&tate College of Agriculture at Cornell Mnibersttp Sibaca, M. §. ILibrarp THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924055334290 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES BY CHARLES V. PIPER AGROSTOLOGIST, tJNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND RUSSELL A. OAKLEY AGRONOMIST, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE jHeto gorfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1923 All rigktsreserved COFVKIGHT, X917, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1917. M'arbiaati ^ress J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE The remarkable development of golf in the United States within the past decade has led to an insistent demand for more knowledge in the art of growing grass turf. For golf purposes there is required a much finer type of turf than for lawns and greenswards, so that the knowledge gained in reference to lawn-making has been inadequate to meet the situation. As a result of this ignorance, there has been a great waste of effort and money by golf clubs, amounting in the aggregate to an enormous sum. ■ At first sight the growing of a piece of fine turf seems to be a simple matter, and this has misled many persons to underestimate woefully the difficulties to be overcome. Even to grow a good lawn is usually a matter of much care and considerable skill. One can obtain a fair index of the ease or difficulty in growing good turf by the lawns in each locality. Where these are generally poor, turf-growing is sure to be no easy problem. Too often reliance is put largely in fertilizers or in seed mixtures, vi PREFACE without the realization that either of these, however meri- torious it may be, is but one of many factors requisite for success. It must be admitted frankly that our knowl- edge of fine turf-culture is yet far from adequate, but if what is known is utilized intelligently, much needless waste of effort and money may be avoided. Indeed, in many cases there is positive knowledge that certain meth- ods are not desirable in attempting to grow turf, while it may be less clear which one of other methods is most trustworthy. In this treatise on the subject applying especially to American golf courses, the aim of the writers has been to present existing knowledge in as simple and straight- forward manner as possible. On many problems there is yet need of much critical experimentation, and until this is accomplished, there will continue to be doubt as to the best methods. The authors desire to express their heartiest thanks to the officials of the United States Golf Association for their encouragement in preparing this treatise, and their assistance in securing its prompt publication. C. V. PIPER, R. A. OAKLEY. Washington, Jan. I, 1917. CONTENTS CHATTXR PAGES I. General View i. The Climatic Relations of Turf Grasses. II. Soils for Turf Grasses 10-27 Soils for Putting-greens — Improving Sandy Soils on Fairways — Improving Clay Soils on Fairways — Acid or Sour Soils — Drainage. III. Fertilizers 28-41 Organic Fertilizers — Bone-meal — Cottonseed- meal — Dried Blood — Hoof-and-horn-meals — Inorganic Fertilizers — Nitrate of Soda — Sulfate of Ammonia — Acid Phosphate — Muriate and Sulfate of Potash — Mixed Fertilizers. IV. Manures, Composts, and Other Humous Materials 42-52 Barnyard Manure — - Powdered Sheep Manure — Mushroom Soil — Compost and Composting — Leaf-mold — Peat — Street Sweepings. V. Lime and Its Use 53-56 VI. The Important Turf Plants 57-102 Kentucky Blue-grass — Annual Blue-grass — Canada Blue-grass — Redtop — Rhode Island Bent — Creeping Bent — Velvet Bent or Brown Bent — Red Fescue — Sheep's Fescue — Hard Fescue — Fine-leaved Fescue — Various-leaved Fescue — Ber- muda-grass — Blue Couch-grass — Carpet-grass — Crested Dogstail — Yellow Oat-grass — Italian Rye- grass — Perennial Rye-grass — Korean Lawn-grass — Manila-grass — Mascarene-grass — Japan Clover — White Clover — Yarrow. vii viii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES VII. How TO Distinguish Different Kinds of Turf . 103-113 Perennial or English Rye-grass — Italian Rye- grass — Kentucky Blue-grass — Annual Blue-grass — Redtop — Creeping Bent — Red Fescue — Fine- leaved Fescue — Sheep's Fescue — Meadow Fescue — Bermuda-grass — Yellow Oat-grass — Carpet- grass — Goose-grass — Pigeon-grass — Crab-grass. VIII. The Turf Grasses for Different Purposes. . 114-132 Grasses for Putting-greens — Creeping Bent — Rhode Island Bent — Red Fescue — Bermuda-grass — Mixtures for Putting-greens — Grasses for Fair- ways — Kentucky Blue-grass — Redtop — Rhode Island Bent — Red Fescue — Creeping Bent — White Clover — Bermuda-grass — Carpet-grass — Japan Clover — Italian Rye-grass — Grasses for the Rough. IX. The Making of the Turf 133-^53 Seeding New Greens — Improving Poor Turf — Sodding or Turfing — The Seeds of the Principal Turf Grasses. X. Subsequent Care 154-168 Maintenance of Putting-greens — Fertilizing — Sanding — Rolling — Mowing — Watering — Weed- ing — Reseeding and Patching — Controlling Ani- mal Pests — Seasonal Work on Golf Courses — Fall — Winter — Spring — Summer. XI. Weeds and Their Control 169-184 White Clover — Mouse-ear Chickweed — Yarrow — Sheep Sorrel — Pearlwort — Thyme-leaved Speed- well — Creeping Thyme — Carpenter-weed or Heal-all — Water Pennywort — Ground Ivy — Sela- ginella — Dandelion — Plantain or Rib-grass — Buckhorn — Goose-grass — Pigeon-grass — Crab- grass — Dichondra — Nut-grass or Coco. XII. Animal Pests 185-199 Moles — Field Mice — Pocket Gophers — Earth- worms — Ants — Grubs — Crawfish. CONTENTS IX XIII. Turf Machinery 200-205 Seeders — Spiked Roller — Sprinklers — Rollers — Mowers — Care for Machinery. XIV. Experimental Work on Golf Courses . . . 206-222 Notable Fine Turf Investigations — Olcott's Turf Garden— The Fred W. Taylor Method of Making Putting-greens. XV. Personal Experiences 223-256 Practical Experience in Growing Turf on Golf Courses Near Philadelphia, by Hugh I. Wilson — Experience in Growing Turf on the Course of the Columbia Golf Club near Washington, D.C., by Dr. Walter S. Harban — The Growing of Fine Turf on the Sandy Loam Soil of Long Island for GoWng Purposes, by Charles B. Macdonald. ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 1. Outline map of the United States, showing the approximate northern limit of the area where Bermuda-grass will survive the winter. This line is also near the southern limit of the area in which Creeping Bent will thrive throughout the year ....... 6 2. Kentucky Blue-grass {Poa praiensis) : a, spikelet ; b, floret, showing tuft of hairs at base ..... 59 3. Map showing the areas in which Kentucky Blue-grass thrives best 60 4. Annual Blue-grass (Poa annua) : a, base of leaf, showing ligule ; b, tip of leaf 64 5. Canada Blue-grass {Poa compressd) : a, spikelet; b, a single floret 66 6. Redtop {Agrostis alba) 67 7. Red Fescue {Festuca rubra) : a, top of sheath and base of blade ; b, cross-section of leaf; c, the same as expanded on the upper leaves 77 8. Sheep's Fescue {Festuca ovina) : a, glumes at base of spikelet ; b, spikelet 80 9. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : a, spikelet; b, floret . 84 10. Carpet-grass {Axonopus compressus) .... 89 11. Italian Rye-grass (Lolium multiflorum) .... 92 12. Perennial Rye-grass {Lolium perenne) : a, top of sheath, base of blade, and ligule ; b, cross-section of leaf-bud to show manner of folding 93 13. Korean Lzwn-grass {Zoysia japonica) .... 95 xli ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT FIGUSE PAGE 14. Japan Clover {Les-pedeza striata). A young seedling and the tip of a mature branch -97 15. OutHne map of United States, showing area adapted to Japan Clover; north of the cross-hatched area it does not reseed itself . 99 16. Italian Rye-grass {Lolium multiflorum), showing ligule, tip of leaf, and cross-section of rolled leaf-bud . . . 108 17. Kentucky Blue-grass {Poa pratensis), showing ligule and boat-shaped leaf-tip 108 18. Redtop {Agrostis alba), showing ligule and leaf-tip . . 109 19. Creeping Bent {Agrostis stolonifera), showing ligule and leaf-tip no 20. Sheep's Fescue {Festuca ovina), showing cross-section of leaf-blade, and blunt appendages at tip of sheath both on basal and on stem leaves . . . .110 21. Meadow Fescue {Festuca elatior), showing short ligule, sharp appendages, and tip of leaf-blade in 22. Bermuda-grass {Cynodon dactylon), showing the leaf-tip and the long hairs that replace the ligule . . . .ill 23. Czr-ptt-gTTLSS {Axonopus comfressus). Leaf-tip rounded and ligule a circlet of hairs 112 24. Goose-grass {Eleusine indica), showing ligule and leaf-tip . 112 25. Pigeon-grass {Chcetochloa lutescens), showing hairy blade, ligule or circlet of hairs, and broad leaf with acute tip 113 26. Crab-grass {Syntherisma sanguinalis), showing ligule, and hairy sheath and blade with acute tip . . . -113 27. Meeker harrow, a very useful implement for fining the soil surface just before seeding . . . . . .136 28. Weeder, a useful implement for harrowing the land after the seed is sown 140 29. Toothed roller, useful for scarifying when applying seed or fertilizer in fall 142 30. A good type of machine for scarifying turf when seed is sown or fertilizer applied in fall 143 31. Implement used for cutting sod, also shown in operation in Plate XIII 14s ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT xiii FIODRE 32. Seeds of Redtop representing the "fancy" grade of the trade, a, different views of seeds having the white, papery, inner chaff; b, two views of a grain, or kernel, with the inner chaff removed; c, the same, nearly natural size . . 140 33. Chaff of Redtop seed, a, whole spikelets usually devoid of seed in "chaffy" grades; b, separated scales of the same; a and b represent the outer chaff of the seed. (Enlarged) . . 150 34. Kentucky Blue-grass seeds, c, natural size, the others en- larged; a, side view; b, front view; d, the palet, showing character of margin 151 35. Canada Blue-grass seeds, a, side view; b, front view; d, palet, showing the character of the margin ; c, seeds natural size, the other figures enlarged . . • IJI 36. Seeds of Kentucky Blue-grass, (a) and Canada Blue- grass, {b) all enlarged 152 37. Seeds of Italian Rye-grass, natural size and enlarged. Note the awn or bristle-like tip . . . .152 38. Seeds of Perennial Rye-grass, natural size and enlarged. Note the absence of awn at tip 152 39. Seeds of Bermuda-grass, different views, the figures at / being natural size . . . . . . -153 40. Seeds of Crested Dogstail, natural size and enlarged. They are bright yellow in color 153 41. Pearlwort {Sagina procumbens), troublesome mainly on northern golf courses 175 42. Thyme-leaved speedwell {Veronica serpyllifolia). Often abundant on poorly drained putting-greens . . 176 43. Carpenter-weed {Prunella vulgaris). Common in northern lawns and greens, the seed being a frequent impurity in grass seed 177 44. Water penn}rwort {Hydrocotyle americana), a common turf former in ill-drained soil 178 45. Goose-grass {Eleusine indica), a summer weed frequently invading putting-greens 180 46. Pigeon-grass {Chatochloa lutescens), an annual grass often troublesome as a summer weed in putting-greens . 181 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT FIGUKE PAGE 47. Crab-grass {Syntherisma sanguinalis). This is the worst of all summer weeds, especially in middle latitudes . 182 48. Nut-grass or coco {Cyperus rotundus). A grass-like weed with small tubers, very difficult to eradicate . . 183 49. Mofe traps. Three types that are effective . . . 187 50. Diagrammatic cross-section of the soil layers of a putting- green constructed according to the method most ap- proved by F. W. Taylor 219 PLATES PLATE I. View of a golf course showing the fine quality of turf desired on a putting-green . Frontispiece PACING PAGE II. Upper. Sheep are often used on golf courses in Europe to keep the grass short. The same method could well be used in most northern and western states. Lower. A sample of good muck which makes an ex- cellent top-dressing for turf . . 20 III. Compost. The pile on the left is sod and manure in alternate layers i year old; the dark pile on the right is New Jersey muck. By the use of the machine shown in Plate IV these two may be intimately mixed 46 IV. Upper. Compost pile. This is made up of alternate layers of sod and manure each about 6 inches thick; a small amount of lime is scattered on top of each layer of sod. The pile should be allowed to stand for at least 12 months before using. The horse-drawn machine is for mixing and pulverizing the material. Lower. Rear view of the machine for pulverizing and thoroughly mixing compost materials . 52 V. Rhode Island Bent {Agrostis vulgaris) . . . -70 VI. Turf of Crab-grass and Creeping Bent, natural size. The ball on the former serves to furnish an idea of the relative putting qualities of the two grasses . . . .114 XV xvi PLATES PLATE FACING PAGE VII. Turf of yarrow and white clover, natural size. A ball is located on the former . . . . ri6 VIII. Upper. Cut-in seeder, a useful implement to plant seed in turf. Lower. Sowing seed on a putting-green with a cut-in seeder ....... 120 IX. A general view of the operations in lifting and laying turf 134 X. Lifting turves from an old green after the sod has been cut into lo-inch squares . . . 136 XL Trimming turves to equal thickness. The trimming box is i§ inches deep and the trimming is done with an old scythe blade . . 138 XII. Laying turves on the well-prepared foundation of the Hew putting-green .... 140 XIII. A method of cutting turf on fairways. The implement (see Fig. 31) cuts the turf into strips 10 inches wide and about 2 inches thick . 142 XIV. Chopping fairway turf into approximate squares after it has been cut into strips . . . 146 XV. Distributing turves for laying on a fairway. The operations are rapid, as little care is necessary ...... 148 XVI. Upper. Creeping Bent seed, enlarged. The original sample, upper right, contains many weed seeds. By recleaning the other three grades were obtained, that in the lower left corner being pure. Lower. Seeds of four kinds of fescues used for turf purposes : upper right, fine-leaved fescue ; upper left, various-leaved fescue; lower right, sheep's fescue; lower left, red fescue ....... 150 XVII. Upper. Mouse-ear Chickweed or "Creeping Charley" (Cerasiium vulgatum), natural size, one of the commonest troublesome weeds on putting-greens. The seed is often present as an impurity in fine grass seeds. PLATES xvu PlJlTE FACniO PAGE Lower. Creeping Thyme {Thymus serpyllum), twice natural size. This weed makes a fairly good putting surface but detracts from the beauty of a green . . . -174 XVIII. Dichondra {Dichondra repens), a common weed in the South in lawns and putting-greens. It makes turf of fair quality . . .182 XIX. A view of the Olcott grass turf garden at South Man- chester, Connecticut . . . .212 XX. View of a golf course showing the closely clipped turf on the fairway and on the margins the taller grass of the "rough" . . . 224 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES CHAPTER I General ' View Good grass turf is conditioned by two great fac- tors — climate and soil. The latter can be modi- fied but the former must be accepted as it is. As all of our cultivated turf plants are of Old World origin, the matter of climate has a very direct bear- ing on the behavior of the same grasses in America. Every American who sees the wonderful Blue- grass and Creeping Bent lawns of England marvels how it is done. As a rule he is content to accept the hoary story that has done such veteran service : "First you level it and seed it and water it; then you roll it and roll it and roll it — for about a hun- dred years, and there you are." It's a good story and, like many another good story, has the merit of not being true. At least, as an explanation of the superior turfs of old England, it is not the truth. The examples are few where success has been se- 2 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES cured in the eastern United States in making per- manent turfs comparable to those of England, though there has been time enough if long-con- tinued rolling were the only requisite. As a matter of fact, most American lawns become hopelessly- deteriorated within five or six years in spite of better care than English lawns receive, including abun- dant rolling. There is one region in the United States, however, in which lawns nearly as good as those of England are the rule, namely, Oregon and Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. This region has a climate more nearly approaching that of England than any other part of America, the drier summers constituting the principal difference. One can follow an English treatise on lawns in that region and secure admirable results. Elsewhere in the United States one is apt to score a failure. The basic difficulty in growing really fine turfs in the northern half of the United States lies in the fact that all of the good temperate lawn grasses are native to western Europe and adapted to Euro- pean climatic conditions. Taken to the United States these grasses have to contend with the greater extremes of heat in summer and of cold in winter. Not only does the heat weaken their growth greatly GENERAL VIEW 3 in midsummer, but it also stimulates the growth of summer weed competitors like Crab-grass and Goose- grass, which are practically unknown factors in Europe. In short, the best northern turf grasses require cool temperatures and ample moisture throughout the growing season. Where either of these factors is absent, the grasses fail to do their best. Where they are both present, success is prac- tically certain. On the famous golf course at Nuwara Eliya, in the mountains of Ceylon, it never freezes, but the whole year is cool and moist. The putting-greens are covered with a beautiful turf of Creeping Bent — as fine, indeed, as one may see anywhere. Inasmuch as our climate cannot be changed to suit the grasses, the only practicable thing to do is to make the soil conditions as nearly ideal as possible. It is a well-established principle of plant culture that the more unfavorable the climatic conditions are, the more favorable must all other conditions be to insure success, and grasses are no exception to this rule. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the growing of a fine piece of turf requires as great care and attention to details as does the culture of any other ornamental plant. 4 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Too often a lawn or green is sown without any knowledge of the grasses planted or of their special requirements, and it is only by sad experience that one learns how difficult it is to grow a fine piece of turf. A really good golf course must have fine putting- greens. It is unfortunate that it is rare to find a piece of land sufficiently rough for ideal golf where the soil conditions are also present for perfect putting-greens. Every golfer is familiar with the fact that the sporty golf courses of the country do not possess nearly as good putting-greens as those which have been laid out on approximately level farm lands. Nevertheless, first-class putting-greens can be secured anywhere in the North, provided sufficient attention be given to securing proper soil. This is sometimes a matter involving large expense at the outset, but in the end it is far more satis- factory than to worry along year after year with the handicap of poor turf. It often happens that a golf club has insufficient capital at the outset, and it is impracticable to delay opening the course. This usually involves playing on poor putting-greens, and the club struggles on year after year hoping that the greens will improve. GENERAL VIEW 5 It is a very difficult matter to build up poor greens into good greens, and this can never be done short of several years' time. Every golfer knows from experience how long a poor green will be tolerated when its betterment involves the using of a still poorer temporary green. THE CLIMATIC RELATIONS OF TURF GRASSES Broadly speaking, the United States may be divided into two climatic regions, north and south, so far as a perennial grass turf is concerned. Gener- ally speaking, southern grasses'" are adapted to about the same region as that in which cotton-cul- ture is important, but some thrive only where the winters are warmer, namely, in Florida and along the Gulf Coast. As a matter of detail, every turf grass has definite limitations of its own as indicated in the discussion of each, but the broad climatic requirements of ^northern grasses are much alike, as are also those of southern grasses. The accompanying map (Fig. i) shows approxi- mately the climatic region in which Bermuda-grass will survive the winter and also the region in which Creeping Bent will thrive throughout the year. Temperature is the main factor determining the 6 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES limits in which these two grasses can be satisfactorily cultivated. Of course in the drier areas of the West a supply of water must be provided to insure suc- cess with either. Treated as a summer annual, Bermuda-grass can be grown to the northern boundary of the 'i g r\s ~H h^^n i i \t^S <, \\^ XT rry Izk "X^ Fig. I . — Outline map of the United States, showing the approximate northern limit of the area where Bermuda-grass will survive the winter. This line is also near the southern limit of the area in which Creeping Bent will thrive throughout the year. United States, but north of the limit indicated on the map it rarely survives the winter. In a similar manner Creeping Bent can be grown in the South if planted in the fall, and it will make a satisfactory turf during the cool season, but succumbs to heat and weedy grasses during the early summer following. GENERAL VIEW 7 Other northern turf grasses such as Rhode Island Bent, Kentucky Blue-grass, Redtop, Red Fescue, and the like have approximately the same climatic limitations as does Creeping Bent. Of southern turf-formers, Japan Clover and Korean Lawn-grass are adapted to about the same region as Bermuda-grass, while Carpet-grass is not vigorous north of Charleston and Montgomery. Generally speaking, most northern turf grasses can- not be satisfactorily grown, except in the mountains, south of the parallel marked by the southern bound- aries of Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, and Utah. It will be noted that the southern limit of these grasses approximates the above-mentioned parallel, and the same is true of the northern limit of Bermuda and other southern grasses. This relation of every grass, and indeed of every plant, to climatic conditions is inherent in each species, and in botanical language is spoken of as an adaptation. It is of course easy to understand why Bermuda-grass rarely survives north of Mary- land, because it is killed by winter cold. Funda- mentally, however, the reason why Creeping Bent succeeds so easily in New England and survives 8 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES only with great care in Virginia is because it is not adapted to withstand the summer conditions in the latter state. Natural adaptations can apparently be modified within narrow limits by careful and long-continued breeding. Really, what is done is to select those plants that succeed best under given conditions and to breed from these. While such work has pro- gressed far with our common annual crops, it is much more difficult with perennials, but marked progress has been made with such plants as fruit- trees. Thus far the cost of the work and the lack of prospective rewards have not encouraged any such breeding work with turf grasses. The difficulty of growing any grass satisfactorily increases as the limits of its climatic adaptations are approached. In other words, northern grasses give less satisfaction near their southern limit of culture, while southern grasses are rarely worth cultivating near the northern limit of where they will endure the winter. This matter of climatic adaptations is funda- mental with turf grasses as well as with other plants. It alone often determines what particular grass is best to grow in a particular region. Bermuda- GENERAL VIEW 9 grass in the North would be folly, and scarcely less so are attempts to make permanent greens in the South of Creeping Bent or of Red Fescue.