v_vv_yj..^ NJ UNIVERSITY JJBRARX Cornell University Library QC 6.E35 1920 Relativity; the special and gener^^^^^^^^^ 3 1924 011 804 774 Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924011804774 RELATIVITY TBE SPECIAL AND GENERAL THEOBY 1 «, S' C^ ^1 fMtr _l RELATIVITY THE SPECIAL AND GENERAL THEORY BY ALBERT EINSTEIN, Ph.D. FBOFSasOB 07 FBTSICS IH THS tTHITIlBBITT OF BEBLIH TRANSLATED BY EGBERT W. LAWSON, M.Sc. UHIVEUSITT OF SHEFFIELD NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1921 COFYBIGHT, 19S80 BT HENBY HOLT AND COMPANY PREFACE THE present book is intended, as far as pos- sible, to give an exact insight into the theory of Relativity to those readers who, from a general scientific and philosophical point of view, are interested in the theory, but who are not conversant with the mathematical apparatus ' of theoretical physics. The work presimies a standard of education corresponding to that of a university matriculation examination, and, de- spite the shortness of the book, a fair amount of patience and force of will on the part of the reader. The author has spared himself no pains in his endeavour to present the main ideas in the simplest and most intelligible form, and on the ' The mathematical fimdaments of the special theory of rela- tivity are to be found in the original papers of H. A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, H. Minkowski' published under the title Das RelativiUUs- prinzip (The Principle of Relativity) in B. G, Teubner's collection of monographs Fortschritte der mathemaiischen W issenschaften (Ad- vances in the Mathematical Sciences), also in M. Lane's exhaustive book Das RdativiUttsprinzip — published by Friedr. Vieweg & Son, Braunschweig. The general theory of relativity, together with the necessary parts of the theory of invariants, is dealt with in the author's book Die Grundlagen der allgemeinen RelativiUltstheorie (The Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity) — Joh. Ambr. Barth, 1916; this book assumes some familiarity with the special theory of relativity. V vi RELATIVITY whole, in the sequence and connection in which they actually originated. In the interest of clearness, it appeared to me inevitable that I should repeat myself frequently, without paying the sHghtest attention to the elegance of the presentation. I adhered scrupulously to the precept of that brilliant theoretical physicist, L. Boltzmann, according to whom matters of elegance ought to be left to the tailor and to the cobbler. I make no pretence of having with- held from the reader diffictdties which are in- herent to the subject. On the other hand, I have purposely treated the empirical physical founda- tions of the theory in a "step-motherly" fashion, so that readers imfamiliar with physics may not feel like the wanderer who was imable to see the forest for trees. May the book bring some one a few happy hours of suggestive thought! A. EINSTEIN December, igi6 NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION IN the present year (1918) an excellent and detailed manual on the general theory of relativity, written by H. Weyl, was pub- Ushed by the firm Julius Springer (Berlin). This book, entitled Raum — Zeit — Materie (Space — Time — Matter), may be warmly recommended to mathematicians and physicists. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ALBERT EINSTEIN is the son of German- Jewish parents. He was bom in 1879 ^ the town of Uhn, Wiirtemberg, Germany. His schooldays were spent in Munich, where he attended the Gymnasium until his sijrteenth year. After leaving school at Munich, he accompanied his parents to MUan, whence he proceeded to Switzer- land six months later to continue his studies. From 1896 to 1900 Albert Einstein studied mathematics and physics at the Technical High School in Zurich, as he intended becoming a secondary school (Gymnasium) teacher. For some time afterwards he was a private tutor, and having meanwhile become naturalised, he obtained a post as engineer in the Swiss Patent Office in 1902, which position he occupied tiU 1909. The main ideas involved in the most important of Einstein's theories date back to this period. Amongst these may be mentioned: The Special Theory of Relativity, Inertia of Energy, Theory of the Brownian Movement, and the Quantum-Law of the Emission and Absorption of Light (1905). These were followed some years later by the vii viii RELATIVITY Theory of the Specific Heat of Solid Bodies, and the fundamental idea of the General Theory of Relativity. During the interval 1909 to 191 1 he occupied the post of Professor Extraordinarius at the University of Zurich, afterwards being appointed to the University of Prague, Bohemia, where he remained as Professor Ordinarius until 1912. In the latter year Professor Einstein accepted a similar chair at the Polytechnikum, Zurich, and continued his activities there until 1914, when he received a call to the Prussian Academy of Science, Berlin, as successor to Van't Hoff. Professor Einstein is able to devote himself freely to his studies at the Berlin Academy, and it was here that he succeeded in completing his work on the General Theory of Relativity (1915- 17). Professor Einstein also lectures on various special branches of physics at the University of Berlin, and, in addition, he is Director of the Institute for Physical Research of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft. f Professor Einstein has been twice married. His first wife, whom he married at Berne in 1903, was a fellow-student from Serbia. There were two sons of this marriage, both of whom are liv- ing in Zurich, the elder being sixteen years of age. Recently Professor Einstein married a widowed cousin, with whom he is now living in Berlin. R. W. L. TRANSLATOR'S NOTE IN presenting this translation to the English- reading public, it is hardly necessary for me to enlarge on the Author's prefatory remarks, except to draw attention to those additions to the book which do not appear in the original. At my request. Professor Einstein kindly sup- plied me with a portrait of himself, by one of Germany's most celebrated artists. Appendix III, on "The Experimental Confirmation of the Gen- eral Theory of Relativity," has been written specially for this translation. Apart from these valuable additions to the book, I have included a biographical note on the Author, and, at the end of the book, an Index and a hst of Enghsh references to the subject. This list, which is more suggestive than exhaustive, is intended as a guide to those readers who wish to pursue the subject farther. I desire to tender my best thanks to my col- leagues Professor S. R. Mihier, D.Sc, and Mr. W. E. Curtis, A.R.C.SC., F.R.A.S., also to my friend Dr. Arthur Hohnes, A.R.C.Sc., F.G.S., X RELATIVITY of the Imperial College, for their kindness in reading through the manuscript, for helpful criticism, and for numerous suggestions. I owe an expression of thanks also to Messrs. Methuen for their ready coimsel and advice, and for the care they have bestowed on the work during the course of its publication. ROBERT W. LAWSON The Physics Labosatory The University of Sheffieid June 12, 1920 CONTENTS PART I THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY, PAGE I. Physical Meaning of Geometrical Propo- sitions I n. The System of Co-ordinates 5 III. Space and Time in Classical Mechanics . 9 ' rv. The GalUeian System of Co-ordinates . . 12 ■VV. The Prmciple of Relativity (in the Re- stricted Sense) 14 VI. The Theorem of the Addition of Velocities employed in Classical Mechanics ... 19 VII. The Apparent IncompatibiUty of the Law of Propagation of Light with the Prin- ciple of Relativity 21 VIII. On the Idea of Time in Physics .... 25 DC. The Relativity of Simultaneity 30 X. On the Relativity of the Conception of Distance 34 XI. The Lorentz Transformation 36 XII. The Behaviour of Measuring-Rods and Clocks in Motion 42 3d xii RELATIVITY PAGE Xm. Theorem of the Addition of Velocities. The Experiment of Fizeau ...... 45 XrV. The Heuristic Value of the Theory of Relativity 50 XV. General Results of the Theory 52 XVI. Experience and the Special Theory of Relativty . . ; 58 XVn. Minkowski's Four-dimensional Space . . 65 PART n THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIYITY XVIII. Special and General Principle of Relativity 69 XIX. The Gravitational Field 74 XX. The Equality of Inertial and Gravitational Mass as an Argument for the General Postulate of Relativity 78 XXI. In what Respects are the Foundations of Classical Mechanics and of the Special Theory of Relativity imsatisfactory? . 84 XXn. A Few Inferences from the General Prin- ciple of Relativity 87 XXIII. Behaviour of Clocks and Measuring-Rods on a Rotating Body of Reference ... 93 XXIV. Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Continuum 98 XXV. Gaussian Co-ordinates 103 XXVI. The Space-time Continuum of the Special Theory of Relativity considered as a Euclidean Continuum 108 CONTENTS xiii PAGE XXVn. The Space-time Continuum of the General Theory of Relativity is not a Euclidean Continuum iii XXVIII. Exact Formulation of the General Prin- ciple of Relativity 115 XXIX. The Solution of the Problem of Gravi- tation on the Basis of the General Principle of Relativity 119 PART ni CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE AS A WHOLE XXX. Cosmological Difficulties of Newton's Theory 125 XXXI. The Possibility of a "Fmite" and yet "Unbounded" Universe 128 XXXn. The Structure of Space according to the General Theory of Relativity .... 135 APPENDICES ^ I, Simple Derivation of the Lorentz Transfor- mation 139 n. Minkowski's Four-dimensional Space (" World ") [Supplementary to Section XVII.J .... 146 ni. The Experimental Confirmatiop of the General Theory of Relativity 148 (a) Motion of the PeriheUon of Mercury . . 150 (6) Deflection of Light by a Gravitational Field 152 (c) Displacement of Spectral Lines towards the Red iSS BrBLIOGRAPHY l6l Index 165 RELATIVITY PART I THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY PHYSICAL MEANING OF GEOMETRICAL PROPOSITIONS IN your schooldays most of you who read this book made acquaintance ■with the noble build- ing of Euclid's geometry, and you remember — perhaps with more respect than love — the magnificent structure, on the lofty staircase of which you were chased about for imcounted hours by conscientious teachers. By reason of your past experience, you would certainly regard every one with disdain who should pronounce even the most out-of-the-way proposition of this science to be untrue. But perhaps this feeling of proud certainty would leave you immediately if some one were to ask you: " What, then, do you mean by the assertion that these propositions are true? " Let us proceed to give this question a little consideration. Geometry sets out from certain conceptions such as " plane," " point," and " straight line," with 1 8 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY which we are able to associate more or less defi- nite ideas, and from certain simple propositions (axioms) which, in virtue of these ideas, we are inclined to accept as " true." Then, on the basis of a logical process, the justification of which we feel ourselves compelled to admit, all remaining propositions are shown to foUow from those axioms, i.e. they are proven. A proposition is then correct (" true ") when it has been derived in the recog- nised manner from the axioms. The question of the " truth " of the individual geometrical propo- sitions is thus reduced to one of the " truth " of the axioms. Now it has long been known that the last question is not only imanswerable by the methods of geometry, but that it is in itself en- tirely without meaning. We cannot ask whether it is true that only one straight line goes through two points. We can only say that Euclidean ge- ometry deals with things called " straight lines," to e^ch of which is ascribed the property of being imiquely determiaed by two points situated on it. The concept " true " does not tally with the assertions of pure geometry, because by the word " true " we are eventually in the habit of desig- nating always the correspondence with a " real " object; geometry, however, is not concerned with the relation of the ideas involved in it to objects of experience, but only with the logical connection of these ideas among themselves. GEOMETRICAL PROPOSITIONS 3 It is not difficult to imderstand why, in spite of this, we feel constrained, to call the propositions of geometry "true." Geometrical ideas correspond to more or less exact objects in nature, and these last are xmdoubtedly the exclusive cause of the genesis of those ideas. Geometry ought to refrain from such a course, in order to give to its structure the largest possible logical unity. The practice, for example, of seeing in a "distance" two marked positions on a practically rigid body is something which is lodged deeply in our habit of thought. We are accustomed further to regard three points as being situated on a straight line, if their ap- parent positions can be made to coincide for ob- servation with one eye, imder suitable choice of our place of observation. If, in pursuance of our habit of thought, we now supplement the propositions of EucUdean geometry by the single proposition that two points on a practically rigid body always correspond to the same distance (line-interval), independently of any changes in position to which we may subject the body, the propositions of EucUdean geometry then resolve themselves into propositions on the possible relative position of practically rigid bodies.* ' It follows that a natiiral object is associated also with a straight line. Three points A, B and C on a rigid body thus lie in a straight line when, the points A and C being given, B is chosen such that the sum of the distances AB and BC is as short as possible. This in- complete suggestion will suffice for our present purpose. 4 SPECIAL THEORY OP RELATIVITY Geometry which has been supplemented in this way is then to be treated as a branch of physics. We can now legitimately ask as to the "truth" of geometrical propositions interpreted in this way, since we are justified in asking whether these propositions are satisfied for those real things we have associated with the geometrical ideas. In less exact terms we can express this by saying that by the "truth" of a geometrical proposition in this sense we understand its vaUdity for a con- struction with ruler and compasses. Of course the conviction of the "truth" of geo- metrical propositions in this sense is founded exclusively on rather incomplete experience. For the present we shall assume the "truth" of the geometrical propositions, then at a later stage (in the general theory of relativity) we shall see that this "truth" is limited, and we shall consider the extent of its limitation. n THE SYSTEM OF CO-ORDINATES ON the basis of the physical interpretation of distance which has been indicated, we are also in a position to estabUsh the distance between two points on a rigid body by means of measurements. For this p;rrpose we require a "distance" (rod S) which is to be used once and for aU, and which we employ as a standard measure. If, now, A and B are two points on a rigid body, we can construct the line joining them according to the rules of geometry; then, starting from A, we can mark off the distance S time after time untU we reach B. The mmiber of these operations required is the nimierical measure of the distance AB. This is the basis of aU measurement of length.! Every description of the scene of an event or of the position of an object in space is based on the specification of the point on a rigid body (body of reference) with which that event or object coin- ' Here we have assumed that there is nothing left over, i.e. that the measurement gives a whole number. This difiSculty is got over by the use of divided measuring-rods, the introduction of which does not demand any fundamentally new method. 5 6 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY cides. This applies not only to scientific descrip- tion, but also to everyday life. If I analyse the place specification "Trafalgar Square, London," ^ I arrive at the following result. The earth is the rigid body to. which the specification of place refers; "Trafalgar Square, London" is a well- defined point, to which a name has been assigned, and with which the event coincides in space.* This primitive method of place specification deals only with places on the surface of rigid bodies, and is dependent on the existence of points on this surface which are distingiiishable from each other. But we can free ourselves from both of these limitations without altering the nature of our specification of position. If, for instance, a cloud is hovering over Trafalgar Square, then we can determine its position relative to the svirface of the earth by erecting a pole perpendicularly on the Square, so that it reaches the cloud. The length of the pole measured with the standard measuriQg-rod, combined with the specification of the position of the foot of the pole, supplies us with a complete place specification. On the basis '■ I have chosen this as being more familiar to the English reader than the "Potsdamer Platr, Berlin," which is referred to in the original. (R. W. L.) ' It is not necessary here to investigate further the significance of the expression "coiacidence in space." This conception is suf- ficiently obvious to ensure that differences of opinion are scarcely likely to arise as to its applicability in practice. THE SYSTEM OF CO-ORDINATES 7 of this illustration, we are able to see the manner in which a refinement of the conception of position has been developed. (a) We imagine the rigid body, to which the place specification is referred, supplemented in such a manner that the object whose position we require is reached by the completed rigid body. (6) In locating the position of the object, we make use of a number (here the length of the pole measured with the measuring-rod) instead of designated points of reference. (c) We speak of the height of the cloud even when the pole which reaches the cloud has not been erected. By means of optical observations of the cloud from diEEerent positions on the ground, and taking into accoimt the properties of the propagation of hght, we determine the length of the pole we should have required in order to reach the cloud. From this consideration we see that it will be advantageous if, in the description of position, it should be possible by means of numerical measures to make ourselves independent of the existence of marked positions (possessing names) on the rigid body of reference. In the physics of measurement this is attained by the application of the Cartesian system of co-ordinates. This consists of three plane surfaces perpendicu- lar to each other and rigidly attached to a rigid 8 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY body. Referred to a system of co-ordinates, the scene of any event will be detennined (for the main part) by the specification of the lengths of the three perpendiculars or co-ordinates (x, y, z) which can be dropped from the scene of the event to those three plane surfaces. The lengths of these three perpendiculars can be determined by a series of manipulations with rigid measuring- rods performed according to the rules and methods laid down by Euclidean geometry. In practice, the rigid surfaces which constitute the system of co-ordinates are generally not available; furthermore, the magnitudes of the co- ordinates are not actually determined by con- structions with rigid rods, but by indirect means. If the results of physics and astronomy are to maintain their clearness, the physical meaning of specifications of position must always be sought in accordance with the above considerations.