTENCE AND THEME 77. One evening, about a week after this, we gathered again. 78. We elected Bowker councilman from the third ward. 79. Yet this scarecrow, a terror to all other birds, scared him not. 80. Run home as fast as you can. 81. They made their old commander the leader of this conspiracy. LESSON B TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE Prepare written work on the verbs in the following sen- tences. Follow the llodel in Lesson 9. 1. One of the features of the story was the diacftvery of the plot of several Mexican trouble-makers. 2. There is here no sign of the burying of any heap of treasure. 3. Pullman ears wiU probably soon be running to Fairbanks. 4. This seemed a rather tragic sto ry to the rest of us. 5. Happiness, madam, is such an awfully funny thing . 6. A man's house may in olden days have been his_caatlfi. 7. Not very far distant grew a spreading oak. 8. The retreat very soon became an absolute rout. 9. If a piece of iron attracts these little particles, it is a magnet. 10. Will such a heartless wretch ever set his poor prisoners free? 11. So perished Zebek-Dorehi, the author and originator of the great Tartar Exodus. 12. Gradually there arose among the crowd of strikers a feeling of distrust. 13. Starkman was born an English subject, but has now become a naturalized American. 14. The distance seemed to our straining eyes a terribly long stretch. 15. The 80,000 deaths resulting from cancer in the United States every year form a huge monument to carelessness and ignorance. 16. On the margin of the wood, near to three or four houses, a pole, as large as the mainmast of a ship, stood. This was the may-pole. Lads and lasses danced around it. 17. Wlien the morning dawned, and the gentle breeze rippled the glassy surface of the forest lake, all the delicnte veils and flags fluttered away into thin air. SENTENCE AND THEME 343 18. Nothing in history or fiction, not even the story of Ugolino, approaches the horrors of that night. 19. What reason can he possibly give for his absence? 20. What person would ever think of going swimming in March? 21. A few follies of this description produced a very unfavorable impression on the public mind. 22. Telegraphing from airplanes by wireless has become an ordinary occurrence in the European war zone. But some trouble has been encoun- tered in securing the power to send the messages. The wireless transmitter on an airplane must, of necessity, be very light and compact, but it does not require a great amount of power. LESSON C PARTICIPLES Select all the participles in the following sentences. Ar- range them in a list, saying what each modifies. Some of the sentences contain no participles. Beware of gerunds; it is worse to include a gerund than to overlook a participle. 1. Turning northward, he paused for a moment at a little brook; then, gathering strength, rode, almost fainting, to his home. 2. This dish of porridge, sweetened with a little brown sugar and served in a cracked bowl, was not very satisfying to the tired giant. 3. I followed the turnkey, who, leaving the inner wicket unlocked behind him, led me up a winding stair. 4. The journey was made on foot, the two companions walking one behind the other, with bowed heads, murmuring their prayers as they went. 5. Then through the house I passed and roused my men with cheer- ing words, standing by each in turn. 6. There, with many a gaping mouth, And fissure cracked by the fervid drouth, For seven months had the wasted plain Known no moisture of dew or rain. 7. The seventh of March was set for the formal signing of the treaty. 344 SENTENCE AND THEME 8. The British pressed their demands, depending on their ability to form a close pool in Europe. 9. So saying, we entered a small arched door, secured by a wicket, which a grave-looking person seemed on the point of closing. 10. The growing darkness was lighted by a waning and pallid moon. ■ 11. The trick of laughing foolishly is by all means to be avoided. 12. As he stood by the ship's stern, sacrificing to Athene, there came up a wanderer, exiled from Argos through having killed a man. 13. We prefer taking a difEerent road, if you don't object to our leaving you. 14. Said the sea — its white teeth gnashing, Through its coral-reef lips flashing — Shall I let this scheming mortal Shut with stone my shining portal? 15. I haven't the pleasure of knowing the gentleman. 16. After having enjoyed the dance her first thought was to find the chaperon. 17. The principal street was broad and important, decorated with public buildings of an architecture rather striking, and running between rows of tall houses built of stone. 18. As I paced up the old avenue on which the moon threw its waning light, I looked back with a boding sigh. 19. At the gate I found a horseman stationed in the shadow of the wall. 20. Leaving the ship, they took a beaten road to the town below. 21. It was a comfortable Northumbrian cottage, built of stones roughly dressed with the hammer, and having the windows and doors decorated with huge lintels of hewed stone. 22. Two black eyes in darkened orbits Gleamed beneath the nun's white hood; Black serge hid the wasted figure. Bowed and stricken where it stood. 23. I dread to see a young fellow learning to gamble. 24. In spite of my effort to say something different, I couldn't avoid speaking of the affair. 