^ But it requires experimenting and critical judgment to determine under given conditions whether to use Red Fescue or Creeping Bent on a putting- green or Kentucky Blue-grass or Redtop on a fairway. CHAPTER II Soils for Turf Grasses The special soil requirements of the various turf grasses differ considerably, but for the best results they all require a deep, fertile, moisture-holding yet well-drained soil. Such an ideal soil must be a loam, clay loams being better for most turf grasses than are sandy loams. Silt loams are in general intermediate in value. A good garden soil is a close approximation of what is most desirable. If such soil is underlaid by a permeable clayey sub- soil to permit deep growth of roots and to provide underground drainage, the best possible soil condi- tions are present. \^^uch soil conditions are rarely found on golf courses excepting where they have been constructed on good farming land. In such cases the problem of securing good turf is rarely a matter of difficulty, better drainage being commonly the main thing needed. 10 SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES ii Most golf courses are, however, located on land of low agricultural value not only on account of the much smaller initial cost of such land but also to secure the rough or rolling topography so desir- able for sporty courses. The soils of such areas near the seacoast or lake shores are very often sandy in texture; elsewhere they are commonly stiff clays, as gravelly soils are avoided for golf purposes whenever possible. It is on such sandy or heavy clay courses that the problem of securing good turf becomes difficult. Unless the plans for the improvement of such a course so that it will grow good turf are based on sound principles, a large amount of time and money can easily be spent and only unsatisfactory results be secured. The problems on the two types of soil are best considered separately, as the methods of soil im- provement to be employed are quite different. Furthermore the particular grass or grass mixture to be used in each case is a matter of prime impor- tance. These statements refer more particularly to the fairways, as on the putting-greens much larger sums of money must be spent with the idea of securing the most nearly perfect greens. 12 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES SOILS FOR PUTTING-GREENS For putting-greens every effort should be made to secure as nearly perfect soil conditions as possible before seeding the green. It is a serious error to seed putting-greens before a satisfactory soil has been established, as this can never be entirely remedied later by any system of top-dressing. Furthermore, it is a notorious fact shown in the history of many clubs that poor putting-greens will be tolerated a long time if their reconstruction involves the use for a period of still poorer temporary greens. As a putting-green is intended to be permanent, its soil foundation should be as nearly ideal as pos- sible. The texture of an ideal turf soil is a l oam , which may vary from a sandy loam to a clayey loam. Where the soil has to be made artificially, it is most likely to be a sandy loam in sandy regions and a clayey loam in clayey regions. Sandy soils are bettered by the addition of silt or clay, or both, so as to obtain in the surface foot about one-third of these materials. Where clay is used, it should be dry and pulverized, as other- wise a good mixture is not secured. Humus- SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 13 forming materials should be added in large quantity, preferably enough to cover the green to a depth of three or four inches. The thorough mixing of these different elements will form a satisfactory sandy loam soil. In some seaside courses the error has been made of attempting to build a green by making a layer of peat eight to twelve inches thick and covering with a few inches of soil, but good results are not to be expected from any such method. Peat remains practically inert unless well mixed with soil. Preferably, it should be composted for a full year before using. Stiff clay soils are best improved by the admix- ture of sand and humous materials. Three to four inches of sand may advantageously be incor- porated in the top twelve inches, together with a liberal amount of humus-forming materials. Enough of the latter to cover the ground to a depth of four inches is not excessive. When the clay, sand, and humous materials are thoroughly mixed by plowing and cultivating, a very fair substitute for a clay loam is secured. In some cases it may be cheaper to carry good soil to cover the proposed green to a depth of at least six inches, but good soil for turf is usually 14 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES scarce when the prevailing soil is either very clayey or very sandy. In the North, the clayey loams are best seeded to Creeping Bent and the sandy loams to Red Fescue. Mixtures of these two grasses have in some cases at least given very excellent results, but usually one is better than the other, dependent largely on the difference in soil mentioned. The depth of the good soil should be at least six inches, but more preferably eight to twelve inches or more. The shallower depths will answer with a good subsoil; the greater depth is highly desirable and sometimes necessary with a poor subsoil. The subsoil should be permeable to roots and well- drained. If its consistency be too compact for good natural drainage, tiling is demanded. If the subsoil be gravel or coarse sand that will not retain moisture, the surface soil must be deep and preferably a rather clayey loam. No method of irrigation to offset the handicap of very rapid drainage will prove satisfactory. The fertility of the top soil should be high. The soil should contain a high percentage of vegetable matter, as good turf of any kind requires an abun- dance of humus. J The most desirable fertilizers SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 15 are organic in nature, namely, cottonseed-meal, bone-meal, tankage, and the like. Animal manures are always most excellent but should be well rotted and practically free from weed seeds. Lime should rarely be used on putting-greens. The moisture-holding capacity of the soil should be high. This is best insured by a good content of clay and of vegetable matter. The drainage should be ample so that the soil never becomes water-logged. Water-logging may be caused either by lack of surface drainage or by absence of subsoil drainage or by deficiency in both. When a green is flanked by a hillside, espe- cial drainage is necessary to take care of the seepage coming out of the hill. In wet seasons this is often very injurious. Surface drainage must always be provided. If any saucer-shaped depression occur in a green, the turf in the hollow, especially if it be Creeping Bent, will turn yellow. In general it may be said that wherever Creeping Bent turns yellow the drainage is defective. It must be admitted that satisfactory putting- greens have been established where one or more of the above-mentioned factors are lacking. Such cases do not demonstrate that the omitted factor i6 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES is of no consequence, but merely that the other conditions are unusually favorable. No hard and fast rules can be laid down that will insure the securing of good turf under any conditions, as the factors involved are numerous and far from being thoroughly understood. So far as our knowledge goes, however, all of the factors emphasized are of prime importance, and it is rare that any one of them can be neglected and good results be achieved. The rare cases where good results are secured by haphazard methods are simply exceptional. IMPROVING SANDY SOILS ON FAIRWAYS The growing of satisfactory turf on the fairways of golf courses where the soil is sandy in texture is often difficult, depending mainly on the degree of sandiness of the soil, but partly on the available grasses adapted to the region. Sandy soils may be classified as follows : coarse sands, fine sands, sandy loams, fine sandy loams. Neither coarse sand nor fine sand will produce a satisfactory growth of turf. In both cases a sur- face soil must first be secured, which is always an expensive process. This may be done by either of two general methods, (i) By covering with a layer SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 17 of good soil. This should be at least three inches deep and preferably of a clayey loam, as much sand will become mixed with it in the process of haul- ing and leveling. (2) By mixing vegetable matter and clay in the sand to a depth of about six inches. Where the vegetable matter is readily available in the shape of muck or peat, it is cheapest to use this material. Where such humus is not cheaply available and time is not important, a crop of rye, cowpeas, or other plant adapted to sandy soils may be grown and plowed under. Vegetable matter and sand alone are, however, not sufficient, bind- ing material of clay or silt being essential to make a real soil. Clay is not easily mixed with sand un- less it be dry and pulverized. Sandy loams contain about twelve per cent of clay and usually about twice this amount of silt. Such soils will grow good fairway turf if the proper plants be used. In the North the best plants for the purpose are Red Fescue, Rhode Island Bent, and White Clover. The latter is especially im- portant as it does not require nitrogenous fertili- zers. Whatever objections may be held against White Clover on putting-greens, they do not apply on fairways. Redtop is also useful. Sheep's 1 8 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Fescue and Hard Fescue are both well adapted to sandy lands, but should never be used on fairways, as they are strictly bunch grasses. What turf they make gives objectionably cuppy lies for the ball. Red Fescue will thrive equally well and make a true creeping turf. The other fescues are desir- able only in the rough, where they are excellent on account of their tough tussocks and deep roots, which enable them to prevent washing and blowing of the soil. Blue-grass is rarely useful on sandy soils. In the South the available turf plants for sandy soils are Bermuda-grass and Japan Clover for summer, and Italian Rye-grass, Redtop and White Clover for winter. Where Carpet-grass thrives it is an excellent all-the-year grass. Established turf on sandy fairways can best be maintained by periodic surface dressings of a good clayey loam rich in humus. On courses where peat and clay are available, this soil should be made by composting the peat and the clay in alter- nate layers of each about four inches deep, with an occasional layer of barnyard manure. This latter furnishes an abundance of bacteria so necessary to bring about the further decomposition of the SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 19 peat. A small amount of lime, preferably ground limestone, may be scattered on each layer of peat, and this will intensify the bacterial action. Such compost heaps should be prepared at least a year in advance of their use, and a longer period is pref- erable. IMPROVING CLAY SOILS ON FAIRWAYS The improvement of stiff clayey soils so as to produce satisfactory fair greens is usually less difficult and costly than is the case with poor sandy soils. The important difficulties usually encoun- tered are that the surface soil puddles and bakes easily, and the subsoil is often impervious. The latter is serious only on flat land, and can be cor- rected by tiling. Stiff clay soils can be made to produce good fairway turf by the use of humus- forming material, either barnyard manure or the plowing under of a green crop. Lime is rarely necessary or advisable unless Blue-grass turf be desired. It is usually desirable to plow such land before seeding so as to incorporate the humus- forming materials added. Furthermore, by proper seeding a much better turf will nearly always be secured than can be hoped for by attempts to im- 20 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES prove such grass cover as already exists. Judg- ment must of course be exercised in this matter, as there is no need of plowing under turf that is fairly good, for this can be bettered simply by top-dressings of manure and by seeding. Steep hillsides should in particular be left undisturbed, as serious damage by washing may occur. It is safer to improve the turf on such slopes by top-dressing methods. In case sand or sandy soil can be secured cheaply and in abundance, it is an excellent plan to use it to top-dress very clayey fairways. Not only does the sand make a better surface soil for golf purposes, but it helps the grass both by absorbing the rainfall much better and by preventing baking in dry hot weather. The cases are rare, however, where sand occurs in abundance on or near a clay land course. In the North most turf grasses succeed well on clayey soils. For general purposes a mixture of Redtop, Blue-grass, and White Clover is cheap and satisfactory. If preferred, the White Clover may be omitted, but it is practically certain to appear, whether sown or not. In the South Bermuda-grass and Japan Clover for summer turf and Italian Rye-grass, Redtop, Blue-grass, and White Clover for winter turf are 'M .-I M 4 *% ^ 1 B jvi Ih ^HB ^fi H^ NHHBHffi^ r '^i2 1 1 1 1 Plate II. — Upper. Sheep are often used on golf courses in Europe to keep the grass short. The same method could well be used in most northern and westeril States. Lower. A sample of good muck which makes an excellent top-dressing for turf. SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 21 most satisfactory. Such clayey soils in the South are all located in the hilly regions away from the seacoast, and on such soils, at least where the alti- tude is 1000 feet or more, Redtop, White Clover, and Blue-grass usually live through the summer and begin new growth with the cool weather of fall. Where such winter grasses do not come naturally each season in sufficient abundance to form good turf, they should be supplemented by fall sowing of Italian Rye-grass. This grows rapidly and will make an excellent turf during the winter, but dis- appears about the time the Bermuda-grass turf becomes good in early summer. On the better golf courses in the North, the pres- ent tendency is to sow only the fine bents and Red Fescue on the fairways, thus producing a turf nearly equal in quality to that on the putting- greens, but which is not clipped so closely. The growing of such turf on the fairways requires a larger expenditure for seed than where Blue-grass and Redtop are used, but provided the soil condi- tions are satisfactory the cost of the seed is the prin- cipal additional expense. 22 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES ACID OR SOUR SOILS An acid soil in the agricultural literature of the day is commonly defined as one on which most farm crops are stimulated by the application of lime. Such soils will usually turn blue litmus paper red when the moist soil is left in contact with the paper for a few minutes. On the basis of this test a large percentage of the area in the eastern half of the United States is acid. When it is desirable to correct soil acidity, it is usually done by applying lime in some form. There are several methods to determine the relative acidity of a soil and by this means ascertain its "lime requirement," that is, the amount of lime necessary to neutralize the soil of one acre to a depth of eight inches. The "lime requirement" of a very acid soil is frequently as high as five tons an acre. In speaking of "lime requirement," many writers make the tacit assumption that a neutral or slightly alkaline soil is best for cultivated crops, and that acidity is in general harmful. Another way of look- ing at the problem is that the lime acts directly on the plant as part of its food, and not indirectly as a correction of soil acidity. This is the older view and in accordance with it plants have been SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 23 classified as calclphiles or lime-lovers, and calci- phobes or lime-haters. Thus Alfalfa, Red Clover, Blue-grass, Bermuda-grass, and many other plants favor a limestone soil, and their growth is helped by this substance. On the other hand, rhododendrons, huckleberries, and other plants will not thrive when there is an appreciable amount of lime in the soil. So far as the turf grasses are concerned, their relations to lime may be very simply stated. Blue- grass is much benefited by lime while White Clover and Bermuda-grass are considerably improved. Other turf grasses, including Creeping Bent, Rhode Island Bent, Redtop, Red Fescue, Sheep's Fescue, Japan Clover, are almost indifferent to lime, being neither appreciably bettered nor injured on most soils except as the liming stimulates the growth of Blue-grass, White Clover, and various weeds. At the Rhode Island Experiment Station plots of various turf grasses alone and in mixtures were planted in 1905. On one series the plots were ferti- lized with chemicals leaving an acid residue, on the other with chemicals leaving an alkaline residue. After ten years the most noticeable result was that the plots treated with alkaline fertilizers were all very weedy, while those treated with acid ferti- 24 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES lizers were not weedy. The acid plots of Rhode Island Bent, Red Fescue, and other fescues were still in excellent condition. The grasses on the other acid plots were almost entirely replaced by Rhode Island Bent. On portions of the plots not clipped, the growth of the grasses in all cases was greater on the alkaline plots than on the acid plots. This larger yield is important agriculturally, but not from a lawn turf standpoint. The closely clipped turf both on the alkaline and acid plots was dense and fine, but on the former was much inferior, due to the prevalence of weeds. The lesson from this series of plots is backed up by numerous observations elsewhere. It teaches clearly that Rhode Island Bent and Red Fescue are acid soil plants and on such soils will maintain themselves with little difficulty. If, however, lime or other alkaline fertilizers are used, weeds and other grasses will likely invade the turf. DRAINAGE Good turf is rarely seen except on well-drained soil. It is true that some turf grasses like Redtop succeed well in moist or wet soil, but under such SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 25 conditions several undesirable plants like rushes and sedges always appear. Furthermore, ill-drained land is very objectionable on a golf course because during some seasons at least the ground becomes soggy, and the turf is injured and made uneven by trampling. On putting-greens especially the drainage should be ample, but on fairways it is also necessary. A common indication of poor drainage is the occur- rence of certain characteristic plants such as thyme- leaved speedwell, selaginella, and various sedges in the North and dichondra and kyllingia in the South. Satisfactory drainage is best secured by the use of drain tiling. On putting-greens which require drainage, four-inch tiles should be placed in lines about six feet apart and at the proper depth to collect the seepage and carry it away. On good permeable loams the tile should be eighteen to twenty-four inches deep ; but if the soil is not very permeable they should be placed at a depth which will permit them to collect the seepage. Where a putting-green is flanked by a bank or hill, a line of tiles at the base of the bank or hill to collect the seepage is necessary. 