^ We thus obtain the following result: Every description of events in space involves the use of a rigid body to which such events have to be referred. The resulting relationship takes for granted that the laws of EucHdean geometry hold for "distances," the "distance" being represented physically by means of the convention of two marks on a rigid body. ^ A refinement and modification of these views does not become necessary imtil we come to deal with the graeral theoty of relativity, treated in the second part of this book. m SPACE AND TIME IN CLASSICAL MECHANICS "'TT^HE purpose of mechanics is to describe how I bodies change their position in space with time." I should load my conscience with grave sins against the sacred spirit of lucidity were I to formulate the aims of mechanics in this way, without serious reflection and detailed ex- planations. Let us proceed to disclose these sins. It is not clear what is to be imderstood here by "position" and "space." I stand at the window of a railway carriage which is travelling uniformly, and drop a stone on the embankment, without throwing it. Then, disregarding the influence of the air resistance, I see the stone descend in a straight line. A pedestrian who observes the mis- deed from the footpath notices that the stone falls to earth in a paraboUc curve. I now ask: Do the "positions" traversed by the stone He "in reahty" on a straight line or on a parabola? Moreover, what is meant here by motion "in space" ? From the considerations of the previous section the answer is self-evident. In the first place, we entirely shun the vague word "space," 10 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY of which, we must honestly acknowledge, we can- not form the slightest conception, and we replace it by "motion relative to a practically rigid body of reference," The positions relative to the body of reference (railway carriage or embankment) have already been defined in detail in the preced- ing section. If instead of "body of reference" we insert "system of co-ordinates," which is a useful idea for mathematical description, we are in a position to say: The stone traverses a straight line relative to a system of co-ordinates rigidly attached to the carriage, but relative to a system of co-ordinates rigidly attached to the ground (embankment) it describes a parabola. With ihej aid of this example it is clearly seen that there is no such thing as an independently existing tra- jectory (ht. "path-curve" 0> but only a trajectory relative to a particular body of reference. In order to have a complete description of the motion, we must specify how the body alters its position with time; i.e. for every point on the trajectory it must be stated at what time the body is situated there. These data must be supplemented by such a definition of time that, in virtue of this definition, these time-values can be regarded essentially as magnitudes (results of measurements) capable of observation. If we take our stand on the groimd of classical me- ' That is, a curve along which the body moves. SPACE AND TIME 11 chanics, we can satisfy this requirement for our illustration in the following manner. We imagine two clocks of identical construction; the man at the railway-carriage window is holding one of them, and the man on the footpath the other. Each of the observers determines the position on his own reference-body occupied by the stone at each tick of the clock he is holding in his hand. In this connection we have not taken account of the inaccuracy involved by the finiteness of the velocity of propagation of light. With this and with a second difficulty prevailing here we shall have to deal in detail later. IV THE GALILEIAN SYSTEM OF CO-ORDINATES AS is well known, the fundamental law of the mechanics of Galilei-Newton, which is known as the law of inertia, can be stated thus: A body removed sufficiently far from other bodies continues in a state of rest or of imiform motion in a straight line. This law not only says something about the motion of the bodies, but it also indicates the reference-bodies or systems of co-ordinates, permissible m mechanics, which can be used in mechanical description. The visible fixed stars are bodies for which the law of inertia certainly holds to a high degree of approximation. Now if we use a system of co-ordinates which is rigidly attached to the earth, then, relative to this system, every fixed star describes a circle of immense radius in the course of an astronomical day, a result which is opposed to the statement of the law of inertia. So that if we adhere to this law we must refer these motions only to systems of co- ordinates relative to which the fixed stars do not move in a circle. A system of co-ordinates of le THE GALILEIAN SYSTEM 13 which the state of motion is such that the law of inertia holds relative to it is called a "Galileian system of co-ordinates." The laws of the me- chanics of Galilei-Newton can be regarded as valid only for a Galileian system of co-ordinates. THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY (IN THE RESTRICTED SENSE) IN order to attain the greatest possible clear- ness, let us return to our example of the rail- way carriage supposed to be travelling uniformly. We call its motion a uniform transla- tion ("uniform" because it is of constant velocity and direction, "translation" because although the carriage changes its position relative to the embankment yet it does not rotate in so doing). Let us imagine a raven flying through the air in such a manner that its motion, as observed from the embankment, is vmiform and in a straight line. If we were to observe the flying raven from the moving railway carriage, we should find that the motion of the raven would be one of different veloc- ity and direction, but that it would stiU be uni- form and in a straight line. Expressed in an abstract manner we may say: If a mass m is moving uniformly in a straight line with respect to a co-ordinate system K, then it will also be moving vmiformly and in a straight Une relative to a second co-ordinate system K', provided that 14 THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY IS the latter is executing a uniform translatory motion with respect to K. In accordance with the discussion contained in the preceding section, it follows that: If X is a GaUleian co-ordinate system, then every other co-ordinate system K' is a Galileian one, when, in relation to K, it is in a condition of uniform motion of translation. Relative to K' the mechanical laws of Galilei-Newton hold good exactly as they do with respect to K. We advance a step farther in our generalisation when we express the tenet thus: If, relative to K, K' is a uniformly moving co-ordinate system devoid of rotation, then natural phenomena nm their course with respect to K' according to exactly the same general laws as with respect to K. This statement is called the principle of relativity (in the restricted sense). As long as one was convinced that all natural phenomena were capable of representation with the help of classical mechanics, there was no need to doubt the vaUdity of this principle of relativity. But in view of the more recent development of electrodynamics and optics it became more and more evident that classical mechanics affords an insufficient foundation for the physical description of all natural phenomena. At this juncture the question of the vaHdity of the principle of relativity became ripe for discussion, and it did not appear 16 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY impossible that the answer to this question might be in the negative. Nevertheless, there are two general facts which at the outset speak very much in favour of the validity of the principle of relativity. Even though classical mechanics does not supply us with a sufficiently broad basis for the theoretical presentation of all physical phenomena, still we must grant it a considerable measure of "truth," since it supplies us with the actual motions of the heavenly bodies with a delicacy of detail little short of wonderful. The principle of relativity must therefore apply with great accuracy in the domain of mechanics. But that a principle of such broad generahty should hold with such exactness in one domain of phenomena, and yet should be invaUd for another, is a priori not very probable. We now proceed to the second argument, to which, moreover, we shall return later. If the principle of relativity (in the restricted sense) does not hold, then the GalUeian co-ordinate systems K, K', K", etc., which are moving imi- formly relative to each other, wiU not be equivalent for the description of natural phenomena. In this case we should be constrained to beUeve that natural laws are capable of being formulated in a particularly simple manner, and of course only on condition that, from amongst all possible Galileian THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY 17 co-ordinate systems, we should have chosen one (Ko) of a particular state of motion as our body of reference. We should then be justified (because of its merits for the description of natural phe- nomena) in calling this system "absolutely at rest," and all other Galileian systems K "in mo- tion." If, for instance, our embankment were the system Ko, then our railway carriage would be a system K, relative to which less simple laws would hold than with respect to Ko. This duninished simpUcity would be due to the fact that the carriage K would be in motion {i.e. "really") with respect to Ko. In the general laws of nature which have been formulated with reference to K, the magni- tude and direction of the velocity of the carriage would necessarily play a part. We should expect, for instance, that the note emitted by an organ- pipe placed with its axis parallel to the direction of travel would be different from that emitted if the axis of the pipe were placed perpendicular to this direction. Now in virtue of its motion in an orbit round the sun, oiu* earth is comparable with a rail- way carriage travelling with a velocity of about 30 kilometres per second. If the principle of relativity were not valid we should therefore expect that the direction of motion of the earth at any moment would enter into the laws of nature, and also that physical systems in their behaviour would be dependent on the orientation in space 18 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY with respect to the earth. For owing to the altera- tion in direction of the velocity of revolution of the earth in the course of a year, the earth cannot be at rest relative to the hypothetical system ^o throughout the whole year. However, the most careful observations have never revealed such anisotropic properties in terrestrial physical space, i.e. a physical non-equivalence of different direc- tions. This is a very powerful argument in favour of the principle of relativity. VI THE THEOREM OF THE ADDITION OF VELOCITIES EMPLOYED EST CLASSI- CAL MECHANICS LET us suppose our old friend the railway carriage to be travelling along the rails with a constant velocity v, and that a man traverses the length of the carriage in the direction of travel with a velocity w. How quickly, or, in other words, with what velocity W does the man advance relative to the embankment during the process? The only possible answer seems to result from the following consideration: If the man were to stand still for a second, he would advance relative to the embankment through a distance v equal niunericaUy to the velocity of the carriage. As a consequence of his walking, how- ever, he traverses an additional distance w relative to the carriage, and hence also relative to the embankment, in this second, the distance w being numerically equal to the velocity with which he is walking. Thus in total he covers the distance W= V +w relative to the embankment in the second considered. We shall see later that this result, which expresses the theorem of the addi- 19 «0 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY tion of velocities employed in classical mechamcs, cannot be maintained; in other words, the law that we have just written down does not hold in reality. For the time being, however, we shall assume its correctness. vn THE APPARENT INCOMPATIBILITY OF THE LAW OF PROPAGATION OF LIGHT WITH THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY THERE ia hardly a simpler law in physics than that according to which light is propa- gated in empty space^ Every child at school knows, or behevesTTe'knows, that this propagation takes place in straight lines with a velocity c = 300,000 km. /sec. At all events we know with great exactness that this velocity is the same for all colours, because if this were not the case, the minimum of emission would not be observed simultaneously for different colours during the eclipse of a fixed star by its dark neighbour. By means of similar considerations based on observa- tions of double stars, the Dutch astronomer De Sitter was also able to show that the velocity of propagation of light cannot depend on the velocity of motion of the body emitting the light. The assumption that this velocity of propagation is dependent on the direction "in space" is in itself improbable. In short, let us assimie that the simple law of the constancy of the velocity of light c (in vacuxmi) 21 28 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY is justifiably believed by the duld at school. Who would imagine that this simple law has pltmged the conscientiously thoughtful physicist into the greatest intellectual difficulties? Let us consider how these difliculties arise. Of course we must refer the process of the propagation of hght (and indeed every other process) to a rigid reference-body (co-ordinate system). As such a system let us again choose our embankment. We shall imagine the air above it to have been removed. If a ray of light be sent along the embankment, we see from the above that the tip of the ray wiU be transmitted with the velocity c relative to the embankment. Now let us suppose that oiu: railway carriage is again travelling along the railway lines with the velocity V, and that its direction is the same as that of the ray of Kght, but its velocity of course much less. Let us inquire about the velocity of propagation of the ray of light relative to the carriage. It is obvious that we can here apply the consideration of the previous section, since the ray of Ught plays the part of the man walking along relatively to the carriage. The velocity W of the man relative to the embankment is here replaced by the velocity of Kght relative to the embankment, w is the required velocity of Hght with respect to the carriage, and we have w = c — p. THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 23 The velocity of propagation of a ray of light relative to the carriage thus comes out smaller than c. But this result comes into conflict with the principle of relativity set forth ia Section V. For, like every other general law of nature, the law of the transmission of light in vacuo must, according to the principle of relativity, be the same for the railway carriage as reference-body as when the rails are the body of reference. But, from our above consideration, this would appear to be im- possible. If every ray of Ught is propagated rela- tive to the embankment with the velocity c, then for this reason it would appear that another law of propagation of light must necessarily hold with respect to the carriage — a result contradictory to the principle of relativity. In view of this dilemma there appears to be nothing else for it than to abandon either the principle of relativity or the simple law of the propagation of light in vacuo. Those of you who have carefully followed the preceding discussion are almost sure to expect that we shoxild retain the principle of relativity, which appeals so con- vincingly to the intellect because it is so natural and simple. The law of the propagation of light in vacuo would then have to be replaced by a more complicated law conformable to the principle of relativity. The development of theoretical 24 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY physics shows, however, that we cannot pursue this course. The epoch-making theoretical in- vestigations of H. A. Lorentz on the electrody- namical and optical phenomena connected with moving bodies show that experience in this domain leads conclusively to a theory of electromagnetic phenomena, of which the law of the constancy of the velocity of Ught in vacuo is a necessary conse- quence. Prominent theoretical physicists were therefore .more inclined to reject the principle of relativity, in spite of the fact that no empirical data had been found which were contradictory to this principle.. At'thls Juncture the theory of relativity entered the arena. As a result of an analysis of the physical conceptions of time and space, it became evident that in reality there is not the least incompatibility between the principle of relativity and the law of propagation of light, and that by systematically holding fast to both these laws a logically rigid theory could be arrived at. This theory has been called the special theory of relativity to distinguish it from the extended theory, with which we shall deal later. In the following pages we shall present the fundamental ideas of the special theory of relativity. vm ON THE roEA OF TIME IN PHYSICS LIGHTNING has struck the rails on our rail- way embankment at two places A and B far distant from each other. I make the additional assertion that these two Hghtning flashes occurred simultaneously. If I ask you whether there is sense in this statement, you will answer my question with a decided "Yes." But if I now approach you with the request to explain to me the sense of the statement more precisely, you find after some consideration that the answer to this question is not so easy as it appears at first sight. After some time perhaps the following answer would occur to you: "The significance of the statement is clear in itself and needs no fiurther explanation; of course it would require some con- sideration if I were to be commissioned to deter- mine by observations whether in the actual case the two events took place simultaneously or not." I cannot be satisfied with this answer for the follow- ing reason. Supposing that as a result of ingenious considerations an able meteorologist were to dis- ss 26 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY cover that the lightning must always strike the places A and B simultaneously, then we should be faced with the task of testing whether or not this theoretical result is in accordance with the reality. We encoimter the same difficulty with aU physical statements in which the conception "simultane- ous" plays a part. The concept does not exist for the physicist until he has the possibility of discovering whether or not it is fulfilled in an actual case. We thus require a definition of simultaneity such that this definition supplies us with the method by means of which, in the present case, he can decide by experiment whether or not both the Ughtning strokes ocoirred simultane- ously. As long as this requirement is not satisfied, I allow myself to be deceived as a physicist (and of course the same appUes if I am not a physicist), when I imagine that I am able to attach a meaning to the statement of simultaneity. (I would ask the reader not to proceed farther until he is fully convinced on this point.) After thinking the matter over for some time you then offer the following suggestion with which to test simultaneity. By measuring along the rails, the connecting line AB should be measured up and an observer placed at the mid-point M of the distance AB. This observer should be supplied with an arrangement (e.g. two mirrors inclined at 90°) which allows him visually to ob- roEA OF TIME IN PHYSICS «7 serve both places A and B at the same time. If the observer perceives the two flashes of lightning at the same time, then they are simultaneous. I am very pleased with this suggestion, but for all that I cannot regard the matter as qxiite settled, because I feel constrained to raise the following objection: "Your definition would certainly be right, if I only knew that the light by means of which the observer at M. perceives the Hghtning flashes travels along the length A > M with the same velocity as along the length B > M. But an examination of this supposition would only be possible if we already had at our disposal the means of measuring time. It would thus appear as though we were moving here in a logical circle." After further consideration you cast a somewhat disdainful glance at me — and rightly so — and you declare: "I maintain my previous definition nevertheless, because in reahty it assumes ab- solutely nothing about light. There is only one demand to be made of the definition of simulta- neity, namely, that in every real case it must supply us with an empirical decision as to whether or not the conception that has to be defined is fulfilled. That my definition satisfies this demand is indisputable. That light requires the same time to traverse the path A — -> M as for the path B > M is in reality neither a supposition nor a hypothesis about the physical nature of light, 28 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY but a stipulation which I can make of my own freewill in order to arrive at a definition of simultaneity." It is clear that this definition can be used to give an exact meaning not only to two events, but to as many events as we care to choose, au'' in- dependently of the positions of the scenes of the events with respect to the body of reference' (here the railway embankment). We are thus led also to a definition of "time" in physics. For this purpose we suppose that clocks of identical construction are placed at the points A, B and C of the railway line (co-ordinate system), and that they are set in such a manner that the positions of their pointers are simultaneously (in the above sense) the same. Under these conditions we imderstand by the "time" of an event the reading (position of the hands) of that one of these clocks which is in the immediate vicinity (in space) of the event. In this manner a time-value is asso- ciated with every event which is essentially capable of observation. This stipulation contains a further physical 1 We suppose further that, when three events A, B and C take place in different places in such a manner that, if A is simultaneous with B, and B is simultaneous with C (simultaneous in the sense of the above definition), then the criterion for the simultaneity of the pair of events ^, C is also satisfied. This assumption is a physical hypothesis about the law of propagation of light; it must certainly be fulfilled if we are to maintain the law of the constancy of the velocity of light in vacuo. IDEA OF TIME IN PHYSICS 29 hypothesis, the validity of which will hardly be doubted without empirical evidence to the con- trary. It has been assumed that all these clocks go at the same rate if they are of identical construc- tion. Stated more exactly: When two clocks arranged at rest in different places of a reference- body are set in such a manner that a particular position of the pointers of the one clock is simtd- taneous (in the above sense) with the same position of the pointers of the other clock, then identical "settings" are always simultaneous (in the sense of the above definition). IX THE RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY UP to now oixr considerations have been re- ferred to a particular body of reference, which we have styled a "railway embank- ment." We suppose a very long train travelling along the rails with the constant velocity v and in the direction indicated in Fig. i. People travelling in this train will with advantage use the train as a rigid reference-body (co-ordinate system); they regard all events in reference to r M'- — » y > Train '^ I ! -4 ^ M B EmbajUcment Fig. I. the train. Then every event which takes place along the line also takes place at a particular point of the train. Also the definition of simul- taneity can be given relative to the train in exactly the same way as with respect to the embankment. As a natural consequence, however, the following question arises: Are two events {e.g. the two strokes of lightning A and B) which are simultaneous with reference to 30 RELATIVITY OP SIMULTANEITY 31 the railway embankment also simultaneous relatively to the train? We shall show directly that the answer must be in the negative. When we say that the lightning strokes A and B are simultaneous with respect to the embankment, we mean: the rays of light emitted at the places A and B, where the Ughtning occurs, meet each other at the mid-point M of the length A > B of the embankment. But the events A and B also correspond to positions A and B on the traia. Let M' be the mid-point of the distance A > B on the travelling train. Just when the flashes ^ of lightning occur, this point M' naturally coincides with the point M, but it moves towards the right in the diagram with the velocity v of the train. If an observer sitting in the position M' in the train did not possess this velocity, then he would remain permanently at M, and the light rays emitted by the flashes of lightning A and B would reach him simultaneously, i.e. they would meet just where he is situated. Now in reality (considered with reference to the railway embank- ment) he is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body * As judged from the embankment. 