A. G. HOPKINS 
 
New York 
 
 State College of Agriculture 
 
 At Cornell University 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
Ve|erinary elements; a manual for agrlcul 
 3 1924 003 262 643 .,., 
 
B Cornell University 
 
 Igj Library 
 
 The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http ://www. arch i ve . o rg/detai Is/cu31 924003262643 
 
PUBLISHER'S ASENTS: THE UNIVERSITY CO.OPERATIVE CO., MADISON, WIS. 
 
SCIENCE WITH PRACTICE 
 
 Veterinary Elements 
 
 A MANUAL FOR 
 AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS AND STOCKMEN 
 
 BY 
 
 ARTHUR G. HOPKINS, B. AGR., D.V.M. 
 
 Late Instructor in Veterinary Science and Stock Judging, University of 
 
 Wisconsin, now Associate Editor Farmers' Advocate, 
 
 Winnipeg,. Can. 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 ■WIKNIPEG, CANADA 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 
 
 1901 
 
COPYBIHTED 
 
 1901 
 
 BY A. G. HOPKINS 
 
 PBKSa~OP M. J CANTWBLL 
 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 An, experience. as a, student. in. animal husbandry. in 
 two agricultural cctUeges (Ont. Agl. Col., Guelph, Can- 
 ada; Iowa Agl. Col., Ames, Iowa), leads me to believe 
 that, in common with the veterinary works written for 
 stockmen, the veterinary courses were far too technical, 
 thus being a drudgery to the students and calculated to 
 mystify rather than enlighten, 'due, I believe, to the idea 
 that the agricultural student or stockman should get 
 veterinary knowledge in the same form as the veterinary 
 student, the difference being only one of degree. The 
 demands of the Short Course in Agriculture in the Uni- 
 versity of "Wisconsin would not allow of the use of tech- 
 nical terms or big words, or even a multiplicity of diseases, 
 hard to distinguish between, with their attendant treat- 
 ment. This book embodies in a simple form the lectures 
 as delivered to Short Course students, the main object of 
 the author being to fit the stockman so that he shall be 
 to the veterinarian what the trained nurse is to the phy- 
 sician. The proper recruiting ground for veterinarians 
 is from among the stockmen. To become so no one 
 snould attend a veterinary college having less than a 
 three-year course. I have placed under contribution 
 Hayes' Points of the Horse and his Veterinary N'otes for 
 Horseowners; Smith's Veterinary Physiology; Henry's 
 Feeds and Feeding; and Fleming's Obstetrics; a perusal 
 of any of those works will repay the reader. 
 
 A. G. H. 
 
 XJniversity of Wisconsin, 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The flattering reception accorded the first edition nec- 
 essitated the early publication of a second edition. The 
 work has been re-read, corrected and brought up-to-date, 
 and includes several new illustrations. Heavy type has 
 been used to draw attention to essentials. While packed 
 in a small compass, it can be amplified by any instructor 
 to meet the needs of his class. I am indebted to Capt. 
 M. H. Hayes, F. E. C. V. S., Rugby, Bng., for suggestions 
 and corrections, and to P. Torrance, B. A., D. V. S. (Mc- 
 Gill) Winnipeg, Can., for his kindness in revising the 
 work. A. G-. H. 
 
 Winnipeg, Can. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 
 
 The thanks of the author are due to the following 
 parties for loans of half-tones and electrotypes: Prof. C. 
 S. Plumb, La Payette, Ind. ; G. E. Howard'& Co., pub- 
 lishers of The Peather and Diseases of Poultry, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. ; Hausmann & Dunn, Veterinary Instrument 
 Makers, Chicago; The Parmer's Advocate, London, and 
 Winnipeg, Canada; The Horseshoer's Journal, Detroit, 
 Mich. ; S. A. Hoxie, Yorkville, Kew York, and the Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 245 — In the illustration, the spavin is on the near 
 leg, not the off one. 
 
 Chapter VIII, Part it, page 153, should be Chapter 
 XIII. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I — The Construction and Functions of the Animal Body. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chap. I. The Skeleton.— The meaning of "anatomy and physiology. 
 Cells and protoplasm. Quality of bone. The divisions of the 
 skeleton. A reason for docking. The Importance of a well 
 sprung rib. The bones and joints of the limbs. Splint bones 
 and splints. Lateral cartilages and sidebones. The hooks ' 
 and hook. Location of Joints in animals. The Jieight of a 
 horse : .1.. 1-22 
 
 Chap. II. The Muscles and their Work.— Muscular and connective 
 tissue. The grain of meat. Quality of muscle. Tendons or 
 sinews. Certain muscles and their work. Suspensory liga- 
 ments. Joint oil or synovia and its uses 23-31 
 
 Chap. III. The Digestive System. — Prehension and mastication. Se- 
 cretion and the digestive fluids. Saliva, gastric Juice, bile, 
 pancreatic juice. The taking of food into the tissues, termed 
 absorption. Mucous and serous membranes. The teeth and 
 their arrangement. Telling the ages of horses, cattle and 
 sheep. The stomach of the horse, pig, sheep and ox. Types 
 of stomachs. Time required for digestion. The small Intes- 
 tines and their work. Th^ liver and its secretion — bile. The 
 pancreas and its fluid. Chyle and the lacteals 32-58 
 
 Chap. IV. Excretion.— The expulsion of waste products. The large 
 intestines. The kidneys and urine. Reflex action. The secre- 
 tions of the skin. Sweat and grooming. The sebaceous secre- 
 tion. Respired air. Organs of breathing. Drenching and 
 choking. The larynx and roaring. The lungs and their con- 
 struction.. 59-69 
 
 Chap. V. The Process of Breeding.— Reproduction and the organs 
 involved. Heat, its signs and freque.ncy. Periods of gesta- 
 tion. Npmber of females to the male. Age when to breed. 
 Essentials in matins. The digestive and reproductive organs 
 of poultry. Mating of poultry 70-83 
 
X Veterinary Elements. 
 
 PA&E. 
 Chap. VI. The Milk Glands and their runctions.— The udder. Diagram 
 of a section of a quarter. The secretion of milk. Holding up 
 the milk. Milk veins and wells. Composition of milk 84-91 
 
 Chap. Vil. The Blood and Lymphatic System.— Clotting and blood 
 cells. The heart and the circulation. Arteries and veins. 
 Lymphatic vessels and nodes. Leucocytes and their work i)5-102 
 
 Chap. VIII. The Nervous System and Special Senses.— Nerves and their 
 work. The brain and spinal cord. Scale of Intelligence In 
 animals. The eye and Its accessories. The ear. The skin and 
 what it indicates. The handling. The hair as an indication 
 of quality. Color markings. Horns, ergots and chestnuts 103-115 
 
 Chap. IX. The Foot— Its Care and Shoeing.— The hoof and its con- 
 tents. The white line. The bars and frog. Rate of growth of 
 horn. The care of the feet. Signs of a good foot. Shoeing. 
 Forging and interfering. Corns and contracted feet. Shoe- 
 ing a kicker. Types of shoes : 116-128 
 
 Chap. X. Holding a Post-Mortem. — The necessary tools. Methods to 
 be followed. Parts calling for careful scrutiny. Significance 
 of cheeslness of a lymph node 129-132 
 
 Chap. XI. Simple Farm Medicines.— The qualifications Of an animal 
 nurse. The medicine chest. Dose table according to age. 
 Some convenient measures. Drugs, their and uses. Poisons 
 and antidotes 133-145 
 
 Chap. XII. Mode of Giving Medicines. — Channels of entrance of medi- 
 cines into the body. Giving medicines to horses, cattle, sheep 
 and pigs. Precautions to be observed. Steaming animals. 
 The application of blisters 146-151 
 
 Part II. — Diseases; their Prevention and Treatment. 
 
 Chap. Xlli. Nursing of Sick Animals.— The sick stall. Ventilation and 
 light. Bedding and clothing. The pulse rate and tempera- 
 ture. Valuable symptoms, the breathing, condition of the 
 feces (dung), urine and skin. The recruiting ground for vet- 
 erinarians. Watering stock. Feeding the sick. Washing and 
 clipping. Bandaging. Inflammation and its signs 152-166 
 
 Chap. XIV. Breeding and Some of Its Effects.— Obstetrics and preg- 
 nancy. TJje time of parturition. Natural births. Difficult 
 deliveries. Skilled help necessary. Attention to the new- 
 born. Removal of the afterbirth. Putting out the womb 
 (casting the withers). Garget and Its treatment. Milk fever, 
 Its prevention and treatment ; 167-182 
 
Contents, xi 
 
 Chap. XV. Diseases of Young Stock and Sterility.— Gonstipation In faob. 
 lambs and foals. Scours. Navel-lU or Joint disease. Impo- 
 tenoy (lack of breeding ability) in males. Why cows and 
 mares don't breed. Artificial breeding with the capsule. One 
 cause of a poor lamb crop 183-188 
 
 Ch^p. XVI. The Common Farm Operations.— Bestralning and throw- 
 ing animals for operations. Throwing a horse, and steer. 
 Handling sheep. How wounds heal. The general treatment 
 of wounds. Control of bleeding. How fractures are repaired. 
 Dehorning and tapping. Castration and spaying. Bleeding 
 and docking 189-209 
 
 Chap. XVII. Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding.- Colics and their 
 significance. Bloating in sheep and cattle. Choking and its 
 treatment. Founder and its prevention. The cause of Bigleg. 
 Azoturia, s* i-esult of idleness. Heaves — the sequel of exces- 
 sive hay feeding. Water trouble in rams and wethers. Sore 
 sheaths in cattle and sheep 210-224 
 
 Chap. XVIII. Diseases of the Teeth.- Teething and its accompani- 
 ment. Lampas. The quack horse dentist'does harm. Wolf 
 teeth. Signs' of faulty teeth. Cribbing and windsucklng. 
 Black teeth in pigs. The significance of discharges from the 
 nostrils i : 225-229 
 
 Chap. XIX. Foot and Limb Troubles. — Lameness and Its detection. 
 The spavin test. Shouldersllp and collar galls. The location 
 and treatment of splints. Ringbone, hereditary in its nature. 
 Sldebones common in draft horses. The prevention of thrush. 
 CoflBn joint disease. Shoe pricks and corns. Putting out of 
 the stifie. Bone and bog spavins. The curby hock. String- 
 halt and capped hock 230-249 
 
 Chap. XX. External and Internal Parasites. — Scab and its suppression. 
 Lice and ringworm. Summer pests of sheep — maggots and 
 grub in the head. The hornfly and warbles. Poultry lice. ■ 
 Summer sores of horses. The symptoms of worms in colts. 
 The July and August lamb scourge— the stomach worm. 
 Tapeworms and the pumpkin seed decoction 250-?.60 
 
 Chap. XXi. Contagious Diseases and their Suppression — Koch's germ 
 and consumption. Tuberculosis is contagious. Bang's method 
 of suppression. Meat inspection necessary. Glanders a seri- 
 ous menace to. horse and man. Blackleg and its prevention. 
 Hog cholera not yet controlled. Texas fever. A result of 
 wound infection — Lockjaw. Anthrax, the sudden death. 
 Lumpy jaw and its cure. Contagious abortion, a stockman's 
 scourge. Colt "distemper. Calf cholera and Nocard's investi- 
 gation. Canker sore mouth in young pigs 261-277 
 
xii Veterinary Elements. 
 
 PAGE. 
 Chap. XXII. Disinfection and Miscellaneous Diseases.— Stable disinfec- 
 tion. Tliumps and rheumatism in pigs. Some teat troubles. 
 Warts and some poultry diseases ;. 278-286 
 
 Chap. XXIII. Lxamination of Horse for Soundness.— The test for the 
 
 wind. Interpretation of tooth changes.' A bad sign in sad- 
 dlers. The detection of curbs and ringbones. To detect string- 
 halt. Necessary to compare the hocks. Some disqualifica- 
 tions for breeding 281-285 
 
 Index '. 286-292 
 
Veterinary Elements, 
 
 PART I. 
 The Construction and Functions of the Animal Body. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 Natural Science Study Essential. In First Principles of 
 Agriculture we are told that agriculture may be divided 
 into four general branches, one of which is Animal 
 .Industry (Husbandry). The same authority, when 
 classifying the personal factors upon which success as an 
 agriculturist depends, insists upon a knowledge of the 
 natural sciences, , not the least important of which is 
 Animal Knowledge (Zoology). Such a deep study is 
 zoology that specialists have divided it into branches, an 
 elementary study of two of which {physiology and 
 fciihology) will constitute the subject matter of this book. 
 
 Physiology and its relative, anatomy, have to do with 
 the functions and construction of organs of the animal 
 body: Pathology, in the broad sense used here, has to 
 do with malnutrition and disease, and their prevention . 
 it may be accepted that, in order to be successful as a 
 stockman, a knowledge however elementary of the anat- 
 omy and physiology of live stock is essential, as on such 
 knowledge is based not only the preservation of health 
 1 
 
2 Vetei'inary Elements. 
 
 by avoiding overwork or idleness of various organs, but 
 also the prevention of disease by preventing the inroad 
 of germs. The possession of, a knowledge of the con- 
 struction _of an animal (anatomy) is a valuable aid to 
 enable^ us to classify that animal as to its fitness for the 
 dairy or the block, the carriage or the lorry. 
 
 The Life Unit — the Cell. The animal body is a col- 
 lection of small masses of protoplasm known as cells. 
 Each cell has the property, of nutritiijn (taking in food 
 and using it to build up the body) and reproduction 
 (propagating itself), and may be capable of motion. 
 Protoplasm is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, 
 oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur. Cells collected together for 
 special, purposes form a tissue, e. g., bone, muscle, nerve, 
 vascular, etc. Through the union of cells we get nerves 
 and capillaries, and from cell excretions we have built 
 up connective tissues, bones and cartilage. 
 
 Definition of Anatomy. The study of the form and 
 structure (conformation) of the animal body! 
 
 There are several kinds of anatomy, referring espe- 
 cially to the methods used and the object sought, e. g. : 
 
 Comparative Anatomy refers to the study of form and 
 structure of not only the horse, but the cow, pig, dog, 
 sheep, poultry and Man. 
 
 Histology is another division of anatomy, the study of 
 which calls for the use of the microscope and consists of 
 the study of tissues, such as skin, liver, bone, lung, etc. 
 If the study is of diseased tissue, it is known as Patho- 
 logical or Morbid Anatomy. 
 
 Surgical Anatomy is of value, to the surgeon and does 
 not concern the agricultural student. 
 
The Skeleton. 3 
 
 For the agriculturist an elementary knowledge of com- 
 parative anatomy is essential, because owing to the differ- 
 ences in the construction of the various animals, such 
 animals require different treatment in the way of feeding^ 
 watering, shoeing, and dxiring sickness. By the study 
 of anatomy we are enabled to map out the animal, and 
 thus can locate a diseased part more readily. 
 
 The work of the anatomist may be compared to that of' 
 the architect, because in both cases the study of the 
 framework is the basis for the study of the superstructure. 
 \ The animal may be briefly analyzed as a bony skele- 
 ton, covered outside by muscles and the skin, and con- 
 taining inside that skeleton the various organs, such as 
 the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, stomach, intestines, re- 
 productive organs and the nervous system. 
 
 The Skeleton. The framework is generally called the 
 skeleton. It is made up principally of bones. 
 
 Bone is a hard, yellowish white, insensitive body made 
 up of earthy and animal matter. The earthy matter is 
 made up mainly of the' following materials: Phosphate of 
 lime, carbonate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and solu- 
 ble salts. The earthy and animal matters are in the 
 healthy mature animal properly balanced, in the young 
 animal, the animal matter is in excess, thus accounting 
 for the small number of breaks (fractures) in young 
 animals, and also for the rapidity with which such break- 
 : ages are repaired. In old animals the earthy matter is in 
 excess, consequently breakages (fractures) are more 
 frequent and repair is slower than in the young animal. 
 
 Bone is the hardest of all the animal tissues, due to 
 the presence of the earthy ma1;;ter before mentioned, its, 
 
4 Veterinary Elemenis. 
 
 elasticity (the power of bending to a limited degree and 
 of sustaining shocks) is due to the animal matter in it. 
 Living bone is elastic, bluish white and insensitive. (It 
 must not -be forgotten that life exists in all the several 
 parts as much as it does in the whole body, and that 
 Death, or cessatipn of life, occurs when the functions of 
 the various parts have ceased, and thus caused stoppage 
 of the work of the body as a whole. ) Bones not only 
 form a framework, but owing to the fact that muscles 
 are attached to them, also become levers and have to do 
 with the movements of the animal. 
 
 Quality of Bone and Its Indications. The quality of the 
 bone in an animal is of great importance, as a rule the 
 purer the breeding the betterthe quality of the bone; e. g., 
 the bones of the Thoroughbred are, according to their 
 size, more compact, heavier, stronger than those of the 
 Cart horse. The bones of the Cart horse are expanded 
 as it were to allow more surface for the attachment of 
 muscles. The question of the quality and quantity of 
 bone has become a vital one in live stock; in the beef 
 animal a certain fineness of bone is desired, as being 
 one of the indications of small offal; on the other hand, 
 an excessive lightness of bone is a defect in some breeds 
 of hogs, rendering them incapable of carrying their 
 carcass to market. 
 
 If we saw a bone in two we find it is made up of a 
 hard and soft portion; in the soft portion' a number of 
 little holes are seen, which give the cutting (or section) 
 the appearance of a section of a cane. These little holes 
 (canals) are for the passage of the blood vessels whose 
 function is to nourish the bone. Dne can see how that 
 
The Skeleton. 5 
 
 too many canals would render the bone soft and spongy. 
 The outside of bones is covered by a tough material, a 
 skin known as the periosteum which can be stripped off; 
 it is very strong and sensitive and contains blood vessels 
 which serve to nourish the bone beneath. In the central 
 part of the bone (medullary canal) is found the marrow, 
 which by some scientists is held to be the birthplace of 
 the blood plates (corpuscles). 
 
 Bone is developed from temporary cartilage or gristle. 
 
 The uses of (functions) bones are: 1. To bear weight. 
 2. To resist the effects of concussion. 3. To act as levers. 
 Their fitness for the first two duties depends on tlie qual- 
 ity (texture), substance (size) and their arrangement. 
 The soil on which an animal is raised and the feed on 
 which it is fed influences the bone. The drier the soil 
 and the.harder the food the better the quality of the bone. 
 The more open (porous) bone is, the greater the liability 
 to bony deposits, examples of which are splints. The 
 hoofs indicate the quality of the bone, e. g., flat feet and 
 soft horn mean poor quality of bone. Among horsemen, 
 the expression, "Flat bone," is often heard, such, how- 
 ever, refers to the shape of the whole leg, the desirable 
 forni being razor like, the bone forms the heavy part of 
 the razor, while the tendons (muscles) at the back of the 
 leg form the fine edge; if there is au excess of loose 
 tissue behind, the leg looks round, feels soft and the 
 horseman utters the dictum : ' ' The bone is round and 
 spongy ! " Large muscles mean large bones on account 
 of the greater area required for attachment sites. The 
 more bones are exposed to concussion the denser and 
 stronger they should be. It is almost impossible to obtain 
 
6 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 bone of great volume and at the same time of the finest 
 quality. The number of bones varies according to the 
 animal, in the horse, 191; ox and sheep, 196; pig, 270, etc., 
 the sacrum being reckoned as a single bone, the bones 
 of the tail (coccyx) averaging 16 for the horse, 18 for 
 the ox; and 22 for the pig (Chauveau). ' 
 
 The present appearance of the various breeds of live 
 stock is due to the process of evolution and to the efforts 
 of man. For example, let us take the horse ; back 
 thousands of years ago (Eocene period) the an(5estor of 
 the horse was only the -size of a fox and had four, toes. 
 Today specimens of horses can be seen 17 hands high, 
 weighing 2,000 pounds, and only one toe, as seen when 
 the structure of the foot is taken up; in fact the horse 
 is now classed as belonging to the single- toed class (Solid 
 Vingulata) ; during ■ the Miocene period it was the size of 
 a sheep and had three toes, while in the Pliocene period, 
 nearer the present time, it had become as large as an ass, 
 and two of the toes were disappearing, until down to the 
 present time we have the horse with the small splint 
 bones to represent two toes possessed at one time by its 
 ancestors. The efforts of man are tending to a reduction 
 of offal and a higher development of flesh production in the 
 meat producing animals. The gradual disappearance of 
 wolf teeth and the lengthening of the space (diastema) 
 between the front and. back teeth are all quoted as evi- 
 dence of evolution in the horse. 
 
 To render the study of the skeleton more easy it is 
 divided into regions, e9,ch being taken up separately, 
 the I'egions are: The head (skull), the neck (cervical), 
 the back (dorsal), the loins (lumbar), the croup (sacral), 
 the tail (coccygeal) and the limbs (appendicular). 
 
The Skeleton. 7 
 
 The bones entering into the formation of these regions 
 vary in shape, hence are divided in three classes: long, 
 flat and irregular. All bones have at various spots 
 (usually at the end) somewhat smooth polished spaces 
 known as articular surfaces; when the articular surfaces 
 of two bones are in contact a joint is formed. A further 
 provision to ensure the surfaces of the two bones being 
 kept in contact is the band-like structure made of white 
 fibrous, connective tissue known as a Ligament, A liga- 
 ment may vary somewhat in form according to its posi- 
 tion, but its functions are the same, viz.: 1. Giving 
 support (example, the lateral ligaments) ; 2. Confining 
 the joint oil (synovia) by means of the capsular ligament. 
 Two other forms of ligaments exist, namely, c/iecft and 
 suspensory, but as they do not enter into the construction 
 of joints, they are considered along with the muscles. 
 
 The Head. The bones of this region are quite numerous, 
 36 in all, and as their remembrance is-of little practical 
 value to the agriculturist they will not be considered 
 separately. In the colt the boundaries of each bone are 
 easily made out and the bones separated, as the animal 
 grows older the bones grow together (become anchylosed). 
 The majority of the bones of the head are quite light 
 and thin and by their arrangement form hollow spaces 
 (excluding the mouth and nc^se) which communicate 
 more or less freely, and are known as sinuses;^ in the' 
 skull is also the brain cavity. If we deihorn a cow we 
 notice that the horns are more or less hollow a,nd that 
 those cavities extend into the head, therefore we can at 
 once see that " Hollow-horn, so-called," is not a diseased 
 condition of the horns, but is perfectly natural. In the 
 
8 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 cavities of the nose are some very light bones which are 
 of importance in their relation to the act of breathing. 
 These bones are covered with a very delicate nuicous 
 niembrane, containing a great number of small blood 
 vessels, the air as it passes over this membrane becomes 
 warmed before being taken in by the lungs. The teeth, 
 although properly classed with the bones of the head, 
 will be treated of when the digestive system is being 
 taken up. 
 
 The Neck. Behind and below the head we find the 
 spinal (vertebral) column, made up pf a number of sec- 
 tions, each called a vertebra. These vertebrae have a 
 hollow passage (spinal canal) through their centers, this 
 canal houses the spinal cord, thus protecting it against 
 injury. These vertebrae are so constructed as to allow 
 of movements between them, varying in degree accord- 
 ing to their location. Considerable motion is necessary 
 and it is provided for between the vertebrae of the neck, 
 such enables the head and neck to be placed in different 
 positions. The acts of raising and lowering, turning 
 sidewise are accomplished by the action of powerful 
 muscles attached to these bony sections. The site of the 
 junction of the bones of the head and neck is the region 
 of the poll, and it is these bones that are sometimes 
 affected in severe cases of Poll Evil. The bony sections 
 in the neck (cervical) region, number seven, and are 
 somewhat alike, the two first (atlas and axis) showing 
 the more marked differences. 
 
 The Back. Passing along the back (dorsal region) we 
 find that the vertebrae forming this region are shorter 
 and more numerous, being 18 to 19 in number. They 
 
The Skeleton. 9, 
 
 resemble the bones of the neck, save that their upper 
 surfaces are marked by sharp projections or spines. 
 The highest of the spines (those of vertebrae Nos. 4, 5, 
 6) together with the muscles-, etc., of the, part form the 
 region of the Withers — hence the disease known as fistula 
 of the withers (fistulous withers) gives the location of 
 the trouble. These projecting spines are very well 
 marked in the dairy type of cow, projecting as they 
 often do in such animals above the tops of the shoulder 
 blades, along with which they tend to give the desirable 
 wedge shape when viewed from above. In the beef type 
 of animal the spines are not as prominent, the muscular 
 or fleshy covering of the parts being more abundant. In 
 the better bred horse, the withers are quite fine as com- 
 pared with the coarser bred specimen. The sections of 
 the backbone give attachment to strong muscles and 
 ligaments. One ligament of peculiar character is noticed 
 in the horse, itexfends from the vertebrae of the back to 
 those of the neck and to the head, and as a result of the 
 support it gives, the horse is enabled to keep the head on 
 a higher level than the rest of the body, consequently we 
 might expect a crosswise section of it to cause the head 
 to fall to ground, such sometimes happens as a result of 
 attempts at surgery by quacks in the treatment of Poll 
 Evil (fistula of the poll). The bony sections of the 'back 
 also form joints (articulate) with the heads of ribs, one 
 pair of which are allotted to each of the vertebrae of this 
 region (dorsal). 
 
 The Loins. Passing back still further we come to the 
 bones of the loins (lumbar region), sii in number. 
 These sections of the backbone should be strong, strength 
 
10 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 here being a desirable trait in all animals. A slight dif- 
 ference in the loin between the dairy and beef type is 
 noticed, the loin of the former tending to, widen behind, 
 in the latter an even width througJiout is desired. These 
 bones not only have spines above but also on each side, 
 all being covered by powerful muscles^ which muscular , 
 covering is one of th« most valued parts in meat-pro- 
 ducing animals, contributing as it does to form what are 
 dubbed the high-priced cuts. 
 
 The Croup (pelvis or rump). Still fxirther along the 
 ' backbone are the bones of the croup (sacrum) which are 
 more or less joined (ossified) together, according to the 
 type of animal so varies the croup, in light horses, such 
 as Cleveland Bays, a long, level croup is found, while in 
 drafters a shorter, more drooping croup is desired ; 
 extending along the croup bone are muscles which give 
 the rump its shape. In the dairy cow a heavily muscled 
 rump is not desired, in fact, advanced thinkers along 
 dairy lines hold that a high prominent croup (dubbed 
 pelvic arch) is very desirable as indicative of plenty of 
 room in the parts below, such ideas yet- need data to 
 render them acceptable. 
 
 The Tail. The last region of the spinal column is that 
 known as the tail (coccyx), made up of 13 to 20 seg- 
 ments. The spinal canal cannot be said to go beyond 
 the sacrum or the first few segments of the tail. A 
 tendency exists among people to remove segments of the 
 tail or the entire member, a proceeding which can only 
 be justified in few cases, such as in sheep, when its 
 removal is an aid to cleanliness, and occasionally in horses 
 that have the habit of switching. 
 
The Skeleton. 11 
 
 The ribs and breast bone (sternum) are attached to- 
 gether in a greater or less degree. The ribs gradually 
 lengthen from the first to the ninth, thence becoming 
 shorter to the 18th. In the horse the ribs are narrower, 
 closer together and rounder than in cattle, in the latter 
 the ribs are comparatively flat and broad. The desir; 
 able form of rib in the horse is the well- sprung one, • 
 giving the body the shape known as the barrel. In 
 cattle the spring of rib varies with the type, in fact, it 
 may be stated that those animals used for meat- 
 producing purposes should have a well sprung rib, 
 the spring being right from the back, in fact, the upper 
 part of the ribs aid in forming the great width of back 
 so much desired. In the dairy cow the ribs take a some- 
 what different direction, the arch of the ribs resembling 
 more nearly that of a hip roof than that of a barrel. It 
 is very important that the ribs (5 and 6) just behind the 
 front limbs should be well sprung so as to give plenty of - 
 lung roouL This applies to all domesticated animals of 
 any type or of any breed. The width of chest of the 
 dairy cow is taken behind the Shoulders about one foot 
 below the withers. The slab-sided animal, so-called, due 
 to lack of spring of rib, is generally a notoriously had doer. 
 The upper end of each rib formsjoints with two vertebrae, 
 the ribs are thus capable of being lifted up and outwards 
 during the act of breathing. The factors determining 
 the spring of ribs are: Heredity and lung develop- 
 ment, for with good lung development in the young 
 animal, bones which at that time are impressionable, so 
 to speak, may and will be given direction. Heredity, of 
 course, is the supreme factor of the two, and if good 
 
.12 Vetennary Elements. 
 
 couformation is wanted only animals with such confor- 
 mation can be used as breeders with much chance of 
 success. The numbers of pairs of ribs are, in the horse, 
 18; cow, 13; sheep, 13; pig, 14. 
 
 The expression — well-ribbed-up — refers to the close- 
 ness of the last rib to the hips, such a conformation is 
 .desired in all animals with the exception of the dairy 
 cow. The reasons that it is so desired are several, in 
 horses looseness of the coupling is often an indication of 
 J)oor digestive and staying powers, and in the beef ani- 
 mals, the tissues forming that location, the upper flank, 
 are tough, gristly, in fact) consequently not of great value 
 as meat. The breast bone (sternum) receives the attach- 
 ments of the first 8 ribs (true ribs) and resembles "a boat's 
 keel; if small and narrow, the floor of the chest will also 
 be narrow; the front part of the breast bone and its cov 
 erings form the brisJcet. In dairy cattle we find it sharp, 
 in other animals smooth, wide and well covered with 
 muscles. The backbone, ribs, breast bone and the dia- 
 phragm (a large muscle separating the intestinal cavity 
 from the lung cavity) constitute the boundaries of the 
 chest cavity. 
 
 The Limbs. In the fore limbs there are the bones of 
 the shoulder (scapula), the arm (humerus), forearm 
 (radius and ulna), of the knee (the carpus, made up of 
 8 small bones), the cannon and splint bones (large and 
 two small metacarpals), the pastern (6s suffraginis and 
 corona), the pedal, coffin and shuttle bones (os pedis 
 and OS naviculare), the last two being contained in the 
 hoof. The long bones of the limbs are often said to have 
 a shaft and two extremities, the latter, the expanded 
 
The Skeleton. 13 
 
 ends which enter into and form the various joints; as a 
 result certain motions take place between bones, to 
 describe such movements the terms fiexion and extension 
 are used, thus a limb is said to be be flexed when bent, 
 extended when straightened out. 
 
 The shoulder blade is flat and-triangnlar in shape, 
 with a spine on its outer surface, each side of the spine 
 in the depressions tl^us formed are lodged muscles, which 
 asisst in supporting the shoulder joint. The develop- 
 ment of these muscles is important when we consider the 
 wearing properties of the shoulder and its. liability to 
 collar galls, etc. The position or slope of the shoulder 
 blade is of interest to note, because the slope of this 
 bone is indicative, to a certain extent,. of the positions 
 taken by the bones below, e. g., in the light horse in 
 which a great deal of action "is required, there must be a 
 sloping shoulder, such a condition increasing the elasticity 
 of the gait and thus diminishing concjassion. On the 
 other hand, in the draft horse a more upright shoulder 
 is preferred, so as to bring a good bearing surface into 
 the collar, consequently we notice in the heavy horse ja 
 more upright shoulder and pasterns than in the light 
 horse. 
 
 In the dairy cow the slope of the shoulder blades are 
 towards one another at their tops, thus giving one' of the 
 wedges of thfe triple- wedge desired by "dairymen. The 
 lower end of the shoulder blade, together with the upper 
 end of the arm, forms a shallow ball and socket joint, 
 one in which there is considerable play. This joint, like 
 all the others, is surrounded by what is, known as the 
 capsrdar ligament, from which is secreted the joint oil 
 
14 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 (synovia), a strawy yellow, clear, somewhat oily liquid, 
 whicli is for the purpose, practically, of oiling the 
 joints. The bone of the arm (humerus) is a long bone, 
 sloping downwards and backwards. It is very strong 
 and gives attachment to powerful muscles. The slope of 
 this bone varies in light and heavy horses, in the latter 
 being nearly horizontal, as the score card terms it "arm 
 thrown well back ' ' ; with the bones below it forms the 
 elbow joint, which is of the hinge variety, several power- 
 ful ligaments tend to hold these bones together in place. 
 The bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) differ con- 
 siderably in animals, especially with regard to the devel- 
 opment of the ulna. In horses the ulna is small and 
 fastened to the radius^ while in cattle, sheep, swine and 
 Man, it is about equal in size to the radius and is free, 
 in fact, the development of the ulna seems to be directly 
 proportional to the number of fingers or toes possessed. 
 The bones of the forearm are long bones. At the upper 
 end of the ulna is the point or cap of the elbow and the 
 location of "shoeboil." The bone of the forearm and the 
 upper row of bones in the knee form a hinge joint, the 
 usual ligaments, such as the capsular and the supporting 
 or binding ligaments being present. The knee or carpus 
 is made up of eight bones arranged in two rows; one bone, 
 the trapesium, is situated at the back of the knee, and if 
 well developed may give the leg the appearance of 
 "being tied in " ; this bone is usually well developed in 
 well bred horses, it gives a leverage to some of the 
 muscles that have to do with the flexing of the knee. A 
 ligamient stretches from the trapesium across the back of 
 the joint and thus forms a groove through which plays a 
 tendon (flexor pedis perforans). 
 
The SMeton. 15 
 
 If the bones or tendons immediately below the knee 
 are lacking in size (substance) the limb is said to be 
 "tied in"! ^ 
 
 The joints of the knee belong to the hinge variety, the 
 extent of movement getting less from above down. If, 
 as the result of inflammation of the parts, bony deposits 
 are throwai out and the joint movement limited or 
 arrested, the condition is know as knee-spavin. The 
 cannon bone has attached to it on its hinder surface two 
 small bones commonly called splint bones. These splint 
 bones often terminate at their lower ends in little knobs, 
 which are apt to be mistaken by the novice for splints. 
 Bony deposits thrown out between the cannon bone and 
 a splint bone constitute splints. The knobs are normal, 
 the splint is abnorma.1. The cannon articulates with the 
 long pastern bone below and thus forms the fetlock joint, 
 which is of the hinge variety, behind this joint are two 
 rounded bones, -the sesamoids. The long pastern bone 
 forms aiinge joint, the pastern joint, with the os coronse. 
 This Isone, the short pastern bone, also articulates with 
 the bone of the foot,^ os pedis. The pofQn bone is semi- 
 circular in- outline, somewhat the shape of the hoof; 
 at its back extremities are the wings, so-called, to each 
 of which is attached a half mocn-shaped piece of gristle 
 (cartilage), known as the lateral cartilage. The round, 
 upper borders of these cartilages can be felt quite readily 
 at the upper and back part of the hoof, they should be 
 movable, if not they have become bony (Ossified) and 
 are henceforth known as sidebohes; in some horses the 
 cartilages are naturally firmer than in others, such cases 
 must not be mistaken for side bones. 
 
16 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 In ruminants (animals that chew the cud, e. g., cattle 
 and sheep) the cannon bone is split at the lower end and 
 the pastern bones are just doubled in number, the bones 
 of the foot, however, comprise two separate halves, the 
 space between forming the cleft. It is in the region of 
 this cleft that trouble occurs in the feet of cattle and 
 sheep, rarely, however in hogs, due to particles of dirt 
 and gravel which irritate the parts, or else the result of 
 infection. 
 
 The hind limb. It is worth while noticing the difference 
 in the manner of attachment of the front and hind limbs to 
 the trunk. The fore limbs are only attached by muscles, 
 in fact, the body may be considered as slung between the 
 front limbs; in the hind limbs a bony attachment exists 
 between the trunk and limbs. This attachment is 
 between the bones of the croup and one of the pelvic 
 bones (ilium). The pelvis, the large bony ring at the exit 
 from the abdominal cavity, is formed by the croup 
 ^sacrum) and the ossa innominata, a pair of bones, each of 
 which is made up of three bones. The three bones have 
 technical names which we shall have to use in default of 
 others; they are : Ilium, ischium and pubis. ' The ilium 
 is flat and is triangular iu outline, two of its angles, the 
 outer and inner, can readily be seen in thin animals. • 
 The outer angle is known as the hip bone or hooks in 
 dairy cattle, in which type a certain prominence is 
 desired, the opposite condition is desired in animals of 
 the meat type. Sometimes the result of an accident, 
 due to carelessness, etc., such as crowding through nar- 
 row doorways, this hip point is broken, and the animal 
 is then said to be down in the hip; the lesion can be 
 
The Skeleton. if 
 
 noticed by standing sqnarely behind the animal. The 
 ischium, the next largest bone of the trio, situated 
 behind the ilium, is somewhat similar in shape; only 
 one angle is seen and that forms the point of the buttock 
 or pin bone; sometimes this protuberance is broken off, 
 to detect it a side view is necessary. The two ischii are 
 united to form the back (posterior) part of the floor of 
 the pelvic cavity, in sheep- and cattle a notch is formed 
 at their points of union. The pubis is a flat bone and 
 with its fellow forms the fore (anterior) part of the pelvic 
 floor; on the pubis rests the bladder. The ischii and 
 pubes .of cattle, sheep, swine, etc., are slow to grow 
 together, consequently there is considerable allowance 
 for widening of the pelvic cavity, a condition of great 
 service to these animals when bringing forth their young; 
 in mature horses these bones are fused together, no play 
 is possible in that direction. 
 
 All three bones unite at one point to form a deep 
 socket, kaown as the acetabulum, which receives the 
 head of the thigh bone (femur). This joint is a deep 
 ball and socket with the usual ligaments to support it, 
 etc., in the horse (all solipeds) a ligament is present 
 which is not found in cattle, hence we account for the 
 side kicks from cattle (mule?). 
 
 The hip joint is quite prominent in dairy breeds and is 
 known as the thurl. The thigh bone (femur) is very' 
 strong, slopes down and forward, and at its lower end is 
 'enlarged to form two joint surfaces, one of which is 
 pulley-like, the inner lip of the pulley surface being the 
 larger. , On the pulley surface plays the stifle bone 
 (patella or knee cap of man), owing to the conformation 
 
18 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 of the parts the stifle may be displaced outward, but not 
 inward; this displacement depends greatly on the state 
 of the lateral ligaments. The bone of the stifle receives 
 a number of ligaments and also muscles. The bones of 
 the lower thigh (tibia and fibula) articulate with the 
 other joint surface of the femur, the motion is that of a 
 hinge. The largest of these bones (tibia) is very bare 
 of musular covering on the inner side, an extra thick 
 covering of periosteum is there present, however; this 
 bone is sometimes broken by a kick, the breakage (frac- 
 ture) may not be noticed, the ends being held in place 
 by the strong periosteum, unless the animal is .put to 
 work, when the ends become displaced and as a result 
 acute lameness, necessitating slaughter of the animal. 
 The fibula is small in the horse, in cattle and sheep is 
 represented by a fibrous (gristly) cord, in the pig it 
 extends the entire length of the tibia. 
 
 The hock joiat. The expanded end of the bone of the 
 lower thigh (tibia) meets the two large bones of the hock 
 (tarsus, ankle in man) and forms with this pulley surface 
 probably the most important joint, in animals, from the 
 horseman's standpoint, owing to the great amount of 
 work done and to the peculiar arrangement of the bones. 
 It is in the region of the hock that such diseases as curb, 
 spavin, bone and bog are found. This joint is known as 
 the true hock joint and is of the hinge variety, when 
 motion takes place the tendency is to turn the foot out- 
 wards in the direction of the pulley surface. The hock 
 is composed of six bones, arranged in rows, the upper 
 row containing the two main bones, os calcis and astrag- 
 alus. The OS calcis (the heel bone of man) has attached 
 
The Skeleton. 19 
 
 to its posterior surface a ligament which, when sprained 
 and enlarged, constitutes a curb, a condition resulting 
 from the conformation (curby or sickle hocks), or the 
 work performed (in stud males). One of the hock bones, 
 the cuboid, situated on the outer side of the hock, just 
 below the calcis, may be rough, and in such cases may 
 cause the animal to be credited with a spavin or curb, in 
 all such cases the hocks should be carefully compared and 
 coarseness of the bone not mistaken for diseased condi- 
 tions. The joints of the hinge variety between the 
 lower rows of hock bones are not as important, as the 
 motion allowed is not nearly so extensive as in the true 
 hock joint. Below the hock, the bones are arranged in 
 a similar manner to those in the fore limb. Abnormal 
 bony enlargements are sometimes present on the pastern, 
 and are then known as ringbones; splints are rarely 
 present on the hind cannons. 
 
 Location of points or parts in animals. The accompa- 
 nying figure will give the novice an idea of the location 
 of the various points in dairy cattle; in a general way the 
 figure can be used for other classes of live stock. 
 
 ThepoU is the space between and just behind the horns 
 of cattle and ears of horses. 
 
 The forehead, that part of the head from the base of 
 the ears to a line drawn from the inner corners of the 
 eyes. 
 
 The forelock, the tuft of hair between the ears. 
 
 ThefoAie (4), that portion between the level of the eyes 
 and the muzzle. 
 
 The muzzle (5) includes the nostrils and the lips, in pigs 
 known as the snout. 
 
20 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 The crest is the upper part of the neck from the ears to 
 the withers. 
 
 The brisket or breast (12); the shoulder tops (11) by 
 some authorities are termed crops in cattle, although the 
 usually accepted location by most people is that indi- 
 cated by the number 13. 
 
 The withers have already been mentioned, 11 shows 
 the location clearly enough. 
 
 The arm is located about the line dividing the shoulder 
 from the leg in the figure. 
 
 The fore-arm is pointed out by the number 24, the can- 
 non or shin by the number 23, the hoofs or claws by num- 
 ber 25, the coronet being the soft elevation at the upper 
 part of the hoof. 
 
 The fore-flanh is located just behind the elbow, shown 
 by number 30, the fore-ribs (26); in beef cattle 29 and 
 30 constitute the plates; 27 constitutes the location of the 
 back-ribs, the upper portion sometimes being termed the 
 coupling, the flank is shown by 28. The chine (14) in- 
 cludes that part of the back from the loins (16) to the 
 shoulders. The hips or hooks (17) are the front bounda- 
 ries of the rumps (cattle), croup (horses), indicated by 18; 
 19 shows the hip joint or thurl. In the retail beef trade 
 the porterhouse and sirloin cuts are taken from the loin- 
 cut; tenderloin steak is taken from the inside and just 
 beneath the ribs on either side of the spinal column, is 
 furnished by the psoas muscles, if this is done the por- 
 terhouse cut is spoiled; the rib roast is got from the spot 
 26, the>fore-ribs. The rib and loin cuts are divided be- 
 tween the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, and the loin sepa- 
 rated from the round at the point of the hip. The divis- 
 
The SMeton. 21 
 
 ion between shoulder (chuck) and n& cuts is made between 
 tlie fifth and sixth ribs. 
 
 The flank (28) in the horse, strictly speaking, extends 
 from the loins to the belly. The lower thigh, gaskin, or 
 gammon in pigs is the lower part of the region showing 
 number 21 ; the dock is the solid part of the tail. 
 
 The height of a horse is the vertical distance from the 
 highest point of the withers to the ground, the girth is 
 taken around the body, jlist behind the shoulders, the 
 , depth of the chest being measured at the same spot. 
 
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 Ph «p?S5 
 
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CHAPTBE II. 
 THE MUSCLE5 AND THEIR WORK. 
 
 The bony skeleton is clothed with several varieties of 
 tissue, of which the muscles are of primary importance 
 in the study of conformation and the fitness of the ani- 
 mal for food purposes. Another tissue is connective 
 tissue, of a strong, fibrous nature, which proceeds inward 
 from the skin, running between portions of the muscles, 
 and thus gives coarseness and the grain to meat (mus- 
 cular tissue). The less exposed a muscle is the smaller 
 the amount of connective tissue. Connective tissue also 
 forms ligaments and tendons (the gristly parts of mus- 
 cles), ensheathes bones, cartilage (gristle) and nerves. 
 If connective tissue is present in excessive quantities it 
 renders a muscle hard to define, is the cause of the 
 so-called round bone of horsemen; therefore, we can 
 make several valuable deductions with regard to the 
 animal, as follows: 1. As the thj^kness of the skin is a 
 measure of the amqunt of connective tissue, the thicker 
 the hide, other things being equal, the more connective 
 tissue in and about the muscle; these observatibns can 
 be made by any practical man. 2. As its action is nil 
 (passive), the more connective tissue entering into a mus- 
 cle the slower the movement of that muscle; hence, -as a 
 result, a poorly defined muscle, as for example seen 
 below the knee or hock, and a thick skin may be taken 
 to Imply deficiency in speed. In meat-producing ani- 
 
24 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 mals, the quality is interfered with if the connective 
 tissue is in excess, the coarseness, lack of pliability of 
 the skin, being indications. Meat (muscle) showing 
 several colors, rainbow-like, is always tough, due to the 
 presence of connective tissue which, being mixed in with 
 the muscular tissue, gives the peculiar play of colors. 
 In all live stock, excellence of breeding shows in the 
 quality of the skin, hence we liave Sound reasons for the 
 use of well bred sires and dams in preference to the 
 mongrel, whether the progeny is for draft purposes or 
 for food. Muscles constitute the lean of meat and are 
 made up of fine fibres. Movement takes place by the 
 shortening (contraction) of these fibres. The strength 
 of a muscle is proportionate to its thickness, other things 
 being equal ; it has been estimated that a muscle con- 
 tracts about two-thirds of its length, therefore, the stride 
 depends on the length of the muscle ; as length of mus- 
 cle is accompanied by length of bone, we can often judge 
 the former by the latter. In the race horse we desire 
 the greatest possible length of muscle with sufficient 
 strength for carrying weight. As a thin muscle will 
 contract as quickly as a thick one of the same length, 
 therefore, the larger muscle would be a disadvantage, 
 owing to the increased weight of bone and muscle, and 
 consequently greater friction, together with increased 
 slowness to nervous stimuli. Muscles are divided into 
 fleshy and tendinous portions, the latter are tough, hard, 
 fibrous cords (sinews), being for the purpose of econo- 
 mizing space and for attachment to bones. Muscles are 
 related to the body and limbs according to their actions 
 and locations. The amount of force exhibited by a 
 
The Muscles and Their Worlc. 25 
 
 muscle is proportional to the degree of stimulation given 
 by its nerves, therefore, the more energetic in action, the 
 stronger, other things being equal. 
 
 When speaking of muscles, the fixed end is the origin, 
 the part (or end) it moves, the insertion. Some of the 
 more important muscles are here taken up and their 
 actions, origins and insertions mentioned, those of the 
 limbs being of especial interest, as dealing with locomo- 
 tion. The first muscle seen after the removal of the skin 
 is the one that twitches the skin, the fly-shaker, pan- 
 nicialus carnosus, its boundaries are of no particular 
 interest, its actions are, assisting as it is said to, in the 
 expulsion of air from the lungs when highly developed, 
 seen in the race horse. 
 
 When the foreleg is advanced, the shoulder joint is 
 extended and elbow joint flexed, when drawn back the 
 opposite takes place, due to the action of a powerful 
 muscle (triceps extensor btachii) attached at one end to 
 the front of the shoulder blade and point of the elbow, 
 just below the level of the elbow joint. Another powerful 
 muscle (flexor brachii) attached to the point of the 
 shoulder blade and at the other to the head of the bone 
 of the forearm, flsxes (bends) the shoulder joint and 
 straightens (extends) the elbow joint. There are other 
 minor muscles that assist in these movements. Three 
 muscles (flexor metacarpi externus, medius and internus) 
 hend the knee, they originate on the back of the arm just 
 above the elbow joint and are inserted to the bone at the 
 back of the knee(trapezium)and the splint bones. The two 
 muscles (extensor pedis and extensor suffraginis), which 
 straighten the fetlock, pastern and coffin joints, run down 
 
26 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the front of the forearm, one originates at the head of 
 the bone of the forearm and is inserted on the front sur- 
 face of the upper pastern 
 bone; the other commences 
 on the bone of the arm just 
 above the elbow joint and 
 ends on the upper, and front 
 part of the coffin bone. 
 Those muscles which bend 
 the fetlock, pastern and cof- 
 fin joints and aid in bending 
 the knee, originate on the 
 back part of the forearm; 
 a sjiort distance above the 
 knee they become tendinous 
 (sinew-like) and form what 
 are known as the "back 
 tendons," or, as they are 
 sometimes called, the cords 
 or sinews; at the back of 
 the knee they pass through 
 
 A. Lateral extensor of metacar- 
 pus. B. Flexors of the foot. C. Car- 
 pal ligament of perforans tendon. 
 D, E. Perforatus. F. Small meta^ 
 carpal splint bones. G. Suspensory 
 ligament. H. Lateral band of meta^ 
 carpal phalangeal sheath. I. Per- 
 forans tendon. J. Biceps. K. 
 Anterior, or great extensor of the 
 metacarpus. L. External meta- 
 oarpi. M. Oblique extensor of the 
 metacarpus. N. Tendon of anter- 
 ior extensor of m.etacarpus. O. 
 Branch of suspensory ligament. P. 
 
 Extensor pedis, Joining branch of suspensory ligament above. The lines 
 shown at knee indicate location of annular ligaraent or Knee cap. 
 
The Muscles and Their Work. 27 
 
 a sheath formed by the trapezium and binding (an- 
 nular) ligament, thence down the back of the cannon 
 bone. The one lying in front (the flexor pedis perfo- 
 rans) lies just behind the suspensory ligament, goes over 
 the sesamoids, little round bones at the back of the fet- 
 lock, down the back of the pastern until it passes over 
 the shuttle bone (os naviculare), which has a smooth, 
 pulley-like surface, and is then inserted (fastened) into 
 the under side of the coffin bone. It is of interest to 
 know that this muscle is re-inforced just below the knee 
 by what is known as the check ligament. When dis- 
 cussing the joints, structures called ligaments were men- 
 tioned and their functions described ; in connection with 
 the muscular tissues, there are what are known as sus- 
 pensory and check ligaments, whose offices are to render 
 assistance in a greater or less degree to muscles. The 
 suspensory ligaments are very powerful, and if the back 
 tendons were severed would prevent the fetlock sinking 
 to the ground. The suspensory ligament lies right behind 
 the cannon and between the two splint bones, it originates 
 at the lower row of knee bonfes and passes to the fetlock^ 
 a short distance above which it divides into two bands, 
 which are inserted to the sesamoids, parts of the liga- 
 ment, however, pass down and forward and unite with 
 the muscle (extensor pedis) that extends the foot. It is 
 a question whether this ligament is capable of stretching, 
 in dogs, cats and pigs its place is taken by a muscle, in 
 man by two muscles. The check ligament (carpal stay) 
 is a continuation of a powerful ligament which fills in 
 the spaces at the back of the knee joint, as stated; it 
 assists one of the back tendons. The rear- most tendon 
 
28 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 (flexor pedis perforatus) lies just behind the perforans 
 and underneath the skin, and receives a re-inforcing 
 ligament above the knee. This muscle proceeds down 
 the back of the limb and forms a sheath at the fetlock, 
 through which the tendon of the perforans passes and is 
 inserted on the short pastern bone. The suspensory 
 ligament and two tendons should be hard and well defined 
 in the horse ; to be so, there must not be a great amount 
 of connective tissue, the nervous tone must be good, and 
 there must be no inflammation or its products in the 
 parts. Cap t. Hayes, in "Points of the Horse," says the 
 factors in producing strong tissues, such as clean, hard 
 muscles, are Heredity, hard food ("oats, not corn^'), 
 exercise, a dry, warm climate and Eastern blood. The 
 first three factors are well under the control of every 
 farmer ; knowledge of such factors and their intelligent 
 use render breeding operations more successful and, con-, 
 sequently, more satisfactory. Some very large and very 
 powerful muscles (Latissimus dorsi, serratus posticus, 
 longissimus dorsi) extend along the back and loins, they 
 contribute to the breathing movements of the animal 
 and extend the spine; the valuable meat cuts of the back 
 and loins are contributed largely by these muscles; in 
 fact, if an imaginary line be drawn from the shoulder 
 point to the point of the buttock, nearly all of the valu- 
 able cuts will be above that line. 
 
 Four powerful muscles, the pectorals and the serrati, 
 forming the muscles of the armpits, are the means by 
 which the body is slung between the fore legs. The 
 muscles of the hind limbs are of great importance and 
 some of them of immense size ; in the meat type of ani- 
 
The Muscles and Their Work. 29 
 
 inal especially great muscular development in this region 
 is essential, as these muscles contribute largely to the 
 high priced cuts. 
 
 The hip or croup is extended by the great rump muscle 
 (gluteus maximus), which also exists in rearing, and by 
 some muscles which lie at the back of the thigh bone 
 (femur). The great rump muscle is attached to the 
 upper portion of the pelvis (Ilium) and T-uns forward as 
 far as the last rib, its insertion being on the head of the 
 thigh bone. The muscles at the back of the thigh origi- 
 nate on the under surface of the pelvis from behind the 
 hip joint to the point of the buttock and are insert-ed 
 principally to the lower part of the thigh bone or the 
 upper portion of the bone below (the tibia). The hip 
 is flexed by muscles (psoae) that have their origin on 
 the under surface of the last dorsal vertebrae and ribs 
 and the loin; they also tend to arch the back and bring 
 the animal to its feet after rearing; the insertions are on 
 the thigh bone. Other muscles (triceps adductors femoris 
 sartorius and pectineus) which are attached to the under 
 surface of the pelvis in front of the hip joint, the thigh, 
 stifle and lower thigh also flex the hip. Some of these 
 muscles also draw the hind limbs outward (abduct) some 
 inwards (adduct). 
 
 The stifle is extended by one muscle (rectus femoris) 
 which has its origin on the under surface of the pelvis 
 just in front of the hip joint, its insertion being to the 
 stifle. This muscle also flexes the hip. The stifle is 
 flexed chiefly by a muscle (biceps rotator tibialis) 
 attached to the pelvis behind the hip. joint and to the 
 lower thigh (tibia) or gaskin. 
 
30 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 The hock joint is straightened (extended) by the mus- 
 cles of the gaskin (gastrocnemii) which have their origin 
 on the lower part of the thigh bone, one has its insertion 
 to the point of the hock, the other to the bones of the 
 pastern and foot; the latter when extending the hock 
 flexes the fetlock and joints below. Its principal use is as 
 a mechanical brace during standing and thus preserves 
 the balance; these two muscles form the hamstring. 
 