26 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Inadequate drainage on a putting-green com- posed of Creeping Bent is always promptly indi- cated by the grass turning yellowish. If a green be so constructed that there are shallow concavi- ties without surface outlet for drainage, the grass in such places is sure to turn yellow. Drainage in these cases may be secured by the use of a " soak- away," that is, a vertical column of sand or other permeable soil to connect with a tile or other sub- terranean drainage. As a rule, however, a putting- green should be so constructed that there are no hollows unless these have broad surface outlets. Tiling is also frequently very important on fair- ways, but as these are rarely watered artificially the tiles need not be so close together. Subterranean drainage to putting-greens is some- times secured by the use of a layer of rubble or clinkers in the foundation, one to two feet below the surface of the green. To some extent such a drainage layer reduces the trouble from earthworms, but the disadvantages scarcely compensate for this slight benefit. A drainage layer Is expensive to construct In the first place, and sooner or later will become entirely clogged by silt carried in the seepage waters. SOILS FOR TURF GRASSES 27 While good drainage, either surface or subterra- nean, is necessary to secure turf, it must be remem- bered that its only function is to carry off surplus water so that the soil will not become soggy and the plant-roots thus deprived of air. Good drainage alone will not insure good turf, as nearly any piece of sandy or gravelly soil will demonstrate. There must also be fertile soil. CHAPTER III Fertilizers The term "fertilizers" is an extremely broad one, having been applied generally to all substances that are added to the soil for the purpose of im- proving its capacity to produce plant growth. Al- most every common substance has at some time or other been used for this purpose, but since 1840, largely as the results of Liebig's investigations, the number of substances used as fertilizers has been restricted to those containing relatively high percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, except in the case of organic manures, which have always been used extensively. The functions of fertilizers are not clearly known, but they are probably very much more complex than is commonly supposed. In addition to supply- ing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash to the soil in forms available to plants, some of them, at least, act as correctives or disinfectants ameli- orating toxic conditions, while others, of which 2S FERTILIZERS 29 barnyard manure is an example, in addition to these functions supply organisms that are highly beneficial to plant growth. Hundreds of care- fully planned pot, plot, and field experiments have been conducted within recent years, but as yet no highly scientific practice has developed with regard to the use of fertilizers, so that "cut and try" methods are still very largely necessary. Commercial fertilizers may be divided into two general groups, organic and inorganic. To the former belong bone-meal, cottonseed-meal, dried blood, and hoof-and-horn-meal. To the latter be- long nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, acid phos- phate, raw rock phosphate, basic slag, and muriate and sulfate of potash. In addition to these there are many others of less importance in each group. The fertilizers most commonly used for grass are ground bone in some form, nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, cottonseed-meal, acid phosphate, and muriate and sulfate of potash. ORGANIC FERTILIZERS Organic fertilizers consist of dead plant or animal materials. As a class they are relatively slow in action and correspondingly long enduring. In gen- 30 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES eral, their function is to supply nitrogen, although some of them contain a high percentage of available phosphoric acid. Bone-meal. In the comparatively long list of organic com- mercial fertilizers bone-meal is the most popular at the present time for use on grass. This is very largely due to the fact that it is relatively cheap and can be depended on to produce reasonably consistent results. For putting-greens it has three distinct advantages : it is a fertilizer to which grass responds very readily; it can be applied at any season of the year with little or no injury to the finest turf grasses ; and there is no evidence of its producing unfavorable residual effects in the soil. The common objection to its use on putting-greens is based on the belief that it unduly encourages the growth of White Clover by virtue of its relatively high percentage of phosphoric acid. While it doubtless benefits clover, nevertheless the extreme prejudice on the part of golfers apparently is not well founded. There are two kinds of bone-meal found on the market: "raw bone" and "steamed bone." In the case of the former no treatment is given the FERTILIZERS 31 bone before grinding, while in the latter case the bone is subjected to superheated steam until the fat and the scraps of meat have been removed. Steamed bone is said to be somewhat more readily available than raw bone ; but whether raw or steamed, the value of bone-meal depends to a very large extent on the degree to which it is pulverized. The finer the particles, the more quickly the sub- stance becomes available to the plants. A good grade of bone-meal contains from 3 to 5 per cent of nitrogen, and from 18 to 20 per cent of phosphoric acid. For top-dressing putting-greens twenty pounds to 1000 square feet are recom- mended. When used at the time of seeding, some- what heavier applications can be made to advantage. It is the common practice to apply bone-meal in the spring, but there is some evidence to indicate that when applied during the winter it is more beneficial to the grass when growth com- mences. Late spring or summer applications, while no doubt somewhat efficacious, produce results that are only slightly noticeable, at least in the appearance of the grass. No scalding or other injurious effects have ever been observed from the use of this fertilizer, no matter when applied. Its 32 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES offensive odor can be considered only a slight ob- jection to its use, since it is not long in evidence after application. Cottonseed-meal. Highly satisfactory results have been obtained in many cases from the use of cottonseed-meal as a top-dressing for grass turf, but whether it is to be recommended for putting-greens in preference to bone-meal is open to question. Thus far there is lack of sufficient definite data to warrant a posi- tive statement in this connection. Cottonseed- meal contains more nitrogen than does bone-meal, and its nitrogen is more quickly available. Fur- thermore, its low percentage of phosphoric acid elim- inates any theoretical objections to its use on the ground of encouraging White Clover. A suitable application when used as a top-dressing for greens is approximately twenty-five pounds to looo square feet. It frequently happens that a scorching or burning effect results when cottonseed-meal is ap- plied to grass. The reason for this is not well known, but the scorching may be due partially to the heat which is generated by fermentation when the meal becomes moist or wet. Therefore, it should be distributed as evenly as possible and FERTILIZERS 33 worked into the turf with a coarse brush or broom, or it may be mixed with equal parts of sand or soil before applying. This obviates the danger of large quantities accumulating and injuring the grass. Masses of cottonseed-meal, if thoroughly wetted, become hard and almost impervious to moisture upon drying. Under such masses the grass is almost invariably killed. For the above reasons, caution should be exercised in connection with its use, especially in summer, since its scorching effect is apt to be greater at that time than at any other period of the year. Cottonseed-meal is manufactured from the de- corticated seed from which the oil has been ex- pressed. It ordinarily contains approximately 7 per cent of nitrogen, 1.5 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent of potash. It is desirable that it be given a thorough trial as a spring top-dressing for putting-greens. Dried blood. As a top-dressing for turf, dried blood has not given very consistent results. This may be due partly to the fact that the availability of its nitro- gen is somewhat uncertain, depending very largely on the character of the soil to which the fertilizer 34 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES is applied. In soils deficient in lime it is frequently not more than one-half as available as nitrate of soda, while on soils well supplied with lime the availability is increased to a point more nearly approximating that of nitrate of soda. A good grade of dried blood contains from lo to 13 per cent of nitrogen, 0.5 to 1.5 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 0.6 to 0.8 per cent of potash. It can be used with safety on the finest turf, and this seems to be its most commendable feature, since its use is not economical, and it is neither lasting nor consistent in its action. A normal application consists of ap- proximately twenty pounds to 1000 square feet of putting-green. Hoof-and-horn-meals. Meals composed of ground hoofs or horns, or a mix- ture of these two, have sometimes been suggested for putting-greens in preference to bone-meal, owing to the comparatively low percentage of phosphoric acid which the substances contain. Experience, how- ever, indicates that only a small portion of the nitrogen in these meals is available, even though the material is finely pulverized. Furthermore, the nitrogen becomes available very slowly, and while a good grade of these meals contains approximatelji FERTILIZERS 35 13 per cent of nitrogen, their use on turf has not given very satisfactory results. INORGANIC FERTILIZERS There occur in natural deposits in the earth sub- stances that contain to a high degree of concen- tration the principal elements of plant-food. Ni- trates and potash compounds are found in impure chemical salts, while phosphates exist in a much less concentrated form in rocks, many of which are composed very largely of fossil animal remains. Nitrate of soda. The most important inorganic nitrogenous fer- tilizer is nitrate of soda. It occurs in a crude state in large deposits in South America, and is refined there before being exported. In its com- mercial form it contains between 15 and 16 per cent of nitrogen, which is equivalent to 18 to 19 per cent of ammonia. Nitrate of soda is readily soluble, and its nitrate becomes immediately avail- able without undergoing any chemical decompo- sition. It produces the quickest effect of all the commercial fertilizers when applied to grass, and is fairly consistent in its results. Its effects, how- ever, are not very lasting, and because of this it is 36 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES not very generally recommended as a fertilizer for the fairway. On account of its pronounced caustic effect, nitrate of soda must be used with extreme care on putting-greens. It is preferable to apply a small quantity at frequent intervals rather than large quantities at one time. Five pounds for every looo square feet of green is a sufficient quantity for one application. It should be pulverized thor- oughly, and it is preferable to mix with sand before applying and to water thoroughly afterwards. Ni- trate of soda may also be put in solution at the rate of one pound to ten gallons of water and sprinkled on the green, but even when used in this way thor- ough watering afterwards is necessary. Still another method which renders its use less likely to cause injury is to mix a saturated solution of it with bran, sawdust, or a similar substance before applying to the grass. ■ This method reduces the burning to a minimum. It can be used to advan- tage during the spring and autumn, but its use in the summer is not recommended. Agricultural chemists have classified nitrate of soda as physio- logically basic, and there is considerable evidence that it has a tendency to correct soil acidity as the FERTILIZERS 37 result of the formation of sodium carbonate. How- ever, residual effects of considerable quantities of sodium carbonate on heavy clay soils deficient in humus are far from beneficial, and in addition to these deleterious effects the constant application of nitrate of soda, paradoxical as it may seem, has a tendency to impoverish the soil of its supply of nitrogen. These objections should be given careful consideration, since in the case of putting-greens applications of fertilizers are very much heavier than are made in ordinary farm practice. Sulfate of ammonia. Sulfate of ammonia is another inorganic salt that carries a high percentage of nitrogen, and is in a measure a competitor of nitrate of soda. It is a by-product resulting from the distillation of coal, as in the manufacture of coke and gas. It appears on the market in the form of a fairly fine whitish salt, and contains approximately 20 per cent of nitrogen, or 24 per cent of ammonia. Unlike nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia is acid in its residual reaction, and its continued use may result in producing such an acid condition in the soil that fertility is greatly reduced. For this reason, if for no other, nitrate of soda is to be preferred. 38 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES It frequently has been stated that one or two applications of sulfate of ammonia will eradicate white clover from putting-greens. However, the evidence on this is far from convincing. The tendency of continued applications of this fertilizer to create an acid condition in the soil is certain to be unfavorable to the growth of clover, but it is also unfavorable to the best growth of grass. The deleterious effects of sulfate of ammonia are neutralized by sodium, potassium, and calcium carbonates, but unless it is with the view to eradicating clover, this fertilizer possesses no known advantage over nitrate of soda. If it is desired to try it for the above purpose, ten pounds to looo square feet of green is considered a normal application. While not as readily available or as burning in its action as nitrate of soda, the same precautions are necessary with regard to its use. Acid phosphate. The phosphorus-carrying inorganic fertilizer in most common use is acid phosphate. It is pre- pared chiefly by treating phosphatic rocks such as are found in large deposits in several of our south- ern states with sulfuric acid to render the phos- phorus content more available to the use of plants. FERTILIZERS 39 The good commercial grades contain from 14 to 16 per cent of phosphoric acid. The effect of acid phosphate on grass is generally quite beneficial, especially when applied with some form of nitrogen, but it also stimulates the clovers, and for this reason few favor its use on putting- greens. For the fairway it may be used advan- tageously in many cases as a constituent of a com- plete fertilizer in the absence of suitable manure or compost. In such cases applications should be made preferably in the early spring at the rate of approximately 1000 pounds to the acre. For the greens it appears to possess no advantage what- ever over finely ground bone-meal. In fact, this is true of all mineral phosphates. However, if for any reason it is desired to use it on greens, the application should be attended with considerable care, inasmuch as the free acid which it commonly contains readily injures grass which is in an active growing condition. Muriate and sulfate of potash. Muriate and sulfate of potash are by far the most Important potash-bearing fertilizers now in use. They occur In impure deposits in Germany, and, when refined, yield salts containing 80 to 85 40 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES per cent potassium chloride, and approximately 90 per cent potassium sulfate, respectively. Most of the clay soils of this country are believed to con- tain an adequate supply of potash to produce a good growth of grass, and while experiments have shown that comparatively small quantities of potash salts in combination with nitrates and phosphates may increase the growth of turf grasses, these fertilizers are seldom recommended for putting- greens, except in cases where the soil is very sandy. Like the phosphates, potash fertilizers appear to increase the abundance of clover in the turf. In fact, their tendency apparently is more pronounced in this respect than is that of either acid phosphate or bone-meal. Five pounds for 1000 square feet of green is an ample application when combined with other fertilizers. Mixed fertilizers. It is a common practice of commercial fertilizer companies to mix fertilizing materials in different proportions with the view to selling them for special conditions. These ready-mixed fertilizers are ex- tensively advertised under various trade names such as "Turf Grower," "Grass Grower," "Lawn Fertilizer," and the like, and the opinion seems to FERTILIZERS 41 prevail in the minds of many that they are just what is required. While these mixed fertilizers are very generally used, they are not to be recom- mended. Commercial concerns possess no special information regarding the action of fertilizers on grass that an intelligent greenkeeper cannot soon acquire, and, therefore, there is nothing mysteri- ously beneficial in their formulas. When mixed fertilizers are desired, it will be found cheaper and generally more satisfactory to buy the ingredients separately and combine them in suitable proportions. By so doing the purchaser does not have to pay a high price for a consider- able quantity of inert filler that is commonly pres- ent in ready-mixed fertilizers. The proportions for a good complete fertilizer for turf are as follows : nitrate of soda or sulfate of ammonia, 250 to 300 pounds; phosphoric acid, 350 to 500 pounds; muriate or sulfate of potash, 100 to 150 pounds. Twenty pounds of this mixture for 1000 square feet is ample for a single application, and three such applications are sufficient for a season. In- asmuch as this mixture is a concentrated fertilizer, precaution is necessary in connection with its use in order to avoid scalding the grass. CHAPTER IV Manures, Composts, and Other Humous Materials A VERY important factor in maintaining the fertility of a soil is the upkeep of its humus content. Organic matter in the soil has many functions that cannot be performed by other fertilizing sub- stances. It improves the texture of the soil and bet- ters aeration, water-holding capacity, and drainage. In addition, it furnishes material by means of which beneficial soil organisms may promote nitrification and produce other important biological changes. By the proper use of suitable organic matter, a high degree of fertility can be maintained indefi- nitely. This cannot be said of mineral fertilizers, no matter how liberally or wisely they may be used. First-class permanent turf can be had only on soils that are well supplied with humus, or de- cayed vegetable matter. There are many forms of organic matter that can be used advantageously 42 MANURES AND COMPOSTS 43 on putting-greens if properly prepared. Barnyard manure, good compost of various kinds, and peats or mucks are all suitable, and one or more of these substances is available to every club in the country. Barnyard manure. Barnyard manure is the most commonly used humous dressing ; not that it is ideal, but because it possesses qualities that are not found in other humous materials. The chief objections to its use as a top-dressing for putting-greens are that it ordinarily is too coarse, and that it is a carrier of weed seeds. These objections can be obviated, but unless they are overcome they are decidedly serious. While manure offers the most value as a fertilizer in a fresh condition, it should be thor- oughly rotted when used as a dressing for greens. If well-rotted, most of the weed seeds are killed and the material is much more easily comminuted. The practice of applying coarse manure to fine turf in the fall and winter, and raking off the coarse material in the spring, cannot be recommended, but a liberal dressing of well-rotted and pulverized manure in the fall, winter, or early spring can result only in benefiting the grass. The question is commonly asked. When may 44 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES manure be said to be well-rotted, and how long must it remain in a pile or pit before the weed seeds in it are killed ? As concerns its texture, manure is well-rotted when it breaks up readily upon being worked over with a fork or mixer, and when so handled is reduced to a quite uniform consistency. The quantity of straw or litter in the manure, and the conditions under which it is composted, have much to do with the period required for decom- position. As for the length of time required to destroy weed seeds, the evidence is not very definite. Some critical investigations that have been conducted recently indicate that one year is sufficient to kill all common weed seeds, and only half a year to devitalize a large percentage of them. Experi- ence, however, indicates that it is neither safe nor desirable to use manure that has been composted for less than one year, and composting for two years is preferable. With proper planning, a supply of thoroughly rotted manure can be had at all times. Powdered sheep manure. When sheep are fed for some time in small in- closures, large quantities of manure — which is composed almost exclusively of the solid excre- MANURES AND COMPOSTS 45 merit from the animals — accumulate. This ma- terial is sometimes dried, pulverized, and placed on the market in bags, and is subject to the same regulations as other commercial fertilizers. Pow- dered sheep manure has some advantages over ordinary barnyard manure, since it appears in a good mechanical condition and is free from weed seeds. However, it seems to lack the strength or substance necessary to make it always effective, and it is too expensive for the results which it pro- duces to be used economically on putting-greens. Mushroom soil. Mushrooms for market are usually grown in cellars or caves, upon soils that are composed very largely of manure from horse stables. After the soil has been in use for one year it is no longer suit- able for mushroom-culture, and is consequently replaced by a fresh supply. This partially ex- hausted material makes a very satisfactory hu- mous dressing for turf. It is sufficiently decomposed to break up into the proper degree of fineness, and contains few, if any, viable weed seeds. While it varies considerably in quality, it can be purchased cheaply, and is highly recommended for use on putting-greens when properly comminuted. 