32 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earUer than the light- ning flash A. We thus arrive at the important result: Events which are simultaneous with reference to the embankment are not simultaneous with respect to the train, and vice versa (relativity of simultaneity). Every reference-body (co-ordinate system) has its own particular time; unless we are told the reference-body to which the statement of time refers, there is no meaning in a statement of the time of an event. Now before the advent of the theory of relativity it had always tacitly been assumed in physics that the statement of time had an absolute significance, i.e. that it is independent of the state of motion of the body of reference. But we have just seen that this assumption is incompatible with the most natural definition of simultaneity; if we discard this assumption, then the conflict between the law of the propagation of light in vacuo and the principle of relativity (developed in Section VII) disappears. We were led to that conflict by the considera- tions of Section VI, which are now no longer tenable. In that section we concluded that the man in the carriage, who traverses the distance w per second relative to the carriage, traverses the same distance also with respect to the embank- RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY 33 ment in each second of time. But, according to the foregoing considerations, the time required by a particular occurrence with respect to the carriage must not be considered equal to the duration of the same occurrence as judged from the embank- ment (as reference-body). Hence it cannot be contended that the man in walking travels the distance w relative to the railway Hne in a time which is equal to one second as judged from the embankment. Moreover, the considerations of Section VI are based on yet a second assmnption, which, in the light of a strict consideration, appears to be arbitrary, although it was always tacitly made even before the introduction of the theory of relativity. ON THE RELATIVITY OF THE CONCEPTION OF DISTANCE LET us consider two particular points on the train* travelling along the embankment with the velocity v, and inquire as to their distance apart. We already know that it is neces- sary to have a body of reference for the measure- ment of a distance, with respect to which body the distance can be measured up. It is the simplest plan to use the train itself as the reference-body (co-ordinate system). An observer in the train measures the interval by marking oflE his measur- ing-rod in a straight line {e.g. along the floor of the carriage) as many times as is necessary to take him from the one marked point to the other. Then the nmnber which tells us how often the rod has to be laid down is the required distance. It is a different matter when the distance has to be judged from the railway line. Here the following method suggests itself. If we call A' and B' the two points on the train whose distance apart is required, then both of these points are * e.g. the middle of the first and of the hundredth carriage. Si THE RELATIVITY OF DISTANCE 35 moving with the velocity v along the embankment. In the first place we require to determine the points A and B of the embankment which are just being passed by the two points A' and B' at a particular time t — judged from the embank- ment. These points A and B of the embankment can be determined by applying the definition of time given ia Section VIII. The distance between these points A and B is then measured by repeated application of the measuring-rod along the em- bankment. A priori it is by no means certain that this last measurement wUl supply us with the same result as the first. Thus the length of the train as measured from the embankment may be different from that obtained by measuring in the train itself. This circumstance leads us to a second objection which must be raised against the ap- parently obvious consideration of Section VI. Namely, if the man in the carriage covers the distance w ia a unit of time — measured from the train, — then this distance — as measured from the embankment — is not necessarily also equal to w. XI THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION THE results of the last three sections show that the apparent incompatibility of the law of propagation of light with the principle of relativity (Section VII) has been derived by means of a consideration which borrowed two unjustifiable hypotheses from classical mechanics; these are as foUows: (i) The time-interval (time) between two events is independent of the condition of motion of the body of reference. (2) The space-iaterval (distance) between two points of a rigid body is independent of the condition of motion of the body of reference. If we drop these hypotheses, then the dilemma of Section VII disappears, because the theorem of the addition of velocities derived in Section VI becomes invalid. The possibiHty presents itself that the law of the propagation of light in vacuo may be compatible with the principle of relativity, and the question arises: How have we to modify the considerations of Section VI in order to remove 36 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 37 the apparent disagreement between these two fundamental results of experience? This question leads to a general one. In the discussion of Section VI we have to do with places and times relative both to the train and to the embankment. How are we to find the place and time of an event in relation to the train, when we know the place and time of the event with respect to the railway embankment? Is there a thinkable answer to this question of such a nature that the law of transmis- sion of hght in vacuo does not contradict the principle of relativity? In other words: Can we conceive of a relation between place and time of the individual events relative to both reference- bodies, such that every ray of Ught possesses the velocity of transmission c relative to the embank- ment and relative to the train? This question leads to a quite definite positive answer, and to a perfectly definite transformation law for the space- time magnitudes of an event when changing over from one body of reference to another. Before we deal with this, we shall introduce the following incidental consideration. Up to the present we have only considered events taking place along the embankment, which had mathe- matically to assume the fimction of a straight line. In the manner indicated in Section II we can imagine this reference-body supplemented later- ally and in a vertical direction by means of a S8 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY framework of rods, so that an event which takes place anywhere can be localised with reference to this framework. Similarly, we can imagine the train travelling with the velocity v to be continued across the whole of space, so that every event, no matter how far ofE it may be, could also be localised with respect to the second framework. Without committing any fundamental error, we can disregard the fact that in reality these frame- works would continually interfere with each other, owing to the impenetrability of solid bodies. In every such framework we imagine three surfaces perpendicular to each other marked out, and designated as "co-ordinate planes" ("co-ordinate S3^tem"). A co-ordinate system K then corre- sponds to the embankment, and a co-ordinate system K' to the train. An event, wherever it may have taken place, would be fixed in space with respect to K by the three perpendiculars X, y, z on the co-ordinate planes, and with regard to time by a time-value t. Relative to K', the same event would be fixed in respect of space and time by corresponding values x', y', z', /', which of course are not identical with x, y, z, t. It has already been set forth in detail how these magni- tudes are to be regarded as results of physical measurements. Obviously our problem can be exactly formu- lated in the following manner. What are the THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 39 *:v values a/, /, z', ^ of an event with respect to K', when the magnitudes x, y, z, t, of the same event with respect to K are given? The relations must be so chosen that the law of the transmission of light in vacuo is satisfied for one and the same ray of light (and of course for every ray) with respect to K and K'. For the rela- tive orientation in space of the co-ordinate systems indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2), this problem is solved by means of the eqiiations: , X — vt Fig. 2. nT t = z f^ I? >R This system of equations is known as the "Lorentz transformation." ^ K in place of the law of transmission of light we had taken as our basis the tacit assimiptions of the older mechanics as to the absolute character * A simple derivation of the Lorentz transfoimation is given in Appendir I. 40 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY of times and lengths, then instead of the above we should have obtained the following equations: x' =x — vt y = y n = t. This system of equations is often termed the " Galilei transformation." The Galilei transforma- tion can be obtauied from the Lorentz trans- formation by substituting an infinitely large value for the velocity of Ught c in the latter trans- formation. Aided by the following illustration, we can readily see that, ia accordance with the Lorentz transformation, the law of the transmission of hght in vacuo is satisfied both for the reference- body K and for the reference-body K'. A light- signal is sent along the positive a>-axis, and this Ught-stimulus advances in accordance with the equation X = ct, i.e. with the velocity c. According to the equations of the Lorentz transformation, this simple rela- tion between x and t involves a relation between x' and /'. In point of fact, if we substitute for X the value ct in the first and fourth equations of the Lorentz transformation, we obtain: ^, (c-v)t THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 41 ]t from which, by division, the expression x' = ct' immediately follows. If referred to the system K', the propagation of light takes place according to this equation. We thus see that the velocity of transmission relative to the reference-body K' is also equal to c. The same result is obtained for rays of light advancing in any other direction whatsoever. Of course this is not surprising, since the equations of the Lorentz transformation were derived conformably to this point of view. xn THE BEHAVIOUR OF MEASURING-RODS "AND CLOCKS IN MOTION ' ' I PLACE a metre-rod iB the aj'-axis of K' in such a manner that one end (the beginning) coincides with the point x' = o, whilst the other end (the end of th rod) coincides with the point x' = I. What is the length of the metre- rod relatively to the system K? In order to learn this, we need only ask where the beginning of the rod and the end of the rod lie with respect to K at a particvdar time t of the system K. By means of the first equation of the Lorentz transformation the values of these two points at the time t =o can be shown to be I ^ *(begiiming of rod) " °"\ ^ ^s I ^ *(endofrod) "^'V^"^' I «*' the distance between the points being -J i But the metre-rod is moving with the velocity v relative to K. It therefore follows that the length of a rigid metre-rod moving in the direction of its length with a velocity » is V i - d*/c* of a metre. The rigid rod is thus shorter when in motion than 42 RODS AND CLOCKS IN MOTION 4S when at rest, and the more quickly it is moving, the shorter is the r od. For the velocity v = c we should have V i - ^V c* = o, and for still greater velocities the square-root becomes im- aginary. From this we conclude that in the theory of relativity the velocity c plays the part of a limiting velocity, which can neither be reached nor exceeded by any real body. Of course this feature of the velocity c as a Umiting -velocity also clearly follows from the equations of the Lorentz transformation, for these become meaningless if we choose values of v greater than c. If, on the contrary, we had considered a metre- rod at rest in the x-axis with respect to K, then we should have found that the length of the rod as judged from K' would have been ^ x-t?- 1 c^; this is quite in accordance with the principle of rela- tivity which forms the basis of our considerations. A priori it is quite clear that we must be able to learn something about the physical behaviour of measuring-rods and clocks from the equations of transformation, for the magnitudes x, y, z, t, are nothing more nor less than the results of measure- ments obtainable by means of measuring-rods and clocks. If we had based our considerations on the Galilei transformation we should not have ob- tained a contraction of the rod as a consequence of its motion. 44 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY Let us now consider a seconds-clock which is permanently situated at the origin (*' = o) of K'. if = o and tf = i are two successive ticks of this clock. The first and fourth equations of the Lorentz transformation give for these two ticks: / = o and t = 4^- As judged from K, the dock is moving with the velocity v; as judged from this reference-body, the time which elapses between two strokes of the clock is not one second, but ■ . seconds, i.e. a somewhat larger time. As a consequence of its motion the clock goes more slowly than when at rest. Here also the velocity c plays the part of an unattainable limiting velocity. xm THEOREM OF THE ADDITION OF VELOCITIES. THE EXPERIMENT OF FIZEAU NOW in practice we can move clocks and measuring-rods only with velocities that are small compared with the velocity of light; hence we shall hardly be able to compare the results of the previous section directly with the reality. But, on the other hand, these results must strike you as being very singular, and for that reason I shall now draw another conclusion from the theory, one which can easUy be derived from the foregoing'cdnsiderations,' andwhich has been most elegantly confirmed by experiments In Section VI we derived the theorem of the addition of velocities in one direction in the form which also results from the hypotheses of classical mechanics. This theorem can also be deduced readily from the Galilei transformation (Section XI). In place of the man walking inside the carriage, we introduce a point moving relatively to the co-ordinate system K' in accordance with the equation x' = wt'. By means of the first and fourth equations of the 45 46 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY Galilei transfonnation we can express a;' and i in terms of x and /, and we then obtain a; = (z) + 110)1. This equation expresses nothing else than the law of motion of the point with reference to the system K (of the man with reference to the embankment). We denote this velocity by the symbol W., and we then obtain, as in Section VI, W = -o-\-w (A). But we can carry out this consideration just as well on the basis of the theory of relativity. In the equation x' = wt' we must then express x' and f in terms of x and t, making use of the first and fourth equations of the Lorentz transformation. Instead of the equation (A) we then obtain the equation W = '-±^... (B), ^+^ which corresponds to the theorem of addition for velocities in one direction according to the theory of relativity. The question now arises as to which of these two theorems is the better in accord with experience. On this point we are enHghtened by a most important experiment which the brilliant physicist Fizeau performed more than half a century ago, and which has been repeated since THE EXPERIMENT OF FIZEAU 47 then by some of the best experimental physicists, so that there can be no doubt about its result. TTie experiment is concerned with the following question. Light travels ia a motionless hquid with a particular velocity w. How quickly does it travel in the direction of the arrow in the tube T (see the accompanying diagram, Fig. 3) when the liquid above mentioned is flowiug through the tube with a velocity 11? In accordance with the principle of relativity we shall certainly have to take for granted that the propagation of Hght always takes place with the same velocity w with respect to the liquid, whether the latter is in motion with reference to other bodies or not. The velocity of Hght relative to the liquid and the velocity of the latter relative to the tube are thus known, and we require the velocity of light relative to the tube, s It is clear that we have the problem of Section VI again before us. The tube plays the part of /" Fig. 3 the railway embankment or of the co-ordinate system K, the liquid plays the part of the carriage or of the co-ordinate system K', and finally, the light plays the part of the man walking along the carriage, or of the moving pomt in the present 48 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY section. If we denote the velocity of the light relative to the tube by W, then this is given by the equation (A) or (B), according as the Galilei transformation or the Lorentz transformation corresponds to the facts. Experiment ^ decides in favour of equation (B) derived from the theory of relativity, and the agreement is, indeed, very exact. According to recent and most excellent measurements by Zeeman, the influence of the velocity of flow v on the propagation of Hght is represented by formula (B) to within one per cent. Nevertheless we must now draw attention to the fact that a theory of this phenomenon was given by H. A. Lorentz long before the statement of the theory of relativity. This theory was of a pmrely electrodynamical nature, and was obtained by the use of particular hypotheses as to the electromagnetic structure of matter. This circmn- stance, however, does not in the least diminish the conclusiveness of the experiment as a crucial test in favour of the theory of relativity, for the 1 Fizeau found W = w + v{'i ■»), where n= - is the index of refraction of the liquid. On the other hand, owing to the small- ness of -J- as compared with i, we can replace (B) in the first place by W = (w + ») ( I - -3 j, or to the same order of approximation by ai + 1) ( I — A, which agrees with Fizeau's result. THE EXPERIMENT OF FIZEAU 49 electrodynamics of Maxwell-Lorentz, on which the original theory was based, in no way opposes the theory of relativity. Rather has the latter been developed from electrodynamics as an astomidingly simple combination and generahsation of the hj^otheses, formerly independent of each other, on which electrodynamics was built. XIV THE HEURISTIC VALUE OF THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY OUR train of thought in the foregoing pages can be epitomised in the following manner. Experience has led to the conviction that, on the one hand, the principle of relativity holds true, and that on the other hand the velocity of transmission of Ught in vacuo has to be considered equal to a constant c. By uniting these two postu- lates we obtained the law of transformation for the rectangular co-ordinates x, y, z and the time t of the events which constitute the processes of nature. In this connection we did not obtain the Galilei transformation, but, differing from classical mechanics, the Lorentz transformation. The law of transmission of light, the acceptance of which is justified by our actual knowledge, played an important part in this process of thought. Once in possession of the Lorentz transformation, however, we can combine this with the principle of relativity, and simi up the theory thus: Every general law of nature must be so con- stituted that it is transformed into a law of exactly the same form when, instead of the space- £0 HEURISTIC VALUE OF RELATIVITY 51 time variables x, y, 2, / of the original co-ordinate system K, we introduce new space-time variables x', y, 2', t' of a co-ordinate system K'. In this connection the relation between the ordinary and the accented magnitudes is given by the Lorentz transformation. Or, in brief: General laws of nature are co-variant with respect to Lorentz transformations. This is a definite mathematical condition that the theory of relativity demands of a natural law, and in virtue of this, the theory becomes a valuable heuristic aid in the search for general, laws of nature. If a general law of nature were to be fovmd which did not satisfy this condition, then at least one of the two fundamental assumptions of the theory would have been disproved. Let us now examine what general results the latter theory has hitherto evinced. XV GENERAL RESULTS OF THE THEORY IT is clear from our previous considerations that the (special) theory of relativity has grown out of electrod3Tiamics and optics. In these fields it has not appreciably altered the predictions of theory, but it has considerably simplified the theoretical structure, i.e. the derivation of laws, and — what is incomparably more important — it has considerably reduced the number of inde- pendent hj^otheses forming the basis of theory. The special theory of relativity has rendered the Maxwell-Lorentz theory so plausible, that the latter would have been generally accepted by physicists even if experiment had decided less unequivocally in its favour. Classical mechanics required to be modified before it could come into line with the demands of the special theory of relativity. For the main part, however, this modification affects only the laws for rapid motions, in which the velocities of matter v are not very small as compared with the velocity of light. We have experience of such rapid motions only in the case of electrons and St GENERAL RESULTS OF THEORY 53 ions; for other motions the variations from the laws of classical mechanics are too small to make themselves evident in practice. We shall not consider the motion of stars mitil we come to speak of the general theory of relativity. In accordance with the theory of relativity the kinetic energy of a material point of mass m is no longer given by the well-known expression 2 but by the expression tru? 0> This expression approaches infinity as the velocity V approaches the velocity of Ught c. The velocity must therefore always remain less than c, however great may be the energies used to produce the acceleration. If we develop the expression for the kinetic energy in the form of a series, we obtain fnc'+m- + fm'-^+ .... 