 Flexion of this important joint is performed by power- 
 ful muscles (flexor metatarsi, extensor pedis and peron- 
 eus). The peroneus originates on the fibula, joins the 
 extensor pedis below the hock, and is of interest because 
 of the radical operation performed on it with the idea of 
 curing stringMlt; it is really an accessory (helper) 
 muscle to the extensor pedis. The flexor metatarsi orig- 
 inates at the lower end of the thigh bone and terminates 
 at the lower portion of the hock by four insertions, one 
 of which is prolonged over the site of hone spavin, and 
 in surgical work for the relief of such a condition is 'often 
 severed. The extensor pedis originates on the side of 
 the lower end of the thigh bone and is attached to the 
 three bones below the fetlock, consequently the joints 
 below the hock are extended by this muscle. An 
 acquaintance with the origins, insertions and actions of 
 the limb muscles is of especial value as an aid to detect 
 and locate lameness. The apparatus for performing 
 movements in animals is, as is seen, composed of bones, 
 ligaments and muscles, which are brought into a more 
 or less intimate relation, we might term it frictional 
 relation. Nature has made provision to reduce the fric- 
 tion and its consequences to a minimum, by what is 
 
The Muscles and Their Worlc. 31 
 
 known as joint oil (synovia). It has already been stated 
 that this fluid is present at the joints, being secreted 
 from the lining of the capsular ligament, besides these 
 locations it is also found in little bags or sacs (bursae) of 
 shapes varying with the location, placed between a ten- 
 don and bone or between two tendons. From various 
 causes resulting in over-stimulation of the secreting 
 membrane, an overplus of this fluid is secreted, thus 
 accounting for swellings in various parts, of which hog 
 spavin and wind puffs are familiar illustrations. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE DIQESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 An acquaintance with the arrangement and methods 
 of working of the digestive organs is essential to the 
 feeder of fat stock, the feeder of dairy stock and the per 
 son who feeds for work. It has been found that the 
 higher the organization the more complicated is the 
 digestive process. In order to render the process easily 
 understood four divisions or stages are outlined, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 1. Prehension and Mastication, referring to the seizing 
 and chewing of food, the preparatory stage calling into 
 employment the lips, tongue, teeth and glands of the 
 part. 
 
 2. Secretion, the process of saturation of food mate- 
 rials with the digestive fluids (gastric juice, bile, pan- 
 creatic juice). 
 
 3» Absorption, referring to the taking into the system 
 of the prepared materials obtained from the food, em- 
 ploying such tissues as the blood and lymphatics. 
 
 4. Excretion, the process of throwing out, by means 
 of the excrements (feces and urine), sweat, and breathed 
 air, the waste material, that part of the food from which 
 the nourishment has been extracted. It does not follow 
 that this latter is always the case, e. g., the profit 
 obtained by letting shoats follow steers, showing that a 
 large part of the food was not used by the steers. 
 
The Digestive System. 33 
 
 Mucous and Serous Membranes. Widely di£feriBg as 
 these membranes do in their location and functions, for 
 our purposes we may consider them somewhat alike in 
 construction. Mucous membranes may be said to line 
 open cavities or tubes, such as the nose, mouth, the entire 
 digestive tract, the breathing (respiratory) tract, and 
 the genitourinary tract (containing the organs of repro- 
 duction and the kidneys, bladder, urethra, etc.) The 
 main point of interest regarding the mucous membranes 
 probably relates to that part of the intestinal tract in 
 which absorption takes place, and under which heading 
 the forms taken by the mucous membrane, for short often 
 written m. m., will be described. 
 
 Serous membranes, on the other han^ consist of two 
 layers, and line closed cavities, parts of the animal body 
 not communicating with the outside world. Whileser- 
 ous membranes have a wide distribution in the body, 
 yet in that distribution they lose their identity, becom- 
 ing known according to their location, e. g., the serous 
 membrane of the abdominal cavity is termed the peri- 
 toneum, in it are suspended the intestines; the inner 
 layer of the peritoneum is in one part named the omen- 
 tum, at another the mesentery. The serous membrane 
 of the lung cavity is the pleura, that of the heart the 
 pericardium. As a result of inflammation of serous mem- 
 branes, fluid is thrown out between the layers, e. g., 
 water in the chest (hydrothorax) after pleurisy. The 
 serous membranes should always be examined in post 
 mortems of suspected tuberculous animals. 
 
 The digestive tract is practically a long hollow tube 
 running from one end of the body to the other, having 
 3 
 
34 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 sacs or recesses at intervals. ThiS- tube is made up 
 largely of muscular fibers and nerves, a fact to remem- 
 ber in the treatment of such diseases as stoppage of the 
 bowels from over-feeding, with the resultant paralysis of 
 the muscular fibres of the bowel, consequently the admin- 
 istration of purgatives in such cases is not advisable until 
 the paralyzed condition is overcome; sometimes these 
 muscular fibres are cramped, illustrations of which are 
 seen in spasmodic colic. The lining of the tube is a del- 
 icate tissue known as mucous membrane, which is made 
 up of layers of cells in which are blood vessels, nerves 
 and glands, the surface of this mucous membrane is 
 smooth; although it may be more or less roughened, as 
 seen and felt on the tongue of animals; in the small in- 
 testines this membrane is arranged in little finger-like 
 projections known as villi. 
 
 I. Prehension and Mastication and the organs employed. 
 The seizing of food and conveying of that food to the 
 mouth is performed in various ways by the different ani- 
 mals, the horse uses the upper lip and front teeth for 
 this purpose, the cow using the tongue only,- thus we 
 understand the fallacy of letting cattle follow sheep on 
 pasture land; sheep use a combination of tongue and lip, 
 the hog uses both upper and lower portions of the snout, 
 they both graze and root. The mouth is the entrance to 
 the digestive tract, it contains the tongue, teeth, and re- 
 ceives the secretions of the salivary glands; it is guarded 
 by the lips, formed of circular muscles and sensitive hairs. 
 Animals that chew the cud (ruminants) frequently lack the 
 front upper row (the incisors) of teeth, the place of which is 
 taken by a firm pad of gristle (cartilage), it is also inter- 
 
The Digestive System. 35 
 
 esting to note that the teeth of such animals are loosely 
 imbedded in the sockets. The roof of the mouth is 
 formed by what is known as the hard palate, mucous 
 membrane thrown into cross folds. The presence of an 
 artery is made known if one lances just behind the third 
 bar, an operation often performed by blacksmiths and 
 others for Lampas. The cheeks are made up of muscles 
 which are exerted to keep the food between the teeth; 
 on the inside, close to the fourth grinder (molar) a little 
 elevation is felt, which is the point of entrance of the 
 duct carrying the saliva from the parotid gland. The 
 tongue is the organ of taste, is freely movable and in 
 some animals can be extended quite a distance ; it is 
 made up of muscular tissue, a fact which must be remem- 
 bered when seizing this organ, or sprain of the muscular 
 fibres will result and the animal may be thus rendered 
 unable to use the oi'gan as it should; the mucous mem- 
 brane which covers the muscular portion is iu the horse 
 quite smooth, in the cow and sheep quite rough, due to 
 its arrangement in little tufts called papillte. The tonguQ 
 in swine and sheep is comparatively small. Irritant 
 medicines must not be administered undiluted or the 
 mucous membrane will be damaged. At the back let 
 down from the roof of the mouth is a double fold of 
 mucous menfbrane known as the soft palate; its size in the 
 horse bars the exit of breathed air by the mouth, hence the 
 horse breathes only through the nostrils. This soft palate 
 does not hinder breathing through the mouth in cattle and 
 sheep. The mechanism of drinking is controlled by the 
 organs mentioned, in the young animal the lips are 
 placed around the teat, a vacuum is formed and the milk 
 
36 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 is forced into the mouth by the pressure of the air, such 
 a process constitutes the act of sucking. lu the mature 
 animal, pumping is the method employed, the lips are 
 immersed below the water, a small opening is made 
 between them, the tongue withdrawn and a vacuum 
 formed, the air pressure forcing the water into the 
 mouth. 
 
 The Teeth. In the mouth cavity those important or- 
 gans, the teeth, are found. It has been said, and with a 
 •great deal of truth, "no' foot, no horse," the substitution 
 of tooth for foot would make another adage as significant 
 as the old one and just as true, whether referred to the 
 horse, ox or sheep, as on the condition of the teeth 
 depends the health and consequent ability to do work or 
 make gains. Every horse, and for that matter, the 
 other animals, have two sets of teeth, the milk or colt 
 (temporary) teeth, which are shed at different periods 
 in the early life of the animal, smaller and whiter than 
 the permanent, which are intended to last the animal 
 the balance of its life. In sheep the front (incisors) 
 permanents tend to fall out at from 8 to 10 years, in cat- 
 tle rarely so, while in horses the front teeth remain, the 
 grinders (molars) are, however, quite often diseased, 
 necessitating their removal. Although a simple looking 
 object a tooth is composed of bony materials, the hardest 
 in the animal body. The visible part of the toot^ (the 
 crown) is formed of dentine (an ivory-like substance) 
 which is covered by a layer more or less thick of a white, 
 still harder substance, the enamel. The invisible part 
 of the tooth (the fang) consists of a comparatively thin 
 layer of orusta petrosa, and is chiefly made up of dentine. 
 
The Digestive System. 37 
 
 The wearing surface (upper) is known as the table of the 
 tooth, and it is on the tables of the front teeth (incisors) 
 that the various marks are seen which are treated of when 
 discussing the age of a horse. As to kinds of teeth there 
 are two, classifying them according to their construc- 
 tion, viz.: Simple, e. g., the nippers or incisors, and the 
 tusks or tushes (canines) ; Compoured, the grinders (molars). 
 The teeth will be considered according to their location, 
 hence three sets — those at the front, nippers or incisors, 
 the tushes or canines, and the back teeth, known as the 
 ffHnders or molars. 
 
 The incisor teeth in horses, cattle and sheep are made 
 use of by the stockman to determine the age of the ani- 
 mal, by taking into consideration the time of appearance 
 of those teeth, the amount of wear shown on their tables, 
 and by their shape. 
 
 On the tables of the incisors the enamel forms a depres- 
 sion known as the cup or cmp, which is filled with the 
 tooth cement, generally discolored by the food, thus ac- 
 counting for the black mark found in the cup. When an 
 incisor has been in use for some time its table (wearing 
 surface) presents two irregular rings of enamel, an outer 
 and an inner one. The inner ring surrounds the cup 
 (cusp); the dental star (so-called) is a spot on the tables 
 found at certain periods between the cup and the front 
 edge of the tooth. The tusks or canines are not always 
 present, rarely in the mare, in fact these teeth are con- 
 sidered as a mark of masculinity. In cattle and sheep 
 there are no upper incisors, as has been mentioned; the 
 incisor teeth in cattle especially are quite loose in their 
 sockets. 
 
38 Veteriiiary Elements. 
 
 The molars (grinders) are somewhat square, looking at 
 the table surface; while the temporary or milk molars 
 are only twelve in number, there are twenty-four perma- 
 nent molars. The upper ones are set a little to the out- 
 side of the lower ones, due to the slightly greater width 
 of the upper jav7. The surfaces of these molars do not 
 form two horizontal surfaces, but two sloping ones, the 
 outer edge of the upper molars coming lower down than 
 the inner edge of the same teeth, whereas the lower row 
 of molars have the inner edge higher, this fact has to be 
 rememberedvin the operation of drassing (floating) the 
 teeth. The formula below gives the number and arrange- 
 ment of the teeth in the adult of the different animals: 
 
 Incisors. Canines. Molars. Total. 
 
 6 -Z \i 
 
 Horee. 
 
 Ox 8 
 
 
 
 Slieep 8 
 
 fi -i 
 
 40 
 32 
 32 
 
 Pig 6 2 14 44 
 
 The tushes of little pigs are sometimes black and gen- 
 erally sharp, though it is doubtful if the blackened con- 
 dition affects their health, yet it is advisable however to 
 break off their tushes, as in fighting for the teat they are 
 very apt to tear it, and cause soreness of the udder, with 
 a consequent disinclination of the sow to let the pigs 
 suckle her. 
 
 Telling the Age. Foals at birth have four incisors, the 
 middle ones, and twelve molars; at six months four lat- 
 
The Digestive System. 
 
 39 
 
 erals appear; at six to nine months the corners show. 
 The permanent incisors appear at three, four and five 
 respectively, the tusks (canines) from the fourth to the 
 fifth year; thus a horse is said to have a full mouth (a 
 compMe set) at five years. Soon after that time changes 
 can be seen to have taken place in the incisors as follows: 
 At six years the black mark disappears from the central 
 incisors of the lower row, at seven from the lower later- 
 als, at eight from the corner teeth of the lower row. 
 Beyond that age the signs are not as reliable, yet gener- 
 ally the black marks'disappear from "the upper centrals 
 at nine, the laterals at ten, and from the upper corners 
 at eleven. A general idea of the age after eight years 
 may be obtained by noting the shape of the teeth, owing 
 to the fiict that as the animal grows older the incisor 
 teeth become narrower from side to side and deeper from 
 front to back, assuming gradually and consecutively 
 square, triangular and round appearances. The follow- 
 ing diagram represents the time at which the incisors 
 appear and will be a help in determining the ages of 
 the horse, ox and sheep. 
 
 HOBSB. 
 
 1 — 3 years. 
 \^^ 2—4 years. 
 
 3 — 5 years. . 
 
 ox AND SHEEP. 
 
 Ox: 1 — 1 J years 
 2— 2j yeare 
 3— 2| years 
 4—3 years 
 
 Sheep: 1—1 year 
 2 — 2 years 
 3 — 3 years 
 4 — 4 years 
 
40 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 in horned cattle the age is calculated quite reliably by 
 the wrinkles on the horns, the first one appearing at two 
 years, the others at intervals of one year. Evidences of 
 teething, such as shedding of the milk teeth are well 
 marked in the colt, by the presence of the crowns (so- 
 called) of the milk teeth in the feed box, quite often by 
 a loss of condition and disinclination to eat. Sheep and 
 cattle rarely show marked symptoms of tooth troubles, 
 the latter may, however, if affected with Lumpy Jaw 
 (Actinomycosis). Owing to the fact that the molars 
 (grinders) are the most important teeth in the horse, a 
 yearly examination by a competent veterinarian of the 
 mouths of all horses owned will result in a saving of feed 
 and better health in those animals. 
 
 The various changes 4n the teeth on which are based 
 the determination of the age of the animal have been 
 described, the methods of making sucli an examination 
 follows: The methods described may be varied from, 
 but as they are workmanlike are adopted, being the 
 result of experience. 
 
 In the" Horse. The examiner steps to the off side of 
 the horse and facing ahead with the left hand placed on 
 the cheekstrap of the bridle or halter, the right hand 
 parts the lips, thus allowing the general shape of the 
 teeth to be seen, if, as a result of the examination, the 
 animal appears to be over five years, the tables of the 
 teeth are looked at. The left hand lets go of the bridle, 
 the two first fingers are run in the space between the 
 front and back teeth, the thumb being employed to de- 
 press the lower lip, a gentle downward pressure is applied 
 and the tables are then in view; it may be necessary with 
 
. ' , The Digestive System. 41 
 
 the right hand to elevate the upper lip; in order to do so 
 the examiner swings round in front of, and faces the 
 horse. It is advisable in all cases when examining a 
 strange animal to be on the alert, so as to avoid bites or 
 kicks and blows from the front feet; the trained horseman 
 is always on the alert. 
 
 The Examination of the Sheep's Mouth calls for a pre- 
 cise method, so as to limit the stiuggling of the animal 
 and allow of an accurate result being obtainetl. The 
 sheep being caught, the 
 examiner stands on the 
 left side of the animal, 
 and while applying 
 pressure with the right 
 knee to the left shoulder, 
 bj' means of the right 
 hand and arm, draws 
 the head towards the 
 right side; the right 
 elbow and forearm fit in 
 tightly to the shoulder 
 and neck of the sheep. 
 The fingers now come 
 into play, the forefinger 
 (index) of the left hand 
 being placed in the hori- 
 zontal position, and 
 therefore parallel to the 
 
 upper lip, gently elevates it, the thumb of the right hand 
 at the same moment, also in the horizontal position, 
 gently lowers the under lip, thus the teeth are brought 
 
 DKTEHMINING THE AGE. 
 
42 V^rinary Ulementg. » 
 
 well in the view and the animal being held fast cannot 
 struggle. Skill in handling animals for various pur- 
 poses is shown by the avoidance of any rough or harsh 
 measures. 
 
 The apparatus for masticating food have been de- 
 scribed, the processes will now be under discussion. 
 
 Masticatioa is the process of grinding food in the mouth, 
 thus fitting the food for the action of the stomach juices. 
 All grain eating animals need this process to break the 
 envelopes of the grain so that the digestive juices may 
 act; crushing (chopping) the grain renders the work of 
 mastication easier. It has been stated that the muscles 
 of the cheeks, the teeth, tongue, lips, jaws and saliva all 
 have to do with the preparation of the food. The mouth 
 is opened by depressing (lowering) the lower jaw, closed 
 by raising it, the latter action calling for considerable 
 forcCj hence the reason for the strong muscles forming 
 the cheeks. The jaw motion is sideways in horses, cat- 
 tle an^d sheep, and is changed from side to side at will. 
 The tongue, lips and cheeks keep the food between the 
 teeth. The food is moistened by the saliva (spittle), a 
 fluid alkaline in reaction, containing a fevment-ptyalirif 
 which acts on the starch of the food, converting it into 
 sugar. This secretion (saliva) is the result of the work 
 of certain glands, namely, the parotid, a grape-like 
 structure situated just below the ears, with a duct run- 
 ning into the mouth at the fourth molar; submamllary, 
 smaller glands lying between the jaws, often enlarged in 
 colt Distemper (strangles) and Glanders, the secretion 
 being emptied into the mouth at the barbs just under the 
 point of the tongue; sublinguals, a number of very small 
 
The Digestive System. 4^ 
 
 glands, as their name reveals, lie under the tongue. The 
 parotid gland is active only on the side on which chewing 
 is taking place. In the horse these glands work only 
 daring mastication; in cattle they are secreting continu- 
 ally. Sight and odor of the food do not stimulate the 
 glands. 
 
 Quantity of saliva secreted. The amount of saliva se- 
 creted in twenty-four hours is amsfzing. In the horse 
 about sixteen and one-quarter pints per hour when eat- 
 ing hay, Colin stating five pounds of hay may be eaten 
 in an hour, and Lassaigre estimates that for each pound 
 of hay, 4.06 pounds of saliva, hence 20.3 pounds or about 
 sixteen and one-quarter pints, one-third less if oats are 
 the food, just one-half the quantity when on green fodder, 
 and one-third if on roots; therefore, it is readily seen that 
 the quantity varies with amount of water in the feed, in 
 fact on the dryness of the food, not on the starch to be 
 acted upon. Its action is more mechanical (i. e., for the 
 purpose of mixing, softening, etc. ) than chemical. The 
 food is thus rendered easy of Shaping into a ball (bolus), 
 in which shape it is passed backward and swallowed. 
 This fluid also aids in tasting foods, and keeps the mouth 
 and teeth clean and moist; great quantities of it descend 
 into the first stomachs of cattle and sheep, the fluid being 
 secreted as soon as food is eaten or masticated. 
 
 Swallowing (deglutition) is quite a complicated process, 
 although seemingly simple. It may be divided into 
 three stages, during the first of which the food is under 
 the control of the will and the food is passed back into 
 the pharynx; in the second stage through the pharynx 
 it is then beyond the control of the will, being only 
 
44 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 brought back by coughing; in the third stage the bolus is 
 carried over the larynx into the gullet, and by the mus- 
 cular contractions of the walls of this tube is finally 
 ejected into the stomach. As the latter stages of swal- 
 lowing are involuntary the process known as r'eHex action 
 is gone through as follows: A nervous stimulus is sent 
 to the brain, the result of the presence of the bolus, and 
 a message is sent back from the brain to the muscles of 
 the pharynx and gullet directing the swallowing of the 
 bolus. A horse may swallow thirty boli in fifteen min- 
 utes if very hungry, from ten to twelve if the edge has 
 been taken off his appetite. Immediately behind the 
 mouth is the cavity already spoken of as the pharynx; 
 this cavity is common to the digestive and respiratory 
 (breathing) tracts; it has several openings into it besides 
 those already mentioned, namely, those of the Eustachian 
 tubes, which communicate with the ear, and the gut- 
 tural pouches, hollow cavities peculiar to the horse, 
 found at the back of the pharynx; these cavities are 
 sometimes filled with pus, and when thus may cause suf- 
 focation. The pharynx opens behind into the gullet 
 (esophagus), a long musculo- membranous tube, the en- 
 trance to which is located just above and behind the 
 larynx. This tube extends to the stomach, and its path 
 can be seen in the neck during the passage of food or 
 medicine; it is lined with a delicate membrane, and 
 although containing a considerable number of muscular 
 fibres, and therefore elastic is not meant for, nor is it 
 improved by, the forcible passing of solid objects, such 
 as broom handles or whipstocks. At its entrance into 
 the stomach of the horse the mucous membrane is in 
 
The Digestive System. 45 
 
 folds, formiug a valve, thus preventing the return of food 
 (vomiting, etc.) to the mouth; in cattle and sheep its en 
 trance is, however, funnel-shaped, a condition favorable 
 to the return of food to the mouth. 
 
 • The Stomach. The digestive tract has been described 
 as a tube with sacs or enlargements, the first of which is 
 
 STOMACH OF A HORSE. 
 
 G.— The gullet (esophagus). 
 
 the stomach. In the horse and pig it is a single sac; in 
 cattle and sheep, an organ with four compartments, viz: 
 the paunch or rumen, situated in the left flank of the ani- 
 mal, the honeycomb or reticulum, the manyplies or omasum, 
 
46 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the true stomach or abomasiuii, sometimes termed the rennet. 
 The stomach of a hoi-se resembles a bent tube in shape, 
 ■with the openings close together on the upper border; 
 it is lined l)y mucous membrane which shows a well- 
 
 TYPE OF iHJMINANT (OX, SIIEEl' AND GOAT) STOMACH. 
 
 Photo of ram's stomach, the upper edge in the cut lies in the front 
 position in tlie animal. P.— Paunch. G.— Gullet. H,— Honeycomb. 
 M. — Manyplies. R.— Rennet or fourth stomach (abomasuni). 
 
 marked dividing line and as a result two varieties of 
 mucous membrane, the one a continuation from the gullet 
 with no secreting glands in it, the other, or villous por- 
 tion, the true digestive coat containing the gastric glands. 
 
The Digestive System. 47 
 
 It is a good idea to consider the first three divisions of 
 the ruminant stomach as a widening out of the gullet. 
 The capacity of a horse's stomach is about 3 to 3 J gal- 
 lons, that of the paunch (first stomach) of a cow 45 to 60 
 gallons, of a sheep's paunch 10 to 15 gallons, and of a 
 pigs stomach 1^ to 2 gallons. 
 
 The process of rumination, although carried out with 
 the assistance of the first three stomachs, is not a pure 
 digestive act, but merely preparatory, hence we consider 
 it as part of stage one. In some animals the food when 
 swallowed is finely divided enough to be acted upon by 
 the gastric juice in the true stomach, in others it has to 
 be mixed and churned up with the mouth saliva in order 
 to soften it before its return to the mouth for remastica- 
 tion. In birds digestion, starts at once, although the 
 food may not be finely ground. The process of returning 
 the food to the mouth for a, second chewing, known as 
 riimination, is peculiar to the many-stomached herbivora 
 (grass eaters). This process differs from vomiting, in 
 that it is partly under the control of the will, in fact the 
 one is abnormal (unnatural), the other normal (natural). 
 If rumination stops for any length of time the cause 
 should be looked for; as has been pointed out, the pro- 
 cess consists of the passage up and down the gullet of 
 food from the stomach; therefore, the giving of an animal 
 a cud (so-called) is a ridiculous practice and one that 
 cannot be expected to restore the natural movements 
 which are in abeyance. 
 
 The reason given for animals ruminating is that when 
 in the wild state food had to be taken in rapidly and 
 chewed at leisure in a place of safety. The process is 
 
48 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 stopped by fright or any unexpected happening, such as 
 the presence of strangers; such being the case, as can be 
 confirmed by any observing person, it behooves the at- 
 tendant to avoid harsh treatment or sudden, noisy move- 
 ments among cattle or sheep. The calf at early age 
 craves bulky food in order to ruminate, in fact, outside 
 of the necessity for bulky food with the idea of balancing 
 the ration, it seems necessary to distend the paunch so 
 that its walls may be stimulated to action; the other 
 extreme must be avoided, however, because the ruminat- 
 ing process is stopped if the paunch is overloaded, due 
 to paralysis of the muscular fibi-es of that organ. Over- 
 distension with gas, a common occurrence from feeding 
 on unmatured grasses and fodders, such as rape and 
 clover with the dew on, will also stop the process; it is 
 also stopped during the period of heat. The longer 
 rumination is stopped the harder it is to start again, similar 
 to other paralytic conditions, a result also of the drying 
 out and impaction of the food lying in the paunch in 
 an inert condition. A plentiful supply of water is nec- 
 essary to assist in softening the food, which usually con- 
 tains more or less woody fibre. The gullet opens into 
 the paunch which communicates with the honeycomb, or 
 water bag, as it is often called, due to its fluid contents; 
 these two compartments communicate with the manyplies 
 (omasum), and it by a small opening ihto the true stom- 
 ach (abomasum). The honeycomb is situated in front 
 and below the paunch, hence it becomes the water bag. 
 The contents of the manyplies are drier than that of 
 ' the others, judging from the arrangement of its leaves 
 and the character of its contents the food undergoes a 
 
The Digestive System. 49 
 
 squeezing process by which excess of water, which might 
 unduly dilute the digesting fluids of the true (fourth) 
 stomach, is forced out. 
 
 The process of rumination. After the food has been 
 chewed (masticated) for the first time, it passes down 
 into the paunch and honeycomb, while fluids and finely 
 chewed particles go on to the manyplies and even to the 
 true stomach. The openings between the second and third 
 compartments is small. Food in the paunch and honey-, 
 comb is slowly churned and thus thoroughly mixed with 
 saliva, mucus and water, thus being rendered fit for the 
 second chewing; probably the starchy matters of the food 
 are changed to sugar, the rigHt conditions, temperature 
 and moisture being present in these organs. The com- 
 partment from .which the food enters the gullet is not 
 certain;" from the construction of the parts it is likely 
 from the honeycomb, i As soon as the bolus of food 
 re-enters the mouth a sound is heard which indicates 
 the downward passage of the fluid which lubricated its 
 upward passage; in cattle the various movements in the 
 gullet can be seen along its course down the neck. The 
 necessity of an abundant supply of water or watery food 
 is at once understood when the act of rumination is 
 studied. It has been calculated that about seven hours 
 are necessary for rumination, hence continual activity or 
 work are not favorable to the ruminating process. The 
 position assumed by the ruminant when resting is char- 
 acteristic. The saliva is essential to the chewing of the 
 
 ' As a result of postmortems made by the author, this view is held to 
 be correct, judged mainly from the character of the contents of the gullet 
 and honeycomb at the time of death, the gullet generally being found full 
 of chewed material. 
 
 4 
 
50 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 cud. When the food is completely remasticated it is 
 swallowed, passed to the manyplies, and from there to 
 the fourth or true stomach, to be acted upon by the gas- 
 tric juices. 
 
 Vomiting in horses and other single-stomached herbi- 
 vora is a rare occurrence, and when it does happen in 
 the former is a grave symptom. The openings into the 
 stomachs of these animals are close together, and as the 
 gullet is closed by a sphincter muscle, if pressure is 
 applied, the contents escape into the intestines. In the 
 horse the stomach is never in contact with the abdominal 
 muscles, consequently the necessary pressure cannot nat- 
 urally be applied. In ruftiinants the contents of the true 
 stomach do not return to the mouth. 
 
 2. Secretion. Having discussed the preparatory 
 stages through which the food is put, and the organs 
 employed in the process, under the second heading — 
 secretion — those organs and their secretions that have a 
 digestive action, namely, the stomach, small intestines, 
 liver, and pancreas will now engage our attention. 
 
 The arrangement of the mucous membrane in the 
 stomach of the horse is such that to all intents and pur- 
 poses it might be considered as two different organs, the 
 villous or true digestive coat, containing the gastric 
 glands. The stomach movements tend to mix the gastric 
 juice thoroughly through the food, thus ensuring the di- 
 gestion of its contents. The stomach of the pig resembles 
 that of the horse; the fourth compartment only of the 
 ruminant stomach is concerned with secretion. Gastric 
 juice is a thin, limpid fluid, almost colorless, with a strong 
 acid reaction, due to the presence of muriatic (hydro- 
 
T]ie Digestive System. 51 
 
 chloric) acid, it iias an odor peculiar to the animal from 
 which it is got. It prevents putrefactive changes and con- 
 tains two ferments — pepsin and the milh-curdling one, some 
 free acid (HCl) and mineral salts. The milk-curdling 
 ferment is the active principle in rennet, is very power- 
 fal and may be found in watery extracts of the stomach 
 of calves or sheep. Gastric juice acts on albuminous 
 (proteid) material only, the fats and carbohydrates are 
 reserved for the action of the intestinal juices. It is en- 
 tirely unexplained why the stomach does not digest itself 
 during life, after death such does occur. Gastric diges- 
 tion ^in flesh-eaters (carnivora) is more active than lin 
 the herbivora, due to the large quantity of pepsin and 
 acid contained in the secretion. Pepsin will not work 
 in an alkaline medium, hence the acid, as it will be re- 
 membered that saliva was alkaline, and therefore unless 
 neutralization took place, digestion would be very imper- 
 fect. Albumen becomes more indigestible when cooked; 
 dogs often suffer from a fetid diarrhoea due to boiled 
 meat, which is soon corrected by feeding the raw 
 article. 
 
 Digestion in horses is characterized by the slowness 
 of the preparatory mechanical stage of digestion, and 
 by the rapidity with which the work of the stomach 
 is performed, the rapid passage of the liquid material 
 into the ccecum (blind gut) and the hardness of the ball- 
 like form of the residue in the back parts of the bowel. 
 Chewing the food is a slow process in the horse, and is 
 completed at the time of the meal, consequently the 
 amount of hay eaten is limited- by the time, four to six 
 pounds being the maximum quantity eaten in an hour, 
 
52 Yeterinary Elements. 
 
 should the teeth be in poor shape the time required will 
 be about two hours; the same weight of oats require 
 twenty to forty minutes. Chopping feed does not help 
 animals with sound teeth; it will economize time; on the 
 other hand, it is said to be harmful by decreasing the 
 amount of saliva poured out. If food is given in excess, 
 little of it will spend sufficient time in the stomach, it 
 will be rushed on into the intestines, unfit for absorption, 
 consequently will act as a foreign body, and as a result, 
 cause a typical case of colic or acute indigestion; such 
 results are every day occurrences in the practice of the 
 veterinarian. The stomach will be filled and emptied 
 once to three times during a meal, and is most active 
 when about two-thirds fall. Gastric juice in the horse 
 besides containing the constituents already noted, has a 
 ferment known as the diastalic ferment, which has the 
 power of converting starch into sugar, such action is 
 most active during the first two hours of digestion. In 
 the stomach, as a result of the action of the juices, the 
 albumen of the food is peptonized, a process which 
 renders that materiail capable of being absorbed. The 
 amount of peptone increases after a meal and reaches its 
 maximum three to four hours later. Meals, therefor^ 
 ' must not be crowded too closely together or the results 
 will be the same as if an over- amount oi food had been 
 given. Experiments have shown that if oats are fed 
 first, followed as soon as eaten by hay, that they will be 
 forced into the intestine undigested, therefore, the better 
 plan will be to water and hay first, following with oats 
 later. In the true stomach of the ruminant, albumen 
 is converted into peptone, milk is coagulated and its 
 
Tlie Digestive System. 53 
 
 casein peptonized, gelatin is converted into an available 
 form, some of the fats are split uj), cane sugar being but 
 slightly acted upon. 
 
 Gastric digestion takes place in the stomach, is the 
 most complete in the ruminant, in which intestinal diges- 
 tion is simple. In birds the food is macerated (softened) 
 in the crop and mixed with an acid fluid; the crushing 
 or grinding being done in the gizzard; the digestive pro- 
 cess is very active and thorough in birds. The food 
 having undergone the action of the stomach juices is 
 then passed to the small intestines, where it meets the 
 bile, pancreatic and intestinal juices. The small intes-~ 
 tines are tube-like in form and of a musculo- membranous 
 character, in the horse measuring over one hundred feet 
 in length. They are divided into three portions, named 
 respectively, the Duodenum, one foot in length. Ileum 
 and Jejunum. The first section is fixed and has an 
 opening into it, the ductus com??iMwis,' which conveys the 
 secretions of the . liver and pancreas. The other portions 
 are hanging free in the mesentery (a double fold of the 
 peritoneum). The small intestines are lined with mucous 
 membrane, which contains glands and lacteals. These 
 lacteals originate in finger-like projections of the mucous 
 membrane, known as villi. " Those glands which have 
 to do with secretion, with which we are now concerned, 
 are the liver, spleen and pancreas. The liver is the larg- 
 est secreting gland in the body and is situated behind the 
 diaphragm. The function of the liver is to secrete 
 bile, a fluid greenish-yellow in color and bitter to the 
 taste. The liver is brown in color and is enclosed in a 
 membrane known as Grlisson's capsule, which sends in 
 
54 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 leaf-like processes between the lobules; each lobule Is 
 made up of blood vessels, liver cells and ducts. There 
 is a peculiarity about the blood supply of the liver, com- 
 ing as it does by two vessels, the hepatic artery fetching 
 blood to nourish this important organ, the portal vein 
 bringing functional material from the intestines, namely, 
 blood, to be acted upon. The hepatic vein conveys away 
 the purified blood from the liver and empties it into the 
 general circulation. The hepatic tiwci conveys the bile 
 from the liver and joins the duct of the pancreas before 
 discharging its contents into the intestine. In cattle, 
 sheep and pigs the bile is stored in what is known as the 
 gall Madder; the horse has no gall bladder; bile becomes 
 concentrated in the gall bladder. In the horse the secre- 
 tion of bile seems to be continuous, a maximum amount 
 being secreted three to four hours after a meal, food exer- 
 cising an influence on the quantity". Pats are acted upon . 
 by the bile, being split up into fatty acids and glycerine, 
 emulsified and then saponified, in whicH state they are 
 capable of being absorbed. Bile has a mildly purgative 
 action; its suppression is revealed by constipation, stink- 
 ing feces and yellowness of the mucous membranes. A 
 secreting gland of even more importance than the liver is 
 the pancreas; the reason of such importance is owing to 
 the fact that its secretion, the pancreatic juice, contains 
 ferments which are more powerful than those secretions 
 (the saliva, gastric juice and bile) heretofore discussed, 
 yet such being the case there is a relation between bile 
 and pancreatic juice. Bile being alkaline neutralizes the 
 acid (it will be remembered that the stomach contents 
 were acid) and thus assists the pancreatic secretion. 
 
The Digestive System. 55 
 
 which in its turn liberates the fatty acids before men- ' 
 tioned. The organ secreting the abdominal saliva, as the 
 pancreatic juice has been called, is known as the pan- 
 creas ; it is of a reddish cream color, and is situated 
 behind the stomach and liver and in front of the kid- 
 neys. Its duct (Wirsung's) joins that of the liver in 
 the horse, not in cattle and sheep. Pancreatic juice is a 
 colorless aHialine fluid of a varying compositon, depend- 
 ing on the state of secretion. This juice contains a large 
 amount of solids and is readily decomposed, the process 
 being evidenced by the fecal odor. It contains four fer- 
 ments, one that acts on starch (amylolytic), one that acts 
 on proteids (proteolytic), a fat splitter (into fatty acids 
 and glycerine) and. a milJc curdling ferment, similar in 
 action to rennet. The first ferment converts starch into 
 sugar, thus duplicating the work of the saliva; it is, how- 
 ever, much stronger than ptyalin (the active principle 
 of saliva) i The action of the second is similar to that of 
 pepsin (the active agent in gastric juice), differing only 
 that while pepsin needs an acid medium to work in, this 
 ferment, trypsin, requires an alkaline medium. Pan- 
 creatic rennet is more active than that of the stomach ; 
 boiling, however, destroys the power of the ferment. 
 The secretion of pancreatic juice is constant in the ani- 
 mals being dealt with(herbivora), and is at its maximum 
 towards the end of rumination. In addition . to the se- 
 cretions mentioned, is that of certain glands (Lieberkuhn 
 and Brunner) of the intestines, known as intestinal juice 
 (succus entericus), which has an action similar to the 
 pancreatic juice. It is readily seen that intestinal di- 
 gestion is very important, owing to the complex nature 
 
'56 Veteruiary Elements. 
 
 of the secretions employed, especially so in the horse, 
 through whose stomach a great deal- of the food often 
 passes in an undigested state. So far the secretions men- 
 tioned have acted upon the more valuable parts of the 
 foods and rendered them capable of being absorbed, yet 
 the food of farm animals often contains a lot of fibre 
 (cellulose) to dispose of which nature has provided ways 
 according to the animal. 
 
 The blind gut (coecum) the first part of the large intes- 
 tines, assists in the disposal of the cellulose, in ruminants 
 the coecum is not as large as in the horse, the needs are 
 not so pressing owingto the work done in the largepaunch. 
 The ccQcum is very suiall in man and the dog, as would 
 be expected from the nature of their- food. In the horse 
 its structure resembles that of the small intestine, pos- 
 sessing as it does glands and follicles. Its action is alka- 
 line, normally, so that it is quite probable that consider- 
 able intestinal digestion takes place there (Smith) ; it is 
 likely the place where cellulose is digested. As may be 
 observed by any one, the poorer the food, the greater 
 the belly development, — ^generally termed — .paunchy ; 
 this condition is doubtless due to the fact that the poor 
 quality of food has caused the use of much of the cellu- 
 lose, consequently the coecum has been developed to 
 meet the necessity and as a result an enlarged abdomen ; 
 the feeding of such bulky or woody food is very undesir- 
 able in the horse, resulting as it often does in Heaves. 
 
 Before proceeding to the subject of Absorption, a large 
 ductless gland, the milt or spleen calls our attiention. It 
 is a soft reddish sickle shaped organ lying on the great 
 curvature of the stomach ; is very elastic, therefore 
 
The Digestive System. 57 
 
 distensible, its function, however, is unknown. It is 
 surmised by some that the blood plates (corpuscles) have 
 their origin in the spleen, by others that the spleen is 
 the graveyard of these corpuscles; be that as it may, in 
 certain diseases (Anthrax, Actinomycosis, Glanders) the 
 condition or appearance of the spleen is of value in the 
 recognition (diagnosis) of the disease. It has been stated 
 that the entire digestive tract is lined by mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Absorption. The lacteals originate in villi, finger-like 
 projections of the m^icous membrane, which tend to give 
 it a pile. ■ Ea6h villus contains blood vessels, nerves and 
 lymphatics; to illustrate introduce a finger into a glove, 
 the glove material represents the mucous membrane, the 
 glove finger a villus, and the finger the blood and lym- 
 phatic vessels and nerves. These villi are most abundant 
 in the small intestines, a few being found in the blind 
 gut (ccecum) and a few in the large gut (great colon). 
 The coecum is situated in the right flank of the animal, 
 is quite large, is directed downwards and terminates by 
 a blind extremity; it receives two openings, one from 
 the small intestines which is guarded by a valve, the 
 other from the large colon. The great colon occupies 
 the central portion of the abdomen, is arranged in four 
 parts,'two of which.lie on the other two; its external sur- 
 face is marked by strong muscular bands. 
 
 The taking in of the prepared food products is per- 
 formed by the blood vessels and the lacteals, which con- 
 stitute the entrance to the lymphatic system. The great 
 colon acts as an organ of absorption in horses; digestion 
 does not take place in the colon, although absorption 
 
58 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 may. The special organs having to do with absorption 
 are the lymphatics, the lacteals' being one form of them, 
 they originate in the mucous membrane of certain parts 
 of the intestines, carry and eventually empty into- the 
 blood the products of digestion, which thus become avail- 
 able to the body. Pat is said to be absorbed as the result 
 of a selective action of the lymphatic cells. The mate- 
 rial taken into the blood by the lacteals is known as 
 chyle. Absorption then is the entrance of digested food 
 products into the circulation via the blood or lymph 
 channels; why these products should enter in is not fully 
 determined; it is held by some investigators to be due 
 to the selective or vital action of the lymph cells. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 EXCRETION. 
 
 The expulsion of waste products from the body is by 
 means of a, the feces (dung); 6, the urine ; c, the sweat; 
 d, respired (breathed) air, and is termed excretion. 
 
 A. By the feces (dung). In the description of the 
 digestive tract the food had to be taken as far as the 
 great colon, where it was stated some absorption might 
 take place, from there back, however, the remainder 
 of the food ingested cannot be acted upon for various 
 reasons, such as the previous ' extraction of all the 
 nutritive matters, etc. The division of the intestinal 
 canal behind the great colon is the floating colon, located 
 in horses in the left flank, in cattle and sheep the upper 
 part of the left flank is occupied by the paunch. This 
 colon has a number of tightenings (constrictions) in its 
 walls, due to certain circular muscular fibres. It will be 
 remembered that the entire intestinal tract is a musculo- 
 membranous tube, and that long and circular muscular 
 fibres.enter more or less into the construction of it. It 
 has also been stated that muscles contract and relax, 
 hence it would be expected that the intestines would 
 have a certain amount of movement, such is true, there 
 is a constant worm-like motion in the intestinal walls 
 during life unless paralyzed; such movement is known 
 as peristalsis, or the peristaltic, (vermicular or worm-like) 
 movement of the bowels. As a result of this movement 
 
60 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 of the long muscle fibres, together with the contraction 
 of the short circular muscle fibres, the waste material is 
 passed back and is given a more or less ball-like form. 
 It is in the floating colon particularly that the feces 
 (dung or waste material) take their form. The next 
 portion of the canal is the straight gut (or rectum), an 
 organ with thick dilatable walls; it lies above the blad- 
 der in the male, in the female above the vagina and 
 uterus. Its location will thus account for the passage of 
 feces via the vagina and vulva, a serious condition, usu- 
 ally- the result of accident during copulation (mating) or 
 parturition (the act of bringing forth the young). The 
 point of exit of the feces is known as the anus, which is 
 made up principally of circular muscular fibres, the action 
 of which is to close the opening and thus prevent the 
 involuntary passage of feces. In certain forms of paraly- 
 sis the anus is not under control, consequently the feces 
 pass away at all times. The process of emptying the 
 rectum is known as defecation and is performed by con- 
 traction of the abdominal muscles and relaxation of the 
 muscular fibres of the anus. The anus tends to recede 
 and become less tense with age. Horsemen speak of a 
 horse being "well buttoned up," a desirable condition, 
 evidencing good nervous and muscular tone, the expression 
 refers to the condition of the anus. When making the 
 examination the tail (dock) is lifted, a flabby tail is very 
 undesirable, but a strong dock, as it is termed, is another 
 indication of tone, showing that the muscles of the tail 
 have strong contractile power; allowances will have to be 
 made for horses that have had their tails "nicked," an 
 
Excretion. 61 
 
 operation in whicK the muscles that pull the tail down 
 have been cut. 
 
 The rectum is largely used by veterinarians as an organ 
 by which certain medication (injection, , etc.) can be 
 performed upon the animal, feeding is rarely attempted 
 in animals by this means ; it must, however, be remem- 
 bered that the mucous membrane extends throughout 
 the digestive tract as far as the anus, and also that the 
 membrane is delicate and easily injured. A cruel prac- 
 tice followed by some grooms is known as' "figging" and 
 consists of the introduction of irritants (usually ginger) 
 into the rectum; the object being to give a false life to a 
 slow, slouchy animal or to excite him so that any lame- 
 ness is hidden, or to render the horse so irritable as to 
 prevent a fair examination. 
 
 B. The Urine. The consideration of the second method 
 of excretion calls for a description of the organs — the 
 kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra — which perform 
 this useful work. The Mdneys are two glands situated to 
 the right and left under-sides of the spinal column, the 
 right kidney being situated just behind the last ribs, the 
 left one being a couple of inches further back. In the 
 horse they are heart or bean shaped, in cattle and sheep 
 each one is somewhat divided into a grapelike mass. In 
 front of the kidneys and attached to them are two glands 
 (suprarenals) whose function is unknown, unless they 
 perform work during the period before birth. Blood 
 vessels and nerves enter the kidney at a depression or 
 spot called the hilus; these vessels, nerves, connective 
 tissue and urinary tubes (tubuli uriniferi) go to make up 
 the kidney substance which is enclosed by a fibrous cov- 
 
62 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 ering. The small tubes wind a great deal and empty 
 into a cavity known as the sinus, which is a widening 
 out of the ureter. Blood is supplied the kidneys by the 
 renal artery and removed by the renal veins. If a sec- 
 tion of a kidney is made, two portions together with the 
 cut ends, etc., of vessels and tubes, are seen; the outer 
 part being known as the cortex, the inner the medulla. 
 The kidneys afford the main road for the throwing out 
 (excretion) of broken down nitrogenous material, the 
 ammonia being evidence as to the character of the waste 
 material. The secretion of urine may be considered as 
 a filtering out of waste products from the blood, water 
 being its main-constituent; in addition to the filtration 
 process, the kidney cells have a selective action, and 
 take certain substances from the blood which they change 
 somewhat and later discharge into the urine. , The 
 amount of the urine is inversely as the sweat; more urine is 
 passed in cold weather than in warm weather, due to the 
 greater blood pressure in the kidneys at that time (e. g., 
 winter) . The urine of carni vora (dogs, etc. ) is acid, clear, 
 has more solids and is small in quantity, whereas that 
 of herbivora is turbid, poor in solids, alkaline in reac- 
 tion and great in quantity. When horses are fed hay or 
 straw only the urine is alkaline, when fed oats princi- 
 pally, the mine is small in quantity, turbid,' acid and 
 sticky. The urine of cattle and sheep is clear, greenish 
 yellow in color and poorer in solids than that of the 
 horse; that of the pig is clear, yellowish and alkaline. 
 Two tubes originate in the depressions of the kidneys 
 and go to the bladder, one entering on either side; they 
 go through the coats of the bladder on the slant, thus 
 
« Excretion. 63 
 
 forming a valve whicli prevents the urine passing back 
 to the kidney; the tubes are,known as the ureters. The 
 hladder is the urinary . reservoir situated in the pelvic 
 cavity, although when full it may extend into the ab- 
 dominal cavity. It is divided into a fundus (the wide 
 part), and neck which is continuous with the urethra, the 
 latter the tube carrying the urine to' the outside of the 
 body. The exit from the bladder is guarded by a circu- 
 lar (sphincter) muscle, which by its contraction prevents 
 the trickling of urine continuously. The coats of the 
 bladder are three in number, serous — externally,' muscu- 
 lar or middle coat — aqd mucous — internally. The ure- 
 thra in cattle and sheep differs from that of the horse, in 
 the former having an S-shaped curve, whereas in the 
 lalter it is straight. The urethra in the female of these 
 animals opens on the floor of the vulva, at a short dis- 
 tance (3 to 4 iaches) from the outside of the body. In 
 cows the entrance to the urethra is guarded by a valve- 
 like piece of skin, which must be lifted in order to pass 
 the catheter. The difference in length and construction 
 of the urethra in the sexes accounts for the greater fre- 
 quency of stones (calculi) in the bladder and urethra in 
 males. When the bladder becomes filled the mucous 
 membrane comes in contact with the urine, a nervous 
 impulse is sent to the brain and as a consequence the neck 
 (sphincter muscle) of the bladder is relaxed, and the 
 urine is passed, the whole constituting a good illustra- 
 tion of reflex action, the exercise of the will power not 
 being called for. The urine is made use of by chemists 
 and medical men, by the former to estimate the amount 
 of nitrogenous material used or wasted in the body, by 
 
64 Veterinary Elements. ^ 
 
 the latter to determine the disease, if any, in the person 
 or animal, the operation being known as urinary analysis. 
 
 C. The Sweat. The importance of the sweat glands 
 and the sweat as an avenue for the exit of waste matter 
 varies in the different animals. The sweat, and we may 
 as well include the sebaceous glands, are appendages of 
 the skin. The sweat glands consist of coiled tubes im- 
 bedded in the skin with an outlet at the surface (pores); 
 the sebaceous glands are also found in the skin at parts 
 most exposed to friction, they discharge a fa.tty substance 
 into the hair follicles. The sebaceous secretion is most 
 abundant on the parts covered with hair or wool. The 
 yolk (oil) in sheep's wool is the product of the sebaceous 
 glands; it consists of the broken down cells of the gland 
 and gives the oily appearance to the fleece. Ill health 
 causes changes in the yolk, which are at once evident to 
 the shepherd. This oiliness can be got in the coats of 
 horses and cattle by good feeding and grooming. In 
 certain breeds of cattle this' secretion is very yellow in 
 color and is much desired, as it is considered an indica- 
 tion of the tendency to secrete rich milk (?), the inside of 
 the ears are in cattle generally given el cursory glance to 
 determine this fact. In sheep a pink condition of the 
 skin is desired, a dead white or blue color indicating ill 
 health. 
 
 Sweat glands are highly developed in man and the 
 horse, in the latter especially on the inside of the thighs, 
 as also in sheep, in cattle little sweating is done. Car- 
 nivora (dogs and cats) sweat through the soles of their 
 feet. The amount of sweat is modified by the food, 
 drink, condition of the atmosphere and amount of exer- 
 
Excretion. 65 
 
 cise. Perspiration (sweat) is spoken of as sensible or 
 insensible, in the former is visible; in normal conditions 
 sweat is being excreted continuously. Formation of 
 sweat depends on the activity of the gland cells, there- 
 fore increase of the blood supply to the skin would mean 
 increased sweating. More water and more solids are 
 excreted by the skin than by the lungs. The trotting 
 horseman, as the result of experience, seems to, appreci- 
 ate the work of the sweat glands more fully than any 
 other class of stockmen, as is evidenced by the thorough 
 attention given to their charges when training or racing, 
 in any case thorough grooming at regular and frequent 
 intervals is necessary to prevent dried sweat and dead 
 skin scales from blocking the exit (pores of the skin) of 
 the sweat glands. An experiment conducted to show 
 how necessary to the good health of the animal open 
 pores are, consisted of the varnishing of the entire body 
 of the animal— death resulted. 
 
 D. Respired Air. This form of excretion borders so 
 closely on the inspiration (taking in of fresh air — one 
 form of food) that the description of the organs perform- 
 ing this work will be discussed separately. 
 
 Breathing (respiration) consists of the taking in of pure 
 air, charged with oxygen (the life-giving gas), and the 
 exchange of that oxygen for carbon dioxide (a poisonous 
 gas), the exchange taking place in the lungs. The blood 
 is brought into intimate relation with the air in the 
 lungs, therefore we find that as a result of such contact 
 the blood becomes charged with oxygen, thicker in a 
 sense, of a deeper red color, and discharges carbon di- 
 oxide and heat, the latter the result of the exchange of 
 5 
 
66 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the one gas for the other. Here then we have in a nut- 
 shell the reasons for ventilation: (1) to remove impure 
 air and (2) fetch in pure air, and by carrying out these 
 two important things give (3) the means of warmth to 
 the animal. 
 
 The processes of taking in food, using it and discharg- 
 ing the waste, have been described, there remains, how- 
 ever, the consideration of the respiratory (breathing) 
 organs — dual-purpose in character — because, as intimated 
 above, not only do they remove the waste poisonous gas 
 (carbon di-oxide), but also are the means by which that 
 valuable gas — oxygen, without which no animal life can 
 exist, is brought into the system. 
 
 The Organs of Respiration. The organs going to make 
 the respiratory system are the nostrils, nasal cavities, 
 pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes and 
 lungs. The nostrils are situated at the anterior extremity 
 of the nasal chambers, they are made up of cartilages, 
 which are dilated by muscles, and lined by mucous mem- 
 brane. At the upper part of the nostrils are two blind 
 pockets, called false nostrils; just inside the nostrils are 
 small openings, the point of exit of tears, brought from 
 the eyes by the lachrymal duct. A large nostril is much 
 desired, as the nostrils control the amount of air taken 
 in. The nasal chambers are two cavities separated by a 
 piece of cartilage (gristle), the septum nasi, in each cav- 
 ity are thin delicate curled bony plates, the turbinated 
 bones, covered with mucous membrane, which is thin 
 and contains' delicate blood vessels, cbnseqiiently the air 
 is warmed as it passes over these bony plates before 
 being taken into the lungs. Pine nerves, constituting the 
 
Excretion. 67 
 
 organs of smell, are also distributed in the nasal mucous 
 membrane. This mucous membrane is a pale delicate 
 rose color, the color and condition of the mucous mem- 
 brane are valuable aids in the recognition of diseases. 
 The sinuses of the head communicate with the nasal 
 cavities, evidence of which can be seen in cattle just after 
 removing the horns. The pharynx, just behind and below 
 . the nasal cavities, is common to both respiratory and di- 
 gestive tracts and has already been described. The 
 larynx or voice box has been termed a musculo-cartila- 
 ginous valve, being made up of muscles, cartilages seven 
 in number, ligaments,, and the vocal chords, the organs 
 of voice. Mucous membrane lines the entire respiratory 
 tract. The muscles of the larynx have control of its 
 movements, such as widening or narrowing its capacity 
 by tightening or relaxing the vocal chords. In the dis- 
 ease known as Boaring there is wasting of the muscles 
 that control the chords, consequently the calibre of the 
 tube is smaller than required when the horse is put to 
 severe exertion, such as racing or drawing heavy loads. 
 One of the cartilages of the larynx acts as a lid to the 
 voice box, aud thus prevents food particles falling into 
 the larynx when on the way to the gullet. This being 
 the case it will at once be seen why when drenching ani- 
 mals only small quantities and plenty of time should be 
 given; if large amounts are poured down rapidly the lid 
 becomes raised to allow the animal to breathe and the 
 fluid passes down "the wrong way," that is, into the 
 windpipe; this will also occur if the tonguie is pulled for- 
 ward during drenching, as such pulling tends to raise the 
 lid up and thus open the larynx, with the result quite 
 often of the death of the animal. 
 
68 Veterinary Mements. 
 
 Immediately below the larynx is the windpipe (tra 
 chea), a flexible tube made up of rings of cartilage, liga- 
 ments, etc. ; lying just above it is the gullet (esophagus). 
 The thyroids, little reddish round bodies on the sides of 
 the windpipe just below the jaws, are of interest, owing 
 to the scientific curiosity as to their functions, which up 
 to the present time are not known. Enlargement of 
 these glands occur in animals, the condition being known 
 as Goitre, very often a serious trouble in breeding ewes, 
 serious because the progeny of such ewes die at or soon 
 after birth. The thymus gland or sweetbread while well 
 developed in the young animal tends to disappear, shrivel 
 up, as the animal grows older. It is interesting to note 
 the demand for this gland, seventy cents a pound, whole- 
 sale, being obtained for it in Chicago — that is, for calves 
 sweetbreads; two-year-old sweetbreads are not as valu- 
 able, they eventually turning into fat. 
 
 The trachea or windpipe is located in the region of the 
 neck, and at its lower end enters the chest cavity, where 
 it divides into smaller tubes (the bronchi), which again 
 divide into still smaller tubes (the bronchioles), these 
 end in little pockets or sacs (the air cells of the lung). 
 The mucus membrane of the trachea has numbers of 
 cells possessed of wavy tails, known as cilia. These cilia 
 'have a continual motion from within outwards, so that if 
 mucous or some foreign particles get into the windpipe, by 
 the motion of these cilia, this material is thrown out. 
 
