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 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 HENRY W. SAGE 
 
 1891 
 
arV11803 
 Citizenship 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 
 3 1924 031 448 008 
 oiin.anx 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031448008 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL ETHICS 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 An Introduction to 
 Social Ethics 
 
 BY 
 
 Milton Bennion 
 
 Dean of the School of Education 
 University of Utah 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BT 
 
 David Snedden 
 
 Professor of Educational Sociology in Teachers College 
 
 Columbia University ; Formerly State 
 
 Commissioner of Education 
 
 of Massachusetts 
 
 Yonkers-on- Hudson, New York 
 
 World Book Company 
 
 1918 
 
Copyright, 1917, by World Booh Compamy 
 All rights reserved 
 
 BO-2 
 
TO 
 
 CORA LINDSAY BENNION 
 
 TO WHOSE LOYALTY AND DEVOTION TO THE IDEALS 
 
 or THE HOME IS DUB WHATEVER OP MERIT 
 
 THERE MAY BE IN THE CHAPTBKS THAT 
 
 DEAL WITH THE FAMILY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 rpiHIS book is the result of six years of experimen- 
 -■- tation in teaching ethics to college freshman 
 and senior high-school students in the University of 
 Utah. The topics have been developed in class dis- 
 cussion and afterwards written up by each student, 
 who thus made his own text. 
 
 In 1913 the Utah State Board of Education pub- 
 lished the outline of this course for use in high 
 schools. The subject has been taught successfully 
 for several years past by a number of instructors, 
 while others have hesitated for want of a suitable 
 textbook. Persistent calls for such a book have 
 led the author to hope that it may be of service — 
 a service not limited, however, to the classroom. 
 The problems of citizenship are of vital concern to all 
 the people. Every voter should be firmly grounded 
 in the fundamental principles of social ethics and 
 should be able to apply these principles to current 
 political and social questions. 
 
 Gratitude is due the many students of the Uni- 
 versity of Utah who, as members of the classes in 
 Ethics, have furnished the opportunity and the in- 
 spiration to carry on an experiment in teaching. 
 Their responses and frank criticisms have helped 
 materially to mold the course. 
 
 A year's residence at the University of Wisconsin, 
 after the course had been tried out, enabled the 
 author to clarify principles and to acquire illustra- 
 tive material. Acknowledgment is due especially to 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 Professor Frank C. Sharp for his clear exposition of 
 ethical principles and fruitful experiments in moral 
 education. The democratic achievements of Wis- 
 consin and the leadership of its great university are 
 deeply appreciated by the author. 
 
 The manuscript of this volume has been critically 
 examined by Professor Ephraim E. Ericksen and 
 Mrs. Venice Farnsworth Anderson, the author's col- 
 leagues in the Department of Philosophy; and by 
 Miss Marian E. Jones, his secretary. Professor 
 Ericksen and Mrs. Anderson have offered valuable 
 suggestions as to content and method ; Mrs. Ander- 
 son has also used the manuscript as an outline in 
 teaching her class in Ethics of Citizenship and in 
 this connection has helped to formulate the Ques- 
 tions and Exercises. In this work she has had the 
 assistance of Judge Hugo B. Anderson. Miss Jones 
 has contributed much towards clearness and brevity 
 of expression. 
 
 Dr. Edward A. Ross, Professor of Sociology, Univer- 
 sity of Wisconsin ; Dr. David Snedden, Professor of 
 Educational Sociology, Teachers College, Columbia 
 University ; and Professor George Coray, of the De- 
 partment of Economics and Sociology, University of 
 Utah, have been kind enough to read the manuscript 
 and to offer suggestions for its improvement. While 
 the author has tried to profit by their advice, they are 
 in no wise responsible for the deficiencies of the book. 
 
 Attention is called to the fact that the purpose of 
 the following chapters is to stimulate appreciation 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 of ethical principles and the development of worthy 
 social ideals, and to indicate how these ideals may 
 find expression. In no case has an exhaustive treat- 
 ment of topics been attempted. A strong effort has 
 been made, however, to suggest a consistent point 
 of view from which all social problems may be 
 judged. 
 
 The chapter on The Function of Schools — a part 
 of the student's everyday experience — is used as 
 an introduction to the larger question of the nature 
 and meaning of civilization. This in turn brings 
 out the facts of race inheritance and race solidar- 
 ity upon which civilization is dependent and upon 
 which also the social obligations of the individual 
 rest. 
 
 If occasionally we seem to soar in the clouds, it is 
 for the purpose of getting the lay of the land — the 
 larger view — that we may pursue an intelligent, 
 consistent course. 
 
 In Part I the nature of society and social prob- 
 lems are emphasized ; in Part II stress is laid upon 
 the social obligations of the individual and the oppor- 
 tunities society offers each one for development 
 through service. 
 
 At the end of the book will be found questions and 
 exercises on the subject of each chapter. These are 
 designed to stimulate thoughtful consideration of 
 social problems, both settled and unsettled. The 
 student should acquire the habit of using his knowl- 
 edge and experience in solving new problems instead 
 of merely receiving the solution from teachers or 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 textbooks. The questions are not planned to cover 
 every point in the text, nor are all the problems 
 presented to the student discussed in the text. As a 
 rule each subject will occupy two or more lesson 
 periods. The student should study the questions 
 and exercises carefully and fully before reading the 
 text, and again afterwards if necessary to clarify 
 principles. It may be well for the teacher to revise 
 and supplement this part of the work in order to meet 
 local conditions, topics of the day, and past experi- 
 ences of students. In any case, however, great care 
 should be taken to introduce each subject by thought- 
 stimulating questions, and to avoid mere memory 
 exercises. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAQE 
 
 Pkeface vii 
 
 Introduction xiii 
 
 Past I 
 
 THE SOCIAL INHERITANCE AND POLITICAL 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. The Function of Schools 
 
 n. The Meaning of Civilization 
 
 m. The Matekeal Benefits of Civilization 
 
 IV. OuB Scientific Inheritance . 
 
 V. Our Literary Inheritance 
 
 VI. Our Political Inheritance .... 22 
 
 Vn. Social Institutions — Family, Church, State 27 
 
 VLLL. The Solidarity of the Race . < . . 32 
 
 IX. The Use of the Natural Resources of the 
 
 Earth 36 
 
 X. The Conservation of Natural Rbsouhcbs . 40 
 
 XI. The Conservation of Human Life . . 45 
 
 Xn. Public Ownership or Regulation of Public 
 
 Utilities 50 
 
 Xni. Public Regulation of Food Markets . . 55 
 
 XIV. Public Regulation of the Selling Price of 
 
 Necessities Controlled by Monopolies . 59 
 
 XV. The Basis of Private Property ... 63 
 
 XVI. Principles of Taxation 67 
 
 XVn. Reasons for Limiting Taxation ... 72 
 
 XVm. Financial Support of Public Education . 76 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 10 
 14 
 18 
 
xu CONTENTS 
 
 Part II 
 
 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CITIZENSHIP 
 
 OHAFTEB PAOB 
 
 I. The Natuhe of Justice 83 
 
 ^ n. The Relation of the Individual to Social 
 
 Institutions 86 
 
 in. Parent and Child 90 
 
 ^ IV. The Family as an Economic Unit ... 94- 
 
 V. Vocations 98 
 
 VI. Business Organizations 104 
 
 Vn. Religious and Chabitable Institutions . 108 
 
 . Vm. The School Community 112 
 
 IX. Cooperative Activities in Rural Districts . 116 
 
 X. County Government 121 
 
 . XI. The Town and the Citizen .... 126 
 
 Xn. Problems of the City 130 
 
 Xm. The State or Province 136 
 
 XTV. The Nation 142 
 
 - XV. The Suffrage 148 
 
 XVI. Public Office 154 
 
 XVn. International Relations 159 
 
 Questions and Exercises on the Subject of Each 
 
 Chapter 163 
 
 Index 179 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 rilHE American people, in establishing and extend- 
 -*■ ing its system of free public elementary schools, 
 has always had in mind primarily the needs of a free 
 democratic people for whom the elements of a general 
 education were deemed necessary to the preservation 
 of political and reHgious independence. But in pro- 
 viding for systems of secondary education and 
 higher education, the philanthropists who first en- 
 dowed our academies and colleges, and the state 
 which provided public high schools and state uni- 
 versities, were inspired largely by the ideal of pro- 
 viding competent leaders for a democracy. Hence, 
 in their way, our secondary and higher institutions 
 of learning have come to be regarded as of almost 
 equal importance with our common schools. 
 
 No one can mistake the aspirations of the Ameri- 
 can people for worthy and fuUy qualified leaders. 
 At every commencement season, as our young men 
 and women are graduated into active life, we have 
 extolled the virtues of democracy and the respon- 
 sibilities of leadership. At every corner-stone lay- 
 ing for new secondary school or college building we 
 have reiterated our faith that from the buildings 
 thus founded must come the planners and the leaders 
 required in a republic. We have clearly seen that 
 those who can afford to pass through our private 
 and pubhc high schools and undertake further study 
 will, on the whole, be those who possess advantages 
 of birth, rearing, and future opportunities. They 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 will constitute the superior portion of our popula- 
 tion in point of native inheritance, family environ- 
 ment, and life prospects. 
 
 Only now, however, are we beginning clearly to 
 see how unintelligently have we developed means 
 and methods of definitely training for superior citi- 
 zenship the himdreds of thousands of youths who 
 voluntarily throng our middle and higher institu- 
 tions of learning. It is true that the teachers in 
 these institutions have usually been men and women 
 of irreproachable character, even if, in some cases, 
 they have been, as men and women, unpractical and 
 insulated from vital contact with the contemporary 
 activities of citizenship. These teachers have in- 
 deed maintained reasonably high standards of con- 
 duct in the student bodies, and the institutional life 
 itself has been of a high order, well reflecting the 
 ideals and standards of good American homes and 
 community membership. 
 
 But it is when we examine school and college cur- 
 ricula themselves that we discover how meager have 
 been the contributions actually to be derived from 
 the studies toward the making of enlightened and 
 practical citizenship, — a citizenship suited to the 
 complicated demands of a twentieth-century democ- 
 racy, passing through a period of exceedingly rapid 
 evolution in its social and economic organization. 
 The working energies of our students have been 
 given chiefly to the study of ancient languages, 
 modern languages, very abstract history, and still 
 more abstract science and mathematics. The social 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 sciences, having now a reluctantly given place in 
 college curricula, have been remarkably developed 
 in our largest institutions and have awakened such 
 an interest on the part of students as to justify their 
 being called "the new humanities." But it can 
 hardly be said that for our secondary schools we have 
 developed effective social science courses in any 
 respect. American public high schools expend on 
 the teaching of superficial and largely unproductive 
 French and German — to say nothing of Latin and 
 algebra — from eight to ten millions per year. For 
 anything like piu-posive and direct education for 
 citizenship it is doubtful if we yet expend one tenth 
 of that sum. From time to time we have intro- 
 duced courses in civil government in upper grades 
 and high schools, but it is doubtful if this very formal 
 study has actually contributed either inspiration or 
 enlightenment to those who will be our voters four 
 to six years hence. 
 
 Fortunately, during the last half dozen years, the 
 spell of tradition which has held so many of our 
 colleges and schools in a Rip Van Winkle sleep 
 through these stirring times of industrial, social, 
 and intellectual revolution has been in process of 
 breaking up. Many attempts to provide the guid- 
 ance and materials for vital courses in educating for 
 citizenship have been made. Professor Bennion's 
 book is to me both a favorable symptom and a 
 promising augury. It is a dignified and thoughtful 
 attempt to meet the needs of those of our students 
 in the last years of the high school and the first years 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION 
 
 of the college who are ready in a practical fashion 
 to discuss contemporary problems of citizenship in 
 their functional aspects. The author's acquaintance 
 with pubhc affairs and his knowledge of education 
 and psychology have enabled him to produce what 
 seems to me the best working textbook of its kind 
 now available. 
 
 As I understand it. Professor Bennion's book takes 
 shape and character from the conviction, in the first 
 place, that the vital needs and problems of citizen- 
 ship, especially as these wiU be the concern and oc- 
 cupation of the more intelligent, highly placed, 
 influential, and therefore responsible of our citizens, 
 are, in most essential respects, modern problems, the 
 products largely of contemporary standards and con- 
 ditions of social cooperation, control, and production. 
 In the second place. Professor Bennion is convinced 
 — and this, I take it, largely by experience — that, 
 granting reasonable teaching skill and facilities, the 
 many modem problems of citizenship can be made 
 to constitute interesting and even engrossing fields 
 of study for young men and women of from seven- 
 teen to twenty years of age — which ought to be 
 truly the preparatory or apprentice years of voting 
 citizenship. 
 
 As to the merits of the content and methods of 
 the book, I will let the text speak for itself. Its 
 author would be the first to contend that it is neces- 
 sarily a pioneering work of its kind, and that long 
 experience and exploration will be required before 
 fimished results (pedagogically speaking) can be ex- 
 
INTRODUCTION xvii 
 
 pected. That the book is written from a modern 
 viewpoint; that it recognizes the vital importance 
 of bringing students into touch with controverted 
 issues ; and that it clearly exhibits the wide range of 
 concerns with which the active citizen must be in 
 touch — these facts are patent. In the hands of a 
 live teacher and interested students, interested, as 
 Mr. H. G. WeUs puts it, not less, at least, in "the 
 discovery of the future than of the past," it should 
 prove a valuable instrument. 
 
 A college president — since become the president 
 of the nation — once said in referring to the vitality 
 shown by the voluntary activities of college students 
 in the modern university — those of fraternities, 
 musical and literary societies, religious bodies, 
 organizations for athletics, and the like — that there 
 was danger that "the side shows would overshadow 
 the main circus." But a sagacious critic, not an 
 educator, at once raised the question, "Who knows 
 but that the side shows are worth more than the 
 circus ? " Here we have implied a profound criticism 
 applicable in large degree to all our institutions for 
 adolescents and young citizens. It is a criticism 
 that cannot be ignored. The institutional life itself, 
 toward the support of which goes no income from 
 endowments or proceeds from public taxation, may 
 often be making more positive contributions toward 
 developing the leaders of a democracy than are the 
 expensive courses of instruction given by the teachers. 
 
 If our higher institutions of learning are to live 
 up to the demand of modern democracy that they 
 
xviii INTRODUCTION 
 
 produce genuine leaders of the people, then it is 
 time that a much larger share of attention and 
 teaching skill should be devoted to classroom treat- 
 ment of just those problems discussed in Professor 
 Bennion's book. 
 
 David Snedden 
 
PART I 
 
 THE SOCIAL INHERITANCE AND POLITICAL 
 PROBLEMS 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE FUNCTION OP SCHOOLS 
 
 EVERY civilized country in the world has under- Primitive 
 taken the development of a system of schools. ®'*"'="*'°° 
 This has become necessary because of the complexity 
 of the civilization that has to be transmitted to each 
 new generation. Under simple primitive conditions 
 there were no arts or systems of knowledge that 
 could not be transmitted easily through the family 
 and tribal organizations. Children of savages learn 
 to hunt, to fish, to gather the fruits of the forest, 
 and to fight, through participation in the tribal 
 activities. Even under the more settled conditions 
 of pastoral life children receive their meager educa- 
 tion through sharing in the herdsman's responsi- 
 bihties. The ancestral history and the tribal myths 
 are usually learned without formal effort. The 
 nearest approaches to formal education among sav- 
 ages are the initiation ceremonies by which youths 
 are introduced to the mysteries of adult life and sub- 
 jected to tests of endurance. 
 
 As the technical arts of reading, writing, and ci- origin of 
 phering were developed, there was more to be taught. ^'^°° ^ 
 Many parents were not sufficiently skilled in the 
 three R's to teach them to their children, and those 
 that were could not give the necessary time to teach- 
 
 1 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 The ele- 
 mentary 
 school 
 
 The new 
 purpose 
 of the high 
 school 
 
 ing. So teaching, of necessity, became a specialized 
 vocation, often looked after by religious orders, 
 but sometimes carried on as a private business. 
 As time went on, the growing demand for universal 
 education made imperative the estabUshment of 
 publicly supported and publicly controlled systems 
 of schools. 
 
 The elementary schools are the foundations of 
 these systems. It has been regarded as their busi- 
 ness to transmit to children the most fundamental 
 knowledge of the race, including the arts that are 
 regarded as a common necessity of civilization. Even 
 within a generation it has been commonly thought 
 that an elementary-school education was all-sufficient 
 for the great mass of mankind ; but it is now mani- 
 fest that an elementary-school education is a very 
 inadequate preparation for the complex industrial, 
 social, and political life of the modern youth. The 
 accumulated knowledge of the race has grown to 
 such proportions and has so penetrated the practical 
 affairs of civilized peoples that the elementary school 
 is able to make but a meager contribution towards 
 the transmission of this community heritage. 
 
 While, in the past, secondary and higher schools 
 were provided, they were adapted to the few who 
 were preparing for the learned professions. Re- 
 cently, however, the secondary school has become 
 transformed into a popular institution for carrying 
 on the work begun in the elementary school. In 
 this age intelligent citizenship demands knowledge 
 of the principles underlying such civic problems as 
 
THE FUNCTION OF SCHOOLS 3 
 
 public hygiene and sanitation, the conservation of 
 natural resources, control of the means of transpor- 
 tation, and systems of taxation. Every voter must 
 pass judgment on various aspects of these and 
 similar problems concerning which political parties 
 and candidates for office often are in disagreement. 
 The high school, therefore, offers a variety of courses 
 in both the natural and the social sciences, in order 
 that the youth may be able to form intelligent opin- 
 ions for himself. The high school also offers such 
 courses in mathematics and languages as may be 
 most useful to students and necessary to the pur- 
 suit of other studies. Some high schools provide 
 specialized training in vocations to assist the youth 
 in qualifying for some specific form of service as his 
 life's work. All this is done without neglecting 
 the esthetic attainments of the race, for the high- 
 school youth learns to enjoy the literary master- 
 pieces and the great works of art and music. 
 
 As the function of the high school has become The col- 
 transformed, so, in some degree, has that of the col- \l^g^^ 
 lege, which also has become a popular institution. 
 Its business is to continue the work of the high 
 school. Yet the racial inheritance has become so 
 vast that even in college we seem only to be pros- 
 pecting near the surface. It is in college that youths 
 generally get their preparation for professional 
 studies, not, however, being restricted to the few 
 old-line professions. Modern industrial life has 
 added to these chemical engineering, electrical engi- 
 neering, agricultural engineering, plant pathology, 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 The 
 university 
 
 Education 
 as develop- 
 ment 
 
 dietetics, and many other professions of recent 
 origin. The college is not, however, merely pre- 
 paratory to the study of a profession in the univer- 
 sity. It introduces youth to a larger world and 
 better living, and this is, after all, its greater purpose. 
 
 Likewise the university is not merely a collection 
 of professional schools. It is the chief conservator 
 of the sum total of human attainment. Through 
 its many departments and devoted specialists it 
 aims to retain and transmit all valuable knowledge, 
 and to extend this knowledge for the enlightenment 
 of present and future generations. 
 