2 o C When - is small compared with unity, the third c of these terms is always small in comparison with the second, which last is alone considered in classi- cal mechanics. The first term mc^ does not contain the velocity, and requires no consideration if we 54 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVrTY are only dealing with the question as to how the energy of a point-mass depends on the velocity. We shaU speak of its essential significance later. The most important result of a general character to which the special theory of relativity has led is concerned with the conception of mass. Before the advent of relativity, physics recognised two conservation laws of fundamental importance, namely, the law of^the conservation of energy and the law of the conservation of mass; these two fimdamental laws appeared to be quite in- dependent of each other. By means of the theory of relativity they have been imited into one law. We shall now briefly consider how this imification came about, and what meaning is to be attached to it. | The principle of relativity'requires that the law of the conservation of energy should hold not only with reference to a co-ordinate system K, but also with respect to every co-ordinate system K' which is in a state of uniform motion of transla- tion relative to K, or, briefly, relative to every "Galileian" system of co-ordinates. In contrast to classical mechanics, the Lorentz transformation is the deciding factor in the transition from one such system to another. By means of comparatively simple considera- tions we are led to draw the following conclusion from these premises, in conjunction with the GENERAL RESULTS OF THEORY 55 fundamental equations of the electrod3Tiamics of Maxwell: A body moving with the velocity v, which absorbs^ an amount of energy £o in the form of radiation without suffering an alteration in velocity in the process, has, as a consequence, its energy increased by an amount Eo v/-? In consideration of the expression given above for the kinetic energy of the body, the required energy of the body comes out to be (r^ v^ V I - - c Thus the body has the same energy as a body of mass (>» + ^ ) moving with the velocity v. Hence we can say: If a body takes up an amount of energy £o, then its inertial mass increases by an amount -^ ; the inertial mass of a body is not a constant, but varies according to the change in the energy of the body. The inertial mass of a system of bodies can even be regarded as a measure * £o is the energy taken up, as judged from a co-ordinate system moving with the body. 56 SPECIAL THEORY OP RELATIVITY of its energy. The law of the conservation of the mass of a system becomes identical with the law of the conservation of energy, and is only valid provided that the system neither takes up nor sends out energy. Writing the expression for the energy ia the form v/ rf ^-^ we see that the term mc^, which has hitherto attracted our attention, is nothing else than the energy possessed by the body ^ before it absorbed the energy Eg. A direct comparison of this relation with e^eri- ment is not possible at the present time, owing to the fact that the changes in energy Eo to which we can subject a system are not large enough to make themselves perceptible as a change in the inertial -En mass of the system. -^ is too small in comparison with the mass m, which was present before the alteration of the energy. It is owing to this circimi- stance that classical mechanics was able to es- tablish successfully the conservation of mass as a law of iadqpendent vaHdity. Let me add a final remark of a fundamental nature. The success of the Faraday-Maxwell ^ As judged from a co-ordinate system moving with the body. GENERAL RESULTS OF THEORY 57 interpretation of electromagnetic action at a dis- tance resulted in physicists becoming convinced that there are no such things as instantaneous actions at a distance (not involving an inter- mediary mediiun) of the type of Newton's law of gravitation. According to the theory of relativity, action at a distance with the velocity of light always takes the place of instantaneous action at a distance or of action at a distance with an in- finite velocity of transmission. This is connected with the fact that the velocity c plays a funda- mental r61e in this theory. In Part II we shaU see in what way this result becomes modified in the general theory of relativity. XVI EXPERIENCE AND THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY TO what extent is the special theory of rela- tivity supported by experience? This ques- tion is not easily answered for the reason already mentioned in connection with the funda- mental experiment of Fizeau. The special theory of relativity has crystallised out from the Maxwell- Lorentz theory of electromagnetic phenomena. Thus all facts of experience which support the electromagnetic theory also support the theory of relativity. As being of particular importance, I mention here the fact that the theory of relativity enables us to predict the effects produced on the light reaching us from the fixed stars. These results are obtained in an exceedingly simple manner, and the effects indicated, which are due to the relative motion of the earth with reference to those fixed stars, are found to be in accord with experience. We refer to the yearly move- ment of the apparent position of the fixed stars resulting from the motion of the earth round the sun (aberration), and to the influence of the radial SB EXPERIENCE AND RELATIVITY 59 components of the relative motions of the fixed stars with respect to the earth on the colour of the light reaching us from them. The latter effect manifests itself in a slight displacement of the spectral lines of the Hght transmitted to us from a fixed star, as compared with the position of the same spectral lines when they are produced by a terrestrial source of light (Doppler principle). The experimental arguments in favour of the MaxweU-Lorentz theory, which are at the same time argxmients in favour of the theory of rela- tivity, are too numerous to be set forth here. In reahty they limit the theoretical possibilities to such an extent, that no other theory than that of Maxwell and Lorentz has been able to hold its own when tested by experience. But there are two classes of experimental facts hitherto obtained which can be represented in the Maxwell-Lorentz theory only by the introduction of an aiixUiary hypothesis, which in itself — i.e. without making use of the theory of relativity — appears extraneous. It is known that cathode rays and the so-called /3-rays emitted by radioactive substances consist of negatively electrified particles (electrons) of very small inertia and large velocity. By examin- ing the deflection of these rays imder the influence of electric and magnetic fields, we can study the law of motion of these particles very exactly. 60 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY In the theoretical treatment of these electrons, we are faced with the diflSculty that electro- dynamic theory of itself is imable to give an ac- coimt of their nature. For since electrical masses of one sign repel each other, the negative electrical masses constituting the electron would necessarily be scattered under the influence of their mutual repulsions, unless there are forces of another kind operating between them, the nature of which has hitherto remained obscure to us.^ If we now assimie that the relative distances between the electrical masses constituting the electron remain imchanged during the motion of the electron (rigid connection in the sense of classical me- chanics), we arrive at a law of motion of the electron which does not agree with experience. Guided by piurely formal points of view, H. A. Lorentz was the first to introduce the hypothesis that the particles constituting the electron ex- perience a contraction in the direction of motion in consequence of that motion, the amount of this contraction being proportional to the expression •*/i = -j- This hypothesis, which is not justifiable by any electrodynamical facts, supplies us then with that particidar law of motion which has been confijmed with great precision in recent years. ^ The general theory of relativity renders it likely that the elec- trical masses of an electron are held together by gravitational forces. EXPERIENCE AND RELATIVITY 61 The theory of relativity leads to the same law of motion, without requiring any special hypothe- sis whatsoever as to the structure and the be- haviour of the electron. We arrived at a similar conclusion in Section XIII in connection with the experiment of Fizeau, the residt of which is fore- told by the theory of relativity without the ne- cessity of drawing on hypotheses as to the physical nature of the liquid. The second class of facts to which we have alluded has reference to the question whether or not the motion of the earth in space can be made perceptible in terrestrial experiments. We have already remarked in Section V that all attempts of this nature led to a negative result. Before the theory of relativity was put forward, it was difficult to become reconciled to this negative result, for reasons now to be discussed. The in- herited prejudices about time and space did not allow any doubt to arise as to the prime importance of the Galilei transformation for changing over from one body of reference to another. Now assuming that the Maxwell-Lorentz equations hold for a reference-body K, we then find that they do not hold for a reference-body K' moving imiformly with respect to K, if we assume that the relations of the Galileian transformation exist between the co-ordinates of K and K'. It thus appears that of aU Galileian co-ordinate 62 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY systems one (K) corresponding to a particular state of motion is physically imique. This result was interpreted physically by regarding X" as at rest with respect to a hypothetical aether of space. On the other hand, all co-ordinate systems K' moving relatively to K were to be regarded as in motion with respect to the aether. To this motion of K' against the aether ("aether-drift" relative to K') were assigned the more complicated laws which were supposed to hold relative to K'. Strictly speaking, such an aether-drift ought also to be assumed relative to the earth, and for a long time the efforts of physicists were devoted to attempts to detect the existence of an aether- drift at the earth's surface. In one of iJie most notable of these attempts Michelson devised a method which appears as though it must be decisive. Imagine two mirrors so arranged on a rigid body that the reflecting surfaces face each other. A ray of light requires a perfectly definite time T to pass from one mirror to the other and back again, if the whole system be at rest with respect to the aether. It is foimd by calculation, however, that a slightly different time r' is required for this process, if the body, together with the mirrors, be moving relatively to the aether. Andyet another point: it is shown by calculation that for a given velocity v with reference to the aether, this time T is different EXPERIENCE AND RELATIVITY 63 when the body is moving perpendicularly to the planes of the mirrors from that resulting when the motion is parallel to these planes. Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference shoiild have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difi&culty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the aether produces a contrac- tion of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufl&cient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above. Comparison with the discussion in Section XII shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is in- comparably more satisfactory. According to this theory there is no such thing as a "specially favoured" (imique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the aether-idea, and hence there can be no aether-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contrac- tion of moving bodies follows from the two hm- damental principles of the theory without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the 64 SPECIAL THEORY OF REIATIVITY prime factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system which is at rest relatively to the sim. xvn MINKOWSKI'S FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE THE non-mathematician is seized by a mys- terious sKuddering when he hears of "four- dimensional" things, by a feeUng not unlike that awakened by thoughts of the occult. And yet there is no more common-place statement than that the world in which we Uve is a four-dimen- sional space-time continuum. Space is a three-dimensional continuum. By this we mean that it is possible to 'describe the position of a point (at rest) by means of three numbers (co-ordinates) x, y, z, and that there is an indefinite number of points in the neighbour- hood of this one, the position of which can be described by co-ordinates such as Xi, yi, Zi, which may be as near as we choose to the respective values of the co-ordinates x, y, z of the first point. In virtue of the latter property we speak of a "continuum," and owing to the fact that there are three co-ordinates we speak of it as being " three-dimensional." ' Similarly, the world of physical phenomena which was briefly called "world" by Minkowski 65 66 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY is naturally four-dimensional in the space-time sense. Fdr it is composed of individual events, each of which is described by four numbers, namely, three space co-ordinates x, y, z and a time co-ordinate, the time-value /. The "world" is in this sense also a continuum; for to every event there are as many "neighbouring" events (realised or at least thinkable) as we care to choose, the co-ordinates Xi, ji, Zi, h of which differ by an indefinitely small amount from those of the event x, y, z, t originally considered. That we have not been accustomed to regard the world in this sense as a four-dimensional continuum is due to the fact that in physics, before the advent of the theory of relativity, time played a different and more independent role, as compared with the space co-ordinates. It is for this reason that we have been in the habit of treating time as an independent continuum. As a matter of fact, according to classical mechanics, time is absolute, i.e. it is independent of the position and the condi- tion of motion of the system of co-ordinates. We see this expressed in the last equation of the GaUleian transformation {t' = t). The four-dimensional mode of consideration of the "world" is natural on the theory of relativity, since according to this theory time is robbed of its independence. This is shown by the fourth equa- tion of the Lorentz transformation: POUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE 6T a ~ \/'-$ Moreover, according to this equation the time difference At' of two events with respect to K' does not in general vanish, even when the time difference At of the same events with reference to K vanishes. Pure "space-distance" of two events with respect to K results in "time-distance" of the same events with respect to K'. But the discovery of Minkowski, which was of importance for the formal development of the theory of rela- tivity, does not He here. It is to be found rather in the fact of his recognition that the four-dimen- sional space-time continuum of the theory of rela- tivity, in its most essential formal properties, shows a pronounced relationship to the three- dimensional continuum of EucHdean geometrical space.* In order to give due prominence to this relationship, however, we must replace the usual time co-ordinate t by an imaginary magnitude V— I. ct proportional to it. Under these condi- tions, the natural laws satisfying the demands of the (special) theory of relativity assimie mathe- matical forms, in which the tune co-ordinate plays exactly the same r61e as the three space co- ordinates. Formally, these four co-ordinates ' Cf. the somewhat more detailed discussion in Appendix n. 68 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY correspond exactly to the three space co-ordinates in Euclidean geometry. It must be clear even to the non-mathematician that, as a consequence of this purely formal addition to our knowledge, the theory perforce gained clearness in no mean measure. These inadequate remarks can give the reader only a vague notion of the important idea con- tributed by Minkowski. Without it the general theory of relativity, of which the fundamental ideas are developed in the following pages, would perhaps have got no farther than its long clothes. Min- kowski's work is doubtless difficult of access to anyone inexperienced in mathematics, but since it is not necessary to have a very exact grasp of this work in order to xmderstand the fundamental ideas of either the special or the general theory of relativity, I shaU at present leave it here, and shall revert to it only towards the end of Part II. PART II THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY xvm SPECIAL AND GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY THE basal principle, which was the pivot of all our previous considerations, was the special principle of relativity, i.e. the principle of the physical relativity of all uniform motion. Let us once more analyse its meaning carefully. It was at all times clear that, from the point of view of the idea it conveys to us, every motion must only be considered as a relative motion. Returning to the illustration we have frequently used of the embankment and the railway carriage, we can express the fact of the motion here taking place in the foUowiug two forms, both of which are equally justifiable: (a) The carriage is in motion relative to the embankment. (J) The embankment is in motion relative to the carriage. In (a) the embankment, in (6) the carriage, serves as the body of reference in our statement 60 TO GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITT of the motion taking place. If it is simply a question of detecting or of describing the motion involved, it is in principle immaterial to what reference-body we refer the motion. As already mentioned, this is self-evident, but it must not be confused with the much more comprehensive state- ment called "the principle of relativity," which we have taken as the basis of our investigations. The principle we have made use of not only maintains that we may equally ■«?eU choose the carriage or the embankment as our reference-body for the description of any event (for this, too, is self-evident). Our principle rather asserts what follows: If we formulate the general laws of nature as they are obtained from experience, by making use of (o) the embankment as reference-body, (b) the railway carriage as reference-body, then these general laws of nature (e.g. the laws of mechanics or the law of the propagation of light in vacuo) have exactly the same form in both cases. This can also be expressed as follows: For the physical description of naturaLprocesses^ nd^gi:. 