 The blind pockets or air vesicles of the lungs are 
 formed of a very fine membrane surrounded by very 
 delicate blood vessels. These air cells, the small bron- 
 chioles, blood vessels and nerves go to make up the 
 
Excretion. 69 
 
 lungs, whicli are spongy organs of a rosy flesh color, some- 
 what marbled in appearance ; the right lung Is some- 
 what larger than the left, the latter being encroached 
 upon by the heart. A healthy lung will float in water. 
 The lung substance in the natural state is verj elastic 
 and reqiiires plenty of room for expansion ; pressure on 
 the lung tissue, due to a lack of room, the result of such 
 causes as overfeeding, feeding bulky innutritions feed, 
 sometimes ends in rupture of some of the air cells; this 
 condition prevents the perforruance of the natural lung 
 work and as a disease is termed Heaves. 
 
 In connection with the lungs the pleura, one of the 
 serous membranes, commands attention. The j^ifwra has 
 two layers, one covering the lungs, the other lining the 
 inside of the ribs; between the two layers is a small space. 
 The two layers of the pleura, in health, glide over one 
 another without friction, being oiled by the secretions, as 
 a result of inflammation, the layers become dry and pain 
 is the result; later on an excessive discharge of fluid may 
 take place, constituting water in the chest (hydrothorax). 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 THE PROCESS OF BREEDING. 
 
 Reproduction. The reproductive function in animals 
 is one of great moment to the stockman, because accord- 
 ing as their fecundity (fruitfulness) is above or below 
 the average, so will his income likely be above or below 
 the average. In ordinary cases a knowledge of the anat- 
 omyand physiology of the generative organs is not needed, 
 but in the extraordinary cases — such as disinclination to 
 breed, retention of the afterbirth or other unnatural con- 
 ditions — such knowledge is absolutely essential to the 
 stockman's financial success. 
 
 The generative process may be considered as one of 
 the ordinary methods of growing farm crops. The ele- 
 ment (semen) of the male constitutes the seed, the womb 
 (uterus) of the female the soil in which the seed is 
 planted, under natural conditions, the crop (offspring) 
 is assured. The generative organs of the male are quite 
 different to those of the female in appearance, yet anala- 
 gous in their origin, for example, the clitoris in the 
 female corresponds. to the penis, the ovaries to the tes- 
 ticles, and so on. 
 
 The Male Organs. The cod, bag. sac (scrotum) con- 
 tains the stones or testicles, and is located between, or 
 behind (as in the pig) the thighs. It has several coats 
 derived from the skin, and from some of the abdominal 
 muscles, externally it shows a line or raphe, thus divid- 
 
The Process of Breeding. 71 
 
 ing it into two halves. The testicles are two egg shaped 
 bodies placed horizontally in the horse, vertically in 
 cattle and sheep. They are made up of a number (200- 
 300) blind tubes in which is secreted the sperm or semen. 
 The spermatic cord, made up of blood vessels (it is im- 
 portant to remember in castration that the artery of the 
 cord issituaitedatthefrontpartofit), nerves, serous mem- 
 brane, lymphatics and a muscle, the cremaster (which 
 withdraws the testicle up into the inguinal canals at cas- 
 tration), the vas deferens (a tube conveying the semen to 
 the penis), suspends the testicle in the scrotum. This 
 spermatic cord is located in what is known as the ingu- 
 inal canal, entrance to which is obtained through two 
 slits in the abdominal floor; previous to birth the testi- 
 cles are up in the body, later on they descend through 
 the rings (openings of the canals). In exceptional cases 
 the testicles do not descend, in such cases the animal is 
 known as a ridgling, original (cryptorchid) and is often 
 vicious and hard to control. The penis is made up of 
 the urethra, which is situated on the under surfaced, ^nd 
 erectile tissue, the latter being made up of blood vessels 
 which become engorged with blood, during sexual excite- 
 ment, the erectile tissue forms the glans or head. The 
 sheath (prepuce) is a fold of loose skin that envelopes 
 the penis, it is the location of numerous sebaceous glands. 
 This organ requires careful examination at intervals, or if 
 allowed to become dirty or clogged the passage of the 
 urine is more or less hindered, due partially to the cas- 
 trated male fgelding, steer or wether) urinating in the 
 sheath. The noise made byhorses when trotting, is due 
 to the air rushing into the sheath. In bovines the penis 
 
72 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 is long and thin, the sheath longer than in the horse. 
 The peculiarity in the male organ of ruminants (cattle 
 and sheep) is the S-shaped curve wliich permits of rapid 
 extension of that organ, but prevents the passage of a 
 catheter. The end of the penis of the ram is marked by 
 a small thin projection, the xcorm as it is called by shep- 
 herds; the removal of this worm (often performed in 
 Great Britain to prevent the stoppage of small stones in 
 the urethra) is said to render a ram infertile. (?) 
 
 The semen (spermatic fluid) is a sticky white fluid with 
 a peculiar odor; it contains numerous little objects with 
 ovoid heads and wavy tails known as spermatozoa, by 
 means of the wavy movement they are enabled to make 
 their way up the fallopian tubes of the female. 
 
 The Female Reproductive Organs are the ovaries, fallo- 
 pian tubes, womb (uterus), vagina, vulva. The ovaries 
 
 GENERATIVE ORGANS OF A MARE (AFTEE AITZOUX). 
 
 R, rectum; Va, vagina; B, bladder; N, neck of the womb; U, womb or 
 uterus; H, horny of the womb; O, ovary. 
 
 are situated below and behind the kidneys, fastened to 
 the uterine ligament ; they are bluish or reddish white 
 in color, and although smaller, resemble the testicles in 
 shape. The ovaries are the birthj)lace of the ovnm (egg). 
 
The ProeesH of Breeding. 73 
 
 Two crooked tubes, one from each ovary, convey the 
 ovum to the horns of the womb, these tubes are lodged 
 in the folds of the broad ligament. The womb (uterus) is 
 a musculo-membranous organ with very distensible walls, 
 situated in the pelvic cavity and below the loin and 
 croup. The uterus is said to have a body, horns and 
 neck {os). The horns (in the mare) are directed upwards 
 
 WOMB OF A COW f AFTEE AUZOUX). 
 
 C— Cotyledons or buttons, the afterbirtti is partially stripped off two 
 of the upper ones. 
 
 and forwards, in the cow downwards. The back part of 
 the womb is narrowed to form the neck (o.s) which pro- 
 jects into the vagina. In the mare the womb lining is 
 comparatively smooth, whereas in the cow the mucous 
 membrane lining the uterus shows rounded elevations — 
 
74 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 buttons or cotyledons. The womb of the ewe is similar 
 to that of the cow, the horns being longer, as they are 
 also in the sow. The vagina is the passage connecting 
 the womb and the vulva; it is the organ of copulation 
 and permits the passage of the offspring. The vulva is 
 the external opening of the genito- urinary tract, appear- 
 ing as a long ovoid slit below the anus; on the floor of 
 the vulva is the entrance to the bladder, and also the 
 clitoris (composed of erectile tissue). 
 
 Eeproduction is accomplished by the union of two indi- 
 viduals of the opposite sexes. 
 
 Heat, Rut, Oestrum are all terms used to describe the 
 natural mating period, at which time the ovum (egg) is 
 developed in the ovary, and passed from thence to the 
 uterus, where if it meets the male element may become 
 fertilized and undergo development into the offspring. 
 This formation of the ovum does not occur until a certain 
 period, known as puberty, which is manifested by the first 
 appearance of heat^ the signs of which are swelling and 
 reddening of the genitals, flow of reddish, peculiar smell- 
 ing discharge, frequent attempts to urinate, restlessness, 
 bellowing and seeking of the male, mounting other ani- 
 mals, spasmodic movements of the clitoris ate evidenced 
 during the erotic period. The condition of rut or heat 
 becomes more frequent with domestication. 
 
 The time elapsing between the periods of heat varies 
 in the different animals, occurring in the mare at inter- 
 vals of eighteen to twenty-one days, in cattle about every 
 three weeks, ewes every sixteen to seventeen days, sows 
 fifteen to twenty-one days. Mating will only be permit- 
 ted during the period of heat. The time available for 
 
!the Process of Breeding. 75 
 
 mating also varies in animals, the average duration of 
 heat in the mare is two to three days, in the cow fifteen 
 to thirty hours, ewe two to three days, in the sow one to 
 three days. The presence of the male is often required 
 to prove the existence of the heat. If conception takes 
 place heat is not evinced again until after the birth of 
 the young. The cow will come in heat four weeks after 
 calving, the mare nine days after foaling; in ewes, except 
 Dorsets and their crosses, breeding will not be allowed 
 until fall, while sows show no signs of heat until after the 
 pigs are weaned, although conception has been known 
 to take place three days after farrowing. The time taken 
 by the ovum to reach the uterus may be two or three 
 days, in rare cases after becoming impregnated, the ovum 
 has f?illen into the abdominal cavity and there developed. 
 Some animals are continually in heat; such is usually an 
 evidence of a diseased condition of the ovaries. Puberty 
 in the male is evidenced by the secretion of semen and 
 the presence of the sexual appetite. The contact of the 
 male organ, which must be erect, with the walls of the 
 vagina causes ejaculation of the semen. One single sper- 
 matozoon is sufScient to impregnate an ovum, such being 
 the case, numerous services during one heat should not 
 be permitted except in special cases. Impregnation is 
 as a rule only possible between animals of the same 
 species; hybrids are the result of crosses between differ- 
 ent species, such as between the doukey and horse, the 
 mule being the result. Hybrids will not breed. Artifi- 
 cial breeding by means of the capsule method is useful in 
 mares that are shy or difficult breeders, and in those who 
 throw out the semen. (.See Sterility, p. 178.) 
 
76 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 When the ovum is impregnated it is carried to the ute- 
 rus (if impregnation took place in the fallopian tube! and 
 there undergoes the natural course of development, bar- 
 ring accidents, into the young animal. The period taken 
 to ensure such development usually spoken of as the 
 period of gestation, is on the average eleven months in 
 the mare, nine months in the cow, five months in the 
 ewe and she-goat, and foui- months in the sow. It is 
 quite a common occurrence for any of those animals to 
 run over the time mentioned. 
 
 Essentials to Success in Mating are: Single services by 
 the male, except in exceptional cases, plenty of exercise, 
 liberal diet of flesh-formers, and maturity; in the female the 
 same apply. Although breeding is possible at puberty, 
 which occurs in horses at one and one-half years, eight 
 to twelve months in bovines, and six to eight months in 
 the sheep and pig, it does not follow that it should be 
 permitted; breeding from immature stock is one of the 
 curses of the livestock industry. 
 
 At the time of mating both animals should be in a 
 healthy condition. Metres are often exercised or bled just 
 before service in order to insure conception. Up-to-date 
 shepherds make a practice of flushing the ewes, as it is 
 called, by feeding rape, oats, etc., for a short time pre- 
 vious to mating. 
 
 Success in mating depends not on the number of serv- 
 ices, but on the vitality and age of the animals used; 
 domestication has had its effects in the hands of intelli- 
 gent breeders for good, as is seen by the improvement in 
 live stock, and for evil also, judging by the mongrels, 
 such as stallions, bulls, etc., permitted to travel the 
 
The Process of Breeding. 77 
 
 country and perpetuate their kind. Breeding and breeds 
 does not come in the scope of this work, taut as the 
 anatomy of the parts used has been described, the physi- 
 ology of mating should also be understood, some of the 
 visible signs have been described, so that the stockman 
 knows how and when to utilize animals for his benefit, 
 the que-stion arises, how often should the generative act 
 be allowed, and at what time of life should mating first 
 be performed ? While breeders differ to some extent, 
 the intelligent progressive ones are a unit in decrying 
 the use of immature dams and sires, the following sen- 
 tences contain the kernel of the matter. 
 
 Stallions should not be used until two years old, at 
 which time they may be mated with a dozen good mares 
 so as to get an idea of their value as sires; at three years 
 old may have forty mares; at four years old, sixty mares 
 and up, numbers of stallions exceeding the century 
 mark during a season, the handling during that time 
 will be a factor in determining the percentage of live 
 foals. Forty per cent, is considered a fair average of 
 living foals, although often exceeded; it is stated that 
 Rysdyk's Hambletonian foaled sixty-nine per cent, of 
 his mares. The government stallions of Prance and 
 Germany are not used until four years old, and are then 
 allowed only four mares a day, as many as one hundred 
 being covered during a season. The concensus of opin- 
 ion seems to be that a mare should not be bred until she 
 is three years old. The practice of good horsemen is to 
 allow at least an interval of one hour between services, 
 and seldom is more than one service given a mare in the 
 one heat. 
 
78 Veterinat-y Elements. 
 
 Before purchasing a stallion always see him serve a 
 mare, much trouble will thereby be saved the purchaser 
 and more satisfaction be derived from the purchase; 
 many a fine appearing stallion is totally useless for stud 
 duties. 
 
 Bulls may be allowed twenty-five cows in a breeding 
 season, although the practice of advanced dairymen of 
 having cows coming in at different times increases the 
 opportunities for the use of the bull's procreative powers 
 manifold, the conditions under which such an animal is 
 kept practically controls his ability as a sire; if fat and 
 lacking exercise his powers are markedly deficient. 
 
 Heifers of the dairy breeds (Jersey, Guernsey, Hol- 
 steih, etc. ) are usually bred to come in at two years of 
 age; breeders of beef type of cattle (Shorthorn, Angus, 
 etc. ) prefer to wait a year longer, if earlier their devel- 
 opment is hindered and they are forever spoiled. 
 
 The practice with rams varies with the location to 
 some extent, on the ranges a ram is alloted to forty 
 ewes; if ram lambs are used, only six to ten ewes should 
 be allowed; a better practice is to use no rams below the 
 yearling age, which means in most flocks, eighteen 
 months or thereabouts. The shepherd is so situated that 
 he, of all the stockmen, can watch the results of over- 
 mating and the use of immature sires and dams, if such 
 are used, or the ram overtaxed, the Iambs come either 
 weak or undersized; a ram whose powers are carefully 
 husbanded, by turning with the ewes for a short time 
 only each day, may have as many as sixty ewes in the 
 breeding season, frequent Services should not be allowed, 
 only bad results follow, such as weakening of the ram. 
 
The Process of Breeding. 79 
 
 Ewes are not usually bred until they have attained the 
 age of yearlings. 
 
 A boar cannot be expected to be a successful sire un- 
 less he has reached the age of one year; the sow being 
 bred to farrow at the same age; there is little danger of 
 the average boar being over-taxed, Coburn, in his Swine 
 Husbandry, recommends that five or six farmers com- 
 bine to own a boar, each farmer being-supposed to own 
 a dozen brood sows. 
 
 The Digestive and Reproductive Organs of Poultry differ 
 slightly from those of other farm stock. The gullet in 
 poultry is quite long and presents a widening out in the 
 neck known as the crop, in which is performed practically 
 the same work as in the first stomachof cattle or by the saliva 
 of the horse; lower down the gullet again enlarges to form 
 the proventrioulus (the first stomach cavity) where a fluid 
 resembling gastric juice is secreted, to this succeeds a 
 muscular cavity known as the gizzard. The gizzard is 
 of interest because the work of grinding the food, ordi- 
 narily done in the mouth, takes place in this muscular 
 cavity, the thoroughness of this grinding process depends 
 on the presence of grit; such being the case a supply of 
 grit is essential to the health of poultry. The powerful 
 muscular walls of the gizzard by their action-grind the 
 food between the particles of grit found in that stomach; 
 The intestines are shorter than in the other varieties of 
 farm stock, and terminate in a tube known as the 
 cloaca which is common to the digestive, urinary and 
 reproductive organs. The testicles in birds are located 
 under the back bone just in front of the kidneys, on 
 a level with the origin of the last two pairs of ribs. 
 
80 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 The excrement of poultry is, as all know, of two 
 colors showing distinct portions. The white portion 
 
 is the Icidney secretion, the 
 dark portion the l)Owel ex- 
 cretion. Experiments have 
 been carried on to deter- 
 mine the length of time 
 necessary to elapse before 
 all the eggs of a flock of 
 hens will be fertile after 
 the placing of the cock 
 with them, it has been 
 found that an interval of 
 ten days is about the time 
 required, it' has also been 
 found that the same time 
 must elapse after removal 
 of the cock before all the 
 eggs are infertile. 
 
 Muscular development 
 in poultry is mainly of in- 
 terest in connection with 
 its fitness for the table; we 
 find that the same width of 
 
 BEPEODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE OOCK. v ' 1 J u i • J • J 
 
 ^ ... ^ ^ .,., back and breast as desired 
 
 a, a, testicles; &, &, epididymus; c, c, 
 vas deferens; d, cloaca; d', bursa of in poultry aS in other meat 
 Fabrioius; e, e, papillse through which , . . , 
 
 the vas deferens open; /, margin of bearing StOCK. llie DreaSt, 
 
 ^°"^- especially, should be well 
 
 covered with meat to fully supply the demand of the 
 meat market; to obtain such, plenty of exercise, pure 
 air, good food and water are necessary, together with. 
 
The Process of Breeding. 
 
 81 
 
 SfiM^ 
 
 URINAKY AND REPKODUCTIVE ORGA>'S OF THE HEN. 
 
 a, ovary; &, infundibular portion of oviduct; c, portion of oviduct 
 which secretes the albumen; c', uterus or shell forming portion; d, intes- 
 tine; d', cloaca; e', e', opening of the ureters; e", opening of oviduct; c'", 
 depression corresponding to the opening ofatrophied oviduct; g, bursa of 
 Fabrieius; f,f,f, kidney divided into three lobes; c, right ureter. 
 6 
 
82 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the ' grit before mentioned, heredity has a powerful 
 influence similar to its results in cattle. The time 
 necessary for the bringing forth of the offspring varies 
 according to the species, chickens are hatched out 
 in three weeks, goslings, ducklings, and poults (the 
 young of the turkey) in a month. The development of 
 the chick in the egg, by the aid of the incubator, sup- 
 plies the investigator with a large part of his knowledge 
 regarding the development of the young animal in the 
 womb, beginning with the time when the ovum was 
 impregnated in the tube until it is expelled from the 
 womb. The egg is kept at an average temperature of 
 103 degrees when in the incubator. Formation of an Egg. 
 Fowls have only one ovary and one oviduct at maturity; 
 from the ovary comes the ovum, consisting of the yelk 
 enclosed in a thin membrane, at the upper part of the 
 oviduct it is fertilized, it is then forced down the oviduct 
 by contractions of that tube; during its downward course 
 being coated with a dense layer of albumen, lower down 
 the oviduct more albumen is added, the last albumen 
 added being more watery than the first, then a thin film- 
 like meinbrane formed of albumen is added; still further 
 down, the small end outwards, It reaches the uterine 
 widening where it is coated with a thick white fluid 
 which hardens and becomes the shell. The color of the 
 egg shell is .got / from the color secreting villi of the 
 uterine cavity, the pores in the egg shell being the 
 result of contact with those villi. The shell substance 
 contains carbonate of lime with a little carbonate of 
 magnesia, phosphate of lime and magnesia; food con- 
 taining these materials or the materials themselves must 
 
The Process of Breeding. 83 
 
 therefore be supplied to the feathered farm stock. The 
 egg takes from four to six hours to travel from the ovary 
 to the uterus, where it may stay twelve to twenty-four 
 hours before being extruded as the egg of commerce. 
 
 Mating of Poultry. The same principles of mating 
 apply to poultry as to the four-footed stock; therefore 
 for breeding purposes a cock may be allowed ten to 
 twenty hens, more than that number is unprofitable, the 
 large percentage of infertile eggs complained of by many 
 farmers is due to the overtaxing of the procreative 
 powers of the cook. Pullets and year old hens are the 
 most profitable layers, the breeding hens should be one 
 year old or upwards, it is not advisable to hatch from 
 puUet eggs. Ducks are usually paired or two ducks to 
 one drake, the female may lay as many as 40 to 50 eggs 
 in a season. The gander is usually given three geese, 
 who lay two settings of eggs in a season, geese do not lay 
 until one year old. Turkeys are slower in coming to 
 maturity than other fowl, the tom (male turkey) should 
 be from two to three years of age before mating to get 
 the best results, five turkey hens are allowed to a tom; 
 an interesting fact about the mating of turlieyS is that 
 one visit suffices to fertilize all the eggs (10 to 20) laid 
 by the turkeys at one period, it is quite common for the 
 turkey hen to lay twice in a season, the second lot are 
 rarely fertile. 
 
CHAPTBE VI. 
 THE MILK GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 
 
 The milk glands are essential to the proper perform- 
 ance of the reproductive function. Man has however 
 made use of the milk functions and developed it to such 
 an extent that some cows are now specialists in milk 
 production; the result of such specialization is that the 
 milk glands have become larger, the milking habit more 
 persistent, the quantity given greater and the liability 
 to disease increased. 
 
 The Udder. The arrangement and construction of these 
 milk glands varies in the different animals. The mare's 
 udder consists of two halves each presenting a nipple or 
 teat pierced by openings for the passage of milk; in 
 mares that have never borne young the teats and udder 
 are small, in old brood mares the udder and teats are 
 large and flabby. 
 
 The udder of the cow is composed of two halves, each 
 again divided so that we speak of the quarters of an 
 udder; while in the ewe two glands only are present, each 
 with a teat; in the sow the udder extends along the belly 
 and has from eight to ten teats belonging to as many 
 glands, arranged in two rows lengthwise. The interior 
 of the gland is made up of gland tissue formed into lobes, 
 each lobe being made up of smaller lobules, each of these 
 in turn being made up of cells and small ducts. These 
 ducts unite to form larger ducts, all of which gradually 
 
The Millc Glands and their Functions. 
 
 85 
 
 converge to the center of the gland where they form 
 cavities known as the milk sinuses, they used to be 
 termed lactiferous (milk-making) sinuses. 
 
 The milk sinuses empty the lacteal secretion into the 
 teats, each of which is guarded by a sphincter muscle at 
 
 DIAGRAM OF TEAT AND ONE ftUAKTEB OF TJDDEB. 
 
 s, sphincter muscle; t, teat; r, milk reservoir; d, the duct; o, opening of 
 a duct; I, a lobe; I', a lobule lined by e, epithelium; /, folds of mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 its lower end, it is this sphincter muscle which is so hard 
 to relax in some cows, that causes them to be termed 
 hard milkers. The udder is lined with a delicate cell 
 structure known as epithelium, this cell structure extend- 
 to the alveoli (lobules). 
 
86 
 
 Yeterlnary Elements. 
 
 Shape of Milk Gland. It has been stated that the iii- 
 terual parts of the udder consist of cells and other struct- 
 ures; and as such, require the use of the microscope more 
 or less in their examination, besides the cells, consider- 
 able connective tissue enters into the udder formation, 
 the amount of such tissue materially affects the elasticity 
 of the udder, as it does in muscle. The so-called meati- 
 ness depends on the presence of a large quantity of con- 
 nective tissue, the 
 presence of which 
 cannot help but 
 supplant gland 
 tissue (secreting 
 tissue), therefore 
 we can understand 
 why expert udder- 
 judges want elas- 
 tic udders on their 
 cows. Prof. 
 Plumb has made a 
 series of studies of 
 the external form 
 of the udder and 
 the relation of 
 that form to usefulness. We cannot do better than 
 note what he says regarding the inatter: "A good 
 type of udder will have its side-line, that of the curve of 
 a circle, if a fine udder, it will be carried along beyond 
 the lines of the circle, by an extension along the belly 
 and up between the hind legs, such an udder with teats 
 about three and one-half inches long, make a good type 
 
 A WELTj-BALASCED UDIIER. 
 
The Milk Glands and their Functions. 
 
 87 
 
 as viewed from the side. Examined from the rear, there 
 should be considerable thickness, the dividing furrow 
 shallow and no meatiness, the good udder when milked 
 out being fairly well shrunken." While the ultimate 
 test of the milking ability will he the scales and the 
 Babcock test, there can be no doubt whatever after a 
 close study of Ihe experiments of Prof. Plumb that the 
 shape and construction of the udder are valuable indica- 
 tions towards get- 
 ting a correct idea 
 of the milking abil- 
 ities of a cow. The 
 above authority 
 calls attention to 
 the lack of fore ud- 
 der in many cows 
 and gives figures to 
 back up his conten- 
 tion, that the best 
 udder is the square- 
 ly-balanced, elas- 
 tic-feeling udder, 
 with a large blood 
 supply. Certain breeds are deficient in this respect, the 
 Ayrshire, however, being strong in foreudder develop- 
 ment. There is much in heredity; many stock breeders 
 examine the bull intended to head their herds, for the 
 placing of the rudimentaries (small teats just in front of 
 bag or scrotum) as they believe that such j)lacing is an 
 indication of the probable placing of the teats in his 
 progeny, consequently they want the rudimentaries 
 
 r 
 
 A PO<IB XTDDER. 
 
88 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 squarely placed. Prof. Plumb puts the question "may 
 not a material gain in milk-flow be secured bj' develop- 
 ing the foreudder?" The figures submitted by him in 
 Bulletin 62, of Purdue University, certainly hold out 
 testimony that such improvement may result. 
 
 In heavy milkers the udder is often perpendicular; 
 what is termed the funnel-shaped udder is not a desirable 
 type, neither are udders with very large teats. It is 
 interesting, to note 
 
 that no such irregu- , ■ "~, 
 
 Parity of form is pre- , 
 sented by any part of 
 the anatomy of the 
 horse, ox, sheep or 
 pig, as shown in the 
 milk glands of the 
 cow. If one-quarter 
 of an udder is dis- 
 eased, the other 
 quarters do not seem 
 to take on the work ,' 
 
 of the resting quarter. - ".. - 
 
 The function of the ^ «<'°" ''°^'' ^""''^ 
 
 udder is to secrete milk, the stimulus to do so being the 
 maternal function, thus the work of this organ differs 
 from that of others in the body, in that its secretion 
 serves no useful purpose to the animal secreting, but is 
 intended to serve as a food on which to raise the offspring. 
 
 The secretion of milk is held to depend on a throwing 
 off of the epithelial cells of the alveoli, combined with a 
 filtering out of water, salts and other materials from the 
 
The Milk Glands and their Functions. 
 
 89 
 
 blood; when that secretion takes place is yet a moot 
 point, the opinion held by the best authorities is, that 
 the secretion of the greater part of the milk goes on dur- 
 ing the act of milking. It is now held that the nervous 
 system has largely to do with the production of milk, a 
 reasonable conclusion when we remember that the act- 
 ivity of a gland depends largely on its blood supply, 
 that supply being controlled by the nerves, whose action 
 is to contract or widen the blood vessels. 
 
 de- 
 
 .-!**-" 
 
 Eoehrig 
 
 scribes a nerve" 
 which leaves the 
 spinal cord and 
 goes to the udder, 
 filaments from its 
 branches go to 
 the teats, the cis- 
 terns and the 
 alveoli. When 
 the teats are 
 worked with the 
 hands the nerves 
 surrounding them 
 are irritated, and through them the secreting glands are 
 stimulated, causing their contraction and the discharge 
 of their contents. 
 
 The veins along the belly leave the front of the udder 
 and go forward in a more or less winding manner, branch 
 more or less often, and eventually disappear through 
 holes in the abdominal floor, termed milk-wells, then 
 pass along on the inside of the upper side of the breast 
 
 A FUNNEL-SHAPED UDDER. 
 
90 Veterinary Mements. 
 
 bone, to be eventually united to the internal thoracic 
 vein (the mammary vein of the human). 
 
 The mammary vein then will be accepted as afibrding 
 some indication at least of the milking capabilities of a 
 cow. Some breeders' associations call for certain ar- 
 rangements of those veins, as follows: Single and double 
 extension, single and double branches, single and double 
 chest extension, or uijibilical (navel) veins. The wells 
 vary in number from one to three on each side of the 
 animal; they should be of good size. 
 
 The greater the capacity of the arteries and veins con- 
 nected with the udder, the larger the milk secretion will 
 usually he. Theory and practice then seem to unite 
 and back up the ideals of the dairyman, one of which is 
 a great development.of the mammary veins. The arte- 
 rial supply cannot be seen, and only parts of the venous 
 system of the udder are visible, viz. , the abdominal veins 
 and those underlying the skin of the udder, yet reason- 
 able conclusions can be drawn from the development of 
 the milk veins. 
 
 Holding up the Milk. Various theories have been ad- 
 vanced to account for this illustration of animal per- 
 versity and human peculiarity; the latter probably had 
 been shown in the form of abuse, and of course, stamps 
 the exhibitor as one not fit to own or milk cows. Wing, 
 in ' ' Milk'and Its Products, ' ' states that the holding of 
 the milk is due to the presence of sphincter muscles at 
 the branching of the ducts, and that this muscular tissue 
 is connected with the abdominal muscles, which if con- 
 tracted, as a result of fright, dislikes, etc., will cause 
 the milk to be retained in the udder, or as it is termed 
 
92 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the cow holds up her milk; so far I have been unable, 
 either by dissection of udders or consultation of authori- 
 ties on the anatomy and histology of the udder, to verify 
 his statement. Furstenberg states that holding 'up of 
 the milk is due to a congestion of the blood-vessels of the 
 teat and gland, which is more tenable than the preced- 
 ing theory, as it is well known that congestion interferes 
 with the working of any gland. 
 
 Composition of milk. The composition of milk is at 
 the present time engaging the attention of expert 
 chemists; such investigations may at first view seem of 
 little use to the stockman, yet when he finds himself with 
 young animals which must be raised by hand, a knowl- 
 edge of the various milks will render him capable of 
 securing gains from those animals; which otherwise 
 might take years of experimenting to find out. For ex- 
 ample, a foal has to be raised by hand ; on consulting the 
 tables below, mare's milk is found to be richer in sugar 
 and poorer in fat than cow's milk, as a consequence he 
 will, if obliged to, use cows milk, add sugar and possibly 
 dilute with water before giving it to the foal; if bent on 
 pushing lambs for the show-ring, the stockman will use 
 the best cow's milk he can get, ewe's milk being so 
 much richer in fat than that from cows. One ewe's milk 
 at the Wisconsin Station tested fourteen per cent, butter 
 fat. Milk tends to diminish in quantity and improve in 
 richness (per cent, of butter fat) as lactation progresses. 
 
The Milk Glands and their Functions. 93 
 
 COMPOSITION OF MILKS.— (HENBY. ) 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Casein and 
 Albumen 
 
 Fat 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Ash 
 
 Mare 
 
 90.78 
 87.17 
 80.82 
 85.4 
 
 1.99 
 3.55 
 6.52 
 6.04 
 
 1.21 
 3.69 
 6.86 
 8.24 
 
 B.67 
 4.88 
 4.96 
 4.75 
 
 35 
 
 Cow 
 
 .71 
 
 Ewe 
 
 89 
 
 Sow 
 
 1 07 
 
 
 
 Fleming, in- his Obstetrics, places the animals in the 
 order of the richness of their milks, as follows: bitch, 
 ewe, goat, sow, cow, camel, Woman, ass, mare. The 
 first milk after the birth of the young is richer and 
 thicker than ordinary milk, containing a large per cent, 
 of albumen and ash, less water, and is termed Colostrum. 
 This colostrum is usually secreted during the first four 
 or five days after calving. It is intended by Nature to 
 remove the fecal matter (meconium) accumulated in the 
 bowels of the young animal before birth. This natural 
 purgative has done its work when the feces (dung) of 
 the young animal changes, from a black or dark brown 
 to a yellowish color. 
 
 Some breeders when preparing for a milk test get 
 their cows up to arather fat condition previous to calv- 
 ing, then when the test begins a short time after coming 
 in, the fat on the animal gradually disappears, to reap- 
 pear in the milk pail, this method, however, is only 
 available for a short test. 
 
 In the show-ring various expedients are resorted to 
 in order to mystify or deceive the judge. For example, 
 one-quarter of an udder may be deficient; the udder is 
 balanced up by partially milking out the good quarters, 
 leaving the poorly developed one untouched; in some 
 
94 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 cases milk has been pumped into the udder after having 
 once been withdrawn. Experts are not, however, de- 
 ceived by such practices, the sufferer is usually the cow, 
 and therefore indirectly the owner. 
 
 Owing to the fact that bacteria make their way into 
 the teats, it is held to be good practice to milk on the 
 ground the first few drawings of milk, 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 THE BLOOD AND LYMPH. 
 
 The discussion of th& taking in of food left that food 
 in a condition favorable for carriage by the blood, in fact, 
 as soon as the food material has passed through the mem- 
 branes (whether walls of blood vessels or walls of intes- 
 tines) into the blood stream such food was said to be 
 absorbed, or absorption had taken place. This absorp- 
 tion had, however, all taken place within a compara- 
 tively small area, therefore, unless this prepared food 
 was distributed through the body it would be of com- 
 paratively little use. The selection and use of the food 
 brought by the blood to various parts goes on in those 
 parts, the waste has to be removed also or disease would 
 result. In order for the blood to go to and return from 
 the tissues, roads must be provided — arteries and veins — 
 the motive power sending the blood to different points 
 being supplied by a powerful muscle pump — the heart. 
 The lymphathic and absorbent system, consisting of nodes 
 and vessels, whose function is to collect not only the nu- 
 tritive material by means of the lacteals of the intestines, 
 but also to gather up the waste material, all of which 
 they empty into the blood stream near the heart will be 
 considered as part of the circulation, in fact, owing to 
 the color of the fluid they carry, more or less milky in 
 the lacteals and colorless in other parts, it has been 
 dubbed th6 white blood System. Blood has two distinct 
 
96 Yeterinary Elements. 
 
 courses, which have been nanied according to the desti- 
 nation, the set of blood vessels going to and returning 
 from the lungs constitute the pulmonary system, the 
 oth^r set having the office of distributing the blood to 
 and collecting it from the rest of the body being termed 
 the systemic circulation. Two branches of the latter are,, 
 the renal system, going to the kidneys, and the portal 
 system, going to the liver. The material carried is a 
 reddish liquid, known as the blood. If we draw some 
 blood and let it stand for a time it is found to separate 
 into a fluid serum and solid portion (clot). The serum 
 is a pale yellowish fluid, and the solid portion a deep 
 red. If the drawn blood is allowed to stand a still longer 
 time, more fluid will be noted, while the clot has grown 
 smaller. What causes clotting? The fibrin which is 
 formed in the blood. This can be shown by whipping 
 the blood with a bundle of twigs, which when withdrawn 
 from the blood show stringy threads (fibrin), which are 
 thus removed and clotting prevented. These fibrin 
 threads imprison in their meshes the blood cells (cor- 
 puscles) aud thus form the clot, consequently if the fibrin 
 is removed no clotting takes place. Clotting (coagula- 
 tion) is hastened by (a) moderate warmth, (b) rest, (c) 
 contact with foreign matter, {d) free access of air; it is 
 retarded by (a) cold, (6) contact with living tissues, (c) 
 imperfect aeration, etc. Blood is alkaline in reaction, 
 that from the arteries being red in color, that from 
 the veins being purplish, relatively speaking, arterial 
 (red) blood is pure, venous (purplish) blood impure. 
 The blood cells are of two kinds, red (discs) and white 
 (irregular in shape), the disc shaped ones being present 
 
The Blood and Lymph. 97 
 
 in the greater numbers, in about the proportion of 500 
 to 1, It is interesting to note that the white blood cells 
 have the power of motion and thus pass through the 
 walls of blood vessels, and also that if a white blood cell 
 comes in contact with foreign particles, such as germs, 
 coal dust, etc., it will flow around and enwrap the 
 object, and thus the particle taken in may be carried from 
 one place to another, knowledge of this fact aids us in 
 reasoning out the spread of a disease from one organ or 
 part of the body to another. 
 
 The white blood corpuscles have been termed the 
 policemen or scavengers of the body, should germs gain 
 entrance at any point through a wound there is a flock- 
 ing of the white cells to the part and a battle royal 
 between the germs and the white cells takes place, many 
 on both sides are slain and are thrown off from the seat 
 of war (the wound) as pus (matter); if, however, the 
 body attacked is in good health its white cells win, over- 
 come, kill and cast out the slaughtered; if, however, the 
 germs are in the majority, the white cells weak, further 
 inroads are made by the germs, the disease affects one 
 organ after another until the animal or person dies from 
 the disease. Tissue that has run its course, and is worn 
 out and requires removing, since its place has been taken 
 by younger structures comes under the influence of these 
 cells, which originate in the marrow of bone, and is 
 removed. 
 
 Red blood cells are about ^.^^^ of an inch in diam- 
 eter and contain in their substance the hemaglobin or 
 red coloring matter of the blood, might be considered as 
 bags of jelly like protoplasm saturated with hemaglobin. 
 7 
 
98 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 This red coloring matter combines very readily with the 
 oxygen of the air. The paleness often noticed in weak 
 animals, whether weak from lack of good food, pure air, 
 or as a result of loss of blood, is due to a deficiency in 
 number of the red cells, and therefore of the red color- 
 ing matter, the coloring matter may be dissolved out, 
 thus accounting for the peculiar coloration of meat that 
 has been frozen and then thawed. The difference in the 
 contents of the red blood cells before and after birth are 
 made use of in the human race for the detection of crime. 
 These cells contain a nucleus before birth, after they do 
 not, so that in case of the finding of a dead child, if no 
 nuclei are found in its red blood cells it is assumed that 
 it has lived a day or two, if nuclei are found the child 
 was still born. 
 
 White blood cells have an average diameter of -^-^-^ of 
 an inch. 
 
 The amount of blood in the body varies with the ani- 
 mal, it has been estimated in the horse to be about equal 
 to jig of the body weight, in man about -jij. 
 
 The blood pump (heart) is a hollow muscle, cone 
 shaped, and in the horse about 5| lbs. in weight. It is 
 situated in the chest cavity between the right and left 
 lungs, its apex being downwards. It is divided into two 
 well marked halves, each of which is again divided into 
 an upper chamber or auricle and a lower chamber or 
 ventricle, consequently we speak of the right side of the 
 heart and the right auricle, or ventricle, as the casei'may 
 be. The division between the auricles and ventricles is 
 not as perfect, being only by valves, as is the division 
 between the right and left heart. These valves 5erve 
 
TJie Blood and Lymph. 99 
 
 anotbei' purpose, that of preventing a backward move- 
 meut of the blood, in order to do so efficiently, littl^^ 
 cords of great strength are attached to the valves and 
 thus prevent them being pressed bade out of place, such 
 provision is needed when one thinks of the enormous 
 pumping power of this organ. Each chamber of, the 
 heart has certain openings to it and from it, all guaided 
 by valves, for example, in the right» ventricle are two 
 openings, one from the right auricle, the other into the 
 
 ^ pulmonary artery. The course of the blood through the 
 heart' is as follows: 
 
 Starting in the right auricle it flows to the right ventri- 
 cle, thence to the lungs by the pulmonary artery, where it 
 will be remembered oxygen (O) is exchanged for carbonic 
 acid (CO), it is then returned, purified, by the pnlmon- 
 
 ^ary vein to the heart, this time being- ppured into the 
 left auricle, from which it passes to the left ventricle 
 and thence by means of the ap-rta, to all parts of the body. 
 Prom the various parts 0/ the body th* blood is brought 
 back by small veins which unite to form larger ones 
 until it is again ei^ptied by the vena cava into that part 
 of the heart known as the right auricle, the point from 
 which the stapfi^was made, thus the blood has made the 
 entirp circuit. Harvey was the first [man to thoroughly 
 undefstand' and describe the circulati^ of the blood. 
 
 Arteries and veins form the channels for the circula- 
 tion of blood, the arteries taking the blood' from the 
 heart, the veins fetching it towards the heart. These . 
 tubes or channels are made up of three coats, differences 
 in which aid us in determining whether we are looking 
 at an artery or vein. The inner coat of an artery is com- 
 
100 Veterinary JSlemenis. 
 
 posed of endothelium and some elastic tissue, the middle 
 coat is made up of muscular and elastic fibres; the outer 
 coat, very strong, is formed of connective tissue and 
 elastic fibres, it is far less easily torn than the other 
 coats and is more resistant to pressure. Arteries as a 
 rule are deeply seated in muscles to avoid injury, com- 
 municate freely with one another (anastomosis) and are 
 always accompanited by a vein. The inner and middle 
 coats of veins differ somewhat from those of arteries in 
 the tissues present, and thus is accounted for the col-- 
 lapsed state of the end of a vein when seen in meat, the 
 end of an artery remaining open. Many veins have 
 valves, especially those of the limbs. When traced to 
 their small branches, arteries and veins are seen to be 
 continued into a network of small blood vessels or capil- 
 laries, therefore for all practical purposes arteries may. 
 be said to end and veins to start in these capillaries. 
 
 The pulmonary artery springs from the right ventricle 
 and terminates in the lung by means of small capillaries 
 which are spread over the air cells. 
 
 The main trunk of the arterial- system (aorta) starts 
 from the left side of the heart and then divides into an 
 anterior, supplying the front of the body, and posterior, 
 supplying the remainder of the body. The front (ante- 
 rior) aorta divides into branches one to each fore limb, 
 and is continued up the neck, where it again divides 
 into the carotids, and by subdivisions supplies all parts 
 of the head and neck. The arteries given off to the fore 
 limbs (brachials), again divide and are continued as the 
 humerals and later as the radials, it will be noticed that 
 the arteries of the limbs take their names from the bone 
 
The Blood and Lymph. 101 
 
 they are close to, the radials give off the metacarpals at 
 the fetlock, which divide into branches and thus supply 
 the forefeet with blood. 
 
 The posterior aorta is directed backwards and upwards 
 and runs along underneath the backbone until it reaches 
 the loins, where it divides into two trunks, one to each 
 hind limb. Before reaching the loins it has given oft" a 
 number of branches to supply the stomach, intestines, 
 liver, kidneys and the reproductive organs. Each trunk 
 is known as an iliac, these being continued as femorals, 
 then as tibials and later as metatarsals, small branches 
 being given off quite frequently. The latter (metatar- 
 sals) are peculiar inasmuch as they are found on the 
 outer sides of the hind cannons, and are sometimes cut, 
 on plow shares, wire fencing, etc. It has been stated 
 that, as a rule arteries are deep seated to be out of the 
 way of injury. The metatarsals at the hind fetlock 
 divide up and from them blood is supplied to the hind 
 feet in a similar manner to that supplied to the fore feet 
 by the continuations (branchings) of the metacarpals. 
 
 The Veins. The main difference between arteries and 
 veins are in their construction and work. Veins are 
 usually in twos, deep and superficial, the former with an 
 artery. In the veins of the limbs are found valves which 
 prevent the passage backwards of the blood. It is often 
 a question when blood is coming from a wound as to 
 whether that blood is from a vein or from an artery, if 
 from an artery the blood comes in spurts (jerks), when 
 from a vein, it flows. The vein carrying blood from the 
 lungs (pulmonary vein) is an exception to the rest inas- 
 much as it carries purified blood. Most veins start in 
 
102 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 tlie capillaries, the portal vein, however, fetches blood 
 from the stomach and intestines to the liver. The arte- 
 ries, it was mentioned, kept dividing and subdividing 
 until the capillaries were reached, the veins do juSt the 
 opposite in that they keep uniting until a large vein 
 (yena cava) is formed, which empties into the right side 
 of the heart. The jugular vein in the furrow of the 
 neck is the one from which blood is usually drawn in 
 cattle and horses. 
 
 The Lymphatic System. This system consists of ves- 
 sels aiid nodes (glands), the latter term nodes being sub- 
 stituted for glands, owing to the fact that these nodes do 
 not secrete, heqce it would be wrong to term them 
 glands. The system might be compared to a line of 
 railway with the nod6s as the stopping places. The nodes 
 ^re bean-shaped and can be readily found in the animal 
 after death, e. g., between the lungs, on the inside of the 
 limbs, thighs and in the folds of the mesentery, when if 
 cub in halves the outer part is seen to be lighter in color 
 than the inner, they resemble a very small kidney in 
 fact; from these nodes are sent out leucocytes (white 
 blood cells) ; the spleen or milt may be considered as a 
 modified lymphatic node. The vessels originate as very 
 small channels in the spaces between the cells of the 
 body, especially those of the serous membranes. 
 Lymphatic vessels are found in all parts of the body,, 
 those ill the lipibs possess valves; these vessels unite and 
 gradually form larger vessels, until the thoracic duct is 
 formed, which runs along underneath the back bone and 
 empties into the vena cava. The lymphatic nodes are 
 markedly affected in many diseases, such as tuberculosis, 
 etc. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Fortunately for the stockman and the veterinarian, 
 farm stock do not suffer from "nerves", such attacks 
 occurring at inconvenient times, although the domesti- 
 cated animals are very easily'frightened and certain ani- 
 mals are sometimes irritable, it is as a rule in the latter 
 case especially, modified or cured by plenty of work. 
 The organs going to make up this system and their func- 
 tions, therefore, will only receive a brief consideration. 
 The brain, spinal cord and the nerve fibres make up the 
 nervous system, which has the faculty of receiving and 
 interpreting impressions, more or less under the control 
 of the animal; it also has the regulating of the vital 
 functions, such as milk secretion, bowel movements, the 
 heart^ s action, etc., which are not under the direct con- 
 trol of the animal. In order to render the study of the 
 nervous system easier we divide it into (a) cerabro-spinal 
 and (b) sympathetic systems. The first division (a), 
 which is made up of the brain, composed of four parts, 
 the spinal cord, the nerves originating from. the brain, 
 and the chain originating from the spinal cord. The 
 nerves of the first division have been termed nerves of 
 animal life as distinguished from those of the second 
 division (b), termed nerves of organic life. Nerve tissue 
 is made up of white and grey matter. Nerves consist of 
 bundles of fine fibres enclosed in a sheath; along the 
 
104 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 course of some nerves are enlargements termed ganglia. 
 The nerve ends take the form of loops or bulbs according 
 to their locality, e. g., as loops in muscles, as bulbs in 
 mucous membranes. A nerve fibre retains its individu- 
 ality its entire length, if a nerve is cut across the ends do 
 not unite or grow together; the part away from its source 
 of nutrition dies. 
 
 A. The Brain. The large portion of the brain is known 
 as the cerebrum; this portion is the seat of intellect, 
 The faculties of reason arid memory are derived from 
 the cerebrum. This part of the brain is located under- 
 neath the forehead. Prom the base of the brain originate 
 the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, some of which go to 
 supply sensation to the eai', eye, tongue, nose, etc. The 
 cerebellum is an organ with the power of co-ordinating 
 muscular movement, that is to say, it controls the mus- 
 cular part, moves them in the right direction and at 
 the right time. For example, the crossing of the limbs 
 when walking by the intoxicated person shows lack of 
 co-or;dination. 
 
 The Fons connects the various other parts of the brain, 
 some of the fibres going to make up the cranial nerves 
 originate here. The Medulla oblongata may be' consid- 
 ered as a prolongation of the spinal cord, it forms a 
 pathway of nervous impulses to and from the brain, gives 
 origin to some of the cranial nerves, and contains the 
 center or headquarters to which the nerves governing 
 the heart, lungs, circulation and part of the digestive 
 tract bring messages and receive orders, thus the nerve 
 centers controlling mastication, swallowing, sacking, 
 vomiting, breathing, coughing, secreting saliva, and the 
 
Tlie Nervous System. 105 
 
 diabetic centers are located in this division of the brain. 
 Injury to the medulla generally results in instantaneous 
 death, breathing being at once stopped. 
 
 The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal, a hollow, 
 bony cavity running through the vertebrae; this canal is 
 of far greater size than the cord, thus allowing room for 
 extreme movements, such as bending the head around to 
 the side. The spinal cord might be considered as an 
 immense telegraph cable, made up of a number of small 
 cables or wires, each carrying its own message. Some 
 of the fibres (tracts) cross at the upper part of the cord, 
 and for this reason an injury on one side of the brain 
 will show paralysis on the opposite side of the body. 
 The cord is also of interest because it contains the fol- 
 lowing nerve centers: the ano-spinal, in the region of the 
 loins, controls the passage of feces ; the vesicospinal, in 
 the same locality, governs the passage of urine; the 
 centers governing the sexual organs are also located in 
 the region of the loins; centers controlling the blood ves- 
 sels (vaso- motor centers) and nutrition of tissues (trophic 
 ce^iters) are found throughout the cord. An unfortu- 
 nate result of nerving horses sometimes is seen in the 
 sloughing of the entire foot; such illustrates the control 
 of the nutrition of a part by nerves as well as the prop- 
 erty of sensation given by them to a part. Injury to the 
 upper part of the spine shows in paralysis of the lower 
 part of the body, and the continual passage of urine and 
 feces, or else complete stoppage of these functions. In 
 addition to the above functions, the spinal cord gives off 
 pairs of spinal nerves, at such points it is enlarged cor- 
 responding to the number given off, which leave by two 
 
106 Veterinary JElements. 
 
 roots, one motor (the lower) the other sensitive (upper), 
 they unite and later on are combined as a mixed nerve, 
 distributing their upper libres to the spinal muscles and 
 skin, the lower to the sides and lower parts of the trunk 
 and limbs; fibres also being sent to join the other 
 (b-or sympathetic) system. The nerves of the limbs are 
 derived from large plexuses in the armpit and. groin, 
 and are generally deep-seated, accompanying the arteries 
 in their course. 
 
 B. The sympathetic system is found underneath the 
 spinal column as two chains, with enlargements along 
 their course, as has been stated; they are the basis of 
 nerve supply to- the organs" of nutrition, such as the lungs, 
 liver, heiart, intestines, blood vessels, etc. Surrounding 
 the brain and spinal cord are three membranes (dura 
 mater, arachnoid and pia m'ater), between them a fluid is 
 found, the purpose of these is to protect such sensitive 
 and important structures as the brain and cord from con- 
 cussion and injury. The proportionate size of the. brain 
 aiid spinal cord varies in different animals according to 
 the place they occupy in the scale of intelligence; thus 
 the greater the weight of the brain the lighter the spinal 
 Cord, e. g. , in Man the brain weighs fifty ounces, the cord 
 one and on6half ounces; in the horse the brain weighs 
 twenty- three ounces, the cord ten and one-half ounces; 
 the proportions respectively being 33 to 1 and 2.2 to 1. 
 The convolutions of the cerebrum are separated by de- 
 pressions (sulci), the deeper these are the higher the 
 intelligence. Captain Hayes rates the intelligence of 
 animals in the following descending scale: Man, dog, 
 cat, ass, .pig, horse, ox. The nervous system of animals 
 
'the Nervous System. 107 
 
 therefore may be considered as simple when compared 
 with that of man, consequently the known list of nervous 
 troubles in farm stock is comparatively small. Eoaring 
 in horses is probably the most frequently observed in the 
 list, latterly stringhalt, milk fever, tetanus have been 
 removed from the list of pure nervous diseases. 
 
 THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
 
 The organs of the special senses are the eye, ear, nose, 
 and tongue; there remains for description, which must 
 necessarily be brief, the two former. 
 
 The eye is the organ of vision, and owing to the ease 
 with which it may be destroyed or affected, becomes at 
 once an object of importance to the stockman, especially 
 so when engaged in the raising and marketing of horses. 
 It is protected by the eyelids, eyelashes, and the haw 
 (membrana nictitans) or winking eyelid and the tear 
 apparatus. The eye may be compared to a ball having 
 a watch glass (cornea) fitted in at the front, its work 
 being similar to that of the lens of a camera. 
 
 The hall (eye) consists of three layers, outer (scler- 
 otic and cornea), middle (choroid and tris), inner (re- 
 tina), enclosed in these layers are substances termed 
 humors, which have various functions. The fluid in the 
 front part of the eye is termed the aqueous humor and is 
 for the purpose of giving shape to that part of the eye, 
 it is quite watery and is being constantly secreted during 
 life; as a result of operations some of it may be drained 
 away, but is replaced by more fluid later on ; behind this 
 fluid is the crystalline lens made up of layers resembling 
 an onion, the eye is focussed by movements of the lens. 
 
108 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 The vitreous humor, a jelly-like mass fills up the bulk of 
 the eye, aud is located back of the lens, once destroyed 
 is never reproduced. The inner coat, retina, is the dis- 
 tribution of the optic nerve (nerve of sight) and is con- 
 sequently the most important structure in the eye. 
 
 The choroid coat lines 
 the sclerotic, at its front 
 portion is attached a 
 muscular curtain, the 
 ^ iris, located in front of 
 the crystalline lens. 
 This curtain (iris) is 
 pierced in its center by 
 an opening, which varies 
 DIAGRAM OP A HORSE'S EYE. Jh shapB In thc different 
 A— Sclerotic coat. X— Cornea. B— cho- animals and is known 
 
 roid coat. I— Iris. C— Retina. D— Optic , ., _, . 
 
 nerve. V— Vitreous Iiumor. iL— Crystal- ^•S tne pupU. IJllSOpen- 
 
 line lens. H-Aqueous humor. jj,g jg dilated Or Con- 
 
 tracted, by two sets of muscular fibres, according to the 
 amount of light the sensitive structures of the eye are 
 able to take in. The color of the eyes is due to the iris, 
 in most horses it is of a brownish yellow tint, in others 
 white or grey, when the latter color, the horse is said to 
 be wall-eyed; at the upper border of the pupil of the 
 horse little black sooty looking dots are seen, these are 
 the corpora nigra, they are said to absorb rays of light. 
 The outer covering, sclerotic coat, is hard a;nd fibrous, 
 and receives the attachment of the muscles of the eye- 
 ball, it is opaque; at its front portion is inserted the cor- 
 nea (watchglass), a delicate transparent membrane made 
 up of layers of cells; between these layers as a result of 
 
The Nervous System. 109 
 
 inflammation material may be deposited, such is often 
 thought by people ignorant of the construction of the 
 cornea to be a scum; it is important to remember that 
 this is not the case and that therefore the use of strong 
 irritants such as powdered alum or powdered glass is not 
 only cruel but wrong andjiever beneficial. The eyelids 
 are two movable curtains having in their free edges hairs 
 (eyelashes) and glands. The eyelashes are to prevent 
 the entrance of particles of dirt, the gland's secretion 
 retains the tears, in sick animals the secretion of these 
 glands is seen at the inner corner of the eyes as a sticky 
 matter. 
 
 The haw, or membrana nictitans is placed at the inner 
 corner of the eye, it is somewhat gristly in its nature 
 and has the important function of removing dirt from 
 the eye. Its development depends on the use of other 
 members of the body to remove dirt, etc., e. g", in cat- 
 tle it is quite large, whereas in man and monkeys it is 
 very small, the latter being able to remove foreign matter 
 by their hands; its functions being known, none but ig- 
 norant persons will remove it unless diseased. In lock- 
 jaw (tetanus) it may be seen to be rapidly paSsed over, 
 the eye, if the head is raised or the animal excited, in 
 such cases it aids in the detection of this serious trouble. 
 
 The tear machinery consists of (1) a gland which se- 
 cretes the tears, situated at the upper part of the eye, 
 (2) a little round reddish brown body in the inner cor- 
 ner of the eye, which directs the tears to (3) the ducts, 
 which carry those tears to the nasal cavity (q. v.). 
 Tears in animals are for the purpose of moistening the 
 eye ball and to wash off small particles of dirt, it is 
 
110 Veterinary Ulements. 
 
 doubtful if they are at all the result of the einotions as in 
 the human, properly speaking "tears" are an accumula- 
 tion of the secretion of the lachrymal glands, and as such, 
 although the term has been applied to the secretion, 
 cannot be said to exist normally in the animal. The 
 conjunctiva may be considered as a continuation of the 
 skin, joining the eyelids and eyeball, it is very vascular, 
 containing a large number of fine blood vessels, this 
 characteristic is made use of in the detection of disease. 
 