25. Hyacinthus, excited with the sport and being eager to make his throw, ran forward to seize the missile. 26. Shaken by the interview, and dreading to see them both, I sent word that I was not at home. 27. So saying, he drove his fuU-maned horses to the town of Pylos. 28. I saw him give the quick glance of the trained artist, taking in every detail. SENTENCE AND THEME 345 29. He did not touch the deserted grave, being too dejected for that, but sat brooding moodily. 30. It is a pretty path, tempting many a stranger to its ascent, being bordered by flowers, the bank itself being laid out as a little park. LESSON D INFINITIVES State the constructions of the infinitives in the following selections, following the Model on page 164. 1. Lord Lester suppressed any tendency to continue the conversation. Accordingly Mr. Banks left him to read in peace, and took a walk down the street. But Lord Louis was not at peace. It had offended him grievously to be spoken to so rudely by a humble friend. This was a most unusual insult for him to have experienced. He recalled, with almost a feeling of shame, that it would have given him real pleasure to rap his friend's knuckles with his walking-stick when Banks had presumed to suggest that he had been bamboozled. He had never felt like that before, and failed to understand how such an impulse was able to find its way into his aristocratic mind. Coiild the painting have anything to do with the curious state of his feelings? What had caused him to speak with such rudeness — to ^ay nothing about nearly causing a most serious accident? ' ' It would be a shame to quarrel, ' ' he mused. " I '11 hunt up Banks. ' ' Touching the bell, he told the man to bring his hat and stick and summon a taxi. ****** Banks caught Lord Louis's eye at once and came over to address him. ' ' You are still determined to bid for the painting ? " he demanded. 2. The military prison at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was aroused, some time ago, by the escape of two prisoners belonging to the Discip- linary Battalion men — selected from the other prisoners and given special training and privileges to fit them to re-enter the army at the expiration of their sentences. The two had violated the prison 's new honor system. "Aha!" said old army ofBeers; "there goes another new-fangled notion. ' ' Then these officers learned that the wh.ole Battalion had peti- tioned the prison commandant to allow certain of them to go out and get the refugees. The corps felt disgraced, and begged a chance to prove the worth of the honor system and their loyalty to it. 346 SENTENCE AND THEME 3. It would be interesting to pause at this point and take up the use of masks the world over, but space will only permit us to mention them briefly. They are to be found among practically all peoples A god was supposed to have one form and the goddess another Not only are the gods amused by the portrayal, but- they are also induced to permit the desired request to be granted. 4. And now the arrival of the young mistress was the signal for them all to draw round the fire and tell stories till bedtime. Gerard in his turn told a tremendous one and made them all shudder deliciously; but soon after he began to nod, exhausted by the effort. Marian instantly lighted a rush, and laying her hand on Gerard's shoulder, invited him to follow her. She showed him a room where were two clean, white beds, and bade him choose. 5. As our beginner purposed to take a fuU course, we got for him a little bottle of fine paraffin oil. Then we undertook to get for him some- thing which you cannot buy in a sporting-goods store — a little flat tin box, big enough to carry a couple of oiled pieces of felt. This little box ia by some anglers thought to be better than the squirt-gun, with which you can spray a fly with oil. Moreover, it is easy to pack when you go out on a trip. Also, of course, we had our friend buy a pair of blunt-nose scissors, to hang on a cord. from his coat-button — an implement in continual use on the stream. To this we added a little bodkin, or darning needle, likewise to be retained on a string for ready reference. By this time it became necessary to buy two or three of the metal fly boxes for eyed flies — ^more imported stuff which ought to be made here in America, but which, so far as I know, is not made by any of our factories. LESSON E ADVEEB CLAUSES Write a list of all the adverb clauses in the following sen- tences, telling what each modifies. ]\Iake a sentence for each clause, thus: While we were looking modifies fell, 1. I shall not stir from this place until I feel quite ready to do so. 2. You may go where you like and stay as long as you like. SENTENCE AND THEME 347 3. He act^d as if he had just received some bad news. 4. The water was so rough that lowering the boats was practically out of the question. 5. You ought not to sign this solemn pledge because a dear friend has requested it, 6. It snowed all the next day, so that we had to remain in camp another night. 7. I am come that ye might have life, and have it more abundantly. 8. We will meet every one of your demands if you will only have a little patience. 9. If it were not so, I would have told you. 10. You must hurry, for if you do not, you will certainly miss the train. 