 Attention to this social function of schools should 
 not lead to oversight of the fact that the school 
 must also seek the welfare of the individual student, 
 that he may conserve physical and mental health, 
 develop his talents, and cultivate a disposition to 
 use his knowledge and abilities in the service of 
 his fellow men. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE MEANING OF CIVILIZATION 
 
 rr^HE civilization of a people begins when they origin of 
 -*■ acquire valuable knowledge and skill that can ""•i^**'"" 
 be transmitted from one generation to the next. 
 
 It is impossible to draw sharp lines between sav- 
 agery, barbarism, and civilization. The beginnings 
 of civihzation may readily be discovered in the life 
 of savage tribes. They have genealogy, myth, and 
 folklore as oral traditions that are handed on to 
 posterity. Mythology is the forerunner of science, 
 philosophy, and religion. Among primitive men 
 myth satisfies the instinct of curiosity, common to 
 mankind, as science and philosophy satisfy the 
 same instinct in more highly developed men. 
 
 "How was the earth created.''" "What was the 
 origin of plants and animals, of wind and storm, of 
 fire, volcanoes, lightning.''" "How were the heav- 
 enly bodies created, and how are they related to 
 human destiny?" Mythology is the collective 
 answer of primitive peoples to these questions. 
 When individuals begin to turn from the fanciful 
 explanations of mythology and to seek the cause of 
 things in nature itself, these individuals herald a 
 new and very important forward movement of civi- 
 lization. Knowledge of the causes of the various 
 phenomena of nature that affect the life of man is 
 the chief means by which he acquires control over 
 his environment. This control, as a means of prog- 
 
 5 
 
arts 
 
 6 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 ress, is well illustrated in scientific farming, in the 
 use of steam and electric power, and in the applica- 
 tions of chemistry in manufacturing industries. 
 In these cases the forces of nature are made to serve 
 human purposes. In other cases, where control 
 is impossible, knowledge of the laws of nature enables 
 man to regulate his own conduct in such a way that 
 he will not readily be crushed by nature. It is 
 this type of knowledge and self-control that enables 
 man to preserve his health and materially prolong 
 his life. 
 
 Practical Another aspect of the beginnings of civilization 
 
 relates to discoveries of practical arts, a knowledge 
 of which is transmitted by each generation to the 
 next. Among these arts is the use of fire. Although 
 very primitive, this is one of the most important 
 discoveries in the early history of mankind. Be- 
 sides ministering to man's immediate comfort, 
 the use of fire is essential to innumerable arts char- 
 acteristic of a high type of civilization. The use of 
 tools, however simple, is a discovery that ranks 
 in importance with the discovery of the use of fire. 
 Long practice in the use of simple tools is a neces- 
 sary race experience before complicated machinery 
 can be invented. The domestication of animals 
 made possible a more stable economic life than that 
 of the hunter or fisherman; while the domestica- 
 tion of plants paved the way for settled agricultural 
 life. In this, too, knowledge of the use of tools in 
 tilling the soil, planting, and harvesting was an 
 important factor. The progress man has made 
 
THE MEANING OF CIVILIZATION 7 
 
 in the art of agriculture may be noted to-day by 
 comparing the farming operations carried on by 
 the native populations in Egypt and western Asia 
 with the methods used by scientifically trained 
 farmers in Europe and America. 
 
 With settled community life there comes normally Commerce 
 a greater demand for manufactured articles, both 
 for private and public use. The development of 
 new industries, together with a growing demand for 
 the products of other lands, leads to the establish- 
 ment of trade and commerce ; and this, again, leads 
 to new inventions in the means of transportation 
 and communication. Thus, on the industrial side, 
 civilization is an ever increasing accumulation of 
 knowledge and manual skill that can be transmitted 
 to successive generations to help satisfy the ever 
 increasing wants of mankind. 
 
 An analogous development takes place on the Science 
 spiritual side of social life. It is manifest in the 
 birth of new sciences. Philosophy is the first or 
 general science — sometimes called the mother of 
 the sciences, since many of the older sciences emerged 
 from philosophy. But the offspring of philosophy 
 have also been fertile and surprisingly prolific. 
 As knowledge increases, each science gives birth 
 to new sciences until they are likely to become as 
 numerous as the sands upon the seashore. 
 
 In literature, each generation contributes some- Literature 
 thing to the accumulated store, though critics may 
 doubt that the later contributions excel the earlier. 
 The modern student, at any rate, has a much more 
 
8 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 extensive field from which to select the literature 
 most agreeable to his taste. The languages, too, 
 grow, thus making possible the expression of more 
 varied thoughts and emotions. 
 
 Fine art Art is the visual expression of the esthetic emo- 
 
 tions and marks very distinctly the development of 
 one aspect of civilization. To the civilized man, 
 however, primitive art is often crude and grotesque. 
 
 Music Music is to the ear what art is to the eye. The 
 
 savage expresses himself in rhythm of voice and body, 
 sometimes reinforced with a crude instrument. 
 Although soothing and satisfying to the untutored, 
 the music of the savage is too elementary for civi- 
 lized man. Much of it is expressive of the vulgar 
 and the sensual. The art and music of a civilized 
 people normally manifest a development toward 
 the refined and the spiritual, expressed in a complex- 
 ity of tone and color beyond the comprehension of 
 primitive man. 
 
 Social The above are some of the more manifest signs 
 
 mor ty ^£ civilization. There are others more subtle and 
 more significant. These pertain to social morality. 
 From this point of view civilization is an ideal to 
 be attained. The so-caUed civilizations of ancient 
 states, although rich in literature, art, and philosophy, 
 were in social morality too poor to endure. Whether 
 the same will be said of modern nations depends 
 upon whether or not contemporary peoples awaken 
 to a sense of their social obligations. These obli- 
 gations include a fellow feeling toward all mankind, 
 a sense of justice in social relations, a subjection of 
 
THE MEANING OF CIVILIZATION 9 
 
 bodily appetites and passions to the well-being of 
 the present and future generations, and, in general, 
 a consecration of individual ability and effort to 
 the permanent welfare of mankind. When this 
 ideal has been realized, man will have attained a 
 civilization that is clearly distinguishable from 
 savagery. 
 
benefits 
 
 CHAPTER m 
 
 THE MATERIAL BENEFITS OF CIVILIZATION 
 
 Familiar /^NE who has never Kved with primitive people, 
 ^-^ or in other isolation from civilization, is likely 
 to go through Hfe with very shght appreciation of 
 the material comforts he every day experiences. 
 People usually appreciate only what they regard 
 as luxuries, and a luxury ceases to be such as soon 
 as it becomes commonplace. Riding in a wagon 
 may be a luxury to the man who has been compelled 
 to walk. But when the farmer began to ride in 
 a carriage, the wagon, as a means of conveyance, 
 became an object of contempt. Now the carriage is 
 being superseded by the automobile, and again the 
 luxury of yesterday is the commonplace of to-day. 
 
 We are here concerned especially with man's 
 well-being in respect to his food, shelter, clothing, 
 and freedom from everything that is destructive 
 of life and health. What has civilization done for 
 man in these respects ? 
 
 The life The Uncivilized man has to fight with the beasts 
 
 for his food and clothing and to maintain his shelter 
 against all comers, with the arms provided him by 
 nature. A fair substitute for observation of this 
 type of life may be had by reading Parkman's 
 "Jesuits in North America." The poor savages 
 among whom the Jesuit missionaries labored had 
 acquired so few of the arts of civilization that their 
 food supply was secure for only a brief season. This 
 
 10 
 
 of the 
 savage 
 
THE MATERIAL BENEFITS OF CIVILIZATION 11 
 
 food gone, they took to the woods and the plains 
 in search of game. For days, in the bitter cold of 
 a Canadian winter, they faced starvation with no 
 assm-ance of relief. They crouched all night around 
 camp fires in lieu of having adequate clothing and 
 shelter. It was fortunate they had learned the use 
 of fire. Without this beginning of civilized arts 
 they would have been reduced to a choice between 
 death and migrating with the seasons, thereby 
 coming in conflict with others seeking the same mea- 
 ger existence. But the Indians of Canada were 
 saved not only by their knowledge of the use of 
 fire; they knew something of the use of tools and 
 had made some advancement in the domestication 
 of plants and animals. The lives of these savages, 
 as described by Parkman, were after all far more 
 secure than would have been possible with a total 
 absence of that knowledge which is characteristic 
 of civilization. 
 
 In the early stages of their development, peoples 
 are usually subject to forces destructive of life and 
 health. They feel this and their own impotence 
 so keenly that they universally depend for relief 
 upon their appeal to unseen and uncertain powers. 
 Thus each tribe has its "tohunga," or medicine man, 
 whose business it is, by incantations and ceremonies, 
 to ward off the blighting power of spirits and of 
 other persons of his own kind. The life of the sav- 
 age is one of perpetual fear of occult powers. 
 
 Contrast with this the situation of man in a civi- 
 lized community. There is, of course, too much in- 
 
12 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 The life 
 of civilized 
 man 
 
 Moral 
 values 
 
 equality in the distribution of the necessities of Ufe, 
 yet it is true of communities in general that they 
 have an abundance of food from year to year, 
 ample clothing for comfort, and dwellings of which 
 the meanest would be a palace to the savage. When 
 there is want, the privation is usually due to the 
 destructive agencies of war, the tyranny of rulers, 
 or grossly unjust social practices that mark the im- 
 perfect state of civihzation. 
 
 In the protection of life and health, scientific 
 knowledge and practical experience have taught 
 men how to care for their bodies and how to over- 
 come the unseen microbes that threaten their de- 
 struction. Means are being discovered of prolong- 
 ing the hves of all who will profit by the sciences of 
 hygiene and sanitation. Unfortunately, some men 
 have so much confidence in the power of man over 
 nature that they frequently ignore the laws of hy- 
 giene in order to satisfy their desires for pleasure, 
 all the time vainly hoping that when the evil day 
 of retribution comes, they may be saved from the 
 natural consequences of their sins by some new dis- 
 covery of science. 
 
 The modern civihzed man has passed far beyond 
 the point where he is satisfied with a mere hving. 
 Supplementary to the three essentials, food, cloth- 
 ing, and shelter, man wants all sorts of material 
 goods that the arts of civilization can supply abim- 
 dantly. They may minister to his esthetic tastes, 
 to his intellectual satisfactions, and to his desire to 
 be of greatest service in the world ; or they may 
 
THE MATERIAL BENEFITS OF CIVILIZATION 13 
 
 minister to his vanity and perverse desires merely. 
 Indeed, the same material object may serve either 
 a good or a bad purpose in accordance with the mo- 
 tives of the user. The automobile is one of the 
 most serviceable machines. It can be used to expe- 
 dite business and to promote health and social pleas- 
 ures, or it may be a means of bankrupting the im- 
 provident or of destroying the lives of reckless joy 
 riders and all who cross their path. The flying 
 machine may be used to carry a message of peace 
 and good will, or it may be used to destroy the lives 
 of innocent people. It is evident, therefore, that 
 although the material goods of civilization are in- 
 numerable, their moral value is all relative to human 
 purposes. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 The work 
 of special- 
 ists 
 
 Origin of 
 science 
 
 OUR SCIENTIFIC INHERITANCE 
 
 TN the preceding chapter we have referred 
 -'• to some of the material benefits of scientific 
 knowledge. It should be noted that all civilized 
 peoples reap these benefits in large measure, even 
 though many individuals may be quite ignorant 
 of the principles daily applied for their comfort and 
 convenience. Most of these benefits come through 
 the work of specialists, upon whom all are dependent 
 and through whom highly technical knowledge is 
 preserved, developed, and transmitted. Of this 
 class are the specialists in medicine and surgery, in 
 bacteriology and pathology, in chemistry and engi- 
 neering. Without highly trained scientists in these 
 and many other professions, civilization would 
 rapidly retrograde. 
 
 It is our purpose here, however, to consider the 
 value of science from points of view other than the 
 material. Science arose out of mental as much as 
 out of physical needs. While the need of land sur- 
 veys was a factor in developing geometry, and the 
 need of guidance on the ocean and on the desert 
 helped to develop astronomy, the instinct of curiosity 
 has also been a powerful influence in the history of 
 science. 
 
 Early man wondered most about the nature of 
 the world in which he lived. "What is the origin 
 of things ? " "How are they related to each other ? " 
 
 14 
 
OUE SCIENTIFIC INHERITANCE 15 
 
 "What is to be their future destiny?" These are 
 the large, general questions common to science and 
 philosophy in their primitive stages. Of necessity 
 the earHer answers to these questions were largely 
 guesses. Nevertheless, they provided a degree 
 of satisfaction to the knowledge-hungry mind. 
 With the development of scientific instruments and 
 methods of observation more definite problems 
 can be studied, resulting in the development of 
 bodies of systematic knowledge. This process is 
 well illustrated in the astronomical studies of the 
 first philosophers of Greece. Through observation 
 of the stars and a little figuring, they were able to 
 gain some knowledge of the causes of an echpse, 
 and to calculate when an ecHpse would occur. By 
 this means superstition and fear gave way to under- 
 standing. This new knowledge was frequently 
 opposed by those who were still slaves to super- 
 stition. Time, together with patience and persist- 
 ence on the part of investigators, has been the means 
 by which scientific views have come to prevail. 
 
 The use of the telescope and the microscope in Education 
 modern times has opened to man new worlds that t^'Sig 
 stir the imagination and command the admiration 
 of sensitive minds in ways never before possible. 
 This function of science in human life is most ad- 
 mirably set forth by Mr. Thomas Davidson under 
 the caption "Education as World Building." Mr. 
 Davidson shows how an individual may have a 
 large or a small world, a world that is well ordered 
 or one that is chaotic. A youth who acquires 
 
16 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 knowledge of the chief results of scientific investi- 
 gations, thereby enlarges his intellectual horizon 
 many fold. What are the stars, the Milky Way, 
 and the immensity of space to one who pays no heed 
 to astronomical studies? And what of the myriad 
 forms of minute organisms that make or mar the 
 development of the higher plants and animals? 
 Are these within or without the world of one who 
 has no knowledge of biology? Science has made 
 the natural world of to-day large and glorious, an 
 inspiration to every youth of energy and ambition. 
 Such a youth shrinks from a narrow, paltry world 
 because it does not harmonize with his own life 
 and his own ideal of human progress. It is due to 
 persistent efforts of many generations of men that 
 these sciences have been gradually developed and 
 are now offered in schools as a free gift from mankind 
 to each youth who will seek to understand. 
 The social Very early in the history of science man studied 
 his own nature. He questioned his own powers 
 of discovering truth, of distinguishing between right 
 and wrong, or of maintaining a social order. These 
 closely related problems of skepticism are frequently 
 connected with the mental awakening of a people 
 or of an individual. As such they foreshadow the 
 attainment of some real knowledge of mental pro- 
 cesses, both individual and social, and also a sense 
 of the limits of human knowledge. The modern 
 sciences of psychology, sociology, ethics, economics, 
 and political science are the outcome of reflections 
 and inquiries begun by the Greeks and developed 
 
 sciences 
 
OUR SCIENTIFIC INHERITANCE 17 
 
 with remarkable rapidity within a generation. 
 While the study of the natural sciences broadens 
 one's world beyond measure, the study of the social 
 sciences adds depth and meaning, and when joined 
 with training in some phase of applied natural science, 
 gives the individual a power of social service in- 
 comprehensible to primitive man. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 OtFR LITERARY INHERITANCE 
 
 Literature T^ WITHOUT a literature a people cannot be a 
 tion^ Ufe community or a nation. Even primitive tribes 
 
 have a bond of union in myths, songs, and traditions 
 in which all share. The strongest and most endur- 
 ing bond of union a people can have is a common 
 ideal. It may be religious — a common belief 
 and worship ; or it may be political — unyielding 
 devotion to democratic methods of government. 
 These and other ideals are often expressed in a 
 national literature. Crude poetry is the typical 
 form of primitive literary expression and is usually 
 sung or chanted and danced. The rhythm of both 
 words and music is pleasing to the untutored mind. 
 This form of recital also aids memory, and is espe- 
 cially helpful to people who have no written lan- 
 guage. It is probably true of every people that 
 they have developed a literature which has been 
 transmitted through many generations before means 
 of writing have been discovered. Native races, 
 such as the Polynesians, who have but recently 
 come in contact with civilized peoples, have a con- 
 siderable literature, in the broad sense of the term, 
 that has come down by oral methods through many 
 generations. Each generation sang and chanted 
 this literature to its immediate successor. Thus 
 the life of a people is bound up with its history and 
 common ideals. The more highly developed this 
 
 18 
 
OUR LITERARY INHERITANCE 19 
 
 literature, the more intense becomes the national 
 or community life. 
 
 The Greeks developed a very high type of liter- Greek and 
 ature in advance of their written records. The uteratae 
 Homeric poems were sung by several generations 
 before they were written down. These poems 
 very well exemplify the embodiment of a national 
 ideal in literature. The fact that the Homeric 
 poems were long used as almost the sole basis of 
 literary education and preparation for citizenship 
 in a city-state is evidence of their power to mold 
 youth in conformity with that ideal. 
 
 In Italy the Roman character found expression 
 in the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which were 
 likewise developed and transmitted orally long 
 before they were written. As with the Homeric 
 poems in Greece, so in Rome the Laws of the Twelve 
 Tables became the basis of the Uterary education 
 of the Roman boy and also the foundation of his 
 training for citizenship. To these early and char- 
 acteristically national literatures the Greeks and 
 Romans added many of the world's masterpieces 
 in poetry, drama, oratory, history, and philosophy 
 — in all, one of the richest contributions to civi- 
 lization. 
 
 One other literature is preeminent — that of the Hebrew 
 Hebrews. When the inhabitants of Europe were, '***'^^*^^ 
 for the most part, still savages, the Hebrew prophets 
 were creating religious poetry that still holds first 
 place among all the literatures of its kind. This is 
 the great contribution to the spiritual uplift of hu- 
 
20 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Other 
 
 Oriental 
 
 literatures 
 
 Modem 
 literatures 
 
 manity. It began as a purely national literature, 
 expressive of the genius of its authors and their 
 people. It has become an international literature 
 in Europe and America, and much of it has molded 
 the thoughts and feelings of western Asia and north- 
 ern Africa. Not only is Hebrew literature funda- 
 mental to Christianity, itjhas also inspired the reli- 
 gion and the literature of the Mohammedan world. 
 
 Among the ancients there were other great litera- 
 tures that have now become a part of our common 
 heritage, although they have been less influential 
 — partly, at least, because less known. The na- 
 tional ideals of the Chinese are expressed in the 
 writings of Confucius, of Mencius, and of Lao-tse. 
 Hindu character found expression in the Vedas 
 and the teachings of Buddha. The Book of the 
 Dead reveals the ideals of the ancient Egyptians, 
 and there has recently been unearthed in the Tigro- 
 Euphrates Valley a great wealth of literature that 
 is bringing to light the inner life of the ancient 
 inhabitants of Babylonia. All of these literatures 
 contribute to the enrichment of our lives and to our 
 fellowship with mankind. 
 
 In modern times each great nation has developed 
 its own literature — the Italian, the English, the 
 French, the Spanish, and the German have already 
 become common property of the civilized world. 
 Recently Russia, Belgium, and the Scandinavian 
 countries have produced world-renowned works 
 that have been translated into the languages of 
 all civilized peoples. 
 