 Above and behind the eye is a pad of fat, filling up 
 the hollow space there, in old animals the fat partially 
 disappears. The eyes should be clear and fre^ from tears, 
 the pupils bJacJc, the eyelids thin and free from wrinkles. 
 Small eyes in horses are termed ' 'pig eyes' ' and are con- 
 sidered a sign of inferior breeding. Horses showing 
 much white in their eyes are often suspected of vicious- 
 ness, if the ears are laid back and the teeth shown such 
 a suspicion is likely warranted. The eyes should be 
 placed wide apart, thus giving the wide forehead, con- 
 sidered by many as one indication of a pleasant, reason- 
 able disposition. 
 
 The ears or organs of hearing are rather complex inter- 
 nally, the outer portion, consisting of cartilage (gristle) 
 covered with skin, being all that is of much interest to 
 the stockman. The erect, alert ear is desired as being 
 an indication of health and vigor, although in horses, 
 the lopped ears are not always indicative of ill health or 
 the tired feeling; in sheep, however, the ears droop con- 
 siderably during sickness. The ears should be fine, thin 
 and lean so that they are semi-transparent, all evidences 
 of breeding. Horses suffering from blindness have quick 
 moving, restless ears. 
 
The Nervous St/ stem 111 
 
 The external ear is gristly and contains sebaceous glands, 
 the secretion of which gives the color to the inside of the 
 ear, bright yellow being desired by the dairyman. In 
 the external ear is the entrance to the middle ear con- 
 taining the ear d'rum and small bones, internal still is 
 the nerve of hearing located in the inner ear. Horses 
 sometimes become deaf when shot over during hunting 
 expeditions, the deafness in some cases being temporary, 
 in others permanent. 
 
 The Skin. Along with the skin such structures as hair, 
 horn and glands (sebaceous and sweat) are found, the 
 glands have already been described. 
 
 The skin covers the body, and by so doing aids in reg- 
 ulating the temperature of that body, it also is the organ 
 of touch. 
 
 Examination of this covering shows it to consist of two 
 layers, one on the surface, the epidermis, containing 
 nerves and pigment granules, the latter gives color to 
 the skin, and the dermis, which contains nerves and 
 blood vessels; like all other tissues, these divisions of the 
 skin- are made up of cells, arranged in layers, the upper 
 ones of which are being gradually changed to meet out- 
 side conditions and are eventually shed. 
 
 Among stockmen the condition of the skin is consid- 
 ered an indication not only of health, but of breeding 
 and ability to use the food famished to the best advan- 
 tage. In horses the glossy coat with fine hair is so much 
 desired, in beef cattle the following essentials are called 
 for, often included under the special term — handling — 
 such are a soft, silky coat of thick, furry hair (in winter), 
 a pliable skin of good thickness, with a mellow cushion 
 
112 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 underneath. In the dairy cow that same pliability of 
 the skin, which must be somewhat thinner than in the 
 beef type, is desired. In sheep the color affords the 
 best indication, a pink color being much approved of by 
 shepherds. 
 
 Hair grows from the hair follicles, which are a folding 
 in of the epidermis to form deep narrow depressions; 
 these depressions are well supplied with nutriment, and 
 are lined with cells from which are developed hairs. 
 Hairs are placed obliquely (on the slant), and by means 
 of a little muscle placed close to their roots, are brought 
 into the upright position, the effects of which are seen 
 in boars and dogs when excited, other conditions, such 
 as ill-health, cold, etc., have the same effect. Each hair 
 is enlarged at the enclosed end, and is lodged in a hair 
 follicle. The whiskers or cat hairs seen on the lips of 
 horses and cats are furnished with nerves which render 
 these hairs very sensitive. The term horse hair refers 
 to the hair of the mane, forelock, tail and fetlocks, and 
 in some breeds, notably Shires, to the strong coarse hair 
 at the knee and hock. In the pig the term "bristles" 
 denote hair; in sheep, where it is very fine, long and 
 wavy, it is known as wool; in the mule and ass, the 
 forelock and mane are either lacking or else only partially 
 developed, the hair of the tail in these animals being 
 limited in quantity; in cattle, the development of hair at 
 the end of the tail is known as "the switch." The 
 escutcheon of cows, held by some to be an indication of a 
 cow's milking qualities, is formed by the two-way-direc- 
 tion of the hair on the back part of the thighs; from the 
 udder, the hair being directed upwards, on the outside 
 
The Nervous System. 113 
 
 of the thighs it takes the opposite directions; the oppo- 
 site directions of the hair on the backs of pigs constitute 
 swirls. The color of- the hair varies in animals at dif- 
 ferent periods of their lives, e. g., the iron gray 'horse as 
 it ages grows whiter; the color is also affected by wounds, 
 old scars often growing white or gray hairs; the foal is 
 generally an entirelj'^ different color to what it is at ma- 
 turity. 
 
 The hair is a valuable aid to determine the quality of 
 an animal; coarse hair means a coarse skin; waviness in 
 the hair of the tail, a sign of want of breeding. The 
 long hair on the legs of heavy horses is dubbed "the 
 feather," and the term silky denotes the quality desired. 
 The claim of more endurance for some colored horses- 
 than for others is stoutly upheld by many horsemen — it 
 is more probable that the conformation, and not the 
 color, was at fault. Capt. Hayes says that dark-colored 
 horses endure the heat better than light-colored ones. 
 Favorite colors in horses are determined by Fashion, and 
 that controls the market to some extent, especially with 
 regatd to coachers, saddlers, roadsters, etc. Every one, 
 possibly, has heard it said "that a good horse cannot be 
 a bad color," and also that if a horse has one white foot 
 buy him, two try him, etc., be that as it may,' great 
 splashings of white are not desired on the body, unless 
 for the circus. Coal black horses fetch high prices for 
 funeral purposes. The location of the white markings 
 on horses have been named, thus rendering description 
 of those animals more easy, e. g., a small patch of white 
 in the center of the forehead is called a star, if the patch 
 is larger it is dubbed a. blaze, a narrow strip right down 
 
114 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the face is called a ratch, and if the white spreads over 
 the face the term bald is often applied ; ' 'snip' ' refers to 
 a little patch of white on either lip; "white stocking" 
 and "white sock" refer to markings on the limbs, the 
 former np to the knee or hock, the latter to the fetlocks. 
 Gray horses are very liable to what is named Melanosis 
 — black tumors, we may term them, and although re- 
 moval is sometimes performed, unless they interfere with 
 the health of the animal they should be let alone. 
 
 The hair grows according to the climate, season, food, 
 etc., and is shed at certain seasonsof the year; in poultry 
 the condition is known as "moulting," the feathers in 
 fowl representing the hairs in animals. The character 
 and quality of the hair varies with the breeding, e. g., 
 in Galloway and Angus cattle. Showmen of horses, 
 cattle and sheep, blanket their charges to improve the 
 condition of the skin and hair; poultrymen confine their 
 birds to the shady places to avoid "brassiness of the 
 plumage" due to the sun's rays. The hair preserves 
 the skin from wet, cold and the direct action of the 
 sun's rays. Intimately related to the hair are those 
 structures known as the horns of cattle and sheep, the 
 chestnuts of horses and asses, and the coverings of the 
 foot, termed hoofs in the horse, ass and mule, and <;laws 
 in sheep, swine, cattle, etc. 
 
 The horns vary in size and shape according to the breed 
 and sex, they grow from the matrix at their base; they 
 are more or less hollowed oat, the frontal sinuses being 
 continued into them. 
 
 The Chestnuts. These bare, horny structures are said 
 by some people to represent an evolutionary stage 
 
The Nervous System. 115 
 
 through which the horse has gone, they are found on 
 the inside of the forearm and on the upper part of the 
 inner face of the hind cannons. 
 
 The Ergots in horses are found growing from the skin 
 of the fetlock and correspond to the hard soles of animals 
 that walk on their soles (Man, dog, cat). In cattle 
 they are undeveloped digits. Chestnuts and ergots are 
 better developed in the underbred horse than in the 
 well-bred animal. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 THE FOOT — ITS CARE AND SHOEINQ. 
 
 The Hoof and its Contents. The iuJiiortance of tbJs 
 organ in animals cannot be overestimated, in tlie horse 
 especially are good feet needed; without good feet his 
 value is lessened according to the degree his work is 
 interfered with. While cattle, sheep and swine are not 
 used for draught purposes, yet they also should have 
 good feet, in order to render their getting to the feed 
 trough and market sure, and in those used for breeding, 
 to render them capable of performing that valuable func- 
 tion. The foot consisting of the hoof and its contents will 
 therefore be described, that of the horse being taken as 
 the type. Approaching the foot from the outside the 
 hoof is first reached, seemingly a continuation of the 
 skin, which it is. 
 
 The hoof is divided into the 
 wall, sole and frog, the wall 
 being that part seen when the 
 foot is on the ground. The 
 wall is also divided into parts, 
 viz., the toe, quarters, heels, 
 bars, surfaces and borders. 
 The toe forms the front of the 
 hoof and is the deepest and 
 thickest part of the wall, j)ass- 
 
 '^dfTorns.^'2%/aVsnc}J'^'i-i°g ^^^^k it grows Shorter at 
 the frog, o, outside of wall. ^j^g quarters, that part mid- 
 way between toe and heel, passing back still further the 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE UNDER STR 
 FACIv OF THE FOOT. 
 
TIw Foot — Its Gave and Slweing. 117 
 
 heel is reached, at which x>oiut the wall makes a sharp 
 turn inwards and forwards nntil it meets near the point 
 of the frog, the continnation of the wall from the oppo- 
 site heel 5 the wall thus forms an acute angle at the heels 
 and it is at this point where corns are usually found; 
 these inturned portions of the wall are called ' 'the bars' ' 
 and act as braces to the foot, consequently they should 
 not be cut any lower than is absolutely necessary. The 
 outer surface of the wall is rounded and covered by its 
 protector, the hoof varnish or periople, which should not 
 be removed by the rasp, such removal exposes the horn 
 to the softening, drying and destroying influences of the 
 weather, the horn of the wall is not meant to be soft, it 
 has to bear weight, on the other hand it is not improved 
 by a drying out process of which brittleness is the result; 
 it is, however, interesting to note that the feet of horses 
 grown in dry countries are more durable than those of 
 horses raised in wet countries (Points of the Horse, 
 Hayes). The growth of horn is similar to that of plants, 
 excessive moisture being bad for both. The internal 
 surface of the hoof presents from five to six hundred 
 little parallel plates known as the horny or insensitive 
 laminre. The leaves (laminte) are separated from one 
 another by deep grooves into which fit the corresponding 
 sensitive leaves (laminre). In a groove at the upper 
 part of the wall lies the coronary cushion (band), from 
 it is developed the wall. The inferior border of the wall 
 is that part to which the shoe is attached and when un- 
 shod is in contact with the ground. The slope of the 'nail 
 should be that given by an angle of 50° and should con- 
 form somewhat to the slope of the pastern; the outer 
 
lis 
 
 Vetcriimry Elements. 
 
 surface oi' the wall should be smooth iiaturallj^, and 
 straiglit from the coronet to the ground. 
 
 In the sho\Y-riug the artifices of the groom often come 
 into play for those hoises having a iioor or broken wall, 
 in such cases the broken space is filled with wax or the 
 entire foot is coated with gutta-percha, ends of nails 
 being inserted in the material to further aid in the decep- 
 tion, conseciuently it is well in all cases to examine 
 thoroughly excessive smoothness of the horn in old 
 horses being always open to suspicion. 
 
 .STKl'CTl'ilES OJ' THE FOOT. 
 
 (Copyrighted.) 
 
 L. C, LrtteraU-arUlage. H., Heel. Q., Quarter. T., Toe. 1., Long pas- 
 tern bone. 2., Short pastern bone. Z., Pedal bone, just behind Avhich can 
 be seen the navicular bone. N. J., Navicular joint. F., Frog. The white 
 portion marked S is the sensitive part of the foot, including the sensitive 
 laminie, .sole and frog. C, The coronary substance (or band). I., The hoof 
 horn (insensitive). 
 
 The sole is a thick plate of horn on the under surface 
 of the foot, tilling the space between the bars and lower 
 edge of the wall. Its npper surface is convex and receives 
 the sensitive structure above, its lower one is concave, 
 depending of course on the animal. The tendency of 
 
The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 119 
 
 the sole to flatten increases with work and age; an exces- 
 sively wide spread heel will tend to let down the sole. 
 The sole should be strong, concave on its under side and 
 of fair thickness, the sole tissue flakes off during wear. 
 Bruises of the . sole usually show by discoloration; the 
 sole is not intended to bear any great amount of weight; 
 in its union with the wall it forms what is termed the 
 lohite line, the back (posterior) border of the sole is V 
 shaijed and runs into the angle formed by the bars and 
 wall. The frog is a mass of spongy horn lodged between 
 the bars designed to receive a considerable portion of 
 the weight of the body and by its elasticity to diminish 
 CDQCussion, on its under surface is a small depression 
 known as the cleft; its upper surface presents small open- 
 ings to receive the sensitive parts above, in its center is 
 an elevation corresponding to the cleft, known as the 
 frogstay. Inside of the sensitive structure are the bones 
 of the foot; these bones may be said to represent the 
 human foot, the sensitive structures the stocking, and the 
 hoof the boot. 
 
 The lateral cartilages, two half-moon shaped pieces of 
 gristle found at the upper part of the quarters, are of 
 interest because so often affected, being turned into bone 
 (ossified) and thus rendered immovable; the cartilages 
 are attached below to the wings of the pedal bones. 
 
 The sensitive laminae may be considered as growths or 
 continuations of the coronary cushion and it is important 
 to remember that tlie band (coronary cushion) on account 
 of its manner of growth should on no account be cut 
 through or the shape and appearance of the foot will be 
 injured; if by any means the wall is stripped so as to 
 
120 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 leave the laminse bare, those leaves seem to grow rap- 
 idly; it has been said that these laminae are sensitive; 
 such being the case, the severe pain shown when a horse 
 is foundered (laminitis) is thus accounted for. The 
 hoof is developed from the skin, the horny material com- 
 ing from the superficial layer of the skin, the sensitive 
 structures from the deep layer, such being the case it is 
 readily understood how the hoof and skin are alike^in 
 colof. The hoof is made up of fibres resembling hairs, 
 stuck together, with a downward and forward direction. 
 It seems to be the accepted opinion that white hoofs are 
 more delicate, porous and prone to disease than are dark 
 colored ones. The growth of the hoof downwards and 
 forwards is uniform in the healthy foot, the rate of 
 growth is about a third of an inch a month; hind hoofs 
 grow faster than front ones, and unshod faster than shod. 
 The conditions favoring growths are — exercise, moisture 
 and barefootedness; the time required for the hoof to 
 grow from the coronet to the ground at the toe is 12 
 months, at the quarters 6 to 8 months, and at the heels 
 :3 to 5 months. 
 
 Hoof ointments do not affect the horn already secreted, 
 but may stimulate the growth of horn from the coronet. 
 When weight is put on the foot there is a widening out 
 at the quarters, tOp and bottom, the height thus being 
 lessened, and the sole becomes flatter; weight is then 
 thrown on the lower bones, which sink down and back, 
 the corona (short pastern bone) presses down the fatty 
 cushion, which in turn pushes out the lateral cartilages, 
 and if movable, these cartilages push out the wall at the 
 quarters; the pressure brougnt to bear upon the frog due 
 
The Foot — Its Cave and Shoeing. 121 
 
 to the earth's resistance, presses it and the bars outwai'ds. 
 The result of all these movements are: 1, to protect the 
 body from shocks; 2, to aid and increase the spring 
 (elasticity) of the limb, thus giving an easy, untiring 
 gait, besides limiting concussion; 3, to increase the cir- 
 culation of the foot, and thus insure a proper growth of 
 horn. No portion of the body will retain its usefulness 
 unless used; Nature is firm in her laws and does not sup- 
 ply nourishment in the form of blood to parts not in use, 
 consequently if a good frog is desired, it must not, by 
 shoeing or other means, be relieved from receiving press- 
 ure. 
 
 The claws of cattle and sheep really consist of two 
 halves of feet, the division in the bones starting at the 
 fetlock. The space between the hoof is termed the cleft, 
 and at its upper surface in sheep a gland is situated 
 which may get blocked with dirt, etc. , and thus cause sore- 
 ness in the feet. All animals need their feet attended 
 to at regular intervals, neglect results in deformity and 
 disease, especially so is this the case in colts kept in box 
 stalls and in cattle and sheep. An examination will 
 often show the horn grown long and curled in under the 
 heels, sometimes large pieces are broken out of the wall. 
 In the stable abundance of clean, dry bedding should 
 be used. No animal should have to stand in wet or 
 muddy places for any considerable length of time or such 
 diseases as foot rot, thrush and canker will result. 
 
 A good hoof should be straight in the wall} no hollows 
 or unevenness, no cracks or fissures when felt with the 
 palm of the hand, it should be smooth; a rough, harsh 
 feeling and a dry appearance indicate brittleness. The 
 
122 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 bulbs of the heel should be rounded and strong, the sole 
 concave (hollow) and not separated from the wall at the 
 white line. The frog should be strong, well developed 
 with its cleft broad, dry and shallow, no unpleasant 
 smell should be present. The bars should have a for- 
 ward and inward direction to the point of the frog, there 
 should be no stains in the sole at the heels, while the 
 lateral cartilages should be elastic to the iinger touch, 
 the periople should not have been rasped away. In cat- 
 tle and sheep the wall should be trimmed to about the 
 level of the sole, and the points of the toes rounded off. 
 
 Shoeing. On account of the artificial condition that 
 animals, particularly horses, are subjected to, special 
 treatment of the feet had to be provided, such treatment, 
 a necessary evil though it is, evil because it interferes 
 more or less with the natural action of the foot, is termed 
 shoeing. 
 
 Horseshoeing is an art dating from the Gauls before 
 the Christian era, William the Conqueror is said to have 
 introduced shoeing into England. Napoleon's disastrous 
 retreat from Moscow was made worse from lack of horse- 
 shoeing, and as modern warfare employs horses for cav- 
 alry and artillery purposes to a greater extent than for- 
 merly, horseshoeing becomes a necessity. In the more 
 important and more peaceful walks of life, such as agri- 
 culture, etc., horseshoeing is just as important, as the 
 getting of the products to markets, etc., depends to a 
 large extent on the preparedness of the horse; in field 
 work, such as plowing, harrowing and other farm opera- 
 tions, shoes are better dispensed with if possible, the feet 
 will, however, still require regular attention. 
 
The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 123 
 
 The special objects of shoeing are: 
 1. To protect the foot from excessive wear; 2, to enable 
 the feet to get sure footing on ice or slippery roads; 
 
 3, to overcome as near as possible faulty conformation, 
 balancing the foot and limb as it might be termed; and, 
 
 4, to cure or improve diseased conditions of the foot. 
 The feet of colts should rarely be shod, in fact refrain 
 from shoeing as long as possible. When horses are shod 
 the shoes should be removed every four to six weeks, 
 the excess of horn rasped away and the shoes refitted; it 
 is important to remember that the excess of horn, the 
 result of growth, be removed. In the past people cut off 
 too muchj nowadays many have gone almost to the other 
 extreme. If horses are to go barefooted more horn should 
 be left, the sharp outer edge of the wall should be rounded 
 with the rasp to avoid splitting of the wall, loose flakes 
 of the sole or frog being cut off. The wear of a shoe is 
 due to friction between it and the ground, the wear may 
 be natural (normal) as in a sound young horse; or unnat- 
 ural (abnormal) in an unsound horse, e. g., wear of the 
 toe in navicular disease and spavin, wear of the heel in 
 laminitis (founder). On the upper surface of the shoe 
 marks of wear are seen due to the play of the quarters, 
 at this point can often be noted the slope, whether inten- 
 tional or not, of the heels of a shoe, such a slope, if in- 
 wards assisting to close the heels, or if outwards to open 
 them, such a bearing and direction should not be given, 
 the shoe surface should be perfectly level. 
 
 Examination of a foot. When about to examine the 
 foot or remove a shoe always see that the animal can 
 stand comfortably on three legs, then by passing the 
 
124 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 hand down the limb to be lifted, pinch slightly with the 
 thumb and first finger just above the fetlock, the foot 
 will visually be lifted by the animal, to hold it easily, 
 grasp the toe of the foot and thus let the animal bear its 
 own weight; in removal of the shoe a firmer grip is 
 necessary. All clinches should be lifted before trying 
 to pull off the ii-ou, and when doing so avoid twisting 
 of the foot, or injury to the joints at that part will result. 
 The greater number of shoeing smiths are more compe- 
 tent to judge of the amount of trimming and cutting re- 
 quired by a hoof than is the average horse owner; the 
 trouble is usually that people do not take their horses to 
 the smith often enough. The frog should be left promi- 
 nent, so that it will project beyond the bearing surface 
 of the quarters and thus limit the amount of jar. As 
 the bars are inflections of the walls, and therefore meant 
 to support weight, they should not be cut away. The 
 pattern of the shoe for the sound foot is immaterial so 
 long as its bearing is trxie and level and rests on the walls 
 and bars. The shoe surface should be wide enough to 
 cover the wall and white line, the web being wider at 
 the toe than at the heels. Toe and heel calks are better 
 dispensed with unless on slippery roads. Avoid excess 
 of weight in shoes; for that purpose steel and aluminum 
 are used. Horses are made to go high by leaving on lots 
 of foot or by weighting with heavy shoes, the weight 
 being placed at or near the toe, therefore, the • extreme 
 high action shown by some horses may be considered as 
 more or less artificial; education has a great deal to do 
 with high action, as it is well known by horsemen that 
 the So-called high- stepping breeds need educating in 
 order to get the highest action out of them. 
 
The Foot — Tls Care and Shoeiiiff. 125 
 
 Hoofs of working horses should be picked out and 
 cleaned daily. The ground surface of shoes should be 
 flat, or rolled slightly at the toe. 
 
 In order to examine the hind foot, if the animal is at 
 all unreliable, stand with the back to the horse's head; if 
 the near hind foot is to be examined, stand on that side 
 and run the left hand gently, but firmly, down the limb, 
 .beginning on the top of the rump, until the hamstring is 
 reached, just above the point of the hock, grasp that part 
 firmly, then with the open right hand, palm up, grasp 
 the leg just at the pastern, lift and place on the thigh. 
 Various defects of the gait, such as forging and interfer- 
 ing, contracted feet are rectified or improved by shoeing. 
 
 Forging is a defect of the gait, due mainly to conforma- 
 tion, being higher at croup than at withers, long legs 
 and short bodies, or legs too much underneath the body. 
 It may be due to weakness, laziness, bad shoeing, or the 
 delight of hearing the clicking sound. The noise (click- 
 ing) is made by one hind foot or shoe striking the front 
 shoe of the same side. 
 
 To correct the trouble give the feet their proper slope, 
 about fifty degrees, by lowering either the heels or toes. 
 The front shoes must be no longer and no wider than the 
 hoof; the hind shoes should be shortened at the toe, the 
 lower edge rounded, no toe clip, and the shoe fitted so 
 that three-fourths of the thickness of the wall at the toe 
 will extend beyond the shoe; in some cases the use of 
 heavier shoes in front, say fourteen ounces in front, six 
 to eight ounces behind, is advisable; always drive the 
 horse well in hand, so that he goes up on the bit, the 
 gait cannot be collected unless the driver handles the 
 reins properly. A shoe angular at the toe instead of 
 
126 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 round is well thought of as a means of correcting this 
 trouble. If a front shoe is struck by a hind foot of the 
 opposite side that is known as cross-firing. 
 
 Interfering may be applied to brushing and speedy cut- 
 ting, the former is the wounding of the fetlock by the 
 inner quarter of a shoe or foot of the opposite leg; speedy 
 cutting is the wounding of the leg near the knee or hock 
 by its fellow on the opposite side. Horses that turn 
 their toes out are liable to interfere; knock-kneed horses 
 will also speedy cut. It is a very dangerous vice in sad- 
 dlers, bad enough in drivers. This disease needs the 
 expert sheer who will have to study his patient, drive 
 behind him and probably shoe a few times before en- 
 tirely curing him. If unshod, horses rarely brush. The 
 wall of the outside quarter of the foot struck may be 
 lowered, and the striking edge of the shoe eased off with 
 a file. A shoe heavier on its outside web than on its 
 inside half will often relieve the condition. The use of 
 some form of boot is recommended, wounds made will 
 need general antiseptic treatment. Friar's balsam is very 
 useful. Young horses often grow out of this trouble, as 
 soon as wearied the colt should be unhitched. Thomas 
 Oowhey, before the Master Shoers' Association, says: 
 "Interfering is due to lack of strength in the hind parts, 
 leg weariness and too heavy shoes. The remedy — use as 
 light a shoe as possible, and if all else fails use strings of 
 interfering rubber beads as low on the fetlock as possible, 
 which must be removed as soon as the drive is over." 
 
 Corns are usually due to improper shoeing, excessive 
 growth of the heels, or the pressure of a stone on the sole 
 which has been too much thinned, or a loose shoe; cutting 
 away of the bars lets the wall curl in on th« seat of corns, 
 
The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 127 
 
 or the smith may rasp' down the bars and wall and not 
 remove the piece of the sole in the angle thus formed, 
 thus bringing pressure on a part not meant to bear pres- 
 sure. To correct, use a bar shoe after the usual treat- 
 ment, or let the animal go bare footed. 
 
 Laminitis (founder), the use of the rolled heel and toe 
 shoe, the bar shoe or some of the patent pads to be found 
 in the market will often render a lame horse workable; 
 if the sole drops use a wide webbed shoe, and a leather 
 sole packed with tar and oakum. 
 
 Contracted feet are usually the result of poor shoeing, 
 either by raising the heels too high and taking away the 
 natural frog pressure, or by the use of shoes with an in- 
 ward slope of the upper surface of the shoe heel; the 
 causes indicate the cure, barefootedness is as good as any. 
 
 Horses difficult to shoe may have the fore foot of the 
 same side tied up, and by means of hobble and rope draw 
 back the hind foot. Sometimes the disinclination to 
 stand is due to the animal being thrown out of balance 
 by the smith drawing the hind leg out too far from the 
 body, therefore always see that the horse is able to stand, 
 which may be aided by turning the head to the side op- 
 posite to the foot to be lifted. The rope twitch can also 
 be used, the foot being kept raised by tying it to the tail. 
 If a kicker tie up a front foot first, then a hobble to the 
 hind foot to be lifted, take a rope (one-half inch) 20 feet 
 long, fasten to the tail, then run the two free ends through 
 the ring of the hobble, one from each side, the ends are 
 now held by two men, standing at right angles to the 
 horse, one on each side of the limb, as they pull the leg 
 •is lifted, the fore leg should be let down before attempt- 
 ing to lift the hind one. 
 
Shoe with weight ill the 
 toe; extends the stride. 
 
 A plain plate. 
 
 A side weight shoe, 
 causing a horse to go 
 'wider behind. 
 
 TYl'ES OF SHOES. 
 
 A heel weight rolling 
 motion toe shoe; short- 
 ens the stride and gives 
 more itnee action. 
 
 A rolling toed shoe, in- 
 tended to quicken Uie 
 stride of a dweller. 
 
 A scoop toe hind shoe, 
 hreaks over more lap- 
 idly than if calked. 
 
 A side weight shoe for 
 a knee bumper. 
 
 Scoop toe shoe, the 
 scoop taking the place of 
 the calk. 
 
 Shoe with heel side- 
 weight, useful where the 
 ankle rolls ou.t, strength.- 
 entng it and giving it 
 wider action. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 HOLDINQ A POST-MORTEM. 
 
 The stockman or his veterinarian will sometimes have 
 animals die upon their hands, and as it is not always 
 desirable to incur extra expense, the stockman will be the 
 one to examine the dead animal, or hold a post-mortem, 
 as it is termed. 
 
 To be of any value a post-mortem should be held within 
 a few hours after death, as destructive changes soon take 
 place in dead animals; if properly conducted and care- 
 ful note made of the conditions found, a post-mortem 
 may be of considerable value to science and a source of 
 satisfaction to the owner. 
 
 The- necessary instruments are a good butcher knifei 
 and a saw; along with these there should be a few quarts 
 of good antiseptic in solution, so that the person holding 
 the post-mortem can cleanse his hands and arms fre- 
 quently, the latter precaution should on no account be 
 neglected, especially in cases where the cause of death 
 is unknown. The animal may be examined in one of 
 two positions, (1) when lying on the back, or (2) on the side, 
 if the former it will need to be propped up, the front 
 legs being allowed to drop to each side by cutting the 
 muscles in the armpits. An incision is then made with 
 the knife, right along the middle line of the belly, care 
 being taken to avoid cutting any of the bowels; that 
 done the knife is made to cut from the flank nearly to 
 9 
 
130 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the back bone and the flaps laid back, the bowels will 
 then be in view. The saw can then be used to saw be- 
 tween the hind legs, thus letting them fall to the ground 
 besides opening up the pelvis, the saw can also be used 
 on the ribs, cutting them midway between the breast 
 bone and back; by lifting the sawed piece out the lung 
 cavity is exposed and its contents in view. Always cut 
 through the skin and muscles before using the saw on a 
 part. 
 
 If the animal is on its side, preferably its ri^ht side, 
 the abdomen should be opened and the ribs sawed close 
 to the back and breast bones, the sections removed, thus 
 exposing the entire lung and bowel cavities; when re- 
 moving the part over the upper lung it should be noticed 
 whether the inner surface of the part removed had 
 adhered to (grown to) the lung. 
 
 If the disease affecting the animal was known, only 
 those parts affected iieed be examined; it is, however, 
 better to examine the entire body. 
 
 Draw out the big gut (great colon) and unfold it, then 
 the small intestines as far as possible, thus exposing the 
 mesentery, its blood vessels and nodes, which should be 
 examined; then the remaining intestines are drawn out 
 over the back. After a careful examination of all the 
 parts they are cut through at their attachments and 
 removed. 
 
 In cattle and sheep the stomach should be removed 
 and examined first, the third stomach and contents in 
 cattle and the fourth in sheep being scrutinized thor- 
 oughly. When the stomach of a horse is opened the 
 quantity of bots present should be mentioned in the notes 
 
Holding a Post-Moi'tem. 131 
 
 kept; the digestive tube should be examined for ruptures, 
 enlargements of the blood vessels, redness or blackness 
 (signs of inflammation), stoppages, and worms, the lat- 
 ter may be in the bowel walls (e. g., sheep). 
 
 The spleen, which is attached to the stomach, should 
 be examined; it should be somewhat elastic, retaining 
 the imprint of a finger, and be of violet blue color, ap- 
 proaching to red; it usually weighs about two pounds. 
 
 The pancreas may be overlooked unless one is careful; 
 it is somewhat triangular in shape, weighing about one 
 pound; it is of a reddish cream color. 
 
 The kidneys weight 27 and 25 ounces, the right being 
 the heavier, are reddish brown in color, those of cattle 
 are lobulated. The liver in horses weighs about 11 
 pounds, and is of a solid brown color, and is very friable, 
 being easily crushed by the fingers. If the venous cir- 
 culation has been impeded in the heart and lungs, the 
 center of each lobule will be red, the margins yellow or 
 green in color, this is the usual appearance after death. 
 If there has been active liver congestion the liver will 
 appear mottled; if, however, there has bqen active in- 
 flammation of the liver it will be red in color. No gall 
 bladder will be found in the horse. The head and neck 
 should be examined, looking at the thyroid glands, the 
 teeth and nostrils. 
 
 The sexual and urinary organs should be looked over 
 for stone in the bladder^ etc., pus in the kidneys or uterus 
 (womb). 
 
 The lungs and heart should now be carefully examined, 
 note the condition of the pericardium (the outside cov- 
 ering of the heart), and then the heart itself. Pointed 
 
132 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 objects are sometimes found in the hearts of cattle. The 
 lungs are next in order, their coverings being very care- 
 fully looked over for adhesions; several cuts lengthwise 
 should be made in the lungs to detect medicines, matter 
 (pus) or hardened spots (consolidation). The lymph 
 nodes found in the mesentery, between the lungs at the 
 splitting of the windpipe, those at the back and side of 
 the pharnyx, in the armpits and groin, the submaxillary 
 and other salivary glands, should all be examined, the 
 lymph nodes being cut into, if enlarged, and a cheesy, 
 gritty material found, tuberculosis should be suspected. 
 The stockman rarely has time to examine the limbs and 
 brain, the former, however, in cases of disputed lame- 
 ness should be examined, especially the hocks, lateral 
 cartilages, splint bones, coffin and fetlock joints, for 
 spavin, side bones, splints and ringbones, respectively. 
 Note should be made of all the lesions found. 
 
CHAPTEE XI. 
 SIMPLE FARM MEDICINES. 
 
 The up-to-date stockman will have his chest of medi- 
 cines for his stock, not with the idea of treating anything 
 or everything, but for the purpose of meeting unexpected 
 conditions and for the treatment of simple diseases. 
 Before any person can use or prescribe medicines intelli- 
 gently it is essential that they understand the actions 
 and doses of those medicines; not only is it essential that 
 the stockman know something about medicines, and that 
 something well, he must also know the best methods of 
 giving such medicines. The kernel of the matter is that 
 the stockman must be an animal nurse to render efficient 
 service when his stock are sick. Medicines are often 
 classified according to their actions, each class being 
 given a distinctive name. The utility of such a classifi- 
 cation is at once seen, e. g. , an animal is sick, the owner 
 instead of being told to use a specific drug such as iron, 
 is advised to use a tonic. Eunning over the list of drugs 
 in his farm medicine chest he remembers that he has a 
 drug there with a tonic action, and uses it, whereas had 
 he not understood the term — tonic — the animal would 
 have had to go untreated. 
 
 Seven classes of drugs will be considered and examples 
 of each given, the first five are generally given internally, 
 the last two being intended for external use only. 
 
134 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 1. Stimulants. Under this class are found medicines 
 which have the power to excite or increase the vital 
 activity of an organ, they stimulate in fact. Their action 
 is prompt but only temporary or transient, their effects 
 soon pass off. 
 
 Alcohol in the shape of whiskey, brandy, rum, etc."; 
 ammonia; sweet spirits of nitre; turpentine; coffee, are 
 all examples of this class, their use would be justified 
 after some exhausting work, such as a hard drive, in 
 fact in such cases their use will often head off an attack 
 of lung trouble. 
 
 2. Tonics. The tonic family is a large one, and one 
 that is the most useful of all to the stockman, because in 
 this class are included the great natural medicines; — 
 good food, pure air and water, proper grooming and 
 exercise. Although other tonics are mentioned, it must 
 not be forgotten that their use will only be profitable 
 when combined with the above mentioned tonics. Use- 
 ful drugs of this kind are — iron in one of its forms; gen- 
 tian root; quinine; bluestone (copper sulphate); nux 
 vomica; aloes, etc. Tonics are somewhat slow in their 
 action but are permanent in their results, they improve 
 the appetite and blood circulation and therefore tone up 
 the entire system. The following, or Douglas mixture, 
 is a splendid tonic for fowls: Sulfuric acid \ ounce, cop- 
 peras 6 ounces, rainwater 4 ounces; give a tablespoonful 
 to 6 quarts of the drinking-water; for colds it is very 
 good. 
 
 3. Purgatives. This class of drugs are especially use- 
 ful to the stockman because by their aid he is often ena- 
 bled to rectify mistakes in feeding or treatment. Pur- 
 
Simple Farm Medicines. 135 
 
 gatives act upoD the bowels aDd auxiliary organs, and in 
 that action purge the entire system of injurious material. 
 They cause increased action of the bowels by stimulating 
 the bowel movement (peristalsis), cause an outpouring 
 of fluid from the bowel walls, or they may hinder the 
 absorption of fluids, as a consequence the feces (dung) 
 is more watery than usual, or if a stoppage has occurred, 
 it is overcome. The milder purgatives are often termed 
 laxatives, of which the following are commonly used: 
 bran mhshes, green food, sulphur, molasses, small doses 
 of raw linseed oil, epsom or glauber salts. The purga- 
 tives iu general use for farm stock are aloes; salts (sulfate 
 of magnesia) and raw linseed oil. 
 
 4. Anodynes comprise the pain relieving class, relax 
 spasm, and quiet nervous excitement; such are warmth 
 in the form of poultices and fomentations, cold applied 
 by means of ice or very cold water, sweet spirits of nitre, 
 laudanum, aconite. This class of drugs requires more 
 care in the use of its members than probably any of the 
 others previously mentioned. 
 
 5. Anthelmintics are a very useful class, as by their 
 use the stockman is enabled to rid his flocks and herds 
 of internal parasites, generally termed worms. Anthel- 
 mintics may be said to kill and expel worms, examples 
 are iron sulfate (copperas), copper sulfate (bluestone), 
 common salt, pumpkin seeds, gasoline, benzine, kerosene 
 (coal oil), creolin, santonine, turpentine and aloes. 
 
 6. Vesicants. The members of this family of drugs 
 are suited for external use only, as they are very irri- 
 tant and will raise blisters, hence their name, from the 
 Latin, vesica, a blister; Spanish fly (cantharides), binio- 
 
136 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 dide of mercury, ammonia water, turpentine, hot water, 
 strong acids or alkalies, belong to this class, in some 
 cases they even destroy tissues. 
 
 7. Antiseptics. This class of drugs has revolutionized 
 both human and veterinary surgery and there is proba- 
 bly no one class of medicines that will pay the stockman 
 as handsome a profit in their use as will the antiseptics. 
 Contagious diseases and wounds become less formidable 
 to handle if antiseptics are used plentifully, consequently 
 the stockman should never let his supply of these useful 
 drugs be exhausted. Fortunately the class is a large one 
 and a selection can be made quite easily. It must be re- 
 memjaered that many of them are poisonous, hence must 
 not be left where children or animals can get at them; 
 there are, however, some of them that may be used inter- 
 nally, such, however, should be used under the veterina- 
 rian's directions. Boracic acid, creolin, carbolic acid, 
 corrosive sublimate (bi- chloride of mercury), permangan- 
 ate of potash, tar, bluestone are antiseptics in common 
 use, and the list is constantly being added to; besides 
 these the various proprietary articles to be found on the 
 market, such as chloro-naphtholeum, germol, zenoleum, 
 possess antiseptic properties to a greater or less degree. 
 Antiseptics act by destroying germs, thereby preventing 
 or arresting putrefaction. Some members of this family 
 may be used for killing such parasites as lice, ticks, mag- 
 gots found on the bodies of farm animals. 
 
 The actions of other drugs have also served to group 
 them, e. g., medicines acting on the kidneys, thereby 
 increasing the urine, are termed Diuretics; those that 
 lower the temperature of the body, as in fevers, etc.. 
 
Simple Farm Medicines. 
 
 137 
 
 are termed Febrifuges; those overcoming acidity are 
 termed antacids; aphrodisiacs, medicines increasing sex- 
 ual desires; emmenagogues, medicines said to bring on 
 oestrum or heat (?) are also illustrations of the method 
 of classification used. 
 
 THE FARM STOCK MEDICINE CHEST. 
 
 The chest may be made of wood, fitted up according 
 to the articles it will contain. A good box, three feet 
 long, two feet wide and two feet deep, with a lid well 
 hinged on and possessing a good lock, will suffice. This 
 box can be fitted up with shelves and a couple of draw- 
 ers, for convenience it may be fastened on a wall and 
 thus.take shape as a cupboard. The following dose table 
 and rules should be typewritten or printed and pasted 
 up on the inside of the chest door: 
 
 You can 
 give a 
 
 A full dose 
 at 
 
 A half dose 
 at 
 
 A quarter 
 duse at 
 
 One-eighth 
 dose at 
 
 One-sixteenth 
 dose 
 
 Horse.. 
 
 3 years 
 and up 
 
 ]Jto3 
 years 
 
 9 to 18 
 months 
 
 5 to 9 
 months 
 
 at birth up 
 
 Cow ... 
 
 2 years 
 and up 
 
 1 to 2 
 years 
 
 6 to 12 
 months 
 
 3 to 6 
 months 
 
 at birth up 
 
 Sheep.. 
 
 IJ years 
 and up 
 
 9 to 18 
 months 
 
 5 to 9 
 months 
 
 3 to 5 
 months 
 
 at birth up 
 
 Pig 
 
 15 mos, 
 and up 
 
 8 to 15 
 mouths 
 
 6 to 8 
 montlis 
 
 3 to 6 
 months 
 
 at birth up 
 
 N. B. 
 
 Keep all bottles tightly corked. 
 
 All bottles must be labeled, especially those con- 
 taining poisons. 
 
 Always read the label oa the bottle before using 
 any of its contents. 
 
 Be sparing with drugs. 
 
 Do not feed condition powders, instead use the nat- 
 ural tonicSf good food, air, water, exercise, all to 
 be given regularly. , 
 
138 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 The Chest should contain the following drugs and in- 
 struments: Creolin or some good substitute, 1 lb.; sulfate 
 of magnesia, in a tin, 5 lbs., raw linseed oil, ^ gallon; 
 powdered ginger, 1 lb. ; ammonia water, 8 ounces; sweet 
 spirits of nitre, 8 ounces; powdered sulfate of iron, 4 
 ounces; laudanum, 8 ounces; turpentine, 1 lb. ; pine tar, 
 2 lb. can; 2 ounces of blister, biniodide of mercury; 1- 
 physic ball (8 dram aloes). One or two good metal milk 
 tubes, a 2-ounce measuring graduate, glass; one cattle 
 trocar and canula, a 1-quart pewter syringe, onel-ounce 
 hard rubber syringe and a glass funnel. The entire lot 
 can be secured at a moderate cost. It is not advisable 
 to keep large quantities _of drugs on hand, as they spoil 
 rapidly. Powdered drags may be conveniently kept in 
 glass fruit jars. The household kitchen will be apt to 
 afford sweet lard, mustard and baking soda if occasion 
 should arise for their use. If a glass graduate is not 
 available, the following table of equivalents will take 
 the place: 
 
 One wineglassful is equal to one and one-half (1^) fluid 
 ounces. 
 
 One tablespoonful is equal to one-half ounce. 
 
 One dessertspoonful is equal to two fluid drams. 
 
 One teaspoonful is equal to one fluid dram. 
 
 It might be convenient to remember that sixty drops 
 minims are contained in one fluid dram (3 ), and eight 
 fluid drams in a fluid ounce ( § ) . 
 
 ACTIONS AND DOSES OP MEDICINES. 
 
 Acetic acid, a weak form of which is vinegar, is useful 
 to apply to warts, and as an antidote to alkalies. 
 
Simple Farm Medicines. 13d 
 
 Aloes is the purgative in general use for the horse. 
 The best variety is that known as Barbadoes aloes, liver 
 brown in color, and when broken shows a shiny fracture. 
 In small doses aloes is a tonic, in the fluid form it used 
 to be applied to wounds, for a temporary dressing in cold 
 climates, equal parts of tincture of aloes and tincture of 
 •myrrh is very useful. Aloes take 18 to 24 hours to act, 
 or longer depending on the size of the dose, the feed of 
 the animal, the breed of the animal and whether worked 
 or not. It is a dangerous drug to repeat a dose of inside 
 of forty-eight to sixty hours; whenever possible the horse 
 should be prepared for the physic. It must never be 
 used for mares when in foal, or for horses suffering from 
 distemper or Inng troubles. 
 
 The dose is four to ten drams either in a ball or solu- 
 tion. This drug can best be obtained in the ball form 
 from one's veterinarian. When preparing horses to go 
 into winter quarters, or just previous to fitting for spring 
 work, aloes have a beneficial effect. 
 
 Bluestone (copper sulfate) is a good astringent and is 
 often used in cases of foot- rot in sheep and cattle; in thrush 
 in horses, or to apply to proud-flesh (excessive granula- 
 tions). Internally it is used as a tonic or anthelmintic 
 in doses of thirty to sixty grains for mature horses and 
 cattle; when used externally the strength varies from full 
 strength down to a solution containing five grains to the 
 ounce of water. 
 
 Creolin is a prodxict obtained from coal tar, and is a 
 good antiseptic. It mixes well with water, making a 
 milky white solution, is used externally with from ten to 
 fifteen parts of water. 
 
140 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Copperas (sulfate of iron) is a tonic in small repeaited 
 doses, in large doses it constipates and lessens the appe- , 
 tite; is largely used in bloodless (anemic) conditions, 
 and is frequently used as a worm medicine; next to lin- 
 seed meal it is the largest constituent of condition pow- 
 ders. The dose is from one-half to one dram in the food 
 given twice daily. It should be kept in a well-stoppered 
 bottle, as the air tends to spoil it. It is a useful antisep- 
 tic for disinfecting stables, used at the rate of one pound 
 to a gallon of water. 
 
 Epsom Salts (sulfate of magnesia) is the common pur- 
 gative for cattle and sheep. Given just before calving 
 to heavy milkers it is a useful preventive of milk fever 
 (parturient paresis) ; it should be combined with common 
 salt and ginger, one-fourth of each to one of the epsom 
 salts. 
 
 The dose for cows is one to two pounds; sheep, four to 
 six ounces. It should be dissolved in one or two quarts 
 of warm water and given as a drench. Salts are also use- 
 ful as a laxative for feverish conditions in horses, being 
 used in one to three ounce doses for this purpose. 
 
 Ammonia water (liquor ammonia) is used in liniments 
 and liquid blisters. The ammonia liniment cdnsists of 
 equal parts of ammonia, turpentine and raw linseed oil, 
 it may be made less severe by using more oil and less of 
 the other drugs. It is a useful drug in bloating of sheep 
 and cattle, in such cases always being well diluted with 
 milk, raw linseed oil or cold gruel. 
 
 The dose is one to six drams. 
 
 Lime water is a useful drug, especially in the indiges- 
 tion of young animals, due to overrichness of the dam's 
 
Simple Farm Medicines. 141 
 
 milk. In colts showing a need of bone forming material 
 it is a useful adjunct to the feed. It is quite easily pre- 
 pared, by taking a piece of lime (fresh) and putting it 
 into a gallon of water, let stand for a few days, keeping 
 the bottle well corked. The clear solution is used in 
 doses of one to four ounces two or three times daily. 
 
 Equal parts of lime water and raw linseed oil make a 
 simple soothing application for burns in all animals. 
 
 Linseed oil (raw) is a very valuable laxative for preg- 
 nant mares. It is mild in action if given in moderate 
 doses and can be repeated without danger. An occa- 
 sional dose of this drug will ward off attacks of azoturia 
 and stocking of the limbs. 
 
 The dose for horses is one-half to one and one-half 
 pints; cattle, one to two pints; sheep and pigs, six to 
 twelve ounces. 
 
 Linseed (flax seed) tea is a valuable nutrient in sick- 
 ness and is used with separator skim milk for calves. • 
 
 Linseed meal, the residue after the extraction of the 
 oil, forms the bulk of condition powders, which is there- 
 fore, the costliest way of buying this food. 
 
 Laudanum (tincture of opium) is obtained from the 
 poppy seed gum and is largely used as an anodyne. It 
 is constipating in its effects, so is useful in scouring calves^ 
 or lambs. It is also used by shepherds at lambing tijae 
 for ewes with after pains; in colic cases it is combined 
 with sweet spirits of nitre and water. In moderation is 
 a stimulant to the brain and spinal cord. 
 
 Horses and cattle take from one to three ounces; sheep 
 and pigs, two to six drams. If combined with warm oil 
 it is useful for inflamed udders and sprains. 
 
142 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Sweet spirits of nitre is a stimulant and diuretic, and 
 also lowers the temperature in fevered conditions. Is 
 much used in colics, colds, or whenever a stimulant is 
 needed. 
 
 One to three ounces for horses, one to four ounces for 
 cattle; sheep and pigs take two to four drams, diluted in 
 four to six times the amount of cold water. 
 
 Turpentine is one of the most useful medicines in the 
 whole list. It is used as a diuretic and stimulant and to 
 ward off swelled conditions (purpura hemorrhagica) fol- 
 lowing influenza. 
 
 For colic or bloating in cattle it is unsurpassed, and is 
 also a reliable anthelmintic; applied locally it is a severe 
 irritant and should never be applied full strength to 
 wounds; mixed with raw linseed oil four to six parts, it is 
 a useful application for rheumatism in cattle and pigs. 
 
 One to two ounces are given internally to horses; cattle 
 take one to four ounces; sheep, two to four drams; it must 
 be given well diluted with water, oil or milk. 
 
 Sulphur burned on charcoal in a tightly closed up build- 
 ing is a valuable disinfectant. When mixed with oil or 
 cream, in the proportion of one to four, it is a good dress- 
 ing for the skin of hairy-legged horses; some grooms mix 
 it with kerosene (coal oil) in preference to raw linseed 
 oil, such is to be recommended if there is any gumminess 
 in the limbs. It is veryseldom used internally, although 
 a mild and safe laxative for pregnant animals; it may be 
 given to cows and mares in doses of one to three ounces, 
 sheep take a, half ounce at a dose. 
 
 Tar is antiseptic in its properties and is especially use- 
 ful in foot troubles, especially those of cattle and sheep. 
 
Simple Farm Medicines. 143 
 
 It has been recommended as a preventive of grub in4he 
 head of sheep, the drug being smeared on the nose. 
 When given internally horses and cattle take half to two 
 ounces smeared on the tongue. 
 
 Kerosene is used as an anthelmintic in horses, in doses 
 of two to eight ounces, given in twice the quantity of 
 milk; if mixed with water in the proportion of one to ten, 
 it is a serviceable remedy for itchy tail in horses. 
 
 Ginger is a useful stomach stimulant, and prevents 
 griping, for which reason'it is added to purgatives. 
 
 Dose for horses is one-half to one ounce; for cows one 
 to four ounces; sheep one to four drams. 
 
 Carbolic Acid is used externally, one to fifty parts of 
 water; it is the common antiseptic. 
 
 Quinine and Whiskey are largely used as bracers for sheep 
 when at shows, and are very useful if these charges of 
 the shepherd are a bit off feed. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate (perchloride of mercury) is a 
 deadly poison, albeit, a reliable antiseptic, added to 
 water, one to one or two thousand parts of water. It is 
 best procured in the form of tablets, the same as used 
 for preserving milk samples for the composite test. 
 Another form of mercury is the red iodide, used for 
 blisters, for which purpose it is mixed with from six to 
 eight parts of sweet lard or vaseline. 
 
 Poultices are much used in diseases of the feet or for 
 painful wounds. The material used may be bran, tur- 
 nips, linseed meal or spent hops, the nurse will have to 
 adapt whatever may be at his disposal in order to apply 
 them, old gunny sacks or salt bags are sonietimes used. 
 It is essential that all poultices be kept moist, and in the 
 
144 Veterinary Elements., 
 
 /■ 
 majority of cases hot. In warm weather they must not 
 
 be allowed to sour or remain on too long or the wound 
 will be made worse rather than better, due to the in- 
 creased germ population. In such cases an ounce of 
 creolin added to the poultice will be useful. A clean 
 sweet poultice is made with folds of cheese cloth soaked 
 in a hot carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate solution. 
 
 Poisons and their Antidotes. Drugs administered in 
 too large or too frequent doses become poisons, a few of 
 the common ones are given with the symptoms caused 
 and the antidote. ; 
 
 Aconite, that old friend of the stockman is a^y^ry com- 
 mon cause of death among live stock, due to~pver7doses. 
 
 Symptoms. Attempts at vomiting, retching am gurg- 
 ling sounds in the throat, difficult breathing, (^pression 
 well marked, froths at the mouth, sweating. / 
 
 Antidote. Give stimulants, whiskey, coffep or brandy, 
 keep warm, blanket and hand rub. j^a 
 
 Arsenic is sometimes used to improve the condition of 
 horses, a dangerous method m the hands of novices. The 
 symptoms are colicky pains, depression, pulse small, 
 rapid and irregular, breathing hurried, and sometimes 
 diarrhcea; if slow poisoning is taking place, the eyelids 
 are puffy, eyes watery and irritable; shortness of breath 
 when worked, and depression. 
 
 Antidote. Stop giving the drug, and give fresh sesqui- 
 oxide of iron or magnesia half-pound doses in warm 
 water; give stimulants. ~ 
 
 Ammonia Water in large undiluted doses causes great 
 pain, slavering and casting off of the mucous lining of the 
 mouth, difficulty in breathing, cough, choking effects, 
 the poison may be smelled from the breath. 
 
Simple Farm Medioihes. 145 
 
 Give vinegar, one-half pinfein a qujjS'fc of wafer or 
 
 'leiBon juice, unless the animal cannot swallow; then let 
 
 it inhale (breatlie in) acetic acid or strong vinegapftTmes. 
 
 CpFrdsive Suhlunate causes great pain, p.vnfging with 
 eBloodj^-iiitreousfeces £md difficult breathjag, tjifesSkin cold 
 and moist. Give as antidotes Jjlenty of whitesNrf egg, 
 milk or flour gruel and stimulants, y \ 
 
 Carbolic Acid causes the mouth lining to be white and^ 
 hard, urine dark, shallow, difficult breathing-weakness, 
 seems stupid, pulse weak and i^egular, pupils contracted. 
 Use as antidotes epsom or ^auber salts in large quan^p^ 
 titles, whites of eggs, oil aiid stimulants, y ) 
 
 Strychnine in poisonous doses causes continued spasms, 
 the animal being all twisted up, breatl;ing is stopped as 
 a result. Give large doses of spirits or two to three 
 ounces of chloral hydrate in water, or let them inhale 
 chloroform. 
 
 Water Hemlock or wild parsnip causes brain symptoms 
 — in cattle, spasms, convulsions, wild appearance, seems 
 as if mad. Give a large dose of epsom salts. 
 30 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 MODE OF GIVINQ MEDICINE. 
 
 Animals are all more or less difficult to give medicine 
 to, therefore tte stockman must be careful to give it in 
 such a way as to annoy the patient as little as possible 
 and yet avoid wasting the medicine. DifiFerent methods 
 have to be followed with the various farm animals, the 
 stronger animals, such as horses and cows, require a cer- 
 tain amount of restraint in order to give the drugs suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 To get the effect of medicines they must be introduced 
 into the body. 
 
 Medicines are taken into the system by three channels: 
 
 f. Through the digestive tract, in such cases being given 
 by the mouth, in the form of powders, drenches or balls, 
 and per rectum,, by injection into the bowel. 
 
 2. Through the organs of respiration, causing the ani- 
 mal to breathe the drug, this is known as the inhalation 
 method, and is useful in such diseases as strangles (colt 
 distemper) or worms in the air passages (sheep and 
 calves). 
 