6T^ the "reference-bodies K, K' is unique— (lit — "specially marked out") as compared with the other. Unlike the first, this latter statement need not of necessity hold a priori; it is not contained in the conceptions of "motion" and "reference- SPECIAL AND GENERAL PRINCIPLE 71 body" and derivable from them; only experience can decide as to its correctness or incorrectness. Up to the present, however, we have by no means maintained the equivalence of all bodies of reference K in connection with the formulation of natural laws. Our course was more on the following lines. In the first place, we started out from the assumption that there exists a reference- body K, whose condition of motion is such that the GaUleian law holds with respect to it: A particle left to itself and sufl&ciently far removed from all other particles moves uniformly in a straight line. With reference to K (Galileian reference-body) the laws of nature were to be as simple as possible. But in addition to K, all bodies of reference K' should be given preference in this sense, and they should be exactly equiva- lent to K for the formulation of natural laws, provided that they are in a state of uniform rectilinear and nonrotary motion with respect to K; all these bodies of reference are to be regarded as Galileian reference-bodies. The vaUdity of the principle of relativity was assumed only for these reference-bodies, but not for others {e.g. those possessing motion of a different kind). In this sense we speak of the special principle of relativity, or special theory of relativity. In contrast to this we wish to imderstand by the "general principle of relativity" the following 72 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY statement: All bodies of reference K, K\ etc., are equivalent for the description of natural phenomena (formulation of the general laws of nature), whatever may be their state of motion. But before proceeding farther, it ought to be pointed out that this formulation must be re- placed later by a more abstract one, for reasons which wiU become evident at a later stage. Siace the introduction of the special principle of relatiAdty has been justified, every intellect which strives after generalisation must feel the temptation to venture the step towards the general principle of relativity. But a simple and ap- parently quite reliable consideration seems to suggest that, for the present at any rate, there is Uttle hope of success iu such an attempt. Let us imagine ourselves transferred to our old friend the railway carriage, which is travelling at a uniform rate. As long as it is moving imiformly, the occupant of the carriage is not sensible of its motion, and it is for this reason that he can with- out reluctance interpret the facts of the case as indicating that the carriage is at rest, but the embankment m motion. Moreover, according to the special principle of relativity, this inter- pretation is quite justified also from a physical point of view. If the motion of the carriage is now changed into a non-uniform motion, as for instance by a SPECIAL AND GENERAL PRINCIPLE 73 powerful application of the brakes, then the oc- cupant of the carriage experiences a correspond- ingly powerful jerk forwards. The retarded mo- tion is manifested in the mechanical behaviour of bodies relative to the person in the railway carriage. The mechanical behaviour is different from that of the case previously considered, and for this reason it would appear to be impossible that the same mechanical laws hold relatively to the non-imiformly moving carriage, as hold with reference to the carriage when at rest or in uni- form motion. At all events it is clear that the GaMleian law does not hold with respect to the non-imiformly moving carriage. Because of this, we feel compelled at the present jimcture to grant a kind of absolute physical reality to non-uniform motion, in opposition to the general principle of relativity. But in what follows we shall soon see that this conclusion cannot be maintained. xrx THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD "TF we pick up a stone and then let it go, why J^ does it faJl to the ground?" The usual answer to this question is: "Because it is attracted by the earth." Modem physics formu- lates the answer rather differently for the follow- ing reason. As a result of the more careful study of electromagnetic phenomena, we have come to regard action at a distance as a process impossible without the intervention of some intermediary medium. If, for instance, a magnet attracts a piece of iron, we cannot be content to regard this as meaning that the magnet acts directly on the iron through the intermediate empty space, but we are constrained to imagine — after the manner of Faraday — that the magnet always calls into being something physically real in the space aroimd it, that something being what we call a "magnetic field." In its turn this magnetic field operates on the piece of iron, so that the latter strives to move towards the magnet. We shall not discuss here the justification for this incidental conception, which is indeed a somewhat arbi- 74 THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 75 trary one. We shall only mention that with its aid electromagnetic phenomena can be theoret- ically represented much more satisfactorily than without it, and this appHes particularly to the transmission of electromagnetic waves. The effects of gravitation also are regarded in an analogous manner. The action of the earth on the stone takes place indirectly. The earth produces in its sur- roundings a gravitational field, which acts on the stone and produces its motion of fall. As we know from experience, the intensity of the action on a body diminishes according to a quite definite law, as we proceed farther and farther away from the earth. From our point of view this means: The law governing the properties of the gravita- tional field in space must be a perfectly definite one, in order correctly to represent the diminution of gravitational action with the distance from operative bodies. It is something like this: The body (e.g. the earth) produces a field in its imme- diate neighbourhood directly; the intensity and direction of the field at points farther removed from the body are thence determined by the law which governs the properties in space of the gravitational fields themselves. In contrast to electric and magnetic fields, the gravitational field exhibits a most remarkable property, which is of fimdamental importance 76 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY for what follows. Bodies which are moving under the sole influence of a gravitational field receive an acceleration, which does not in the least depend either on the material or on the physical state of the body. For instance, a piece of lead and a piece of wood fall in exactly the same manner ia a gravitational field {in vacuo), when they start off from rest or with the same initial velocity. This law, which holds most accurately, can be expressed in a different form in the Hght of the following consideration. According to Newton's law of motion, we have (Force) = (inertial mass) X (acceleration), where the "mertial mass" is a characteristic constant of the accelerated body. If now gravi- tation is the cause of the acceleration, we then have (Force) = (gravitational mass) X (intensity of the gravitational field), where the "gravitational mass" is likewise a characteristic constant for the body. From these two relations follows: <««^»«'«) - 'T^sriT' X <-'-"' "' '^ gravitational field). If now, as we find from experience, the accelera- tion is to be independent of the nature and the condition of the body and always the same for a THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 77 given gravitational field, then the ratio of the gravitational to the inertial mass must likewise be the same for all bodies. By a suitable choice of units we can thus make this ratio equal to unity. We then have the following law: The gravitational mass of a body is equal to its inertial mass. It is true that this important law had hitherto been recorded in mechanics, but it had not been interpreted. A satisfactory interpretation can be obtained only if we recognise the following fact: The same quality of a body manifests itself ac- cording to circumstances as "inertia" or as "weight" (lit. "heaviness"). In the following section we shall show to what extent this is actually the case, and how this question is con- nected with the general postiilate of relativity. XX THE EQUALITY OF INERTIAL AND GRAVITA- TIONAL MASS AS AN ARGUMENT FOR THE GENERAL POSTULATE OF RELATIVITY WE imagine a large portion of empty space, so far removed from stars and other appreciable masses that we have before us approximately the conditions required by the fundamental law of Galilei. It is then possible to choose a Galileian reference-body for this part of space (world), relative to which points at rest remain at rest and points in motion continue permanently in imiform rectilinear motion. As reference-body let us imagine a spacious chest resembling a room with an observer inside who is equipped with apparatus. Gravitation nat- urally does not exist for this observer. He must fasten himself with strings to the floor, otherwise the sHghtest impact against the floor will cause him to rise slowly towards the ceiling of the room. To the middle of the lid of the chest is fixed externally a hook with rope attached, and now a "being" (what kind of a being is immaterial to 78 INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL MASS T9 us) begins pulling at this with a constant force. The chest together with the observer then b^in to move "upwards" with a urdfomaly accelerated motion. In course of time their velocity will reach unheard-of values — provided that we are viewing all this from another reference-body which is not being pulled with a rope. But how does the man in the chest regard the process? The acceleration of the chest will be transmitted to him by the reaction of the floor of the chest. He must therefore take up this pressure by means of his legs i£ he does not wish to be laid out fuU length on the floor. He is then standing in the chest in exactly the same way as anyone stands in a room of a house on our earth. If he release a body which he previously had in his hand, the acceleration of the chest wUl no longer be transmitted to this body, and for this reason the body will approach the floor of the chest with an accelerated relative motion. The observer wiU further convince himself that the acceleration of the body towards the floor of the chest is always of the same magnittide, whatever kind of body he may happen to use for the experiment. Rel3dng on his knowledge of the gravitational field (as it was discussed in the preceding section), the man in the chest will thus come to the con- clusion that he and the chest are in a gravitational field which is constant with regard to time. Of 80 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY course he will be puzzled for a moment as to why the chest does not fall m this gravitational field. Just then, however, he discovers the hook in the middle of the Ud of the chest and the rope which is attached to it, and he consequently comes to the conclusion that the chest is suspended at rest in the gravitational field. Ought we to smUe at the man and say that he errs in his conclusion? I do not beheve we ought to if we wish to remain consistent; we must rather admit that his mode of grasping the situation violates neither reason nor known mechanical laws. Even though it is being accelerated with respect to the "Galileian space" first considered, we can nevertheless regard the chest as being at rest. We have thus good grounds for extending the principle of rdativity to include bodies of reference which are accelerated with respect to each other, and as a result we have gained a powerful argimaent for a generahsed postulate of relativity. We must note carefully that the possiblility of this mode of interpretation rests on the fundamen- tal property of the gravitational field of giving all bodies the same acceleration, or, what comes to the same thing, on the law of the equaUty of inertial and gravitational mass. If this natural law did not exist, the man in the accelerated chest would not be able to interpret the behaviour of INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL MASS 81 the bodies around him on the supposition of a gravitational field, and he would not be justified on the grounds of experience in supposing his reference-body to be "at rest." Suppose that the man in the chest fixes a rope to the inner side of the Hd, and that he attaches a body to the free end of the rope. The result of this wiU be to stretch the rope so that it will hang "vertically" downwards. If we ask for an opinion of the cause of tension in the rope, the man in the chest will say: "The suspended body experiences a downward force in the gravitational field, and this is neutrahsed by the tension of the rope; what determines the magnitude of the ten- sion of the rope is the gravitational mass of the suspended body." On the other hand, an ob- server who is poised freely in space will interpret the condition of things thus: "The rope must perforce take part in the accelerated motion of the chest, and it transmits this motion to the body attached to it. The tension of the rope is just large enough to effect the acceleration of the body. That which determines the magnitude of the tension of the rope is the inertial mass of the body." Guided by this example, we see that our extension of the principle of relativity implies the necessity of the law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass. Thus we have obtained a physical interpretation of this law. 82 GENERAL THEORY OP RELATIVITY From our consideration of the accelerated chest we see that a general theory of relativity must yield important riesults on the laws of gravitation. In point of fact, the systematic piu-suit of the general idea of relativity has supplied the laws satisfied by the gravitational field. Before pro- ceeding farther, however, I must warn the reader against a misconception suggested by tijese con- siderations. A gravitational field exists for the man in the chest, despite the fact that there was no such field for the co-ordinate system first chosen. Now we might easily suppose that the existence of a gravitational field is always only an apparent one. We might also think that, regardless of the kind of gravitational field which may be present, we could always choose another reference-body such that no gravitational field exists with reference to it. This is by no means true for aU gravitational fields, but only for those of quite special form. It is, for mstance, im- possible to choose a body of reference such that, as judged from it, the gravitational field of the earth (in its entirety) vanishes. We can now appreciate why that argument is not convincing, which we brought forward against the general principle of relativity at the end of Section XVIII. It is certainly true that the observer in the railway carriage experiences a jerk forwards as a result of the application of the INERTIAL AND GRAVITATIONAL MASS 83 brake, and that he recognises in this the non- umformity of motion (retardation) of the carriage. But he is compelled by nobody to refer this jerk to a "real" acceleration (retardation) of the carriage. He might also interpret his experience thus: "My body of reference (the carriage) remains permanently at rest. With reference to it, however, there exists (during the period of application of the brakes) a gravitational field which is directed forwards and which is variable with respect to time. Under the influence of this field, the embankment together with the earth moves non-uniformly in such a manner that their original velocity in the backwards direction is continuously reduced." XXI IN WHAT RESPECTS ARE THE FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS AND OF THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY UN- SATISFACTORY? WE have already stated several times that classical mechanics starts out from the following law: Material particles suf- ficiently far removed from other material particles continue to move uniformly in a straight line or continue in a state of rest. We have also repeatedly emphasised that this fundamental law can only be vahd for bodies of reference K which possess certain unique states of motion, and which are in imiform translational motion relative to each other. Relative to other reference-bodies K the law is not valid. Both in classical mechanics and in the special theory of relativity we there- fore differentiate between reference-bodies K relative to which the recognised "laws of nature" can be said to hold, and reference-bodies K relative to which these laws do not hold. But no person whose mode of thought is logical can rest satisfied with this condition of things. He asks: "How does it come that certain refer- 84 MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY 85 ence-bodies (or their states of motion) are given priority over other reference-bodies (or their states of motion)? What is the reason for this preference? In order to show clearly what I mean by this question, I shall make use of a comparison. I am standing in front of a gas range. Stand- ing alongside of each other on the range are two pans so much alike that one may be mistaken for the other. Both are half full of water. I notice that steam is being emitted continuously from the one pan, but not from the other. I am surprised at this, even if I have never seen either a gas range or a pan before. But if I now, notice a luminous something of bluish colour under the first pan but not under the other, I cease to be astonished, even if I have never before seen a gas flame. For I can only say that this bluish something will cause the emission of the steam, or at least possibly it may do so. If, however, I notice the bluish something in neither case, and if I observe that the one continuously emits steam whilst the other does not, then I shall remain astonished and dissatisfied until I have discovered some circumstance to which I can attribute the different behaviour of the two pans. Analogously, I seek in vain for a real something in classical mechanics (or in the special theory of relativity) to which I can attribute the different behaviour of bodies considered with respect to 86 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY the reference-systems K and K'.'^ Newton saw this objection and attempted to invalidate it, but without success. But E. Mach recognised it most clearly of all, and because of this objection he claimed that mechanics must be placed on a new basis. It can only be got rid of by means of a physics which is conformable to the general principle of relativity, since the equations of such a theory hold for every body of reference, whatever may be its state of motion. 1 The objection is of importance more especially when the state of motion of the reference-body is of such a nature that it does not require any external agency for its maintenance, e.g. in the case when the reference-body is rotating uniformly. XXII A FEW INFERENCES FROM THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY THE considerations of Section XX show that the general principle of relativity puts us in a position to derive properties of the gravitational field in a purely theoretical manner. Let us suppose, for instance, that we know the space-time "course" for any natural process whatsoever, as regards the manner in which it takes place in the GaHleian domain relative to a GaUleian body of reference K. By means of purely theoretical operations {i.e. simply by cal- culation) we are then able to find how this known natural process appears, as seen from a reference- body K' which is accelerated relatively to K. But since a gravitational field exists with respect to this new body of reference K', our consideration also teaches us how the gravitational field in- fluences the process studied. For example, we learn that a body which is in a state of uniform rectilinear motion with respect to K (in accordance with the law of Galilei) is executing an accelerated and in general 8r 88 GENERAL THEOEY OF RELATIVITY curvilinear motion with respect to the accelerated reference-body K' (chest). This acceleration or curvature corresponds to the influence on the moving body of the gravitational field prevailing relatively to K' . It is known that a gravita- tional field influences the movement of bodies in this way, so that our consideration supplies us with nothing essentially new. However, we obtain a new result of fundamental importance when we carry out the analogous consideration for a ray of light. With respect to the Galileian reference-body K, such a ray of Hght is transmitted rectilinearly with the velocity c. It can easily be shown that the path of the same ray of light is no longer a straight line when we consider it with reference to the accelerated chest (reference-body i?'). From this we con- clude, that, in general, rays of light are propagated curvilinearly in gravitational fields. In two re- spects this result is of great importance. In the first place, it can be compared with the reality. Although a detailed examination of the question shows that the curvature of light rays required by the general theory of relativity is only exceedingly small for the gravitational fields at our disposal in practice, its estimated magni- tude for light rays passing the sun at grazing incidence is nevertheless 1-7 seconds of arc. This ought to manifest itself in the following way. INFERENCES FROM RELATIVITY 89 As seen from the earth, certain fixed stars appear to be in the neighbourhood of the sun, and are thus capable of observation during a total eclipse of the sun. At such times, these stars ought to appear to be displaced outwards from the sun by an amount indicated above, as compared with their apparent position in the sky when the sun is situated at another part of the heavens. The examination of the correctness or otherwise of this deduction is a problem of the greatest im- portance, the early solution of which is to be expected of astronomers.