11. As the wounded knight was about to address this fair apparition, she imposed silence. 12. Where these two busy streets intersect, the traffic has to be regulated by policemen, who hold up the carriages on the Avenue while the cross-town cars are passing. 13. I was so much struck with the extraordinary narrative that I have wi-itten it out to the best of my recollection. 14. The roads which led to the secluded town were so bad that few travelers ever visited it. 15. They lift their raptured looks on high, as though it were a joy to do. 16. Though it has never put a scrap of gold or silver in my pocket, I believe that it has done me good. 17. The room was dark, except that one small candle burned dimly behind the radiator. 18. In spite of the fact that he had to live where every sentence contained a curse, he never himself got the habit of profanity. 19. Yet, unless I am very much mistaken, this has been done so quietly that no one will ever suspect anything. 20. She gazed on the sun when he rose; and as he passed through his daily course to his setting, she saw no other object. 21. Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free. 22. If only you can catch the trout, it doesn't matter whether you bait with worms or bacon. 23. If you should go near Barnard Castle, there is good ale at the ■"King's Head." 24. If he were not a criminal, we should not have delivered him up -to justice. 348 SENTENCE AND THEME 25. As the population of Scotland had been generally trained to arms, they were not indifferently prepared for war. 26. Let's treat the visitors, whatever they do, as politely as we can. 27. \yhatever your task may be, do it gladly. LESSON F NOUN CLAUSES Write a list of all the noun clauses in the sentences below, giving the construction of each as if it were a single noun. In the case of a noun clause that contains a clause within itself write only the bare noun clause, as shown by the underlined words in the following : He thought that the man who had shown him the hiding-place was deceiving him. A noun clause may be part of another noun clause. Thus in the following sentence where I can hide is the object of the verb in that you have shown me: That you have shown me where I can hide is no proof of your friend- ship. In such a ease tell about each clause separately. 1. It is strange that you cannot learn that. 2. Every dish we had in the basket was broken. 3. Say farewell to the ship you have commanded so many years. 4. He was an interesting man, who I found later was a writer for the stage. 5. Now that I come to think of the matter, I should say that being flogged was too severe. 6. There is no known instance of a diver's having gone lower than a hundred feet. 7. I wonder who told him that I was a good player. 8. Suppose I don't know whether my answer is right. 9. How we could learn where he had gone was the puzzle. 10. If this which he avouches proves true, there vrtll be bloodshed tonight. SENTENCE AND THEME 340 11. I admire the painter's magic skill, who shows me that which I shall never see. 12. This money comes from Boyle, who, you know, is very liberal. 13. They believe that whoever wins ought to have a prize. 14. What we could do in such a short time we have done. 15. What followed was like heavenly music. 16. In proportion as Columbus approached the regions where he expected to find land, the impatience of his crews increased. 17. Do you see how dexterously they avail themselves of every cover which a tree or bush affords? 18. He was justified by the event, for the tinkle of a small bell soon showed that he was in the vicinity of some chapel. 19. What a boy earns by working for ten cents an hour he will spend very slowly. 20. What you say may be true enough, but -what difference does all this make to those who hear your arguments? 21. He now ordered the doors to be thrown open, in order that all who came to pay their duty might see the ceremony. 22. He asked me what I should do on the day when the note was presented for payment. 23. That he deserved to be very popular is acknowledged even by his enemies. 24. The report is that you are quitting England because you hope to get rich in America. 25. The sergeant asked if I understood what was being said to me. 26. Anyone who denies that I told him he was in danger is a liar. 27. He was a man whom we knew the stevedores had to respect. 28. The Jews cannot be numbered among the nations which improved navigation. 29. Martin Chuzzlewit signed to his young companion to withdraw, which she immediately did. 30. It is only the animal's ignorance that enables the trainer to drive him into the cage. 31. The man over there on the other side of the pUot-house has just asked what the chances are that we shall dock on time. 32. Ask me no questions, and I '11 tell you no lies. 33. He knew just when the tourists would begin to get weary of his speeches, and so had it all arranged that they should reach the tomb tefore they began to complain. 34. Some few friends she had whom she really loved. 35. Why pay any attention to people who think so differently? 36. I am a man whose blood is hard ti stiv 37. It is a business which I swear ever love. 350 SENTENCE AND THEME 38. Earth is one of the elements of which the ancients thought the body was composed. 39. He had a sword in his hand that only a very strong man could wield. 