 3. Through the skin, the medicines being absorbed. 
 There are subdivisions of this, the absorptive method, 
 the first one of which is employed by stockmen, the others 
 being used by the veterinarian whenever necessary; they 
 are: (a) epidermically, rubbing into the skin (epider- 
 mis), the general way of using blisters; (6) endermically, 
 
Mode of Giving Medicine. 147 
 
 the drug being applied under the skin, the rowel and 
 seton are used in this method; (c) hypodermically, the 
 placing of the drug or serum under the skin or into the 
 tissues by the aid of the hypodermic syringe, at the 
 present time the professional man uses this method in 
 the giving of cocaine, morphine, etc., the testing of ani- 
 mals with tuberculin and raallein and when performing 
 preventive inoculation for blackleg, and in the use of 
 serums. 
 
 GIVING MEDICINES TO HORSES, 
 
 1. Powders, if not objectionable to the animalj may be 
 given in the feed, when distasteful may be mixed with 
 molasses and placed on the back of the tongue with a 
 spoon or wooden paddle. The latter way is a nice method 
 of giving drugs to horses suifering with sore throat, etc. 
 
 2. Drenching is the old way of giving, fluids, and is a 
 useful way when large quantities are to be. given. Back 
 the horse in a single stall and raise the head by means of 
 a stable fork placed through the nose band of the head- 
 stall (halter), or better take a hame strap, buckle it, 
 thus making a loop, slip into the month just back of the 
 front upper teeth, then raise by means of a rope or fork 
 until the teeth are a little above the horizontal. The 
 medicine which is in a tin, hard rubber, or even a strong 
 glass bottle or funnel, is poured in from the off side, the 
 person drenching steadies the head with his left hand on 
 the headstall, which should be slack enough to let the 
 mouth open, and slowly pours in about a half cupful at 
 a time. If any attempts at coughing are made, at once 
 let the head down. Never seize the tongue or pinch the 
 
148 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 nostrils when drenching. If the animal does not swallow 
 readily tickle the roof of the mouth with one or two fin- 
 gers. In some cases a person giving the drench may get 
 on the horse's back, sitting well forward, draw the head 
 round to the off side by the halter with the left hand 
 and drench with the bottle in the right hand. The ap- 
 plication of the rope or the noose twitch will often be 
 sufficient. 
 
 -A. method sometimes used in drenching sick horses is 
 to give the medicine when the patient is lying down. 
 " The operator must be agile, strong and watchful. A 
 halter is placed on the animal, and as soon as he lies 
 down the halter is grasped tightly on its underside so as 
 to throw the nose of the horse in the air, the poll being 
 held tight to the ground, the operator will be at the back 
 of the horse and will place his knee on the jiatient' s neck, 
 and then pour the drench in slowly and at short inter- 
 vals. If necessary the animal may be thrown and the 
 head tied to a surcingle. Whenever it is desired to re- 
 strain a horse and keep him down by holding his head, 
 the poll should be held to the ground, the nose up, the 
 back of the head being drawn well back. 
 
 Fluids in smaller quantities may be given with a hard 
 rubber (ounce) dose syringe, a very clean, nice method. 
 The operator stands in front of the animal, with his left 
 hand in the off inter- dental space opens the mouth and 
 draws the tongue gently forward with his right hand, 
 inserts the syringe at the near inter- dental space and dis- 
 charges its contents on the back part of the tongue, the 
 tongue being released as soon as the syringe contents are 
 discharged. 
 
Mode of Giving Medicine. 149 
 
 If the stockman is expert at giving balls, fluids can be 
 given in gelatin capsules. 
 
 In cattle the syringe can also be used, when large 
 quantities are given, usually the case in ruminants, the 
 bottle or horn is needed. If a horned animal, the assist- 
 ant stands on the near side, seizes both horns and ele- 
 vates the head, the drencher standing on the off side 
 pours in the fluid in small quantities at frequent inter- 
 vals; if dehorned, the use of a halter is an advantage, 
 the assistant may also insert his fingers in the nose, or 
 use the bulldogs (a form of pincers) and thus elevate the 
 head. Another method which may be employed with a 
 docile animal is for the drencher to stand on the off side, 
 pass his left arm over the neck and with the left hand 
 open the mouth, and elevate it slightly, the bottle or horn 
 is then inserted into the right side of the mouth, at a 
 distance far enough to avoid trickling out at the corners 
 and not too far so as to cause choking; the left arm of 
 the operator brings pressure on the neck muscles and 
 aids in lifting the head, which should be held a little 
 above the horizontal. If the head is raised too high the 
 medicine goes the wrong way. Sheep may be drenched 
 by backing into a corner, getting astride of the animal, 
 elevate the head slightly with the left hand, with the 
 right hand pour in the fluid. For lambs and sheep dif- 
 ficult to di-ench, the operator should sit the animal up on 
 its rump, with its head between his knees, the medicine 
 can be poured in with little risk of choking. 
 
 Precautions. N. B. — Cattle and sheep are easily choked 
 when drenching, therefore it must be remembered that 
 to avoid loss, only small quantities should be given to be 
 
150 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 swallowed at one time, and if coughing occurs due to 
 some of the medicine going the wrong way the head must 
 at once be lowered, so that any fluid in the mouth may 
 run out. I have known of many animals killed by neg- 
 lect of these precautions. A special method of drenching 
 cows down with milk fever is described under that dis- 
 ease. Avoid raising the head in any animal much above 
 the horizontal. Do not pull the tongue forward, as such 
 an action pulls the lid (epiglottis) of larynx up and thus 
 opens the way to the lungs. 
 
 Pigs may be drenched by putting a noose over the 
 upper part of the snout when the animal will hang back' 
 on its haunches and squeal, the medicine can be Spooned 
 in slowly. Pigs will take oil, salts and other medicines 
 if given mixed with sweet milk in the trough. 
 
 Balling. Considerable dexterity is required to properly 
 ball a horse, to do so the operator stands in front of his 
 patient and with his left hand gently draws the tongue 
 forward two to three inches, the right hand carrying the 
 ball resting on the second* and fourth fingers, the third 
 finger on top of it, is carried back in a straight line to the 
 root of the tongue, where the ball is left, the tongue at 
 once released and the hand withdrawn. A few sips of 
 water may be given and if properly done the ball will be 
 seen to travel down the near side of the neck. 
 
 Inhalation Method. A pail of hot medicated (with 
 creolin or turpentine) Water is placed under the animal's 
 head, a blanket or bag thrown over the head and neck 
 and the patient forced to breathe the steam; sufficient 
 air must also be allowed to come in or strangulation would 
 result. In some cases, such as in large flocks of sheep 
 
Mode of Giving Medicine. 151 
 
 or <3alves, they may be confined in a tight building for a 
 few minutes and sulfur burned there, the stockman should 
 stay in with the patients. 
 
 Blistering. Through the skin, only the first method will 
 be employed by the stockman, namely, the use of blisters 
 and liniments. To apply a blister clip off or shave the 
 hair over the part to be treated, then wash with warm 
 water and soap, and dry. The nurse will then rub in the 
 blister as long as it is absorbed, or according to the di- 
 rections given by the veterinarian; the rubbing should 
 take fifteen minutes after applying the blister, the hair 
 below should be anointed with sweet lard or vaseline, to 
 prevent blistering below the spot intended. Tie up the 
 head for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, the first eight 
 hours of the time he should be backed in the stall and 
 tied crosswise, so as to avoid banging of his knees and 
 to-prevent him tearing the parts. At the end of thirty- 
 six to forty-eight hours the blistered part should be 
 shampooed with hot water and soft soap (not home made) ; 
 dried thoroughly; clean, sweet lard then being applied 
 every day, the parts being washed once every four days. 
 At the end of ten days walking exercise may be given 
 and a cooling lotion applied once daily. If four legs 
 have to be blistered not more than two may be done at 
 one time, an interval of a week being allowed before the 
 other legs are blistered. A nerved limb or a horse in a 
 weak condition should never be blistered. When rub- 
 bing in a blister or liniments, rub as far as is possible in 
 the direction of the hairs. 
 
 The other methods, by means of setons and the use of 
 the hypodermic syringe, belong to the province of the 
 veterinarian. 
 
PART II. 
 Diseases; their Prevention and Treatment. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 NURSING OP SICK ANIMALS. 
 
 The bulk of the work relating to the treatment of sick 
 animals falls on the stockman, and accordingly as he at- 
 tends to them, either good or bad, so will the results be 
 good or bad. Ifursing in some cases counts for as much 
 as the treatment of the veterinarian; in any event, to get 
 profitable results from the employment of the veterinary 
 surgeon his Instructions should be faithfully carried out 
 and all possible assistance given. The average farm has 
 not elaborate barns and stables, with electric light, hot 
 and cold water, etc. ; while these furnishings are helpful 
 they are not essential to successful nursing. The stock- 
 man who is at all of a mechanical bent can fix up a suit- 
 able sick stall easily; there are certain essentials to be 
 observed — plenty of pure air, meaning good ventilation, 
 not drafts; lots of light, there are some cases needing a 
 darkened stall; warmth, in the North not always easy to 
 obtain, and plenty of room. 
 
 The sick stall is by preference a box stall, situated on 
 the south side of a building, thus rendering it well lighted 
 and cheerful; it should be twelve feet square and nine or 
 ten feet high. The box should be clean and well bedded. 
 
■■r T Ltu IT IF ir 
 
 KING'S SYSTEM OF VENTILATIOK. 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 155 
 
 the walls as smooth as possible, so as to be easily disin- 
 fected; except in contagious diseases, the box should be 
 so placed that the patient can see others of itfj own kind. 
 The ventilation can be made right if a little attention be 
 given to the matter. We have seen when discussing the 
 physiology of the lungs how essential pure air is, and 
 how that lack of pure air means lack of means of warmth 
 to the animal. Prof. King (in the Fifteenth Eeport of 
 the Wisconsin Experiment Station) describes a scientific 
 method of ventilating a stable; this method is in use in 
 the dairy barn and the horse barn and veterinary infirm- 
 ary of the Experiment Station. 
 
 A single ventilating fiue D E rises above the roof of 
 the main barn and is divided below the roof into two 
 arms A B D, which terminate near the level of the stable 
 floor at A A. These openings are provided with ordi- 
 nary registers with valves to be opened and closed when 
 desired. Two other ventilators are placed at B B, to be 
 used when the stable is too warm, but are provided with 
 valves to be closed at other times. C is a direct 12-inch 
 ventilator leading into the main shaft and opening from 
 the ceiling, so as to admit a current of warm air to force 
 the draft. The air enters the stable at various points F 
 and G, and in the vertical section by arrows at F and G. 
 Parke's system is very similar, as is shown in the venti- 
 lation of an ordinary room, by raising the lower sash of 
 the window a few inches and closing up that open space 
 below it by a piece of board, thus the current of air is 
 not direct as it comes up between the two sashes. The 
 stockman may sometimes have cases requiring a dark- 
 ened stall, such as in lockjavr (Tetanus), the sick stall 
 
156 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 should then be kept closed to visitors; in the majority of 
 cases plenty of light is beneficial, one reason being that 
 light is harmful to germs. 
 
 The floor may be of earth, well packed, plank or con- 
 crete, the latter of course is the easiest to cleanse thor- 
 oughly; in any case all stalls should be well bedded; in 
 this connection it must be remembered that bedding 
 soiled with the feces (dung) or saturated with the urine 
 should not be allowed to accumulate in the stall. The 
 large quantities of free ammonia in the stalls of geldings 
 cannot but fail to have an injurious effect on their eyes, 
 besides-being wasteful of a valuable manure constituent. 
 Gypsum sprinkled in the stall and stable will help over- 
 come the difficulty after the soiled bedding is removed 
 and before fresh, clean material is brought in. If the 
 patient is very weak or lame cut straw will be preferable 
 to the long article. In cases in which artificial warmth 
 cannot be got, clothing must be used, such must be light, 
 warm and fastened on securely; heavy clothing often 
 does more harm than good. In this connection may be 
 mentioned the absurd practice (especially in cold coun- 
 tries) of applying blankets wet with boiling water, un- 
 wrung, or bags of hot, wet bran; if heat has to be 
 applied, have the blankets wrung out well and over them 
 apply a waterproof sheet; hot, dry bran may also be used. 
 Care must always be taken that the patient does not be- 
 come chilled after the application of warmth. 
 
 The attention -given the patient will include feeding, 
 watering, giving medicine, taking pulse rate, tempera- 
 tures and respirations, together with the use of enemas 
 or the application of poultices, etc. 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 
 
 157 
 
 The pulse rate iu the horse is taken at the lower jaw 
 with the first two fingers of the hand gently pressing the 
 artery against the bone, the person taking the pulse usu- 
 ally stands on the near side and takes it with the right 
 hand. It may also be taken just below tlie 
 eye, on the inside of the fore leg, under the 
 tail and on the ontside of a hind fetlock. In 
 cattle it is taken at the side of the jaw oppo- 
 site to the attendant or just above the fore 
 fetlocks; in sheep it is taken on tlie inside of 
 the thigh; in this animal, however, it is rarely 
 of much value. The pulse beats will be found 
 to number from 3G to 40 per minute in the 
 horse, 45 to 60 in the cow. The clinical 
 thermometer is of great value to the veterina- 
 rian and the nurse; no stockman should be 
 without one, its use will often aid in determin- 
 ing whether an animal is sick or not, and if 
 the owner of the animal consults with his 
 veterinarian, that person if possessed of the 
 correct temperature, pulse, rate of breathing, 
 appearance of the feces and ui'ine, together 
 with the state of the mucous membrane, viz., 
 of the eye and nose, will be able to judge as 
 to the condition of the animal and i^rescribe 
 accordingly. The temperature of animals is 
 usually taken in the rectum, where the ther- Tbermomeier 
 raometer is allowed to remain from one to three minutes. 
 Always shake the mercury down in the thermometer 
 before using it, to do so place the instrument bulb down 
 between the finger and thumb, then with a wrist move- 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 Clinical 
 
158 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 ment shake the thermometer in a downward direction. 
 The healthy horse will have a temperature of 100° 
 Fahr., the cow 100° to 101°, sheep 104°, young animals 
 registering slightly higher. A daily variation of one 
 degree (°) is quite common and natural, more than that 
 is indicative of disease. The bulb of the thermometer 
 should have a little vaseline put on it before introduc- 
 ing it into the rectum, it should be introduced slowly 
 and if any obstruction is met with should be turned be- 
 tween the fingers and its direction slightly changed. If 
 after the introduction feces are passed the temperature 
 should again be taken after shaking down the mercury. 
 Thermometers are fragile, so should be watched when 
 in use. 
 
 The breathing if hurried can be noticed by the move- 
 ments of the body, in some cases at the flanks and nos- 
 trils, if it is desired to count the respirations, the palm 
 (which must be odorless) of one hand can be held in 
 front of One nostril. 
 
 Sounds within the chest are only capable of interpre- 
 tation by the expert. In the horse the breathing is nat- 
 urally regular and has a rate of 12 to 14 respirations per 
 minute, in cattle 15 per minute, the calf a little faster, 
 18 to 20 a minute. Sheep are easily excited and when 
 so or exerted respirations are quite fast, when at rest 
 they number 18 to 20. The breathing rates are reliable 
 guides in horses, fairly so in cattle, but are of little value 
 in sheep, towards the detection of disease. To examine 
 the eye membranes (the conjunctiva) stand at the near 
 side, place the left hand flat on the nose, and with the 
 right thumb and forefinger examine the eye, by pressing 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 159 
 
 the eyeball into the socket; the nasal membrane is exam- 
 ined as follows: Hold the lower lip with one band, with 
 the finger and thumb of the other dilate the nostril. The 
 attendant should note whether the muzzle is dry or moist, 
 the skin hot, dry, tight or harsh, whether shivering or 
 fevered, the patient will also be watched so as to note 
 whether he changes his position often, getting up or lying 
 down, pawing or retching (attempts at vomiting). The 
 condition of the feces and urine whether the former are 
 hard, dry, slimy or coated with mueus, whether worms 
 are seen in the feces will also be noted and reported to 
 the veterinarian, and while the work may seem onerous, 
 attention to details is very essential in the nursing and 
 treatment of veterinary patients. 
 
 The reluctance to eat, absence from the feed trough, 
 hanging behind the flock or herd are all valuable indica- 
 tions to the careful stockman, even the eating of dirt or 
 drinking of dirty water (when clean is supplied) should 
 be looked into and the cause found. 
 
 Symptoms are generally more or less plentiful and only 
 need cultivation of one's powers of observation to detect 
 them, consequently we should expect that the person 
 most frequently with animals iu health should be the 
 readiest to detect any symptoms of ill-health, reasoning 
 still further, it is readily comprehended that the best 
 veterinarians will, after a good college training, come 
 from the ranks of the stockmen. 
 
 Watering, in healthy animals, should take place before 
 feeding, slight quantities Tnay be given after, this applies 
 more particularly to horses, animals at liberty will drink 
 as needed. The practice of refusing a drink to a warm 
 
160 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 horse is cruel; while excessive quantities of very cold 
 water are dangerous he should not be offered feed such^ 
 as hay without a drink, two to four quarts of water will 
 not hurt any horse, no matter how warm, letting a warm 
 animal stand in a draft to cool off is where the danger 
 lies. Ice cold water should never be given at any time, 
 colics and abortions may result from its use. The amount 
 of water may be limited if the animal is purging (scour- 
 ing) or passing large quantities of urine (diabetic). While 
 horses will rarely drink warmed water, if the chill is 
 taken off it is better for cases of lung troubles; milking 
 cows are given warm water by some diairymen in winter 
 with good results. 
 
 Salt should be placed before animals at all times, in 
 feverish conditions horses will often eat large quantities, 
 and can be permitted to do so without danger to them. 
 Salt is a condiment which promotes digestion and aids in 
 tissue building. 
 
 Grooming should be of the toilet order, the eyes, nose 
 and dock being sponged, the coat smoothed, the legs hand 
 rubbed, especially if cold, when bandaging will be useful, 
 the ears should be stripped and the clothes changed, be- 
 yond these the animal should not be worried. 
 
 If the patient is lying down continually, it should be 
 well bedded and its position changed at least twice daily. 
 
 Exercise is rarely needed, especially in case of wounds 
 or fractures, the box should afford all the exercise neces- 
 sary, in convalescence from lung troubles a certain amount 
 of exercise is beneficial, the lack of such exercise in lung 
 cases being detrimental to the case. The patient must 
 not be put to work unless quite recovered; it is a good 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 161 
 
 safe rule to never work a horse that misses a feed or two 
 antil the cause is found and removed. The animal that 
 does not eat cannot reasonably be expected to work either 
 in the traces or making flesh and milk. 
 
 Feeding Sick Animals. It mast be borne in mind that 
 food or drink should not be forced on sick stock, that 
 what food is presented should be tempting, to be so it 
 must be fresh, all traces of the last offering having been 
 removed, in fact if an animal does not clean up its allow- 
 ance within a reasonable time the materials should be 
 reilioved so as to avoid tainting the feed box. The same 
 rule applies to the drinking water. 
 
 Laxative food is indicated in sickness, with few excep- 
 tions, in fact those cases laid up on account of wounds 
 need laxative food and a reduction in quantity. Variety 
 counts for a great deal with the sick animal, for such pur- 
 poses boiled food, bran mashes, grass, carrots, potatoes, 
 smair green wheat, oats, corn, etc., may be used in limited 
 quantities. Milk and eggs are also of value, but will 
 have to be given in a drench as a rule. The bran mash 
 should be made as follows: Scald a pail, throw out the 
 water, put in a gallon of bran and a tablespoonful of salt, 
 add two to three pints of boiling water, depending on the 
 consistency desired, mix well and cover up for 15 minutes, 
 when it may be placed before the patient. A tablespoon- 
 ful or two of powdered ginger added to a bran mash 
 makes a nice feed for a tired or over driven horse, and 
 should be given before oats are offered. Horses will 
 rarely burn themselves, they do not care for sloppy 
 mashes. To make linseed (flaxseed) tea take one pound 
 of the seed and boil in four to six quarts of water until 
 11 
 
162 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the grains are soft. The linseed tea and bran may be 
 combined with benefit. Hay tea — run good hay through 
 the cutting box and half fill- a pail with it, then fill up 
 with boiling water, let stand until cold and give the clear 
 fluid. Eaw linseed oil is often given In the feed in qua;n- 
 tities of from one-quarter to one-half pint daily, it is 
 very valuable in Heaves, and puts a gloss on the hide, 
 besides acting mildly on the bowels. 
 
 Backraking. The operation of unloading the hind bowel 
 will in some cases have to be performed by the attend- 
 ant, although the use of the injection pump has done 
 away, to a large extent, with the necessity for the oper- 
 ation of backraking. The hands and arms should be 
 well oiled and the nails pared before introduction. 
 
 Mustard is often applied to the sides in cases of lung 
 troubles, although opinions as to the value of such appli- 
 cations differ, a mild application to the abdomen in bowel 
 troubles, diarrhoea, etc., is often valuable. 
 
 Take a pound-tin of mustard, empty into a bowl, adding 
 cold water,, one and one-half tinfuls, mixing up well to 
 form a paste, in some cases the hair should be clipped. 
 Eub the paste in well with the hands; cover the mustard 
 area with paper, and thus avoid soiling the blankets. 
 Put on a blanket from below, and two above, which 
 should be fastened with surcingles, etc., try and keep 
 the animal on his feet for thirty minutes. In two hours 
 the mustard may be washed off, only exposing one side 
 at^a time; if the stable is a cold one, leave the mustard 
 on until the following day, when it should be removed 
 with a brush and curry comb. The blistered surface 
 should be dressed with oil, sweet lard, or vaseline after 
 the removal of the blistering agent. 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 163 
 
 Bandaging iu the stockman's patients is more frequently 
 perfoi'med on the limbs than elsewhere, one reason being 
 that the size and diflaculty of reteutioa on other parts of 
 our patients renders a bandage useless. Bandages are 
 used to hold parts together as in fractures (breaks) or 
 wounds, to give pressure and support in sprains and 
 filled or swelled legs, during training; to equalize the 
 circulation (in chill, etc.,) and to hold dressings in place; 
 for such purposes three kinds are used : 1. The stiffened 
 bandage, made so by the application of starch or plaster 
 of paris. 2. The flannel or cotton bandage. 3. The 
 cotton batting bandage. 
 
 The stiff bandage is made from cotton torn in strips, 
 which are thoroughly impregnated with the stiffening 
 material, the strips should be about two inches wide and 
 three feet long, splints of tin, one inch wide, may be 
 used in addition — bound in with the bandage in fact. 
 
 The flannel bandage should be about eight feet long 
 and four inches wide; red flannel is prefera,ble. To be 
 ready for use the bandage should be rolled with the 
 tapes inside. The bandage is unrolled about eight inches 
 and placed obliquely across the outside of the leg close 
 to the tnee, reaching about the center of the joint, the 
 rolled part being turned outward, downward and for- 
 ward, continuing down to the fetlock, and around it and 
 brought back by winding close to the knee, the loose' end 
 is turned down, the folds of the bandage carried over it, 
 the tapes being tied about the middle of the cannon bone. 
 It is seldom of much use applying bandages around the 
 hock or above the knee, the movements of the limbs 
 will tend to displace them; for such purposes the truss 
 
164 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 bandage is recommended. If a bandage is to be worn 
 during exercise it should not go below the fetlock. 
 
 The cotton batting bandage is made and applied as 
 follows: Take two yards of batting about ten inches 
 wide, wrap t'he leg with it, oyer that apply a calico 
 bandage loosely, then over that a similar bandage 
 tightly. The entire bandage may be left on twenty-four 
 to forty-eight hours; it is especially useful in sprains or 
 filled legs, due to poor condition. The limbs should be 
 hand-rubbed in all cases after the removal of bandages, 
 and should be extended and flexed. Do not use dirty, 
 caked or hard bandages; ordinary bandages should be 
 removed morning and night, care being taken that they 
 are not tied too tightly. 
 
 Washing the bodies of animals is not a general practice, 
 mainly on account of the difficulty in drying them. Some 
 horsemen sponge their charges with cold water after a 
 hard day's work, thereby removing the sweat; its aTjuse 
 must not be permitted. 
 
 The limbs rarely need washiiig unless in very muddy 
 weather, or when affected with some skin trouble, the 
 less often the better; when washing is done, good castile 
 soap should be used, and the legs be well dried by the 
 use of dry bran or saw dust 
 
 A wet horse should be rubbed dry with wisps of dry 
 straw before putting on the blanket or leaving for the 
 night; slight walking exercise under cover would be 
 beneficial in such cases. 
 
 Singeing by the use of a lamp is done to remove long 
 hairs from the jowl and thighs. 
 
Nursing of Sick Animals. 165 
 
 Clipping is a very useful process in horses that grow a 
 veiy heavy coat of hair during the fall and winter; such 
 animals when worked sweat freely and are apt to get 
 chilled unless clipped, colds and lung troubles resulting 
 from the sweat being retained in the hair. Horses that 
 are blanketed continually while in the stable seldom re- 
 quire clipping, the tendency of such clothing being to 
 render the hair fine^ thin and glossy; show cattle are 
 clothed for the same purpose as are show sheep. Some 
 people make a practice of clipping the back and sides of 
 horses, leaving the hair on the limbs and belly. Clipped 
 horses should be blanketed when forced to stand outside. 
 
 Inflammation and its Signs. When speaking of sick 
 animals certain terms are used, supposed to be intelligible 
 to everybody; the. word inflammation is often used, and 
 when used alone means practically nothing; informa- 
 tion is only afforded when one states where that inflam- 
 mation occurred, e. g., the expression, inflammation of 
 the lungs (pneumonia) means that the inflammatory pro- 
 cess involved the lungs; pleurisy, inflammation of the 
 pleura involved that membrane, and so on ; inflammation 
 of the bowels (enteritis), of the peritoneum (peritonitis), 
 of the liver (hepatitis), of the kidney (nephritis), of the 
 womb (metritis), all tell the listener the location of the 
 trouble. 
 
 The inflammatory process is liable to occur in almost 
 any part; a brief description of the changes taking place 
 in^that part will be interesting. Inflammation is the suc- 
 cession of changes taking place in a living tissue, the re- 
 sult of injury, provided that injury is not severe enough 
 to at once destroy the vitality and structure of the tissue; 
 
166 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 briefly it is the reaction of the tissues after injury. The 
 signs of inflammation, viz. : Pain, heat, redness and Swell- 
 ing are familiar to all; the pain being due to the pressure 
 on the nerves of the part, the redness and heat to the in- 
 creased supply of blood at the part, the swelling to the 
 exudation of lymph. The process is as follows: The 
 blood supply to apart is increased, the circulation event- 
 ually becomes slower, and the blood vessels engorged; 
 the red c6lls accumulate in the center of the stream, and 
 owing to the ijressure there is- escape of the white cells 
 and some of the plasma. The injury becomes repaired 
 in several ways, these white cells may absorb the wasted 
 material and be taken away by the lymphatics, or the 
 cells of the part may absorb the white cells; if the white 
 cells are too numerous to be thus removed, they may die 
 and be thrown off as matter (pus). If the exudation 
 into the tissues is allowed to remain there, it will coagu- 
 late, due to the fibrin, and as a result formation of fibrous 
 bauds (adhesions) which may cause permanent enlarge- 
 ment of a part; thus interfering with its^ movement, cir- 
 culation and therefore its nutrition. The best way to 
 remove the exudation is by applying pressure to the 
 parts, this must, however, be done before the exudate 
 becomes solid. 
 
CHAPTEE XIV. 
 BREEDING AND SOHE OF ITS EFFECTS. 
 
 The stcckman is dependent on the offspring of animals 
 for his main source of income, consequently their birth 
 and after treatment together with treatment of the dam 
 both before and after giving birth to the young animal 
 become of great importance to him. Accidents at birth, 
 diseases of the new born, . abortions, -all tend to reduce 
 his profits, consequently to minimize loss he must know 
 how to prevent and meet disease. 
 
 The reproduction of the young constitutes the science 
 of Obstetrics; while generation is a natural healthy pro- 
 cess, domestication has more or less interfered with its 
 natural healthy ending; various diseases often occur 
 which consequently call for treatment. The earlier stages 
 of obstetrics, such as the signs and duration of heat, the* 
 process of conception, the time employed carrying the 
 young (gestation) have been discussed; parturition, or 
 the act of bringing forth the young and the subsequent 
 treatment of dam and offspring will now receive atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Pregnancy. It is important to know the signs of an 
 animal being with young, or as it is often expressed, 
 pregnant; such are increased docility; a tendency to fat- 
 ten; a depraved appetite (tendency to eat dirt, etc.); and 
 a cessation of heat, not always infallible. Other signs 
 more significant are shown towards the latter end of the 
 
168 Veterinary Elements, 
 
 pregnancy, namely, slowness of action, enlargement of 
 the belly and of the udder, presence of milk in the udder, 
 and movements of the fetus in the dam, the latter being 
 shown after feeding or drinking, especially of cold water. 
 During the period of gestation (carrying the young) the 
 treatment of the dam should be natural, plenty of exer- 
 cise, not of a violent character, good nutritious food, 
 easily digested and of a slightly laxative nature; no 
 mouldy, spoiled food or grasses with ergot or smut on 
 should be used. The drinking water should be pure and 
 not ice cold, the stables shoiild be clean and free from 
 odors; pregnant mares seem to be very easily affected by 
 smells. Mares should have light work towards the end 
 of the pregnancy, and should not be used to saddle or 
 asked to back loads or work in slippery places at that 
 time. Some horsemen make a practice of feeding a small 
 quantity of wheat to in-foal mares during the last few 
 months of the pregnancy. Kindness should be the only 
 treatment meted out, together with plenty of pure air 
 and exercise, with an avoidance of fattening as far as 
 possible, and by so doing keep the muscular system in 
 good tone; if too much succulent food is given ewes with 
 lamb the lambs are apt to come soft and flabby. No pur- 
 gatives (except to cows liable to milk fever) should be 
 given to pregnant animals and surgical operations should 
 be postponed until after delivery. Mares may be worked 
 safely right up to foaling; I have myself done so, remov- 
 ing mares from the harness to bring forth strong, healthy 
 foals. Cows are usually dried about six weeks before the 
 time of calving. The careful stockman will have in his 
 breeding book the date at which gestation will be ex- 
 
Breeding and Some of its Effects. , 169 
 
 pected to end, and for a sliort time previous to that time 
 the dam should be given a clean, roomy, well beddgd box. 
 Special farrowing pens have been constructed for sows, 
 the principle being to protect the young pigs from the 
 sow lying on them, a board ledge six or eight inches 
 wide around the stall, securely nailed about one foot 
 from the floor is a common way of protecting the young 
 pigs. Valtiable mares are generally watched at the time 
 of parturition so as to render assistance at once; the 
 faithfulness of the shepherd at such a time (lambing) 
 has been the theme of writers, from a financial stand- 
 point it pays, as a chilled lamb is soon lost, a ewe with 
 her first lamb often needs assistance; especially as some 
 animals refuse their young and have to be coaxed to take 
 them, for which various methods have been devised. 
 Dr. Eeed of the O. A. C, Guelph, Can., recommends a 
 little brandy rubbed on the lips of the mare inclined to 
 disown her foal, and also rubs some of the liquor on the 
 foal. 
 
 The tJme of parturition has arrived according to the 
 breeding book, which contains the record of service, etc., 
 tliere are, however, symptoms shown by the pregnant 
 animal, which afford reliable indications of the nearness 
 of the act. The swelling of the external genitals (vulva), 
 enlargement of the udder, hoUowness of the rump, espe- 
 cially in cows, of the space between the . pin bones and 
 the tail head, w'ax on the teats in mares, a flow of milk, 
 making of the bed by sows, glistening appearance of the 
 udder, uneasiness, a desire for solitude, slight pains 
 gradually increasing, followed by the pushing forth of 
 the water bag and the possible escape of its contents 
 show that labor is not only close, but that it has started. 
 
170 V Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Delivery. If all goes well the head and fore feet are 
 presented (sometimes the hind feet) and the young ani- 
 mal is in a short time in a new world. The natural de- 
 livery in mares is of short duration, only five to fifteen 
 minutes usually elapsing after extrusion of the water bag; 
 the cow may take one to two hours to deliver the calf, 
 extending to that many days. Ewes take about fifteen 
 minutes to deliver or less, and if twins are present the 
 interval between births may be from 15 minutes to two 
 hours or even days. Assistance should not be offered 
 until the water bag shows. 
 
 The sow takes a variable time to deliver, depending 
 on the number of pigs — may take from ten minutes to 
 several hours. In natural cases little assistance is needed, 
 and when given should be of the right kind; the attend- 
 ants should only apply traction when the young animal 
 is in the right position, and only when the expulsive 
 effort is being made; the direction of the traction should 
 be away from the back bone, that is towards the hocks 
 of the dam, downward if the animal is standing. The 
 foal is often born in its membranes, and should be released 
 immediately from them, especially about the head; any 
 mucus present being removed from the mouth and nos- 
 trils. The membranes of the calf and lamb do not always 
 follow right after delivery; in the cow they remain for 
 days; in the ewe rarely so; while in the sow it is the ex- 
 ception fqr such to occur; the reason for retention of the 
 membranes in ruminants (cow and ewe) is due to the 
 peculiarity of the attachment of the membranes in those 
 animals, which will be remembered from the description 
 of arrangement of the mucous (lining) membrane of the 
 uterus in those animals. 
 
Breeding and Some of Us Tiffed s. 
 
 171 
 
 Difficult Deliveries. If the presentation has been right, 
 the usual Uibor is of short duration, if, liowever, tlie 
 pains have begun and jiersisted for a 
 long time without delivery, some hin- 
 drance to the normal delivery may be 
 suspected, the cause of such unnatural 
 happenings are numerous: may be duo 
 to wrong presentation, such as two hind 
 legs and one fore leg coming together; 
 the animal coming upside down, or with 
 the head turned back, excess in volume 
 of the fetus, contraction of the genital 
 passages, enlargement of the head, due 
 to tumors, etc. In such cases the em- 
 ployment of a veterinarian is advisahle 
 and jii'ofifahle, because he is acquainted 
 with the parts, has the proper instru- 
 ments and drugs. The time of calling the 
 professional man should not be left until 
 the dam is exhausted or injured inter- 
 nally from the movements of the fetus; 
 the longer such cases are left the greater 
 the danger of inflammation of the womb 
 or tearing or wounding internally of the 
 dam. If the stockman is sufficiently 
 expert let him bare his arm to the shoul- 
 der, anoint with carbolized oil — one i^art 
 of carbolic acid to ten of linseed oil — 
 introduce the arm into the passage and 
 endeavor to find the cause of the trouble. If a head and 
 one foreleg are shown fasten ropes (one-fourth inch) on 
 the parts, push them forward into the cavity and then 
 try and get the missing limb, raise it and bring all into 
 
 PIG FORCEPS. 
 
172 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the natural positioDj the head between the two fore feet; 
 if the head is down and the fore feet presented, rope 
 each foot, push them forward and try to raise the head 
 and bring it towards you along with the feet. The 
 stockman will on examination, better understand the 
 conditions than from any written directions, and will be 
 successful according as he adapts himself to meet these 
 conditions. Mares and cows are more easily delivered 
 when in the standing position; if they lie down the work 
 becomes harder to perform. In cases of difficult delivery 
 in ewes an assistant may be got to hold the ewe with the 
 hind legs up in the air, the head down, thus throwing 
 the bowels downwards and consequently giving more 
 room to work, or the ewe may be turned on her back, 
 but kept in this position only for a short time. In ani- 
 mals running overtime IN^ature is generally allowed to 
 take its course; it might be advisable in mares that have 
 gone overtime, and who have had milk in their udders 
 for a few days, to attempt delivery. 
 
 Attention to the Newborn. The treatment of the young 
 animal is not very formidable, as stated; remove the 
 membranes, clean out the mouth and nostrils; examine 
 also to see if the newborn has the natural apertures for 
 the passage of ui-ine or feces. In some cases attention 
 to the navel and its cord are necessary, especially in the 
 foal, the navel string should be cut about one and one- 
 half inches from the body and securely tied and thor- 
 oughly dressed with some good antiseptic daily, until it 
 dries up, shrivels and drops off. In lambs, calves and 
 pigs slight scraping of the finger nail on the cord will 
 sever the string and prevent bleeding.. If life seems 
 
Breeding and Some of its Effects. 173 
 
 about gone, whip with a wet towel, work the fore limbs, 
 breathe into the aostrils at intervals coinciding with the 
 limb movements, pull the tongue gently forward, then 
 let it retract and again pull forward, repeating the move- 
 ments at intervals for ten or fifteen minutes or longer, 
 rub the body dry, and bring to a warm place, a slight 
 stimulant such as brandy and water or a little sweet 
 nitre and warm milk may also be given with benefit. 
 Get the newborn to suckle as soon as possible so that it 
 may get the action of the first milk (colostrum) and thus 
 remove the meconium — the accumulated excrement of 
 fetal life. The meconium may have to be removed; use 
 the oiled finger, or injections of warm water and oil ; 
 avoid giving purgatives; foals are often started scouring, 
 and are lost as a result of giving such medicine. A 
 heaped teaspbouful of fresh (unsalted) butter may be 
 given to the foal with good results if a little constipated; 
 if a ewe refuses her lamb the one refused (in case of 
 twins) should be rubbed over with the one taken, or if 
 one is dead, skin it and put the skin on over the one re- 
 fused, or put the ewe and refused lamb together by them- 
 selves for a time. In case of ewes the wool should be 
 trimmed from around the udder to allow the lambs to 
 get at the teat, this will also prevent , the lamb sucking 
 the wool, with the result sometimes of wool-balls in the 
 stomachs. After getting the young animal to suckle 
 once, leave the dam and offspring to themselves; if the 
 afterbirth has come away, remove and bury; the dis- 
 gusting practice of letting animals eat the membranes 
 shoald not be permitted. The usual practice with dairy- 
 men and stockmen with dual-purpose cows, is to remove 
 
174 Veteritiary Elements. 
 
 the calf a short time after birth — two days — the calf 
 being fed whole milk for four weeks and then gradually 
 changed to skim milk, the feeding being done three or 
 four times daily, the quantity at the start being about 
 two pounds at each feed. 
 
 The treatment of the dam after delivery will determine 
 to a great extent the growth and development of the off- 
 spring, if the dam is limited in quantity of food, or poor 
 quality given, the offspring will be weak, stunted or of 
 slow growth. Keep the dam comfortable and do not 
 annoy with many attentions, if at all chilled, blanket, 
 give warm mashes, laxative food (grass, clover hay, 
 bran and oats) milk and water with the chill off for a few 
 days. If intending to show foals the dam had better 
 not be worked, if not the dam may be worked for a 
 quarter, of a day, later half days until getting back to 
 the usual routine, if worked the foals should be placed 
 in boxes together and fed, entire rest from work should 
 be allowed mares for at least a week after foaling; 
 
 "Bo far the conditions after delivery have been consid- 
 ered as normal, unfortunately for the stockman such a 
 happy termination is not always the case, as such com- 
 plications as retention of the afterbirth, inversion of the 
 womb, bleeding from the womb, garget,, milk fever, may 
 affect the dam, and scours, navel-ill, constipation, indi- 
 gestion may affect the offspring. 
 
 Retention of the afterbirth (fetal membranes, placenta). 
 This condition, while rare in the mare and sow, is com- 
 paratively common in cows for reasons already men- 
 tioned; if, however, retention does occur in the mare, 
 skilled assistance should be obtained and the removal of 
 
Breeding and Some of its Effects. 175 
 
 the membrane be accomplished inside of 24 hours. Ee- 
 moval of the membranes by hand in sows would be diffi- 
 cult owing to the smallness of the genital passage, for 
 such purpose 1 to 2 teaspoonfnls of fluid extract of ergot, 
 repeated if necessary in half an hour, will often have the 
 desired effect; in ewes Stewart" recommends an infusion 
 of laurel berries and aniseed, ^he membranes maybe 
 left in cows without ill effect for two or three days, a 
 longer time especially in warm weather should not elapse 
 before removal is performed; if left for a longer time 
 putrefactive changes begin, the cow falls off in her milk, 
 the appetite gets poor, she gets dull and feverish, and 
 smells badly, shows loss of fleSh and may eventually 
 show signs of blood poisoning due to absorption of the 
 I)roducts of putrefaction; a cow once allowed to show the 
 symptoms stated is hard to bring back to her natural 
 good health, in fact is usually ruined to all intents and 
 purposes. Eemoval should be performed somewhat as 
 follows: bare the hands and arms, and anoint with car- 
 bolized oil; never neglect this precaution or blood poison- 
 ing and death may be the result; introduce one hand and 
 with the fingers loosen the cotyledons separately by run- 
 ning the first and second fingers each side of the cotyle- 
 don and the thumb on top, press down with the thumb 
 and lift with the fingers, thus practically skinning the 
 membrane off the buttons (cotyledons); before removal 
 of the membrane a button feels very smooth, after removal 
 it feels rough to the touch; the other hand should be em- 
 ployed to take up the slack, thus gradually removing 
 the afterbirth; considerable time is necessary for the 
 proper performance of the work when one is told that , 
 
176 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 there are about 100 buttons on the uterine surface. If a 
 large portion is extruded, a weight may be attached and 
 the membranes come away of themselves; after removal 
 the womb should be flushed (syringed) out with an anti-, 
 septic, such as permanganate of potash, 1 oz., water 2 
 quarts, or creolin, 1 jjart, water 50 parts. If a feverish 
 condition exists, determined by the use of the thermom- 
 eter, the flushings should be given daily, as shreds of 
 the membrane may have been retained. Animals in 
 good condition are not as liable, to this condition as those 
 underfed, or aborters. Some stockmen feed whole oats 
 to cows for a week or two before calving as a preventive; 
 a new and comparatively cheap method of treating this 
 trouble said to render traction unnecessary consists in the 
 administration of half pound doses of brown (Demerara) 
 sugar in a pint of wine, repeated^ at twelve hour intervals, 
 the womb injections also being given in cases in which 
 there is any discharge or offensive smell. 
 
 Inversion of the womb, casting of the withers is a seri- 
 ous condition, especially in sows, mares and ewes, and 
 as a rule necessitates the employment immediately of 
 the veterinarian. It maybe due to a rough delivery or 
 prolonged labor, too much traction on the membranes, 
 poor condition due to lack of feed, or as a result of stand- 
 ing with the hind end lower than the front end. The 
 stockman may have to return the organ and should pre- 
 pare himself as for removal of the afterbirth; have the 
 animal kept on its feet, then cleanse the wonlb with an 
 antiseptic solution, containing also laudanum 2 oz. to the 
 quart of the solution, removing any part of the after- 
 birth that may be attached; then by doubling his fist 
 
Breeding and Some of its Effect.s. 
 
 177 
 
 and applying it to the center of the mass press it stead- 
 ily and gently lorward, when the animal strains being 
 content just to hold his own; it the straining is severe, 
 pinch the back, put on a tight, strong girth or give a 
 large dose, '2 oz. of laudanum; when the organ is returned 
 to its place a rope truss or wooden pessary may be 
 applied to keep it there. 
 A pessary is a very satis- 
 factory instrument to use, 
 and may be made as fol- 
 lows: Take a smooth stick 
 three feet long, 1^ inches 
 in diameter, at one end tie 
 clean rags around to make 
 it the size of one's fist, at 
 the other end bore a hole 
 through the stick, through 
 which a \ inch rope may be passed; the large end is 
 passed into the genital jjassage until it fits snug against 
 the neck of the womb, the rope passed through the other 
 end is by its two ends fastened to a neck collar and is 
 thus held in place. The length of the roiie required will 
 vary with the length of the animal; the pessary should 
 be smeared with vaseline or clean sweet lard at the large 
 end. Straining after the return of the womb may occur, 
 and if continued may be due to the organ not having 
 been returned to its natural position or else to the pres- 
 ence of some of the membranes. A certain amount of 
 straining is bound to occur, the result of the inti'oduc- 
 tion of the pessary; such may be overcome by a dose of 
 some anodyne, e. g., laudanum. Pigs' bladders and 
 12 
 
 ONIi FOIOr OF A TIU'SS. 
 
178 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 bDttles have been used as pessaries, being allowed to re- 
 main in position for seven to ten days. 
 
 Bleeding after delivery (hemorrhage) is not easy to con- 
 trol and needs the attention of the veterinarian. 
 
 Garget (inflammation of the udder, mammitis), is a 
 condition occuring in milking animals, often the result 
 of carelessness or ignorance, and serious to a greater or 
 less degree in the immediate symptoms and the probable 
 results. The specific causes are: injuries, exposure to 
 cold, oversecretion, retention or injection of milk, in- 
 troduction of germs, from dirty milkers, unclean bedding 
 and quarters. Its prevention in animals during the 
 weaning period is not hard, the methods are as follows: 
 Mares need to be milked o,ut occasionally, or the foal 
 limited as to the number of times it suckles each day, 
 some mares are irritable if attempts are made to milk 
 them, and they may need the application of the twitch; 
 by putting them to work, limiting the food and giving 
 that food dry, the secretion of milk will usually cease; 
 if however, it persists, the veterinarian should be asked 
 to prescribe. Cows dry easily as a rule, too easily for 
 the majority of people; it may be necessary to milk 
 several times daily after calving to avoid the trouble. 
 Ewes need careful attention at weaning time, and should 
 be milked for two or three successive mornings, then one 
 or two milkings at intervals of one day, then later at in- 
 tervals of two days; as a rule, at the end of that time 
 they are dry, the secretion of milk having stopped. The 
 proper position in which to milk a ewe is as follows: 
 Get her with her head in a corner, then straddle her, 
 and by bending over the shepherd can reach each teat 
 
Breeding and Some of its Bffeds. 179 
 
 with his hands; if the ewe goes to back up a slight 
 pressure with the chin at the tail head arrests the move- 
 ment, which if forward can be checked by pressure with 
 the knees of the milker. Sows are dried up by grad- 
 ually removing the pigs, taking away one or two at a 
 time, the process taking about a week or ten days. If 
 the offspring of any of the animals mentioned are un- 
 able to take the milk supplied, it should either be milked 
 out by hand or by another animal. 
 
 The symptoms are: Swelling of the udder, either of 
 one or more quarters, there is considerable heat and pain 
 present, the parts being very sensitive to the touch, the 
 skin may be reddened, and a swelling along the belly; 
 thick, ropy and bloody milk may be discharged, the sup- 
 ply of milk from the affectedpart being less than usual, the 
 udder feels hard to the touch, rise of temperature as 
 shown by the thermometer. The treatment needed in 
 mild cases will only be a thorough rubbing with clean 
 sweet lard, fresh unsalted butter or oil ; recovery will, 
 even in these cases, be hastened by a thorough bathing 
 for forty-five to sixty minutes with water as hot as the 
 hand can bear. Let the offspring suckle or else milk out 
 frequently; if very painful use a clean metal milk tube 
 (teat siphon). The following liniment is very useful after 
 bathing or poulticing the udder: 
 
 Fluid extract of Belladona jounce. 
 
 Tincture of Aconite 4 ounces. 
 
 Tincture of Opium 3 ounces. 
 
 Raw linseed oil to make 1 quart. 
 
 A dose of purgative medicine is also very useful in 
 cutting short an attack. In severe cases some antiseptic 
 
180 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 should be added to the bath ; the bathing being performed 
 two or three times daily. Teat siphons should be boiled 
 occasionally, and each time of using should be soaked in 
 some antiseptic for ten minutes; the teat siphons should 
 be oiled before introducing up the teat. A useful appli- 
 cation for garget in ewes is lard and turpentine mixed to 
 a creamy consistency. The loss of a part of the udd'er is 
 often the result of garget; the animal must be watched at 
 the next delivery as the teat may be plugged; 
 sometimes stricture of the teat is the result, in 
 such cases a dilator will be needed. Darning nee- 
 dles and goose quills should not be used, as the 
 delicate lining of the teat may be injured and 
 closure of the teat be the result. Bloody milk 
 //may be considered as a symptom of garget. 
 » The contagious form of garget calls for simi- 
 lar treatment with the plentiful use of antiseptics 
 /, in addition. 
 
 Milk fever, parturient apoplexy, parturient 
 paresis, (the latter term the more modern,) 
 is the bane of the dairyman, it is a disease 
 peculiar to the cow and only attacks heavy 
 |i| . • milkers; a cow in fleshy condition before 
 calving is predisposed to the disease. Many 
 1 ■^ theories have been advanced to account for 
 
 \ ]vliilj; Tube 
 
 (iseif-re- the disease: the latest, that of Schmidt, being 
 
 ^ talning. ' ' ' jo 
 
 the one most generally accepted;^ he claims 
 that a morbid process goes on in" the udder by which 
 poisonous material is produced which is absorbed. 
 The sooner this disease appears after calving the more 
 fatal it is; it generally follows an easy, rapid delivery. 
 
Breeding and Some of Us Effects. 181 
 
 The symptoms are well marked, every dairyman being 
 more or less familiar with them, probably the first seen 
 is a slight unsteadiness of the gait, crossing of the hind 
 legs and a swaying motion when walkiog; later on the 
 head droops, no notice is taken of the calf; there is 
 stamping of the feet and whisking of the tail, paralysis 
 comes on; the cow becomes stupid and the eyes dull, 
 and may lie on the breast bone, with the head around to 
 the flank or else flat on the side. The breathing is loud, 
 the urine and feces are retained and rumination (chew- 
 ing of the cud) ceases, the amount of milk given is 
 lessened, and in bad cases bloating may occur. 
 
 The most satisfactory treatment is of the preventive 
 order, by limiting the quantity of concentrated food and 
 by giving a purgative dose of salts just before and im- 
 mediately after calving. Schmidt's treatment is highly 
 lauded; it consists of the injection of a drug (iodide of 
 potash) into the udder by means of a funnel to which is 
 attached rubber tubing and a milk tube.' One or two 
 drams of the drug are dissolved in one pint of cold 
 boiled water, one-fourth of the amount being siphoned 
 into each teat, the udder being well hand-rubbed after 
 the injection; a one- ounce dose of aloes is also given if 
 the. cow is conscious. The udd«r injection may be re- 
 peated twice or three times in the day; reports of this 
 treatment seem to indicate that two injections at the 
 most are sufficient for the usual cases. The following 
 treatment has been very successful in the hands of Dr. 
 Hugo Eeed, of Guelph, Canada; it is: 
 
 1 other Investigators recommend Chinosol or a half pint of a 5 per cent, 
 solution of lysol as the udder Injection. 
 
182 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Gamboge 1 ounce. 
 
 Ginger 4 ounces. 
 
 Common salt i pound. 
 
 Epsom salt 1^ pounds. 
 
 Dissolve the above in three pints of water and give as 
 a drench, give through a rubber hose, six feet long, f 
 inch in diameter, passed into the stomach, by this means 
 avoiding the frequent cause of death Id these cases, 
 namely, passage of the liquid the wrong way. One hour 
 later give: 
 
 Chloral Hydrate 2 ounces, 
 
 Bromide of Potash 2 ounces, 
 
 dissolved in a little water, one hour later, one-fourth of 
 the quantities above mentioned are given, repeated at 
 three hour intervals. The patient should be kept well 
 bedded and propped up on its breastbone (sternum), the 
 milk drawn occasionally, the urine and feces also being 
 removed at regular intervals, the latter by means of 
 injections. 
 
 Dropping after catving (sometimes termed wolf in the 
 tail) occurs in some herds and is best remedied by the 
 use of nerve tonics, it may occur previous to calving if 
 the dam is at all Weakened or has been fed innutritions 
 food. Hollow horn, wolf in tail and other diseases of 
 that nature in cows due to starvation, are not diseases of 
 the various parts as the names would Indicate, hence 
 these so-called diseases are never found in herds in charge 
 of good stockmen. 
 
CHAPTEE XV. 
 
 DISEASES OF YOUNG STOCK. 
 
 Constipation is a common trouble in foals the first few 
 days after birth, the fo9d of the dam just previous to 
 delivery not having been of a laxative nature or the first 
 milk (colostrum) was not taken by the foal, will thus 
 account for this trouble in the majority of cases. Calves, 
 lambs and pigs are rarely troubled, as they usually get 
 the first milk. The signs of this trouble are straining, 
 rolling, lying on the back, colicky symptoms, the belly 
 tucked up; the foal sucking in a half hearted way, and 
 the non-passage of feces are also reliable indications. 
 The preferable way to overcome the trouble is to diet 
 the dam, changing to food of a more laxative nature, e. g., 
 bran mashes with flax seed; the use of purgatives on a 
 foal of such a tender age is extremely dangerous. The 
 finger may be oiled and introduced into the rectum, the 
 contents of a dark tarry ball like nature removed; or a 
 cone of soap may be placed in the rectum and left there. 
 The injection of one-half ounce of glycerine or two ounces 
 of raw linseed oil in two or three ounces of water is- 
 very useful and may be used in preference to the soap or 
 oiled finger. Lambs should be watched their first two 
 weeks of life, as the feces tend to stick to the wool around 
 the anus and thus form an obstacle to the passage of the 
 dung. 
 
184 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Scours (or diarrhoea) is as a rule more or less serious, 
 the contagiou.s form in calves, termed calf cholera or dys- 
 entery being especially so. The common causes of scours 
 is the food, either as to its quality or quantity, or regu- 
 larity in giving it. In foals the disease is often due to 
 the use of purgatives to overcome the preceding trouble 
 (constipation); the drinking of warm stale milk, the 
 mare being worked and the foal only allowed to. suckle 
 at long intervals; too rich or too much milk. We may 
 then consider scours in any animal a symptom of indi- 
 gestion, not as a disease in itself; the looseness of the 
 bowels being one evidence of Nature' s endeavor to over, 
 come the trouble. In calves especially is scouring due 
 to over feeding, feeding at too long intervals and the use 
 of milk of a poor quality. Lambs sometimes scour if the 
 ewes are on pasture of a watery nature, green oats, etc. 
 The disease is soon evidenced by colicky pains, refusal 
 of food, sour smelling passages, the passage of watery 
 feces with rapid loss of strength, in some cases curdled 
 milk is mixed with the dung. 
 
 The causes being known the first thing in the treat- 
 ment is to remove those causes; if the disease is seen in 
 its earliest stages give as one dose: 
 
 Laudanum 1 dram. 
 
 Tiacture of Catechu 1 dram. 
 
 Castor Oil 1 ounce. 
 
 The, dose may be larger or smaller depending on the size 
 of the animal (see dose table p. 137). Lime water in one 
 or two ounce doses fed with the milk is useful in over- 
 coming acidity and the consequent indigestion. Foals 
 affected with indigestion due to the dam's milk being 
 
Diseases of Young StocJc. 185 
 
 too ricli should have the supply limited, the mare being 
 milked on the ground, and a dose of pepsin given ; raw 
 eggs with brandy and several other drugs are often rec- 
 ommended. Sabnitrate of bismuth in suitable doses is a 
 very valuable drug when the digestive tract of young 
 animals is in an irritable condition. 
 