^ In the second place our result shows that, ac- cording to the general theory of relativity, the law of the constancy of the velocity of hght in vacuo, which constitutes one of the two funda- mental assiunptions in the special theory of relativity and to which we have already frequently referred, cannot claim any unlimited validity. A curvature of rays of light can only take place when the velocity of propagation of light varies with position. Now we might think that as a consequence of this, the special theory of relativity and with it the whole theory of relativity would be laid in the dust. But in reality this is not the ' By means of the star photographs of two expeditions equipped by a Joint Committee of the Royal and Royal Astronomical Societies, the existence of the deflection of light demanded by theory was con- firmed during the solar eclipse of 29th May, 1919. (Cf. Appendix III.) 90 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY case. We can only conclude that the special theory of relativity cannot claim an unliinited domaui of validity; its resiilts hold only so long as we are able to disregard the influences of gravitational fields on the phenomena {e.g. of light). Since it has often been contended by oppo- nents of the theory of relativity that the special theory of relativity is overthrown by the general theory of relativity, it is perhaps advisable to make the facts of the case clearer by means of an appropriate comparison. Before the development of electrodynamics the laws of electrostatics were looked upon as the laws of electricity. At the present time we know that electric fields can be derived correctly from elec- trostatic considerations only for the case, which is never strictly realised, in which the electrical masses are quite at rest relatively to each other, and to the co-ordinate system. Should we be justified in saying that for this reason electro- statics is overthrown by the field-equations of Maxwell in electrodynamics? Not in the least. Electrostatics is contained in electrodynamics as a limiting case; the laws of the latter lead directly to those of the former for the case in which the fields are invariable with regard to time. No fairer destiny covdd be allotted to any physical theory, than that it should of itself point out the INFERENCES FROM RELATIVITY 91 way to the introduction of a more comprehensive theory, in which it lives on as a limiting case. In the example of the transmission of light just dealt with, we have seen that the general theory of relativity enables us to derive theoretically the influence of a gravitational field on the course of natural processes, the laws of which are already known when a gravitational field is absent. But the most attractive problem, to the solution of which the general theory of relativity supplies the key, concerns the investigation of the laws satisfied by the gravitational field itself. Let us consider this for a moment. We are acquainted with space-time domains which behave (approximately) in a "Galileian" fashion imder suitable choice of reference-body, i.e. domains in which gravitational fields are absent. If we now refer such a domain to a reference-body K' possessing any kind of motion, then relative to K' there exists a gravitational field which is variable with respect to space and time.* The character of this field will of course depend on the motion chosen for K'. Accord- ing to the general theory of relativity, the general law of the gravitational field must be satisfied for all gravitational fields obtainable in this way. Even though by no means all gravitational fields ' This follows from a generalisation of the discussion in Sec- tion XX. 92 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY can be produced in this way, yet we may enter- tain the hope that the general law of gravitation will be derivable from such gravitational fields of a special kind. This hope has been realised~itt- the most beautiful _ maimer,^ But betwee n the clear vision of this goal and its actual realisation it was necessary to surmoimt a serious difi&culty, and as this lies deep at the root of things, I dare not withhold it from the reader. We require to extend our ideas of the space-time continuum still farther. xxm BEHAVIOUR OF CLOCKS AND MEASURING- RODS ON A ROTATING BODY OF REFERENCE HITHERTO I have purposely refrained from speaking about the physical in- terpretation of space- and time-data in the case of the general theory of relativity. As a consequence, I am guilty of a certain slovenliness of treatment, which, as we know from the special theory of relativity, is far from beiug unim- portant and pardonable. It is now high time that we remedy this defect; but I would mention at the outset, that this matter lays no smaU claims on the patience and on the power of abstraction of the reader. We start off again from quite special cases, which we have frequently used before. Let us consider a space-time domain in which no gravi- tational field exists relative to a reference-body K whose state of motion has been suitably chosen. K is then a Galileian reference-body as regards the domain considered, and the results of the special theory of relativity hold relative to K. Let us suppose the same domain referred to a 93 94 GENERAL THEORY OP RELATIVITY second body of reference K', which is rotating uniformly with respect to K. In order to fix our ideas, we shall imagine K' to be in the form of a plane circular disc, which rotates uniformly in its own plane about its centre. An observer who is sitting eccentrically on the disc K' is sensible of a force which acts outwards in a radial direction, and which would be interpreted as an effect of inertia (centrifugal force) by an observer / — i ct instead of the real quantity t, we can regard the space-time con- tinuum — in accordance with the special theory of relativity — as a "Euclidean" four-dimensional continuum, a result which foUows from the considerations of the preceding section. xxvn THE SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY IS NOT A EUCLIDEAN CONTINUUM IN the first part of this book we were able to make use of space-time co-ordinates which allowed of a simple and direct physical in- terpretation, and which, according to Section XXVI, can be regarded as four-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinates. This was possible on the basis of the law of the constancy of the ve- locity of Hght. But according to Section XXI, the general theory of relativity cannot retain this law. On the contrary, we arrived at the result that according to this latter theory the velocity of light must always depend on the co- ordinates when a gravitational field is pres- ent. In cormection with a specific illustration in Section XXIII, we found that the presence of a gravitational field invahdates the definition of the co-ordinates and the time, which led us to our objective in the special theory of relativity. In view of the results of these considerations we are led to the conviction that, according to 111 112 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY the general principle of relativity, the space-time continuum cannot be regarded as a Euclidean one, but that here we have the general case, corresponding to the marble slab with local variations of temperature, and with which we made acquaintance as an example of a two- dimensional continuiun. Just as it was there impossible to construct a Cartesian co-ordinate system from equal rods, so here it is impossible to build up a system (reference-body) from rigid bodies and clocks, which shall be of such a nature that measuring-rods and clocks, arranged rigidly with respect to one another, shall indicate posi- tion and time directly. Such was the essence of the difl&culty with which we were confronted in Section XXIII. But the considerations of Sections XXV and XXVI show us the way to surmount this difl&- culty. We refer the four-dimensional space-time continuum in an arbitrary manner to Gauss co-ordinates. We assign to every point of the continuiun (event) four mambers, Xi, %, Xt, Xt (co-ordinates), which have not the least direct physical significance, but only serve the purpose of numbering the points of the continuum in a definite but arbitrary manner. This arrangement does not even need to be of such a kind that we must regard Xi, X2, Xs, as "space" co-ordinates and Xi as a "time" co-ordinate. SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM 113 The reader may think that such a description of the world would be quite inadequate. What does it mean to assign to an event the particular co-ordinates Xi, od, %, x^, if in themselves these co-ordinates have no significance? More careful consideration shows, however, that this anxiety- is imfoimded. Let us consider, for instance, a material point with any kind of motion. If this point had only a momentary existence without duration, then it woiild be described in space- time by a single system of values Xi, oc^, Xs, Xi. Thus its permanent existence must be char- acterised by an infinitely large nimiber of such systems of values, the co-ordinate values of which are so close together as to give continuity; corresponding to the material point, we thus have a (uni-dimensional) line in the four-dimensional continuima. In the same way, any such lines in oiur continuum correspond to many points in motion. The only statements having regard to these points which can claim a physical existence are in reality the statements about their en- counters. In our mathematical treatment, such an encovmter is expressed in the fact that the two lines which represent the motions of the points in question have a particular system of co-ordinate values, Xi, %, Xz, X4, in common. After mature consideration the reader will doubt- less admit that in reality such encounters con- 114 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY stitute the only actual evidence of a time-space nature with which we meet in physical statements. When we were describing the motion of a material ppint relative to a body of reference, we stated nothing more than the encoxmters of this point with particular points of the reference-body. We can also determine the correspondiag values of the time by the observation of encounters of the body with clocks, in conjunction with the observation of the encounter of the hands of clocks with particular points on the dials. It is just the same in the case of space-measurements by means of measuring-rods, as a Uttle considera- tion will show. I The following statements hold generally: Every physical description resolves itself into a number of statements, each of which refers to the space- time coincidence of two events A and B. In terms of Gaussian co-ordinates, every such state- ment is expressed by the agreement of their four co-ordinates Xi, %, %, Xi. Thus in reality, the description of the time-space continuum by means of Gauss co-ordinates completely replaces the description with the aid of a body of reference, without suffering from the defects of the latter mode of description; it is not tied down to the Euclidean character of the continuum which has to be represented. xxvm EXACT FORMULATION OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY WE are now in a position to replace the provisional formulation of the general principle of relativity given in Section XVIII by an exact formulation. The form there used, "All bodies of reference K, K', etc., are equivalent for the description of natural phenomena (formulation of the general laws of nature), whatever may be their state of motion," cannot be maintained, because the use of rigid reference-bodies, in the sense of the method fol- lowed in the special theory of relativity, is in general not possible in space-time description. The Gauss co-ordinate system has to take the place of the body of reference. The following statement corresponds to the fundamental idea of the general principle of relativity: "All Gaus- sian co-ordinate systems are essentially equivalent for the formulation of the general laws of nature." We can state this general principle of relativity in stiU another form, which renders it yet more clearly intelligible than it is when in the form of H5j 116 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY the natural extension of the special principle of relativity. According to the special theory of relativity, the equations which express the general laws of nature pass over into equations of the same form when, by making use of the Lorentz transformation, we replace the space-time variables X, y, z, t, of a (Galileian) reference-body K by the space-time variables x', y', z', t', of a new reference- body K'. According to the general theory of relativity, on the other hand, by appUcation of arbitrary substitutions of the Gauss variables Xi, Xi, Xz, Xi, the equations must pass over into equations of the same form; for every transfor- mation (not only the Lorentz transformation) corresponds to the transition of one Gauss co-ordi- nate system into another. If we desire to adhere to our "old-time" three- dimensional view of things, then we can char- acterise the development which is being imder- gone by the fundamental idea of the general theory of relativity as follows: The special theory of relativity has reference to Galileian domains, i.e. to those in which no gravitational field exists. In this connection a Galileian reference-body serves as body of reference, i.e. a rigid body the state of motion of which is so chosen that the Galileian law of the imifonn rectilinear mo- tion of "isolated" material points holds relatively to it. GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY 117 Certain considerations suggest that we should refer the same Galileian domains to non-Galileian reference-bodies also. A gravitational field of a special kind is then present with respect to these bodies (cf. Sections XX and XXIII). In gravitational fields there are no such things as rigid bodies with Euclidean properties; thus the fictitious rigid body of reference is of no avail in the general theory of relativity. The motion of clocks is also influenced by gravitational fields, and in such a way that a physical definition of time which is made directly with the aid of clocks has by no means the same degree of plausibility as in the special theory of relativity. For this reason non-rigid reference-bodies are used which are as a whole not only moving in any way whatsoever, but which also suffer alterations in form ad lib. during their motion. Clocks, for which the law of motion is of any kind, however irregular, serve for the definition of time. We have to imagine each of these clocks fixed at a point on the non-rigid reference-body. These clocks satisfy only the one condition, that the "readings" which are observed simultaneously on adjacent clocks (in space) differ from each other by an indefinitely small amoimt. This non-rigid refer- ence-body, which might appropriately be termed a "reference-moUusk," is in the main equivalent to a Gaussian four-dimensional co-ordinate sys- 118 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY tern chosen arbitrarily. That which gives the "mollusk" a certain comprehensibleness as com- pared with the Gauss co-ordinate system is the (really unjustified) formal retention of the sep- arate existence of the space co-ordinates as op>- posed to the time co-ordinate. Every point on the moUusk is treated as a space-point, and every material point which is at rest relatively to it as at rest, so long as the mollusk is considered as reference-body. The general principle ^ f rela;:^ tivity requires that all these^mpllu^isxanJiejLised as fefefencejodies jmti__egiial right and equal success in the formulation^f_thg^general laws-oi natilfe- '^the laws themselves must be quite indepaident of the choice^ moUusk. The--gr-ea£^Hpgwig"f>9sses&idl3Bc:die general principle of relativi ty hes in the comprehe nsive limitation which is imposed on the laws of nature in consequence of what we have seen^OMCZi; — xxrx THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF GRAVI- TATION ON THE BASIS OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY IF the reader has followed all our previous considerations, he will have no further diffi- culty in understanding the methods leading to the solution of the problem of gravitation. We start off from a consideration of a Gahleian domain, i.e. a domain in which there is no gravita- tional field relative to the Galileian reference- body K. The behaviour of measuring-rods and clocks with reference to K is known from the special theory of relativity, likewise the behaviour of "isolated" material points; the latter move uniformly and in straight lines. Now let us refer this domain to a random Gauss co-ordinate system or to a "mollusk" as reference-^ body K'. Then with respect to K' there is a, gravitational field G (of a particular kind). We learn the behaviour of measuring-rods and clocks and also of freely-moving material points with reference to K' simply by mathematical trans- formation. We interpret this behaviour as the 119 120 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY behaviour of measuring-rods, clocks and material points under the influence of the gravitational field G. Hereupon we introduce a hypothesis: that the influence of the gravitational field on measuring-rods, clocks and freely-moving material points continues to take place according to the same laws, even in the case when the prevailing gravitational field is not derivable from the GaUleian special case, simply by means of a transformation of co-ordinates. The next step is to investigate the space-time behaviour of the gravitational field G, which was derived from the GaHleian special case simply by transformation of the co-ordinates. This be- haviour is formulated in a law, which is always valid, no matter how the reference-body (mollusk) used in the description may be chosen. This law is not yet the general law of the gravita- tional field, since the gravitational field imder consideration is of a special kind. In order to find out the general law-of -field of gravitation we still require to obtain a generalisation of the law as found above. This can be obtained without caprice, however, by taking into consideration the following demands: (a) The required generalisation must likewise satisfy the general postulate of relativity. (b) If there is any matter in the domain under consideration, only its inertial masSj and SOLUTION OF GRAVITATION 121 thus according to Section XV only its energy is of importance for its effect in exciting a field, (c) Gravitational field and matter together must satisfy the law of the conservation of energy (and of impulse). Finally, the general principle of relativity per- mits us to determine the influence of the gravita- tional field on the course of all those processes which take place according to known laws when a gravitational field is absent, i.e. which have already been fitted into the frame of the special theory of relativity. In this connection we pro- ceed in principle according to the method which has already been explained for measuring-rods, clocks and freely-moving material points. The th eory of gr avitation derived in th l&-way from the general postulate of relativity^ excels.. not only in its beautyjlttor in removing the defect attachih^tb classic al mechanic s which was'brought to light in Section XXIj nor in interpret^TEe empirical law of the equality~br~mertial and gravitational mass; but it has also already ex- plained a result of observation in astronomy, against -which classical mechanics is powerless. If we confine the application of the theory to the case where the gravitational fields can be regarded as being weak, and in which all masses move with respect to the co-ordinate system with 122 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY velocities which are small compared with the velocity of light, we then obtain as a first ap- proximation the Newtonian theory. Thus the latter theory is obtained here without any particu- lar assumption, whereas Newton had to iatroduce the hypothesis that the force of attraction between mutually attracting material points is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. If we increase the accuracy of the calcu- lation, deviations from the theory of Newton make their appearance, practically all of which must nevertheless escape the test of observation owing to their smaUness. We must draw attention here to one of these deviations. According to Newton's theory, a planet moves round the sun in an ellipse, which would permanently maintain its position with respect to the fixed stars, if we could disregard the motion of the fixed stars themselves and the action of the other planets under consideration. Thus, if we correct the observed motion of the planets for these two influences, and if Newton's theory be strictly correct, we ought to obtain for the orbit of the planet an ellipse, which is fixed with reference to the fixed stars. This deduction, which can be tested with great ac- curacy, has been confirmed for all the planets save one, with the precision that is capable of being obtained by the delicacy of observation SOLUTION OF GRAVITATION 123 attainable at the present time. The sole ex- ception is Mercury, the planet which hes nearest the sun. Since the time of Leverrier, it has been known that the ellipse corresponding to the orbit of Mercury, after it has been corrected for the influences mentioned above, is not stationary with respect to the fixed stars, but that it rotates ex- ceedingly slowly in the plane of the orbit and ia the sense of the orbital motion. The value ob- tained for this rotary movement of the orbital ellipse was 43 seconds of arc per century, an amount ensured to be correct to within a few seconds of arc. This effect can be explained by means of classical mechanics only on the as- sumption of hypotheses which have Uttle proba- bility, and which were devised solely for this purpose. On the basis of the general theory of relativity, it is found that the eUipse of every planet roimd the sun must necessarily rotate in the manner indicated above; that for all the planets, with the exception of Mercury, this rotation is too small to be detected with the delicacy of ob- servation possible at the present time; but that in the case of Mercury it must amount to 43 seconds of arc per century, a result which is strictly in agreement with observation. Apart from this one, it has hitherto been possible to make only two deductions from the theory 124 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY which admit of being tested by observation, to wit, the curvature of light rays by the gravitational field of the sun/ and a displacement of the spectral lines of Ught reaching us from large stars, as com- pared with the corresponding lines for Hght pro- duced in an analogous manner terrestrially {i.e. by the same kind of molecule). I do not doubt that these deductions from the theory wiU be' confirmed also. ' Observed by Eddington and others in igig. (Cf. Appendix m.) PART III CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE AS A WHOLE XXX COSMOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES OF NEWTON'S THEORY APART from the difl&culty discussed in Sec- tion XXI, there is a second fundamental difficulty attending classical celestial me- chanics, which, to the best of my knowledge, was first discussed in detail by the astronomer Seeliger. If we ponder over the question as to how the universe, considered as a whole, is to be regarded, the first answer that suggests itself to us is surely this: As^egards_j2ace_(and time) thejmiyersejs_jnfiiiite. There are stars^evH^^ where, so that the density of matter, although very variable in detail, is nevertheless on the average everywhere the same. In other words: However far we might travel through space, we shoiild find ever3rwhere an attenuated swarm of fixed stars of approximately the same kind and density. 