OUR LITERARY INHERITANCE 21 
 
 To appreciate fully a foreign literature — ancient Use of 
 
 1 i i ii 1 translations 
 
 or modern — a person must master the language 
 in which it was written. This, Dr. William T. Harris 
 called "putting on the spiritual clothing of a people." 
 But art is long and life is short, and most people 
 do not have time to provide themselves with many 
 such spiritual costumes. In the main, therefore, 
 they must depend upon the best translations avail- 
 able. With English as a native tongue, a youth 
 of to-day has ready access to all the world's master- 
 pieces and first-hand access to the greatest body of 
 Hterature ever produced by the people of one lan- 
 guage or of one nationality. 
 
 As familiarity with a national literature is a neces- Literature 
 sary preparation for citizenship in that nation, so cWzensMp 
 familiarity with the great literatures of all time and 
 all peoples is fundamental to world citizenship and 
 to adequate participation in the great progressive 
 life of humanity. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 The bond- 
 age of 
 primitive 
 man 
 
 The price 
 of freedom 
 
 Origin of 
 
 political 
 
 rights 
 
 OUR POLITICAL INHERITANCE 
 
 "D OUSSEAU idealized the life of the savage as 
 *- ^ one of freedom from the cramping restrictions 
 that prevail in a civilized state. This was because 
 Rousseau was ignorant of the real life of the savage 
 and was painfully conscious of the restraints of an 
 artificial civilization. It is true that primitive 
 peoples are not bound by statutes or written con- 
 stitutions ; but it is also true that these are made in 
 a civilized state for the protection of the individual, 
 not for his enslavement. Furthermore, it is now 
 well known that primitive man has far less freedom 
 than has civilized man. The savage is bound on 
 all sides by hard and fast traditions, sanctioned by 
 superstition and rigidly enforced by tribal authority. 
 
 Man is not born free; he acquires his freedom 
 by a long and difficult process. Political freedom 
 results from the struggles of many centuries. Moral 
 freedom is acquired by the individual through his 
 own efforts, aided by his social inheritance and social 
 opportunities. 
 
 Political rights have their beginnings in a civic 
 code that protects the individual against aggres- 
 sion from within the tribe. Thus a beginning is 
 made in substituting the justice of the law for mere 
 brute force. During the early stages of their de- 
 velopment peoples suffer because of the vagueness 
 and uncertainty of their legal principles, and also 
 
 22 
 
OUR POLITICAL INHERITANCE 23 
 
 because of the want of laws governing intertribal 
 
 relations. Under these conditions individuals of 
 
 a socially inferior class are likely to suffer through 
 
 the rule of might and tradition rather than of justice. 
 
 The political inheritance of modern Europe and The Ten 
 A ■ .-..-I '11* fi Command- 
 
 America IS derived mainly irom three sources : ments 
 
 Hebrew law, Roman law, and Teutonic customs and 
 ideals of political life. The essence of Hebrew law 
 is contained in the Ten Commandments. These 
 laws not only regulate individual conduct, but in 
 doing so they protect the individual against would-be 
 aggressors. "Thou shalt not kill," with a death 
 penalty attached for its violation, is a safeguard 
 to every law-abiding citizen. "Thou shalt not 
 commit adultery," enforced by appropriate penalties, 
 is meant to guard the fountains of life and to pro- 
 tect the generations to be. "Thou shalt not steal," 
 oflBcially enforced, protects the individual in the 
 property that saves him from penury and want. 
 "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy 
 neighbor " aims to guarantee each individual against 
 character assassination, one of the worst of all evils. 
 The tenth commandment, prohibiting covetous- 
 ness, is a transition from the criminal law dealing 
 with overt acts to the higher moral law. This 
 law judges the innermost thoughts and feelings, 
 the sources of all forms of both good and evil. By 
 such contributions the Hebrews have inspired the 
 legislators of many generations and of many nations. 
 
 Very early in their history the Romans worked Roman 
 out certain fundamental legal principles which are ^"^ 
 
CITIZENSHIP 
 
 The Teu- 
 tonic con- 
 tribution 
 
 British law 
 and the 
 American 
 Revolution 
 
 now embodied in the bills of rights of the most ad- 
 vanced states. The Laws of the Twelve Tables 
 prohibit the passage of any law concerning a private 
 individual; require the sanction of the comitia for 
 the enactment of laws depriving a citizen of life, 
 liberty, or citizenship ; guard against excessive 
 rates of interest on loans ; and provide for the ap- 
 pointment of arbiters in cases of boimdary disputes. 
 With these provisions as a start the Romans made 
 great strides in the development of law and govern- 
 ment. Subsequent enactments and jm-istic thought 
 were systematically organized in the Justinian Code, 
 Rome's chief contribution to modern Europe. 
 
 The contribution of the barbaric Teutons is less 
 definite though probably not less important. Their 
 natural love of personal freedom and independence 
 is the foundation of Anglo-Saxon law. Out of the 
 primitive assemblies of the Teutons grew representa- 
 tive government, one of the greatest of all political 
 devices. 
 
 The history of England admirably exemplifies 
 the further development of political principles. It 
 is characteristic of the English poHtical reformer 
 that he is usually contending for the revival of an 
 ancient right. There has, nevertheless, been a 
 very real progress throughout the history of the 
 British government. The great landmarks in this 
 progress are the Magna Charta (1215), the Petition 
 of Right (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689). It 
 was with these as a foundation that the American 
 Revolutionary fathers, contending for the political 
 
OUR POLITICAL INHERITANCE 25 
 
 rights of Englishmen, opposed the encroachment 
 upon these rights by King George III and the con- 
 troUing party in ParHament. The American Decla- 
 ration of Independence not only strongly affirms 
 the rights guaranteed to citizens in English consti- 
 tutional law, but it also affirms principles of liberty 
 and equality derived from the French political 
 philosophy of the eighteenth century. The revo- 
 lutionary ideal of an American republic was doubt- 
 less inspired in part by the example of the small 
 republics of Europe. Holland and Switzerland 
 especially had made their impression on students 
 of government. 
 
 In the formative period of the American govern- The 
 ment the most difficult problem was the coordina- fed"a]*° 
 tion of authority between the states on the one hand constitution 
 and the national government on the other. The 
 formation and adoption of the federal constitution 
 was the great triumph of this period in American 
 history. The maintenance of a strong central 
 government, dealing successfully with problems 
 concerning the nation as a whole and leaving to 
 the individual states the management of local affairs, 
 is the task begun by the authors of the American 
 federal constitution. 
 
 The English Bill of Rights, with its guarantees Bills of 
 to the citizen, was so highly prized by early American "^*^ 
 statesmen that like provisions were early added to 
 our Constitution in the form of amendments. Simi- 
 lar provisions have been adopted generally in the 
 various state constitutions. 
 
26 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Constructive 
 functions of 
 government 
 
 Interna- 
 tional law 
 
 In the last half century these safeguards of nega- 
 tive justice have been supplemented by the rapid 
 development of positive governmental functions; 
 e.g., maintenance and control of public schools, 
 public libraries, public highways, public forests, 
 public utilities, and industrial monopolies. 
 
 Not to be overlooked as part of our political in- 
 heritance are the accepted principles of international 
 law. These principles have been in course of de- 
 velopment for several centuries and gave promise 
 of delivering us from military strife by settling all 
 international disputes by civilized methods. Al- 
 though this tendency has recently suffered a setback, 
 we may hope that this reaction is but temporary 
 and that we shall soon see the further development 
 of international law and international courts of 
 arbitration. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS FAMILY, CHURCH, STATE 
 
 ^I^HE question of just when and how the family Permanence 
 -^ originated we may leave to sociologists. It is °l^y 
 suflScient for our purpose to know that the family 
 is a very ancient institution and that it is likely to 
 outlive the speculations of those who would abolish 
 it. The development and preservation of the family 
 institution outrank in importance any aspect of our 
 social inheritance thus far discussed. It is essential 
 to the development of science, literature, and politics, 
 and these in turn are most valued because of their 
 favorable reaction upon the life of the family. No 
 other institution has played such a vital part in the 
 progress of civilization, and no other can take over its 
 responsibilities without robbing children of their 
 birthright, men and women of the fulfillment of their 
 most noble instincts, and society of its corner stone. 
 
 Aristotle long ago saw that the family, not the The nursery 
 individual, is the unit of society. The devotion of ^^"3"^ 
 husband and wife to each other and to their children 
 is the most perfect example of social solidarity. Here 
 the highest moral principles are realized in ways that 
 seem perfectly natural. However great the impor- 
 tance of knowledge and reason, it is love that is the 
 most powerful motive force in moral progress. The 
 family is the nursery of love and good will toward 
 mankind. It is there that each learns to subordinate 
 self to the common good, to share his gain with 
 
 27 
 
28 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 those in need, and to give willing service to others. 
 The ability to cooperate for the good of all is an es- 
 sential condition of social progress as well as of in- 
 dividual progress. However brilliant a person may 
 be, if he is unable to cooperate with his fellows in the 
 common cause of human betterment, he is doomed to 
 failure. Family life provides not instruction merely, 
 but, what is far more important, everyday practice 
 in this homely virtue. 
 The church Although less universal, the institutions of reUgion, 
 next to the home, touch most intimately the Kves 
 of individuals. From infancy to death the great 
 mass of individuals are under the influences of reli- 
 gion, which represents their deepest reflections and 
 feelings and consequent actions. The church is the 
 organized expression of this aspect of human life. 
 Many persons who are not church members substi- 
 tute therefor membership in a secret society or 
 brotherhood. 
 
 Theology may be a matter of belief, but religion 
 must be practical as well. Organized rehgion has for 
 its task the spiritual betterment of mankind. The 
 betterment may have reference to this life or to the 
 next, or to both. It has come to be the prevailing 
 opinion, however, that what is best for this life, in 
 the highest sense, is also best for the next. The 
 churches have, therefore, centered their efforts upon 
 the development of the finest type of character and 
 the improvement of social conditions in respect to 
 their effect upon the development of character. 
 Whatever else God may mean to the church. He is 
 
 The task 
 of religion 
 
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 29 
 
 the embodiment of the highest ideals man can con- 
 ceive. In the matter of morals and spiritual develop- 
 ment He is the goal toward which the religious man 
 strives. This is illustrated in Christianity in the 
 admonition : "Be ye therefore perfect even as your 
 Father which is in heaven is perfect." The religious 
 life has been summarized under the headings, love of 
 God and love of neighbor, and the latter, meaning 
 our fellow men, has been taken as the index of the 
 former. In striving to realize the highest type of 
 character through love and service to mankind, the 
 individual ordinarily gains hope, faith, and endurance 
 in the task through his belief in a Supreme Being or 
 Power that makes for righteousness — a Being or a 
 Power that is more real and more ultimate than 
 anything else in the universe. Every one must at 
 some time realize that as an individual his life is 
 short, and in consequence his attainments meager at 
 best. If he is to have permanent place and signifi- 
 cance in the world, it must be because of some perma- 
 nent and meaningful relationship which he bears to 
 that world. This idea is the foundation of the church 
 as a social institution and permeates all its educa- 
 tional work with young and old, with members and 
 non-members. 
 
 In the preceding chapter we have dealt in some The state 
 measure with the state as an institution. Like the 
 family, it is very ancient in origin and practically 
 universal. The individual does not choose whether 
 or not he will be a member of a state. He must at 
 least be under the control of some tribal or national 
 
30 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 organization. As in every other aspect of human 
 society, the state has undergone an evolution, both 
 in purpose and in organization. The two extremes 
 in purpose are illustrated in the statement that in 
 ancient times the individual existed for the state, 
 but that in modern times the state exists for the 
 individual. The latter statement, taken in an ex- 
 clusive sense, represents the extreme individualism 
 of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. With a 
 deeper insight into the functions of the state, into the 
 common social inheritance of marikind, and into civi- 
 lization as a growth, we are coming to see that while 
 the state exists for the individual, the individual 
 also exists in some measure for the good of the state, 
 since its task is to promote the general good of both 
 the living and the unborn. 
 
 The form and organization of the state vary 'with 
 conditions and more especially with the character and 
 intelligence of the people. We are coming to think 
 with Aristotle that, under any given condition, that 
 form of government is best which works best — pure 
 democracy or representative government for those 
 with the knowledge and will to operate such a govern- 
 ment successfully, and some form of benevolent 
 external authority for those to whom self-government 
 would mean only anarchy. These latter must ac- 
 quire political ability by slow process. 
 
 The state includes public-school systems and other 
 public educational agencies. In the broadest sense 
 education is the chief business of all social institu- 
 tions and their auxiliaries, which conserve the race 
 
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 31 
 
 inheritance in all its aspects and use this heritage 
 as a means of further progress. By means of insti- 
 tutions, individuals develop their powers through 
 participation in social life and through sharing the 
 common goods of civilization. 
 
CHAPTER Vin 
 
 THE SOLIDARITY OP THE RACE 
 
 interde- jDHILOSOPHERS generally agree that some sort 
 au'things ° of Unity pervades the universe. The law of 
 
 gravitation is a statement of the universal interde- 
 pendence of the particles of matter. The dependence 
 of the organic upon the inorganic world is manifest 
 to every observer of nature. Animals are likewise 
 dependent upon plants, and man upon both. These 
 relationships are, however, comparatively simple and 
 mainly physical. With the race of civilized men the 
 interrelationships are vastly more complex. First 
 of all there is mutual economic interdependence of 
 contemporary peoples. In the family, this must at 
 some time take the form of dependence of the weak 
 upon the strong; in adult society generally the 
 dependence is mutual and results in exchange of 
 goods. 
 
 One cannot well live in civilization without using 
 many of the products of lands and of occupations 
 other than his own. Furthermore, he cannot be 
 economically efficient unless he produces much more 
 than he consumes of some human necessity. Beyond 
 the production of material goods, however, there are 
 many other forms of service equally necessary in a 
 well-developed society. This leads to further spe- 
 cialization, and this again to still greater dependence 
 of the individual upon society. In the realm of the 
 intellectual, the esthetic, the moral, and the religious 
 
 32 
 
THE SOLIDARITY OF THE RACE 33 
 
 life, man's dependence upon others is still more mani- 
 fest. In these matters what can one acquire and 
 what can one enjoy apart from his fellows ? 
 
 In the preceding chapters we have tried to show how The social 
 the race of civilized men, in the course of centuries, Jmdcon-"* 
 has developed the common legacy of civilization, sequent 
 This legacy we have called the race inheritance. For 
 the most part it consists of spiritual rather than of 
 material goods, and may, therefore, be shared by all. 
 Indeed, possession by one helps rather than hinders 
 possession by others. This is true even of mastery 
 of those principles of the sciences and practical arts 
 that have to do with the production of material 
 goods. Each individual may, therefore, partake 
 freely of the common social inheritance without being 
 in the least egoistic ; on the contrary, the process may 
 be wholly altruistic. In this process the individual 
 is acquiring additional power that may be used in 
 social service, toward which he should be the more 
 inclined as a consequence of his greater consciousness 
 of the unity of the human race and of dependence 
 upon his fellows. Once impressed with these facts, 
 he cannot assert that "a man is free to do as he 
 pleases so long as he does not interfere with the like 
 rights of others," and still retain any meaning in his 
 statement. No man can be free from obligations to 
 his fellow men. One born in this age is of necessity 
 indebted, whether he so wills or not, to millions of 
 men who have preceded him and who have contrib- 
 uted their energy toward making the civilization of 
 which he is a beneficiary. This debt he cannot pay 
 
progress 
 
 34 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 back to them individually, but to the humanity 
 which Hves through the generations to whom the so- 
 cial inheritance belongs he can pay back in propor- 
 tion to his ability. Thus we borrow from the past 
 and the present while we pay back to the present and 
 the future. 
 
 Social It is the fact of race solidarity that makes progress 
 
 possible. The native intelligence of the individual 
 is probably not very difiFerent from what it was 5000 
 years ago. His biological heredity is approximately 
 the same; his social heredity, however, is vastly 
 different. This grows through the generations as a 
 snowball rolled through the snow. The increased 
 knowledge, skill, and power of the modern man is due 
 almost wholly to his participation in the benefits of 
 his social inheritance. It is, therefore, folly for him to 
 despise the past from which these great benefits 
 came ; it is equally foolish for him to spend his time 
 and energy worshiping the past when he should be 
 contributing his strength to conserving and enlarging 
 the common social inheritance for the good of his as- 
 sociates and his successors. 
 
 "The good old days" were never half so good as 
 the days that are yet to come. Thousands of years 
 of the history of man's struggle for mastery of him- 
 self and to gain control over natural obstacles furnish 
 ample evidence of many triumphs. A triumph by 
 one man or one generation is a permanent gain for 
 humanity. Other men and other generations thus 
 acquire additional power for further conquests. 
 This is well illustrated in our own time in the growth 
 
THE SOLIDARITY OF THE RACE 35 
 
 of man's knowledge of electricity and its application 
 to human welfare. It is less than two centuries since 
 FrankHn astonished the world by exhibiting a little 
 elementary knowledge of this aspect of nature. 
 From such small beginnings have come inventions 
 that have made electrical energy an invaluable serv- 
 ant to mankind. Parallel cases might be cited 
 in many branches of natural science. In the social 
 sciences progress has been less manifest because 
 the problems are more complex ; yet man is learning 
 to discover the principles that have been hidden in 
 these complexities and is now applying them in the 
 fields of education and of social ethics. 
 
 These are the conquests of peace, the victories over 
 ignorance, superstition, and vice, by which civiliza- 
 tion is won. By participation in this race progress 
 men acquire a feeling of social solidarity and a sense 
 of obhgation to mankind. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE USE OP THE NATURAL RESOURCES OP THE EARTH 
 
 The right " rpHE earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof." 
 of the earth Without entering into theological discussion, 
 
 perhaps we may agree that the earth with all its 
 resources has been given to man as a means of sup- 
 port and race development. No individual man can, 
 however, claim any portion of the earth except as he 
 may have title granted or sanctioned by his fellows. 
 The power to grant such property rights is vested 
 in governments, which are the acknowledged repre- 
 sentatives of the people for whom they act. Govern- 
 ments hold or control all natural resources within 
 their jurisdiction for the good of all the people they 
 represent. They allow individuals to acquire title 
 to portions of these resources under such regulations 
 as seem fair to all, although any particular kind of 
 resource may be withheld from private ownership 
 whenever the public good requires. Forests, water- 
 power sites, and coal lands have at various times 
 been thus withheld from entry. The regulation of 
 the use of all natural resources for the best good of 
 present and future generations is one of the functions 
 of the state. 
 Government In theory, justice to all could best be obtained by 
 one government representing all peoples and having 
 world-wide jurisdiction. By this means provision 
 might be made for all to share alike in material oppor- 
 tunities. But we are far from this ideal. Differences 
 
 36 
 
 control 
 
USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 37 
 
 of race, language, and customs, together with the 
 bonds of tradition, have separated mankind into 
 many nations. For the present, at least, the ideal 
 can best be approached by insisting that all govern- 
 ments shall exercise their authority for the good of 
 the governed, and that in this they shall have due 
 consideration for each citizen and shall aim at the 
 greatest good of both contemporary and future gen- 
 erations. 
 