46 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Compost and composting. The term compost has at times been applied to all mixtures used as fertilizers. At the present time, however, it is restricted by common usage to mixtures of sod, manure, leaf-mold, peat, lime, and various other substances that have been placed in piles or pits to promote decomposition. Compost is used extensively by gardeners and florists, and is their most common form of humus. As prepared by them, sod is its principal constituent, leaves, leaf-mold, and manure making up varying propor- tions as their needs may require, or as these mate- rials are available. As a dressing for turf, a good compost can be prepared by piling sod in alternate layers with manure, leaves, and leaf-mold. To this mixture, or any similar mixture, lime in some form, preferably pulverized limestone, should be added. Regardless of the kind of grass to which the compost is to be applied, lime is very necessary in the preparation of compost. It has an im- portant function in reducing the raw vegetable matter to a suitable form of humus by neutralizing the organic acids that develop and by promoting bacterial activity. In making compost, lOO pounds of pulverized lime should be used to each ton of ri V o ja >. aPQ ^ H Ai 3 4-J Fi O >. u F t^ c3 1—1 1 |S MANURES AND COMPOSTS 47 vegetable matter. If a considerable quantity of green vegetable matter is present, hydrated lime is preferable to pulverized limestone. There should be at least some manure in every compost pile, if for no other reason than because of the bacteria and other beneficial organisms which it introduces. How long compost should remain in the pile before being used depends, to a very large degree, on the nature of the materials entering into it. Sod, leaf-mold, and manure will reach a very satis- factory degree of decomposition in one year if properly mixed. Six months' time is frequently sufficient to bring about the decomposition of green vegetable matter. There are no accurate data on the length of time required, and, there- fore, the only safe course is to provide favorable conditions for decomposition and to allow as much time as possible. Even well-rotted compost should be screened to remove the coarse material and thoroughly mixed and comminuted before being used. Compost prepared in this way is so valu- able, and at the same time relatively so cheap, that every club should see to it that an adequate supply is available at all times for use on its course. With a little attention, a good quality of manure 48 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES can be obtained, and it is entirely practicable to produce sod on unused portions of the club's grounds for composting purposes. (Plates III and IV.) Leaf-mold. In its untreated state leaf-mold, which is usually composed of leaves, twigs, roots, and similar vege- table matter in various stages of decomposition, is not a suitable form of humus for putting-greens. In fact, such material should be used only in the making of composts, or at least should be treated with lime before being used. Although leaves contain considerable quantities of lime, their par- tial decomposition produces an acid condition in the soil, and it is not until they are almost com- pletely decomposed that they produce an alkaline reaction. When composted with lime, and also preferably with manure and sod, leaves and leaf- mold can be converted into a very useful form of humus. Peat. Peat is the remains of plants that have been decomposed, or at least partially so, in water. The consistency of peat varies from scums or slime to solid substances, in which the texture of the plants has almost, if not quite, disappeared. When peat MANURES AND COMPOSTS 49 occurs naturally in a granular condition, it is usually called muck (Plate II), and all so-called muck soils are of peat origin. Peat is found in large deposits in many parts of the country, and its various forms have been the subject of investigations from an agricultural standpoint for centuries. Peat in the form of muck is a very valuable form of humus if properly utilized. It has a high water-holding capacity, and when incorporated with the soil it improves the texture and performs other important functions. Furthermore, it is of the proper con- sistency for application as a top-dressing, and is free from weed seeds. In its natural condition, however, it is seldom that muck is suitable either as a top-dressing for turf, or for mixing with the soil, since in some cases it contains a high percen- tage of salts that are injurious to grass, while in other cases it is highly acid in its reaction. Recently in this country, muck, both in a treated and untreated form, has been placed on the market as humus under various trade names. Some of these commercial products are very crude, and it is doubtful whether their use can be recommended, especially from the standpoint of economy. In- vestigations show quite clearly that muck should so TURF FOR GOLF COURSES be thoroughly aerated by frequent stirring for a long period prior to use, and thoroughly leached by exposure to the weather under conditions of good drainage. This treatment greatly improves its value. It frequently has been recommended that muck be composted with lime and manure in order to hasten fermentation, since it is almost devoid of organisms that promote decay. As a result of the work of an English investi- gator, there has been placed on the market recently a form of peat or muck inoculated with active cul- tures of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It is claimed that this greatly increases its value by adding active nitrogen-fixing organisms to the soil under suitable conditions for nitrogen fixation, and in stimulat- ing the nitrogen fixers already in the soil. Peat, treated according to this method, has not been tested extensively in this country, but it is reason- able to believe that almost equally good results can be obtained by composting it with a good qual- ity of manure. Some American firms farm their peat beds for a year or two, then dry the muck, and mix it with other fertilizing ingredients, so that when placed on the market it is a standardized product. This treatment doubtless improves its MANURES AND COMPOSTS 51 quality, but adds greatly to the cost. While prop- erly prepared peat has many advantages for use on putting-greens, it frequently is so expensive that it cannot be applied economically. It is, therefore, always well to consider it in comparison with barnyard manure, which is a standard hu- mous material. On the basis of a large number of analyses, it is estimated that in fertilizing constit- uents one cord or three tons of manure is equal to three and a half cords of muck, while on the basis of organic matter one cord of manure is equal to one and one-half cords of muck. A comparison of manure with air or kiln-dried muck would ap- pear more favorably for the latter. From the above figures, it appears perfectly evident that a golf club is not justified in paying a high price for raw, wet muck when a better grade of humus can be had from properly composted manure, or mush- room soil. If a deposit of peat or muck is avail- able to the club, It can be used very profitably. No matter in what form, or from what source ob- tained, muck should be mixed with sand or loam before being applied as a top-dressing to turf, and afterwards wetted thoroughly; otherwise, it will blow away upon becoming dry. 52 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Street sweepings. The conflicting results that have been obtained from the use of street sweepings as a fertilizer are probably due to the nature of the streets from which they were obtained. In times past street sweepings were recommended highly on account of their quick action, but of recent years sweepings from asphalt and other modern pavements have been considered even harmful to vegetation. Actual experiments have shown them to have a toxic effect on turf, and it therefore seems advisable to warn against their use on putting-greens. Plate IV. — Upper. Compost pile. This is made up of alternate layers of sod and manure each about 6 inches thick ; a small amount of lime is scattered on top of each layer of sod. The pile should be allowed to stand for at least 12 months before using. The horse-drawn machine is for mixing and pulveriz- ing the material. Lower. Rear view of the machine for pulverizing and thoroughly mixing compost materials. CHAPTER V Lime and Its Use The greatly increased use of lime by American farmers in recent years is one of the most striking facts in the agriculture of the day. The use of this substance on most soils in the eastern half of the United States is necessary if one wishes to grow alfalfa, and it is very efficient in promoting the growth of red clover. To a much less but to an appreciable extent, it is helpful to most of the ordinary farm crops such as corn, wheat, and most legumes. In former times botanists and agriculturists called certain plants, found commonly in calcareous soils, lime-lovers or calciphiles ; while other plants such as rhododendrons, which rarely thrive in the pres- ence of lime, were called lime-haters or calciphobes. Most plants show no such marked relation to lime. However, calcareous soils are noted for their fer- tility, that is, their ability to produce large yields of ordinary farm crops. S3 54 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES In recent times the idea has prevailed largely that lime acts mainly in an indirect way, through its alkalinity. Most soils in humid regions are acid according to certain tests, but by the addition of lime they become neutral or slightly alkaline. It is this acid or alkaline condition which is held to be the important factor in affecting plants. One effect of lime about which there is ample proof is that it greatly stimulates the activity of the nitrifying bacteria in the soil, and thus pro- vides more nitrogen for growing plants. It is doubtless on this account that the effects of lime are always most marked on soils rich in humus and always slight on soils poor in vegetable matter. Practically it matters but little whether lime acts directly or indirectly in its effects on plants. So far as the turf plants are concerned, experiments show that but few are much affected by its use. Kentucky Blue-grass is greatly stimulated by lime, White Clover and Bermuda-grass considerably. The bents and the fescues are not much affected by lime on most soils, and this is also true of many other turf grasses. The relative indifference of Creeping Bent, Rhode Island Bent, and Red Fescue to lime deserves especial comment, because these LIME AND ITS USE 55 three are the most important putting-green grasses in the North. As putting-greens must of necessity- be kept highly fertilized, there is no object in using lime to increase nitrification in the soil. Use of lime, however, does stimulate any Blue-grass or White Clover that may be in the green, and there is ample evidence to show that it tends to encour- age several of the troublesome weeds. For these reasons, the use of lime on putting-greens composed of the above grasses is probably not advantageous except in rare cases. The slightly more vigorous growth which lime may induce does not compensate for the undoubted increase of weed trouble. On the fairways there is no reason to doubt the excellent effects of lime where the turf is com- posed largely or mainly of Blue-grass and White Clover, or in the South of Bermuda-grass. If, however, the turf is composed of Redtop, Creeping Bent, or Red Fescue, lime is not necessary, and its use cannot be expected to show satisfactory results. It is a common belief that the presence of cer- tain plants indicates a sour condition of the soil and the need of applying lime. Sheep sorrel is perhaps the commonest weed that is supposed to indicate acidity, but it seems probable that this S6 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES idea is based on the acid taste of its leaves. At any rate, sheep sorrel thrives well in soils rich in lime. Mosses and lichens in the turf are also sup- posed to indicate the need of lime, but when the evidence is weighed it is not very satisfactory. It must be admitted that there is yet too small a body of data about the effect of lime on each kind of grass turf to warrant final conclusions. In most cases it would pay greenkeepers to test the effect of lime on a small plot of turf before using it largely. The instances are probably rare on golf courses where lime has had any serious detrimental effects, but on the other hand it is doubtful whether any really beneficial effects have been secured except with Kentucky Blue-grass and Bermuda-grass. CHAPTER VI The Important Turf Plants In growing turf one is in reality cultivating a particular grass or a mixture of grasses. It is mani- fest that to secure the best results detailed knowl- edge of each grass is necessary. Too often the sowing of a mixture is a frank acknowledgment of lack of knowledge, and this method is adopted in the hope that one of the grasses may succeed even if the others fail. To that extent it is justifiable, but as a rule one cannot hope to secure the best re- sults if the grasses in the mixture make unlike quali- ties of turf or require different methods of treatment. In a few cases mixtures seem not only warranted but desirable. But in such cases there are definite reasons for using mixtures and not merely the hope that one may succeed if the other fails. While there is yet much to be learned about every turf grass, there already exists a large body of knowledge upon which a rational mixture can be based. Too often the mixtures used depend primarily upon what a S7 S8 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES seedsman or a fertilizer dealer may advise, albeit in each case the advice comes from a man who has something to sell and naturally advises what he has to offer. There is no mystery about the sources of grass seeds nor of methods of recleaning them, even if it is undeniable that some seedsmen are more careful in recleaning their seeds and more reliable in their statements than are others. There is still much of mystery regarding the relative efficiency of fertilizers under different conditions, but the problems of fertilizers are so complex that one should always test a new fertilizer in a small way first be- fore accepting it in place of another that has given satisfactory results. The important turf grasses are discussed in detail. The finest species for putting-greens are Creeping Bent, Velvet Bent, Rhode Island Bent, and Red Fescue. Somewhat coarser grasses often used for putting-greens but more suitable for fairways are Kentucky Blue-grass, Redtop, Bermuda-grass, and Carpet-grass. Other turf plants that are discussed briefly are Japan Clover, Yarrow, Yellow Oat-grass, Crested Dogstail, Italian Rye-grass, Perennial Rye- grass, Annual Blue-grass, Korean Lawn-grass, Ma- nila-grass, Mascarene-grass, White Clover, Canada THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 59 Blue-grass, Sheep's Fescue, Various-leaved Fescue, and Fine-leaved Fescue. KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS {Poa pfUtensis) Kentucky Blue- grass (Fig. 2) is the most (commori\ tu rf and pasture grass in the northern half of the United States, over most of which area it comes in spontane- ously. The bo- tanical and tradi- tional evidence both leave scarcely room to doubt that it is not native to the United States, but was introduced from Europe. Other names by which it is known Fig. 2. — Kentucky Blue-grass {Poa pratensis) : or has been known a, spikelet; &,floret,showing tuft of hairs at base. 6o TURF FOR GOLF COURSES are June-grass, Meadow-grass, Spear-grass, Spire- grass, and, in Virginia, Greensward. In this country most of these names are obsolete, or nearly so, the grass being known almost wholly as Kentucky Blue- grass or simply as Blue-grass. W^ll^—~-r—. %>> m~i\.~I'~T^ ^^i ^^-^ ^^ wy-L^ CI ^^^m ^T^^H^t ^^m f\\// — \~ ^^^w \ \>(-hL-- ^^^m ^^^H X. X \^ 1 y — 1 "^ i^^^^^ wmM^^^—^ P ¥H r-" \ Fig. 3. — Map showing the areas in which Kentucky Blue-grass thrives best. The name Blue-grass as applied to this grass is an unfortunate misnomer so far as the turf is con- cerned, which is a deep, vivid green. When in bloom the flowers do have a bluish or rather purplish cast, which perhaps gave rise to the name. The accompanying map (Fig. 3) shows the area in which Blue-grass occurs abundantly. This area corresponds closely to that of the soils formed in the THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 61 southern movement of the great ice sheets in the glacial epochs. South of the glacial soils, Blue- grass is abundant only in limestone areas, but it thrives in California under irrigation, and in the cotton regions occurs in the hilly sections more or less commonly. Kentucky Blue-grass is unique among our turf grasses in that it shows a strong predilection for limestone soils. It is due to this fact, combined with its nutritiousness, that the grass is so famous in the limestone districts of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. On the same reason is based the general practice of treating lawns with lime, as Blue-grass is the commonest grass used for this purpose. Unfortu- nately this has led to the general belief that all turf grasses are favored by lime, which is scarcely the truth. Occasionally excellent Blue-grass is found on land very poor in lime, but in such cases there is always good drainage. Even when not in bloom Blue-grass may readily be recognized by its leaves. The leaf is about one- eighth inch wide, folded so as to be V-shaped in cross section, and the tip is boat-shaped, so that if it be pulled between the thumb and finger, a very notice- able split will be formed at the point. The only other 62 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES turf grass likely to be confused with Kentucky Blue- grass is Annual Blue-grass, but this has only fibrous roots and lacks the rootstocks of the former grass. Kentucky Blue-grass is very variable, and many strains differing to a slight degree may easily be se- lected. Occasional tufts are very dense and fine- leaved. Kentucky Blue-grass is an ideal grass in the North for fairways, and not rarely putting-greens are made up largely or almost wholly of this grass, especially where lime is used as a fertilizer. For putting- greens, however, it is not as fine as Creeping Bent or Red Fescue, but a good green of Blue-grass gives a fairly satisfactory putting surface. Excepting in the northern tier of states. Blue-grass languishes during midsummer, as it is not adapted to withstand high temperatures. With the advent of cool weather in autumn, however, it generally re- covers, even where a dense growth of Crab-grass has covered it during summer and early fall. Commercial seed of Kentucky Blue-grass is pro- duced in a few counties of Kentucky, Missouri, and Iowa, the greatest part of It from the first mentioned state, especially about the cities of Lexington, Win- chester, and Paris. The seed is gathered by special THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 63 stripping machines, as the tuft of hair at the base of the seed makes other methods unsatisfactory. The stripping is done before the heads are quite mature, on which account the seeds must be dried very care- fully, as otherwise they become injured by the spon- taneous heating which occurs in the piles of the scarcely ripe seeds. Blue-grass seed germinates better a year after it has been harvested than when fresh. Good seed should have a dark golden brown color, and be free from dust or musty odor. Light color indicates adulterated or mixed seed, while the presence of dust or musty odor implies improper curing and consequent low vitality. The best "seed weighs twenty-eight pounds to the bushel. Formerly it was much adulterated with Canada Blue-grass, but such practice has now largely ceased. ANNUAL BLUE-GRASS {Poa annuo) Annual Blue-grass (Fig. 4) is a weedy little grass that often occurs abundantly in putting-greens, springing up in the fall and disappearing in early summer. Where it is once established, it volunteers year after year, and in shady places often forms an excellent lawn in the spring. It is rather easily recognized by its light. 64 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES bright green color, its soft texture, the tendency of the leaves to curl toward the center, and the fact that they are often crumpled near the base. No matter how closely it is clipped, it will produce blossoms, often next to the ground. These some- times appear in fall and are always abundant in earliest spring. Most of the plants die by early summer, but in cool sea- sons a few will live over a year. Annual Blue-grass is not always looked on with favor, but when abundant it makes excellent put- ting-greens especially in early spring, and south- FiG. 4. — Annual Blue-grass {Poa j • 1 annua): a, base of leaf showing ligule ; Ward in late fall and win- i, tip of leaf. 11 >^ ter as well. On some Creeping Bent greens, Annual Blue-grass seems to make up all the grass on the green in early spring, THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 65 but as It gradually disappears in summer the Creeping Bent quickly replaces it as a rule. Occasionally the Annual Blue-grass is so abundant and dense as to injure the other grass seriously, but such cases seem rare. In the South Annual Blue-grass would be ideal as a winter turf for putting-greens, but unfortu- nately the seed is high priced and but little of it can be secured commercially. As a consequence, such putting-greens are found only where the Annual Blue-grass has been abundant enough to reseed the ground thoroughly. CANADA BLUE-GRASS {Poa comfresso) In spite of its name, Canada Blue-grass (Fig. 5) is a native of Europe, but for many years has been abundantly established in Canada. The distri- bution of Canada Blue-grass in America is nearly the same as that of Kentucky Blue-grass, but it is most abundant in poor soils, especially when rocky or gravelly. Canada Blue-grass is easily distinguished by various characters. The leaves are gray-green or bluish-green, rather tough in texture. The stems are compressed so as to be two-edged, and the 66 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES same is true of the abundantly produced rootstocks. The panicle is close and narrow, not loose as in Kentucky Blue-grass. The seeds lack the hairy appendage at the base found in Kentucky Blue-grass. In consequence the seed is much more easily harvested, and therefore sells at a much lower price. Most of the commer- cial seed is produced in southern Ontario. Formerly this was much used to adulter- ate Kentucky Blue- grass seed, but under stringent legislation this practice has largely ceased. Canada Blue-grass produces a very tough but not very dense or attrac- tive turf. It is a useful grass on fairways in the Fig. 5. — Canada Blue-grass (Poa compressa) a, spikelet; b, a single floret. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 67 northernmost states, especially where the soil is thin, but on better soils is not as good as Kentucky Blue- grass or Redtop. REDTOP {Agrostis alba) Redtop (Fig. 6) is botanically closely related to Creeping Bent. It is, how- ever, a decidedly coarser, larger grass with broader leaves and larger inflores- cence. Single plants of Redtop grow to a height of two to three feet, with leaf blades one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch wide. It spreads by creeping under- ground rootstocks. When planted thickly, however, and kept closely Fig. 6. — Redtop {Agrostis alba). 68 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES mowed, the leaves are smaller and the turf not par- ticularly coarse. If, however, the plants be given a better chance to grow, as at the edges of a green, the coarser nature of the turf quickly develops. Even when the turf is kept closely cut, Redtop can readily be distinguished from either Creeping Bent or Rhode Island Bent by the longer ligule (Fig. i8). Redtop is a remarkable grass, owing to the wide range of conditions under which it will thrive. It grows admirably in wet land or even in shallow water. In strange contrast it will resist drought as A^ell or better than most other grasses. For poor soils Redtop has long been recognized as one of the best grasses. Its range of climatic adaptation is scarcely less noteworthy, as it succeeds well from Canada south to the Gulf. Redtop is a grass of considerable agricultural im- portance, being utilized mainly on wet lands for hay and on poor uplands for either hay or pasture. Due to its wide agricultural use, commercial seed is grown in large quantity, mainly in southern Illinois. This seed is much cheaper than that of either Creep- ing Bent or Rhode Island Bent, and as it can be dis- tinguished only by an expert, it has often been used as a substitute or an adulterant for the two bents. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 69 Redtop is a very valuable grass for fair greens in the northern half of the United States, especially on soils poor in lime. Under such circumstances, it is much cheaper and just as satisfactory to grow Red- top as it is to lime the land to induce the growth of Blue-grass. For putting-greens Redtop is rather too coarse to be desirable. RHODE ISLAND BENT (AgrOSttS VulguHs) Rhode Island Bent (Plate V) is the most abundant turf grass growing on well-drained lands in New Eng- land, and it is common west to Michigan and south to Maryland. Botanically this grass is quite indis- tinguishable from Creeping Bent except that it pro- duces only short stolons or runners. It is not the same as any of the three forms mentioned under Creeping Bent. The evidence is quite clear that the grass is not native to America, in spite of its abundance in New England, but that it was intro- duced from Europe, probably from England. At one time Rhode Island Bent was mistakenly supposed to be the same as Velvet Bent or Brown Bent {Agrostis canina), but this last grass is not only very different, but it has never been a commer- 70 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES cial grass seed. Furthermore, Velvet Bent "is not aggressive under American conditions and nowhere has become a common grass. Rhode Island Bent seems to be a uniform strain and makes a slightly coarser, darker green turf than does Creeping Bent. Partly due to an error, but mainly to fraud, Rhode Island Bent has long been driven from the market. In former times Rhode Island Bent was much es- teemed in New England for both hay and pasture. It was also known as Fine Bent, Furze Top, and Redtop, but is very different from the coarser grass now known commercially as Redtop. Two causes led to driving Rhode Island Bent seed from the market. First, Illinois Redtop seed was much cheaper, and even in New England produced much higher hay yields, as it is a larger and coarser grass. The seed also is so nearly identical with that of Rhode Island Bent that unscrupulous or not well-informed seedsmen sold one for the other. Agriculturally Redtop is the better grass, but for lawns or fine turf Rhode Island Bent is far superior. Second, the idea became established in the seed trade that Creeping Bent and Rhode Island Bent were identical. This idea, it is true, is not far wrong as to botanical species, but turfs of Rhode Island Plate V. — Rhode Island Bent {Agrostis vulgaris). THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 71 Bent and Creeping Bent are different in appearance even if the seeds are indistinguishable. Rhode Island Bent thus lost much of its identity and reputation. It is scarcely inferior to German Creeping Bent for fine turf. Large areas of the grass in practically pure growth occur throughout New England and on Long Island. There is no good reason why large quantities of this seed should not be gathered to supply the American demand, as it is a grass of much value for fine turf. CREEPING BENT {Agrostis stoloniferd) Unquestionably the finest commercial grass for putting-greens in the North is Creeping Bent. It makes a beautiful, dense, soft, velvety turf, very compact and smooth, the ideal for a perfect putting- green (Plate VI). It thrives best in regions of moist, cool summers. On the outline map (Fig. i) is shown graphically the areas in which it may be grown. It succeeds best in the eastern states north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and especially well in New York and New England ; also on the northwest coast. In the South it can be grown satisfactorily only in the cooler half of the year, namely, fall to late spring. 72 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Creeping Bent seed all comes from south Germany, and as handled by seedsmen differs mainly in the degree to which it may have been recleaned. Cer- tain weed seeds are commonly present, only a few of which are objectionable, namely, mouse-ear chick weed, veronica, sorrel, and plantain. Occasional lots of Creeping Bent from Germany represent a trailing form of Redtop, which pro- duces much coarser stems and leaves. This form of Redtop is not found in America, and probably comes from a different part of Germany than does the true Creeping Bent. The seed is now most commonly sold under the name of Creeping Bent, but sometimes is catalogued as Florin-grass (also applied to Redtop), and True German Fiorin-grass. The seed is gathered from the wild grass, and never gives a perfectly uniform turf from the fact that several strains or varieties are included. If a Creeping Bent putting-green three or more years old be carefully examined, four kinds of turf can usually be distinguished, namely : (i) Very dense circular mats with fine, pale green leaves and long ligules ; (2) Similar, somewhat coarser, mats of a darker blue-green color ; (3) Much like 2 but of a THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 73 brighter green color ; and (4) Less compact turf that does not make circular mats but fills the spaces be- tween the others. Number i is in reality Velvet or Brown Bent {Agrostis canind), the seed of which is very commonly harvested with Creeping Bent. The three other forms are varieties of Creeping Bent, and when grown as separate plants produce runners one to six feet long which root at each joint. The three forms differ only in color and the compactness of the turf they form. There has been much confusion about the botan- ical identity of Creeping Bent, albeit there is none about its commercial origin. Creeping Bent belongs to a group of grasses that are extraordinarily diffi- cult to distinguish critically one from another, among them being those commercially known as Redtop and Rhode Island Bent. Creeping Bent, as pointed out, has at least three distinguishable kinds of turf, but the adult plants seem properly referable to the species known as Agrostis stolonifera, the name usually adopted in the trade. The three strains are not more different than similar strains that exist in most other grasses. The existence of these three strains, however, keeps Creeping Bent turf from being entirely uni- 74 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES form. Another slight objection is the fact that the older leaves in dying turn brown and persist for some time, so that there is often a brownish back- ground to the green in close-cut turf. The seed was formerly much adulterated with that of Redtop, the seeds of the two being so nearly identical that only an expert can distinguish them. This fraud is now seldom practiced, but it is well to purchase only from reliable seedsmen who are in position to guarantee the seed. The individual seeds are very small, one pound containing about 6,000,000. Creeping Bent is but slightly affected by lime, and it is very questionable whether lime should ever be applied where this grass is desired. Lime stim- ulates Blue-grass and White Clover, as well as various weeds, all of which on limed soils tend to crowd out the Creeping Bent. Creeping Bent should be sown alone, as other grasses do not blend with it and most of them are coarser. There is perhaps one exception to this statement; namely, that Red Fescue and Creeping Bent together are often very satisfactory, at least for two or three years while the grasses are inter- mixed. In time, however, each grass will make cir- THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 75 cular mats which spoil both the appearance of the turf and its putting quality, as the stiff, wiry leaves of Red Fescue make quite a different putting sur- face from the soft leaves of Creeping Bent. VELVET BENT OR BROWN BENT {Agrostis canino) Velvet Bent makes the finest and most beautiful turf of any northern grass yet known. The grass is native to Europe, but has never been handled pure in the seed trade. The seed is nearly always found in Creeping Bent, sometimes to the extent of 40 per cent of the whole. On any putting-green of Creeping Bent three years or more old, the circular mats made by Velvet Bent may readily be identified by the very dense, fine leaves and the rather pale apple-green color. By using a lens it will also be seen that the ligule is long and the surface of the leaves minutely rough- ened. For some strange reason the fact that Velvet Bent makes such exquisite turf has been overlooked, but efforts are now being made to establish the seed commercially. Rhode Island Bent has erroneously been advertised by seedsmen as Agrostis canina, and the frauds which have surrounded the handling 76 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES of Rhode Island Bent seed have probably had much to do with causing the neglect of Velvet Bent. The name Brown Bent is in allusion to the color of the flower and not of the turf. Putting-greens of pure Velvet Bent would be far superior in beauty and fineness to the best greens now in existence, but only actual experience will determine whether they could be maintained as well as those of Creeping Bent. RED FESCUE (Festucu rubro) Red Fescue (Fig. 7) is next to Creeping Bent and Rhode Island Bent the most desirable grass for northern putting-greens. It is particularly adapted to growing on sandy loams but succeeds well on clay loams or even on clays. On the sandy types of soil it is to be preferred to the bents, especially in New England and the northern tier of states. Red Fes- cue is almost indifferent to lime, and this substance need not be used where this grass is desired. The grass is also remarkably adapted to growing in shade, being in fact the best lawn grass for this pur- pose under American conditions. Red Fescue is native to the whole northern hemi- sphere, and is particularly abundant near the sea- coast. In Europe there are numerous varieties, dis- THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS n Fig. 7. — Red Fescue {Festuca rubra) : a, top of sheath and base of blade ; b, cross-section of leaf; c, the same as expanded on the upper leaves. 78 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES tinguished in part by the color of the herbage which varies from dark green to a pale glaucous green. Like all the fescues, Red Fescue has stiff leaves, which give it a characteristic feeling if the palm of the hand is passed over the turf. The lower leaves persist a long time when dead, so that close- cut turf often has a reddish brown background. It is the only one of the fine-leaved fescues that will make a dense continuous turf. Two varieties of Red Fescue occur in the trade, namely, Genuine or Creeping Red Fescue {Festuca rubra var. genuina), of which a small amount of seed is gathered in Germany ; and New Zealand or Chew- ings' Fescue {Festuca rubra var. fallax). Creeping Red Fescue has slender rootstocks by which it spreads, so that a single plant may in time occupy an area six feet in diameter. The small amount of commercial seed that may be obtained is, however, much mixed with Sheep's Fescue and various weeds. Chewings' or New Zealand Red Fescue is a pure variety distinguished by its dark green color and the absence of creeping rootstocks, but the branches are extravaginal so that a single plant will spread to be a foot in diameter, and the grass will make a soHd compact turf. This grass was introduced into THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 79 New Zealand from Germany about 1880 and for a time was very popular as a pasture plant, the seed having been harvested and sold first by a farmer named Chewings. At the present time it is used in New Zealand mainly on poor or thin soil, as other pasture grasses yield more on good soil. The New Zealand seed averages about twenty-four pounds to the bushel, but the best will weigh about twenty-six pounds. In well-cleaned commercial samples there are but few weed seeds, the only objectionable ones being Velvet Grass and Sheep Sorrel. The seed is often very low in viability, so that heavy seeding is necessary. The dark green strain of Creeping Red Fescue makes probably the most beautiful lawns of any grass. In the turf experiments conducted by J. B. Olcott at South Manchester, Connecticut, all of the grasses were propagated by division so as to secure absolute uniformity. The most beautiful of the numerous turfs he grew was a dark green strain of Red Fescue. His lawns of this were probably the most beautiful lawns ever grown anywhere. In 191 2, Fred W. Taylor, of Philadelphia, purchased this turf and about his home "Boxly" constructed his lawns of this grass. In spring and early summer 8o TURF FOR GOLF COURSES and again in late fall these lawns are unquestionably the most beautiful that exist. Unfortunately, how- ever, in the lati- tude of Philadel- phia this strain of Red Fescue in pure growth suf- fers from the at- tacks of a fungus disease, so that in midsummer the attractiveness of the turf is much lessened. sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina) Sheep's Fescue (Fig. 8) is native in the northern parts of the Old World, and apparently to a limited extent in North America. Commercial seed is produced wholly in Europe, and it is the cheapest of the fescues. The Fig. 8. — Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina) : a, glumes at base of spikelet; b, spikelet. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 8i grass is useful agriculturally for planting on well- drained soils, especially those too poor to produce better pasture grasses. It thrives well both on sandy soils and on thin, rocky hills. The grass is a bunch-grass, forming small tussocks four to eight inches in diameter, and usually sepa- rated by spaces equally wide. Under no circum- stances will it alone form a good turf, as there are no creeping stems, but on rich soils the tufts may be made to grow close together. While often used in mixtures for the fairways, this is never advisable, as it is not needed where creeping grasses will thrive, and if planted alone it gives a bunchy sward with objectionable cuppy lies for the ball between the tufts. The only desirable place for Sheep's Fescue on golf courses is in the rough, and especially where the soil is thin or sandy. HARD FESCUE {Festuca duriuscula) Hard Fescue is merely a variety of Sheep's Fescue with stiffer, broader leaves. Everything concerning the use of Sheep's Fescue on golf courses applies also to Hard Fescue. Most of the Hard Fescue seed in the trade is in reality Sheep's Fescue. 82 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES FINE-LEAVED FESCUE (Festuca capUlatd ; Festuca tenuifolia) Fine-leaved Fescue is also a grass of European origin. The leaves are very fine and dark green, much like those of Red Fescue. When in bloom this fescue is very easily distinguished, because its flowers are devoid of awns. Fine-leaved Fescue is a bunch-grass, the circular tufts being usually two or three inches in diameter, but sometimes larger. On this account it is not a desirable putting-green grass either alone or in mix- tures. Like Red Fescue it will thrive well in the shade, but the Red Fescue with its creeping habit is far more desirable. VARIOUS-LEAVED FESCUE {Festucu heterophyllo) This fescue derives its name from the fact that the stem leaves differ from the basal leaves in being broad and flat. It is native to Europe where all the commercial seed is gathered. The leaves are fine and dark green, and the grass is partly creeping in habit. It does best on a soil rich in humus. It is not a very satisfactory turf plant, however, and it is doubtful whether it has any place on American golf courses. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 83 BERMUDA-GRASS {Cyuodon dactylou) Bermuda-grass (Fig. 9) is native to India and prob- ably other parts of the Old World. In most parts of India it is known as doob, but in the southern portions as hariali. It became introduced into the United States before 1807, at which date it was already well established. The outline map (Fig. i) shows the area where Bermuda will survive the winter, and in most portions of this area it is now abundant. While Bermuda is the most valuable pasture grass in the South, it is often troublesome as a weed on account of the difficulty of eradicating it from cultivated fields. It is often termed Wire- grass, especially in Virginia, and in California also bears the name of Devil-grass. Bermuda-grass consists of numerous varieties which vary particularly in their degree of coarseness and in the presence or absence of rootstocks. Or- dinary Bermuda-grass has abundant creeping under- ground stems, but in the variety known as St. Lucie- grass these are entirely absent, all the stems being above the ground. Bermuda-grass will grow in all types of soil when well-drained, but shows a notable preference for 84 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES compact soils such as clays and clay loams. Ber- muda-grass is also much favored by the presence of lime ; a fact pa rt icu 1 a rly noticeable along the edges of shell roads. In general, Bermuda is not abundant on the sandy coastal soils of the South, Carpet- grass replacing it in large meas- ure. There is reason to be- lieve, however, that the use of lime would greatly increase its value on such soils. For ordinary lawns and fairways Bermuda-grass is most excellent during summer, but it turns brown Fig. 9. - Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : a, spikelet; b, floret. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 85 with the first heavy frost. By sowing ItaUan Rye-grass on top of the close-clipped Bermuda turf in fall, a good green lawn can be made for the winter. In the early summer after the Bermuda is growing vigorously, the Rye-grass disappears. This same method can be used on fairways to advantage, but few southern golf courses have thus far followed this plan, though commonly used in lawns. Bermuda putting-greens have in general not been altogether satisfactory, but a very notable exception is found in the greens of the Country Club at Mont- gomery, Alabama, developed by John M. Inglis. The excellent turf is apparently due primarily to the character of the soil, a heavy clay loam rich in lime. Heavy rolling to insure compact soil may also be im- portant, as the close dense turf which occurs along paths and roadsides would seem to indicate. Inglis believes that the withholding of artificial watering is important. The results secured at Montgomery make it seem probable that equally good putting-greens may be secured in the sandy soil area by using a top layer of clay soil a few inches thick and by applying lime generously. On many putting-greens the creeping runners of 86 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Bermuda make an uneven putting surface; but at Montgomery this difficulty does not occur. It is evident that for the best results a method must be used that will not induce the development of runners. In this connection several things are worthy of trial, namely, a clay surface soil, lime, moderate watering, and light fertilizing. It is not yet clear whether the growth of runners is stimulated by favorable conditions or by unfavorable, but the evidence in- dicates that on a rich well-limed compact clay loam soil a dense turf of Bermuda does not tend to produce runners, while on sandy land the growth is thinner and the runners are produced abundantly. Another hope lies in finding a variety of Bermuda that is fine in texture and which does not form creeping stolons. If such a form can be found, it may easily be kept pure by vegetative propagation. Bermuda may be grown either from seed or vege- tatively from the turf. Commercial seed is pro- duced both in Australia and in Arizona, the latter being preferable. The seeds are very small so that in sowing it is best to mix with double the quantity of some inert substance like sand, cottonseed-meal, and the like, by which means the seed can be scat- tered much more evenly. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 87 In propagating Bermuda vegetatively, the sod or rootstocks should be in small pieces, if convenient cut up by putting through a feed-chopper. These pieces can then be scattered over soil with a loose surface and pressed in with a roller. This can be done at any time during the growing season. With a reasonable amount of moisture, nearly every piece of turf or rootstock will root and grow. Where Bermuda is used for putting-greens, Italian Rye-grass is sometimes sown on the greens as soon as the Bermuda browns in fall. Italian Rye-grass grows very rapidly and soon forms good turf which will remain green all winter. For putting, however, Italian Rye-grass is coarser than is desirable. Red- top for winter greens should be fairly satisfactory, but thus far it seems not to have been utilized. An ideal grass for the purpose is Annual Blue-grass, but unfortunately the seed of this is rarely procurable. Where once well established this grass will usually reseed itself each year. Bermuda turf when thick will kill out all other perennial grasses where it grows, so that if Redtop or Italian Rye-grass is used as a winter green, it must be sown each fall. On fairways that are not to be used in the summer, the Bermuda sod can be greatly invigorated if desir- 88 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES able by plowing or disking once during the period when the course is not being used, preferably in spring or early summer. In the northern part of the region where Bermuda- grass will survive the winter, and in particular the area north of the southern boundaries of Virginia and Tennessee, it can scarcely be recommended for golf courses. In this area excellent fairways can be maintained with Blue-grass, Redtop, and White Clover, grasses which are green nearly all of the year. Bermuda-grass under such conditions forms unsightly brown spots in the sward in late fall and early spring, and has no compensating advantages. Besides there is danger of the grass finding its way to the putting- greens, where it is wholly undesirable if the greens are of finer grasses. BLUE COUCH-GRASS {Syntherisma didactyla; Digi- taria didactyla) Blue Couch-grass is a native of Australia much used for lawns in that country. In habit it is not un- like St. Lucie-grass, a variety of Bermuda-grass, but the leaves are decidedly bluish in color. From preliminary experiments it seems well adapted to the southern states, and it may prove more desir- THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 89 able for turf than Bermuda-grass. It is propagated vegetatively as described for Ber- muda-grass. It is not to be confused with Quack-grass or Witch-grass, commonly called Couch-grass in some sections. CARPET-GRASS {Axonopus com- pressus) C a r p e t-g r a s s (Fig. 10) occurs spon ta neou sly south of latitude 32° to the Gulf and as far west as Texas. The grass is a perennial with creeping root- stocks and numer- FiG. 10. — Carpet-grass {Axonopus compressus). 90 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES ous short, rather broad, flat, blunt-pointed leaves. The stems are compressed so as to be two-edged, and the slender flowering branches are one to two feet high. Carpet-grass prefers sandy land, especially where moist, and in such situations makes a fine dense sward. It stands trampling and pasturing without injury and seems to thrive best under such conditions. Carpet-grass can scarcely be considered a culti- vated grass, and commercial seed is seldom obtain- able. This grass now occurs in nearly all the area to which it is adapted, so that it is rarely necessary to plant it especially. Where this is desirable, how- ever. Carpet-grass may be planted by scattering small pieces of sod, as in the case of Bermuda-grass. Or better, the grass may be permitted to seed, mowed when mature, and the straw with the attached seed scattered over the field where it is desired. Carpet-grass is rather too coarse for putting-greens, but for fairways is an excellent turf grass. Near the Gulf Coast it is green from April to November. CRESTED DOGSTAiL {Cynosurus cHstatus) This is a European grass that is very poorly adapted to American conditions, so that it is a rare plant In the United States. On European golf THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 91 courses it is used to some extent, especially on tees, as the tough turf holds the ball up well. For some unfounded reason it is an element in many of the seedsmen's mixtures advertised for use on putting-greens in America. Even if the grass would thrive in this country, it does not make a turf comparable in fineness with Red Fescue or the bents. Its use in the United States, except perhaps in the western portions of Oregon and Washington, is a mistake. YELLOW OAT-GRASS {Trisetum flavescens) Yellow Oat-grass is a native of Europe used in pasture mixtures. Commercial seed is gathered in France. Plants of it are occasionally found in putting-greens, and are easily recognized by the pale color and hairiness. The turf is fairly good, but soft and slow, so that it is not to be recommended. It is not an aggressive grass under American conditions, ITALIAN RYE-GRASS {LoHum muUiflorum or Lolium italicum) Italian Rye-grass (Fig. 11) is a native of Europe, much used there for hay production, and to a small extent in a similar way in the United States, The 92 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES grass is a short-lived perennial, usually treated agriculturally as a winter annual. It is a common constituent of lawn mixtures, primarily, because the young seed- lings grow so rap- idly and make a green cover while the slower growing grasses are becom- ing established. For golf pur- poses, it has no place except to sow on Bermuda turf in the fall as the latter becomes brown. Used this way it will make a good green fair- way for the win- ter. It has also been used in this manner for put- ting-greens, but is rather too coarse. Annual Blue-grass and Redtop being preferable for this purpose. Fig. II. — Italian Rye-grass (Loliummultifiorum). THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 93 Fig. 12. — Perennial Rye-grass {Lolium ■perenne) : a, top of sheath, base of blade and ligule; b, cross-section of leaf-bud to show manner of folding. 94 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES PERENNIAL RYE-GRASS {LoHum perenm) This grass (Fig. 12), also known as English or Aus- tralian Rye-grass, is in general much like Italian Rye- grass, save that it is perennial, living several years. For golf purposes it has no higher value than Italian Rye-grass, and its initial growth is not so rapid. Perennial Rye-grass seed is sometimes put by seeds- men in putting-green mixtures, but the turf it forms is too coarse to be desirable. On fairways it is not objectionable, but there are few conditions under which other grasses are not more desirable, excepting where a turf is desired quickly. KOREAN LAWN-GRASS {Zoysia japonic o) This grass (Fig. 13) was introduced into the United States many years ago from Korea. In a general way it is comparable to Bermuda, but is far less ag- gressive than that grass. It will survive the winter as far north as Connecticut. For putting-greens it may prove desirable on sandy soils from North Caro- lina southward, but there is yet need of much experimenting to determine this point. Very beau- tiful turf of this grass is growing at Miami, Florida. It is also known as Palm Beach-grass. THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 95 Fig. 13. — Korean Lawn-grass (Zoysia japonica). MANILA-GRASS {Zoysia matrello) Manila-grass is native to the Philippines and other places in the Malayan region. In Manila it makes the very fine and beautiful turf seen on the Luneta. In experimental trials along the Gulf Coast of the United States this grass has formed very beautiful 96 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES plots of fine-leaved turf, which remains green all winter. The texture of the turf would make it ideal for putting-greens, and there is hope that this grass may be exactly what is desired for Gulf Coast and Florida golf courses. MASCARENE-GRASS (Zoysia tenuifoHd) This grass was originally found in the Mascarene Islands, but was introduced into the United States in 191 2 from Guam. It differs from the other Zoysias in having very short, stiff leaves and makes a beautiful turf much like Red Fescue. Under- ground it produces an enormous quantity of short rootstocks which keep elevating the turf in ridges, a defect that probably could be controlled by proper rolling. Both in California and along the Gulf Coast, plots of this turf succeed well, but it has not yet been tested for golf purposes. It remains green all winter on the Gulf Coast. JAPAN CLOVER {Lespedeza striata) Japan Clover or Lespedeza (Fig. 14) is an annual clover-like plant introduced into the United States about 1846. It is native to western Asia and un- doubtedly became introduced into America by acci- .--^1^^ THE IMPORTANT TURF PLANTS 97 dent. There still exists a dried specimen of the plant collected by T. C. Porter at Monticello in cen- tral Georgia in 1846, which is the first definite record of the plant in America. In the South the opinion exists in many places that the plant was first intro- duced during the Civil War. Doubt- less the plant was greatly spread dur- ^|^P ^^^^ \^S, ing that struggle by the movements of cavalry. On the accompanying map (Fig. 15) is shown the outline of the area over which Japan Clo- ver has become established, and Fig. 14. — Japan Clover (i«^?rf«aj«na«5P S zattir^ s^^t^.tr-r z^tfv-^sc c Fig. 50. — Diagrammatic cross-section of the soil layers of a putting-green constructed according to the method most approved by F. W. Taylor. found to be impracticable, so he conceived the idea of laying them at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and on account of the diagonal position he called the layers "slants." The so-called moisture and food slant was composed of a mixture of three parts clay and one part cow manure, and was about three inches in thickness. The other slant was composed of decayed peat moss, chopped in a feed chopper and 220 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES mixed with cow manure at the rate of nine parts of the former to one of the latter. This slant was called the deep-rooting layer, and was one and one- half inches in thickness. For convenience of laying, the materials for these slants were mixed and molded into rectangular slabs of suitable dimen- sions. When placed in position they had a vertical depth of twelve inches. (Fig. 50.) The slants, in Taylor's opinion, furnished an ex- cellent medium for the development of grass roots, for supplying food to the plants, and for absorbing and holding moisture ; in addition to these qualities, they provided excellent drainage. With a twelve- inch slant section, followed by a lower three-fourth inch blanket layer, then an upper blanket layer from nine-sixteenth inch to one and one-sixteenth inches, and finally a three-sixteenths inch germinating layer on the surface, all of which contained large quanti- ties of peat and manure, it readily will be seen that the soil of Taylor's greens was composed very largely of organic matter which, together with the other materials and the methods of construction, made the building of a green after his plan unusually ex- pensive. According to his own estimates the cost of constructing a green of average size would be EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON GOLF COURSES 221 approximately $2500. However, he did not con- sider this prohibitive and, in fact, beUeved his method, in the last analysis, to be an economical one. In discussing the requirements of a putting-green, he says in one of his articles on the subject : "The most important element is, of course, the soil which will ultimately allow the roots to go deep below the surface. If you have a natural soil of this sort, then I look upon germinating the proper number of seeds per square inch in the peat moss germinating layer as the next most important. Third comes the upper peat moss and limestone blanket layer, and fourth, the lower blanket layer. So much can be accom- plished at a small cost through the use of peat moss germinating and blanket layers that no new green should be built without them. The writer places these three elements ahead of the artificially slanted layer soil because their cost is insignificant compared with the latter. If, however, fine results are desired within a few years after making a green, all of these elements are necessary. At the end of six years after making one of our greens, the original cost, plus the annual expense of maintaining it, will be less than that of a green under the usual way." Even a casual glance at Taylor's method of green 222 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES construction reveals several unique features, some of which are not in accord with the orthodox views on the subject. For example, the germinating and blanket layers contain large quantities of bone and pulverized limestone. Bone is objected to by many because of its influence on White Clover, and lime is thought to be prejudicial to the best development of the bent grasses and Red Fescue. Such a large per- centage of organic matter as Taylor's plan calls for is commonly objected to on the ground that it de- composes, causing uneven settling, and also on other grounds. It is not intended here to enter into a defense or a criticism of Taylor's method. Fortunately he per- sonally supervised the making of four greens accord- ing to this method on a new course near Philadel- phia, and many new greens in other parts of the country have been built after it, so that it will in time develop its own advantages and weaknesses. This opportunity, however, cannot be missed to express appreciation of the motive which prompted Taylor's work, and of its value in stimulating much needed critical turf investigations. CHAPTER XV Personal Experiences Among the golfers of the country are many who have devoted much of their time and energy to a study of the problems involved in growing good turf. The experience of every one of these men con- tains much of interest and value to all who are con- cerned with similar work. Some golf clubs have been so remarkably successful in securing and main- taining good turf that they have attracted visits from many greenkeepers and others confronted with a like task. It is usually good economy for a club to send its greenkeeper or the committee in charge of the course to make such visits, as much valuable infor- mation is thus secured and many costly errors' may be avoided. The experiences of three ardent golfers who have had much success in growing turf are pre- sented here in their own words. It will be noted that in some details these gentlemen reach variant conclusions, but in the main their results are in close concord with the body of this book. 223 224 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN GROWING TURF ON GOLF COURSES NEAR PHILADELPHIA Hugh I. Wilson The Merion Cricket Club, of Philadelphia, played golf on leased property for nearly twenty years and, as is usual in this country, the land became so valuable that the club was forced to move. This experience showed the advantage of permanency, so early in 1911 the Club appointed a committee consisting of Messrs. Lloyd, Griscom, Francis, Toul- min, and Wilson to construct a new course on the 125 acres of land which had been purchased. The members of the committee had played golf for many years, but the experience of each in con- struction and greenkeeping was only that of the average club member. Looking back on the work, I feel certain that we would never have attempted to carry it out, if we had realized one-half the things we did not know. Our ideals were high and for- tunately we did get a good start in the correct principles of laying out the holes, through the kind- ness of Messrs. C. B. Macdonald and H. J. Whigham. We spent two days with Mr. Macdonald at his bungalow near the National Course and in one PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 225 night absorbed more ideas on golf course construc- tion than we had learned in all the years we had played. Through sketches and explanations of the correct principles of the holes that form the famous courses abroad and had stood the test of time, we learned what was right and what we should try to accomplish with our natural conditions. The next day we spent going over the course and studying the different holes. Every good course that I saw later in England and Scotland confirmed Mr. Mac- donald's teachings. May I suggest to any com- mittee about to build a new course, or to alter their old one, that they spend as much time as possible on courses such as the National and Pine Valley, where they may see the finest types of holes and, while they cannot hope to reproduce them in en- tirety, they can learn the correct principles and adapt them to their own courses. Our problem was to lay out the course, build, and seed eighteen greens and fifteen fairways. Three fairways were in old pasture turf. These will be mentioned later. We collected all the in- formation we could from local committees and green- keepers, and started in the spring of 191 1 to con- struct the course on ground which had largely been 226 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES farm land. We used an average of fifteen tons of horse manure to the acre on the fairways and eight tons of various kinds of manure to a green, the greens averaging about 10,000 square feet in area. At time of seeding, we added 300 pounds of bone- meal to the acre and 100 pounds to a green. After completing the construction of the greens, and thoroughly harrowing and breaking up the soil on both fairways and greens, we allowed the weeds to germinate and harrowed them in about every three weeks. We sowed from September i to 15 and made a remarkably good catch, due to two things — good weather conditions and a thorough preparation of the soil. We opened the course September 14, 1912, just a year after seeding, and it was in good playing condition. Naturally, the greens had not a finished surface. We found that it was very easy to get grass started, if weather conditions were normal, but experience has shown us how difficult It Is to keep It in good shape. After we had one season's growth, one of the grass experts of the United States Department of Agriculture, when looking over the course, remarked that the writer should publish a book on the growing of grass. Being modest, I asked him for his reasons PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 227 a«d he replied, "Now you have definite fixed ideas as to what seed, fertilizers, and the like caused certain results, but each year your opinion will become less certain on account of the great num- ber of factors which enter into the results." He was right, and it is truly diificult to give definite answers to many of the questions which bother those who are trying to grow turf. As one green- keeper puts it, it is easy to grow grass but very difficult to get turf. Two months after opening our course, we were forced, on account of the increased interest in golf, to buy 125 acres more for another eighteen-hole course, which we started to build in March, 1912, and seeded in May. We were unfortunate in having a drought that summer, which burned out the fairways and by the end of August it looked as if we would have to reseed them all. Luckily, plenty of rain in September brought them back and they were in fair condition by May, 1913, when the course was opened. Natu- rally, this experience makes us prefer autumn seed- ing, and further experience has shown that in this section of the country it is the safer time. It may simplify this account if the experience is placed under headings. 