125 126 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE This view is not in harmony with the theory of Newton. The latter theory rather requires that the universe should have a kind of centre in which the density of the stars is a maximimi, and that as we proceed outwards from this centre the group-density of the stars should diminish, imtil finally, at great distances, it is succeeded by an infinite region of emptiness. Hie^^ar univ^se^ ought to be a finite island in ^le^infinite ocea^jrf space.^ This conception is in itself not very satisfactory. It is still less satisfactory becauselTTeads^to the result that the light emitted by the stars and also individual stars of the stellar system are per- petually passing out into infinite space, never to return, and without ever again coming into interaction with other objects of nature. ^^_ a finite material universe woul d be de stmgd to become gradually but systematically^ impQv=_ erished. 1 Proof. — According to the theory of Newton, the number of '.'lines of force" which come from infinity and terminate in a mass m is proportional to the mass m. K, on the average, the mass-den- sity po is constant throughout the imiverse, then a sphere of volume V will enclose the average mass poF. Thus the number of lines of force passing through the surface F of the sphere into its interior is proportional to poK. For vmit area of the surface of the sphere the nurlber of lines of force which enters the sphere is thus proportional V to popOT to peR. Hence the intensity of the field at the surface would ultimately become infinite with increasing radius R of the sphere, which is impossible. NEWTON'S THEORY 127 In order to escape this dilemma, Seeliger sug- gested a modification of Newton's law, in which he assumes that for great distances the force of attraction between two masses diminishes more rapidly than would result from the inverse square law. In this way it is possible for the mean density of matter to be constant everywhere, even to infinity, without infinitely large gravitational fields being produced. We thus free ourselves from the distasteful conception, that the material universe ought to possess something of the nature of a centre. Of course we purchase our.emancipa- tionjfcom the fimdamental difficulties mentioned, at the cost of a^modification-and-comphcatign of Newton's law which has neither empirical nor theoretical foimdation. We can imagine innum- erable laws which would serve the same piupose, without our being able to state a reason why one of them is to be preferred to the others; for any one of these laws would be foimded just as little on more general theoretical principles as is the law of Newton. XXXI THE POSSIBILITY OF A "FINITE" AND YET "UNBOUNDED" UNIVERSE BUT speculations on the structure of the universe also move in quite another direc- tion. The development of non-Euclidean geometry led to the recognition of the fact, that we can cast doubt on the infiniteness of our space without coming into conflict with the laws of thought or with experience (Riemann, Hehnholtz). These questions have already been treated in detail and with unsurpassable lucidity by Helmholtz and Poincare, whereas I can only touch on them briefly here. In the first place, we imagiae an existence in two-dimensional space. Flat beings with flat implements, and in particular flat rigid measuring- rods, are free to move in a plane. For them nothing exists outside of this plane: that which they observe to happen to themselves and to their flat "things" is the aU-rnclusive reaUty of their plane. In particular, the constructions of plane Euclidean geometry can be carried out by means of the rods, e.g. the lattice construction, con- M8 UNIVERSE — FINITE YET UNBOUNDED 129 sidered in Section XXIV. In contrast to ours, the universe of these beings is two-dimensional; but, Uke ours, it extends to infinity. In their universe there is room for an infinite number of identical squares made up of rods, i.e. its volume (surface) is infinite. If these beings say their universe is "plane," there is sense in the state- ment, because they mean that they can perform the constructions of plane Euclidean geometry with their rods. In this cormection the indi- vidual rods always represent the same distance, independently of their position. Let us consider now a second two-dimensional existence, but this time on a spherical sxirface instead of on a plane. The flat beings with their measuring-rods and other objects fit exactly on this surface and they are imable to leave it. Their whole universe of observation extends exclusively over the surface of the sphere. Are these beings able to regard the geometry of their universe as being plane geometry and their rods withal as the realisation of "distance"? They cannot do this. For if they attempt to realise a straight line, they will obtain a curve, which we "three- dimensional beings" designate as a great circle, i.e. a self-contained line of definite finite length, which can be measured up by means of a measur- ing-rod. Similarly, this universe has a finite area, that can be compared with the area of a 130 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE square constructed with rods. Th e great cha rm resulting^^from iiris^-consideration ji es in the recognition oljlie^facl-tliat the universe_j;^.Jhes€-~ b^ngsJs^mte'and'yethasno limits. But the spherical-surface beings do not need to go on a world-tour in order to perceive that they are not living in a EucUdean universe. They can convince themselves of this on every part of their "world," provided they do not use too small a piece of it. Starting from a point, they draw "straight lines" (arcs of circles as judged in three-dimensional space) of equal length in aU directions. They wiU call the line joining the free ends of these lines a "circle." For a plane surface, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, both lengths being measvu-ed with the same rod, is, according to Euclidean geometry of the plane, equal to a constant value ir, which is independent of the diameter of the circle. On their spherical smrface our flat beings would find for this ratio the value sin IT © (i) i.e. a smaller value than ir, the difference being the more considerable, the greater is the radius of the circle in comparison with the radius R of the "world-sphere." By means of this relation UNIVERSE— FINITE YET UNBOUNDED 131 the spherical bemgs can determine the radius of their universe ("world"), even when only a relatively small part of their world-sphere is available for their measurements. But if this part is very small indeed, they will no longer be able to demonstrate that they are on a spherical "world" and not on a EucUdean plane, for a small part of a spherical surface differs only sUghtly from a piece of a plane of the same size. Thus if the spherical-surface beings are living on a planet of which the solar system occupies only a negligibly small part of the spherical universe, they have no means of determining whether they are Uving in a finite or in an infinite universe, because the "piece of universe" to which they have access is in both cases prac- tically plane, or Euclidean. It follows directly from this discussion, that for our sphere-beings the circimaference of a circle first increases with the radius until the "circumference of the uni- verse" is reached, and that it thenceforward gradually decreases to zero for still further in- creasing values of the radius. During this process the area of the circle continues to increase more and more, until finally it becomes equal to the total area of the whole "world-sphere." Perhaps the reader will wonder why we have placed our "beings" on a sphere rather than on another closed surface. But this choice has its 132 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE justification in the fact that, of all closed sur- faces, the sphere is unique in possessing the property that all points on it are equivalent. I admit that the ratio of the circumference c of a circle to its radius r depends on r, but for a given value of r it is the same for all points of the "world-sphere"; in other words, the "world- sphere" is a "surface of constant curvature." To this two-dimensional sphere-universe there is *a three-dimensional analogy, namely, the three-dimensional spherical space which was dis- covered by Riemann. Its points are likewise all equivalent. It possesses a finite volxmie, which is determined by its "radius" (sTr^'i?'). Is it pos- sible to imagine a spherical space? To imagine a space means nothing else than that we imagine an epitome of ovx "space" experience, i.e. of experience that we can have in the movement of "rigid" bodies. In this sense we can imagine a spherical space. Suppose we draw lines or stretch strings in aU directions from a point, and mark oS from each of these the distance r with a measuring-rod. AU the free end-points of these lengths he on a spherical surface. We can specially measure up the area (F) of this surface by means of a square made up of measuring-rods. If the universe is Euclidean, then F= /\.'irr^; if it is spherical, then F is always less than 47rr^. With increasing values UNIVERSE— FINITE YET UNBOUNDED 133 of r, F increases from zero up to a maximum value which is determined by the "world-radius," but for still further increasing values of r, the area gradually diminishes to zero. At first, the straight lines which radiate from the starting point diverge farther and farther from one another, but later they approach each other, and finally they run together again at a "counter-point" to the start- ing point. Under such conditions they have traversed the whole spherical space. It is easily seen that the three-dimensional spherical space is quite analogous to the two-dimensional spherical surface. It is finite {i.e. of finite volume), and has no bounds. It may be mentioned that there is yet another kind of curved space: "eUiptical space." It can be regarded as a curved space in which the two " coimter-points " are identical (indistinguishable from each other). An elliptical imiverse can thus be considered to some extent as a curved universe possessing central symmetry. It follows from what has been said, that closed spaces without limits are conceivable. From amongst-these, the spherical space (and the el- liptical) excels in its simplicity, since all points on it are_equivalent. As a result of this discussion, a most interesting question arises for astronomers and physicists, and that is whether the universe in which we live is infinite, or whether it is finite 134 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE UNIVEBSE in the maimer of the spherical universe. Our ex- perience is far from being sufficient to enable us to answer this question. But the general theory of relativity permits of our answering it with a moderate degree of certainty, and ia this con- nection the difficulty mentioned in Section XXX finds its solution. xxxn THE STRUCTURE OF SPACE ACCORDING TO THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY ACCORDING to the general theory of relativity, the geometrical properties of space are not independent, but they are determined by matter. Thus we can draw con- clusions about the geometrical structure of the tmiverse only if we base our considerations on the state of the matter as being something that is known. We know from experience that, for a suitably chosen co-ordinate system, the velocities of the stars are small as compared with the velocity of transmission of light. We can thus as a rough approximation arrive at a conclusion as to the nature of the universe as a whole, if we treat the matter as being at rest. We aheady know from our previous discussion that the behaviour of measuring-rods and clocks is influenced by gravitational fields, i.e. by the distribution of matter. This in itself is sufficient to exclude the possibility of the exact vaUdity of Euclidean geometry in our universe. But it is conceivable that our imiverse diEEers only slightly 135 136 CONSroERATIONS ON THE UNIVERSE from a Euclidean one, and this notion seems all the more probable, since calculations show that the metrics of surrounding space is influenced only to an exceedingly small extent by masses even of the magnitude of our sun. We might imagine that, as regards geometry, our imiverse behaves analogously to a surface which is ir- regularly curved in its individual parts, but which nowhere departs appreciably from a plane: some- thing like the rippled surface of a lake. Such a universe might fittingly be called a quasi-Eu- clidean imiverse. As regards its space it would be infinite. But calculation shows that in a quasi-Euclidean imiverse the average density of matter would necessarily be nil. Thus such a universe could not be inhabited by matter every- where; it would present to us that imsatisfactory picture which we portrayed in Section XXX. If we are to have in the universe an average density of matter which differs from zero, how- ever small may be that difference, then the universe cannot be quasi-Euclidean. On the con- trary, the results of calculation indicate that if matter be distributed tmiformly, the imiverse would necessarily be spherical (or elliptical). Since in reality the detailed distribution of matter is not uniform, the real imiverse will deviate in individual parts from the spherical, i.e. the uni- verse will be quasi-spherical. But it wiU be THE STRUCTURE OF SPACE 137 necessarily finite. In fact, the theory suppHes us with a simple connection ' between the space- expanse of the universe and the average density of matter in it. '■ For the "radius" R of the universe we obtain the equation Kp 2 The use of the C.G.S. system in this equation gives - = i-oS.io^'; p is the average density of the matter. APPENDIX I SIMPLE DERIVATION OF THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION [Supplementary to Sec- tion XI] FOR the relative orientation of the co-ordi- nate systems indicated in Fig. 2, the aj-axes of both systems permanently co- incide. In the present case we can di\dde the problem into parts by considering first only events which are locaUsed on the a;-axis. Any such event is represented with respect to the co- ordinate system K by the abscissa x and the time t, and with respect to the system K' by the abscissa x' and the time t'. We require to find x' and /' when x and t are given. A light-signal, which is proceeding along the positive axis of x, is transmitted according to the equation x = ct or X- ct = O (l). Since the same light-signal has to be transmitted relative to K' with the velocity c, the propagation ISO 140 APPENDIX I relative to the system K' will be represented by the analogous formula x' -d = o (2). Those space-time points (events) which satisfy (i) must also satisfy (2). Obviously this wiU be the case when the relation {x'-ct')=\{x-ct) (3) is fulfilled in general, where X indicates a con- stant; for, according to (3), the disappearance of {x — ct) involves the disappearance of (a;' — ct'). If we apply quite similar considerations to light rays which are being transmitted along the negative a;-axis, we obtain the condition {x' + ct^ =fi(x + ct) (4). By adding (or subtracting) equations (3) and (4), and introducing for convenience the constants a and b in place of the constants X and n where X + M a = 2 we obtain the equations x' = ax — bct\ ^» cf = act-bxi «^- We should thus have the solution of our prob- lem, if the constants a and b were known. These result from the following discussion. For the origin of K' we have permanently x' = o, and hence according to the first of the equations (5) THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 141 he X = —t. a If we call V the velocity with which the origin of K' is moviag relative to K, we then have "1 w- The same value v can be obtained from equa- tion (5), if we calculate the velocity of another point of K' relative to K, or the velocity (di- rected towards the negative a;-axis) of a point of K with respect to K\ In short, we can designate V as the relative velocity of the two systems. Furthermore, the principle of relativity teaches us that, as judged from K, the length of a imit measuring-rod which is at rest with reference to K' must be exactly the same as the length, as judged from K', of a imit measuring-rod which is at rest relative to K. In order to see how the points of the x'-axis appear as viewed from K, we only require to take a "snapshot" of K' from K; this means that we have to insert a particular value of t (time of K), e.g. / = o. For this value of / we then obtain from the first of the equations (5) x' = ax. Two points of the x'-axis which are separated by the distance Ax' = 1 when measured in the K' system are thus separated in our instantaneous photograph by the distance Aa; = ^ (7). 14S APPENDIX I But if the snapshot be taken from K'^f^o), and if we eliminate t from the equations (5), taking into account the expression (6), we obtain From this we conclude that two points on the a;-axis and separated by the distance i (relative to K) will be represented on our snapshot by the distance Aio'-=a(i--^ (7fl). But from what has been said, the two snap- shots must be identical; hence A* in (7) must be equal to Aa;' in (7a), so that we obtain a^ = -^, • . (76). The equations (6) and (7&) determine the con- stants a and b. By inserting the values of these constants in (5), we obtain the first and the fourth of the equations given in Section XI. 0/-= f~ X - ■vt ^ t- V ^ v' (8). THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 143 Thus we have obtained the Lorentz trans- formation for events on the aj-axis. It satisfies the condition a;'2 _ cV2 = a;2 - c«^ (8a). The extension of this result, to include events which take place outside the a;-axis, is obtained by retaining equations (8) and supplementing them by the relations i:i] w- In this way we satisfy the postulate of the con- stancy of the velocity of light in vacuo for rays of Hght of arbitrary direction, both for the system K and for the system K'. This may be shown in the following manner. We suppose a light-signal sent out from the origin of iT at the time t= o. It will be propa- gated according to the equation r = -s/x^ + y^ + z' => ct, or, if we square this equation, according to the equation s? + f + z*-c*^~o (lo). It is required by the law of propagation of light, in conjimction with the postulate of relativity, that the transmission of the signal in question should take place — as judged from K' — in accordance with the corresponding formula / = d' or, a/2 4- y'« + s'2 _ CV« = O .... (lOffl). 144 APPENDIX I In order that equation (loo) may be a consequence of equation (lo), we must have *'« + y"' + z'" - c^/'' = ffCr! + ys + z« - c«^) (ii). Since equation (8a) must hold for points on the jc-axis, we thus have a = i. It is easily seen that the Lorentz transformation really satisfies equation (ii) for o-= i; for (ii) is a consequence of (8a) and (9), and hence also of (8) and (9). We have thus derived the Lorentz transformation. The Lorentz transformation represented by (8) and (9) stiU requires to be generaUsed. Ob- viously it is immaterial whether the axes of K' be chosen so that they are spatially parallel to those of K. It is also not essential that the velocity of translation of K' with respect to K should be in the direction of the a;-axis. A simple consideration shows that we are able to construct the Lorentz transformation in this general sense from two kinds of transformations, viz. from Lorentz transformations in the special sense and from purely spatial transformations, which cor- responds to the replacement of the rectangular co-ordinate system by a new system with its axes pointing in other directions. Mathematically, we can characterise the gen- eralised Lorentz transformation thus: It expresses x', y', z' , t', in terms of linear homogeneous functions of x, y, z, t, of such a kind that the relation THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 145 is satisfied identically. That is to say: If we substitute their expressions in x, y, z, t, in place of x', y', z', t', on the left-hand side, then the left- hand side of (no) agrees with the right-hand side. APPENDIX II MINKOWSKI'S FOUR — DIMENSIONAL SPACE ("WORLD") [Supplementary to Section XVII] WE can characterise the Lorentz trans- formation still more simply if we in- troduce the imaginary V — i. ct in place of t, as time-variable. If, in accordance with this, we insert Xi " y xz " z Xi - V— i.d, and similarly for the accented system K', then the condition which is identically satisfied by the transformation can be expressed thus: xi'^ + %'" + x»'^ + ««'« - Xi' + xa^ + x^ + x^. (12). That is, by the afore-mentioned choice of "co- ordinates " (iia) is transformed into this equation. We see from (12) that the imaginary time co- ordinate Xi enters into the condition of trans- formation in exactly the same way as the space co-ordinates Xi, %, Xz. It is due to this fact that, according to the theory of relativity, the "time" 116 FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE 147 Xi enters into natural laws in the same fonn as the space co-ordinates Xi, x^, x^. A four-dimensional continuum described by the "co-ordinates" Xi, %, x^, Xi, was called "world" by Minkowski, who also termed a point-event a "world-point." From a "happening" in three- dimensional space, physics becomes, as it were, an "existence" in the four-dimensional "world." This four-dimensional "world" bears a close similarity to the three-dimensional "space" of (Euclidean) analytical geometry. If we intro- duce into the latter a new Cartesian co-ordinate system {x\, x'2, x'3) with the same origin, then x\, x'z, x'z, are linear homogeneous functions of Xi, Xi, Xs, which identically satisfy the equation Xi'^ + Xi'^ + JCs" = Xi^ + X2^ + xi. The analogy with (12) is a complete one. We can regard Minkowski's "world" in a formal manner as a four-dimensional