 The term "land" is often used to include all Land 
 natural resources. It is evident that man cannot 
 live without having the use, either individually or 
 jointly with others, of some portions of land. Land 
 is usually classified on the basis of the use to which 
 it is put or is adapted by nature, or by its situation 
 in respect to the centers of civilization. Thus there 
 are grazing lands, farm lands, mineral lands, forest 
 lands, power sites, roadways, building lots, and 
 building sites. The value that is attached to land 
 is, for the most part, a social product. The savage 
 who lives by fishing and hunting has no land in any 
 of the above senses of the term. He occupies the 
 land merely as hunting ground and usually requires 
 a great deal of it to supply his needs. Since the re- 
 turns per area are so small, the land has little value. 
 V/ith the domestication of animals, hunting ground 
 may become grazing land; with the domestication 
 of plants, it may become farm land or improved 
 grazing land ; when men begin to settle in towns, 
 farms are divided into building lots, and these again 
 into sites for business blocks. In this development 
 
38 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 there is a progressive increase in the valuation of 
 land. Evidently this increase is not due to any pro- 
 vision of nature. It is a product of the growth of 
 civilization. By intelligent application of labor to 
 farm land its value may be increased by increasing 
 its productivity. This may be accomplished by 
 the individual. The great diflferences in land values 
 are, however, for the most part social values. These 
 social values, the so-called unearned increment, 
 may also be subject to control and regulation by the 
 state. Some states have exercised this power by a 
 special tax on the unearned increment. Thus 
 governments have asserted their right to own, regu- 
 late, and control not only the natural resources of the 
 earth, but also the values created by the activities of 
 society. Social land values are frequently the prod- 
 uct of the concentration of population in one small 
 area. The growth of these values can, therefore, 
 be attributed to one individual only in very small 
 degree. 
 
 Forest lands as sources of timber have httle value 
 until civilization creates a demand for building ma- 
 terial. Mineral land values depend upon man's 
 knowledge of mining, metallurgy, and the uses of 
 minerals. Likewise, water-power sites acquire value 
 only as man learns to use this power in operating 
 machinery. Until recently such machinery was very 
 simple and the power local in its application. 
 Knowledge of how to transform water power into elec- 
 trical energy and the discovery of methods of trans- 
 mitting this energy long distances and reconverting 
 
USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES S9 
 
 it into mechanical force have increased many fold the 
 value of power sites. 
 
 In the arid regions flowing water is a valuable nat- Water 
 ural resource as necessary as land. Under these 
 circumstances individuals seek property in water 
 rights based upon perpetual use in irrigation. It is 
 recognized that the title to water rests with the 
 government, and individuals must secure their prop- 
 erty rights from this source. Since the government 
 grants property rights in farm lands, it is only con- 
 sistent that similar rights should be granted in the 
 other resource necessary to make desert lands produc- 
 tive. The case is different with water rights for town 
 or city purposes. 
 
 It seems self-evident that all natural resources and sharing and 
 all acquired social values belong of right to all the reso^ces 
 people of the generation that is and the generations 
 that are to be ; that one important function of govern- 
 ment is to regulate the distribution and the conditions 
 of use of these resources and social values to the end 
 that every normal man may support himself and 
 those dependent upon him, in addition to rendering 
 his due proportion of public service. This public 
 service includes the rearing and education of the 
 generation that is next in succession. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 
 
 Discrimina- IV/TANY of the natural resources, such as coal, are 
 sedation"' Consumed with use ; others, water-power sites, 
 
 for instance, are not thus consumed. The soil, while 
 not literally consumed, may lose its fertility through 
 careless use. These are three typical aspects of the 
 problem of conservation. One of the &st principles 
 of conservation is that man should not use an exhaust- 
 ible resource to supply a need that can as well be sup- 
 plied by an energy that dissipates itself. A vein 
 of coal left in the earth will be available for genera- 
 tions to come and will be much more appreciated than 
 will a hole in the ground. On the contrary, the un- 
 used energy of the waterfall is gone forever. Its 
 use by one generation will not detract from its future 
 availability for a like purpose. This is an aspect of 
 conservation that deserves more serious consideration. 
 Men interested primarily in business sometimes glory 
 in the fact that nulHons of tons of coal are being 
 mined in their region. In such cases they think only 
 of the money that is being expended and of the addi- 
 tional business that these expenditures create, but do 
 not consider the ultimate effect upon human well- 
 being. Where coal is easily accessible it is frequently 
 burned to create electrical energy by the side of a 
 mountain stream that daily wastes upon the rocks 
 vastly more energy than is being obtained from the 
 consumption of coal on its banks. 
 
 40 
 
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 41 
 
 The careless may say that future generations will 
 find ways of living in comfort without coal. This is 
 but a conjecture and is no excuse for wastefulness. 
 The energy of the stream will doubtless be utilized, 
 but there may come a time when want of the coal 
 will cause suffering. 
 
 These facts constitute a vital objection to the 
 policy of withholding power sites from entry, unless 
 government can lease or can itself establish power 
 plants on those sites where electrical energy can be 
 advantageously produced. The motives for with- 
 holding this valuable resource from private owner- 
 ship — to conserve it for the benefit of all — ■ we must 
 approve. If, however, this policy results in a pro- 
 longed inaction, it is a conservation that does not 
 conserve. The remedy lies either in public operation 
 or in just public regulation. The former plan is 
 sometimes followed by transferring ownership from 
 the general government to a municipality or other 
 subdivision of the state or nation. This is to iden- 
 tify ownership and control with the users of this 
 particular resource. The fatal objection to unreg- 
 ulated private ownership of such common necessi- 
 ties as coal lands and power sites is the danger of 
 monopolies that will oppress the public for the undue 
 enrichment of their owners. 
 
 The conservation of soil fertility has been the Conserva- 
 object of much governmental concern. This concern s'°a a°nd 
 has thus far resulted chiefly in educative rather than moisture 
 in compulsory measures. Some states have, how- 
 ever, passed laws penalizing land owners for allowing 
 
42 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 noxious weeds to grow on their farms. This is partly 
 a matter of soil conservation and partly a matter of 
 protection to their neighbors. Other problems of 
 conservation of soil fertility have to do with rotation 
 of crops, use of fertilizers, and cultivation, including 
 summer fallowing. In this connection the con- 
 servation of moisture, in arid regions, is important 
 on irrigated farms as well as on dry farms. In the 
 former instance conservation of moisture in the soil 
 makes possible the extension of irrigated farms and, 
 at the same time, it avoids washing out unnecessarily 
 the fertility of the soil or otherwise neutralizing its 
 powers of production. In these matters a strong 
 appeal is being made to the seK-interest of farmers. 
 With intelligent farm owners this method may be 
 fairly effective, siace a man has there his life's occu- 
 pation with a probability that the same farm may 
 later be the basis of support of his descendants. The 
 great difficulty, after ignorance is overcome, lies in 
 the indifference of the farm tenant. Any measure 
 that encourages farmers to own the land they oper- 
 ate is indirectly an aid to conservation, as well as 
 an aid to social stability. 
 Farm Laws establishing quarantine or extermination of 
 
 products domestic animals suffering from contagious disease 
 are conservation measures aimed to save serviceable 
 animals. The same is true of some laws relating to 
 horticulture. Conservation of fruit requires exter- 
 mination of insects that destroy trees or their 
 products. 
 ■ The policy of maintaining publicly owned forest 
 
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 43 
 
 reserves is most important. Timber is a necessity Timber 
 of civilization, but when a country is well occupi-^d 
 by civilized man, trees are not produced by nature 
 unaided as fast as they are consumed. Without 
 public care they may even be consumed in mass by 
 forest fires. The preservation and the reproduction 
 of forests is a matter of too far-reaching consequences 
 to be left to private management. Many of the best 
 timber-producing trees require centuries for their 
 growth. Thus it happens that the first settlers in a 
 country may reap the timber growth of a thousand 
 years, while each generation following becomes suc- 
 cessively poorer in timber resources. Enlightened 
 governments, therefore, have generally assumed the 
 guardianship of large forest areas. They have also 
 undertaken the reforestation of denuded areas, and 
 the regulation of timber cutting to avoid waste or 
 premature removal of growing trees. 
 
 As a rule timber areas are also grazing land. To Grazing 
 avoid waste, governments issue grazing permits to '*°"*^ 
 settlers, under restrictions aimed to avoid damage 
 to young trees and underbrush that may be helpful 
 in conserving moisture and to promote the preserva- 
 tion and development of valuable forage plants. The 
 absence of such regulations on desert ranges and by 
 many farmers in the management of their own pas- 
 tures is the occasion of much loss in these resources. 
 
 In the business world, men absorbed in private en- Need of 
 terprise too often center attention upon immediate an'd a^*** 
 results and thereby fail to appreciate the effects socialized 
 of their activities upon the public at large and 
 
44 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 especially upon future generations. Such individuals 
 need to have their attention directed, forcibly, if 
 necessary, to their obligations to their fellow men — 
 obligations that are greatly increased as opportunities 
 for service increase. The control of any natural 
 resource gives into the keeping of individuals or of 
 corporations a certain power over mankind. This 
 power is a stewardship and entails an accounting to 
 society. Such dealing makes for the conservation of 
 mankind, the greatest of all resources. But man is 
 not merely a resource ; he is an end in himself. To 
 regard him in any other light would be to render 
 meaningless all our discussions of ethical questions. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE CONSERVATION OF HUMAN LIFE 
 
 rriHE conservation of natural resources becomes Man an 
 -*■ important as a means to the conservation and ^ggif 
 development of human life. It was the more com- 
 plete recognition of the fact that all else is subordi- 
 nate to human welfare that led to the abolition of 
 slavery. Economic gain at the expense of human 
 personality was thereby condemned. The freeing 
 of the slave was, however, only the beginning of the 
 recent humanitarian movement. There are many 
 other forms, old and new, of subordinating the per- 
 sonality of an individual to the ambition, the greed, 
 or the lust of another. Of these forms "white slav- 
 ery" is one of the most ruinous to individuals and 
 most detrimental to the race. It is a flagrant ex- 
 ample of the possible depths of human depravity, 
 and, furthermore, engenders diseases most destruc- 
 tive of human life and happiness — - diseases of which 
 the bad eflfects sometimes persist through many 
 generations. Voluntary organizations are trying to 
 cooperate with public officials in bringing about the 
 elimination of this evil from society Much of the 
 activity of government is directed toward the same 
 end. The fact that this is a very old form of sin is 
 no reason for giving up the fight against it. It is 
 probably no older than chattel slavery, which has 
 already been abolished. In this reform education 
 must be the chief factor. This education must 
 
 45 
 
46 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Prohibition 
 of de- 
 structive 
 traffic 
 
 Child 
 labor 
 
 Women as 
 
 wage 
 
 earners 
 
 emphasize the highest ideals of family life and the 
 subordination of sexual impulses to this end. Plain, 
 hygienic living, ample physical exercise, and the 
 cultivation of many worthy interests are among the 
 most effective means of forestalling such forms of 
 vice and sin. 
 
 Other ancient enemies of human life are alcoholic 
 liquors and various drugs used as stimulants or as 
 means of deadening the sensibilities. Society has 
 been very halting in its resolve to prohibit traffic in 
 these destructive agencies. Recently, however, the 
 public conscience has become more sensitive to its 
 responsibilities for these evils. It appears now that 
 public toleration of these obstructions to progress 
 will soon go the way of slavery. 
 
 It is now generally recognized that factories and 
 mines are not suitable places for children, and that 
 prolonged hours at any kind of labor are a hindrance to 
 child development, although a reasonable amount of 
 suitable work is beneficial. Public opinion on this 
 question has found expression in the child-labor laws 
 of civilized nations. These laws protect the child 
 against attempts to use him for gain irrespective of 
 his own welfare. To fail to give him protection is 
 not only to wrong the individual : it is also to wrong 
 mankind, whose progress is thus retarded. 
 
 It is, furthermore, to promote the permanent wel- 
 fare of mankind that many restrictions are placed 
 upon the employment of women. They are generally 
 excluded from labor in mines, from heavy work in 
 factories, or other employment that is likely to jeop- 
 
THE CONSERVATION OF HUMAN LIFE 47 
 
 ardize their health or morals. As clerks in stores 
 their hours are restricted by law, so that no merchant 
 can unduly prolong their hours of labor, or will need 
 to do so as a necessity in competitive business. 
 
 The reasons for safeguarding women employees other labor 
 apply also to men, but in less degree. It is now '^''^ 
 customary to make legal requirement of safe and 
 hygienic conditions in all places of labor. This is 
 on the principle that the conservation of human life 
 and health is always more important than cheap 
 production and should, therefore, be given first con- 
 sideration. For the same reason hours of labor are 
 restricted and a minimum wage is fixed by law. The 
 minimmn wage is correlated with the minimum cost 
 of hygienic living, and is meant to protect the laborer 
 against economic oppression. The requirement of 
 hygienic working conditions condemns the sweat- 
 shop ; home needs have condemned the insanitary 
 tenement house. Requirements of fireproof build- 
 ings or ample provision of free exits and fire escapes 
 and protection of the worker against dangerous 
 machinery, dust, and excessive heat or cold are other 
 examples of legal safeguards to life and health. In 
 case of accidental death in industrial employment, 
 families thus made dependent should be protected 
 by insurance that is chargeable to the cost of pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Closely allied to measures for the protection of inteiugence 
 employees are intelligence offices, such as employ- °®'^®^ 
 ment bureaus, immigration bureaus, and health 
 boards. It is properly the business of these offices 
 
for health 
 
 48 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 to supply, free of charge, reliable information per- 
 taining to their respective fields of investigation. 
 This is to relieve any one, however poor, from suf- 
 fering on account of ignorance or from being misled 
 by advertisements. Even commercial clubs have 
 been known to engage in a cooperative plan to send 
 out too glowing advertisements. As a result, people 
 of small means have often been swindled out of their 
 savings. As an antidote for this social ailment, 
 pubhc immigration and other similar bureaus have 
 been established. 
 The fight Man's greatest enemy, next to his own uncontrolled 
 
 selfish appetites and passions, is the disease germ. 
 The attacks of microscopic organisms cannot be 
 repelled by mere brute force. In this battle intelli- 
 gent control of conditions offers the chief hope of 
 victory. It is the business of public health boards 
 to supply intelligence and to exercise control. This 
 control relates to the enforcement of sanitary meas- 
 ures and the discovery and quarantine of contagious 
 and infectious diseases. These measures, based upon 
 the rapidly developing science of medicine, are among 
 the greatest of all factors in human conservation. 
 
 The work of the health board is sometimes ex- 
 tended to the maintenance of pure milk dispensaries 
 for infants and of sanatoria for the care and re- 
 covery of victims of infectious disease, and by the 
 provision of health-board nurses for the inspection 
 of schools and for other public service. The near 
 future will doubtless bring a great increase in public 
 activity in this direction. The accomplishments of 
 
THE CONSERVATION OF HUMAN LIFE 49 
 
 government experts in the Panama Canal Zone 
 point toward greater success in the conquest of dis- 
 ease everywhere by removing breeding places of dis- 
 ease germs. Among these breeding places, however, 
 are weak, poorly nourished, nerve-racked human 
 bodies. Public activity should, therefore, be ex- 
 tended to prevention of ill health. Among the means 
 to this end is the suggested provision of summer 
 camps in the public forests. The growth of the 
 world's timber supply is not at all inconsistent with 
 provision to use the same lands as public health and 
 pleasure resorts. The forest reserves are usually in 
 mountainous districts or in lake or swamp regions 
 where agriculture cannot be carried on to best ad- 
 vantage. While swamp lands are not attractive as 
 health resorts, there will always be ample room in 
 mountain and lake districts for summer camping, 
 provided government does not allow a few individuals 
 to monopolize large areas. 
 
 The recent establishment of medical research foun- 
 dations, and other efforts toward cooperative inves- 
 tigations relating to health and race improvement, 
 ought to stimulate government to greater activity in 
 this field. Government has done much to eliminate 
 hog cholera, bovine tuberculosis, and foot and 
 mouth disease, all of which is valuable enough ; but 
 how little it has done for the more direct conservation 
 of human life ! 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 PUBLIC OWNERSHIP OR REGULATION OF PUBLIC 
 UTILITIES 
 
 Highways /^NE of the oldest and most common forms of 
 
 and postal If 
 
 service ^^^ public utilities is the public highway. It has 
 
 been customary for this utility to be constructed, 
 owned, and regulated by government, although occa- 
 sionally one still hears of a privately owned toll road 
 or toll bridge. Another very old and generally pub- 
 licly owned utility is the postal service. This is 
 also an international service and is therefore con- 
 trolled by cooperative action of the largest unit of 
 government. 
 
 Wehave become so accustomed to the above forms 
 of public service that it would seem absurd to depend 
 upon private ownership with unregulated private 
 control for the use of highways and the conveyance 
 of mails. The maintenance of roads and bridges 
 over which individuals may drive their own convey- 
 ances is, of course, a much simpler matter than own- 
 ing and operating a railway or a street-car system; 
 but the underlying principle is the same, and some 
 governments have found it quite feasible to own and 
 operate all the popular forms of transportation and 
 communication. It is not our purpose here to advo- 
 cate this plan. Whether or not it is the best can be 
 definitely determined only by experiment and obser- 
 vation under the scrutiny of economists, business 
 men, and the public. We must contend, however, 
 
 50 
 
PUBLIC UTILITIES 51 
 
 that as all rights of way belong originally to govern- 
 ment, representing the people, and as means of 
 transportation and communication are necessary 
 means of public service, the state is justified in re- 
 taining and utilizing its rights, if by so doing it can 
 best serve the public. If, however, this method is 
 found to be less efficient than construction and oper- 
 ation by private enterprise, the state owes it to its 
 citizens to see that this form of business is adminis- 
 tered in the interests of public welfare, and on terms 
 that are fair both to the patrons and the investors. 
 This is the more necessary where the service is a 
 natural monopoly. 
 
 In many forms of public service we depend upon competition 
 competition to insure efficient service and to regu- p^yu regu- 
 late charges. In railway and street-car transporta- lation 
 tion, however, such a method is very wasteful. One 
 set of tracks and equipment can do the street-car 
 business of a city much better than it can be done 
 by competing roads; competition is, in fact, not 
 generally feasible. The kind and the terms of ser- 
 vice are usually specified in the franchise granted a 
 street-railway company. But in the course of fifty 
 years tremendous changes occur in the transporta- 
 tion needs of a city, and franchise provisions are 
 wholly inadequate to provide for these growing needs. 
 In the absence of any other control the public is at 
 the mercy of the owners of the street-railway com- 
 pany. If not fairly treated the public might retaliate 
 by granting a franchise to a competing company. 
 This would, however, involve great public incori- 
 
52 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 venience and might mean financial ruin to both 
 companies. Another form of retahation would be 
 to refuse to renew the franchise. To escape such a 
 penalty, companies might depend upon deathbed 
 repentance, since franchises are long and most citi- 
 zens' memories are short. 
 
 The fatal objection to these methods is that they 
 are in direct conflict with ethical principles. Gov- 
 ernment or business management by retahation can 
 never be approved. Street railways may, through 
 benevolent disposition, so manage their roads as 
 best to serve the pubhc with only reasonable profits 
 to themselves. Experience has shown, however, 
 that it is not good pohcy to depend upon a one- 
 sided benevolence. What we have said of street 
 railways is, in the main, true of at least short-dis- 
 Pubiic tance trafl&c of railroads. Where these means of 
 
 transportation are privately owned, governments 
 generally have, therefore, constituted railway or 
 pubhc utihties commissions to whom either owners 
 or patrons may appeal for redress of grievances. Of 
 necessity such a commission must be composed of 
 very well-informed men of experience and sound 
 judgment who are not subject to frequent change in 
 office. The great danger is that the commission 
 may become a victim of the spoils system. This 
 system is bad enough at its best ; applied to member- 
 ship on a public utihties commission, it would prob- 
 ably be at its worst. 
 