228 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Soil. Ours Is a clay loam, which would be called in this section a good farming soil. It is a fair lawn soil. Our fairways have grown well and have withstood drought with little damage. Our error in building the greens was a failure to open up the soil suffi- ciently and take care of the drainage. When we built them, they were all raised above the surround- ing ground level so as to get good surface drainage and freedom from wash. We also forked in about eight tons of manure to a green and added about five tons of sand (not nearly enough) with a layer of leaf-mold, sand, and soil mixed in about equal proportions for the seed-bed. As was stated before, the results were good the first year, and it was not until the end of the second year that we noticed much deterioration in certain of the low-lying greens. In the fall of 1913, two years after seeding, the grass started to die in these greens and although we nursed them carefully, having noticed early in the summer that they were weak, all our efforts with fertilizer, water, and care were of no avail. Opinions differed as to the cause and treatment. Finally, we determined that as we could obtain a quantity of good turf from our old course, we PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 229 would dig them up and resod them. We started November i and our first decision, after a thorough investigation of the soil conditions, was to add a lot of sand and gravel, and also to under-drain them with tile. In order to lessen the cost, we dug the gravel out of the stream near the greens and covered the present soil to a depth of four inches. To this we added ten tons of manure ; this was thoroughly worked so that it was a complete mix- ture of soil, gravel, and manure, and at this point may I strongly emphasize one thing — that experi- ence has taught us that, whenever manure, sand, or any such substance is added to the soil, the mixture must be made as thorough as possible in order to obtain really good results. We then put in drains of three-inch tile, eighteen inches deep and twelve feet apart, with as big a fall as possible. On two greens it was possible to keep both ends of the drains open and these were protected by a fine wire netting. After this we tested our soil by flooding the green so as to see if it would take care of the excess of moisture. It is very difficult to say just how much sand or gravel should be added to a soil to make it right. The gravel should only be used for the lower stratum of your green, and 230 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES sand for the upper three inches, as gravel will spoil the putting as well as the mowers. Naturally, the depth depends on the size of the gravel. The ideal is a soil that will absorb enough moisture to take care of the grass roots in dry weather, that will raise the moisture in time of drought from the lower levels, and that will dispose of the excess. The latter can be tested out by flooding. Care must be taken, however, not to add so much sand that the soil will not retain enough moisture. Prob- ably the simplest test is to squeeze the soil, when damp, in your hand and if it falls apart it is too sandy, but just previous to this stage it is about right. This I appreciate is a crude way of explaining soil structure, but is used because of the absence of a better one. The tremendous importance of soil structure cannot be over-emphasized. If it is bad, it does not make any difference how much you may fertilize or what you may do, you cannot have satisfactory greens. By satisfactory greens are meant greens that are in good shape most of the year and will stand a lot of wear. From our experience, soil structure is the foundation of green- keeping, and it is a simple matter, and relatively inexpensive, to make proper soil conditions when PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 231 constructing greens. It must be remembered that our experience has been with soils near Philadelphia. Surface drainage we found necessary, owing to the fact that wherever there was a hollow the grass died out. It was not due to winter kill only, but also to excess moisture at other times. Seed. Our putting-green mixture consisted of equal parts by weight of Creeping Bent, Rhode Island Bent, and Red Fescue (Chewings' Fescue), which made a very large percentage of bents on account of the smallness of the seed as compared to Fescue, about ten to one. When reseeding our greens, which we have done either once or twice a year, we have used nothing but Creeping Bent, as the Red Fescue did not grow well in our greens. Last year we used Rhode Island Bent ^ on account of the scarcity of Creeping Bent, due to the war. The fairway mixture on the first course consisted of equal parts by weight of Sheep's Fescue, Red Fescue (Chewings' Fescue), Slender Fescue, Creeping Bent, and Rhode Island Bent. Here again the bents 1 Recent investigations have disclosed the fact that probably no genuine seed of Rhode Island Bent has been gathered in the last ten years. All of numerous samples examined prove to be either Creeping Bent or Redtop, mostly the latter. 232 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES predominated, but we obtained much better results in the fairways from the fescues, due, we believe, to the fact that the grass is not cut so closely. On our second course we omitted the Slender Fescue, which was of little value to us. The turf on the fairways is very similar to that on the putting-greens, and has given excellent results. It withstands drought, forms a fine mat, and makes little varia- tion in the run of the ball from the fair-green to the putting-green. Our conclusion has been that it pays to buy good, clean seed from a reliable firm, and unless you are given the exact proportions not to buy mixtures. There is a lot of nonsense talked about secret mixtures. There are but few grasses that will form a first-class putting- green, and of the two main varieties, fescues and bents, one or the other will probably grow in your soil. Grass. The one important feature which has apparently been overlooked in the books on this subject, is the question of the length of grass. We have found that the fescues will grow splendidly in the rough or in the fairway, if they are not kept closely cut. We have also found that they would scarcely grow PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 233 at all in the greens where closely cut. Experience has taught us that the cutting of grass should be very carefully studied, and that if left at a good length, such as it is in the short rough way, say two or three inches, grass will grow and thrive under pretty nearly any conditions in our soil, whereas if it is cut down to our fairway length, that is, close cutting for fairways, it will not stand so much wear. When we get to the extreme of putting-greens, where the tendency to cut closer and make greens faster has steadily increased, we find it indeed difficult to keep the grass in good shape during the whole year. From a greenkeeping standpoint, it would save a great deal of money and a great deal of worry if the grass were left longer, and it were not necessary to keep greens as fast as billiard tables in order to have them rated first class. A careful study of mowing in the hot months of summer has led us to adopt the practice of clipping the putting- greens frequently but not as closely as Is possible. We also allow the grass both on the greens and fair- ways to go into winter a bit long, thus providing a thicker mat during the season when there is no growth. These methods we believe have greatly assisted the turf. 234 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Sodding. The general impression seems to be that seeding is preferable to sodding, but we are led to believe that the sodding is more satisfactory, if you have a supply of really good sod, on account of the sav- ing of time and the guarantee, if the work is well done, of certain results. In the fall of 1915 three of the fairways left in the old pasture turf be- came so weak that we decided to try sodding them instead of seeding. This was done to save time and keep the course in play. We had a great deal of fine sod in the rough which was of no value there, so we started at 160 yards and sodded to 230 yards, with a width of 45 yards, and were sur- prised, not to say gratified, to find that it cost us less than one hundred dollars a fairway to do this work. This included not only the sodding but the plowing and fining of the ground, and the manure and fertilizer which were added. In the case of tees, it takes so long for grass, if seeded, to become strongly enough established to stand any wear, that we are thorough believers in sodding. To obtain good results in sodding tees and greens, we have found that the sod must be trimmed by putting in a box shaped like a picture-frame, about one PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 235 inch deep, and then trimmed with a draw-knife to an even thickness. Prior to this, all the sod is cut in pieces about a foot square, by marking off the green with a plank one foot wide and cutting along both sides of the plank. This makes each sod exactly the same length and breadth, and saves much time in fitting. It is then lifted and trimmed to even thickness before laying. The tee or green is carefully prepared before laying the sod, and then the sodding is started from the near side of the green and as the sod is laid on, planks are laid on top of the sod and the men work while standing on the planks. This prevents them from walking over the green and making impressions with their feet before the sod is laid. After this, the sod is allowed to settle three or four days before rolling, a heavy coating of sand being spread over, which will work into the cracks and level it off, then the sod is lightly rolled. After a few days longer, a heavy roller is put on and then the work is allowed to settle for as long a time as possible before using. Our best success has been with sodding late in the fall so that it can settle during the winter, and we have thus obtained an excellent playing surface by early spring. 236 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Greenkeepers. We have found that a greenkeeper should be a man who can diagnose any trouble quickly, and who will nurse the grass with infinite care. He must watch the course every day and practically all day, as changes come so very rapidly in turf. One of the great failings of greenkeepers is due to the lack of thought on the part of the com- mittees. They have never taught them thoroughly the question of cost. After careful study, one of our members has worked out a budget which shows the detailed cost of the work month by month for the whole year. Of course, this cannot be adhered to in every detail, but the main object is to put the plan before the greenkeeper so that he can see just what he has to do and how much money he has to do it with. He then begins to figure a job not by the size but by the cost. It is most important to try to make the greenkeeper think in dollars and cents. The usual answer to a question of, "Do you think you can do this," will be, "Oh ! yes, it Is not a very big job," but if you ask the same man what it would cost, it would be hard for him to give an estimate. The cost of mowing the fairways and greens, in addition to all the general cost, becomes PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 237 an interesting and most profitable study. It is a very simple matter for the greenkeeper to keep track of the cost of a new bunker or the sodding of a green, and each time he does it he learns a little more about the cost question and why it is such an important factor in all work. It also gives him a new interest in the work, and a basis for competi- tion with his former work, and we believe you will find that your greenkeeper is keener for knowing that the last bunker cost $20.80 to build and that the next one he is going to build will cost a little bit less because he has figured a way of doing it more cheaply. We have obtained splendid results by sending our greenkeeper to as many courses as possible in order that he may see what other persons are doing and profit by their good results, as well as by their errors. Labor. The organization of labor has played a big part in making savings for us. For instance, one man has entire charge of all the machines. If for any reason a machine, either a horse machine or a putting- green machine, will not cut, it is brought back at once to the stable and a new machine taken out. The man who has charge of it then puts it in repair. 238 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES He adjusts all the machines, and the men who do the cuttings are not allowed to alter a machine in any way. In this way one man is responsible and attains a thorough knowledge of the machines. Surprisingly good results have been accomplished by this method of handling. The labor we have used has been Italian, and during four years' experi- ence on the two courses, we have had absolutely no trouble with them and found them faithful, willing, and exceptionally well fitted to this class of work. Rolling. The question of rolling seems to be fairly well understood at present and all seem to be following the same line, that is, to use light rollers rather than heavy. We find that the heavy one can only be used safely in the spring and the fall. In the first period to put the ground down after the frost has gone out, and in the second period when the danger of packing is small, as the frost will come into the ground in a month or so. We use a heavy motor mower on the course only a very few times in a year. For fair-green mowers, the three pony machines yoked together are the most satisfactory. This lawn mower will do a tremendous amount of work PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 239 in a very short time, and at present seems to be so well constructed that it is not always breaking down. They do not pack the ground, as the weight is small compared with the ordinary horse machine, and trivial as compared to a motor mower. For the greens we use the light wooden rollers and try to see that the greens are not rolled when they are wet, either by rain or the dew. On our soil a crust will form if care is not taken in this regard. Weeds. The only weed that has given us really much trouble is Crab-grass, and so far we have found nothing that will have any effect on it except the actual plucking out of the plant. This is done as soon as it appears in our greens, and a careful watch is made to find the very first plants. As many extra men as we can afford are employed to pluck it out at once, and strings are put across the green and the spaces marked off so that the men will not miss any in the operation. As soon as one green is finished they go to the next and may have to return to the first inside of a week, if the growth is heavy, and weed it all over again. This we believe is the most economical way of handling the problem. While the first cost is heavy if you do it thoroughly, 240 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES the result, if you do not, is the loss of a great deal of turf, and a great deal of trouble and expense is stored up for the future. The other weeds, such as plantain, dandelions, and the like, we have found can be most easily destroyed by using an acid such as sulfuric. The simplest method is to use a pickle jar half full of sulfuric acid and with an instrument like a sharpened ice pick, or any sharp steel instrument with a wooden handle, put a drop of acid in the center of the weed. That is, simply dip the instrument into the jar and then stick it deeply into the crown of the weed. In a few days the weed dries up and disappears, and the green is not disturbed and torn up as it is when the weeds are dug out. We believe a man can cover at least twice as much ground in this way as he can by taking out the weeds with a knife or any other im- plement. As far as our experience shows, no harm has come to the ground from the use of the acid. Grubs and worms. The one insect that has bothered us most is the grub, Cotinis nitida. This has affected the greens chiefly, although at times the fairways also. While the use of a heavy roller has helped somewhat, and solutions, such as kerosene emulsion, may PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 241 slightly check the insect, they do not really eradi- cate the grub. The use of a straight piece of iron about the size of a lead pencil which is forced down the hole, followed by squirting into each hole kerosene emulsion, or any other solution that is deadly to the grub, has so far proved to be the only sure cure. This seems like a lot of work, and it is, but we have not found any way which is easier or less expensive. As to worming the greens, we have tried bi- chloride of mercury and several of the different pow- ders which are advertised by seedsmen. The pow- ders seem to be the best method of applying the cure on account of the labor cost being much less. One of the great difficulties is, that the time of worming comes at the time of reseeding the greens and it is always a grave problem whether to seed first and worm afterwards, or to worm first and seed after- wards. We must admit we have not definitely settled in our own minds which is the better plan. Fertilizers. Nitrate of soda has been our mainstay on the greens. Our plan has been frequent applications in small quantities. On a green of 10,000 square feet we may use only ten pounds at a time, but we may use it every two weeks for a while. It is 242 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES mixed with sand and carefully watered in at once. On our fairways, bone-meal, 300 pounds to an acre, once a year, has been the regular ration, and results have been good. Ground limestone, 1000 pounds to the acre, has also been added with good results. We believe that if we were forced to use for all purposes only one form of fertilizer, we would take compost. Nothing that we have done has given as good results as top-dressing with compost ; ap- parently it can be used with good results at almost any time of the year. Piles of compost on different parts of a course are real safeguards against many of the dangers that may arise, and the truly remark- able results that a light top-dressing will accom- plish are astounding. One of the main faults of greenkeeping is to put all the attention and fertilizer on the greens and none on the fairways. There have been many examples of good fairways going to pieces because they were allowed to go year after year with little care and practically no fertilizer. We have found it very necessary to see that our fairways receive a considerable amount of fertilizer each year. In conclusion, our experience has taught us the real importance of good soil structure for putting- PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 243 greens, the splendid result from the use of plenty of top-dressing, and the great advantage of intelligent cutting. EXPERIENCE IN GROWING TURF ON THE COURSE OF THE COLUMBIA GOLF CLUB NEAR WASHINGTON, D.C. Dr. Walter S. Harban The course of the Columbia Golf Club is of partic- ular interest on account of the excellent results secured by top-dressing methods on a turf origi- nally very poor, and on soil of low fertility. When the course was originally laid out in 1909 the whole area was plowed in fall, harrowed, and seeded the following spring, but the resulting fairways were very unsatisfactory. On the putting-greens a year or two later there was used unfortunately a large amount of Perennial Rye-grass in the mixture, and on many of the greens this still persists, but is gradu- ally being crowded out by finer grasses. Since 191 3 the welfare of the course has been under the care of the writer. The success in improving the turf to a high degree of perfection without at all interrupt- ing play is an example of what may be accomplished by such methods. When the course was built in 1910 there was very 244 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES little known of greenkeeping and men of even limited experience were not obtainable to give direction. Consequently faulty construction, inadequate prep- aration, meaningless endeavor, marked its develop- ment for several years, or until it seemed a hope- less task to do anything but start afresh. Under such conditions by the methods here related most satisfactory results have been obtained. Com- mencing in the summer of 191 3, necessary materials of all sorts, such as soils, compost, tools, machinery, and the like, were secured for early active fall work. Putting-greens. The putting-greens received attention the first of September, when active work was started. They were raked thoroughly, removing very much un- desirable grass. Many of them were forked and loosened up, others disked with the velvet lawn seeder. From 100 to 200 pounds of raw bone was broadcast and raked into the ground. A compost made of two parts of screened mushroom soil, one part of loam, and one part of sand, one-half inch deep, was applied and raked, smoothed, and rolled. The seeds were then broadcast and raked in, followed by rolling. Every spring and fall as early as possible, the PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 245 putting-greens are reseeded where necessary, and always given a light dressing of the mushroom com- post. In winter from one to two yards of sharp sand is applied at frequent intervals, at the rate of four to six wheelbarrow loads at a time to a green. While the putting-greens in 19 13 were poor, they have been improved under this treatment so that most of them may be classed as very excellent. Some of the Perennial Rye-grass which was origi- nally seeded in them still persists, but is less evi- dent each succeeding season. All new reseeding of the putting-greens is with a mixture of Creeping Bent and Red (Chewings') Fescue. Fairways. The fairways for the most part were rough, pitted, and broken. They were harrowed with a straight- tooth harrow, as well as the two-horse scratcher. Nearly an inch of good loam was spread on all thin places, and raw bone and a light dressing of mush- room soil applied. This was hand-raked, rolled with the heavy roller, and seeded, after which it was again raked and rolled. The results from this simple treatment were quick and have been lasting. All of the fairways are dressed in early winter with a light application of mushroom soil. It will 246 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES be seen that the' principal fertilization has been with mushroom soil, which is nothing less than horse manure which has been used in mushroom beds and removed after it has ceased to be productive for that purpose. The only effect of its use in the mushroom beds is to destroy all seeds and so com- pletely rot it that it may readily be screened with a quarter-inch screen. It not only contains humus of excellent quality, but in a form readily avail- able for grass purposes. Care of putting-greens. For years it was impossible to get a greenkeeper to cut the greens close in summer. After much insistence and finally absolute demand, two summers ago the greens were not only cut every day, but very close. The improvement was so marked in quality, texture, and strength of grass after the hot weather was over, that the greenkeeper now resents a suggestion even to let them go over a day. Get the surface of your greens true by very heavy roll- ing in early spring ; afterwards use a light wooden roller frequently. Watering. There is no treatment in the care of a green requiring more painstaking than that of water- PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 247 ing. Careless watering does harm. The greens are watered in the daytime when a man can see what he is doing. Cool or overcast days they are watered in the mornings ; on bright hot days, any time after two or three o'clock in the