EucUdean space (with imaginary time co-ordinate); the Lorentz transformation corresponds to a "rotation" of the co-ordinate system in the four-dimensional "world." APPENDIX III THE EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY FROM a systematic theoretical point of view, we may imagine the process of evolution of an empirical science to be a continuous process of induction. Theories are evolved, and are expressed in short compass as statements of a large number of individual ob- servations in the form of empirical laws, from which the general laws can be ascertained by comparison. Regarded in this way, the develop- ment of a science bears some resemblance to the compilation of a classified catalogue. It is, as it were, a purely empirical enterprise. But this point of view by no means embraces the whole of the actual process; for it slurs over the important part played by intuition and deductive thought in the development of an exact science. As soon as a science has emerged from its initial stages, theoretical advances are no longer achieved merely by a process of arrange- ment. Guided by empirical data, the investigator rather develops a system of thought which, in 148 EXPERIMENTAL CONTffiMATION 149 general, is built up logically from a small number of fundamental assumptions, the so-called axioms. We call such a system of thought a theory. The theory finds the justification for its existence in the fact that it correlates a large number of single observations, and it is just here that the "truth" of the theory hes. Corresponding to the same complex of empirical data, there may be several theories, which differ from one another to a considerable extent. But as regards the deductions from the theories which are capable of being tested, the agreement be- tween the theories may be so complete, that it becomes difficult to fiind such deductions in which the two theories differ from each other. As an example, a case of general interest is available in the province of biology, in the Darwinian theory of the development of species by selection in the struggle for existence, and in the theory of development which is based on the hypothesis of the hereditary transmission of acquired char- acters. We have another instance of far-reaching agreement between the deductions from two theories in Newtonian mechanics on the one hand, and the general theory of relativity on the other. This agreement goes so far, that up to the present we have been able to find only a few deductions from the general theory of relativity which are 150 APPENDIX in capable of investigation, and to which the physics of pre-relativity days does not also lead, and this despite the profound difference in the funda- mental assumptions of the two theories. In what foUows, we shall again consider these im- portant deductions, and we shall also discuss the empirical evidence appertaining to them which has hitherto been obtained. (a) Motion of the Perihelion of Mercury According to Newtonian mechanics and New- ton's law of gravitation, a planet which is revolving round the sim would describe an ellipse round the latter, or, more correctly, round the common centre of gravity of the sun and the planet. In such a system, the svm, or the common centre of gravity, Ues in one of the foci of the orbital ellipse in such a manner that, in the course of a planet- year, the distance sun-planet grows from a mini- mxmi to a maximum, and then decreases again to a rrii riiTmnn . If instead of Newton's law we insert a somewhat different law of attraction into the calculation, we find that, according to this new law, the motion would still take place in such a manner that the distance sim-planet exhibits periodic variations; but in this case the angle described by the line joining sun and planet during such a period (from perihelion — closest EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION 151 proximity to the sun — to perihelion) would differ from 360°. The line of the orbit would not then be a closed one, but in the course of time it would fiU up an annular part of the orbital plane, viz. between the circle of least and the circle of greatest distance of the planet from the sun. According also to the general theory of relativity, which differs of course from the theory of Newton, a small variation from the Newton-Kepler mo- tion of a planet in its orbit should take place, and in such a way, that the angle described by the radius sun-planet between one perihehon and the next should exceed that corresponding to one complete revolution by an amount given by {N.B. — One complete revolution corresponds to the angle 2 tt in the absolute angular measure customary in physics, and the above expression gives the amount by which the radius sun-planet exceeds this angle during the interval between one perihehon and the next.) In this expression a represents the major semi-axis of the eUipse, e its eccentricity, c the velocity of Hght, and T the period of revolution of the planet. Our result may also be stated as follows: According to the general theory of relativity, the major axis of the ellipse rotates roimd the sun in the same 152 APPENDIX III sense as the orbital motion of the planet. Theory requires that this rotation shoiild amount to 43 seconds of arc per century for the planet Mercury, but for the other planets of our solar system its magnitude should be so small that it would necessarily escape detection.^ In point of fact, astronomers have foimd that the theory of Newton does not suffice to cal- culate the observed motion of Mercury with an exactness corresponding to that of the delicacy of observation attainable at the present time. After taking account of all the disturbing in- fluences exerted on Mercury by the remaining planets, it was foimd (Leverrier — 1859 — ^^d Newcomb — 1895) that an vinexplained periheUal movement of the orbit of Mercury remained over, the amount of which does not differ sensibly from the above-mentioned + 43 seconds of arc per century. The uncertainty of the empirical result amounts to a few seconds only. (b) Deflection of Light Sy a Gravitational Field In Section XXII it has been aheady mentioned that, according to the general theory of relativity, a ray of light wiU experience a curvature of its * Especially since the next planet Venus has an orbit that is almost an exact circle, which makes it more difficult to locate the perihelion with precision. EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION 153 path when passing through a gravitational field, this curvature being similar to that experienced by the path of a body which is projected through a gravitational field. As a result of this theory, we should expect that a ray of light which is passing close to a heavenly body would be deviated towards the latter. For a ray of fight which passes the sun at a distance of A sun-radii from its centre, the angle of deflection (a) should amoimt to I • 7 seconds of arc a ^ It may be added that, according to the theory, half of this deflection is produced by the New- tonian field of attraction of the sun, and the other half by the } geometrical modification ("curva- i • ture ") of space caused by the sun. / This result admits of an experi- / / mental test by means of the /-^^'' photographic registration of stars 7/ during a total eclipse of the sxm. ^//Dj, The only reason why we must /' wait for a total ecHpse is because ^ at every other time the atmos- Ym. $. phere is so strongly illvmiinated by the light from the sim that the stars situated near the sun's disc are invisible. The predicted effect can be seen clearly from the accompanying 154 APPENDIX III diagram. If the sun (5) were not present, a star which is practically iir&nitely distant would be seen in the direction A, as observed from the earth. But as a consequence of the deflection of light from the star by the sim, the star will be seen in the direction A, i.e. at a somewhat greater distance from the centre of the sim than corre- sponds to its real position. In practice, the question is tested in the fol- lowing way. The stars in the neighbourhood of the sun are photographed during a solar ecUpse. In addition, a second photograph of the same stars is taken when the sun is situated at another position in the sky, i.e. a few months earlier or later. As compared with the standard photograph, the positions of the stars on the eclipse-photograph ought to appear displaced radially outwards (away from the centre of the sun) by an amount corresponding to the angle a. We are indebted to the Royal Society and to the Royal Astronomical Society for the investiga- tion of this important deduction. Undaunted by the war and by difficulties of both a material and a psychological nature aroused by the war, these societies equipped two expeditions — to Sobral (Brazil) and to the island of Principe (West Africa) — and sent several of Britain's most celebrated astronomers (Eddington, Cotting- ham, Crommelin, Davidson), in order to obtain i EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION 155 photographs of the solar eclipse of 29th May, 1919. The relative discrepancies to be expected between the stellar photographs obtained during the eclipse and the comparison photographs amounted to a few hundredths of a millimetre only. Thus great accuracy was necessary in making the adjustments required for the taking of the photographs, and in their subsequent measurement. The results of the measurements confirmed the theory in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. The rectangular components of the observed and of the calculated deviations of the stars (in seconds of arc) are set forth in the following table of results: Number of the First Co-ordinate. Second Co-ordinate. Star. ' ^ Observed Calculated. Observed. Calculated. II — 0-19 — 0-22 -f o-i6 + 0-02 5 • + 0-29 + 0-31 — 0-46 -0-43 4 . + 0-II + O-IO + 0-83 + 0-74 3 • + 0-20 + 0-I2 + I-OO + 0-87 6 . + 0-I0 + 0-04 + 0-57 -t- 0-40 10 -o-o8 + 0-09 + 0-3S + 0-32 2 + 0-9S + 0-85 — 0-27 — 0-09 (c) Displacement or Spectral Lines TOWABDS the ReD In Section XXIII it has been shown that in a system K' which is in rotation with regard to a Galileian system K, clocks of identical construe- 156 APPENDIX III tion, and which are considered at rest with respect to the rotating reference-body, go at rates which are dependent on the positions of the clocks. We shall now examine this dependence quantitatively. A clock, which is situated at a distance r from the^ centre of the disc, has a velocity relative to K which is given by where ci> represents the angular velocity of rotation of the disc Z' with respect XaK. If I'o represents the number of ticks of the clock per imit time ("rate" of the clock) relative to K when the clock is at rest, then the "rate" of the clock iy) when it is moving relative to K with a velocity v, but at rest with respect to the disc, will, in accordance with Section XII, be given by or with sufficient accuracy by This expression may also be stated in the fol- lowing form: If we represent the difference of potential of the centrifugal force between the position of the clock and the centre of the disc by <^, i.e. the work, EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATIOM 167 considered negatively, which must be performed on the unit of mass against the centrifugal force in order to transport it from the position of the clock on the rotating disc to the centre of the disc, then we have = -—■ From this it follows that In the first place, we see from this expression that two clocks of identical construction will go at different rates when situated at different distances from the centre of the disc. This result is also valid from the standpoint of an observer who is rotating with the disc. Now, as judged from the disc, the latter is in a gravitational field of potential <[>, hence the result we have obtained will hold quite generally for gravitational fields. Furthermore, we can regard an atom which is emitting spectral lines as a clock, so that the following statement will hold: An atom absorbs or emits light of a frequency which is dependent on the potential of the gravita- tional field in which it is situated. The frequency of an atom situated on the surface of a heavenly body will be somewhat less than the frequency of an atom of the same 158 APPENDIX in element which is situated in free space (or on the surface of a smaller celestial body). M Now 4>= - K—, where K is Newton's constant of gravitation, and M is the mass of the heavenly body. Thus a displacement towards the red ought to take place for spectral lines produced at the surface of stars as compared with the spectral lines of the same element produced at the surface of the earth, the amoimt of this displacement being Va-v KM Vo ^ r For the sun, the displacement towards the red predicted by theory amotmts to about two mil- lionths of the wave-length. A trustworthy cal- culation is not possible in the case of the stars, because in general neither the mass M nor the radius r is known. ^ It is an open question whether or not this effect exists, and at the present time astronomers are working with great zeal towards the solution. Owing to the smaUness of the effect in the case of the sun, it is difficult to form an opinion as to its existence. Whereas Grebe and Bachem (Bonn), as a result of their own measurements and those of Evershed and Schwarzschild on the cyanogen bands, have placed the existence of the effect almost beyond doubt, other investigators, par- EXPERIMENTAL COlSnPIEMATION 159 ticularly St. John, have been led to the opposite opinion in consequence of their measurements. Mean displacements of lines towards the less refrangible end of the spectrum are certainly revealed by statistical investigations of the fixed stars; but up to the present the examination of the available data does not aUow of any definite decision being arrived at, as to whether or not these displacements are to be referred in reaUty to the effect of gravitation. The results of ob- servation have been collected together, and dis- cussed in detail from the standpoint of the ques- tion which has been engaging our attention here, in a paper by E. Fretmdlich entitled "Zur Priifung der aUgemeinen Relativitats-Theorie" (Die Na- turwissenschaften, 1919, No. 35, p. 520: Julius Springer, Berlin). At aU events, a definite decision will be reached during the next few years. If the displacement of spectral lines towards the red by the gravita- tional potential does not exist, then the general theory of relativity will be untenable. On the other hand, if the cause of the displacement of spectral lines be definitely traced to the gravita- tional potential, then the study of this displace- ment will furnish us with important information as to the mass of the heavenly bodies. BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS IN ENGLISH ON EINSTEIN'S THEORY Introductory The Foundations of Einstein's Theory of Gravitation: Erwin Freund- lich (translation by H. L. Brose). Camb. Univ. Press, 1920. Space and Time in Contemporary Physics: Moritz Schlick (trans- lation by H. L. Brose). Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1920. The Special Theory The Principle of Relativity: E. Cunningham. Camb. Univ. Press. Relativity and the Electron Theory: E. Cunningham, Monographs on Physics. Longmans, Green & Co. The Theory of Relativity: L. Silberstein. Macmillan & Co. The Space-Time Manifold of Relativity: E. B. Wilson and G. N. Lewis, Proc. Amer. Soc. Arts ir Science, vol. xlviii.. No. 11, 1912. The Generai. Theory Report on the Relativity Theory of Gravitation: A. S. Eddington. Fleetway Press Ltd., Fleet Street, London. On Einstein's Theory of Gravitation and its Astronomical Consequences: W. de Sitter, M. N. Roy. Astron. Soc, Ixxvi. p. 699, 1916; Ixxvii. p. IS5, 1916; kxviii. p. 3, 1917. On Einstein's Theory of Gravitation: H. A. Lorentz, Proc. Amsterdam Acad., vol. xix. p. 1341, 1917. Space, Time and Gravitation: W. de Sitter: The Observatory, No. $05, p. 4r2. Taylor & Francis, Fleet Street, London. 161 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY The Total EcUpse of sgth May igig, and the Influence of Gravitation on Light; A. S. Eddlngton, iMd., March, 1919. Discussion on the Theory of Relativity: M. N. Roy. Astron. Sac, vol. kxx., No. 2., p. 96, December 1919. The Displacement of Spectrum Lines and the Equivalence Hypothesis: W. G. Duffield, M. N. Roy. Astron. Soc, vol. Ixxx.; No. 3, p. 262, 1920. Space, Time and Gravitation: A. S. Eddington. Camb. Univ. Press, 1920. Also, Chapters in ' The Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism: J. H. Jeans (4th edition). Camb. Univ. Press, 1920. The Electron Theory of Matter: O. W. Richardson. Camb. Univ. Press. INDEX INDEX Aberration, S9 Absorption of energy, 54 Acceleration, 76, 78, 83 Action at a distance, 57 Addition of velocities, 19, 46 Adjacent points, 105 Aether, 62 drift, 62, 63 Arbitrary substitutions, 116 Astronomy, 8, 121 Astronomical day, is Axioms, 2, 149 — truth of, 2 Bachem, 158 Basis of theory, 52 " Being," 78, 128 ^-rays, 59 Biology, 149 Cartesian system of co-ordi- nates, 7, 100, 147 Cathode rays, 59 Celestial mechanics, 125 Centrifugal force, 94, 156 Chest, 78 Classical mechanics, 9, 13, 16, 20, 36, 52, 84, 121, 123, '150 — truth of, IS Clocks, II, 28, 9S, 96, 112, 114, 117-120, 121, 13s, iss — rate of, 156 Conception of mass, 54 — position, 6 Conservation of energy, 54, 121 — impulse, 121 — mass, 54, 56 Continuity, 113 Continumn, 65, 98 Continuum, two-dimensional, 112 — three-dimensional, 67 — four-dimensional, 106, 108, 109, 112, 147 — space-time, 93, 108-114 — Euclidean, 99, loi, 104, no — non-Euclidean, 102, 107 Co-ordinate diflEerences, 109 — differentials, 109 — planes, 38 Cottingham, 154 Counter-point, 133 Co-variant, 51 Crommelin, 154 Curvature of light-rays, 124, 152 — space, 153 Curvilinear motion, 88 Cyanogen bands, 158 Darwinian theory, 149 Davidson, 154 Deductive thought, 148 Derivation of laws, 52 165 166 INDEX De Sitter, 21 Displacement of spectral Unes, 124, iSS Distance (line-interval), 3, 5, 8, 34, 3S. 99, 104, 129 — physical interpretation of, 5 — relativity of, 34 Doppler principle, 59 Double stars, 21 Eclipse of star, 21 Eddington, 124, 154 Electricity, 90 Electrodynamics, 15, 24, 48, 52, 90 Electromagnetic theory, 58 — waves, 75 Electron, 52, 60 — electrical masses of, 60 Electrostatics, go Elliptical space, 133 Empirical laws, 148 Encounter (space-time coin- cidence), 113 Equivalent, 16 Euclidean geometry, i, 2, 68, 97, loi, 104, 128, 129, 13s, 147 propositions of, 3, 8 — space, 68, 102, 147 Evershed, 158 Experience, S9, 70 Faraday, 56, 74 FitzGerald, 63 Fixed stars, 12 Fizeau, 46, 58, 61 Fizeau, experiment of, 46 Frequency of atom, 157 Galilei, 12 — transformation, 40, 43, 45, SO, 61 GalHeian system of co-ordi- nates, 13, 15, 17, 54, 93, 108, 116, 119 Gauss, 102, 103, 106 Gaussian co-ordinates, 103- 105, 112, ii4-ri8 General theory of relativity, 69-124, IIS Geometrical ideas, 2, 3 — propositions, i truth of, 2-4 Gravitation, 75, 82, 92, 121 Gravitational field, 75, 79, 87, 91, III, 116, 119, 120, 136 potential of, 157 — mass, 76, 81, 121 Grebe, 158 Group-density of stars, 126 Helmholtz, 128 Heuristic value of relativity, SO Induction, 148, 149 Inertia, 77 Inertial mass, 55, 76, 81, 120, 121 Instantaneous photograph (snapshot), 141 Intensity of gravitational field, 127 INDEX 167 Intuition, 148 Ions, S3 Kepler, 152 Kinetic energy, S3i 121 Lattice, 128 Laws of Galilei-Newton, 15 Law of inertia, 12, 71, 72, 170 Laws of Nature, 70, 84, 118 Leverrier, 123, 152 Light-signal, 40, 139, 143 Light-stimulus, 40 Limiting velocity (c), 43, 44 Lines of force, 126 Lorentz, H. A., 24, 48, 52, 58, 59-63 — transformation, 39, 46, 50, 108, 116, 139, 143, 144, 146 (generalised), 144 Mach, E., 86 Magnetic field, 74 Manifold (.see Continuum) Mass of heavenly bodies, 159 Matter, 120 Maxwell, 49, 52, 56-59, 61 — fundamental equations, 56, 90 Measurement of length, loi Measuring-rod, s, 6, 34, 95, 96, 112, 119, 121, 132, 13s, 141 Mercury, 123, 152 — orbit of, 123, 152 Michelson, 62-64 Minkowski, 65-68, 108, 147 Morley, 63, 64 Motion, 16, 70 — of heavenly bodies, 16, 17, 52, 122, 13s Newcomb, 152 Newton, 12, 86, 122, 126, 150 Newton's constant of gravita- tion, 158 — law of gravitation, 57, 94, 127,149 — law of motion, 76 Non-Euclidean geometry, 128 Non-GalUeian reference- bodies, 117 Non-uniform motion, 72 Optics, IS, 24, 52 Organ-pipe, note of, 17 Parabola, 9, 10 Path-curve, 10 PeriheUon of Mercury, iso- '152 Physics, 8 — of measurement, 7 Place specification, 6 Plane, i, 128, 129 Poincare, 128 Point, I Point-mass, energy of, 54 Position, 9 Principle of relativity, 15-17, 23> 24, 70 Processes of Nature, 50 Propagation of light, 21, 23, 24, 36, 108, 143 in liquid, 47 in gravitational fields, 88 168 INDEX Quasi-Euclidean universe, 136 Quasi-spherical universe, 136 Radiation, 55 Radioactive substances, 59 Reference-body, $, 7, 8-11, 22, 28, 31, 32, 44, 70 rotating, 94 — mollusk, 118-120 Relative position, 3 — velocity, 141 Rest, 17 Riemann, 102, 128, 132 Rotation, 95, 147 Schwarzschild, 158 Seconds-clock, 44 Seeliger, 125, 127 Simultaneity, 26, 29-32, 96 — relativity of, 31 Size-relations, 107 Solar eclipse, 89, 153, 155 Space, 9, 62, 65, 125 — conception of, 24^ Space co-ordinates, 66, 96, 118 Space-interval, 36, 67 — point, 118 Space, two-dimensional, 128 — three-dimensional, 147 Special theory of Relativity, 1-68, 24 Spherical surface, 129 — space, 132, 133 St. John, 159 Stellar universe, 126 — photographs, 153 Straight line, 1-3, 9, 10, 97, los, 129 Sjrstem of co-ordinates, Si 10, II Terrestrial space, 18 Theory, 148 — truth of, 149 Three-dimensional, 65 Time, conception of, 24, 61, 125 — co-ordinate, 66, 118 — in Physics, 26, 117, 146 — of an event, 28, 32 interval, 36, 67 Trajectory, 10 " Truth," 2 Uniform translation, 14, 69 Universe (World) , structure of, 128, 13s — circumference of, 131 Universe, elliptical, 133, 136 — Euclidean, 130, 132 — space expanse (radius) of, 137 — spherical, 132, 136 Value of ir, 97, 130 Velocity of light, 11, 21, 22, 89. 143 Venus, 152 Weight (heaviness), 77 World, 65, 66, 130, 147 World-point, 147 radius, 133 sphere, 130, 131 Zeeman, 48