40. He found that every bottle that he thought he had wrapped so perfectly was smashed to bits. 41. Those very friends who you now suppose are so disinterested will grin with delight. LESSON G EEVIEW OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES Write a list of all the adjective clauses in the sentences in Lesson F, stating what each modifies. The most usual kind of adjective clause is the relative, but remember that when and where clauses may modify nouns. Supply any omitted relatives or antecedents. In the case of a clause within a clause tell about each separately. Put parentheses around any little "thrown-in" clause. PART II CLASSIFIED SENTENCES FOR ORAL RECITATION NOMINATIVE CASES OF NOXINS 1. Florida is a peninsula. 2. Then Bruce, his eyes flashing, answered defiantly. 3. Bermuda, a tiny island, seemed a paradise as its harbor opened to receive them. 4. Is Carnegie as rich as Croesus? 5. You might have been a senator if you had not been appointed a judge. 6. Where are all those brave men now? 7. Will this one bulb be sufficient? 8. I have been a respectable citizen. 9. Such men as these — ^lumberjacks and longshoremen — are our fel- low beings. 10. This seemed an easy thing to do. 11. I say, Harvey! What's wrong? 12. The telephone is a great invention. 13. Where are your blackberries? 14. Mr. Dean, a very good marksman, admitted that I had shot well. 15. There were a number of withered limbs very high up. 16. Were any of the merry party IdUed? 17. If the contract had been fair, the architect would not have lost. 18. Why, you poor child, do you think these are real flowers? 19. He was considered' a great hero. 20. Which is larger, Yale or Harvard? 21. The force advanced rapidly, our gallants never flinching. 22. It became a great burden; it was considered a grievance. NOUNS IN ALL CONSTRUCTIONS 23. Fear made this cowardly fellow a perfect Hercules in bravery. 24. Did the king order his marshal to advance? 25. We appointed Ferson chairman of the meeting. 26. Words, being mere empty sounds, cannot by themselves mean anything. S!51 352 SENTENCE AND THEME 27. These Druids, mysterious Celtic priests, designed Stonehenge. - 28. Standing after dinner had always been his custom. - 29. This was the kitchen, a tiny place, but glistening like a machine- room. "30. Which way did the car go after it passed the bridge? .31. These jokes, sir, I feel can never be forgiven. 32. They called their society the Ku-Klux-Klan. '33. Two things are needful: natural talent and constant practice. 34. Give a dog a bad name, and hang him. 35. Do you consider Gaston an honest man? 36. We shall be voters long after you are corpses. 37. A man's house may be his castle, but it ought not to be his dungeon. 38. Ever since that time he has been peevish and disagreeable. 39. O mercy and miracles! What a turn you gave me. 40. I saw it at a great distance — more than ten miles away. 41. This captive squirrel's life is worse than confinement in jail. ■^2. Suddenly there came booming over the waves a mighty roar. 43. If you call Fargus a coward, he will hate you the rest of your life. 44. Once, the previous summer, a launch — battered, barnacled, and deserted — had drifted to where we were camping. 45. That one little, innocent lie lost Duncan his chance for a Euro- pean trip. 46. Ear in the north loomed a big thunder -head. 47. This made him a cripple for life. ~48'. He granted Mr. Smoot a brief interview. -_ 49. This ' ' code ' ' — a set of rules thrown together very hastily — had for a century been their only law. 50. Shall we allow the poor fellow a small salary? 51. We do not hesitate to pronounce them a brave and useful body. 52. Thus was invented the Morse code, that ingenious system of dots and dashes. 53. He reported only last week. — 54. The horse-thieves they hanged, but the cattle-rustlers were given only a short term in jail. 55. This was cleared out every morning. 56. You would have done Farman a great service if you had con- sented. 57. Yes, yes, she always called him little Solomon. ■^58. They offered Archbold a bigger salary than he was then getting. 59. He made the child a little bow and arrow. 60. I lent Tom every cent I had. 61. Please telegraph this otEco all the particulars you can learn. SENTENCE AND THEME 353 62. The crown, his one ambition, could be obtained only bj foul means. 63. Absently he tossed the ragged beggar a coin. 64. I kept the old man company all the way home, 65. All along the beach roared the noisy, frothing iDreakers. —66. Just at right angles to our road was seen a smooth, macadaimized turnpike. 67. Beyond the lawn stood an ancient, vine-grown tower. 68. Is that a lighthouse that looms up so dimly over yonder? ■-69. His zeal caused him to become, twelve years later, an eminent preacher. — 70. This was oddly illustrated at the outl^reak of ithe C5vil War, a time of stern excitement. 71. This war, the first link in the chain of events, controlled the destiny of America. 72. Such licenses bring the city a big income. -~ 73. You still have one thing to be thankful for — ^good health. 74. Their daily wages, hardly more than seventeen cents, seem woe- fully small to us. 75. She left her son tiie whole vast fortune. 76. This mine alone yielded California an emperor's wealth. ™77. Our engagement being at an end, the proprietor wanted to renew it. 78. The attic soon became a veritable junk-shop.