 Navel-ill is rather a common disease of foals, occasion- 
 ally of calves and lambs. The measures to be adopted 
 by the stockman are those of a preventive character, such 
 as dressing the navel with antiseptics; have the mare to 
 foal on the grass, and if the disease has appeared, the 
 thorough disinfection of the foaling or calving box or the 
 lambing pens, as the case may be. The symptoms shown 
 are feverishness and constipation, loss of vigor, being 
 quite dull and reluctant to suck; and lameness with 
 swelling of one or more joints. The latter symptoms, 
 lameness and possibly a swelling of a joint mislead the 
 average stockman, he thinks the foal has been stepped 
 upon by the dam, when really the cause is the introduc- 
 tion of germs by the navel. The navel, instead of 
 drying up and dropping off, remains on and is clammy 
 to the touch and tap-like in appearance. The later 
 stages exhibit more swelling of joints, formation of ab- 
 scesses and exhaustion usually terminating in death. 
 The urine may trickle from the navel in this disease. 
 The early employment of a veterinarian will only be 
 profitable; the death rate. is high on account- of skilled 
 treatment being given too late. Some authorities con- 
 sider this trouble as caused by the same germ as that 
 causing contagious abortion. 
 
186 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 FAILURE TO BREED AND SOME OP THE CAUSES. 
 
 Hindrances to reproduction are many in number and 
 varied in their nature, some diseases may render the 
 female passages unfit for the fertilizing element of the 
 male;' the indiscreet use of the male may have caused 
 the male fertilizing element to lack vigor or be absent 
 entirely; malformations, or the actions of the animals 
 before and during mating, may also interfere with 
 proper fertilization, thus constituting sterility or bar- 
 renness; it must be undorstood that the fault is as likely 
 to be in the animals of one sex as of the other. 
 
 Sterility or barrenness in males in the majority of cases 
 is due (1) to lack of exercise, fleshiness and the too fre- 
 quent use of foods of a stimulative or fat forming nature; 
 (2) next to these causes, is overindulgence and mastur- 
 bation, due to ignorance or cupidity of the ownerj (3) 
 old age, (4) change of climate; (5) spasm of the urethra, 
 tuberculosis or diseases of a weakening nature, and in 
 (6) stallions, poor handling at the time of mating. The 
 causes being known the cure is evident, no drugs will be 
 of use unless the cause is removed. In addition to the 
 removal of the cause, either (1) or (2), give 
 
 Pyrophosphate of Iron ;. IJ ounces, 
 
 Phosphide of Zinc 48 grains, 
 
 Nux Vomica, powdered 1 ounce, 
 
 mixed and made into twenty.-four powders, one to be 
 given in the feed three times daily; if due to cause (2) 
 limit service (see p. 77), or use a shield to be got from 
 dealers in racing harness supplies, and give exercise; 
 acclimation, which requires a period of one year to ac- 
 
Diseases of Young Stock. 187 
 
 complish, will overcome the trouble If due to cause (4) ; 
 spasm of the urethra, or proudness, as it is termed by 
 horsemen, a condition in which the penis remains erect 
 after mating, requires the use of cold water along the 
 course of the urethra and the veterinarian to prescribe, 
 in some cases a second service overcomes the condition, 
 which in the first instance prevented the proper dis- 
 charge of the semen. Oantharides (Spanish fly) must on 
 no account be given by the stockman. 
 
 Sterility or barrenness in females is due to a similar 
 number of causes such as (1) fleshiness and lack of exer- 
 cise; (2) a closure or (&) a flabby condition of the os 
 (neck of the womb) ; (3) malformations; (4) prolonged 
 continence; (5) acid condition of the vagina, the result 
 of abortions; retained afterbirths, etc. ; tuberculosis, in 
 and in breeding, hybrids are also responsible for inabil- 
 ity to produce offspring. Sterility, due to cause (1), may 
 be overcome by bleeding or the use of a purgative; a 
 treatment quite commonly followed by old country breed- 
 ers is that of bleeding mares a short time before mating; 
 if failure to conceive is due to causes (2) an examination 
 .will need to be made, the animal is securely tied or other- 
 wise restrained, twitched or one fore foot lifted, the hands 
 and arms bared, oiled and belladonna applied to the 
 fingers, which are formed into a cone, then the endeavor 
 is gently and gradually made to dilate the neck of the 
 womb, which done, mating may take place in mares; if 
 due to (&) the use of the gelatin capsule, a method in- 
 troduced by Mr. Jas. Johnstone, of the Breeders' Gazette, 
 Chicago, will be found very useful, in fact in mares hard 
 to get with foal the capsule method is worthy of a trial, 
 
188 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 results in the hands of several breeders warrant an ex-- 
 tended use of the capsule for this purpose. The capsule 
 method is as follows: Procure a gelatin capsule (Plan- 
 ten's are good) one-half or one ounce capacity, then have 
 the mare served by the stallion, immediately afterwards 
 insert the capsule (with the cap removed) into the vagina, 
 dip up with it the semen; the capsule containing the 
 semen (fertilizing element of the male) is then carried 
 forwards and passed through the neck (os) into the womb, 
 where it is left; this method is likely to be very useful in 
 those mares that eject the semen after a service. The 
 condition of the lining membrane has been mentioned 
 among the causes, impregnation is not likely to occur if 
 there is any discharge from the vagina, the injection of 
 a solution of boric acid, permanganate of potash or bak- 
 ing soda one ounce in three pints of clean water two 
 hours before mating may overcome the acidity, which is 
 immediately fatal to the spermatozoa. Chronic bulling 
 in cows is best treated by spaying and fattening for mar- 
 ket. Sterility (barrenness) in sheep or rather a small 
 lamb crop may be due in addition to the causes already 
 mentioned as affecting either sex, to the ewes being left, 
 undocked or untagged, thus preventing the proper per- 
 formance of the act of breeding; the latter operation 
 (tagging) should be performed every year just at the 
 beginning of the breeding season. 
 
CHAPTEE XVI. 
 THE COMMON FARM OPERATIONS. 
 
 Securing animals for operations. Methods of Eestraint — 
 As the stockman's patients will not listen to reason they 
 have to be tied or otherwise restrained for all operations, 
 in horses we have the twitch, noose twitch and rope 
 twitch, the side line, the throwing harness and the stocks. 
 
 The twitch, consisting of a loop large enough to pass the 
 hand through (one-quarter inch rope),, is fastened to the 
 end of a stick, piece of a fork-handle about two feet long, 
 the loop, applied to the upper lip and twisted several 
 times. The rope twitch is generally known as the Bona- 
 parte bridle'; take a rope, make a simple knot at one 
 end, eighteen inches from which make another knot, so 
 that the first knot can pass through its loop, thus having 
 a loopat one end of the rope, run the free end of the rope 
 through the noose, a simple form of halter thus being 
 made place the loop in the mouth, the halter part over 
 the head, make a half hitch with the free end of the rope, 
 pass it over his head and under his upper lip, draw mod- 
 erately tight. The noose twist consists of a rope with a 
 loop which will not run, at one end, the other end is 
 passed over the upper part of the neck, under the upper 
 lip and through the noose which should be high up on 
 the cheek. 
 
 The side line consists of a rope, hobble and a collar; 
 the hobble is applied to one hind foot, the rope attached 
 
190 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 and run between the forelegs and up through the collar, 
 then down through the hobble and up on the outside of 
 the limb through the collar again, the attendant raises 
 the leg as desired, and holds it in that position by grasp- 
 ing all the two outer ropes at the level of the shoulder 
 joint. The throwing harness varies with the operator, a 
 cheap outfit consists of a strong surcingle, with iron rings, 
 
 THRO\\^ING A HORSE FOR OPERATIONS. 
 
 two hobbles, about forty feet of three-quarter inch rope, 
 and a coux^le of strong leg straps, hame straps may be 
 used. The surcingle is put on the animal, a long rope 
 applied to the headstall, run through a ring on the back, 
 the holder standing well in front of the horse; the near 
 forefoot is tied up to the surcingle if it is desired to lay 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 
 
 191 
 
 the animal on its near side; the operator pnlls steadily 
 on the rope, thus drawing the head toward the off flank, 
 when the horse will lie down and can be tied securely 
 with the hobbles and ropes, the former being placed on 
 the hind feet, which are drawn up to the body and tied 
 as desired; the other foreleg may be strapped to the sur- 
 cingle also. 
 
 Cattle can be secured by the bulldog forceps in the 
 nose, by passing the tail in front of one hind leg and then 
 
 
 
 \,mk 
 
 A STEEK ROPED FOE THKOWINQ. 
 
 The front hitch should be lower down the neck, the back hitch should 
 be six inches further ahead to obtain the best results. Thirty feet of rope 
 is required. 
 
 drawing backwards on it, or by throwing, for which a 
 long rope is required with slip noose at one end, which 
 is fastened to the head or horns, the free end being passed 
 around the body two or three times to form half hitches. 
 
192 
 
 Yder'nmry Elements. 
 
 by pulling .steudily un the lojie the abdomen is compressed 
 and tiie animal lies down, where it may be secured by 
 fastening the hatter and tlie fore feet to a strong, securely 
 set post, the hiud feet being secured somewhat similarly. 
 Pigs when lai-ge are best secured by placing a noose 
 over the upper jaw and fastening to a strong post; if 
 small can either be placed on their backs, aji attendant 
 sitting sti'addle of the neck, facing the hind parts of the 
 
 IIAXDLIXC -^IIKEI', (WlSrDXSIN Ac ;1; KT I.TIKAL COJ.J.IOf-l E). 
 
 1 — Hiikliii;,'. 2— ililkio!;. 3— Triiiuniiij,' feetiiiid position Ibr dreuGh- 
 iny. 4— ratcLiiiij;. S-TlirowiDir. 
 
 pig, or the pig can be grasped with both hands, each 
 hand holding one foi-e and one hind leg, the back of the 
 pig being pi-essed firmly against the holder. 
 
 Sheep are usually caught by catching in the tlank with 
 the hand of the same side and turned by the shepherd 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 193 
 
 who half kneeling on the near side places his left arm in 
 front of the sheep's breast, his right hand at the same 
 time passed under the belly grasp the off leg just above 
 Ijhe hock, pulling steadily with his right hand the sheep 
 is placed on its rump, on which it is revolved, the shep- 
 herd rising to take the position at the animal's back, its 
 head between his knees. Lambs are held in a similar- 
 position to that described for small pigs, for such opera- 
 tions as docking, castrating, etc. 
 
 There are certain operations that the stockman is fre- 
 quently called upon to do; simple though they are cer- 
 tain precautions are necessary to ensure the greatest 
 amount of success, the animals usually affected are not 
 of suf6cient value to justify the expense of a veterinary 
 surgeon. The principles governing the healing of wounds 
 should be understood, with the changes that go on in a; 
 part during repair; such an understanding will prevent 
 the injudicious use of drugs such as caustics, irritants, 
 etc., and will impress on the stockman that no materials 
 . he may apply will heal a wound, but that Nature heals, 
 and that his treatment or that of the surgeon is only in 
 the nature of assistance. Once that fact is thoroughly 
 appreciated, wounds can be scientifically and therefore 
 successfully treated. The inflammatory process has been 
 described; following that he will often find that pus 
 (ma,tter) is present in wounds, the bacteriologist will 
 tell him that pus is the result of germs that have 
 obtained entrance to the wound, and when one remein- 
 bers that pus is made up of dead cells, destroyed by those 
 germs, the methods of wound treatment are simplified 
 and the stockman has also mastered the principles of 
 13 
 
194 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 what is known as the Listerian or antiseptic treatment 
 of wounds. Lister was the father of antiseptic surgery, 
 the adoption of which has reduced the mortality result- 
 ing from wounds to very small proportions. Wounds 
 heal in various ways, depending on the severity of the 
 wound and the manner in which it was inflicted ; exam- 
 ples of varieties of wounds are (a) clean cuts as made by 
 a sharp knife, these as a rule heal readily; (b) punctures 
 caused by running of a blunt body into a part, such as 
 the point of a shaft, repair of this variety is slower 
 and the injury is more serious than the first kind; (c) 
 lacerations, tears such as wounds made with a saw or 
 jagged edged instrument; repair is slow in these wounds 
 and pus is usually abundant; (d) bruises in which case 
 the skin is rarely broken. 
 
 Manner of healing of wounds: 
 
 1. By immediate union, the parts are brought together 
 in exact contact and unite at once; there is very little 
 material needed in this case, therefore any inflammation 
 present must have been slight. 
 
 2. Union by first-intention, in this form the divided 
 edges are glazed over by a fluid (lymph) thrown out 
 from them, or the clotting. of a thin film of blood; this 
 material holds the parts together until permanent union 
 by cells takes place; the fluid has to be got rid of before 
 permanent healing takes place, a scar results from this 
 and the following method. The lymph thrown out 
 becomes vascular, i. e., little (capillary) blood vessels 
 form in it. 
 
 3. Granulation is the commonest form of healing in 
 tihe l9wer animals, it is q, tedious process accompanied as 
 
The, Common Farm Operations. 195 
 
 a rule by the formation of pus; in this form lymph is 
 thrown out, it accumulates, blood vessels form in it, cells 
 cluster around the vessels constituting granulation tissue; 
 the upper layer of lymph cells is destroyed and thrown 
 off as pus, it has, however, served to protect the deeper 
 layers which form a tissue resembling that of the part, 
 gradually the discharge of pus ceases, a new surface (the 
 scar), white in color, is formed, which gradually disap- 
 pears and the wound is said to be healed. If the inflam- 
 mation in a wound is unchecked, or there is lack of 
 pressure, the small vessels, capillary loops, become dis- 
 tended with blood and constitute what is known by every 
 one as proud flesh (granulation tissue). Two other 
 methods of healing are hy union of two granulating sur- 
 faces, and under a scab. All wounds heal essentially in 
 the same manner, viz., by the growth and organization 
 of new tissue from the alj:;eady existing older tissue of 
 the parts. 
 
 The general treatment of wounds may be briefly stated 
 as follows: First to stop the bleeding and remove any 
 foreign substance, such as dirt; second, to protect from 
 germs; third, to bring the parts as closely together as 
 possible, keep down excessive inflammation, and prevent 
 the accumulation of discharges. A wound is said to be 
 healthy when it looks like a clean cut; unhealthy when 
 it is pale, covered with pus, small clots of blood or proud 
 flesh; inflamed or angry when hot and of a dark- red 
 color; indolent when the process of healing seems stopped 
 before the proper time, e. g., a sitfast. It may be stated 
 as a general rule that if a wound continues dry, and not 
 ill-smelling, looks healthy, etc., that it should not be 
 
196 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 interfered with, but if pus forms it should be washed 
 clean once or twice a day with clean warm or cold water, 
 a syringe or piece of cheese cloth (do not use a sponge, 
 the cheese cloth can be burnt after once using), then 
 apply some antiseptic solution or dry antiseptic powder. 
 Control of bleeding (hemorrhage) is the first thing to 
 do in connection with wounds, as the animal's life blood 
 may very soon flow away, if the bleeding is from an ar- 
 tery; bleeding from veins as a rule is seldom dangerous, 
 unless the animal is in an already weakened condition ; 
 sometimes bleeding is arrested by the contraction of the 
 muscular coat of the artery; an artery partially cut 
 through will continue to bleed, when if entirely cut across 
 the bleeding will often stop, owing to the fact that the 
 muscular contraction mentioned becomes possible. Sur- 
 gical methods of stopping bleeding are by the use of 
 forceps performing torsion (twisting), in this form the 
 divided end of the artery is seized by the forceps and" 
 twisted until it breaks loose from the forceps; the emas- 
 eulator and ecraseur are instruments partially working 
 on this principle, they crush the coats of the vessels; 
 tying, or ligating, as it is termed, silk, twine, catgut or 
 other materials are used for this purpose; styptics are oc- 
 casionally used, they cause clotting of the blood and thus 
 stop the flow mechanically, for such purposes tincture of 
 iron, turpentine and other drugs are used; the hot iron 
 (cautery) is also reliable for this purpose, in docking and 
 castrating of lambs, and sometimes in horses, in the larger 
 animals bleeding may occur when the scab left from the 
 burning falls off, usually about seven days after the oper- 
 ation. The use of dirty materials, such as cobwebs, earth, 
 
Tfie Common Farm Operations. 197 
 
 etc., is dangerous, as these materials often contain germs 
 of various diseases, e. g., lockjaw (tetanus). Hot water 
 (above 110° F. ) or ice cold water will also stop bleeding, 
 warm water encourages it. The hands should be cleaned 
 and dipped frequently in the antiseptic solution when 
 dressing a wound. Stitches are not used as frequently 
 as formerly in wounds of animals, the powerful muscular 
 contraction tends to tear them out, in cases of severe 
 wounds- the veterinarian should be called. The use of 
 such irritants as acids, turpentine, salt, etc., serve no 
 useful purpose on a fresh wound when compared with 
 the pain caused, such materials really tend to hinder and 
 thus prevent rapid healing, their use is also liable to re- 
 sult in permanent scars or blemishes. 
 
 Another class of wounds to deal with are those known 
 as fractures (breaks), they occur in hard structures, such 
 as bone, differing from those already spoken of, which 
 are of soft tissues. 
 
 Fractures require expert dressing and the application 
 of bandages and splints in the larger animals; in calves, 
 lambs, pigs and poultry the stockman can with little 
 trouble bind up the broken part and save loss. Frac- 
 tures (breaks) are of various kinds and vary greatly in 
 their seriousness; generally speaking, if the ends of the 
 bones, extend through the skin, the case is not worth 
 bothering with. Fractures may be straight across a bone, 
 6n the slant (obliquely), or lengthwise; if the bone is 
 broken, without external wound, it is termed a simple 
 fracture; if the broken ends do communicate with an ex- 
 ternal wound we have the compound fracture; if the bone 
 is broken in small pieces the fracture is known as com- 
 
198 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 minuted; greenstick fractures occur in young animals, 
 and resemble the break in a green stick, not a clean, 
 sharp break, hence the term. 
 
 Union of fractures (broken bones) takes place some- 
 what as follows: During the first three days inflamma- 
 tion and exudation is going on, from then to the twelfth 
 day soft material is thrown out around the broken ends, 
 and if the bone is hollow also in the hollow space; by the 
 end of a month if the ends have not been disturbed the 
 soft material mentioned is changed into bone (being 
 known as the provisional callus), following this stage, 
 material forms between the broken ends, being later con- 
 verted into bone, which process takes about two months, 
 thus completely uniting the broken parts; this material 
 forms what is known as the definitive callus; if occasional 
 movement of the ends occur during this stage, complete 
 union is not possible, and in such cases the material 
 thrown out instead of becoming bone takes on a gristly 
 formation. The absorption of more or less of the excess 
 of callus follows, usually taking several months or longer 
 to be performed, before this occurs the point of union is 
 shown by an enlargement. Briefly the treatment of frac- 
 tures consists in bringing the broken parts together, se- 
 curing them in that position by splints and bandages, 
 usually left on six to seven weeks, drainage and antisep- 
 tic treatment of the fracture if a compound one, entire 
 rest of the patient for at least three months, in a well- 
 bedded (short material, such as cut straw, shavings, saw- 
 dust, being used) box, give good, nutritious, laxative food 
 and plenty of green meat if available. Fractures may 
 be detected by the presence of sudden, severe lameness. 
 
The Oommpn Farm Operations. 199 
 
 deformity of the part, which can be moved in unnatural 
 directions, great pain, fever, and the grating (crepitus) 
 of the ends of the bones together. Fracture of the tibia 
 (bone of the lower thigh) sometimes occurs without dis- 
 placement, being held in place by the strong periosteum. 
 Fractures in old horses are always dangerous, in younger 
 horses there is possibility of repair, if given proper treat- 
 ment and nursingj fractures of the hind legs are more 
 serious than those of the fore ones, in the former if above 
 the hock, unless in very young animals, are usually not 
 worth treating. Surgical operations are better avoided 
 if possible during fly time or in animals far advanced in 
 pregnancy. 
 
 Dehorning is a surgical operation usually performed 
 on cattle, by which they are rendered more tame, and 
 consequently more easily handled. My experience is 
 that if properly done bad results are very few; cattle 
 will often go right to eati;ig; some cows will not even 
 show any appreciable shrinkage in their milk; for the 
 control of bulls this operation is indispensable. The 
 operation is best performed during cool weather, so as 
 to avoid flies, during the period from October until 
 April; best results are obtained in yearling and two-year- 
 old cattle. The instruments in general use are the clip- 
 pers or saw; I prefer the former as being handier, call- 
 ing for less restraint of the animal, and if kept in good 
 shape, well-oiled and sharp, do just as good work, only 
 in a great deal less time. Bleeding from the operation is 
 rarely serious; in heavy milking cows it may sometimes 
 need attention. 
 
200 
 
 Veterinary Mements. 
 
 Smear the hair at the base of the horn with vaseline 
 and turn it back, then secure the animal to a strong post 
 by means of a chain or rope, so that it can be quickly 
 
 released; a stanchion 
 might be used; insert 
 the bulldog (a nose 
 forceps) into the nose 
 and draw the head 
 around to the flank, 
 the operator then ap- 
 plies the clipper over 
 the exposed horn, and 
 brings it as close to 
 the head as possible, 
 the object being to, 
 remove about one- 
 
 DEHOKNINa CLIPPEES AND BtTLLDOG FORCEPS. 
 
 fourth inch of the skin along with the horn, thus de- 
 stroying the horn matrix and preventing the growth of 
 unsightly stubs. To make a nice-looking head be care- 
 ful to so apply the clippers that the cut will slope in- 
 wards from the bottom of the horn base, thus a pointed 
 poll, resembling that of the Angus, will result. As soon 
 as the horns are removed pieces of cotton batting about 
 one to one and one-half inches square dipped in boracic 
 acid (a powder) are placed right over the wound, the 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 
 
 201 
 
 hair is then drawn over the batting and fine string (par- 
 cel) tied aronnd the poll, thus holding the batting in 
 place. -Calves may be dehorned by caustics, of which 
 several varieties are on the market; a cheaper method, 
 iust as good, is to buy caustic potash in the stick form at 
 the drug store. It will be necessary to wrap cloth about 
 it when using or the fingers will also be cauterized, it is 
 applied arouilfl the base of the horns, just where they 
 join the skin. 
 
 Tappinsj the first stomach or paunch is performed in 
 cattle and sheep when badly bloated, the instrument 
 used being known as the trocar, a pointed rod, and the 
 
 THE TEOCAE AND OANtTLA AND BULL PUNCH. 
 
 canula, a hollow tube; it can also be used for ringing 
 bulls. The operation is performed in the upper left flank 
 at a point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last 
 rib and the bones of the loin, the instrument being ap- 
 plied to the point described, is given a sharp tap and 
 pushed in its fulLlength, the trocar withdrawn, the gas 
 then rushes out of the canula, which may be left in for 
 five or ten minutes. The paunch is the organ tapped in 
 cattle and sheep; the tapping of horses should be left to 
 the veterinarian. Euinenoto'my is an extension of this 
 
202 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 operation for the removal of food in cases of impacted 
 rumen ; the operation when done, consists of the open- 
 ing and removal of its contents and sewing up by the 
 veterinarian, it should not be left to the eleventh hour; 
 good results follow when performed early and with anti- 
 septic precautions. 
 
 Simple wounds of teats may be treated antiseptically, 
 the use of strips of adhesive plaster to draw the wound 
 edges together will often be found satisfactory. 
 
 Castration is usually performed on colts, at a year old; if 
 light in the neck and forequarters they may be left until 
 two years. The operation is done either in the standing 
 or lying position; the first is hazardous and requires an 
 agile and expert man, the disadvantages being that one 
 cannot bee what is being done, and 
 ^^^ if rupture's, etc., are present, one is 
 
 not in a position to 
 overcome them; if 
 
 lying down the colt 
 is thrown and se- 
 cured as described 
 (p. 190), a clean grassy spot 
 being preferable. This opera- 
 tion should not be performed 
 unless the colt is in good health, emascttlator. 
 
 the results are better if a run at grass for a few days has 
 first been obtained . The instruments needed are the emas- 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 203 
 
 culator and a castrating knife, whicli should be placed in 
 an antiseptic solution ten minutes before operating, 
 the hands and arms being also cleansed with the same 
 material, it is also good practice to examine the parts for 
 ruptures, etc. 
 
 The essentials to success in castration are: thorough 
 cleanliness, got by the plentiful use of antiseptics, good 
 health at the time of operation ; and exercise afterwards. 
 The scrotum is seized between the finger and thumb, so 
 as to tighten the skin over it, and a good incision (four 
 inches or thereabouts) made over the testicle, right 
 through the coveringti of the testicle, which will then pop 
 out. The emaseulator is applied well up on the cord, the 
 rough edge to the body, and the handles closed, the testicle 
 removed, the operation being repeated similarly on the 
 other testicle. Some of the antiseptic may be poured 
 into the wounds, the colt let up and stabled for eight to 
 ten hours, when it should be turned out with the others,, 
 if a mature horse, hitch and give a short drive or slow 
 work; if cold rains occur the colt must be stabled. The 
 wounds should be examined occasionally in order to see 
 that they are. kept open, thus insuring the drainage away' 
 of any pus. It should be remembered that the testicles 
 of colts may not descend until twelve months old, some- 
 times as late as two years old. 
 
 Bulls are castrated standing, the head being tied up 
 solidly to a strong post, an attendant at each side stead- 
 ies him, the operator stands squarely behind the bull, 
 seizes the scrotum, gives it a half turn round and draws 
 it out between the hind legs, the incision is made from 
 nearly the top to the bottom of the sac, the testicle drawn 
 
204 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 out and removed with the emasculator or the cord is 
 scraped slowly with the knife until severefi; the remain- 
 ing testicle being removed similarly. Calves are thrown 
 down, the end of the scrotum cut off, the testicles drawn 
 out until the cord breaks or is scraped as before.- Lambs 
 are castrated in a similar way, being held as described 
 for small pigs, the knife or docking shears may be used 
 for taking off the piece of the scrotum, which may be 
 left any length desired. 
 
 Rams are castrated similarly to bulls, or by turning. 
 ["With the ram, you have him turned upon his haunches, 
 clip the wool off the scrotum to get it out of the way. 
 Have some one hold the ram and hold the hind feet up 
 pretty close to the body, unless you wish to go to the 
 trouble of tying. Take the end of the scrotum in one 
 hand and with the other press the testicles well up into 
 the body so as to tear them loose from the end of the 
 pouch, you can usually feel them give way, now bring 
 them down and taking them one at a time invert them 
 and revolve them three times around the cord or until 
 it is twisted tight. This you will find is not the easiest 
 job until you get on to it. You can tell when the cord 
 is twisted tight by passing the finger along and feeling 
 the spiral condition and the hardness. When you get 
 one twisted let it draw up into the socket so it will not 
 turn back right end up, while you operate on the other 
 one. Having them both done tie the sac close up with 
 a soft cord. Tie tight enough to prevent them coming 
 down and turning back. Cut the strings off after 24 to 
 36 hours." — Curtiss and Edgerton, Iowa Agricultural 
 College.] In this method germ infection, so much 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 205 
 
 dreaded in rams, is avoided. Another method lauded 
 by some, and which has been tried at the Station (W. 
 B. S.) is to tie a strong cord around the sac or cod as 
 close to the body and as tight as possible, three days 
 ■later the sac and stones are "cut away about an inch below 
 the cord and an antiseptic applied to the cut end. 
 
 Caponizing is the operation performed in removing 
 the testes of poultry. 
 
 Spaying or castration of females may be performed in 
 the sow, bitch and cow, rarely in the mare unless a bad 
 (vicious) actor (e. g., switcher and kicker) in harness, 
 the surgeon should be called to operate on mares, and 
 unless the stockman is expert on the heifers also. Fe- 
 males thus operated on fatten more readily and are not 
 subject to the periods of heat; if a "sow it is placed on 
 its right side and secured, the upper hind leg being 
 stretched backwards, an incision is made vertically just 
 below the region of the loin, the hand passed in up 
 towards the back and the ovary felt for, when found is 
 drawn towards the opening, thus drawing the horn of the 
 uterus also, rendering the other ovary easy to get in 
 young sows, both ovaries are drawn out and snipped off 
 at once, if old sows only one is exposed at a time and its 
 ovary removed. The operation may be performed on 
 the cow or heifer in the standing position, the incision 
 being made through the upper left flank at the spot 
 selected for tapping a cow, a strong scantling being slung 
 parallel to the cow at a level a little above the knee and 
 hocks, the head should be fastened securely and the bull- 
 dog may be inserted in the nose. The incision is made 
 with a knife through the skin, the operator can with his 
 
206 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 fingers secure tlie ovaries wliicli are snipped off by the 
 spaying scissors, and then brought out. The incision 
 should be just large enough to admit the hand, a stitch 
 or two through the skin, muscles and peritoneum draws 
 the wound together, tar being applied over all. The. 
 animal should be starved for thirty-six hours before the 
 operation and should only get light sloppy feed or grass 
 afterwards for a few days. 
 
 Ruptures may occur in pigs and lambs, if shown after 
 castration, cleanse the bowels with tepid water containing 
 some mild antiseptic, return them, to do which it may be 
 necessary to stand the animal head downwards, and also 
 to introduce the finger into the rectum, when returned 
 sew up the opening as close to the body as possible, keep 
 quiet and give but little food. The navel rupture (um- 
 bilical hernia is the technical term) is often seen in foals, 
 and quite frequently disappears by the time the animal is 
 a year old; previous to that time the enlargement may be 
 blistered, some cases recovering from that treatment; if, 
 however, it persists beyond the age stated a good surgeon 
 should be employed. 
 
 Entires and geldings are sometimes ruptured in the 
 region of the groin (inguinal hernia), and the rupture 
 may even extend down into the scrotum in any male 
 entire, constituting what is known as scrotal hernia, in 
 the latter case the skilled surgeon's help is needed; the 
 former trouble (inguinal hernia), is often the cause of 
 severe colicky symptoms in stallions, and, if not re- 
 lieved, becomes fatal; the symptoms are as follows: Sud- 
 denness of attack, colicky pains growing more intense all 
 the time, arching the back, lying on the ground or sit- 
 
The Common Farm Opeartions. 207 
 
 ting ap like a dog, pawing the ground, sweating heavily; 
 the cord (spermatic) will be thickened and the scrotum 
 feel cold to the touch, in such cases give a large dose of 
 laudanum, three ounces in half a pint of raw linseed oil, 
 if possible throw and turn the animal on its back, and 
 after oiling the hand introduce it into the rectum, and 
 by gentle traction inside and working outside the bowel 
 may be returned. 
 
 Scirrhus cord is a disease of the cord (spermatic), the 
 result of fungus invasion following castration; my expe- 
 rience has been that ail the cases seen had been operated 
 on with clamps; if the cord becomes imprisoned between 
 the lips of the wound made at castration this condition 
 may result, hence the necessity for examination of the 
 parts a few days after castration, the wound should then 
 be bathed with a warm antiseptic solution, the operator's 
 fingers being clean, and if the cord is in view, as de- 
 scribed, it should be pushed up into the scrotum. The 
 symptoms of this enlargement (so much that people say 
 the animal was not castrated) of the cord are, discharge 
 of pus for months after the operation, straddling gait, 
 some stiffness of the hind quarters and even loss of flesh; 
 for this condition give Iodide of Potash, one to three 
 drams daily, according to the age of the animal; if that 
 does not cure after two to three weeks use of the drug, 
 the surgeon's aid will need to be invoked. 
 
 Bleeding of Animals has gone out of fashion the result 
 of the swing of the pendulum from the other extreme; 
 it has, however, its advantages, and at such times is very 
 beneficial, especially in such cases as founder (laminitis), 
 congestion of the lungs and brain troubles; it should 
 
208 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 never be performed during such sickness as colt dis- 
 temper (strangles), influenza (pink eye) or other weak- 
 ening diseases. When done the blood should be taken 
 from the jugular; bleeding from the feet should not be 
 allowed as germ infection, resulting in lockjaw, etc., is 
 liable to occur. The near side is the most convenient on 
 which to operate, the animal should have been blind- 
 folded previously, and the head raised enough to smooth 
 out the skin of the neck; the incision with the fleam is 
 usually made down the neck about ten to twelve inches 
 from the angle of the jaw, the fleam being sharp and 
 clean so as to make a good-sized cut, rapid bleeding being 
 the most beneficial. Raise the vein, by applying pres- 
 sure over it below the point of operation, either with 
 the thumb or a fine cord drawn tight around the neck. 
 Dampen the hair over the spot to be incised; place the 
 fleam blade parallel to the vein, running in the same 
 direction that is; tap the back of the fleam firmly and 
 the blood will flow out; it should be collected in a pail 
 so that the amount removed may be known; on an aver- 
 age three to four quarts are sufficient to take away; 
 the pulse will also be a guide as to the quantity to be 
 taken; enough blood having been taken, a pin is run 
 through the edges of the wound, a horse hair or piece of 
 fine twine being wound around it in the form of a figure 
 8; the pin can be pulled out in a few days. 
 
 Docking consists of the removal of a portion of an ani- 
 mal's tail; it shoiild only be performed for sanitary rea- 
 sons, as in sheep, especially ewes; or to overcome a dan- 
 gerous habit in horses, such as seizing the reins with the 
 tail, in which case nicking, cutting of the muscles which 
 
The Common Farm Operations. 209 
 
 lie under the tail and whose action is to draw that mem- 
 ber down, might be preferable; the surgeon should be 
 the one to decide and operate in horses; in many States 
 the operation, unless a surgical need, is illegal, and 
 rightly so. The stockman will have to dock his sheep, 
 which is done when they are lambs, either with a sharp 
 knife, or the red hot docking shears. To do the job 
 well one man holds the lamb as already described; that 
 is holding a hind and fore foot in each hand, its head 
 and back being pressed firmly against the holder's body, 
 keeping the lamb in a position so that its buttock in- 
 clines out toward the operator, who will, if operating 
 with the knife, feel for the joint, which found will be 
 cut through with one clean cut, the lamb being at once 
 released ; the tail should be left quite short, in fact about 
 level with the ouler end of the skin that comes out from 
 near the tail-head to join that organ; if with the forceps 
 (Wing's) they are heated to a dull red heat, an assistant 
 holds the tail out straight and the forceps are applied 
 and slowly pinch of the tail; effort should be made to 
 let the forceps lean over a little so as to sear the artery, 
 which is on the center line of the under surface (in the 
 position in which the lamb is held, of course being the 
 upper side) of the tail. The lambs operated upon with 
 the knife should be carefully watched at intervals to avoid 
 their death from bleeding, if bleeding .is excessive the 
 artery should be caught with a small pair of forceps and 
 given a few turns, or a hot iron be applied. Docking is 
 best done when the lambs are three weeks or a month 
 old; the operation of castration following a week or ten 
 days later. 
 ]4 
 
CHAPTEE XVII. 
 DISEASES DUE TO FlISTAKES IN FEEDING. 
 
 The observant stockman has probably noticed that the 
 veterinarian's cases are largely the result of mistakes in 
 feeding animals by their owners, he will have noticed 
 that diseases seen on the farm, such as colic, stoppage of 
 the bowels, indigestion, shown by scouring, milk fever, 
 etc., are more common than all other diseases affecting 
 farm stock, unless we except the contagious diseases 
 hog cholera and contagious abortion; such being the 
 case a few of the most common will be described: 
 
 Colic is worthy of being classed with the poor, by some 
 farmers, as it is always with them, and while of such 
 common occurrence, none the less serious; usually of 
 short duration it is not thought much of by the average 
 owner, yet we find that the colics of long duration are 
 often quite dangerous, and also those that recur, inevita- 
 bly end in the death of the patient, therefore all the 
 more responsibility is thrown on the feeder, when it is 
 considered that colics are due to mistakes in feeding. We 
 generally speak of two kinds of colic, the spasmodic or 
 cramp colic, and the wind or flatulent colic, for all prac- 
 tical purposes we may, and shall here consider them as 
 shown by similar symptoms, with this exception that in 
 wind colic a bloated condition exists, due to the forma- 
 tion of gas in the intestines. A horse affected with 
 either of the cdUcs will be uneasy, may paw the bedding 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 211 
 
 or ground, arches the back, looks around to the flank, 
 and attempts to lie down, kicks at the belly and rolls on 
 the ground, seems to improve and will go to eating and 
 remain that way for a short time when the spasms again 
 affect him and the symptoms are repeated as before; it 
 might be mentioned that the quiet spells are not shown 
 as plainly in wind colics, in which disease the pains are 
 more continuous and the breathing hastened and difficult, 
 due to the pressure of the distended bowels on the dia- 
 phragm, which pressure affects the lungs, limiting the 
 area for those organs to do their work. Eubbing the 
 belly seems to afford relief; colic cases often recover 
 without treatment; it should be remembered that colic, 
 strictly speaking, is not a disease, but a symptom of pain 
 in the intestines. The pulse is usually full and frequent; 
 there may be patches of perspiration on the body. Un- 
 favorable symptoms are a cold, wet, clammy condition of 
 the body, high temperature, haggard expression of the 
 face, frequent, hard small pulse, together with difficult 
 breathing; if the animal passes urine it may be consid- 
 ered a favorable symptom, as showing the spasms have 
 relaxed, must have done so to release the sphincter mus- 
 cle at the neck of the bladder; in this connection it may 
 be stated that horses are seldom affected with urinary 
 troubles, although the above symptom often misleads 
 people, who say: "the horse has something the matter 
 with its water, ' ' when such is not the case. 
 
 Treatment should be immediate, one of the foUpwing 
 prescriptions may be used: 
 
212 Veicrinary Elements. 
 
 A ijuuilanuiri 2 ounces. 
 
 I'u rpe 1 1 1 i 1 K' 2 ou noes. 
 
 Ijinseed oil I.] pints. 
 
 B C'liloric Ether 1 ounce. 
 
 Indian Hemp Extract 1 ounce. 
 
 Water 1 pint. 
 
 Or we may substitute Sweet Spirits of Nitre for the tur- 
 pentine; either prescription may be given as a drench 
 for colic. Do not repeat i^rescription A; if the animal 
 is not relieved B may be given an hour and a half or two 
 hours later, and if the animal's condition is not improved 
 at the time of giving the second drench, do not neglect 
 to call your veterinarian (a graduate of course). Injections 
 
 IN IK TUN J I MT 
 
 of warm water — about two quarts — may be given at two 
 hour intervals, the stall should be kept well bedded, and 
 the animal prevented from throwing itself violently, 
 while in some cases walking exercise might be useful; 
 do no,t distress the patient by galloping. 
 
 Bloating in sheep and cattle, sometimes termed hoven or 
 tympanites, is common where green corn and rape are 
 fed, it may be due to choking, the presence of some 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 213 
 
 foreign body in the pauncli (rumen), or if chronic to 
 tuberculosis. 
 
 The most prominent symptom is the bloating of the 
 animal, especially noticed on the left side between the 
 last rib and point of the' hip; if pressure with the finger 
 is made the impress is at once lost as soon as the finger 
 is removed; in impaction of the paunch the impress is 
 not removed at once, hence this symptom aids in distin- 
 guishing one disease from the other; the breathing is 
 difficult, as might be expected from the pressure on the 
 diaphragm ; there is also moaning and slavering from the 
 mouth. 
 
 The treatment is first to tap (see farm operations) with 
 the trocar and canula and thus draw off the gas, then fol- 
 low with one of the following drenches: 
 
 Turpentine 2 ounces, 
 
 Linseed Oil 1} pints, 
 
 or, 
 
 Spirits Ammonia 1 to IJ ounces, 
 
 Linseed Oil IJ pints, 
 
 to be followed in a few hours with the usual cattle purge 
 and sloppy diet, sheep will only need one-fourth of the 
 above doses; if much pain is present one to two ounces of 
 laudanum may be added to either prescription. 
 
 Remember the injunction with respect to drenching 
 sheep or cattle: "Drench slowly and carefully and let 
 the head down at once if the animal tries to cough." To 
 avoid this trouble (bloating) do not pasture cattle or 
 sheep on clover or rape when immature (then in a very 
 watery condition) nor when there is a dew or rain drops 
 lying upon it, wait until dry and then turn the stock on 
 
214 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 with some food in them, never in a hungry condition. 
 The latter precaution is always well to observe and it is 
 also a good method when first putting stock on the feeds 
 mentioned to leave on for a short time, one-half to two 
 hours only, neglect of these precautions means certain 
 loss. 
 
 Distension of the paunch also occurs in sheep and 
 cattle due to getting an overfeed, say from getting loose 
 at grain either in the barn or the field, dry fodder and 
 no succulent feed (such as roots or silage) from stoppage 
 of the bowel movement. The symptoms are similar to 
 those shown in, bloating, only that the swelling pits on 
 pressure (on the left side) and tapping with the fingers 
 does not give the drum-like sound as heard in the pre- 
 ceding disease; chewing the cud (rumination) stops and 
 the animal is said to have lost its cud, here again we 
 have a symptom mistaken for a disease, if digestion is 
 going on properly the cud so-called will be present, so 
 that the loss of the cud as termed by many people, is a 
 symptom of digestive tro.uble and needs investigation as 
 to the cause, not the giving of a so-called cud, of pork, 
 greased rags or unwholesome materials; if this condition 
 has existed for a day or so, no feces (dung) will be seen 
 to pass. 
 
 The treatment calls for a smart purge, followed by 
 
 stimulants, and injections, and if all these fail to relieve, 
 
 an operation by the surgeon, who should be called for 
 
 such a purpose not later than two days from the onset of 
 
 . the trouble. 
 
 Choking in cattle is usually due to the attempt to swal- 
 low whole potatoes, pieces of turnip, old shoes, etc. ; in 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. ' 215 
 
 horses from bolting the feed such as whole oats or from 
 hard physic balls, pieces of roots, pressure by the collar, 
 or the formation of abscesses in colt distemper (stran- 
 gles). In cattle the flow of saliva from the mouth, at- 
 tempts to cough, bloating and the presence ,of the obstruc- 
 tion somewhere along the course of the gullet indicate 
 the trouble; in horses the nose is poked out, the neck is 
 stiff, if attempts to drink are made the fluid is discharged 
 through the nostrils, there is slavering, an anxious ex- 
 pression, difficult breathing, the horse may drop to the 
 ground, and the presence of the obstruction. 
 
 The treatment in cattle is comparatively simple and 
 successful; the bloating is first relieved by tapping, an 
 oiled probang or piece of twisted rope is passed down the 
 gullet and endeavor made to push the obstacle on down, 
 a little oil poured down occasionally, or before the use 
 of the probang, is also useful, an assistant may also 
 gently try to work the obstruction downward if seen; do 
 not use a whipstock unless very flexible or a torn gullet 
 and death may result. 
 
 In horses small doses of oil and water may be given, . 
 providing the animals are given the head free so as to 
 avoid the material going the wrong way; if from the 
 collar remove and use one of the proper size and fit; the 
 veterinarian is almost indispensable in cases occurring in 
 horses, as chloroform may have to be given and au oper- 
 ation performed. 
 
 Founder (laminitis) is included under diseases due to 
 errors in feeding, although it frequently occurs from 
 driving on hard dry roads, excessive purging, sudden 
 checking of sweating by giving very cold water when 
 
216 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 heated; hard work when not in condition, or it may fol- 
 low foaling or lung troubles, and occasionally from stand- 
 ing too much on a limb in order to save another which 
 may be injured. Excessive feeding for the showring or 
 block, etc., with lack of exercise; wheat especially when 
 green, or breaking loose and getting at grain in the bin 
 are other common causes. This disease may appear in 
 cattle and sheep, although the pain shown will not be as 
 acute as in horses. The symptoms of laminitis are so 
 well marked that once seen they are never forgotten, a 
 horse affected will stand immovable in a stall with his 
 fore feet away in front of him, his weight being thrown 
 on the heels, if the hind feet are affected they and the 
 fore feet are placed well under the body, the animal if 
 made to move rocks on its limbs and will jump with both 
 fore feet together, the pulse is hurried, throbbing of the 
 arteries below the fetlocks can be felt, if an attempt to 
 lift a foot is made the animal resists, the feet are hot and 
 tender, especially if tapped with a hammer, the breath- 
 ing is hurried, giving rise to the suspicion that the lungs 
 are affected, the pulse is full and hard, and the mem- 
 brane of the eye reddened (congested) . Sweating will 
 be seen as a result of the extreme pain and thirst will be 
 great, the thermometer will show an increased body tem- 
 perature. The treatment needs to be energetic as unless 
 so, destructive changes will take place resulting in drop- 
 ping of the sole, due to the pedal bone turning point down- 
 wards, pumice foot and possibly shedding of the entire 
 hoof. Irregular rings around the foot, close together 
 are evidences of an attack at some time, as is also the 
 tendency of a horse to travel on its heels when trotted. 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 217 
 
 BleediDg is very useful in such cases, either from the 
 jugular, or from the coronet, never from the toe, there is 
 too much danger of germ infection ; tub the feet in warm 
 water or apply hot poultices for a few times. Purgatives 
 such as aloes should not be given, a quart of linseed oil 
 will be useful and safe to use, in these cases if bleeding 
 is not performed aconite may be used with care, follow- 
 ing its use with saltpetre (nitrate of potash) in ounce 
 doses, twice daily in the drinking water, until the fever 
 subsides. Bran mashes or other light food is to be pre- 
 ferred, some veterinarians remove the shoes, which is 
 not always easy unless the anim'al is made to lie down, 
 which should be done if it persists in standing. Do not 
 pare through the sole, but as soon as the worst symptoms 
 are over, in three br four days, give moderate exercise, 
 being guided, of course, by the veterinarian if one is 
 employed, which is advisable in a horse of any value, as 
 he will know how to prevent the serious after troubles 
 already mentioned. Many horses are spoilt for city 
 work by this disease, unless some of the various rubber 
 pads are used; a run at pasture, a moist one preferable, 
 after blistering the coronets is a great help to restore the 
 foundered animal to usefulness. This disease in sheep 
 or cattle will be more common during the summer if 
 high feeding, without taking into consideration the tem- 
 perature, or putting on full feed too suddenly is persisted 
 in, more is to be gained by prevention than by cure, if 
 such animals are affected doses of glauber salts are to 
 be given occasionally, the doses being the same as of 
 epsom salts. 
 
218 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Lymphangitis, big leg, weed, or water-farcy (not a good 
 term, apt to be mistaken for farcy), is another serious 
 trouble due to errors in feeding, the lymph channels and 
 nodes are inflamed, consequently their working is more 
 or less hindered, over-feeding, lack of exercise or sud- 
 den change to large quantities of a new food, etc. It 
 -might be considered as a disease in which the lymph has 
 stagnated (stopped moving) in the lymph vessels, these 
 vessels it will be remembered acting especially as car- 
 riers of waste material from various parts, hence this 
 stagnated material acts as a foreign object with the result 
 — inflammation of the organs affected. 
 
 There is excessive swelling of one or more limbs, often- 
 est a hind one, the swelling extending from top to bot- 
 tom of the limb, which is hot and painful to the touch; 
 running the hand down the Inside of the limb the lymph 
 nodes are felt, the temperature is above normal, great 
 lameness, rapid breathing, hard full pulse, the lymphat- 
 ics are seen to be enlarged; owing to the cause, lack of 
 exercise, it is oftenest seen on Monday morning, hence it 
 has been termed Monday morning fever. Attention to 
 the diet, bran mashes every Saturday, night containing 
 a tablespoonful of saltpetre will almost certainly prevent 
 the disease. A horse once attacked is liable to have the 
 trouble recur and as a consequence a chronic enlarge- 
 ment and thickening of the limb (elephantiasis). This 
 disease must not be confounded with ordinary stocking 
 up of the limbs which is painless; or with the local form 
 of glanders, termed farcy, a very dangerous disease, both 
 to Man and animal to have anything to do with. 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 219 
 
 The treatment should be directed towards the cause 
 and its effect, therefore limit the feed, give a purgative, 
 aloes preferably, to remove the accumulated waste pro- 
 ducts which have in the form of lymph escaped more or 
 less into the tissues, and if left there may coagulate and 
 thus give the chronic thickening so often a result of this 
 disease. Bathe the limb with warm water, thus reliev- 
 ing the tension and pain, better not to bleed; hand rub 
 and bandage the limb when the inflammation is subsid- 
 ing, and if the swelling is slow to depart, the use of 
 iodides under the veterinarian' s direction will often prove 
 satisfactory. It is a' good plan to suspect farcy in cases 
 where the hind limbs sweli, especially if the animal has 
 been properly fed. 
 
 Azoturia is the oftentimes fatal result of good feed and 
 lack of exercise, probably most common in the spring 
 time, in farmers' horses; in cities appearing after a day 
 or so enforced rest, due to holidays or storms; it is far 
 more serious in city horses than country ones, owing to 
 the fact of the steady, heavy feeding of grain and heavy 
 work the town animal is subjected to. Percherons and 
 their grades are said to be more liable than other breeds, 
 due probably to their easier keeping qualities; in some 
 cases exposure to cold may have caused the disease? The 
 name azoturia, meaning an abnormal amount of nitroge- 
 nous matter in the urine, is rather misleading, as such a 
 condition is not present at the beginning of this disease, 
 what does occur is an increase in the number of red 
 blood corpuscles, sometimes being present in twice the 
 natural (normal) quantity, which are destroyed, thrown 
 into the blood, and act as a poison; whatever the term used 
 
220 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the disease shows such symptoms as dark coffee- colored 
 urine, excitement, spasms of the muscles of the croup, 
 the driver often thinks that a limb is broken or the ani- 
 mal's back is sprained. The horse will leave the stable 
 all right, in fact livelier than usual, a short time later 
 perspires freely, gets lame on one leg seemingly unable 
 to put weight on it, the muscles of the loin and croup 
 swell and get hard, the breathing is hurried, and event- 
 ually the animal goes down and is unable to rise on its 
 hind quarters, hence the non-professional speaks of this 
 disease as "spinal disease, paralysis," etc. The pre- 
 ventive treatment already mentioned for big leg should be 
 adopted for all heavy horses and rotund roadsters, espe- 
 cially those easy keepers. Once the disease has made its 
 appearance energetic treatment is necessary, place in a 
 well-bedded box, give a purgative, poultice or bathe the 
 loins with hot water, a liniment may be applied after- 
 wards, blanket so as to encourage sweating, empty the 
 bowels and draw off the urine, turn frequently on its 
 bed; give plenty of water to drink, and in a few days 
 try and get the horse on its feet, slings may be useful in 
 such cases. A noted German veterinarian recommends 
 the use of one to one and one-half pounds of baking soda 
 daily. The main treatment should be early left to the 
 professional, the stockman devoting himself to get the 
 patient into the best possible place for treatment and 
 nursing; as a result of this disease wasting of the muscles 
 (atrophy) of the loins and croup may result, in such 
 cases months of rest out at pasture and an occasional 
 blister will be needed to entirely restore the parts to their 
 natural condition. 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 221 
 
 Heaves, or broken wind, is a chronic condition in which 
 there is difi&culty of breathing, the act of expelling air 
 from the lungs taking longer th^n the act of breathing in 
 air, it is due originally to mistakes in feeding, and an ani- 
 mal badly affected is rendered almost incapable of work. 
 
 The diiiicalty of breathing in this disease is due to a 
 dilated condition of the lungs, owing to excess of air in 
 the air sacs or in the tissue that surrounds the lobules, 
 as a result the lungs are prevented from expelling all the 
 air they should, hence less is taken in than would be if 
 they were in a natural condition. The air cells may be 
 broken into one another as a result of the violent cough- 
 ing, whereas in the other form the air seems to enter the 
 tissues during the intake of air into the lungs, in which 
 case some degeneration has in all probability taken place 
 in the lung tissue. A full stomach and bowrls interfere 
 greatly with the action of the lungs, and when filled out 
 with food it is not surprising that this trouble occurs. At 
 the commencement of the disease there is a spasmodic 
 cough, later a suppressed short weak cough, with a double 
 expiration, and the passage of wind by the anus. In ordi- 
 nary breathing no aid is needed to expel the air, the 
 natural elasticity of the. lungs performs the work, in this 
 disease the muscles of the abdomen are used, as is no- 
 ticed by the heaving of the flanks. 
 
 While the causes of the previous troubles have been 
 overloading'^the system, the cause of this trouble is more 
 mechanical in its nature and may, owiag to the feed that 
 causes it, be a disease of the poor feeder's horse, founder, 
 big leg, etc., being diseases of the horse belonging to the 
 heavy feeder. The custom existing among so manyjfar- 
 
222 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 mers of continually filling a horse's manger with hay, 
 even having them littered with it, is one of the great 
 causes of this disease, especially is this so when the hay 
 is of poor quality, hard and innutritions, the horse being 
 given an extra quantity to make up for the deficient 
 quality. Hard chopped straw, overripe rye grass, are all 
 liable to cause this incarable disease being irritating in 
 their effect on the stomach wall and delicate filaments of 
 the tenth nerve, the nerve which controls the lung move- 
 ment, thus the relation of feeding to this disease is at 
 once more readily seen and understood. 
 
 Heredity may also be said to have an influence on the 
 frequency with which this trouble shows in a breeding 
 stud. Although treatment is only palliative it should 
 none the less be adopted, such as feeding roots and grass, 
 or some soiling crop in place of dry hay. Limit the feed 
 and water, and let what is given be of the best quality, 
 clean pats and hay free from dust, sprinkle the hay with 
 water before feeding; in France the hay is dampened 
 with molasses and water with good results. The feed- 
 ing of boiled flax seed or four to six ounces of linseed oil 
 daily are very useful and serve to keep the bowels and 
 skin in good order. Clover hay is very unsuitable, 
 clean, bright timothy is preferable; in mild cases im- 
 provement is frequently noticed when horses are taken 
 from the East to the Western prairies. It is thought 
 that the hard and irritating nature of the prohibited 
 feeds affects the nerves connected with, the stomach and 
 lungs. The following is a useful powder: 
 
Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 223 
 
 Arsenic 2 drams. 
 
 Copperas IJ ounces. 
 
 Nux vomica, powdered 2 ounces. 
 
 Sugar 4 ounces. 
 
 Mix and make into twenty-four powders, one of which 
 may be given twice daily. Horse traders often try to 
 hide the disease by giving a large quantity of lard in the 
 form of balls, or a quantity of shot, either of these acting 
 for a few hours. 
 
 Water trouble in rams and wethers, especially those 
 being highly fed for show, is due to the formation of little 
 stones (calculi) in the bladder or urethra. Many expe- 
 rienced shepherds claim it is due to feeding mangolds 
 and sugar beets or drinking hard water; there are doubt- 
 less other foods also dangerous if an animal is fed heavily 
 6a them and its exercise limited. 
 
 Treatment is of little avail as a rule, saw palmetto may 
 be tried in two dram doses, or sweet nitre in the proper 
 amount. The drinking water, once or twice a week, of 
 such animals should contain some saltpetre, one to two 
 teaspoonluls to each ram or wether, or boric acid in the 
 same quantity may be used. Sometimes the stone may 
 be found in the worm at the end of the penis, as soon as 
 -removed the urine passes and the animal is relieved. 
 The symptoms are humping of the back, kicking at the 
 belly, stretching out of the hind feet as if to pass urine, 
 stamping, uneasiness, gritting of the teeth, an increased 
 tendency to lie down, stops eating, and often a costive 
 condition of the bowels; death occurs from the severe in- 
 flammation set up or from bursting of the bladder. 
 
224 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Fat wethers and rams are often affected witli soreness 
 of the end of their sheaths, due to continual lying down 
 and the trickling of urine therefrom when in that posi- 
 tion; an unhealthy looking sore is found underneath the 
 moist scab; as the soreness may prevent their trying to 
 pass urine it might aid in causing the previous trouble; 
 the application of iodoform one part to boracic acid three 
 parts after the removal of the scab will soon overcome 
 the trouble; examination should be made frequently, how- 
 ever, and treatment given if necessary. 
 