 Another feature of the better adjustment of rela- 
 tions between the railroads and car hnes, on the one 
 
 utilities 
 commissions 
 
PUBLIC UTILITIES 53 
 
 hand, and the pubhc, on the other, is the permanent 
 protection of the roads from ruinous competition 
 and from the uncertainties of a time-Hmited fran- 
 chise. If the chances for graft are reduced by pubhc 
 regulation, so also are the chances for uncontrolled 
 financial ruin of the company reduced. 
 
 Telegraph and telephone companies are subject to 
 conditions similar to those described. Competing 
 telephone systems in a local community are a public 
 nuisance and an economic waste. Yet uncontrolled 
 monopoly of this business may work a great injustice 
 to the public. Poor telephone service, by wasting a 
 few minutes of the patron's time each day, may cost 
 a city millions annually in addition to the rates paid 
 the company. 
 
 Electricity for light, heat, and power; gas, and 
 other forms of public service that require right of 
 way over streets, are natural monopolies and should 
 likewise be subject to public regulation to protect 
 the people from bad service and extortionate charges 
 and to protect the owners from unnecessary compe- 
 tition. Many cities find it feasible to own their own 
 power plants to light their streets and to supply 
 their citizens. 
 
 A water system is one of the most necessary utili- Public 
 ties in a town or city. Upon ample supply of pure ^^jems 
 water and its proper distribution and use the health 
 and well-being of the whole community are largely 
 dependent. On this account public ownership of 
 water and water systems has become almost as 
 common as public ownership of highways. No 
 
54 CITIZENSHli' 
 
 community can afford to allow its rights in this neces- 
 sary resource to pass into private ownership. Sell- 
 ing a community birthright is as disastrous as selHng 
 one's individual birthright. 
 
 The chief difficulty in the management of a water 
 system for public service is to regulate the use of 
 water so that all households may be amply provided 
 with it. This is their privilege ; abuse of this priv- 
 ilege, however, should be subject to severe penalty. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PUBLIC REGULATION OF FOOD MARKETS 
 
 /CIVILIZATION has brought with it a high de- Pure food 
 ^-^ gree of speciaHzation. As it is now out of the "^^^ 
 question for each individual to make all the various 
 things he consumes, so it is impossible for him per- 
 sonally to inspect the sanitary quality of every article 
 of food he buys. The science of chemistry has made 
 possible extensive adulterations of food without 
 making a difference that can be promptly detected 
 by the ordinary consumer. This fact has led to the 
 passage of pure food laws and the calling into service 
 of scientifically trained inspectors to pass upon and 
 certify to the purity or impurity of manufactured 
 articles of food. This is to prevent fraud and to 
 protect people against the inadvertent use of bad 
 food. The fight for pure food regulations has been 
 long and arduous. The opposition has come from 
 those manufacturers and dealers whom these regu- 
 lations have prevented from making enormous 
 profits at the expense of a deceived public. The pure 
 food pohcy is now generally adopted and its benefits 
 universally appreciated. This type of control and 
 supervision is being extended to patent medicines 
 and other drugs offered for sale. A patent medicine 
 may be quite harmless, or it may be the reverse. 
 The purchaser has a right to be told the truth 
 on this point. In the case of both drugs and 
 food the only feasible way of his getting this truth 
 
 55 
 
56 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 is through cooperative action such as government 
 provides. 
 Fniitand A large proportion, of the food suppHes on the 
 
 m^kets* market are in the form of fresh fruit, vegetables, 
 and animal products. These are perishable and 
 especially subject to contamination through decay ; 
 or they may be diseased or exposed to insanitary 
 conditions before they reach the market. Diseased 
 fruit is frequently excluded from the market or pro- 
 hibited from exportation, although not condemned 
 for home consumption. The case of the wormy 
 apple is sometimes an object of dispute, the question 
 being as to why government prevents a man from 
 buying wormy apples on the market if he wants 
 them and is unable to pay for perfectly sound fruit. 
 The matter may be considered from either of two 
 points of view; i.e., the effect upon the apple indus- 
 try and the effect upon the consumer. If the apple 
 grower is permitted to put unsound apples upon the 
 market, careless methods in the handling of fruit 
 are countenanced and the spread of a fruit pest goes 
 unchecked. As to the bad effect upon the consumer 
 of using inferior or contaminated fruit and the right 
 of government to interfere, argument on this point 
 hinges upon the question, "Has the state a right to 
 protect a citizen against his own ignorance and 
 folly.?" 
 
 Diseased or decayed vegetables are no less harm- 
 ful than diseased fruits, and for wanting public super- 
 vision of these markets the purchaser has reasons 
 similar to the reasons given for the prevention of 
 
PUBLIC REGULATION OF FOOD MARKETS 57 
 
 the sale of adulterated manufactured goods. The 
 farmer, too, needs to be stimulated to avoid diseases 
 and pests in his crops. While government bars 
 such crops from the market, it also gives the farmer 
 every opportunity to learn how to rid himself of 
 whatever hinders successful production. 
 
 Regulation of the sale of animal products is both Meat and 
 more necessary and more complicated. Tests of products 
 milk for percentage of butter fat and of solids is an 
 aspect of upholding the standards of weights and 
 measures which has general application. . The test 
 for bacterial content is, however, for a different pur- 
 pose. It is regarded as an index of the sanitary or 
 insanitary methods of handling and storing milk, 
 involving sanitation of animals, barns, utensils, and 
 milkers, and of airing and cooling the product. The 
 process of inspection requires the most scientific tests 
 for the detection of tubercular animals in the dairy 
 herd, and provides for the destruction of such ani- 
 mals or their isolation from the herd before the prod- 
 ucts can be offered for sale. While this may seem to 
 be a hardship on the dairyman, it is in the long run 
 a mutual benefit to him and to his customers. The 
 toleration of contagious disease in a herd leads ulti- 
 mately to its destruction, whereas destruction of 
 the diseased animals, or their isolation until re- 
 covery, together with proper methods of disinfection, 
 is the surest guarantee against such a result. Gov- 
 ernment usually bears the expense of making the 
 tests — a real saving to the dairyman. 
 
 Protection of the public against disease germs is 
 
58 CITIZENSHU:' 
 
 further illustrated in the government inspection of 
 meat and the exclusion from the market of the bodies 
 of animals afflicted with such germs. Meat inspec- 
 tion is extended to the sanitary conditions of the 
 slaughterhouse and the methods of handling and 
 preserving meat. 
 Score cards In case of all perishable food products, the sani- 
 tary condition of the market itself is an important 
 factor. This is now frequentlj'^ judged by the score- 
 card method. This method also helps the shop- 
 keeper to maintain a definite standard of sanitation 
 and to judge his own premises before the public 
 inspector arrives. The score card is also used in 
 judging butter, cheese, and numerous other food 
 products. Thus standards of quality are definitely 
 established and the producer can direct his efforts 
 intelligently toward realizing the best quality, 
 whether or not legally required to do so. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 PUBLIC EEGULATION OF THE SELLING PRICE OP 
 NECESSITIES CONTROLLED BY MONOPOLIES 
 
 I 
 
 F government is under obligation to protect the Regulation 
 individual against adulteration of foods, inferior destruction 
 milk supply, and diseased meat, may it not also of monop- 
 be under obligation to protect him against exor- 
 bitant prices? It has been assumed that the sell- 
 ing prices of all the necessities of life will be regu- 
 lated by competition and by the law of supply and 
 demand. But practice does not always conform 
 to this theory, and although laws have been passed 
 forbidding monopolies, it is found diflScult to enforce 
 the law. The monopolistic price may be main- 
 tained by secret agreement between a few companies 
 that control the market. It has, furthermore, been 
 thought by many economists that since monopoly, 
 in some lines, really cheapens production, it would 
 be wiser to regulate such monopolies than to try 
 to destroy them. 
 
 The chief objection to monopolies in the necessi- 
 ties of life relates to the charges they make for their 
 products ; therefore regulation has to do primarily 
 with control of prices. This should extend to con- 
 trol of the purchase price of raw materials, where 
 trusts are the sole purchasers of these materials. 
 The aim of government being so to administer public 
 affairs as to promote the greatest good of all, there 
 is no acceptable reason why it should subordinate 
 
 59 
 
60 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 its true function to the upholding of an antiquated 
 theory. If a given commodity can be produced 
 and distributed twenty per cent cheaper through 
 monopoHstic control, that fact should be appre- 
 ciated and prices so regulated as to give the public 
 its due share of benefits. The matter may, however, 
 in a given case involve questions of general welfare 
 other than price. All such questions should be taken 
 into account in determining the policy of govern- 
 ment toward monopolies and in deciding what prod- 
 ucts may and what may not be thus controlled. 
 In transportation and communication, under some 
 circumstances at least, monopolies must be recog- 
 nized and regulated. 
 
 As a matter of good public policy, if not by force 
 of circumstance, the same principle may be applied 
 to some forms of production. By way of illustra- 
 tion let us consider the case of a few necessities that 
 have at some time been threatened with monopoHstic 
 control. 
 Coal Where other forms of heating are wanting, the 
 
 coal supply is almost as much a public necessity 
 as the water supply. There is not, to be sure, the 
 same necessity for monopoly. It happens, however, 
 that in some regions, because of combination be- 
 tween the mine owners and common carriers, con- 
 trol of this product is monopolized. As a result 
 prices are arbitrarily fixed, even though the freight 
 rates are subject to public regulation. In such a 
 case what can the consumers do other than appeal 
 to their representatives for protection against exorbi- 
 
CONTROL OF PRICES 61 
 
 tant prices? And why should not the state pro- 
 vide protection against enforced exposure to cold 
 as it protects individuals against violence ? 
 
 Kerosene and gasoline have at times been sub- oa 
 ject to monopolistic control. This control, it is 
 said, has very greatly cheapened production and 
 distribution. Consumers have often asked to what 
 extent they have been benefited by this form of 
 control. Apparently no satisfactory answer can 
 be obtained without some authoritative investi- 
 gation of the business. Such an investigation can- 
 not be assured except by government action. Kero- 
 sene has been, and in some places still is, a necessity 
 of life; gasoline is coming to be so. Is there any 
 reason why a few men should be allowed to make 
 unreasonable profits at the expense of their fellow 
 men, who are in original right joint owners with 
 them of these and other natural resources? 
 
 Other necessities have at times been threatened Farm 
 with monopolistic control either through the devel- p™'''"^** 
 opment of economical means of production on a 
 large scale demanding the concentration of capital, 
 or through manipulators' scheming to corner the 
 market. Of the latter practice nothing can be said 
 in justification. It may properly be dealt with 
 as a matter of criminal law. Threatened monop- 
 olistic control of grain and meat supplies seems to 
 belong in this class. There is nothing in the nature 
 of this kind of production to demand monopoly. 
 Farmers, on whom production depends, have usually 
 neither the opportunity nor the disposition to fix 
 
sugar 
 
 62 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 prices arbitrarily. Where anything of the kind 
 occurs, it is almost certain to be the work of specu- 
 lators and manipulators who have reduced gambling 
 to a would-be-respectable art. 
 Salt and Products such as salt and sugar may more easily 
 
 and naturally fall into concentrated ownership, 
 because of the capital invested in manufactiu-ing 
 plants and because of the fear of ruinous competi- 
 tion in the absence of centralized control. In the 
 latter case the consumer gains temporarily at the 
 expense of a few investors. For their own protec- 
 tion the investors have a tendency to combine, 
 and in this case there is at once a temptation to 
 use the power thus secured for their own enrichment, 
 regardless of public welfare. It is to save factory 
 owners from this temptation that the state should 
 be recognized as having authority to make correc- 
 tions in the price lists made by trusts and combines. 
 In many cases the clear recognition by business 
 interests of this authority will render unnecessary 
 its exercise by the state. The latter must, however, 
 be prepared to perform its duty in upholding jus- 
 tice and promoting the general welfare. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE BASIS OF PRIVATE PROPERTY 
 
 TT is evident that in a civilized state there can be Property 
 -*■ no ownership except as provided by legislation ^u^^ed 
 and court decisions. This is to say that private on law 
 property is created by law and can therefore be 
 changed by law. But the law is not an arbitrary 
 creation; otherwise, legislators could not engage 
 in intelligent discussion of the merits or the demerits 
 of pending legislation. The law finds its justifica- 
 tion in the principles of social ethics, and these 
 again in the nature of man and society. Of the 
 various theories in justification of private property 
 the following have been given much attention : 
 
 The occupation theory sets up first occupation Occupation 
 of property as a basis of ownership. Thus, if a 
 man finds a diamond in the desert, it is his. In 
 some measure the law upholds this theory. The 
 man who discovers a mine is able, under specified 
 conditions, to secure patent from the government. 
 But the mine is not his to have and to hold forever 
 without the expenditure of labor in development. 
 An immigrant entering an unoccupied valley may 
 not thereby acquire property right to the whole of 
 it ; although it has been recognized that an explorer 
 may take possession of new land in the name of 
 his government. To secure private right the law 
 usually specifies a certain amount of use and labor, 
 and limits title to the number of acres that can be 
 
 63 
 
64 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 profitably used as a means of supporting a family. 
 This practice is determined only in small part by 
 the occupation theory. 
 
 In ranching districts where most of the grazing 
 is on the public domain, the unwritten law of ranch- 
 ers in a measure regulates the use of land. But if 
 any individual chooses to disregard these customs, 
 they can be defended only by violence. The inva- 
 sion of a cattle district by sheep owners has some- 
 times resulted in open hostilities between these 
 opposing interests. This uncivilized method of 
 attempting to regulate the use of a resource is giv- 
 ing way to strict control by government, in which 
 the title to these lands rests. Here again the occu- 
 pation theory fails to work as a basis of private 
 property rights. 
 Donation By homestead, desert entry, and other land laws, 
 
 government has made regular provision for donat- 
 ing ^ land in Umited area to individuals on condi- 
 tion of occupancy for a specified time and the 
 expenditure of a given amount of labor in reclama- 
 tion. These laws embody elements of three his- 
 toric theories ; i.e., occupation, donation, and labor. 
 Title by donation is probably a relic of royal grants 
 and is now properly exercised, subject to many re- 
 strictions, by even the most democratic govern- 
 ments. This basis of private property at once 
 raises the question of the right of the donor to do- 
 nate. As a result the title traces back to govern- 
 ment donation, as in land abstracts. 
 
 • Technically selling, but the purchase price is nominal. 
 
THE BASIS OF PRIVATE PROPERTY 65 
 
 The labor theory of property makes a strong ap- Labor 
 peal. It seems natural for a person to call that his 
 which he has created with his own hands. Man 
 is not able, however, to create something out of 
 nothing. He has to utihze some natural resource, 
 and there remains the question, how much of this 
 resource he may use and still call the production, 
 his own. In modern industry it is also very difficult 
 to determine the exact value of each man's contri- 
 bution to the production of a commodity. This is 
 a practical difficulty in any attempt to apply the 
 theory. But notwithstanding the objections, this 
 theory has merit. It encourages industry and eco- 
 nomic independence and generally satisfies, in some 
 measure, our sense of justice. These are utilitarian 
 reasons for approving the labor theory, but we may 
 also find reasons in utility for supplementing the 
 labor theory with other considerations. Before 
 proceeding with these, however, it is proper to ask 
 about the meaning and the justification of the 
 utilitarian theory of property right which has in- 
 jected itself into our discussion. 
 
 The utilitarian theory insists that any law or utility 
 custom must be judged by its effect upon the gen- 
 eral welfare and progress of mankind. If a given 
 system of private ownership furthers this end more 
 effectively than any rival economic plan would do, 
 it is justified. Utilitarian theory would, therefore, 
 approve private property only when under such 
 restrictions as to promote best the permanent good 
 of mankind. 
 
66 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 From the utilitarian point of view we can readily 
 see the limitations of the labor theory. With ma- 
 ture, able-bodied people it has the merits named 
 above, but it cannot be applied to childhood and 
 old age, when paternal instinct and filial love must 
 be depended upon to provide material support. 
 In the economic life of the family is exemplified 
 the ideal toward which the utilitarian theory of 
 property points; i.e., an economic system in which 
 each member of society will contribute to the hmit 
 of his capacity, without interfering with the maxi- 
 mum sum total of his life's service; and each will 
 receive in proportion to his need — not in any self- 
 ish sense, but in relation to developing and main- 
 taining in the highest sense his powers of service 
 to mankind. That system of property rights is 
 best which in practice most nearly approaches this 
 ideal. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION 
 
 T T seems to follow from the conclusion of the pre- income tax 
 -'• ceding chapter that a system of taxation should 
 be based upon public needs, on the one hand, and 
 abihty to pay, on the other. Under a system of 
 private ownership of all productive property the 
 pubhc need demands taxation of some sort. In a 
 general property tax it seems to be implied that one's 
 abihty to pay is measured by the assessed valua- 
 tion of his property. This is not altogether true. 
 The owner of a modest home or a small farm may 
 have barely enough income to support his family, 
 yet his property is sometimes taxed on full valua- 
 tion and at the same rate as the most productive 
 mines or factories. Nor is the man with a yearly 
 income of $1000 to be rated as having one fifth the 
 ability to pay the same tax levy as the man with a 
 $5000 income. The cost of hving and of support- 
 ing a family must be first estimated and dealt with 
 on a basis entirely difiFerent from income above the 
 cost of living. Thus a bachelor might be allowed 
 an exemption of $1000, which might be increased 
 to $1200 when he married and further increased 
 $300 for each minor child.^ A law such as this 
 clearly recognizes the principle of taxing on the 
 basis of ability to pay. 
 
 This, however, is not the only consideration, and 
 
 ' Figures from the Wisconsin Income Tax Law, 1911. 
 67 
 
68 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Single tax it is probably not best under existing conditions to 
 place all the burden of taxation on incomes. Such 
 a plan will, for instance, permit a speculator to 
 hold in idleness extensive tracts of land or vacant 
 city lots while those that produce pay all the taxes. 
 The time may come when he will sell at a great 
 profit. He must then pay the income tax. This 
 is likely to encourage him to postpone selling, im- 
 duly withholding this land from production and 
 consequent income tax. This illustration suggests 
 quite a different system of taxation — one based 
 upon the use of any natural resource — the single 
 tax, or land tax. 
 
 If all natural resources belong of right to all the 
 people, this fact at once suggests that persons to 
 whom title to the use of any resource is given should 
 pay in return a tax or rental for such use. This 
 tax would be levied only on the natural and social 
 values, not on improvements. If such a system had 
 been inaugurated before any one had invested his 
 hard-earned money in land and if the whole in- 
 dustrial system had grown up on this basis, it is 
 conceivable that it might be fair to all and that it 
 might provide ample revenue for public purposes. 
 But a great, complex industrial system has been con- 
 structed on a different basis. 
 