afternoon. During dry weather, six greens are watered each day, or all once in three days. At first the sprinkler is allowed to play about ten minutes and then moved to another point. By the time the entire green has been covered the first watering has opened up the pores of the ground and started capillary action, when it is ready to receive more water. Each green is gone over four or five times, leaving the sprinkler longer each time but never to flood the surface or to the point of water-logging. By this method a green can be watered more easily and more quickly with less water and less injury. The lesson from nature of the benefits following an all day or night gentle rain, or of the disastrous results of a heavy downpour, will appeal to green- keepers. The nearer one keeps to nature in all green work, the greater will be the success achieved. The heavy gasoline machine for cutting our fairways is used almost exclusively. Notwith- standing the fact that the course is hilly and the 248 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES soil a clay loam, yet each year the turf has improved greatly and to-day is probably not inferior to that of any other course in the country. May it not be the neglect to feed the soil that has caused such general condemnation of heavy rolling ? Grubs. A most interesting discovery was noted last season through the medium of heavy rolling. The approaches to all the greens have been cut either by hand or horse-cutters. From the point where the heavy rolling left off up to the greens, the grub worm commonly known as the June-beetle com- pletely destroyed all the grass. Other points on the course where heavy rolling was impossible were affected in like manner. This strongly indi- cates a means of combating the ravages of the pest that has done so much injury to many golf courses and thus far has defied all safe means of control. y4nts. Two or three drops of carbon bisulfide dropped in an ant burrow and immediately covered with a wet bag or blanket will completely destroy ants. A small oil can with a long spout is the best way to apply the liquid. A few drops are sufficient, as much will burn the grass but not injure it seriously. PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 249 THE GROWING OF FINE TURF ON THE SANDY LOAM SOIL OF LONG ISLAND FOR GOLFING PURPOSES Charles B. Macdonald, National Golf Links Links proper in Scotland, on which the famous golf courses such as St. Andrews, North Berwick, Prestwick, and Machrihanish, are laid out, is sandy ground, usually undulating, on the seashore. The sand having ceased to drift, the links are usually covered with bent-grass, furze, heather, whins, and the like. The term links in Scotland is synony- mous with dunes as used in England and on which the best English golf courses have been laid out, such as Sandwich, Westward Ho, and Hoylake. Confining myself to the links and dunes of the extreme eastern portion of Long Island, it may be stated that the sandy loam areas are far more bare of humus than similarly situated areas in Scotland and England, so that the seed-bed must be built to establish a good golfing turf. The National Golf Links of America, at Shinnecock Hills, is built on land much like that of the seaside courses in Great Britain as above described, but under Ameri- can climatic conditions which present problems on which little successful experience is available. 2SO TURF FOR GOLF COURSES While the light sandy loam is ideal for playing the game (and no course can be really perfect without it), the matter of securing good turf is far more difficult than on heavier soils. Grasses once estab- lished on a sandy loam soil give a character of turf which cannot be equaled for golfing purposes on a heavier soil such as is usually found on inland courses. The methods used and the results obtained on the National Links should therefore be of value to others who have a similar problem. The two most important factors are : First, to procure pure seed of the grasses best suited to the conditions. Second, to prepare the soil so as to obtain the best results. Grasses. The natural grass of Long Island is Rhode Island Bent. It is evident everywhere, where the land is not too densely covered with dwarf shrubs and various kinds of sedge grass. This is the only fine grass to be found in quantity on the sandy loam soils on the eastern portion of Long Island. The difficulty is to get pure seed. Only on a small scale is it harvested commercially for seeding pur- poses in this country, and it takes an expert to tell by looking at the seed whether it is Rhode Island PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 251 Bent or Creeping Bent or Redtop. The difference in price is 25 cents a pound for the Bent against 10 cents a pound for Redtop, roughly speaking, hence the temptation to substitute a certain quan- tity of other seed which is sold as Rhode Island Bent. Rhode Island Bent has a tendency to creep, and is similar to Creeping Bent, but it is not so vigorous a creeper as Creeping Bent from South Germany. Creeping Bent is excellent to mix with Rhode Island Bent for putting-greens. The blades of both grasses are fine and soft. Creeping Bent, however, does not resist drought quite as well as Rhode Island Bent. New Zealand Chewings' Fescue is undoubtedly Red Fescue acclimatized and established in New Zealand, whence all the commercial seed is secured. It has been a source of great satisfaction to us to discover how well adapted this grass is to Long Island conditions. The grass is creeping in char- acter and makes a hardy, excellent turf, and once matted it is difficult for weeds to find a foothold. A mixture of Rhode Island Bent and New Zea- land Chewings' Fescue makes a perfect "fair green." 252 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES Chewings' Fescue also makes an excellent putting- green, the only objection to it being that it does not keep as green as the bent grasses. It greens up later in the spring and in the summer months during the heat it becomes brown sooner than the bents, but it is far more hardy than the bents and will stand any kind of drought and such punish- ment as is inflicted on teeing grounds. There is one peculiarity of Chewings' Fescue, and that is the loss of germinating power with age. The seed is harvested in New Zealand in February, and one should not fail to use it by the fall of the same year it is harvested, for it will lose 40 to 50 per cent of its germinating power if kept for an- other season. One should also bear in mind that there is a far greater number of seeds in a pound of bent than in a pound of fescue, and in seeding this should be considered. To my mind, there are no other seeds worth mentioning for the sandy loam soils of Long Island. All the fescues do well, but the other fescues are bunch grasses, and undesirable for golf courses, except they be used for the "rough" at the side of the "fair green." PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 253 Fair green. The following is the manner in which we treated the soil for the "fair green" on Shinnecock Hills : We did not plow, but cut the brush off through- out the summer while we were making our compost for the seed-bed. Cutting the brush left the roots in the ground to bind it, and these rotted into excel- lent humus in a few years. It requires nearly 140 tons of compost to top-dress one acre one inch in thickness for the fair green seed-bed. One inch is scant, two is better. Constant watching is necessary to avoid killing by drought, and the seeded fair green should be covered by light horse manure in winter to prevent winter-killing while the grass is young and tender. The 140 tons of compost is made up as follows : 1. Finely ground limestone . . 10 tons 2. Clay sandy loam 20 tons 3. Sandy peat muck .... 75 tons 4. Manure 35 tons Compost Nos. 3 and 4 after thoroughly mixing, four months. Then mix Nos. i and 2 with it. Turn it over and let it stand through the winter. Screen sufficient of the compost to mix the seed 254 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES in, distribute it on the ground evenly, rake lightly and then roll the ground firmly. Water when necessary. A light dressing of nitrate of soda, lOO pounds to the acre, mixed with ground bone, 200 pounds to the acre, will help the grass after its germination. Put this dressing on immediately before a rain. Scatter the seed evenly, ten to twelve bushels to the acre. Putting-greens. The best putting-greens we have on Shinnecock Hills were built as follows : In order to conserve moisture, blocks of salt meadow sod, eight to twelve inches in depth, were first placed in the sand, disk- harrowed and cross-harrowed, until the surface was evened up ; a heavy coating of crushed lime- stone was then placed on this frayed meadow sod ; then a quantity of the best sandy loam obtained in the hollows between the hills was mixed with an equal quantity of our compost sufiicient to make a six- to eight-inch bed for seeding. Some greens were seeded entirely with Rhode Island Bent, others with Creeping Bent, sometimes sold in England as "South German Agrostis," while others with New Zealand Fescue, but the larger number of the greens PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 255 were seeded with various mixtures of these seeds. Seed was used at the rate of three pints to nine square yards. A good catch of grass does not imply that you have a good putting-green. It takes three years at least for these creeping grasses to mat. During the process of their matting they require eternal vigilance to destroy the weeds, injurious insects, and grubs. The whole green must be carefully nursed, with proper cutting, watering, and top- dressing when necessary. Always roll with light wooden rollers and not too much of that. It is always best to water between sundown and sunrise. A thorough soaking every week or ten days is better than frequent superficial sprinklings. The weeds hardest to eradicate are chickweed and pearlwort. My experience has been "get busy early and eradicate both by cutting them out." You will have no pearlwort if you do not roll too heavily and water too superficially. I am in favor of putting both Yarrow and White Clover in the fair green mixture of seeds where the soil is particularly sandy, but never any clover in the putting-green. Yarrow grows strongly, creeps, binds the turf, stands the droughts better than any- 2s6 TURF FOR GOLF COURSES thing else I know of, and is always green. Yarrow must be closely cut. White Clover also does well on Shinnecock Hills and helps the soil while the finer grasses are making a stand. In time the bents and fescues will, under heavy seeding, choke the clover out. In the mean- time the clover is good for the soil as a fertilizer and binder. INDEX Achillea millefolium, 102, 173. Acid fertilizers, 23. phosphate, 38-39. soils, 22. Sulfuric, 240. Adaptations of grasses, 5-9. Agrostis alba, 67-69, 109. canina, 69, 73, 75. stolonifera, 71-75, 109. vulgaris, 69-71. Alkaline fertilizers, 23. Ammonium carbonate, 194. sulfate, 37-38, 172. Ammophila arundinacea, 132. Analyses of fertilizers, 211. Andropogon, 131. Animal pests, 166, 185-199. Annual blue-grass, 63-65, 87, 92, 109. Ants, 194-196. at Columbia Country Club, 248. Auricle, 105. Axonopus compressus, 89, 112. Baits, poison, 188, igo, 191. Barnyard manure, 43. T'eetle, June, 196. iisnt, brown, 69, 73. creeping, 15, 26, 64, 68, 71-75, 109, 114, 128. Rhode Island, 68, 69-71, 114, 250. velvet, 69, 73. Bermuda-grass, 5, 83-88, 92, ill, 115, 128. seed, 153. Bichloride of mercury, 194. Bisulfide of carbon, 195, 199. Blade, 104. Blanket layers, 217. Blood, dried, 33-34. Blue couch-grass, 88. Blue-grass, annual, 63-65, 87, 92, 109. Canada, 63, 65-67. Kentucky, 59-63, 108, 127. Bone-meal, 30-32, 242. Brewer's mole, 186. Broom-sedge, 130, 13 1. Brown bent, 69, 73. Buckhorn, 180. Calciphile, 23, 53. Calciphobe, 23, 53. Calcium chloride, 199. Canada blue-grass, 63, 65-67. seed, 152. Carbonate of ammonia, 194. Carbon bisulfide, 195, 199. Care of turf, 154-168. Carpenter-weed, 177. Carpet-grass, 84, 89, 112, 128. Cerastium vulgatum, 173. Clicetochloa lutescens, 113, 181. Characters of turf grasses, 103-113. Chemical weed destroyers, 170, 240. Chewings' fescue, 78, 25 1. seed, 151. Chickweed, common, 171. mouse-ear, 173, 255. Chloride of lime, 199. Choker trap, 187. Clay, 13, 15, 20. Climatic relations of turf grasses, 5-9. Clipping, 161. Clover, Japan, 96-101, 128. White, 30, 32, loi, 128, 172, 255. Coco, 184. Collar, 104. ^57 2S8 INDEX Columbia Country Club, 243-248. ants, 248. care of putting-greens, 246. fairways, 245. grubs, 248. putting-greens, 244. watering, 246. Commercial fertilizers, 29. humus, 49. Common mole, 186. Compost, 46-48, 242. at National Golf Links, 253. Composting, 46. Condylura cristata, 186. Control of weeds, 169-184. Convolute leaves, lOJ- Cotinis nitida, 196, 240. Cottonseed-meal, 32—33. Couch-grass, 89. blue, 88. Cowpeas, 17. Crab-grass, 113, 181. Crawfish, 199. Crayfish, 199. Creeping bent, 15, 26, 64, 68, 71-75, 109, 114, 128. seed, 150. "Creeping Charley," 173. Creeping red fescue, 78. Creeping thyme, 177. Crested dogstail, 90. seed, 153. "Cut-in" seeder, 143, 165. Cutting harrow, 143. machine for turf, 144. Cyanide of potassium, 195. Cynodon dactylon, 83-88, III. Cynosurus cristatus, 90. Cyperus rotundus, 184. Dandelion, 179. Devil-grass, 83. Dichondra, 25, 182. Dichondra repens, 182. Digitaria didactyla, 88, 113, 181. anguinalis, 113, 181. ...,83. Drainage, ij, 24-27. at Merion Cricket Club, 243. Drainage layer, 26, 216. Dried blood, 33-34. Earthworms, 26, 192, 194. at Merion Cricket Club, 240. Eleusine indica, 112, 180. Elymus sabulosus, 132. English rye-grass, 94, 108. Experiences in growing turf, 223-256. Experimental work on golf courses, 206-222. Fair greens at National Golf Links, 253. Fairways, 17. at Columbia Country Club, 245. grasses for, 124-13 1. improving clay soils on, 19-24. improving sandy soils on, 16-19. Fall work on golf courses, 167. Fertilizers, 14, 28-41. acid, 23. alkaline, 23. analyses, 211. at Merion Cricket Club, 241 . commercial, 29. inorganic, 35-41. mixed, 40-41. organic, 29-35. table of analyses, 211. Fertilizing, 156-159. Fescue, Chewings', 78, 25 1. creeping, 78. fine-leaved, 82. hard, 81. meadow, iii. New Zealand, 78. red, 76-80, no, 115, 128, 151. sheep's, 80-81, no. various-leaved, 82. Festuca capillata, 82, no duriuscula, 81. elatior, III. heterophylla, 82. mina, 80-81, no. rubra, 76-80, no. INDEX 259 Festuca rubra var. fallax, 78. rubra var. genuina, 78. tenuifolia, 82. Field mice, 190. Fiorin, 72. Garden, Olcott's turf, 211-214. Gasoline mower, 247. Germinating layer, 216. Germination of seeds, 138. Glabrous, 105. Golf courses, experimental work on, 206, 222. fall work on, 167. seasonal work on, 166-168. spring work on, 168. summer work on, 168. winter work on, 167. Goose-grass, 112, 1 80. Gopher, pocket, 191. Grass seeds, 148-153. Grasses, adaptations of, 5-9. at National Golf Links, 249. characters of, in turf, 103-113. climatic relations, 5-9. for fairways, 124-13 1. for putting-greens, 1 14-124. for the rough, 130-132. for turf, 114-132. keys to identify in turf, 105-107. weeding, 163. Greenkeepers, 236. Greens, clipping of, 161. fertilizing, 156-159. maintenance of, 154-168. mowing, 161. rolling of, 160. sanding of, 160. seeding new, 133-141. watering, 162. weeding, 163. Ground ivy, 178. Grubs, 196-198. at Columbia Country Club, 248. at Merion Cricket Club, 240. Harban, Walter S., 243-249. Hard fescue, 81. seed, 151. Hariali, 83. Harpoon-trap, 187. Harrow, 136. cutting, 143. Heal-all, 177. Hoof-and-horn meal, 34-35- Humus, 42-52. commercial, 49. Hydrocotyle americana, 178. Identification of turf grasses, 105-107. Improving poor turf, 141-143. clay soils, 19-24. sandy soils, 16-19. Inglis, J. M., 85. Inorganic fertilizers, 35-41. Investigations, notable turf, 211-222. Italian rye-grass, 85, 87, 91, 108, 129. seed, 153. Ivy, ground, 178. Japan clover, 96-101, 128. June beetle, 196. Kentucky blue-grass, 59-63, 108, 127. seed, 63, 152. Key to identify grasses in turf, 105, 107. Korean lawn-grass, 94. Kyllingia, 25. Labor at Merion Cricket Club, 232. Lawn-grass, Korean, 94. Layer, blanket, 217. drainage, 26, 216. germinating, 216. Leaf-mold, 47-48. Lespedeza, 96. Lespedeza striata, 96-101. Lichens, 56. Liebig, 28. Ligule, 105. Lime, 15, 19, 53-56, 242. chloride of, 199. requirement, 22. Litmus, 22. 26o INDEX Loam, 17. silt, 10. Lolium italicum, 91. multiflorum, 91, 108. perenne, 94, 108. Luneta, 95. Macdonald, C. B., 224, 249-256. Machine for cutting turf, 144. Machinery, care of, 205. turf, 200. Maintenance of putting-greens, 154- 166. Manila-grass, 95. Manure, 18, 42-52. barnyard, 43-44. sheep, 44-45. vitality of seeds in, 44. Marram-grass, 132. Mascarene-grass, 96. Meadow fescue, iii. Mercury bichloride, 194. Merion Cricket Club, 224-243. drainage, 229. earthworms, 240. experience in turf growing, 224. fertilizers, 241. greenkeepers, 236. grubs, 240. labor, 237. mowing grass, 232. rolling, 238. seed, 231. sodding, 234. soil, 228. weeds, 239. Mesquite-grass, 125. Mice, field, 190. Mixed fertilizers, 40, 41. Mixtures of fertilizers, 40. of seeds for putting-greens, 115- 124. Moisture, 15. Mold, leaf, 47, 48. Moles, 185-189. Brewer's, 186. common, 186. star-nosed, 186. traps, 187. . Montgomery Country Club, 85. Moss, peat, 216. Mosses, 56, 170. ' Mouse-ear chickweed, 173, 255. Mowers, 203-205. gasoline, 247. Mowing, 161. at Merion Cricket Club, 232. Muck, 49. Muriate of potash, 39-40. Mushroom soil, 45. National Golf Links of America, 249. composting, 253. fair greens, 253. grasses, 250. , putting-greens, 254. watering, 255. weeds, 255. Nepeta hederacea, 178. New Zealand fescue, 78. Nitrate of soda, 35-37, 241, 254. Number of seeds to one pound, 138. Nut-grass, 184. Nuwara Eliya, 3. Oat-grass, tall meadow, 131. yellow, 91, 112. Olcott, J. B., 79. turf garden of, 211-214. Orchard grass, 131. Organic fertilizers, 29-35. Palm Beach-grass, 94. Parascalops brezveri, 186. Patching, 147, 164. Pearlwort, 175, 255. Peat, 13,48-51. moss, 216. Pennywort, water, 178. Perennial rye-grass, 94, 108, 243. seed, 153. Pests, animal, 166, 185, 199. Phosphate, acid, 38-39. Pigeon-grass, 113, 181. INDEX 261 Plantago lanceolata, 180. major, 179. Plantain, 179. Plants, turf, 57, 102. Poa annua, 63-65, 109. compressa, 65-67. pratensis, 59-63, 108. Pocket gopher, 191. Poison baits, 188, 190, igi. Porter, T. C, 97. Potash, muriate of, 39-40. sulfate of, 39-40. Potassium cyanide, 195. Prunella vulgaris, 177. Putting-greens, at Columbia Country Club, 244, 246. at National Golf Links, 254. fertilizing, 156-159. grasses for, 114-124. maintenance of, 154-166. seed mixtures, 1 15-124. soils for, 12—16. {See also Greens.) Quack-grass, 89. • Rate of seeding, 137. Red fescue, 76-80, no, 115, 128. creeping, 78. seed, 151. Redtop, 67-69, 87, 92, 109, 127. seed, 149. Reseeding, 164. Rhizome, 104. Rhode Island bent, 68, 69-71, 114, 250. Experiment Station, 23, 127. Rib-grass, 179. Roller, 203. spiked, 201. toothed, 143. Rolling, 160. at Merion Cricket Club, 238. Rootstock, 104. Rough, grasses for the, 130-132. Rumex aceiosella, 174. Rye, 17. Rye-grass, English, 94, 108. Italian, 85, 87, 91, 108, 121, 129. Perennial, 94, 108, 243. Rye-grass seed, ItaHan, 153. Perennial, 153. Sagina procumbens, 175. St. Lucie-grass, 83, 88. Sand, 12, 20. Sanding, 160. Scalops aquaticus, 186. Scissors-jaw trap, 187. Sea lyme-grass, 132. Seasonal work, 166. Sedges, 25. Seed, Bermuda-grass, 153. Canada blue-grass, 152. Chewings' fescue, 151, 252. Creeping bent, 150. Crested dogstail, 153. Fine-leaved fescue, 82. Hard fescue, 151. Italian rye-grass, 153. Kentucky blue-grass, 63, 152. Perennial rye-grass, 153. Red fescue, 151. Redtop, 151. Sheep's fescue, 151. Seeder, 200. "cut-in," 143, 165. Seeding, new greens, 133-141. rate of, 137. Seeds, germination, 138. Merion Cricket Club, 231. mixtures for putting-greens, 1 15-124. number to one pound, 138. of principal turf grasses, 148-153. Seepage, 15, 25. Selaginella, 25, 179. Selaginella apus, 179. Sheath, 104. Sheep manure, 44-45. sorrel, 55, 174. Sheep's fescue, 80-81, no. seed, 151. Silt loam, 10. Slants, 219. Soakaway, 26. 262 INDEX Soda, nitrate of, 35-37, 241, 254. Sodding, 144-148. at Merion Cricket Club, 234. Sodium nitrate, 35, 241, 254. Soil, mushroom, 45. Soils, 10-27. acid, 22. for putting-greens, 12-16. improving clay soils, 19-24. improving sandy soils, 16-19. Merion Cricket Club, 228. sour, 22. Sorrel, sheep, 55, 174. Speedwell, thyme-leaved, 25, 176. Spiked roller, 201. Spring work on golf courses, 168. Sprinklers, 201-203. Star-nosed mole, 186. ■ Stolons, 104. Street sweepings, 52. Subsoil, 10, 14. Sulfate of ammonia, 37-38, 172. potash, 39-40. Sulfuric acid, 240. Summer work on golf courses, 168. Sweepings, street, 52. Syntherisma didactyla, 88. sanguinalis, 113, 181. Tall meadow oat-grass, 131. Taraxacum officinale, 179. Taylor, F. W., 79, 214. Taylor method, 139, 214—222. Thyme, creeping, 177. Thyme-leaved speedwell, 25, 176. Thymus serpyllum, 177. Tiling, 25-26. Timothy, 132. Toothed roller, 143. Top-dressing, 20, 243. Traps, choker, 187. harpoon, 187. mole, 187. scissors-jaw, 187. Trifolium repens, loi, 172. Trisetum flavescens, 91, 112. Turf, care of, 154-168. cutting machine, 144. distinguishing characters of, 103-1 13. garden of J. B. Olcott, 211-214. grasses, 114-132. grass seeds, 148-153. improving poor, 141-143. investigations, 211-222. machinery, 200-205. making of, 133-153. notable investigations, 211-222. personal experiences with, 223-256. plants, 57, 102. subsequent care of, 154-168. Turfing, 144-148. Various-leaved fescue, 82. Velvet bent, 69, 73. Veronica serpyllifolia, 176. Vitality of weed seeds in manure, 44. Watering, 162. at Columbia Country Club, 246. at National Golf Links, 255. Waterlogging, 15. Water pennywort, 178. Weed destroyers, chemical, 170, 240. . Weeder, 140. Weeding, 163, 168. Weeds, and their control, 169-184. at Merion Cricket Club, 239. at National Golf Links, 255. Whigham, H. J., 224. White clover, 30, 32, loi, 128, 172, 255. Wilson, Hugh L, 224-243. Winter work on golf courses, 167 Wire-grass, 83. Witch-grass, 89. Yarrow, 102, 173, 255. Yellow oat-grass, 91, 112. Zoysia japonica, 94. matrella, 95. tenuifolia, 96. Printed in the United States of America.