CHAPTEE XVIII. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 
 
 The stockman is seldom worried with tooth troubles in 
 sheep, cattle and pigs, and unless well informed is apt to 
 think horses are just as free, such, however, is not the 
 case. The slightest irregularity of the teeth will inter- 
 fere more or less with chewing and masticating the food, 
 quite readily understood if a person is familiar with the 
 arrangement of the teeth. No horse is exempt, from 
 colthood to old age the teeth are liable to need attention. 
 There are general symptoms, such as unthriftiness, often 
 in spite of good and liberal feeding and little work, there 
 is dribbling of saliva from the mouth, ends of hay may 
 be dropped from the mouth, water is let fall out when 
 drinking, the horse may crib or windsuck, the feces may 
 contain undigested feed, there may be swelling of the 
 jaw, a partial refusal of food, loss of flesh; the animal 
 may pull on the bit or refuse to take hold at all, and 
 there may be swelling of the gums just behind. the upper 
 front teeth, if this symptom, not a disease, remember, is 
 seen, the word "Lampas" is uttered and the cause of 
 the trouble thought to be located, the swollen gums are 
 perhaps torn with nails or burned with hot irons, but 
 there is no improvement; to the well informed the cause 
 is soon known — it is the teeth. Here <Ae veterinarian 
 with the proper instruments is indispensable, the employ- 
 ment of a' quack, a travelling so-called horse dentist, or 
 15 
 
226 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the attempt to treat the condition by the owner or groom 
 will be unsatisfactory, being cruel and worrying to the 
 horse, even to the extent of spoiling his mouth for life. 
 Everyone knows that the efforts of the expert human 
 dentist are directed to preserve the teeth, not to insert 
 false ones, even more important is this effort in the horse, 
 false teeth in him not being practicable; a horse's useful- 
 ness, and therefore his life, depends as much on his 
 teeth, or more so, than on any organ of the body, and 
 while horse buyers only examine the front teeth to deter- 
 mine the age, the well-posted person will want to know 
 the condition of the grinders, and whether any are ab- 
 sent or diseased. The yearly examination of the horse's 
 mouth by the veterinarian is one of the most profitable 
 investments that can be made by a stockman, as feed, 
 flesh, and the resulting power to do the work will be 
 saved. The period of teething, it will be remembered 
 (see page 40) extends almost from birth until the horse 
 is five years old, consequently the colt is jvst as liable to 
 have tooth troubles as is an old horse; the milk (tempo- 
 rary) molars, or crowns as they are termed, are often 
 retained instead of being shed at. the proper time, espe- 
 cially during the age of two to four years, the symptoms 
 already mentioned are present and the lining of the 
 mouth may show a sore surface, the gums even bleeding, 
 as oftentimes a crown becomes partially loose and its 
 sharp and jagged edge will be pressed upon the gums 
 during attempts to feed; the treatment is removal of 
 those • crowns, the smoothing of any sharp edges, soft 
 feed, and in a few weeks the improvement is almost be- 
 yond belief. 
 
Diseases of the Teeth. 227 
 
 Wolf teeth are evidences of evolution in the horse, 
 showing his relation to the tapir and other animals, the 
 reasons advanced for their removal, namely, danger to 
 the eyes, is not tenable, as the eyes are never directly 
 affected by them. They are usually removed as a matter 
 of policy, by the veterinarian; they might, if very large, 
 interfere with the bit; as the wolf tooth has a fang, it 
 should be pulled, not knocked out, if its removal is de- 
 cided upon. In the chapter treating of the construction 
 and arrangement of the teeth, the differences in width 
 of the upper and lower jaws of horses were commented 
 upon, and the effect such differences, together with the 
 natural slope of the molars (grinders), would have upon 
 the process of chewing. The commonest trouble that the 
 veterinarian is called upon to treat in horse dentistry is 
 the presence of projections'of the grinders, such projec- 
 tions causing sore mouths, slavering, the passage of un- 
 digested food in the feces, unthriftiness, sometimes very 
 marked, indigestion, wounds of the tongue and lining of 
 the mouth, side pulling on the bit, the manger often be- 
 ing covered with saliva. 
 
 The treatment is simple, calling as it does for the use 
 of the float (dental file) and yet is not simple enough to 
 warrant the trusting of this work to the travelling quack or the 
 majority' of owners, the veterinarian should be employed 
 and after the removal of the projections soft feed should 
 be given for a few days. The average work horse wi ' 
 need this attention once a year. 
 
 Decayed teeth often cause symptoms in horses which 
 have in the past been mistaken for Glanders, Nasal Gleet; 
 such symptoms as a stinking breath, together with a 
 
228 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 stinking discharge from one nostril, quidding of the food, 
 pain during chewing, shown by the animal snddenly 
 stopping that act often to let some of the food fall from 
 the mouth, holding the head to one side when drinking, 
 loss of condition and perhaps a swelling of the jaw, or 
 fistula of that bone; the only successful treatment is re- 
 moval. 
 
 Cribbing and Windsucking are two diseases due to idle- 
 ness or the habit may have started in the colt during 
 teething; it is a very nasty vice and affects the condition 
 of a horse more or less to its detriment. The applica- 
 tion of a neckstrap when in the stable and plenty of work 
 are so far the most satisfactory measures to adopt. These 
 vices are considered as unsoundnesses in horses, there- 
 fore in the examination of a horse the edges of the front 
 teeth should be looked at to see if those edges are worn 
 or chipped, the impress of the neckstrap upon the hair 
 may sometimes be detected, and the prospective buyer 
 wJl draw conclusions accordingly. 
 
 Discharges from the nostrils are of common occurrence, 
 some are quite serious in their import, other not so much 
 so; briefly we may class them as follows: 
 
 1. If chronic and no smell, yellowish or greenish in 
 color, sticky and from one nostril, often the left, suspect 
 glanders. 
 
 2. If chronic and from one nostril, the discharge being 
 jf a stinking nature, suspect a decayed tooth. 
 
 3. If chronic from both nostrils, white, glossy, flaky, 
 not sticky, more abundant during mastication, the dis- 
 charge is likely from the guttural pouches. 
 
Diseases of the Teeth. 22§ 
 
 4. -If chronic, becoming of the nature of pus, and 
 stinking, a catarrh, the bones of the head being affected. 
 
 Acute discharges are seen in common colds, inflamma- 
 tion of the larynx, bronchitis, pneumonia and lung gan- 
 grene (rotting). 
 
 Black teeth iit pigs are generally removed, although so 
 far no data have been produced to prove that they have 
 an injurious effect on pigs. In very young pigs at a few 
 days old, the tushes should be broken off, thus avoiding 
 tearing or soreness of the sow's'teats, a result of which 
 might be garget and loss of the sow and pigs. 
 
CHAPTEE XIX. 
 FOOT AND LIMB TROUBLES. 
 
 Diseases of the feet and limbs are usually brought to 
 the stockman's notice by the presence of lameness in the 
 animal affected, therefore we are justified in considering 
 lameness a symptom of disease in the parts mentioned, 
 it being an expression of pain in one or more limbs dur- 
 ing movement. "While the lameness may be plain the 
 location of that lameness is far from plain, and in many 
 cases will perplex even the expert veterinarian; to aid 
 us in the detection of the diseases certain symptoms have 
 been noticed as accompanying certain conditions; e. g., 
 if the animal is lame in the shoulder, the foot is kept be- 
 behind its fellow, the limb and knee relaxed the toe 
 touching the ground, the limb may be said to hang 
 loosely and when brought forward it describes an out 
 turn; the forearm is extended, the knee flexed and the 
 foot is on a level or behind its fellow in elbow lameness. 
 
 Lameness may be shown when the foot of the lame leg 
 is on the ground, e. g. , in corns, when the foot is off the 
 ground stiffness of the knee may be shown although little 
 pain is evidenced. It is useful to know that lameness 
 may be partially hidden (masked) in a horse by the 
 manipulation of the groom, such as exciting him, show- 
 ing him on soft ground, preventing the animal break- 
 ing into a trot by holding him tightly by the head and 
 by keeping the sound side to the examiner. The lame 
 
Foot and Limb Troubles. 231 
 
 animal should be examined both in the stable and out- 
 side, in the latter case at both the trot and walk so as to 
 properly detect the trouble; if the horse is sound he will 
 stand squarely on the fore feet, with probably one hind 
 foot rested alternately or if very tired a near foot and off 
 hind foot will be flexed or vice versa. 
 
 Pointing is a term often used in connection with lame- 
 ness; a horse is said to point with a fore foot if, when 
 standing he keeps it in advance of its fellow, in which 
 case the heel or toe may be raised or the foot placed flat 
 upon the ground. 
 
 The novice is often perplexed to know whether the 
 lameness is before or behind, according as the animal is 
 trotted to or from him, and in this connection it might 
 be mentioned that the head and neck constitute the bal- 
 ancing pole of the body, in lameness of the fore limb the 
 head if free will be raised higher than usual when the 
 lame leg, if a front one, comes down on the ground, a 
 sharp turn to the right or left will also aid, as the weight 
 will be thrown on the forehand; if the lameness is behind 
 the head will be lowered when the limb is brought to the 
 ground. The slow trot on hard ground with the groom 
 a couple of feet from the animal's head, who is made to 
 go straight away, will be the best pace at which to exam- 
 ine, if lameness in front is suspected have the animal 
 trotted towards you, and note the movements of the 
 head, the legs and the feet, then note the action from the 
 side whether shortened or not, and if the actions of the 
 muscles of the limb are understood the variations from 
 the natural gait will be more readily understood. Up- 
 rightness of a fore pastern is symptomatic of lameness in 
 
232 Veterinary Elements., 
 
 the foot of that limb, usually if the forepart of the foot is 
 affected the heel is lowered, e. g., in Pounder; if the back 
 part is affected as in coffin joint lameness (navicular dis- 
 ease) the heel is raised, while if due to bad nail punc- 
 ture or fracture, the foot may be lifted entirely from the 
 ground: frequent lifting from one forefoot to the other is 
 indicative of coffin joint trouble. 
 
 If lameness behind is suspected, let the animal be 
 trotted away from you and watch for the limb on which 
 the animal dwells and on which he puts his weight, as 
 to which is raised the higher, whether a toe is dragged 
 or not; then turn to the right about and left about, notic- 
 ing whether any reluctance is shown to putting weight 
 on a limb. 
 
 The spavin test may be given if Ijook lameness is sus- 
 pected, by flexing the hock tightly, which is performed 
 by lifting the limb up close to the body for a few min- 
 utes, the foot being let down and the animal trotted off 
 smartly, if the lameness is due to spavin, the lameness will 
 be more marked after giving the test, the horse sometimes 
 going off on the hop. After a drive or warming up of a 
 horse the lameness will often disappear, in such cases 
 the examination should be deferred until the horse has 
 cooled off, when the lameness will usually show very 
 plainly. Horses often drive out of the lameness when 
 warmed up, that is the lameness disappears, except when 
 lame from splints, sore shins, corns, founder or sprains. 
 Intermittent lameness, that is the animal goes lame one 
 time, sound another, is characteristic of rheumatism or 
 navicular trouble. 
 
Foot and tAmb Troubles. 233 
 
 Lameness behind is usually in the hock; if in front the 
 feet of heavy horses are usually affected, light horses 
 being liable to affections of the cannons, tendons or liga- 
 ments as well as the feet. Wearing of the toe of a front 
 shoe is symptomatic of navicular, of a hind shoe, spavin; 
 if the heel is worn it is likely to be due to either founder 
 or ringbone. 
 
 Shoulderslip, or as it is generally termed Sweeny is 
 rather a common accident in young farm horses, espe- 
 cially among those employed in breaking new land con- 
 taining bush or tree roots; the shoulder muscles are 
 sprained and as a result wasting (atrophy) of the outer 
 muscles takes place, and the animal is then said to be 
 sweenied. This affection is eaSy to diagnose when once 
 the wasting has occurred, the treatment is necessarily of 
 long duration owing to the damage to the muscle cells, 
 the wasted muscles usually take months to fill out. In 
 the early stages bathing with hot water, and a high 
 heeled shoe on the affected limb followed by repeated 
 blisters over the shoulder will usually give the desired 
 results; rest, the use of a breast collar and avoidance of 
 , the cause will also aid in recovery. 
 
 Wasting of these muscles may result from rheumatism 
 or chest founder (navicular disease). 
 
 Sore shoulder and collar galls are very common on the 
 farm and can best be prevented by having collars and 
 harnesses that fit. A very good method is on returning a 
 horse to the stable to loosen the back pad, collar or sad- 
 dle, lift up and replace, leaving there for 15 to 30 min- 
 utes, the reason for so doing is that the parts under the 
 harness are quite hot, and if the gear is removed at once 
 
234 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the parts become chilled and a congested swelling results 
 unless a brisk rubbing is given the parts; the use of a 
 strong solution of alum and water or salt and water to 
 the shoalders after removal of the harness will serve to 
 toughen the parts; if sores result they should be treated 
 as ordinary wounds; in some cases they areslow to heal, 
 e. g., at the top of the neck, in that case needing the 
 stimulating effects of some blistering material to increase 
 the blood supply to the parts, while the chronic sores of 
 the shoulder often take on a hard toughened appearance, 
 being termed— sitfasts — such a condition will need the 
 surgeon's attention. A sudden swelling often results 
 from- the use of a collar too small, it is not an abscess 
 containing pus, but a swelling containing serum, which 
 on being let out resembles bloody water, such cases early 
 require careful attention and the veterinarian in order to 
 make prompt recoveries, if left they get hard and are- a 
 continual cause of sore shoulder, eventually calling for 
 the knife. Capped knees are quite common in cattlie, 
 often the result of lack of bedding in the stalls, in the 
 early stages bathe with hot water and apply a liniment, 
 later on the knife or the insertion of a seton (a piece of 
 tape) through the enlargement from top to bottom. 
 
 Splints are bony enlargements on the cannon which 
 connect it with the small splint bones, and are the result 
 of inflammation caused by concussions. Young horses 
 are very liable, the scrub more so than the pure-bred, ow- 
 ing to the inferior quality of the bone (see page 5, anat. ). 
 In order to detect them, although in many cases they are 
 easily seen, the finger and thumb are passed down over 
 the small cannon bone, notice being taken of any varia- 
 
^oot and idmb Troubles. 256 
 
 tion from the smoothness of those bones. The lameness 
 is due to the stretching of the periosteum during the 
 throwing out of the bony niaterial (splint formation), the 
 lameness quite often disappears when once the splint is 
 formed, and the enlargement may also disappear in the 
 same manner that a callus does. The lameness shown is 
 often out of aill proportion to the size of the splint, those 
 more serious are close up to the knee joint, exercise 
 increases the lameness. If no lameness is evident do not 
 bother the animal with blisters, etc., always let "well" 
 alone, if lame give rest, reduce any inflammation with 
 cold water,, and thoroughly rub the parts firmly but 
 gently with an oiled leather-covered piece of wood once 
 daily, 15 minutes each time, if this fails the red mercury 
 blister may be applied a few times at two weeks inter- 
 vals. 'Splints are more common on the fore legs than on 
 the hind ones, and oftenest on the inner side of the limb. 
 
 Scratches, mud fever, cracked heels, are relatives, all 
 being a form of skin trouble of the limbs, often the re- 
 sult of too much washing, clipping the limbs, or an alka- 
 line mud. 
 
 The parts should be thoroughly cleansed with warm 
 water and castile soap, well dried, and clean, sweet fat 
 (unsalted) rubbed in, or a little iodoform and boracic 
 acid can be mixed with the lard in the proportion of 1 
 to 10 and applied; speaking of this trouble Capt. Hayes 
 says "that the external use of water should be confined 
 to the animal's muzzle, eyes, dock, and sheath." If any 
 inflammation is present poultice with a turnip poultice 
 or hot, dry bran; even in this disease avoid washing the 
 limbs as much as possible. 
 
230 
 
 Veterinary Memenis. 
 
 Ringbone is a disease of the bony strncture, occurriDg 
 as tlie result of inflammation of the pastern or coffin 
 
 bones, usually 
 on the hind pas- 
 tern, but may be 
 found on the fore 
 limbs. This 
 trouble occurs in 
 different loca- 
 tions on the pas- 
 terns, e. g., if 
 affecting the 
 joint between 
 the two pastern 
 bones is termed 
 "high I'ing- 
 bone," if the 
 joint between 
 the small pas- 
 tern and coffin 
 bone is affected 
 the low ringbone 
 Sometimes the 
 enlargement appears on the large pastern bone, and it is 
 then termed "false ringbone." The bony deposit may 
 be at the front or sides of the bones affected, and may 
 cause lameness by interfering with the movement of the 
 tendons or ligaments. Ringbones maj' be caused by a 
 horse going on the toe, the result of spavin. It is im- 
 portant to remember that the pasterns may be rough, 
 large and prominent at the joints and yet not be affected, 
 
 A welIj maeked case of kino hone. 
 L. p. B. , Long pastern bone; S. P. B., short pastern 
 bone; the bony enlargement at the joint is 
 ]jlainly seen. 
 
 is said to exist, it is a serious condition. 
 
Foot and lAmb Troubles. 237 
 
 the prominences noticed are to give attachment to liga- 
 ments and muscles, both pasterns should be alike. In 
 the early stages there is a stiffness of movement of the 
 pastern joints, and if in the fore foot a tendency to walk 
 on the heel, the lameness being shown long before any 
 enlargement can be noticed. 
 
 The only satisfactory treatment is the firing iron, fol- 
 lowed with a blister, and the avoidance of breeding from 
 sires or dams with this disease. 
 
 Sidebones is the apt term used to describe the turning 
 into bone of the lateral cartilages, which change may be 
 partial or complete; as will be remembered these carti- 
 lages are of a gristly nature and yield more or less under 
 pressure with the fingers and thumb. Heavy horses 
 seem to be the ones mainly affected, and in connection 
 with this fact concussion can hardly be the cause, injury 
 from stepping on one another, and heredity, greatest of 
 all, are the probable causes. The symptoms are lame- 
 ness with a stilty action and shortness of the gait, har- 
 dening and enlargement of the cartilages. 
 
 The treatment is not satisfactory, blistering and firing 
 doing good only in the earlier stages. A bar rocker 
 shoe with frog pressure, fomentations and rest, later work 
 on soft ground, will be about the best treatment, some 
 people have the animal nerved if the lameness continues; 
 aI)ove all do not breed from a stallion with sidebones, and if 
 ludging throw out a stallion so affected always. 
 
 Thrush is a disease of the frog usually following lack of 
 pressure to the frog and consequent lessening of the blood 
 supply; from the dung and urine being allowed to accu- 
 mulate in the feet, or too much moisture. 
 
238 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 There is often lameness, and an offensive smell from 
 the affected frog, in some cases it has a cheesy-like ap- 
 pearance; if the frog is allowed to spoil under the condi- 
 tions mentioned, the heels turn in, unless kept low, and 
 the foot becomes contracted. Pick and clean the feet 
 out once daily; if thrush is present, after cleansing the 
 part and cutting away the diseased portion, press in burnt 
 alum, cover with tar, or use 
 
 Bluestone 1 ounce. 
 
 Lard 1 ounce. 
 
 Tar 2 ounces. 
 
 Powder the bluestone, mix it with the lard and tar, 
 and place over a slow fire so as to melt and thus mix the 
 ingredients; if work has to be continued put in the alum 
 or bluestone, cover with oakum or cotton batting, and 
 tar. A little turpentine and sweet oil equal parts poured 
 into the frog occasionally will tend to harden them and 
 prevent thrush, always^give frog pressure. 
 
 Coffln joint lameness, navicular disease, is a disease of 
 the coffin joint, and its cartilages, which comes on slowly, 
 usually the result of concussion, more especially if the 
 foot is not a strong one and of good shape, shoeing with 
 high heels, thus relieving the frog from pressure, will 
 thus increase the chances of concussion and indirectly 
 increase the tendency to this disease, long, hard, contin 
 ual driving is a frequent cause, the endless bang on a hard 
 road will almost invariably cause this disease, the speed 
 has little to do with it. The pastern of an affected foot 
 is more upright than usual, the hoof upright and con 
 cave and the heels often strong. Pointing in the stable, 
 favoring of the limb affected, shortening of the stride, 
 
Foot and Limb Troubles. 239 
 
 witli a stilty, stubby gait, are all symptoms of this disease; 
 if one notices a horse affected with this disease driven 
 on the street, which is later on stopped and tied, the 
 animal will be noticed to paw slightly with the affected 
 foot, in fact is really hunting a comfortable spot on 
 which to rest the foot so as to allow the co£6n joint to be 
 flexed, he may even rest the heel on a stone. If both 
 feet are affected the gait is very short, he paddles, stubs 
 the toes, and. if the pain is severe will lie down the 
 greater part of the time when in the stable; as a result 
 the muscles of the whole limb may waste, thus giving 
 rise to the condition termed "chest founder," the hoof 
 and coronet will also be narrower than usual. 
 
 Treatment— Grive rest, blister the coronet and turn on 
 a soft pasture; if not cured get your veterinarian to put 
 in a frog seton,. and if that fails, have him nerve the 
 animal, after which operation the feet will need daily 
 watching and care, although enabled to work without 
 lameness for a year or two after the operation. Have 
 the feet pared so as to throw slightly forward on the tocj 
 and apply a wide webbed shoe with a roll to the toe. 
 
 Pricks in shoeing are not as common as they used to be, 
 the shoeing smiths being more careful than heretofore 
 and as a result of the various horseshoers' associations 
 studying the anatomy and physiology of the feet. 
 The cause may be, driving nails too close or in the wrong 
 direction, thus penetrating into or bearing on the quick, 
 the lameness and pain may not show for a day or even 
 for a couple of weeks, in the latter case pus is likely 
 forming. Some horses have thin walled hoofs and are 
 easily pricked; the nearer the heel the greater the dan- 
 
240 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 ger, inside quarters being oftener pricked than outside 
 ones. If a horse has been left shod for some months and 
 when reshod has the foot cut down pretty well, he is apt 
 to go lame, due to the strain thrown on the tendons and 
 ligaments or to the sole having been made too thin, thus 
 pressing on the sensitive parts, and the animal may be 
 thought to have been pricked. If a horse goes lame 
 after shoeing, the nail being driven high or the point 
 not shown; or the hammer gives a dull sound, we may 
 suspect pricking; if blood follows the withdrawal of a 
 nail, or if the nail is wet, due to matter (pus) we can be 
 certain that the quick has been hurt, in some cases after 
 paring the feet a stain may be seen around the nail hole. 
 The color of the matter (pus) is often a guide as to the 
 extent of the injury, if black, the wound is only super- 
 ficial and will soon recover; a yellowish color shows pus 
 more or less deep seated; if purple and a putrid smell 
 the chances are that the pedal bone is affected, should 
 great pain be shown after letting out the matter, the 
 injury is very serious. In this form of disease the same 
 rules apply as to other wounds, plenty of drainage so as to 
 get the pus away must be given, hence pare the foot, steep 
 in a hot antiseptic solution for a couple of hours,' or a 
 bath of bluestone — one ounce to a pint of water — may be 
 given daily, for an hour; if the hoof is hard the applica- 
 tion of a hot flaxseed poultice will be useful, before doing 
 much paring of the foot; after paring down, baths fol- 
 lowed by oakum and tar stoppings are to be preferred to 
 poultices. Pricks from shoeing or from nails picked up 
 on the street will, if not attended to, result in pus form- 
 ing and working upwards to the coronet and there break 
 
Foot and lAmb Troubles. 241 
 
 out, thus forming what is known as a "quittor," it is 
 needless to say that the treatment for this condition will 
 have to be left to the surgeon. 
 
 Corns are bruises of the sensitive sole, usually in that 
 portion enclosed by the inner angle of the wall and bars, 
 usually present in the fore feet. Weak heels predispose 
 to the disease, very strong heels may also result in this 
 trouble due to pinching of the sole between them and the 
 pedal bone. 
 
 The causes of corns are several, chief of which is 
 faulty shoeing, putting pressure on parts not intended to 
 bear it, by cutting down the bars or putting on short 
 heeled shoes, and especially by the common practice of leav- 
 ing shoes on horses' feet for months at a time without reset- 
 ting and removal of excess of horn growth. Excessive thin- 
 ning of the sole and later stepping on a stone will cause 
 the sole bruise (corn), some weak-footed horses will 
 have corns in spite of all methods of shoeing; barefooted 
 horses rarely have corns. 
 
 The lameness resulting from corns gets worse as the 
 animal is worked who may point. If the shoes are re- 
 moved and the sole pared the surface will be noticed to 
 be reddened and in some cases pus may be found, always 
 a serious condition. Eemoval of the shoe, paring out 6f 
 the seat of the corn and a poultice to the foot, will in 
 cases of lameness, due to a corn, result in almost mar- 
 velous cures. Antiseptics, such as tar, should be used 
 and a bar or three-quarter shoe should be put on, care 
 being taken to avoid pressure on the affected parts. 
 
 Foot rot in cattle and sheep will often occur if the feet 
 are allowed to grow too long and get fouled with manure, 
 16 
 
242 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 or as a result of ruDiiing on low-lying, wet, muddy pas- 
 tures. Lameness will be excessive, the pain in some 
 cases causing the animal to go off its feed, fall behind the 
 flock or herd and sometimes go on its knees, in such cases 
 trim down the feet and bathe in a bluestone solution 
 (sulfate of copper (bluestone) 1 ounce to water 10 ounces), 
 then apply tar to the parts, two or three applications of 
 the bluestone solution will usually cure most cases; where 
 large numbers need treatment the solution is made and 
 placed in a wooden trough and the animals walked 
 through it; the former conditions should be changed; in 
 those cases in which sloughing has occurred butyr of 
 antimony may be used to touch the raw spots. 
 
 A good way to treat cattle affected is to take a piece of 
 cheesecloth soaked with the drug, after cleaning between 
 the cleft, working back and forth and then apply pine 
 tar on a clean piece of cheesecloth; which may be tied 
 on the foot as follows: Take a piece of cheesecloth and 
 split it at both ends; spread tar over the unsplit part 
 and draw up between the claws; then bring the ends 
 from the back around and tie to those on the front, a 
 knot having been tied in each to prevent the split ex- 
 tending too far; in severe cases poultice with flaxseed, or 
 boiled turnips; do not use cow dung or other dirty 
 materials. 
 
 Dropped Hip is a fairly common fracture occurring in i 
 horses, sometimes seen in cattle, being in fact the break- 
 ing down of the outer point of the hip bone, the result of 
 rushing through narrow doorways or animals crowding 
 in such places, the careful stockman will always give his 
 §tock plenty of time to get through doorways, gateways, 
 
Foot and lAnib Troubles. 243 
 
 etc. Owing to the action of the muscles attached, union 
 of the parts is rare, generally a fibrou^ joint is the 
 result (see Fractures) in other cases the parts do not 
 unite and an operation has to be performed to remove the 
 loose piece of bone. A somewhat similar deformity is 
 that due to fracture of the point of the bone of the but- 
 tock, just below the root of the tail, to detect the lesion 
 one has to stand to one side of the animal, and in dropped 
 hip behind. Pain and swelling, together with lameness, 
 and occasionally formation of pus aid in the detection of 
 these lesions due to accident. 
 
 Stifle out (luxation of the patella) exists in two forms, 
 the partial and complete; the former usually in young 
 colts, the result of heredity; stallions poorly muscled 
 through the stifles get such stocJc; the latter in older ani- 
 mals, the result of an accident. In young colts the bone 
 will be seen to slip in and out, a clicking noise being 
 made at each step; for such cases a mild blister repeated 
 at two-week intervals will often aid the young patient. 
 To avoid such cases feed well, do not keep on very hilly 
 pastures, and avoid making the foal follow its dam dur- 
 ing the day while working. The construction (anatomy) 
 of the parts will aid in understanding this trouble 
 and the means of reduction. In partial dislocations in 
 grown horses a sharp crack of a whip will startle the 
 animal and the bone will fly into place, in other cases 
 (complete dislocation) it will be necessary to place a 
 rope around the fetlock of the affected limb, and have an 
 assistant to draw the limb well forward, the hand being 
 used to press the bone forward and inwards at the same 
 time, when it will usually fly into place with a sharp 
 
244 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 click, once in place it is best retained there by keeping 
 the limb well forward by means of a sideline and by the 
 use of a stifle shoe (a shoe with a piece of iron project- " 
 ing in front four or five inches) on the foot of the affected 
 limb. A smart blister, cantharides (Spanish fly) one 
 part to clean sweet lard six parts, applied twice, at an 
 interval of two weeks, will assist in repairing the injury. 
 That the animal should be rested during the treatment 
 every sensible person will understand; treatment in these 
 cases should be prompt. 
 
 When the lesion occurs the limb affected is stiff, nailed 
 to the ground as it were, kept out behind the body, and 
 if made to move is dragged with the toe down, the wall 
 and even the front of the pastern may be on the ground, 
 the animal moves with very great difficulty. 
 
 Spavin is the bane of horse flesh and horsemen, and 
 while of two kinds, (a) bone spavin, affecting the bones 
 of the hock, and (6) bog spavin, affecting the bursse of 
 the joint and adjacent structures, there is little differ- 
 ence as to the serious nature of either ^trouble, owing to 
 the difficulty in curing either form of spavin. 
 
 Bone spavin (jack) is a disease of the bones of the hook 
 joint, an inflammation of the articular (joint) surface, 
 as a result of which marked lameness is usually shown, 
 following which a bony enlargement is thrown out at the 
 lower part of the internal side of the hock joint; the re- 
 sult of this disease is often stiffening of the joint. The 
 more serious bone spavins are those affecting the upper 
 row of hock bpnes, situated towards the front of the joint, 
 and affecting animals over six years old. Coarse hocks 
 may exist, and if no lameness and both are alike should 
 not be condemned. The causes of spavin are bad con- 
 
Foot and Limb Trouhles. 
 
 245 
 
 formation, sprains, excessive work of the hind limbs, 
 result of jumping, high school work, tying in below the 
 hocks; this disease is sometimes seen in cattle and sheep. 
 Spavin is in many cases easily detected, due to the 
 enlargement, being accompanied by lameness, which is 
 
 characterized by a short- 
 ening of the stride, drag- 
 ging of the toe, which is 
 unnaturally worn as a 
 consequence, lameness, 
 which the horse will 
 warm out of, but if stood 
 up for twelve to twenty - 
 four hours will show 
 quite markedly, if recent 
 there may be heat of the 
 parts and no enlarge- 
 ment, in fact in that form 
 known as occult (hid- 
 den) spavin no enlarge- 
 ment is shown at all. 
 
 Examination of the 
 hocks. To detect the 
 enlargement the ex- 
 aminer should stand in 
 
 BONE SPAVIN ON HOCK OF OFF LEG. frOUt aud Oi llttlO tO thC 
 
 outside of the foreleg of the same side as the hock to be 
 examined, the hock should present a somewhat wedge- 
 shaped appearance, the base being upwards, by placing 
 one's self in a similar position by the other fore leg the 
 other hock is seen and a comparison made, the only safe 
 way to detect the enlargement; if suspected the examiner 
 
246 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 may flex (close the joint) the hock up tightly and have 
 the animal trotted off quickly, which, if affected, will 
 limp perceptiblj^ The hocks should also be felt with 
 the hands, the off hock with the left palm, etc. The 
 treatment is preventive and curative, the former by 
 avoiding the use of spavined sires or dams, by proper shoe- 
 ing and avoidance of too heavy loads; the curative con- 
 sists in reducing the inflammation by giving rest, warm 
 fomentations, a high-heeled shoe, and a blister (the red 
 iodide of mercury ), and if that fails the firing iron and 
 blister, which should be left to the veterinarian. It is an 
 unsoundness. In some cases in which firing does not 
 relieve, tibial neurectomy (cutting of the nerve) or 
 cunean tenotomy (cutting of the tendon) of the parts 
 should be ]>erformed by the surgeon. 
 
 Bog spavin is a condition in which the capsular liga- 
 ment of the hock joint is distended by joint oil (synovia), 
 appearing as a soft swelling on the inner sides of the 
 hock, just above the site of bone 
 spavin. This disease occurs in 
 two forms, (I) without any in- 
 flammation or lameness; (2) a 
 hard, painful swelling with ac 
 companying lameness. The 
 causes are premature overwork; 
 defective conformation, due to 
 heredity; the swelling being soft 
 and cool, it may be due to over- 
 BOG sPAvrs AND THOROUGH- fecdlug, such as for show pur- 
 
 PIN TUUSS. . , 
 
 poses, m such cases cold water 
 compresses and a good hand rubbing for 20 to 30 minutes 
 before taking before the judges will often remove the 
 
l^oot and Limb Troubles. 
 
 24? 
 
 enlargement for a short time; treatment is usually 
 unsatisfactory, pressure by the use of a bog spavin and 
 thoroughpin truss being the best. 
 
 Thoroughpin is rarely absent when bog spavin exists, 
 and is due to the pressure of the fluid constituting the 
 bog spavin on the bursa? of the perforans tendon, which 
 is thus pushed out of place. This lesion appears as a 
 swelling at the back part of the hind leg, just above the 
 point of the hock and in front of the hamstring, it can 
 be pressed from side to side with the finger, the treat- 
 ment is the same as for bog spavin. In draft stallions 
 
 may be due to a sprain of 
 the tendons, a serious con- 
 dition. 
 
 Curb is an enlargement (a 
 bowing out) at the back 
 part of the hock, about six 
 to eight inches below its 
 point, usually it is de- 
 scribed as a sprain of the 
 ligaments at the back of 
 the hock, quite often the 
 bones of the part are af- 
 fected also, the enlarge- 
 ment being due in many 
 cases to the pushing out- 
 ward of the ligament by 
 the inflamed bone. To de- 
 tect the enlargement it is 
 often necessary to stand to 
 BAD (ouEBY) HIND DEGs. ouo slde of thc hock and 
 
 c, a curb. then to the other so as to 
 
248 Veterinary Mements. 
 
 see the back line of the leg in profile. The causes of this 
 trouble are many, jumping and slipping, going up steep 
 inclines, and more especially conformation, the result of 
 heredity. Horsemen often speak of curby (sickle) hooks, 
 siich a conformation is especially liable to curb, and is readily 
 transmitted to the progeny by an affected sire. The lever- 
 age exerted in connection with the hock joint is very 
 powerful, the ground being the fulcrum; the weight, the 
 resistance of the head of the lower thigh bone; the power, 
 the muscles of the gaskin (lower thigh) attached to the 
 point of the hock. The tendency to curb will be increased 
 by (1) work too severe for the strength of the lever, (2) 
 by disease or immaturity having rendered the parts une- 
 qual to the strain, (3) by the surface for attachment 
 of the ligaments being too small,, a tied-in hock, (4) 
 by the muscles of the gaskin being very strong, (5) by 
 the presence of a large angle formed by the direction of 
 the weight and lever, as in the sickle hock. It is an uur 
 soundness and a very bad defect in stallions; is probably 
 commoner in light than heavy horses; lameness is shown 
 in the earlier stages as a rule. The application of a high- 
 heeled shoe and the red mercurial blister (biniodide of 
 mercury 1 to 4 of lard) will generally overcome the 
 trouble; if the lameness and enlargement persist, -the 
 veterinarian should be asked to fire the parts. 
 
 Stringhalt is a disease of a tendon of the hind limb, it 
 used to be classed as a purely nervous affection. The 
 affected parts (tendons) undergo severe contractions as 
 a result of inflammation of those tendons.' The exag- 
 gerated flexing of the hock, more quickly than natural, 
 and high lifting of the fuot seen when the animal is 
 
Foot and Limh Troubles. 249 
 
 backed or moved forward, render the recognition of this 
 disease quite plain; the treatment is surgical, and con- 
 sists in cutting the tendon (peroneus) a short distance 
 below the hock. 
 
 Shoeboil (capped elbow) is situated at the point of the 
 elbow, the result of too narrow stalls, lack of bedding or 
 pressure of the heels of the shoe when lying down; to 
 prevent it the heel should be padded, or a piece of 2" by 
 2" stuff nailed crosswise in the stall, about half way 
 back. This trouble usually calls for the intervention of 
 the surgeon before being finally cured; if it is well fo- 
 mented with warm water in the early stages and the fol- 
 lowing liniment applied. 
 
 Soap liniment \ pint, 
 
 Strong spirits of ammonia J drachm, 
 
 every day for two weeks, being well rubbed in, the more 
 serious blemish may be avoided. 
 
 Capped hock occurs in two forms, that due to enlarge- 
 ment of the joint oil sac (bursse) of the part, and the 
 less serious form, the cyst formed between the tendon 
 and the skin, usually the result of injury, such as kick- 
 ing in the stable. When the inflammation is overcome 
 it may be blistered occasionally; grooms favor a paste of 
 vinegar and fuller's earth applied over the parts when 
 in the stable. 
 
CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL PARASITES OF 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Parasitic troubles are numerous among the stockman's 
 charges, and are in many cases hard to overcome, horses, 
 sheep and poultry seem to be more commonly affected 
 than cattle and pigs. In order to render the study of 
 these parasites easier, they will be classified into (A) 
 external, (B), internal. 
 
 (A). External parasites cause such diseases as scab in 
 sheep, mange in horses and dogs, lice of all farmstock, 
 including poultry, the warbles of cattle, ringworm of 
 cattle and grease of horses. 
 
 Scab is a disease of sheep, caused by one of the mange 
 parasites (sarcoptes ovis), and is transmitted by contact 
 from one sheep to the other. Range sheep are more com- 
 monly affected than those kept on the farms, although 
 the recent laws and systematic dippings are tending to 
 stamp it out. Sheep affected with this disease do not 
 thrive, they are continually rubbing themselves, due to 
 the itching caused by the parasite (scabmite), the wool 
 falls out, leaving large, bare, raw spots, and often forma- 
 tion of scabs and tagging of the wool, later the skin be- 
 comes furrowed and thickened and bleeds from the 
 cracks. The best treatment is preventive in character. 
 Dip all sheep before putting with the flock; effected 
 sheep should be kept from healthy sheep, and dipped a 
 
External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 251 
 
 couple of times at two-week intervals; the various dips on 
 the market, such as Cooper's, Little's, etc., are reliable. 
 
 A CASE OF SCAB. 
 
 Mange in horses and dogs is not easy to control; in 
 horses it affects the mane and tail; spreading to the jaws, 
 body and thighs, there is great itchiness and a tendency 
 to rub, pimples form and discharge a serum and bare 
 spots appear; the skin gets a roughened sore appearance, 
 it usually takes one to two months to develop, and is 
 very contagious, the latter symptoms distinguishing it 
 from eczema. In order to get at the parasites, the hair 
 should be clipped and the clippings burned, the animal 
 should be washed with soap and warm water to a quart 
 of which should be added a tablespoonful of concentrated 
 
252 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 lye or washing soda, using a stiff brush to apply the 
 suds; creolin one ounce to the pint of water, or sulfur 
 one to lard eight parts should be well rubbed in daily 
 after the first washing. ' All harness should be -cleansed, 
 currycombs and brushes immersed for a few minutes in 
 boiling water, and the bedding burned if these articles 
 have been used for ma'ngy animals. Hot carbolic lime 
 wash sprayed over the stalls will also be beneficial. That 
 form of manginess affecting the limbs of hairy legged 
 horses commonly termed grease, is also hard to over- 
 come, the same general treatment should be given, for 
 the local application after the washing, the sulfur-kero- 
 sene mixture so much used by heavy horsemen will be 
 found very penetrating and consequently very beneficial. 
 In this form the mange mites commence at the back of 
 the pastern and work up to the knee or hock, affecting 
 the hind limbs generally; there is gre£|,t itchiness, the 
 horses bite and rub their fetlocks, and often are heard to 
 strike the ground frequently with the foot. Cracks, 
 crusts and thickening of the skin result from this dis- 
 ease. A form of this disease known as scaly legs occurs 
 in poultry, in which cases the legs are swelled and rough- 
 ened in appearance, due to the standing out of the scales, 
 washing with warm soapsuds and the application of cre- 
 olin, kerosene, being careful with the latter, or hen oil 
 (Tilson) a few times will overcome the trouble. 
 
 Lice infest all varieties of farm stock, and make their 
 presence known by the excessive itchiness shown by the 
 stock and the appearance of the parasites and their eggs 
 (nits). The treatment will vary with the animals, if 
 sheep or pigs are affected, the former with a red louse. 
 
External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 253 
 
 dip as for scab, using such iaaterials as creolin, germol, 
 chloronaplitholeuin, etc., and repeat the dipping in two 
 week's time, thus allowing time for the nits to hatch out, 
 when the new lice can be destroyed; ticks of sheep need 
 the same treatment, usually given by the best shepherds 
 shortly after shearing. Cattle need the application of 
 creolin and water (one to twenty), melted lard and kero- 
 sene (two to one) or the kerosene emulsion made as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 One-half pound hard soap and one gallon of water, 
 boil until the soap is dissolved, then add two gallons of 
 kerosene (coal oil) and mix thoroughly; when about to 
 use take oue part of the emulsion to four to eight parts 
 of the water; in place.of the hard soap, whale oil soap or 
 one quart of soft soap may be used. 
 
 Ringworm is a contagious disease dae to a fungus found 
 on man, horses and cattle; it often dies out of its own 
 accord. This disease, as the name implies, shows itself 
 by bare ring-shaped patches, in which the hairs are seen 
 to be broken off close to the skin, on some spots the hairs 
 are split at the ends or are dead. The parasite often 
 affeets the skin around the eyes of cattle, and in some 
 cases will spread over the neck or on parts of the body. 
 The affected parts should be well washed with soapsuds, 
 using a brush to remove any of the dead skin scales, 
 then follow with one of the following ointments, one being 
 as useful as the other: 
 
 Salicylic acid '. 1 part, 
 
 Clean sweet lard 6 parts, 
 
 or 
 
 Iodide of sulfur 1 part, 
 
 Lard. 8 parts, 
 
254 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 which should be applied once or twice daily for a week, 
 being applied by rubbing well in with the fingers; as the 
 disease is contagious the harness," combs, brushes, etc. ,~ 
 should be disinfected as recommended for mange. Af- 
 fected animals should be given good food and tonics. 
 
 Maggots in animals are generally found on wounds, 
 and often on sheep that are left untagged, is really 
 induced by uncleanliness; summer time is the period 
 when the pests are to be found, hence the reason for the 
 avoidance of such operations as dehorning during the 
 summer months; as soon as fly time begins, maggots, 
 which are the larvse of flies, being hatched from their 
 eggs, should be looked for. The treatment is cleanli- 
 ness, frequent tagging (cutting off the pieces of wool 
 soiled with the urine or feces) of sheep, and the occa- 
 sional application of creolin, or'some other antiseptic^ 
 
 Grub in the head is a disease affecting sheep, due to the 
 sheep gadfly laying its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep, 
 which eggs eventually hatch out the larvae or grub, 
 causes sneezing and discharge of mucus from the nostrils 
 and by the irritation set up in the nasal cavities may 
 cause death. Preventive measures are the most satis- 
 factory to adopt, tarring the nostrils being as good as 
 any; for a flock, it is recommended to bore two inch 
 auger holes in a log, place salt in the bottom and smear 
 the edges with the tar, the sheep in their desire for salt 
 will in this way apply the tar themselves, further treat- 
 ment is surgical and not practicable for general flock 
 management. Sheep seem to know intuitively the result- 
 of the attacks of this gadfly and will try to bury their 
 noses in the earth to avoid its attack 
 
External imd Internal Parasites of Animals. 255 
 
 The horn fly of cattle is very common in some seasons, 
 it is a little black fly, often found in clusters around the 
 liorn base, for its prevention bi-weekly applications of 
 fish oil containing carbolic acid, -one ounce to the gallon 
 of oil and applied along the back and around the horns. 
 Its effects are too well known to need description. The 
 use of this mixture will also tend to keep off the warble 
 fly, the effects of which are seen in the warbles found on 
 the backs of cattle, when removed the warble (larvae of 
 the fly) should be at once destroyed. Hides are often 
 materially injured owing to attacks of this fly during the 
 life of the animal. Four ounces of flowers of sulphur, 
 onegill spirits of tar, train oil one quart, mixed and applied 
 along the spine once a week will tend to prevent the 
 ravages of this fly. 
 
 Poultry lice cause intense itching and loss of condition 
 in the host, and should not be permitted to exist in any 
 up-to-date poultry house. Cases are cited in which ani- 
 mals (horses, etc.,) have become affected when the poul- 
 try roosted with them. The removal of the poultry and 
 the use of insect powder if in winter or the creolin lotion 
 in summer, together with the plentiful use of kerosene 
 or hot lime wash, will overcome the trouble; use sulfur 
 lavishly or insect powder in the nests. Hen houses 
 should be thoroughly treated twice yearly with hot lime 
 wash^ the roosts and nests being plentifully dowsed with 
 kerosene. 
 
 Summer sores in horses are said to be parasitic in their 
 nature, in India being termed bursattee. The disease is 
 shown by sores on the skin, at the fetlock, sheath, face, 
 lips and front of the chest; at the beginning the sores are 
 
256 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 red and unhealthy looking, sometimes nearly a foot in 
 diameter, are often kept moist by the discharge, in the 
 sores are often found little pea-shaped hard yellowish 
 bodies; the sores heal of their own accord in cold weather. 
 In accordance with the idea of parasitic origin, strong 
 antiseptics should be used, carbolic acid full strength, 
 later paint on camphor one part to carbolic acid, two 
 and one-half parts. The application of one of the fol- 
 lowing after the sore begins to look healthy will be all 
 that is needed, in addition to preventing, any irritation: 
 
 Carbolic acid 1 ounce, 
 
 Resin ■. 1 ounce, 
 
 Camphor 5 ounces, 
 
 Methylated spirits , 15 ounces, 
 
 or 
 
 Iodoform 1 dram, 
 
 Oil of eucalyptus 1 ounce. 
 
 Keep the sore covered with the drugs until healed. 
 
 INTERNAL PARASITES. 
 
 Bots are the larvae of gad-flies which lay their orange- 
 colored eggs on the legs and between the jaws of horses, 
 the eggs are licked off or fall into the feed and are thus 
 swallowed by the horse, where they are hatched out in 
 the stomach, where the larvse (bot) will stay for months, 
 later on being passed out in the dung to be hatched out 
 as the gadfly, so well known to horsemen and so much 
 dreaded by their charges. It is doubtful if- any horses 
 in this country are free from bots, postmortems invaria- 
 
Hxtemal and Internal Parasites of Animals. 257 
 
 bly showing them to be present in varying numbers. 
 The preventive treatment is to destroy the eggs. A 
 cloth dampened with kerosene will tend to remove them. 
 The effect of bots depends on the number present, if few 
 no ill effects are noticed, but if many, the horse is un- 
 thrifty, suffers from indigestion and may die from their 
 effects on the stomach walls; they are fastened on the 
 stomach walls very firmly and it is doubtful whether 
 medicines have much effect, turpentine two ounces in 
 one and one-half pints of new milk three mornings in 
 succession, given on an empty stomach, will probably be 
 as effectual as any drug. Copperas powders, owing to 
 their tonic and astringient effect on the mucous mem- 
 branes will also be beneficial; tartar emetic two drams 
 in the food daily for two weeks might be used in place 
 of the drench. 
 
 Pin worms are small thin whip-like worms one to one 
 and a half inches long, found in the posterior bowel 
 (rectum,), while producing little disturbance of the gen- 
 eral health, they manifest themselves as a rule by a yel- 
 low waxy matter around the anus and by rubbing of the 
 tail and hind parts, the worms may also be found in or 
 . passed with the excrement. The treatment is mainly 
 local, by means of injections, first give an injection to 
 clean out the bowel, and follow it with one of salt and 
 water, one ounce of salt to one-half gallon of water; or a 
 - decoction of quassia chips may be used, if the injections 
 fail to remove them, internal treatment will be needed. 
 
 Round worms are the larger kind usually found in 
 horses, and when full growfi are six to fourteen inches in 
 length; they usually inhabit the small intestines; when 
 17 
 
258 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 many are present the animal loses condition, gets pot- 
 bellied, has a rough coat, capricious appetite, shows a 
 tendency to eat dirt, with occasionally a colic or diar- 
 rhoea, and presence of worms in the dung. The riddance 
 
 STOMACH OF A HORSE. 
 
 G.— The gullet (esophagus). 
 
 of a horse of these parasites is not very difficult if a 
 thorough effort is made to dislodge them, in order to get 
 the best effects the animal should be starved before giving 
 the drugs, which may be as follows: 
 
 Tartar emetic | drachm, 
 
 Copperas J drachm, 
 
External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 259 
 
 mixed and given in the feed three times a day, followed 
 by a dose of aloes, of: 
 
 Turpentine two ounces, new milk one pint, given three 
 successive mornings on an empty stomach, the fourth 
 morning give Tartar emetic two drachms in a pint of 
 raw linseed oil, if the horse has to be worked steadily 
 the following powders will be useful: 
 
 Powdei'ed copperas 1 ounce, 
 
 Bowdered bluestone 1 ounce, 
 
 Powdered sugar 2 ounces, 
 
 mix and make into twelve powders, one to be given twice 
 daily in the feed. 
 
 "Worms are not common in cattle; in sheep are the fre- 
 quent cause of losses and occasionally so in pigs. 
 
 Stomach worms, usually found in lambs, are the most 
 serious and most common, they are very small, one-quar- 
 ter to one-third of an inch long, pale reddish in color, be- 
 ing found in the fourth stomach only. Lambs affected are 
 thirsty, pale in the eyes, lose weight, are dull, lose their 
 appetite, may scour or eat dirt. Benzine or gasoline 
 two to four drachms in six ounces of new milk, given 
 three mornings in succession on an empty stomach, have 
 been highly recommended; creolin and milk, in similar 
 doses may also be used. Worm powders for sheep should 
 be mixed with plenty of salt and placed in the salt 
 troughs. 
 
 Tape worms when present cause symptoms similar to 
 those described for stomach worms, in addition, paleness 
 of the skin and mucous membrane, brittleness of the 
 fleece, loss of flesh, voracious appetite, pieces of the 'tape 
 
260 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 worm in the dung; they are more prevalent in wet sea- 
 sons and on damp pastures. 
 
 Turpentine in raw milk, a decoction of pumpkin seeds, 
 are old and tried remedies; santonine, as much as will 
 lie on a five-cent piece, or tannate of pelletierine three to 
 five grains, are new remedies recommended. The best 
 preventive treatment is to change the pastures and crop 
 the old ones for a few years. 
 
 A long worm is sometimes found in the intestines of 
 pigs, unless in considerable numbers they seldom cause 
 much trouble, if suspected give turpejitine in milk or oil, 
 or oil of wormseed. 
 
CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR SUPPRESSION. 
 
 Diseases of germ origin have become of great import- 
 ance to the stock raiser in recent years and are more 
 easily controlled than formerly, owing to the work of 
 bacteriologists and veterinarians. Hygiene, which means 
 pure food, good water, pure air, sunshine and cleanli- 
 ne^, prevent the harboring of germs and thus limit or 
 prevent their propagation. 
 
 Tuberculosis, commonly termed consumption, is quite 
 prevalent in the human race and in cattle is not at all 
 uncommon. The cause of the disease is the bacillus tu- 
 berculosis, discovered by Koch in 1882. Heredity is only 
 a predisposing cause, as are lack of pure air, innutritious 
 food, lack of sunlight, as in dark basement barns, etc. 
 The disease is not easily discovered in the early stages 
 without the aid of the tuberculin test, which is a very 
 reliable method when in the hands of competent men, 
 and is entirely without danger to the animal tested; in 
 the later stages of this .serious trouble the disease is evi- 
 denced by a frequent cough, general ill-health, shown by 
 the staring coat, capricious appetite, and sometimes a 
 stinking diarrhoea. Treatment in the usual sense of the 
 term is not practicable; but the progress of the disease 
 in a herd may be arrested by culling out the diseased 
 cattle at least once a year by means of the tuberculin 
 test, separating the healthy from the unhealthy, and 
 
2G2 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 raising the calves from the diseased cattle, removing 
 them as soon as dropped, however, from the dams, this 
 being known as the Bang method.' Slaughter, based only 
 cm the results of the tuberculin test, is an insane and 
 expensive method of extermination of this pest, recom- 
 mended by some bacteriologists and veterinarians; it is 
 
 GIVING THE TUBERCULIN TEST. 
 
 time enough to slaughter when the animals shown to be 
 affected by the tuberculin test also show clinical symp- 
 toms, as mentioned above. Sunlight, imre air, good food 
 and tonics, oil meal, etc. , will all aid in lieeping animals in 
 good health, in which condition they are practically more 
 or less impregnable to the germ. It is a good plan to 
 test with tuberculin all animals brought into the herd. 
 
 1 Bang is a noted veterinary professor at Copenhagen. 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 263 
 
 especially if the herd is made up of pure-bred stock. 
 The tuberculin test, it should be remembered, is not in- 
 fallible. Thorough disinfection of stables should never be 
 neglected when tuberculosis has made its appearance; the 
 fact of its contagious nature must never be forgotten; the 
 probable danger to human beings can best be limited by 
 the tuberculin test followed by Bang's method, pasteur- 
 ization of milk and thorough meat inspection. Prof. 
 Koch (Berlin) has recently stated that human tubercu- 
 losis cannot be communicated to cattle, and while not 
 fully proven, is of the opinion that tuberculosis cannot be 
 given by cattle to the human being; he asserts the great 
 danger lies in infection by the sputum of man; be it all 
 as he states tuherculons cattle are not as good property as 
 non-tuberculous cattle. 
 
 Glanders and Farcy hold a somewhat similar position to 
 horses that tuberculosis does to cattle, although not as 
 common as that disease, yet is quite contagious, and in 
 the early stages hard to detect, in which case the use of 
 the mallein test is useful to detect the earliest inroads of 
 the glanders germ, the bacillus mallei. This disease is 
 transmissible to man, in whom it manifests itself by loath- 
 some symptoms. The symptoms, when the disease is far 
 enough advanced, in horses are as follows: A discharge 
 from one or. both nostrils, usually from the left one, of a 
 sticky, green, gluey nature, with a discharge from the 
 eyes and enlargement of the submaxillary gland found 
 beneath the jaws; in the local form, termed Farcy, little 
 lumps form on the limbs and body, which eventually 
 break and discharge pus. Treatment of this disease is 
 not advisable, in fact under the contagious diseases acts 
 
264 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 of various states, slaughter is called for, and is the best 
 means so far of controlling the disease. 
 