 In some countries where the land tax is the only 
 direct tax, it is not burdensome to the landowner, 
 large or small, because it is supplemented by heavy 
 indirect taxes, chiefly duties on imports ; but where 
 practically everything brought into the country 
 
PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION 69 
 
 is taxed one third of its value, it is hard to discover 
 what principles are involved or whether there are 
 any. A system that really derives all public rev- 
 enue from the single tax will of necessity have to 
 levy a tax that will reduce the market value of land. 
 In the process of readjustment this may cause undue 
 loss to many people, — people, for instance, whose 
 savings for old age have been invested in land. Ad- 
 vocates of the single tax may meet this objection 
 with a plan to care for these worthy people by an 
 old-age pension or other public provision. 
 
 The single tax is generally advocated by strong combina- 
 individuahsts who favor giving to all equal oppor- 5°^° and 
 tunity in the use of the earth and leaving the citi- single tax 
 zen to enjoy without molestation the products of 
 his own industry. It is opposed by some because, 
 under present economic conditions, it does not 
 harmonize altogether with the principle of taxing 
 in proportion to ability to pay — a principle fa- 
 vored by those who emphasize the social nature of 
 man, not only in his common ownership of natiu-al 
 resources but also in his common participation in 
 the goods of civilization. To overcome the objec- 
 tions that have been raised in turn to both systems, 
 efforts have been made to combine the two by sub- 
 stituting for the general property tax both a land 
 tax and an income tax. This will recognize the 
 obligation to pay society for the use of a natural 
 resource, or the mere holding of it for speculation, 
 and also the obligation to give in proportion to one's 
 ability. 
 
70 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Inheritance 
 tax 
 
 License tax 
 
 The inheritance tax may be regarded as but a 
 modification of the income tax. It raises the 
 question also of the moral right of a child to inherit 
 a parent's fortune. The labor theory of private 
 property right seems not to justify the right of in- 
 heritance. When modified by the utihtarian theory, 
 however, the question is again open for discussion. 
 In case the head of a household leaves a widow or 
 minor children, their needs shoiild first be provided 
 for ; but this does not include funds for dissipation 
 or a fortune with which to begin life. Inheritance- 
 tax laws exempt small estates and sometimes place 
 a graduated tax on aU valuation above the amount 
 exempted. The laws of some states levy a flat 
 rate on all values above a fixed amount which is 
 determined arbitrarily, taking no account of a de- 
 pendent widow and minor children. This is clearly 
 a case of crude ethics. If there are ten minor chil- 
 dren to be educated, $10,000 is a very small amount 
 to be exempted ; it may be altogether too much in 
 the case of a bachelor without dependents. There 
 should, of com-se, be a uniform scale of adjust- 
 ment to the needs of those dependent upon the 
 estate. 
 
 Another common form of taxation is that of the 
 license. If the charge for a Ucense is to pay the cost 
 of public supervision of the type of business Hcensed, 
 it may be regarded as an ordinary business transac- 
 tion in which one pays for benefits received. If the 
 charge is for the opportunity of making profits, 
 and these profits are again subject to the income tax, 
 
PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION 71 
 
 a double tax is created of which the income tax is 
 the more equitable. The payment of a license tax 
 for the opportunity of doing a business destructive 
 of human welfare is possible only where crime is 
 legalized. 
 
CHAPTER XVn 
 
 REASONS FOR LIMITING TAXATION 
 
 Keeds 
 other than 
 public 
 
 The home 
 
 TV/TUNICIPAL and county authorities are limited 
 ■*■-■- in their powers of taxation by the general 
 legislative assembly or by constitutional provision. 
 The constitution limits the taxing power of the 
 legislature. Why these rigid limitations ? 
 
 Referring to the principles of taxation discussed 
 in Chapter XVI, we must correlate the pubhc needs 
 with the ability of the citizens to pay. Ability to 
 pay taxes can be determined only in relation to other 
 than public needs. There are institutions besides 
 the state that must be supported. Due regard must 
 be had for each such institution and for private needs. 
 It cotdd not be for the good of the state to increase 
 its expenditures to the point of bankrupting indus- 
 tries or of compelling families to live without comfort 
 in order that they might occasionally enjoy magnifi- 
 cent pubhc buildings. There is demand for sym- 
 metry and proportion in economic hfe no less than 
 in art. 
 
 The financing of the home is no less important 
 than the support of the state. While it is necessary 
 that the state shall provide means of education and 
 training to the extent that this can be done most 
 efficiently through the cooperation of famihes, there 
 still remains a most vital part of education for which 
 the home must be responsible. It is in the home that 
 the foundation of character is laid. It should, there- 
 
 72 
 
REASONS FOR LIMITING TAXATION 73 
 
 fore, be made reasonably attractive, and parents 
 should have sufficient leisure to associate with their 
 children, and means to provide recreation and enter- 
 tainment about the family hearth. The dollar 
 paid in taxes cannot serve this purpose also. 
 
 The church, too, if it is faithful to its ideal, should The church 
 have money. It must construct artistic, commo- 
 dious buildings with modern equipment and must 
 pay many other expenses incidental to the conduct 
 of its organization. It can cooperate most effectively 
 with the home in the rehgious and moral training of 
 children as well as be a spiritual guide and support 
 to all its members. For financial support it is 
 dependent upon voluntary contributions. The 
 same coin cannot go both to the church and to the 
 state. 
 
 In addition to the church there are private Voluntary 
 charities, clubs, and societies voluntarily organized tionft"' 
 for the promotion of worthy ends. It is necessarily society 
 a part of every one's moral development that he 
 render some service and make some contributions 
 other than those required by law. It is highly 
 desirable that some money shall be spent in this 
 way, although it should not be inferred that citizens 
 will pay taxes only because they are forced to. It 
 should be a part of every citizen's training to con- 
 sider the purposes for which public money is used and 
 to pay taxes with the utmost good wUl. If this 
 cannot be done there is something wrong either with 
 the taxpayer or with the government, and reform 
 methods should be apphed. 
 
74 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Proper use 
 of public 
 money 
 
 Reasons 
 for limiting 
 the taxing 
 power 
 
 Ability of citizens to pay into the public treasury 
 will depend in great measure upon the tax system 
 in vogue. It has been pointed out that the general 
 property tax usually throws a heavy burden upon 
 homes and small farms. Owners of these classes of 
 property can be quickly crushed with high taxes, 
 greatly to the public injury. A system of taxation 
 based upon sound principles does not, however, 
 have this effect, even though the taxes are relatively 
 high. On the contrary, such taxes provide many 
 advantages otherwise unavailable to children of poor 
 parents. Among these are books and magazines 
 from the public library, playgrounds and swimming 
 pools, public lectures, concerts, and entertainments, 
 and high-class music and art in the public schools. 
 Is it not desirable that these advantages shall be 
 open to all .'' And is it not possible to provide them, 
 under a just system of taxation, without detracting 
 from the efficiency of other social institutions and 
 the satisfaction of legitimate individual needs.'' 
 
 This is not to say that the limitation of the taxing 
 power should be abohshed. If for no other reason 
 such a hmitation may guard public officials against 
 the temptation, all too common, to be excessively 
 liberal in spending money not their own. The 
 principles that apply to private expenditures also 
 apply to public business. Most people find that 
 their supposed wants and disposition to spend are 
 far beyond the purchasing power of their purses. It 
 should not be forgotten that it is the same in public 
 affairs. Public officials can see numerous ways to 
 
REASONS FOR LIMITING TAXATION 75 
 
 spend every dollar available ; and since this is part 
 of their business, they are likely to enforce the maxi- 
 mum tax levy. 
 
 In pubhc business the best results are obtained 
 when those that spend have to figiu-e closely on the 
 cost and select from among desirable ends those 
 that will yield the greatest and most lasting satis- 
 factions. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
 
 The state's 
 right of 
 self-preser- 
 vation ; 
 
 of self- 
 develop- 
 ment; 
 
 /^N what grounds are taxes levied for public 
 ^-^ education? The older arguments in support 
 of this practice were generally based upon the right 
 of seK-preservation, applied to the state, and espe- 
 cially to a democratic state. Thus pubhc education 
 became education for citizenship, in a somewhat 
 restricted sense, and was generally limited to the 
 elementary school, where the child received the 
 amount and kind of education thought necessary for 
 a citizen. Compulsory education in the elementary 
 school followed as a corollary of this argument. 
 
 When, however, provision began to be made for 
 the expenditure of large sums of public money for 
 higher education, the old argument in justification 
 of it was not so clear. It had to be stretched almost 
 to the breaking point by assuming that the state 
 must have highly trained leaders, and that these 
 would not be trained except by provision for public 
 support of colleges and universities. This argument 
 was weak so long as secondary education was left 
 to endowed and tuition schools. Although rather 
 reluctant about it, the voters were finally convinced 
 that secondary schools tod should be maintained 
 by the public. Thus arose a complete system of 
 pubhc education. Expenditures on this system are 
 rapidly on the increase because of the effort to bring 
 secondary education within the reach of all and to 
 
 76 
 
FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 77 
 
 popularize the work of public colleges and universi- 
 ties, thus attracting to them an ever increasing 
 percentage of the youth. This is a remarkable de- 
 velopment of the right of a state to self-preservation. 
 We may well ask, "Is this the only justification? " 
 
 The need of developing and perpetuating a of social 
 common race inheritance, and the fact of social ^ent"^ 
 solidarity with all that this implies, furnish a much 
 more comprehensive justification for pubUc educa- 
 tion. This may be regarded as an extension of the 
 idea of self-preservation by making it include social 
 development. Public education is amply justified 
 if it can be shown that it is a necessary means of 
 accompHshing the ends of civilization. 
 
 The function of schools as a means of preserving 
 and developing the race inheritance was set forth in 
 Chapter I. It is evident that this purpose cannot 
 be accomplished without maintaining a system that 
 includes all grades of education, from the most 
 elementary instruction to the most advanced re- 
 search. To leave this undertaking to private enter- 
 prise would be to deprive many of the opportunity 
 to develop their individual talents. This would be 
 a great loss, not to individuals alone but to the race, 
 since progress depends upon the development and 
 the expression of all the talents of each person. 
 
 The state has, however, covered not only the field Vocational 
 of general instruction ; it has also entered the field 
 of vocational education and training. 
 
 Law and medical schools have been established in 
 state universities, doubtless, more as a consequence of 
 
78 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Professional tradition than of carefully reasoned public policy, 
 *™*'^ since state universities have been patterned after 
 
 the old privately endowed institutions. It is still 
 customary, however, for many law and medical 
 students to attend private tuition schools. The 
 usual fees charged in these professions seem to be 
 based upon the assumption of a large expenditure 
 in preparation for the work. Objection is sometimes 
 made to using the taxes of the people to pay for 
 medical and legal education on the ground that this 
 money is used merely to further private ends. 
 Whether or not this is so depends chiefly upon the 
 attitudes of these professional students toward their 
 work and its relation to pubhc welfare. If the chief 
 purpose of the student is to increase his earning 
 capacity that he may gain social prestige or political 
 preferment, the objectors are right. But this is an 
 attitude that ought to be discouraged, no matter 
 who pays for the professional training. 
 
 The safety and progress of a community are 
 closely connected with the efficiency and the 
 character of its professional men. Should not the 
 state, therefore, take measm-es to insure these 
 quaHties.? The native ability and disposition pre- 
 requisite to the making of an excellent physician are 
 just as likely to be found in the poor widow's son 
 as in any one else. Large tuition fees may, to such 
 a youth, be an insurmountable barrier; public 
 provision for technical training may open the way. 
 In providing this opportunity, however, the state 
 should be mindful of the great public service expected 
 
FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 79 
 
 of its wards. Bestowal of benefits by the public 
 increases the obligations of the beneficiary to the 
 pubhc. This obligation cannot be escaped on the 
 ground that much of the skill attained is due to 
 native talent ; for, as we have shown, each member 
 of a civiHzed community is a debtor to the race, 
 and justice requires that each shall give in return 
 to the extent of his ability. The practice of medicine 
 offers great possibilities for service, and the ethics 
 of the profession requires that this service shall be 
 given to rich and poor alike. 
 
 The tendency of college youth to enter the old- industrial 
 line, non-productive professions to the neglect of *^ 
 industrial training led to the establishment of popular 
 schools for instruction in agricultiu-e, household arts, 
 and mechanic arts. In many of the non-productive 
 forms of service human needs are distinctly limited, 
 and an excess of specialists in any line may be a 
 hindrance rather than a help to the community. 
 The case is somewhat different with material pro- 
 duction. Because of our highly developed means of 
 transportation, excess of products in one locality may 
 readily be transferred to a place where they are 
 needed. It is very clearly in the interests of pubhc 
 welfare that schools shall be maintained to develop 
 skill and disposition on the part of youth to engage 
 in production of material goods. 
 
 The field of public education is not Umited to other 
 schools. Other agencies are hbraries, gymnasiums, agencies'^*' 
 parks and playgrounds, municipal lecture and con- 
 cert halls, theaters, and similar institutions. Edu- 
 cation is, indeed, the chief business of the state. 
 
PART II 
 
 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CITIZENSHIP 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 THE NATURE OF JUSTICE 
 
 THERE is no race, however primitive, that has Primitive 
 not some notion of justice, although this notion J'ug^"" °* 
 may be very crude and very limited in the extent of 
 its application. It is, however, out of this universal 
 sense of obligation that modern social ethics has 
 developed. Among uncivilized tribes the sense of 
 justice is identified with retribution and even with 
 revenge. In the history of morals the ancient 
 Hebrew doctrine of "an eye for an eye and a tooth 
 for a tooth" is typical of the retributive notion of 
 justice. This is not the retribution that is inevitable 
 in the nature of things, but one that man himself 
 undertakes to inflict upon an offender. 
 
 The Greek notion of justice developed into the idea piato 
 of social harmony as expressed in Plato's "Republic, " Hertl^ 
 a harmony resulting from each member's finding Spencer 
 and filling his appropriate place and function. 
 The prevailing notion of justice in the eighteenth 
 and nineteenth centuries is expressed in Herbert 
 Spencer's formula, "Every man is free to do that 
 which he wills, provided he infringes not the equal 
 freedom of any other man." This expression of 
 individualism is, in one way at least, the opposite of 
 the ideal of Plato. 
 
 In all this variation and seeming contradiction is it 
 possible to find a common notion ? It is clearly the 
 case with primitive peoples that their common idea 
 
 83 
 
84 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 is that of exchange of equivalents. The same idea 
 seems to be applied negatively in Mr. Spencer's 
 statement : non-interference in exchange for non- 
 interference. In Plato's "Republic" the ideal is 
 positive and emphatically social, with emphasis 
 upon the attainment of harmony and eflficiency. In 
 this, however, is it not implied that the individual, 
 in exchange for his service to the state in the place 
 where he can best serve, will receive the greatest 
 benefits in the return service of the state to him and 
 to his descendants ? 
 Justice the The principle of justice in this larger sense includes 
 virtue " '^ benevolence and, in fact, all the virtues. It demands 
 consecration of each to the service of all. In this 
 there is no real loss or sacrifice to the individual, 
 since it is by this means only that personality is 
 most highly developed. Idleness, intemperance, 
 and unchastity are not merely individual sins, they 
 are a direct interference with the fulfillment of man's 
 obligations to his fellows. No vice can be named 
 that is not in opposition to justice ; and no virtue, 
 but that contributes to the better realization of this 
 most comprehensive principle of ethics. Application 
 of this principle illustrates most fully the value of 
 cooperative eflFort. A useful invention or an inspiring 
 poem — the product of individual genius and effort 
 — goes out from the laboratory or the private 
 study to benefit millions of men and women. The 
 number cannot be calculated, since it is impossible to 
 see the end of generations that will participate in 
 these benefits. The contribution of one individual 
 
THE NATURE OF JUSTICE 85 
 
 may also stimulate others to make further discoveries 
 or to write better philosophies of life, and these 
 again are transmitted to innumerable generations. 
 Thus the individual gives to a multitude and re- 
 ceives from a multitude a most comprehensive and 
 profitable interchange of social benefits. This is 
 social justice. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO SOCIAL IN- 
 STITUTIONS 
 
 Opportuni- 
 ties for 
 cooperative 
 work 
 
 Social and 
 anti-social 
 institutions 
 
 THE cooperative work of mankind is not accom- 
 plished without organization. Organizations 
 for tliis purpose are social institutions. In a pre- 
 vious chapter we have discussed the family, the 
 school, the church, and the state as a part of the 
 race inheritance. In this and succeeding chapters 
 we shall discuss these institutions as opportunities 
 for individual development, and also the duty of 
 the individual toward these institutions. The sense 
 of obligation here rests upon considerations of the 
 social good and of individual good, either one of 
 which would make the obhgation binding. Loyalty 
 to humanity can be best expressed through the 
 highest type of loyalty to social institutions; this 
 properly includes loyalty to truth and right. Dis- 
 loyalty to a social institution is usually the result 
 of egoism, if not of egotism or perverse desires. In 
 order to attain happiness the individual must learn 
 to cooperate with his fellows. Social institutions 
 offer not only the means of efficient cooperative 
 work; they offer also the opportunity to learn the 
 process. 
 
 A social institution is an organization for human 
 service and must be in harmony with the general 
 welfare. Organizations that do not conform to this 
 standard are anti-social and tend to destroy civiliza- 
 
 86 . 
 
RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL 87 
 
 tion. Robber gangs, gangs of lawless anarchists, 
 and saloon leagues are of this type. It is a duty of 
 the citizen to see that all such influences are excluded 
 from the great historic institutions that have proved 
 their worth to mankind. 
 
 In addition to the institutions of the helpful type Types of 
 already discussed there are numerous others which, satutions 
 when properly managed, may be regarded as social. 
 In the business world are irrigation companies, 
 cooperative stores, cooperative mills, and cooperative 
 mines. This form of organization has become estab- 
 lished as a business necessity and has been legahzed 
 and protected by corporation laws. 
 
 In the political world are parties organized for 
 the purpose of advocating and, if possible, putting 
 into effect various principles and policies. While 
 these parties are not generally recognized in the 
 written constitution of the state, they have through 
 custom attained recognition in the conduct of public 
 affairs. In the field of religion are various churches 
 and auxiliary organizations, each with its own 
 particular objects to be attained. Other organiza- 
 tions, such as "betterment leagues," independent 
 of both politics and religion, enable those who believe 
 in certain reforms to find a way of securing them. 
 
 Organizations of another type are formed among 
 people engaged in the same occupation. The pur- 
 pose here is to disseminate useful knowledge for the 
 improvement of that particular kind of service. 
 Of this class are conventions of farmers, stock 
 raisers, bankers, associations of manufacturers. 
 
88 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 teachers, and ministers. Of a slightly different 
 nature are labor unions and federations of labor 
 unions. A danger in all such organizations is that 
 they may become anti-social by becoming absorbed in 
 selfish ends. When this occurs it is generally because 
 one class of society is pitted against another, each 
 to secure to itself greater benefits, regardless of 
 the general welfare. Trouble of this sort has been 
 most frequent between the great corporations on 
 the one hand and labor unions on the other. The 
 problem is to find a plan that will resolve these 
 opposing interests into cooperative effort directed 
 toward the good of all. The association, for mutual 
 help and instruction, of people engaged in the same 
 occupation is necessary to bring that occupation to 
 the highest point of eflBcient social service. It may 
 also be the means of developing a spirit of team work 
 and good will that can be applied to other human 
 relationships, 
 student In educational institutions are minor groupings 
 
 tiwS"^*' ^^^* ^^^^ ^'^^ ^^^ exercise of judgment on the part 
 of students in discriminating between social and 
 anti-social ends. Some of these organizations have 
 a clearly stated, specific purpose. Of this class are 
 debating clubs, literary societies, musical organiza- 
 tions, and athletic teams. These are normally on 
 the social side. Occasionally, however, there is 
 formed a secret organization of some class or faction 
 with little or no thought of whether the ends pro- 
 posed are social or anti-social. It happens not 
 infrequently that they are anti-social. 
 
RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL 89 
 
 In colleges a third type of student organization is 
 the fraternity and the sorority. These have the 
 dignity of being historic institutions. They rep- 
 resent, however, a great variety of aims and prac- 
 tices. A fraternity, like any other organization, 
 must be judged by its aims and by its results. These 
 should be carefully investigated in each case. What, 
 in theory, does the fraternity aim to do for its 
 members? for the college? for society at large? 
 How does it propose to accomplish its aims ? What, 
 in practice, has it done and is it doing by way of 
 social or anti-social work? What effect does it 
 have upon the ideals and the habits of its members ? 
 Does it help or hinder the attainment of the legiti- 
 mate ends of college education? 
 
 An organization with a bad aim can be easily Dangers in 
 recognized and so avoided; but one with no aim ^^^^a- 
 at all may be more dangerous because more alluring tions 
 and more treacherous. An organization without a 
 justifiable aim has no right to exist. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 PARENT AND CHILD 
 
 Marriage TTUMANITY is realized in the joining of man 
 ^ -'■ and woman in a permanent union, a union that 
 is spiritual as well as material. Man and woman are 
 the complements of each other in both physical and 
 mental qualities. They can never be alike without 
 violence to their natures. Who is attracted by a 
 mannish woman or a womanish man ? It is not the 
 new woman's ideal that she become like a man, as 
 this would cost her her womanliness, but rather that 
 she be allowed to develop her personality. It is an 
 experience necessary to the completion of every 
 woman's life that she shall assume the motherly 
 care of children, whether or not they are her own. 
 The hf e of any man is likewise incomplete if he does 
 not act the part of father to some one in need of such 
 care and guidance. One of the chief purposes of 
 the family is that men and women may exercise these 
 functions and that the race may be perpetuated. 
 All social values have reference to human develop- 
 ment. If the race is not perpetuated, these values 
 will cease to be. 
 
 ChUdren Children are the strongest and most enduring 
 
 bond that holds the family together. This is largely 
 because parents have in them a common, unselfish 
 interest. Many cases of divorce can be traced to 
 some form of selfishness in one or both of the parties 
 to the marriage contract. This is manifest in an 
 
 90 
 
PARENT AND CHILD 91 
 
 unwillingness to yield personal pleasures or individual 
 ambitions to the common purpose of the family. 
 The advent of children is the strongest influence 
 counteracting this tendency. This new interest 
 and responsibility helps to overcome self-centered 
 thought and feeling, an attitude which pampered 
 persons sometimes acquire. 
 
 The moral influence between parent and child is The cuid 
 mutual. It is so even with the problem of discipline, fheT^^ent 
 although it is customary to speak only of the parent's 
 disciplining the child. This is probably because the 
 parent must assume this responsibility. The child 
 disciplines the parent, not because of duty or obliga- 
 tion, but because the nature of the relationship brings 
 it about. The parent cannot exercise his functions 
 in moral teaching and training without subjecting 
 himself to the same rigid seK-control which he 
 seeks to develop in the child. Children quickly 
 detect insincerity or inconsistency, either one of 
 which is fatal to parental influence. The parent 
 may temporarily compel obedience, but this is not 
 moral education unless it leads to cheerful, willing 
 conformity to the type of life the parent is seeking 
 to develop. Thus, if the parent would be successful, 
 he is compelled to be in character what he wishes 
 his children to become; and every normal-minded 
 parent devoutly desires that his children shall 
 realize the highest type of character. 
 
 From the other point of view the child is wanting Guidance 
 in experience and must be subject to adult guidance. °^® 
 He must first form the habit of obedience to lawful 
 
92 CITIZENSHli' 
 
 authority, that of the home first and later that of the 
 school and state. This is a necessary foundation, if 
 he would ever acquire the power of obedience to the 
 highest moral law. 
 
 He must, in childhood, learn to be honest, to be 
 truthful, and to respect property. This will result 
 in his being fair and frank in all his dealings, and 
 sincere in thought as well as in word. He must 
 learn to be considerate of the physical needs and 
 the feelings of his associates. This fellow feeling 
 also includes kindness to animals. He must learn 
 to work and thereby acquire the habit of serving 
 according to his ability. The child-labor laws are 
 meant to protect children from oppression — moral 
 as well as physical — but not to reUeve them of all 
 work and responsibihty. Many children of the 
 well-to-do city residents are now suffering as much 
 from want of work and responsibility as children 
 of the poor are suffering from too much. 
 
 In connection with their work and habits of Ufe 
 children need training in system. Careless, slovenly, 
 unsystematic ways of doing things, if allowed to go 
 uncorrected at this time, may result in habits that 
 will seriously interfere with success. 
 
 A clean mind in a clean body is an ideal that must 
 be fixed in thought and habit. To this end the 
 home must maintain a clean house and clean sur- 
 roundings. But beyond this is the greater probltem 
 of clean, moral living — freedom from sensuality 
 by cultivating loftiness of thought which will not 
 permit of any sort of dissipation. 
 
PARENT AND CHILD 93 
 
 This does not mean that children may not have 
 their pleasures. Proper association with companions 
 in play and games is one of the most effective ways 
 of training in the fundamental virtues. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE FAMILY AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 
 
 The rr^HE recent changes in the economic life of the 
 
 T 
 
 days " "*" family have often been a matter of comment. 
 
 Writers on education have pointed out the advan- 
 tages of the older type of family life, when almost 
 everything used in the home was produced there. 
 This applied not only to food, but also to clothing. 
 Grain was sown, harvested, ground, and baked; 
 animals were raised, butchered, and the meat 
 cured; sheep were grown and their wool washed, 
 carded, and woven into cloth and blankets. These 
 are sometimes called "the good old days" when there 
 was a variety of work for every one and plenty of 
 it, when habits of industry and cooperation were 
 easily acquired, and when that high degree of 
 specialization which makes a man helpless outside his 
 own narrow line was unknown. This type of life had, 
 however, its disadvantages in the limitations of 
 opportunity for leisure, recreation, and development 
 of special talent. These deficiencies have been 
 largely overcome by the modern type of home life. 
 Rather than bemoan the degeneracy of the times, 
 may it not be wiser to try to retain in some form the 
 merits of both the old and the new? 
 Times Ecouomists maintain that the family has, in 
 
 changed large measure, ceased to be an economic unit, and 
 this is doubtless largely true with many families 
 resident in cities. The husband, absorbed in his 
 
 94 
 
THE FAMILY AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 95 
 
 business or profession, lives in a mental world quite 
 foreign to the world of home duties or social affairs 
 that monopolize the mind of his wife. Thus the 
 modern economic situation develops diverse interests 
 that tend to destroy family unity. This loss of com- 
 panionship is frequently the cause of divorce — 
 one of the greatest evils in modern society. Em- 
 phasis upon the common interest in the rearing and 
 education of children, together with the mutual 
 interest in expending together what was formerly 
 earned together, may tend to reestablish family 
 unitJ^ 
 
 Life in a hotel or an apartment offers little oppor- Hotel and 
 tunity for service until the boy or girl is old enough ^^'°^"* 
 for regular employment in some branch of city 
 industry. The worker then becomes an economically 
 independent individual. Under this system parents 
 have the opportunity of providing for their minor 
 children, but the children miss the early training in 
 cooperative service. This loss is not to the family 
 alone, but also to society, which rests upon the family 
 as a foundation. 
 
 To maintain the family as an economic unit does The famUy 
 not mean that each member may not earn and ^^5"*^ 
 control his own pocket money. It does mean that 
 each shall form the habit of rendering service in the 
 family without pay and that each shall share his 
 pleasures with the others. Even the husband and 
 father cannot properly regard the family property 
 and the family pm-se as his own, although, except 
 in the case of real estate, he may sell and spend 
 
96 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 at his pleasure. If the property is in the name of 
 the wife and mother, she may legally have even 
 greater individual control; she has, however, no 
 moral right to take advantage of such a legal privi- 
 lege. The law may compel a man to support his 
 family, if he is able ; but the moral obligation is far 
 beyond this : he is to share with them the common 
 family property for the best good of all. To this 
 end parents work and plan and save together, first 
 to rear and educate their children, and after that to 
 provide material support for their own declining years. 
 Educative In addition to the service about the home, youths 
 
 l,oik° J^^y under favorable circumstances earn some 
 money that will help to pay for their own education 
 and, if necessity requires, contribute toward their 
 own living expenses. If misfortune brings parental 
 disability, this necessity may become very real, 
 and sometimes calls for what seems to be great 
 sacrifice on the part of young people. Such a 
 sacrifice is, however, very slight when compared with 
 the sacrifice of duty by one who would shirk this 
 responsibility. An experienced man and observer 
 of men remarked: "I will take my chances on the 
 widow's son." ^ Why ? Because the circumstances, 
 as a rule, compel training in industry and responsi- 
 bility, service, and self-sacrifice that contribute more 
 to manhood than anything in the experience of 
 the boy whose every want is supplied and who never 
 learns in youth the meaning of these terms. They 
 can be learned only through experience. 
 ' Nephi L. Morris. 
 
THE FAMILY AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 97 
 
 Training children to earn is probably no more Thrift 
 important than training them to plan and to spend. 
 These are fundamental aspects of thrift, and they 
 are much more easily taught when children earn 
 what they spend. The home, of all institutions, is 
 best able to give this essential training. Thoughtless 
 waste is a great modern vice; it is normally the 
 forerunner of want and economic disaster. The 
 home, with the support of the school, must assume 
 responsibility for correction of this evil. 
 
 All the varieties of home training here suggested importance 
 are necessary preparations for membership in other ^ai^g 
 institutions and for the life of society at large. They 
 are also necessary to children and youths as part of 
 their preparation for exercising parental control as 
 heads of new families. 
 
a vocation ? 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 VOCATIONS 
 
 Why have _ A VOCATION IS, first of all, a means of service. 
 -^*- With most people it is also a means of getting 
 a living. It is very necessary that every youth 
 should choose a vocation wisely and should make 
 special preparation to follow it with success. The 
 possession of wealth is no excuse for neglecting this 
 duty. It is necessary to the well-being of both the 
 individual and of society that every one shall engage 
 in some socially beneficial form of service. This can 
 usually be done to best advantage by making some 
 particular form of service a life's work. A young 
 man of wealth, but without vocation, is likely to 
 drift into pastimes that should be only occasional 
 means of recreation. Recreation as a business 
 usually leads to dissipation and ruin. 
 
 A young person without wealth who fails to qualify 
 for a suitable vocation is usually battered about from 
 one job to another, — often without employment, 
 more often performing his task indifferently, and 
 scarcely ever happy in his work. His conditions 
 are all against industrial efficiency, and where this is 
 wanting there is little satisfaction to the worker, to 
 the employer, or to society thus poorly, served. 
 
 From the social side a highly developed society 
 cannot exist without numerous vocations. It is 
 of the highest importance, too, that its members 
 shall be properly distributed in the various callings. 
 
 98 
 
VOCATIONS 99 
 
 The basic vocations have to do with the production Social 
 of material goods upon which the existence of the oJ^gf"'^* 
 people depends. Among these vocations are the tio°s 
 various branches of agriculture, manufacturing, and 
 mining. Closely allied to these are other forms of 
 service that have to do directly with man's material 
 well-being. The various branches of commerce are 
 generally necessary to the conduct of the productive 
 industries and to placing their products at the dis- 
 posal of the consumers. This calls for men in all 
 the departments of railway service and other forms 
 of transportation ; also for bankers, merchants, clerks, 
 stenographers, bookkeepers, and deliverymen. Let 
 all the workers in any one of these vocations suddenly 
 quit their work, and society will soon be convinced 
 of the necessity of that vocation. 
 
 The vocation of the physician and the surgeon, the 
 nurse, and the dentist have also to do with material 
 well-being; within the limits of community needs, 
 they offer high opportunities for service. 
 
 It is perhaps not so manifest that the lawyer also 
 has to do with material welfare ; but since the promo- 
 tion of justice is the ideal of his profession, it must 
 be evident that society's gain or loss will vary with 
 his success or failure. * 
 
 Other vocations are concerned with spiritual — 
 intellectual, esthetic, moral, and religious — welfare. 
 Of these the most conspicuous are the vocations of 
 the teacher and of the minister of religion. There 
 are also social-settlement workers, juvenile-court 
 officers, and social-purity reformers who may be in 
 
of choice 
 
 100 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 this same class. There is a dual aspect to the 
 spirituality of these vocations ; they aim at spiritual 
 results, and the compensation is chiefly spiritual. 
 No one can hope to accumulate wealth by this means. 
 One may, however, expect to secure a modest living 
 and a high degree of satisfaction. Journalism and 
 other forms of authorship are akin to this class of 
 vocations. 
 
 It is the primary aim of some vocations to minister 
 to esthetic enjoyment. This is the function of music 
 and art. To one of suitable talent and temperament 
 these callings are very attractive. The material 
 reward is usually regarded as a minor factor. 
 The basis In choosing a vocation a youth should ask, "What 
 
 canT do best that society needs most.''" To assist 
 in answering this question truly is the aim of voca- 
 tional guidance. It calls for close study of all the 
 conditions of any vocation under consideration and 
 the aptitude of the individual for it. ' This is greatly 
 aided by some experience as a helper in the work. 
 To this end high-school and college students who have 
 chosen a vocation should seek employment that will 
 give them knowledge of and experience in the busi- 
 ness contemplated. Engineering students, for in- 
 stance, when they have to remain out of college 
 for a year to earn money, should seek work in 
 engineering projects rather than enter temporarily 
 upon teaching with no special preparation for it. 
 This is best for them, for society, and especially for 
 the schools. 
 
 Owing to want of vocational guidance, too many 
 
VOCATIONS 101 
 
 youths drift into non-productive vocations. This 
 results in part from the fact that an increasingly 
 large percentage of young people attend high schools, 
 and the further fact that the traditional function of 
 secondary schools is to prepare for college, and of 
 the college, to prepare for the professions. It is 
 hard to break away from tradition ; and so it often 
 happens that the atmosphere as well as the studies 
 of the schools lead to the professions rather than to 
 productive industry. It is manifest that too many 
 people in non-productive occupations will lead to 
 both individual and social disaster. A certain 
 number of lawyers is a community need, but an 
 excess is likely to be a community menace. It is 
 properly part of the business of a lawyer to reduce 
 Utigation to a minimum ; he should, therefore, never 
 be tempted to stir up litigation for the sake of fees. 
 Likewise it is the business of a physician, by public 
 as well as private health work, to make his services 
 needed as httle as possible. 
 
 There is at present no great danger of over-pro- Weed of 
 duction of the necessities of life. The high cost of ^oduction 
 living with its attendant evils seems to indicate 
 the opposite condition. All trying to live. on what 
 too few produce is one reason for this. There is, 
 for illustration, a legitimate place for real-estate 
 dealers and life-insurance agents; but since their 
 commissions must come ultimately out of material 
 production, an excess of such agents is socially very 
 detrimental. A further danger here is that educated 
 young men are likely to drift into these and like 
 
102 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 callings when they do not know what else to do. 
 Many enter real estate, insurance, brokerage, or 
 project or mining promotion merely for the purpose 
 of finding an easy way to make money. If a man 
 is to enter one of these vocations, he should be 
 especially trained for it and should pursue it in a 
 way that will give permanent satisfaction to the 
 people he serves as well as to himself. 
 
 The various vocations connected with material 
 production have, in fact, more advantages than most 
 youths realize. The demand for the material goods 
 of life is more constant than is that for most non- 
 productive forms of service. The physical activities 
 required in productive industry are conducive to 
 health and therefore to happiness, especially so if 
 carried on in the open air or in sanitary buildings. 
 Vocations The relation of women to the vocations is some- 
 
 what more puzzling than is that of men. The 
 large majority must follow wifehood and mother- 
 hood, the vocation that has made the home and the 
 perpetuation of the race possible; some, however, 
 do not, and who can say in advance whether or 
 not any particular girl will be in the one class or in 
 the other ? The safe practice would seem to be for 
 every woman to qualify for two vocations, and thus 
 be prepared for any eventuality. With the major- 
 ity, home making and management, the greatest of 
 all vocations, will be first choice. A second choice 
 will frequently be in some closely allied vocation; 
 e.g., teaching, nursing, library work, or some branch 
 of home economics. Under suitable conditions 
 
 for women 
 
VOCATIONS 103 
 
 many women find satisfactory vocations in various 
 kinds of ofiice work. 
 
 A married woman should share in the management 
 of the family income and should have control of a 
 purse or bank account to secure her personal needs 
 and to finance the home. In case of widowhood 
 she should be able to support herself by means of a 
 suitable vocation. If necessity requires that this 
 should be in the care of her own minor children, 
 the state should stand ready to pay her a salary. 
 
 In case of failure to marry, a woman should not 
 only be economically independent, she should also 
 have a life's work to which she can put her mind and 
 her heart. It is because many women are finding 
 such a life's work that the term "old maid" is passing 
 out of use. This term acquired its unpleasant asso- 
 ciations when women were especially prepared for 
 no vocation and were dependent upon the chances 
 of matrimony for entrance into the only one open to 
 them. Disappointment in this was presumed to 
 lead to a forlorn life of idle waiting, with cats for 
 companions. 
 
 A woman had better follow any vocation that will 
 give her a chance for social service and happiness, 
 rather than be "unequally yoked" with an unworthy 
 man. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 Concentra- 
 tion of in- 
 vestment 
 with distri- 
 bution of 
 wealth 
 
 The use of 
 savings 
 
 "IVTODERN industry and commerce have so 
 -^ -*• developed that they cannot be carried on 
 successfully without the cooperation of many or 
 the great wealth of a few. The latter alternative, 
 it will be conceded, is not desirable. A democracy 
 must aim at a wide diffusion of wealth. The corpora- 
 tion offers opportunity for this diffusion while still 
 providing for concentration of investment and 
 management. 
 
 The necessity for larger units of capital developed 
 the partnership plan, a method now generally in- 
 adequate to business needs. It requires the con- 
 centration of millions of dollars in one investment 
 to build, equip, and operate a railway system, a 
 steamship line, or a country-wide telegraph or tele- 
 phone system. The same is true in some measure 
 in mining, smelting, and manufacturing. When 
 managed in the interests of the stockholders, small 
 as well as large, corporations offer exceptional 
 opportunities for the investment of savings. 
 
 During early maturity and middle life the ordinary 
 worker is presumed to earn more than is required for 
 his current expenses. The family budget should set 
 aside a portion of the earnings, which may serve a 
 double purpose : first, to help build up the legitimate 
 industries of the country, and secondly, to provide 
 an old-age income for those who have thus saved. 
 
 104 
 
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS 105 
 
 This portion of the family income usually goes first 
 into a savings bank or similar institution. But 
 savings banks cannot pay interest without investing 
 or lending out their money, and the borrower like- 
 wise must invest his money profitably or fail in his 
 obligations. Thus all savings must be invested in 
 productive business or be profitless. 
 