 Black-leg or quarter ill is a rather common disease af- 
 fecting young cattle, being of undoubted germ origin, but 
 fortunately, owing to the scientists, can be controlled in 
 a, herd. This disease appears somewhat suddenly, its 
 presence being made known by death of the young cattle 
 between six months and two years of age, especially dur- 
 ing the months of June, July and August. Crackling 
 swellings on the skin of the body, thighs, neck, shoul- 
 ders, etc., and limbs above the knees and hocks, which 
 swellings are at first small and painful, later becoming 
 cold and insensible, together with fever, loss of appetite, 
 and stoppage of rumination are all signs of this disease. 
 The swellings give out a crackling sound when the hand 
 is passed over them, if an incision is made into them a 
 dark red, frothy, nasty smelling fluid flows frOm the 
 wound. The germ obtains entrance through wounds in 
 the skin, taking from one to five days to develop. The 
 germ retains its vitality and contagious character for 
 months, fire being its surest destroyer. The most satis'- 
 factory treatment is that of a preventive nature, ob- 
 tained by the use of Blackleg vaccine or blacklegine, 
 which can be^got from any druggist. All dead bodies of 
 cattle affected with this disease should be burned. 
 
 Hog cholera and swine plague may be considered, for 
 all practical purposes, as one disease, differing only in 
 "locality, the fiist named attacking the intestines of hogs; 
 the second the lungs of those animals. The disease is 
 very contagious and fatal to hogs. The onset of the 
 disease may last from a few hours to several weeks. 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 265 
 
 Hogs "affected droop and cough, lose their appetite and 
 flesh rapidly, are very weak, may show diarrhoea or 
 constipation with pink spots over the abdomen or thighs. 
 The bowels are often found to be ulcerated and the 
 lungs inflamed on post-mortem. Treatment so far has 
 not been successful, though numerous quack remedies 
 are advertised to cure the trouble; preventive inocula- 
 tion is not yet a success, the Bareau of Animal Industry 
 recommends the following mixture to be given in the 
 feed, one teaspOonfuito each hog: 
 
 Charcoal 1 lb. 
 
 Sulphur 1 lb. 
 
 Common salt 2 lbs. 
 
 Baking soda 2 lbs. 
 
 Sulphate^ of soda 2 lbs. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 2 lbs. 
 
 Black antimony 1 lb. 
 
 If the disease appears in a drove of hogs, separate the 
 sick from the well, and ship the latter to market; disin- 
 fect the pens thoroughly, using plenty of lime, destroy 
 all the bedding used with fire. Quarantine all new hogs 
 for fifteen days before placing with the drove; do not allow 
 persons from infected farms to go into the pig pens or 
 yards. 
 
 Tetanus, or lockjaw, as it is commonly known, is more 
 common in cities than in the country; it might be de- 
 scribed as a state of continued contraction of voluntary 
 muscles. (those under control of the will): This disease 
 is due to germs which usually get into the animal by a 
 wound, once in that wound thgse germs produce power- 
 ful poisons, the results of which are shown in animals by 
 
266 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the following symptoms: Inability to open the month as 
 wide as normal, the nose poked out, the head slightly 
 elevated, the tail may be raised, the animal is very stiff 
 in its movements; if the head is suddenly lifted or the 
 animal frightened the haw will be seen to fly over the 
 eye, a safe indication of this disease; the nostrils are 
 dilated, breathing quickened and the belly tucked up. 
 The animal gets constipated and often its mouth gets foul, 
 due to retention of food in it. Death usually occurs from 
 spasms of the chest muscles or those of the larynx. The 
 period of incubation (time elapsing between the attack 
 by the germ and symptoms of the disease) is usually 
 from three to ten days; recovery is rare before the third 
 week, often five to six weeks are necessary before con- 
 valescence begins; the sooner symptoms are shown the 
 more fatal the disease. The germ of this disease is found 
 in earth and decaying matter, hence as this disease is 
 one of wound infection, it is readily seen how important 
 cleanliness and the use of antiseptics are in the treatment 
 of all wounds. The treatment of this disease calls for 
 the most skilled veterinary attention, the stockman doing 
 his part by keeping the animal perfectly quiet and free 
 from annoyance by visitors, the stall well bedded, a sup- 
 ply of nourishing food on hand and watching to see that 
 the animal does not ^et down and struggle. This dis- 
 ease may follow castration, docking, wounds of the feet, 
 even such as overreaches, etc., and the use of unclean 
 instruments. The anti-tetanic serum is being used in this 
 disease; so far it shows greater value as a preventive than 
 as a curative agent. 
 
 Texas fever is a disease of the Southern states affecting 
 cattle, the poison (virus) of the disease being carried 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 267 
 
 by a tick. The disease shows itself in cattle by fever, 
 bloody urine, dropsy, deficiency of blood, loss of appe- 
 tite, stoppage of milk secretion and rumination, rapid 
 ■yasting and death; post-mortems show the spleen 
 enlarged, as is the liver. The only effective treatment 
 is of the preventive character, by inoculation with the 
 blood serum of an affected animal. (Francis and Con- 
 noway). 
 
 Anthrax is a rapidly fatal disease of cattle and other 
 animals, the result of the inroads of the anthrax germ. 
 The suddenness of attack, ending in death in from a few 
 hours to a few days, high fever, congestion of mucous 
 membranes, bloody discharges from natural openings of 
 the body, signs of brain congestion, such as excitement, 
 bellowing, convulsions, stupor, and death; difficult, rapid 
 breathing, and as previous symptoms indigestion, consti- 
 pation, diminished vivacity. The treatment is entirely 
 of the preventive order, the use of anthrax vaccine. Burn 
 all carcasses or sprinkle with quicklime, handle as little 
 as possible, as this disease is more or less deadly to the 
 human being, hence one should never hold a post-mor- 
 tem on such a case, neither should the animal be skinned; 
 tanners and wool sorters sometimes become infected with 
 this disease through hides, and fleeces. 
 
 Lumpy jaw (actinomycosis) is due to the invasion of 
 the tissues by the ray fungus. This disease is quite com- 
 mon in cattle, usually showing itself in those animals by , 
 enlargements of the lower jaw, in the early stages the 
 lumps are quite movable, later on the jaw bone becomes 
 affected; occasionally the upper jaw is affected or the 
 tumors are found on the skin of the head and neck; may 
 
268 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 be in the pharynx when they cause difficulty in swallow- 
 ing; the tongue is rarely found to be affected in Amer- 
 ican_cattle, in Europe it is often hardened and is then 
 termed wooden tongue. The disease is rarely general 
 throughout the system except in the later stages. This 
 disease is not strictly speaking contagious from animal 
 to animal according to the latest investigations, in fact 
 the fungus vegetates on the grasses, especially on the 
 awns of the barley family, and by means of these stiff 
 awns may enter the mouth and gain entrance through a 
 small wound, defective tooth, etc., into the system. No 
 satisfactory evidences of the transmission of the disease 
 from animal to man are obtainable, hence the wholesale 
 condemnation for food of animals affected with this dis- 
 ease is wasteful and irrational, condemnation is only 
 excusable when the disease is general throughout the 
 system or sufficiently so to have affected the general 
 health of the animal. The treatment of this disease is 
 in a large majority of cases quite possible and satisfac- 
 tory, iodide of potash in the proper doses being in a 
 measure a specific for this disease. Surgical methods 
 are also very useful, and in a valuable animal with the 
 enlargement in a favorable situation, are to be recom- 
 mended. It is advisable to start treatment as soon as 
 any enlargement is seen, mature cattle should get from 
 one to two drams of the drug twice daily, either in pow- 
 der, form in the feed, or dissolved in a little water and 
 given as a drench, the latter the preferable method. The 
 use of the drug should be persisted with until symptoms 
 of iodism, such as weeping from the eyes, scurfy condi- 
 tion of the skin, etc., are shown; generally speaking, the 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 269 
 
 use of the drug for t'Wo weeks will be sufficient: Tinct- 
 ure of iodine may also be painted over the enlargement 
 frequently. In those cases in which a large open sore 
 has resulted, in addition to the internal treatment, a mix- 
 ture of equal parts of sulfuric acid and turpentine may 
 be applied with a wooden paddle; get the druggist to 
 mix the two drugs. 
 
 Contagious eye disease in cattle, technically termed 
 contagious keratitis, sometimes termed pink eye of cattle, 
 is in some localities and at some seasons quite a common 
 disease, usually appears in tjhe summer or fall. One or 
 both eyes may be affected, the eyelids swollen and closed 
 and seem unable to bear the clear light, there is a milky 
 appearance of the front part of the eye, the cornea, thus 
 giving rise to the common idea that a scum is over it, 
 th6 darkest spot often a yellow color, is seen in the cen- 
 ter, in some cases a purulent (mattery) discharge is 
 present, sometimes the contents of the eye escape and 
 vision -thereby destroyed, the affected animal stops eat- 
 ing, cows will fail in their milk. Fortunately the ma- 
 jority of cases recover completely under proper treat- 
 ment, which is quite simple but effective. It is as 
 follows: Separate all the affected cattle from the healthy 
 ones, and give those affected the usual dose of epsom 
 salts, place in a darkened stall and keep a clean cloth 
 dampened with a solution of boracic acid, one ounce to 
 a quart, of cl^an water containing a couple of ounces of 
 laudanum or belladonna, over the eye, or else apply the 
 solution mentioned once or twice daily; as many very 
 bad cases recover, treatment should be persisted in, if 
 the eye does not seem to clear, or an abscess forms, apply 
 
270 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 the following solution with a piece of clean cheese cloth 
 
 once daily: 
 
 Silver nitrate 5 grains. 
 
 Distilled water....; 1 ounce. 
 
 Contagious abortion is the scourge of the stockman, 
 usually affecting cattle, occasionally sheep. This disease 
 has been proved to be due to a germ, consequently anti- 
 septic measures are the ones to adopt in order to be suc- 
 cessful. The disease tends to run out in a herd in the 
 course of three or four years, unless freshly infected cat- 
 tle are brought into the herd; sterility (barrenness) fre- 
 quently follows this disease, a condition thought to be 
 due to an acid condtion of the uterine contents caused 
 by the germ of this disease'. Abortions usually occur 
 during the third or the seventh month of pregnancy, 
 and are detected by the swelling of the udder, a dirty 
 reddish purulent discharge from the genitals, a decrease 
 and change in the character of the milk, and the dead 
 fetus, which is genei'ally expelled three days after the 
 appearance of the discharge. Abortion early in the preg- 
 nancy is often undetected . until a short time before the 
 date of calving, when the stockman is quite surprised to 
 find the animal showing signs of heat. The treat- 
 ment of this serious disease is mainly preventive, all 
 pregnant animals should be removed from those aborting 
 and the separation should be complete. Disinfection 
 must be carried out as follows: All cows should have 
 the external genitals thoroughly washed with a solution 
 of corrosive sublimate, one part to 2,000 of water, or a 
 half to two per cent, solution of carbolic acid or creolin; 
 those animals that have aborted should have a couple of 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 271 
 
 quarts of one of the solutions injected into the vagina 
 
 and uterus. Tlie washing of the external genials should 
 
 take place daily, once or twice a week will be often 
 
 enough for the injections, depending on the 
 
 amount of the discharges. All fetuses, soiled 
 
 bedding and discharges should be destroyed, 
 
 the stables should receive thorough and fre- 
 
 (juent sprinkling with 
 
 quicklime or chloride * 
 
 of lime, spraying of ftinnei. ilade of tik fok injections. 
 
 the walls and stalls upper part should hold a quart, the tube 
 
 being about 18 to 20 Inches long; the model 
 
 with hot lime wash would be improved by 4 inches of tube to the 
 
 Will also be befleficial.''°"°'" p"""*^""' '"^'"'"^ " '"°™ °^ ^ ^""''''• 
 The bull may be the source of contagion in a herd, so 
 that the penis and sheath of that animal should also be 
 attended to; injections into the skin of a carbolic solution 
 (two per cent. ) or turpinol, every two weeks have been 
 recommended by some, others preferring the administra- 
 tion of the drug in the food, when given in this manner, 
 the dose is from fifteen drops to two drams, dissolved in 
 half an ounce of glycerine and fed in a bran mash, two 
 or three times a week. Affected animals should not be 
 used again for breeding until the Vaginal discharge has 
 ceased completely; a change in the biiil used is said to 
 have a favorable effect on the disease, he must, of course, 
 be from a healthy herd. The following tonic powder 
 will be useful for cows until the discharge (we might 
 term it leucorrhea, by the appearance of the discharge) 
 stops; Bluestone and copperas of each three ounces, 
 powdered gentian six ounces mixed and made into 
 twenty-four powders, one of which is to be given twice 
 daily in the feed. 
 
272 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Distemper of colts or strangles is a contagious disease 
 appearing in young horses at from two to five years; the 
 disease being due to the streptococcus of Schiitz. Horses 
 are seldom attacked with the disease more than once, 
 and owing to the consequences are more valuable, if 
 passed safely through the disease. The swelling of the 
 submaxillary gland beneath the lower jaw, the high 
 fever, loss of appetite, the discharge from the nostrils at 
 first thin and sticky, later becoming thick, whitish-yel- 
 low and creamy, together with the age of the patient 
 render the recognition of this disease quite easy ; later 
 on the hot tender swelling below the jaw points and the 
 contents of the abscess are soon discharged, as soon as 
 this happens, the colt is at once relieved and begins to 
 recover, unless other diseases set in.- Unfortunately 
 such troubles as inflammation of the larynx, of the 
 lungs, nasal gleet or pyaemia (abscess formation through- 
 out the body) may result, in such cases the veterinar- 
 ian is essential; so severe are the symptoms occasionally 
 that the surgeon may have to insert a tube in the wind 
 pipe to avoid suffocation of the animal. The ordinary 
 form runs its course inside of three weeks; if prolonged 
 beyond that time or the animal steadily refuses to eat, 
 skilled assistance should be called. The treatment is 
 mainly hygienic and calls for good nursing. Eegulate 
 the bowels with the food, bathe the swelling beneath 
 the jaw with hot water or apply a blister, which when it 
 has become soft should be opened and the pus drained 
 out; if breathing is painful steam the head (let the 
 horse inhale the steam) with hot water to which turpen- 
 tine or creolin has been added. 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 273 
 
 Influenza is a very wide term applied to epizootics of 
 the horse; jpirefc eye is one form of the discease, stock- 
 yards fever, so called, is another form. This disease is 
 more or less serious, depending to a great extent on the 
 health of the animal and the healthiness of its surround- 
 ings. It may be set down as a general rule that a horse 
 off feed should not be worked, and if the clinical ther- 
 mo Dieter shows a fevered condition in the animal the 
 veterinarian should be consulted. Partial or complete 
 loss of appetite, fever, great nervous depression, partial 
 loss of control of the limbs, constipation, slimy feces, 
 discharges from the eyes, cough, sore throat, swelling of 
 the limbs, sheath and along the belly, and occasionally 
 a nasal discharge are all common symptons of influenza; 
 a serious result in pregnant mares is abortion, few carry 
 their foals the full time. The duration of the disease is 
 usually six to ten days if uncomplicated; a constant 
 watch must be kept for lung or blood complications. 
 Give good food, pure air, sunlight, etc., avoid drafts; 
 hot mashes containing powdered ginger and chlorate of 
 potash, of each half an ounce, will be useful until the 
 veterinarian is called; if the throat is sore, the ammonia 
 liniment may be rubbed in and the head steamed. 
 
 Clap or gonorrhoea of istallions and mares. A contag- 
 ious disease of some moment during the breeding season 
 sometimes appears in stallions, which may be termed 
 gonorrhoea, being a catarrhal inflammation of the urethra; 
 as the disease can be transmitted to the mare or vice 
 versa its recognition is important. The causes are var- 
 ious, service of mares too soon after foaling, or if suffer- 
 ing from vaginal discharges. The swelling of the geni- 
 18 
 
274 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 tals, eruption of blisters on tlie parts with accompanying 
 soreness, and sometimes discharge of pus from' the urethra 
 render its detection easy. The use of a mild antiseptic 
 followed by some salve such as oxide of zinc ointment 
 will usually overcome the trouble; it is advisable to lay 
 the stallion off for a week or ten days. The stud-groomr 
 should not allow service to any mare with a discharge 
 from the genitals. 
 
 Calf cholera or dysentery isa contagious fatal disease 
 of calves due to a germ, afecting them the first few 
 days after birth. The calf /soon loses its desire to suck, 
 is restless and groans, the excrement at first yellow, be- 
 comes white, thin and iM-snjielling, sometimes being 
 streaked with curdled milk Or blood, later convulsions 
 and the continual flow of feces and saliva and possibly 
 death in twenty-four hourSj the Usual duration of the 
 disease being one to three days; the rate of mortality is 
 very high — 80 to 100 per cent. Scours due to errors 
 in diet, is of a milder character and does not occur 
 so soon after birth and is non-contagious. The 
 liberal use of antiseptics is the cardinal feature of the 
 preventive treatment, the udder should be purified, the 
 vagina be washed with an antiseptic fluid, and pregnant 
 cows removed before calving from an infected shed to a 
 clean or disinfected one. For the calves, creolin, one 
 tQ two drams in two ounces of castor oil is very useful 
 in the earlier stages, a powder of opium, catechu, a.nd 
 tannic acid of each thirty grains repeated at eight- hour 
 intervals for three doses is also useful. The removal of 
 the calf at birth and its thorough disipfection will tend 
 to prevent this fatal disease. Some results of the inves- 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 275 
 
 tigations of Profs. Nocard and Mettam indicate the navel 
 as the point at which the germ enters, causing this 
 trouble. In addition to the treatment outlined, dress 
 the navel after tying the navel cord, with the following 
 solution: Eain water If pints, Iodine 31 grains (by 
 weight, ) Iodide of Potash 62 grains (by weight, ) apply 
 with a brush, to be followed with a dressing of this solu- 
 tion Methylated spirits If pints. Iodine 32 grains, after 
 this has dried paint the cord and navel with a thick 
 layer of collodion and iodine 1 per cent., when dry leave 
 to the care of the dam; other good antiseptics will be 
 useful in case those mentioned are not obtainable. The 
 following powder is highly thought of by some veteri- 
 narians: 
 
 Powdered rhubarb root IJ drams. 
 
 Powdered opium. ....'. , J dram. 
 
 Powdered carbonate of magnesia J dram. 
 
 Give as one dose in a couple of ounces of brandy and 
 white of egg. Sub-nitrate of bismuth in appropriate 
 doses is a very valuable drug in cases of digestive 
 troubles. 
 
 Cow pox is of interest to the general public owing to 
 the adoption of Jenner's vaccination of human beings 
 with the lymph of cow pox as a protection against small 
 pox. The stockman is also interested from the fact of 
 its contagious nature, often rendering cows extremely 
 hard to milk, dae to the soreness of the teats, and its 
 causing a diminished milk supply. The eruption is 
 usually confined to the udder and teats, the latter show 
 pink pimples, which later become reddish vesicles; as 
 many as twenty or thirty may be present, varying, in size 
 
276 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 from a lentil to a pea. The vesicles vary in color ac- 
 cording to the skin, they have a depression in their 
 centers, are circular in shape on the udder, elliptical on 
 the teats; they mature about the tenth day and then a 
 discharge is given off; the vesicles dry up into a dark 
 brown crust, which in four days, falls off. The disease 
 takes about three weeks to run its course in an animal; 
 it is often carried from one cow to another by the. milk- 
 ers, some of whom at times become infected. The dis- 
 ease usually follows a favorable course, hence treatment 
 is rarely necessary; some mild salve, carbolic or borated 
 vaseline will be all that is necessary. The disease will, 
 as a rule, go through the entire herd, which should on no 
 account be exposed to bad weather during the attack; 
 owing to its contagious nature, either separate milkers 
 should be provided, or else the hands should be disin- 
 fected before milking a second or more cows, the disin- 
 fection being performed as each cow is milked. 
 
 Canker sore mouth of young pigs is a very serious dis- 
 ease, occurring from the time of birth until a few weeks 
 old, and unless attended to is either invariably fatal or 
 stunts the pigs' growth permanently. The disease will 
 attack litter after litter, and would thtis seem to be con- 
 tagious in its nature. Sore mouth, swellings of the jaw 
 on which are light brown scabs, which later show" deep 
 cracks are seen. The scabs and cracks are found on the 
 snout extending over the head, and even to the body and 
 limbs, in some cases an ulcer will form at the end of the 
 snout and Cat away part of the nose; in other cases the 
 ears may become affected and drop off; dullness, loss of 
 power in the hind limbs, a tendency to walk on the fet- 
 
Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 277 
 
 locks, disinclination to move, and humping the back are 
 frequent symptoms; if made to walk will squeal as if in 
 pain; the pigs refrain from suckling. The treatment is 
 simple and effective if thoroughly done; the young pigs 
 should first be attended to by dipping in over the head 
 in either of the following solutions, care being taken not 
 to hold them too long under the water and thus drown 
 them: 
 
 A. Permanganate of potash 1 ounce. 
 
 Water i gallon. 
 
 This solution is practically non-poisonous and may be 
 
 used fearlessly. 
 
 B. Creolin 1 ounce.. 
 
 Water J gallon. 
 
 The treatment should be given three times at intervals 
 of two or three days; remove dirt from the snouts of the 
 pigs as much as possible, so as to economize in the use of 
 the drugs. The sow's udder should be washed a few 
 times with one of the solutions; should ulcers form as 
 described, touch them with a piece of silver nitrate or 
 apply a little butyr of antimony with a small swab. Dis- 
 infect the" farrowing pens with hot carbolic lime wash. 
 This trouble is entirely different to that caused by the 
 tushes of the young pigs, with which it is confounded 
 by so many pig breeders and farmers. A dose of raw 
 linseed oil or epsom salts will be o^ benefit to give the 
 sow. 
 
CHAPTEE XXII. 
 DISINFECTION AND MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 
 
 Disinfection of Stables is a very important subject for 
 the stockman to understand, as he can by this means do 
 more to limit and stamp out contagious diseases than by 
 any other method. Carbolic acid, bichloride of mer- 
 cury (corrosive sublimate), chloride of zinc, and numer- 
 ous other a,ntiseptics, including creolin, chloronaphtho- 
 leum, germol, zenoleum may be used for this purpose. 
 Empty the stables, then burn up all bedding used in the 
 infected barn. Sprinkle the floors with sawdust which 
 has been soaked with a ten per cent, solution of carbolic 
 acid, or a 1.1000 solution of- corrosive sublimate, letting 
 it remain for twenty-four hours, then rake up and place 
 with the manure. Sprinkle the floor with chloride of 
 lime or some of the antiseptics mentioned; flush out the 
 drains with the same antiseptics. Take a ten per cent, 
 solution of hot soft soap and water and scrub out stalls, 
 mangers, feed boxes, etc., when dry use a knapsack 
 sprayer and apply hot carbolic whitewash (crude carbolic 
 enough to make a three to five per cent, solution) over 
 the walls and ceiling. Sulphur is sometimes burned in 
 stables, for which purpose one pound of sulphur is needed 
 to every thousand cubic feet. 
 
 Harness should be washed with a hot soap solution 
 and oiled afterward. Disinfection is rendered much 
 easier if the floors of the stables are of cement and the 
 
Disinfection and Miscellaneous Diseases. 279 
 
 fittings of iron. After the disinfection allow lots of light 
 and pure air to enter, and do not allow piles of manure, 
 etc., to accumulate in the stable. 
 
 ) Thumps in pigs is a disease mainly due to over- 
 feeding and is often a serious trouble with the 
 young pigs, the cause being known, the treat- 
 ment will be to reduce the feed and give the 
 sow or the pigs a dose of physic, raw linseed oil 
 or epsom salts, and plenty of exercise. 
 
 Rheumatism in pigs is common in damp stables, 
 may be due to pigs burrowing in hot manure in 
 winter time and then becoming exposed to the 
 cold weather. Eemoval of the causes, a mild 
 physic and five grains of salol in the feed twice 
 daily will help overcome the trouble, if the 
 joints are swollen a liniment will be needed. 
 
 Removal of the boar's tusks is easily accom- 
 plished by the stockman, and renders the animal 
 less dangerous to manage. Snub to a post, by 
 means of a strong rope, one end of which is 
 noosed and applied over the uppgr jaw of the 
 pig (see Eestraining p. 192.) Take a pair of 
 strong pinchers apply over the tusk close to the 
 gum, close the pinchers tightly and give a sharp 
 tap or two with a hammer to the exposed jaw of 
 the pinchers, the tusk will be broken off easily 
 and without hurt to the boar. 
 
 Chapped teats occur in cows from exposure, 
 standing in muddy places, etc., and are best 
 treated bv the use of oxide of zinc ointment, car- 
 
 TBAT ■' 
 
 DILATOR, bolic salve or camphor ice. 
 
280 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Obstructions in the teats or milk ducts generally re- 
 quire an operation which should be performed wh^n the 
 cow is dry; in some cases the closure of the teat is due 
 to stricture, in which case the metal dilator and plug 
 should be used, care being taken to always have those 
 instruments perfectly clean. 
 
 Warts are more, or less common on all classes of stock, 
 and if flat on the skin may be touched with strong acetic 
 acid or silver nitrate (lunar caustic), if they have a long 
 neck, a horse hair or fine twine may be tied around the 
 base when they will eventually drop off. 
 
 Indigestion and constipation in pigs are due to errors in 
 diet and lack of exercise, in such cases five grains of 
 calomel in a piece of fat pork given to a pig will tend to 
 overcome the troublCj a laxative of raw linseed- oil or 
 epsom salts in milk are also useful, the cause -must be 
 removed; in this disease the pigs stagger around, refuse 
 food, perhaps vomit, and may show signs of pain. 
 
 Bumble foot in poultry is due to too high roosts, caus- 
 ing bruising of the feet and the formation of an abscess. 
 Bathe in hot^water, lance and let out the pus, and 
 remove the cause. 
 
 Roup is a contagious disease of poultry resembling the 
 early stages of a severe cold, the discharge being offen- 
 sive. Isolate all affected birds, kill or use antitoxin. 
 Pisinfect the hen houses thoroughly. 
 
 The following will aid in determining what makes a 
 fowl sick, together with brief notes on treatment: 
 
 Cholera — Overcrowding, filth, impure water and feed. 
 Use a little baking soda, alum or carbolic acid 30 drops 
 to one quart of the drinking water, disinfect the runs 
 with lime, also the house. 
 
Disinfection and Miscellaneous Diseases. 281 
 
 Canker — Dampness and filth. Powder mouth and 
 throat with burnt alum, disinfect the quarters. 
 
 Apoplexy — Over-feeding and lack of exercise. Give 
 a teaspoonful of castor oil, vegetable diet, cold water to 
 head. 
 
 Soft shells — Over-feeding or lack of lime in the food. 
 Give oyster shells, cut bone, and a vegetable diet. 
 
 Leg weakness — In-breeding and over-feeding, lack of 
 bone forming food and grit. Give one grain of quinine 
 daily, grit, vegetable diet, and cut bone. 
 
 Sore eyes and pip — Damp houses. 
 
 Diarrhcea — Damp houses, filthy runs and houses, bad 
 feeding. The same treatment as for cholera; 
 
 Crop bound — Over- feeding and lack of grit. Give 
 castor oil and milk and knead carefully. 
 
 Unless your poultry are valuable stock, kill at once if 
 diseased, doctoring is expensive in time and money. 
 
CHAPTEE XXIII. 
 
 EXAMINATION OP A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS. 
 
 The detection of unsoundness in horses calls for the 
 exercise of the stockman's powers of observation; to 
 render it more easy, a routine method is usually followed 
 by horsemen and veterinarians; especially when one is 
 buying is it well to. notice the demeanor of the horse in 
 the stable, method of tying, etc., looking out for neck 
 straps, etc., stand him from side to side in the stall, then 
 have him brought out on to hard ground, have him 
 trotted or galloped and walked straight away and back, so 
 that his wind may be examined, if a heavy horse a pull 
 at a heavy load may be given, notice his way of going 
 and whether he stands and walks squarely. His wind 
 being satisfactory and no lameness having been shown, 
 the examiner can start to make the examination of the 
 mouth, for the age, decayed teeth, signs of cribbing or 
 discharges from the nostrils, may take the pulse, the' 
 disposition of the horse will also be noted by the move- 
 ment of the ears, etc. The eyes are then looked at as to 
 whether the animal is blind, minus an eye or suffering 
 from some eye disease at the time; going to the off side 
 feel between the jaws for' glandular enlargements, pass 
 the right hand up over the poll, being on the lookout 
 for abscesses (poll evil) there, split ears, etc., coming 
 down the side of the neck be sure to feel under the mane, 
 if on that side; raise the jugular vein, then pass the hand 
 
Examination of a Horse for Soundness. 283 
 
 over the withers for fistula, down over the shoulder, 
 noting if the muscles of the part are wasted or not, over 
 the elbow, looking out for shoeboil; then with the flat of 
 the right hand (which has been used all along) feel the 
 cannons, looking out for splints, handle the tendons, 
 which should be hard or cordy as it is often termed, look 
 for puffs and in heavy horses feel down into the feather 
 for grease, etc. ; for scars from nerving, windgalls, ring- 
 bone; lift the foot, by pinching with right hand just 
 above the fetlock and holding it up with the left hand 
 at the toe, note the sole, frog, etc., looking out for corns, 
 thrush and dropped sole, the shoe should be off to make 
 a thorough examination; examine the coronet forquittors 
 and the walls for sandcracks, which may have been filled 
 with tar; note also whether the heels are contracted; let 
 the foot, go, turn with face to the froQt of the horse and 
 with the palm of the left hand examine for sore shoul- 
 ders and sitfasts, down the front of the leg, over the 
 knee for broken knees, a very bad sign in saddlers; down 
 the front of the cannon, pastern and hoof looking for the 
 ringed appearance there, then the cartilages should be 
 examined for sidebone. When examining the limbs do 
 not sit down, keep the knees stiff and bend the back, it 
 looks horsemanlike and one is not so likely to get stepped 
 on. Turn again with the head to the horse's flank and 
 with the right hand resume the examination of the body, 
 looking out for saddle galls, broken ribs, etc., if a geld- 
 ing or stallion note the condition of the scrotum, note the 
 point of the hip, and step back a few paces behind the 
 horse, noting any lowering of a hip from the level of its 
 fellow, then step to one side level with the tail, noting 
 
284 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 any flattening in the back line of the rump, a view of 
 the back line of the hock can be got at this time, then 
 with a word to the horse walk up, seize the tail and lift 
 it, noting the amount of resistance offered, whether the 
 anus is tight, whether any warts, etc., are present; the 
 end of the bone might be looked at to determine whether 
 recently docked or not; the es:amination of the hind leg 
 may then be proceeded with. Standing with one's back 
 to the animal's head and to one side of the limb, with 
 the right hand run down the back line of the leg looking 
 out for thoroughpins, curbs, grease, laceration of the 
 tendons, splints, windgalls and ringbones. The hind 
 foot may be lifted if desired to examine for thrush; fac- 
 ing about the left, hand runs down the leg from the stifle 
 noting its condition^ then down over the hock feeling for 
 bog spavins, jacks (bone spavin), down the cannon to 
 the fetlock for interfering scars, then to the foot. Going 
 to the front of the horse, the near side is gone over in a 
 similar manner, no sitting down by the examiner can be 
 tolerated. The manual work being done, back the horse 
 several paces and note the way he lifts his hind legs for 
 symptoms of stringhalt, also turn him around short a few 
 times; that done, go ahead of the horse and stand a. little 
 in front of and to each side of the shoulders, and com- 
 pare the hocks. The examination may then be consid- 
 ered fairly complete. 
 
UNSOUNDNESSES THAT SHOULD DISQUALIFY 
 FROM BREEDING. 
 
 Disqualifications from breeding! The following un- 
 soundnesses should bar males and females being used for 
 breeding purposes: 
 
 Bogspavin and Thoroughpin, unsatisfactory to treat, and 
 are indications of weakness of the parts affected. 
 
 Bone spavin is very readily transmitted, hence should 
 be considered as a bar sinister in the heraldry (pedigree) 
 of any horse. 
 
 Brokenwind or Heaves, the tendency to which is fre- 
 quently transmitted. 
 
 Cataract and Moon Blindness (periodic opthalmia) are 
 diseases that have an hereditary tendency, consequently 
 if the offspring are to be soiind, the parents should be 
 entirely free of these eye diseases. 
 
 Curb, and curby legs might be included, are doubly 
 undesirable, the conformation being weak and also poor 
 in appearance. 
 
 Goitre in sheep, the reasons, for which are mentioned 
 in Part I. v 
 
 Ringbone is a grave unsoundness in a working animal 
 and as it is inherited by the progeny of animals so af- 
 fected, becomes at once prohibitive in breeding stock. 
 
 Roaring, especially in light horses, renders them unfit 
 for fast or severe exertion. Ormonde, the great Thor- 
 
286 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 oughbred, was a roarer and transmitted it to his pro- 
 geny, hence his exile to South America. 
 
 Shelly, brittle feet or shallow weak feet, are bad faults 
 in breeding animals, especially so as the latter class of 
 feet are very liable to founder (laminitis). 
 
 Sidebones, the common unsoundness in heavy horses, 
 practically incurable, breeding from such animals should 
 be vetoed. 
 
 Splints are not desirable, being indicative of a ten- 
 dency to throw out bony material or undue porosity of 
 bone. 
 
 Yiciousness, such as kicking, biting, switching and 
 other signs of an irritable nature, even if exhibited in 
 cattle, should render the stockman slow to utilize such 
 for breeding purposes. Animals with such natures are 
 rarely as thrifty as the quieter beast, and are often quite 
 dangerous, which may be partially overcome in cattle 
 by dehorning, the stockman's first duty is to himself in 
 this respect, foolhardiness being neither a desirable nor 
 necessary attribute. 
 
 Defects of conformation, while not necessarily unsound- 
 nesses, should be avoided in the breeding animal; knock 
 knees, in or out-turned toes, parrot mouth, narrow or 
 shallow chest, light middles, roach backs, ewe necks, 
 contracted feet, coarse joints, hollow backs, small eyes, 
 a rough, bare, prominent loin, peaked (narrow) hind 
 quarters, thin stifles, are a few undesirable qualities to 
 propagate. 
 
iNDE,X. 
 
 THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES. 
 
 ABORTION, 1S7, 269. 
 Absorption, 32, 57. 
 
 Acetic acid, 138. 
 
 Aconite, 144. 
 
 Actinomycosis, 267. 
 
 Afterbirth, retention of the, 174. 
 
 Age of animals, determined by the 
 teeth, 38-il. 
 
 Agriculturist, success as an, 1. 
 
 Air, respired, 65; fresh, 66; tonic ef- 
 fects of fresh, 134, 155. 
 
 Aloes, actions and uses -of, 139. 
 
 Ammonia, actions and uses of, 140. 
 
 Anatomy, definition of, 1; compar- 
 ative, 2. 
 
 Anodynes, 135. 
 
 Antiseptics, 136. 
 
 Apoplexy, parturient, 180; of fowls, 
 279. 
 
 Arm, location of, 14. 
 
 Arsenic, dangers in the use of, 144. 
 
 Arteries, construction of, 99; bleed- 
 ing from, 101; distribution of, 100; 
 functions of, 99. 
 
 Azoturia, 219. 
 
 BACK, bones of the, 8. 
 Backraoking, 162. 
 Bacteria or germs, 261; in the teats, 
 
 94. 
 Bandaging, 163. 
 Big leg, iil8. 
 Bile, functions of, 54. 
 Blackleg, 263. 
 Black teeth in pigs, 229. 
 Bladder, the, 63. 
 Bleeding, when useful, 76; where 
 
 performed, 102; how stopped, 19S. 
 Blindness, indications of, 110. 
 Blistering, 151. 
 Blisters, 135. 
 
 Bloating in horses, 210; in sheep and 
 
 cattle, 212; prevention of, 213. 
 Blood, the, 95; clots, 96; cells, 97; 
 - cause of clotting, 96; proportion 
 
 of cells, 97; the blood pump, 97; 
 
 course of, 98. 
 Bluestone, 139. 
 
 Boar's tusks, removal of, 280. 
 Bog spavin, 246, 284. 
 Bones, 3; quality of, 4; functions 
 
 of, 5; number of, 16; breakages of, 3. 
 Bone spavin, 244, 284. 
 Bots, 256. 
 Brain, the, 104; intelligence and, 
 
 development, 106. 
 Bran mash, preparation of, 161. 
 Breathing, 158; organs of, 66. 
 Breeding of animals, 70; artificial, 
 
 75, 187; diseases, results of, 167; and 
 
 immaturity, 77; male organs of, 
 
 70; female organs of, 72; 
 Brisket, location of, 20. 
 Broken wind, 221, 284. 
 Ball,punch, 201. 
 Bumble foot in poultry, 280. 
 Buttock, the, 16; the point of the, 17. 
 
 CALF CHOLERA, 274. 
 Canker, sore mouth of pigs, 
 
 276; of poultry, 281. 
 Capillaries, 100. 
 Capped hock, 249. 
 Capsular ligaments, 13. 
 Capsule method of breeding, 187. 
 Carbolic acid, 143. 
 Carbon di-oxide, poisonous efi'ects 
 
 o^65< 
 Cartilage, 2, 23. 
 Casting the withers, 176. 
 Castration, 202; essential to success 
 
 In, 203; of bulls, 203; of sheep, 204. 
 
288 
 
 Veterinary Ulements. 
 
 Cataract, 285. 
 
 Cattle pasturing after sheep, 34. 
 Cell, the, 2. 
 
 Cellulose, digestion of, 56. 
 Chapped teats, 279. 
 Chest, boundaries of, 12; farm med- 
 icine, 138. 
 Chestnuts of horses, 114. 
 Chewing, time taken in, 51. 
 Chokingin cattle, 214; in horses, 215. 
 Chyle, 68. 
 
 Circulation, the, 99. 
 Clap in stallions, 273. 
 Clipping horses, 165. 
 Clotting of blood, 96. 
 Cock, reproductiTe organs of the, 80. 
 Coffln joint,'15; lameness, 238. 
 Colic, 210; treatment of, 211. 
 . Collar galls, 233. 
 Colostrum, 93. 
 
 Conformation, defects of, 286. 
 Constipation, 183; in pigs, 279. 
 Construction and functions of the 
 
 animal body, 1. 
 Contagious abortion, 269. 
 Contagious diseases, 261. 
 Contagious eye disease, 269. 
 Contracted feet, cause of, 123. 
 Copperas, actions and uses of, 140. 
 Corns, 126. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, 143. 
 Cotyledons, 73, 175. 
 Coupling, the, 12.' , 
 Cowpox, 275. 
 
 Creolin, actions and uses of, 139. 
 Cribbing, 228. 
 Croup, the, 10. 
 Cud, giving a, 47. 
 Curb, 19, 247, 285. 
 Curby legs, 19, 247. 
 
 DAIRY COW, wedge form in, 13. 
 Dam, treatment of, after de- 
 livery, 174. 
 Deafness, a cause of, 111. 
 Defecation, 60. 
 Dehorning, 199, clippers, 200. 
 Determining the age, 39, 41. 
 Diagram of the teeth, 39. 
 Digestive system, the, 32. 
 
 Discharges from the nostrils, 228. 
 Disease, due to mistakes in feeding, 
 
 210; of germ origin, 281; of the 
 
 teeth, 225; of poultry, 279; results 
 
 of breeding, 174; of the. newborn, 
 
 183. 
 Disinfection of stables, 278. 
 Distemper of colts, 271. 
 Docking, reasons for, 10; operation 
 
 of, 208. 
 Dose table and rules, 137. 
 Down in the hip, 16. 
 Drenching, dangers in, 67, 149; of 
 
 horses, 147; of cattle, 149; sheep, 
 
 149; swine, 150. 
 Dropping after calving, 182. 
 Dysentery, calf, 184, 273. 
 
 EAR, desirable style of, 110. 
 Egg, formation and fertiliza- 
 tion of, 82. 
 
 Epsom salts, actions and uses of, 
 140. 
 
 Ergots in horses, 115. 
 
 Escutcheon in cows, 112. 
 
 Essentials to success, as a stock- 
 man, 1; in mating, 76; in castra^ 
 tion, 203. 
 
 Evolution and livestock, 6. 
 
 Ewes, flushing of, 76; number to a 
 ram, 78; re.asons for tagging, 188. 
 . Examination of, a sick animal, 156; 
 of a horse for soundness, 281, 
 
 Excrement of pouiti'y, 80. 
 
 Excretion, 59. 
 ; Exercise, need of, 160, 218. 
 
 Extension and flexion, 13. 
 
 Eye, construction of, the, 107; dia- 
 gram of the, 108; the haw of the, 
 109; a good, 110; hereditary di- 
 seases of, 284. 
 
 FAILURE TO BREED and its causes, 
 186. 
 Febrifuges, 136. 
 Feces, the, or dung, 59. 
 Feeding, horses, 51; hay, 222; sick 
 
 animals, 161. r 
 
 Feet, the, 116; expansion of, 120- care 
 of, 123; examining of, 123; con- 
 
Index. 
 
 289 
 
 traoted, 127; diagram of the under 
 surface, 116. 
 
 Fetlock, the, 15. 
 
 Figging or gingering, 61. 
 
 Flexion and extension, 13. 
 
 Flushing ewes, 76; cows, 176. 
 
 Fpals, percentage of, 77. 
 
 Food, how taken in by animals, 34; 
 preparatory work with, 3U; dis- 
 posal of waste from the, 59. 
 
 Foot and limb troubles, 230. 
 
 Footrot in cattle and sheep, 241. 
 
 Forging, 125. 
 
 Founder, |215; symptoms of, 216; in 
 cattle and sheep, 217. 
 
 GAIT and the shoulder slope, 13. 
 Garget, 178. 
 Gastric juice, 60. 
 Germol, 136. 
 
 Gestation in animals, 76. 
 Ginger, actions and uses of, 143. 
 Glanders and farcy, 263., 
 Goitre in sheep, 68, 28o. 
 Gonorrhoea (so called) or clap in 
 
 stallions, 273. 
 Grub in the head, 254. 
 
 HAIR, 112; care of the, 114. 
 Hamstring, 30. 
 
 Handling sheep, 192, 149. 
 
 Hatching or incubating terhpera- 
 ture, 82. 
 
 Haw, the, 109., 
 
 Hay, overfeeding with, 222. 
 
 Hay tea, 162. 
 
 Head, sinuses of the, 7. 
 
 Heart, the, 98. 
 
 Heat in animals, 74. 
 
 Heaves, 69, 56; causes and treat- 
 ment, 221, 285. 
 
 Heifers, breeding of, 78. 
 
 Hen, urinary and reproductive or- 
 gans of the, 81; diseases of the, 279. 
 
 Histology, definition of, 2. 
 
 Hocks, coarse, 19; curby, 267; dis- 
 eases of the, 244-247. 
 
 Hog cholera, 264. 
 
 Hoof, the, 116; development of the. 
 
 120; ointments, 120; a good, 121; 
 
 careofthBi 123. 
 Hooks or hips, 16. 
 Horns, the, 114; removal of the, 200. 
 Horn fly of cattle, 255. 
 Horses, giving medicine to, 147; 
 
 throwing, 190. 
 
 INCUBATION OF POULTRY, 82. 
 Indigestion in pigs, 280. 
 Inflammation, signs of, 166. 
 Influenza, 273. 
 Insertions of muscles, 25. 
 Intelligence and brain develop- 
 ment, 106. 
 Interfering, 126. 
 
 Intestines, the small, 53; the large, 
 56; digestion in the, 53, 57. 
 
 JOINTS, formation of, 7; some dis- 
 eases of, 185, 236, 238, 241. 
 Joint-ill or navel-lll, 185. 
 Joint oil, 31, 14. 
 
 KEROSENE, actions and uses, 143. 
 Kicker, shoeing a, 127. 
 Kidneys, shape' of, 61; work of, 62. 
 Knee, formation of, 14. 
 
 LACTEALS, location of the, 57, 58. 
 'Lambs, goitre and, 68, 284; con- 
 stipation in, 183; docking, 10, 208; 
 castration, 204 
 
 Lameness, detection of, 30, 230. 
 
 Lampas, danger of lancing, 35; a 
 sign of tooth trcSubles, 225. 
 
 Larynx, the, 67; roaring and the, 67. 
 
 Lateral cartilages, the, 118, 119; dis- 
 eases of the, 237. 
 
 Laudanum, actions and uses of, 141. 
 
 Laxatives, 135. 
 
 Lice, on stock, 252; on poultry, 255. 
 
 Ligaments, 7. 
 
 Limbs, the fore, 12; the hind,-16. 
 
 Lime water and its uses, 140. 
 
 Linseed, oil, 141; meal In condition 
 powders, 141. 
 
 Listerian treatment of wounds, 194. 
 
 Liver, the work of the, 53. 
 
 Lockjaw, 109, 265. 
 
290 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 Loins, the, 9; well covered, 10; mus- 
 cles of the, 28. 
 
 Lumpyjaw, 267. 
 
 Lungs, the, 68; the work of the, 65. 
 
 Lymphangitis or big leg, 218. 
 
 Lymphatic nodes, 102; cheesiness 
 of, 132. 
 
 MAGGOTS on sheep, 254. 
 Mange, 251. 
 
 Mares, breeding of, 77. 
 
 Mastication, 32, 34, 42. 
 
 Mating, when done, 74; condition 
 at time of, 76; of poultry, 83. 
 
 Meat, valuable cuts of, 28; tough- 
 ness shown by, 24. 
 
 Meconium, the, 93. 
 
 Medicines, simple farm, 133; the 
 chest, 137; measuring, 138; giving, 
 146; how taken into the system, 
 146. 
 
 Milk, when secreted, 84-88; holding 
 up, 90'; veins and wells, 89, 91; com- 
 position of, 93; first milk, 93; fever, 
 180; tube, 180; glands and their 
 functions, 84. 
 
 Milt, the, or spleen, 56. 
 
 Mouth, the, '34; examining a horse's, 
 40; examinlDg a sheep's, 41; grind- 
 ing food in, 42. 
 
 Mucous membranes, 33; in disease, 
 158; work of, 33. 
 
 Muscles, contraction of, 24; factors 
 producing hard, 28. 
 
 Mustard, application of, 162. 
 
 NASAL CHAMBIRS, the, 66. 
 Natural science study, 1. 
 
 JSTavel-ill, 185. 
 
 Navicular or coffin Joint disease, 
 238. 
 
 Neck, bones of the, 8; ligaments of 
 the, 9. 
 
 Nerve, the work of a, 103; construc- 
 tion of a, 104. 
 
 Nerving, 105, 239. 
 
 New born, attention to the, 172. 
 
 Nitre, sweet, actions and uses of, 
 142. 
 
 Nursing of animals, 153. 
 
 OBSTETRICS, 167. 
 Obstruction in the teats, 278. 
 Oestrum or heat, 74. 
 Offal, reduction of, 6. 
 Operations, common farm, 189. 
 Origins of muscle, 25. 
 Oxygen, necessity for, 86. 
 
 PANCREAS, functions and ferments 
 of the, 55. 
 
 Paralysis, 105; bowel, 48; of the hind 
 quarters, 220. 
 
 Parasites, external, 250; internal, 
 256. 
 
 Parturient apoplexy or paresis, 180. 
 
 Parturition, 169. 
 
 Pastern, the, 15. 
 
 Patholpgy, definition of, 1. 
 
 Paunchiness, one cause of, 56. 
 
 Pelvis, the, 10, 16; arch of the, 10. 
 
 Penis, the, 71. 
 
 Pepsin, 51. 
 
 Peptones, 52. 
 
 Peristalsis, 59. 
 
 Pigs, black teeth in, 38; length of 
 pregnancy in, 76; breeding of, 74, . 
 79; giving medicine to, 150; re- 
 straining for operations, 192. 
 
 Pinkeye, in horses, 273; the so-called 
 of cattle, 269. 
 
 Pinworms, 267. 
 
 Pleura, the, in health and disease, 
 69. 
 
 Pointing, 231. 
 
 Points of animals, 19-22. 
 
 Poisons and antidotes, 144. 
 
 Poll, location of the, 8. 
 
 Post-mortems, 129. 
 
 Poultices, 143. 
 
 Poultry, digestion In, 79; mating of, 
 83; tonic for, 134; lice on, 255; re- 
 productive organs of, 80, 81; excre- 
 ment of, 80. 
 
 Pregnancy, the length of, 76. 
 
 Prehension, 32, 34. 
 
 Pricks in shoeing, 239. 
 
 Puberty, 74. 
 
 Pulse rates, 157. 
 
 Purgatives, 134; when not to use, 168. 
 
Index. 
 
 291 
 
 QUALITY, 
 of, 4. 
 
 of bone, 4; Indications 
 
 Quarters, tore, 12; hind, 16; of the 
 
 feet, 116. 
 Quarter-Ill or blackleg, 263. 
 Quinine, 143. 
 Qulttor, 241. 
 
 RECIUM, the, 60. 
 Beflex action, 44. 
 
 Removal of boar's tusks, 279. 
 
 Reproduction, phases of, 70; In ani- 
 mals, 74; in poultry, 82. 
 
 Respiration, 66. 
 
 Retention of the afterbirth, 174. 
 
 Rheumatism in pigs, 279. 
 
 Ribs, the, and their relation to con- 
 stitution, 11. 
 
 Ridgling.original or crypto rchid,71. 
 
 Ringbones, 19, 236, 285. 
 
 Ringworm, 253. 
 
 Roaring, 67, 285. 
 
 Round worms, 257. 
 
 Roup, 280. 
 
 Rudimentaries in bulls, 87. 
 
 Rumination, 47, 49; stoppage of, 48. 
 
 Rump, the, 10; muscles of the, 29. 
 
 Rupture, 206. 
 
 Rut or heat, 74. 
 
 SAC, the, or bag, 70. 
 Salivary glands, 42; secretion 
 
 of the, 43; the abdominal, 55. 
 Salt, 160. ^ 
 Scab, 250. 
 
 Schirrus cord, 207. , 
 Schmidt's treatment for milk fever, 
 
 181. 
 Scours in calves, 184, 273. 
 Scratches, 235. 
 Scrotum, the, 71. 
 Sebaceous glands, the, 64. 
 Secretion, 32, 50. 
 Securing animals for operations, 
 
 189. 
 Semen or sperm, 72. 
 Serous membranes, 33. 
 Sheath, foul, 71; sore, 224. 
 Sheep, giving medicines to, 149; 
 
 handling, 192. 
 
 Shelly feet, 286. 
 
 Shoe, types of, 128; pricks, 239. 
 
 Shoeboil, location of, 14; causes of, 
 
 249. 
 Shoeing, objects of, 123; the, smith 
 
 and owner, 124; a kicker, 127. 
 Shouldersllp (sweeny), 233. 
 Showring tactics,' some, 93, 118. 
 Sickstall, the, 153. 
 Sidebones, 15, 237, 286. 
 Skeleton, the, construction of the, 
 
 3; regions of the, 6. 
 Skin, the. 111; handling qualities 
 
 of, 112. 
 Slabsided animals, 11. 
 Sole, the, 116, 118. 
 Sore sheaths in steers and wethers, 
 
 71,224. . 
 Sore shoulders, 233. 
 Soundness, examination for, 281. 
 Spavin, location of, 18; kinds of, 244, 
 
 bone, 244, 285; bog, 246, 285; test, 
 
 232, 246; truss for bog, 246. 
 Speed and thick skin, 23. 
 Spinal cord, the, 105. 
 Spinal disease, so-called, 219. 
 Spleen, the, or milt, 56. 
 Splints, 15, 234, 286. 
 Stallions, use of, 77; per cent, of 
 
 .foals, 77. 
 Sterility, in males, 186; in females, 
 
 187. 
 Stifle, location of, 17; out (disloea^ 
 
 tion of), 243. 
 Stimulants, 134. 
 Stomach, the, 44; of horse, 45; pigs, 
 
 45; ruminants, 46; capacity of, 47; 
 
 worms, 259. 
 Strangles, 271. 
 Stringhalt, 248. 
 Structures of the foot, 118. 
 Sulphur, .142. 
 
 Summer sores in horses, 255. 
 Suspensory ligaments, 28. 
 Swallowing, 43. i 
 Sweat glands, the, 64. 
 Sweetbreads, the, 68. 
 Swine plague, 264. 
 Swirls, 113. 
 
292 
 
 Veterinary Elements. 
 
 TAGGING) necessity for, in sheep, 
 188. 
 
 Tail, removal of the, 10, 208. 
 
 Tapeworms, 259. 
 
 Tapping the paunch, 201. 
 
 Tar, uses for, 142. 
 
 Teeth, the, 36; kinds of, 37; cusps of, 
 37; number of, 38; diagram of, 39; 
 diseases of the, 225; yearly exami- 
 nation of, profitable, 226; wolf, 227; 
 decayed, 227; black, 229; examin- 
 ing the, 40. 
 
 Telling the age, 28, 40, 41. 
 
 Tetanus, 109, 265. 
 
 Texas fever, 266. 
 
 Thermometer, the clinical, 157. 
 
 Throwing horses, 190; cattle,. 191; 
 sheep, 192. 
 
 Thrush, 237. 
 
 Thumps in pigs, 279. 
 
 Thurl, the, or tbigh joint, 17. 
 
 Thyroid, the, glands, 68. 
 
 Tissues, how formed, 2. 
 
 i'one, indications of, 60. 
 
 Tonics, 134. 
 
 Trachea, the, 68. 
 
 Trypsin, 55. 
 
 Tuberculin, the, test, 262. 
 
 Tuberculosis, 262. 
 
 Turpentine, actions and uses, 142. 
 
 UDDER, the,84; shape of, 86; meati- 
 ness of, 86; functions of, 88; 
 funnel-shaped, 89; blood vessels 
 of, 90; diagram of, 85. 
 
 Unsoundness, in horses, 282; dis- 
 qualifying from breeding, 285. 
 
 Ureters, the, 63. 
 
 Urethi a, the, 63; of ruminants, 63. 
 
 Urine, the, 61. 
 
 Uterus, of the mare, 72; of the cow, 
 73; inversion of the, 176. 
 
 VACCINE, blackleg, 263. 
 Vagina, the, 72, 74. 
 Valuable cuts of meat, where fbund, 
 
 28. 
 Veins, 101; milk, 91; mammary, 90. 
 Ventilation, 154. 
 Vertabrse, the, 81. 
 Vesicants, 135. 
 
 Vlclousness, a bar to breeding, 286. 
 Villi, intestinal, 57, 34i 
 Vomiting in horses, 50. 
 Vnlva, the, 74. 
 
 WALL of the foot, 116. 
 Warbles, 256. 
 
 Warts, treatment'Of, 280. 
 
 Washing, the limbs, 164. 
 
 Watering horses, 159. 
 
 Water trouble in rams and weth- 
 ers, 223. 
 
 Weaning pigs and lambs, 178, 179. 
 
 Weed, 218. 
 
 White line, the, 119. , 
 
 White markings, distinction of, 113. 
 
 Windpipe, lihe, 68. 
 
 Windsucking, 228. 
 
 Withers, formation of the, 9; cast- 
 ing of the, 176. 
 
 Wolfteeth, 6, 227. 
 
 Womb, the, 72; inversion of, 176. 
 
 Wool and yolk, 64. 
 
 Worm, the, of rams, 72. 
 
 Worms, in horses, 257; in,sheep, 259. 
 
 Wounds, healing of, 194; general 
 treatment of, 195. 
 
 ■yj-UX. OF EGGS, 
 
 Yolk in wool, 64. 
 
 ILEUM, 136. 
 Zoology, 1. 
 
 ^ENOLEUM, 136.