 This is in the main true also of life-insurance Life- 
 companies into whose hands is committed the fundT'^'^^ 
 management of vast sums of the people's money. 
 Mutual insurance companies offer opportunities for 
 cooperation on a large scale. One of the great 
 diflSculties of these organizations, however, is that 
 they become so large that the individual member of 
 the organization finds no ready means of using his 
 vote to insure good management. Management 
 may, therefore, fall into the hands of manipulators 
 more intent on personal gain than on the interests 
 of policyholders. Such a public necessity as life 
 insurance should be managed either by government 
 or by mutual companies under government super- 
 vision. They should be so regulated that all profits 
 will go to the beneficiaries of the policies. Whatever 
 may be said in justification of the accumulation of 
 individual fortunes in general, there can be no ground 
 for approving the making of such fortunes directly 
 out of the life-insurance funds of the people. 
 
 Concentration of the management of a corporation Corpora- 
 need not mean concentration of ultimate control. *'°'"=°"t'°l 
 This control should be exercised by the stockholders. 
 It is desirable that these should be so situated that 
 
106 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Stock- 
 holders 
 
 Directors 
 
 and 
 
 managers 
 
 a majority can meet at least once a year to be fully 
 informed of the conduct of the business and to dis- 
 cuss such reports and plans as may have been sent 
 to them. Such annual meetings are commonly 
 held for the election of directors. In this the individ- 
 ual stockholder has a duty akin to that of the citizen 
 in poUtical elections. He should be informed of the 
 financial condition of the corporation and of its 
 methods of doing a business that concerns both the 
 stockholders and the public. Managers may, for 
 instance, rob both ; or they may rob the public and 
 divide up with the stockholders. In the latter case 
 some stockholders might be tempted to give at least 
 silent approval. The stockholders are not, as a rule, 
 in a position to direct each business transaction ; this 
 generally requires concentrated authority. Stock- 
 holders can, however, be informed of business policies 
 and judge of the moral principles involved. These 
 judgments can be made known at the stockholders' 
 meetings and expressed in voting for directors. 
 
 Directors and managers of corporations have not 
 only a great responsibility, they have also exceptional 
 opportunity for service. Their business so much 
 resembles that of public officials that the commission 
 form of municipal government has been patterned 
 after the management of private corporations. 
 
 The board of directors of a company usually passes 
 upon large questions of policy, investments, bonding 
 or borrowing, but leaves to a manager or a small 
 executive committee all details of management. 
 Here again is manifest the principle of concentrated 
 
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS 107 
 
 management with a larger body exercising general 
 control. This larger body is, however, presumed to 
 have intimate knowledge of all the affairs of the 
 company and to see that everything is done in a fair 
 and businesslike manner — the buying and the sell- 
 ing, the auditing of the books, and the treatment of 
 employees. A board of directors may not with 
 propriety neglect any of these things which are 
 likely to concern the public as well as the stock- 
 holders. There are usually many interested creditors, 
 persons, or banks that have made loans to the com- 
 pany, and others that have accepted stock certificates 
 as security for loans. In case of bankruptcy all of 
 these individuals and corporations may suffer. 
 Others with no financial interest in the corporation 
 may be injured because of its unfair dealings. It 
 is the business of the directors to guard all these 
 matters closely, so that injustice to any one, within 
 or without the corporation, may be reduced to a 
 minimum. This is more important than maximum 
 profits. 
 
CHAPTER Vn 
 
 EELIGIOUS AND CHARITABLE INSTITtTTIONS 
 
 Separation TDRIMITIVE people do not differentiate church 
 and state ^^^ state. ReUgion is at first tribal or national 
 
 and is, therefore, identified with other tribal or na- 
 tional affairs. In the earliest conquests of one people 
 by another the subject people adopted the religion 
 of their new rulers. Later, however, conquerors 
 came to recognize the wisdom of allowing a people to 
 retain the religious aspect of their own national life. 
 This practice led to separation of church and state. 
 One instance of this is the case of the Hebrews. 
 The Mosaic law, which governed the Hebrews for 
 centuries, was both civil and religious. Their 
 political subjection to more powerful nations at 
 first led to conflict concerning the problems of 
 religion. Under the Roman conquest this conflict 
 was partly resolved by the recognition, within pre- 
 scribed limits, of the authority of the Jewish priests. 
 In theory separation of church and state seemed to 
 culminate in the reply of Jesus to the Pharisees : 
 "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's and 
 to God the things that are God's." Yet it has 
 taken many centuries to realize this ideal. 
 
 In modern times most churches have become 
 internationalized and denationalized, neither domi- 
 nating nor being dominated by civil authority. 
 Where all or a large majority of the people of a 
 state or nation are members of the same church 
 
 108 
 
RELIGIOUS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 109 
 
 there is, however, at times a tendency toward some 
 sort of partnership between church and state. 
 
 The church, as we speak of it here, is a voluntary spiritual 
 rehgious organization maintained for the spiritual i'®"^""^''* 
 betterment of its members and of society at large. 
 Every great reUgion includes a system of morals 
 by which its worth is, in large measure, judged. 
 It is, however, more than a society for moral cul- 
 ture, as this term is generally used. It includes, 
 in addition, a faith in the ultimate goodness and 
 rationaUty of the universe. This faith is usually ex- 
 pressed in the church as belief in a personal God, a 
 Being capable of entering into sympathetic relations 
 with man in his highest aspirations. This Supreme 
 Being is generally regarded as the author of the 
 moral law, or as the basis of faith in its ultimate 
 supremacy. 
 
 A church is the result of a union of faith in spiritual Growth 
 values with an organization for the purpose of real- perfection 
 izing these values. Churches are, however, his- 
 torical institutions. Neither a state nor a church 
 suddenly springs up independent of the past. Both 
 are likely to be governed in some measure by old 
 customs, some of which may have outlived their 
 usefulness. The rationalistic spirit of youth some- 
 times fails to make due allowance for these facts 
 and may, therefore, judge defects too harshly and 
 fail to give due weight to the good results that are 
 being attained by the church, results that might 
 not be realized without its aid. By the same method 
 of judgment, the state, the family, and every other 
 
110 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Brother- 
 hoods 
 
 Benefits of 
 social re- 
 ligious 
 activity 
 
 institution might be condemned. The imperfec- 
 tions of these institutions are probably due to the 
 imperfections of human nature; moreover, imi- 
 versal condemnation is not the remedy. Pessi- 
 mism can remedy nothing, neither can irrational 
 optimism. The philosophical mind sees both the 
 good and the bad, appreciates and advances the 
 one and seeks ways of overcoming or outgrowing 
 the other. 
 
 In addition to churches there are brotherhoods 
 and reUgious and ethical societies that have similar 
 aims. Members of these organizations may or 
 may not be affiliated with a church. Because many 
 of them are not, these organizations commonly de- 
 velop forms and ceremonies as substitutes for those 
 used by the church in connection with the great 
 events of hfe — christening, marriage, death. 
 
 In the churches and kindred organizations is 
 another illustration of the necessity of social co- 
 operation. After a certain amount of social experi- 
 ence an individual may in his solitude have intense 
 religious emotions, but these are of httle worth 
 and may even be detrimental if they are not ex- 
 pressed in appropriate social activities. A church 
 or similar organization provides opportunities for 
 such expression. Experience has demonstrated, too, 
 that individuals gain spirituaKty and moral strength 
 by association with others of like exalted aims. The 
 sacred music of the churches and the common 
 prayer, when offered in humility and reverence as 
 the expression of a sincere desire, have their effect 
 
RELIGIOUS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 111 
 
 upon the congregation in a general spiritual uplift. 
 But this too must find expression in sympathy and 
 mutual helpfulness. 
 
 There are those that discredit rehgious experi- 
 ence because in individual cases and exceptional 
 circumstances people become fanatical. This is 
 analogous to the perversions and imperfections that 
 occur in civic, family, economic, and social affairs. 
 All such are to be avoided, without discrediting 
 the good that exists in institutions. Fanaticism 
 in rehgion is as objectionable as tyranny in gov- 
 ernment, duplicity in the family life, or other evils 
 to which institutions are liable. 
 
 To the person of steady moral purpose and sound 
 judgment the church offers opportunity for social 
 service. To the person without these qualities it 
 offers sympathetic help in acquiring them. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY 
 
 Civic pride T T is one of the functions of the school community 
 -'• to develop virtues necessary to the highest type 
 of citizenship. Among these virtues is civic pride, 
 which, broadly interpreted, seems to include them 
 all. Real civic pride leads one to guard against 
 everything detrimental to the character and repu- 
 tation of a commmiity, and to further everything 
 that tends to build up a worthy and admirable 
 community life. Such a pride in the school com- 
 munity can be cultivated from the outset. A begin- 
 ning is made by protecting and enhancing the beauty 
 of the schoohoom, the buildings, and the grounds. 
 Closely allied to this is respect for public property 
 and for public oflBcials in the lawful discharge of 
 their duties. Out of this grows a disposition to 
 be orderly and law-abiding. 
 
 PubUc When these quahties become characteristic of the 
 
 school community, the individual pupil whose action 
 is not in conformity with these ideals will be opposed 
 by the general sentiment of his school associates. 
 This community habit is a very powerful influence 
 in molding the character of the immature individual. 
 It is in the failure to develop this influence to the 
 fullest extent that the school has not raeasured up 
 to its possibilities. Take, for example, the case of 
 cheating in examinations. Is it not first of all an 
 offense against the school community? The main 
 
 112 
 
 sentiment 
 
THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY 113 
 
 purpose of such cheating is to secure a scholastic 
 standing above one's deserts. The standards of 
 the school are supposed to have a community worth 
 which is one factor in measuring the character and 
 reputation of the school. If this measure is falsi- 
 fied by any individual, he thereby becomes an enemy 
 of the school community. He is also an enemy in 
 that he is in direct opposition to one of the chief 
 ideals of the school, that of honesty. The pubhc 
 sentiment of the school may be so developed that 
 cheating becomes impossible. Students in second- 
 ary and higher schools especially have it within 
 their power to protect the school or college commu- 
 nity from this form of moral corruption. They can 
 do it much more effectively than can teachers. 
 
 A false application of the principle of personal Loyalty 
 loyalty sometimes leads students to shield others 
 in these practices, even though they disapprove of 
 their conduct. Personal loyalty should be exercised 
 for the good of the individual and should not clash 
 with loyalty to the best good of the community. 
 It is, then, the one that cheats who is disloyal, and 
 the one who would protect him in this act shares 
 in his disloyalty. 
 
 The habit of making loyalty to the pubhc welfare Moral 
 the first consideration, regardless of personal cost, '^°'^*se 
 is one of the most desirable qualities in a citizen. 
 Can this quality' be developed most successfully 
 if entirely neglected in the school? It is easy for 
 public officials to prosecute members of the so- 
 called criminal classes. The test of their moral 
 
114 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Student 
 initiatiTe 
 
 Student 
 self-govern- 
 ment 
 
 courage comes, however, when there is occasion 
 to prosecute wrongdoers who happen to be in good 
 social standing. This sort of moral courage needs 
 the active support of all good citizens. The habit 
 cultivated in some student communities of tolerat- 
 ing lawlessness and of shielding oflFenders from pun- 
 ishment is poor preparation for citizenship. 
 
 This condition sometimes comes about because 
 of want of cooperation between teachers and stu- 
 dents. The former may assume aU authority and 
 responsibihty and expect the students to be instru- 
 ments in their hands. But students want to be 
 more than mere instruments ; they want to be agents, 
 and to this end may form gangs that can initiate 
 something, even though it be in opposition to law 
 and order. 
 
 Such evils can be avoided by cooperation of all 
 the members of the school community. Ultimate 
 authority and responsibihty must rest with school 
 oflBcers and teachers, but that is not to say that 
 students may not share in this authority and re- 
 sponsibihty. It is as much a part of their educa- 
 tion to do so as it is to complete courses of study. 
 To this end various forms of student self-govern- 
 ment have been developed and, in some instances, 
 carried out with marked success. The fate of the 
 plan depends upon those who operate it. A social 
 organization, hke a machine, however perfect in 
 itself, is liable to failure if mismanaged. The 
 most perfect form of democracy fails to work well 
 with the ignorant or the lawless. The same may 
 
THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY 115 
 
 be true of any form of student self-government. 
 It will not succeed without intelligent, active co- 
 operation on the part of all concerned. Opponents 
 of student self-government have objected on the 
 ground that it is, after all, not self-government at 
 aU, since the school authorities reserve the right of 
 veto on all acts of student officials. The same ob- 
 jection might be raised against the usual form of 
 territorial government in America, where Congress 
 reserves the right of veto. On this account, however, 
 citizens of territories do not regard their local gov- 
 ernment as of no value. Under normal conditions 
 there is seldom occasion to exercise the power of 
 veto, either in territorial or in school government. 
 The delegated authority is usually freely exercised 
 in the interests of order and progress, and the re- 
 sponsibility of governing develops capacity for 
 still fiu-ther responsibility and sovereignty. 
 
 The school community is interested in many ac- School 
 tivities supplementary to those of the classroom, 
 the laboratory, and the hbrary. These activities 
 are carried on by clubs or societies organized for 
 specific ptu-poses ; e.g., athletic clubs, musical socie- 
 ties, debating and literary societies, and nature- 
 study clubs. Each such organization may be very 
 useful in promoting the individual development of 
 its members and in advancing the spirit of civic 
 pride and loyalty in the school community. 
 
 activities 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Voluntary 
 effort 
 
 Securing 
 capital 
 
 COOPERATIVE ACTIVITIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 
 
 TN rural districts there is a large field for public 
 -*• activities quite apart from civil government. 
 A community with civic pride and the cooperative 
 spirit may accomplish more by voluntary eflFort 
 than it would be possible for government to com- 
 mand. 
 
 One of the first great problems in any unde- 
 veloped community seeking improvement is to 
 secure capital. Capital is created by intelligent 
 industry, but the process of improvement goes on 
 faster if, in addition to land and labor, more than 
 the usual amount of capital is available at the out- 
 set. There are two methods of securing it; i.e., 
 better credit and better markets. Money at reason- 
 able rates of interest may be secured by the formation 
 of rural credit associations. These by consolida- 
 tion of their securities and by subjecting their ap- 
 praisements to government or land-bank approval 
 may obtain long-time loans at low rates of interest 
 and on terms that permit of a gradual reduction of 
 the principal. By this plan farmers may buy 
 needed farm machinery and livestock and, where 
 necessary, provide for irrigation or drainage. Short- 
 age of any equipment necessary to successful farm- 
 ing may keep farmers poor and miserable. 
 
 In fruit growing it may be necessary to wait a 
 decade for returns on investment. In stock grow- 
 
 116 
 
ACTIVITIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 117 
 
 ing, likewise, the farmer needs either a large invest- Farm 
 ment in livestock at the beginning, or he should °''"*"'"i' 
 be free from the necessity of selling his increase 
 to meet current expenses. Field crops yield annual 
 or biennial returns, but this type of farming requires 
 machinery and should be carried on in connection 
 with stock raising. There is, too, the initial cost 
 of the land, which keeps many young men out of 
 farming. Ownership of a home and of the land 
 cultivated is one of the great attractions of farm life. 
 Such ownership is of so great importance to civic 
 hfe that many governments have made provision 
 for using their influence and even their credit to 
 this end. 
 
 Borrowed money must be returned with interest, Coopera- 
 and the farmer must find a way of earning it. This pro'diKtion 
 involves efficient production and marketing. The ^nd mar- 
 
 . keting 
 
 early work of agricultural schools and government 
 departments of agriculture had to do largely with 
 increasing production. Later they became alive 
 to the problem of marketing. How can the farmer 
 get his produce to the consumer without its first 
 passing through the hands of jobbing and commission 
 houses, wholesale dealers, retail merchants, and 
 dehvery men — a process that impoverishes both 
 the consumer and the producer? Or, worse still, 
 failing altogether to find a consumer, how can he 
 live and thrive on decaying farm products? Occa- 
 sionally fruit growers thus fail to find a market. 
 One of the best remedies for this evil so far found 
 is cooperative marketing. This often calls for an 
 
118 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 agreement among farmers of a district as to their 
 chief market crop. If the district is favorable for 
 dairying, and dairy products are marketable at a 
 reasonable profit, this may be made the prevaihng 
 industry. 
 
 The method of marketing has also to be deter- 
 mined by agreement. If a city is near by the prob- 
 lem will be to devise, by cooperative action, a plan 
 by which fresh milk and cream of uniform standard 
 can be produced and delivered directly to the cus- 
 tomers. In many cases no such market will be 
 available. The farmers then have need of a cream- 
 ery, cheese factory, or condensed-milk factory. 
 The markets and conditions in respect to the feed- 
 ing of young stock will determine what sort of a 
 factory should be established. In any case, there 
 must be common decision and united effort. These 
 ends are usually attained through a local agricul- 
 tural or commercial club. 
 
 Likewise, the production of fruit demands co- 
 operative packing and shipping, a fruit cannery, or 
 both. The production of vegetables involves the 
 same problem. The choice is again between prompt 
 and economical delivery of fresh vegetables to urban 
 consumers or a canning factory. Vegetables and 
 fruit, not readily perishable, may be handled by 
 methods of storage and shipment in some respects 
 like the methods of handling grain. But up-to- 
 date storage plants and grain elevators can be 
 managed most successfully by cooperation of the 
 producers. 
 
ACTIVITIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 119 
 
 There are districts where soil and water condi- 
 tions are such that sugar beets are the most profit- 
 able crop. In such cases coijperation on a somewhat 
 larger scale might secure a sugar factory and, by 
 this means, transform what might otherwise be 
 unprofitable lands into valuable farms. There seems 
 to be no reason, in the nature of the case, why inde- 
 pendent sugar factories may not be established on 
 the cooperative plan. 
 
 All of the above rural activities call for close co- 
 operation in the production, manufacture, and dis- 
 tribution of food products. Such cooperation is 
 necessary, not only to the material well-being of 
 the farmer, but of the consumers as well. Too many 
 people trying to make a profit on what a few produce 
 results in economic oppression. 
 
 One of the great drawbacks to rural progress is Home and 
 the lack of home and community conveniences n"™^"'"*^ 
 available to city residents. Among these may be 
 named water, sewer, and lighting systems, good 
 roads, street sprinkling on main highways, and graded 
 schools. As these, for the most part, are managed 
 best through the agency of government, we may 
 properly leave their discussion to the chapter on 
 County Government. Owing to the distance be- 
 tween residences some of these conveniences, such 
 as running water in the house and the disposal of 
 sewage, will have to be managed by the farmer 
 himself. Private systems may, however, be re- 
 quired to conform to standards publicly determined. 
 This, too, concerns the county government. 
 
120 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Better opportunity for the cultivation of the 
 social and religious life is one of the great needs of 
 rural communities. Country churches are usually 
 small and poor and far apart. This is partly owing 
 to the fact that the farmers may be scattered in 
 membership between half a dozen churches and 
 no church at all. Failing to get together in one 
 church, the people are in many cases finding a social 
 center in the public school. This has gone so far 
 as to lead, in some commimities, to the estabhsh- 
 ment of a non-sectarian Sunday School and Sunday 
 sermons in the public-school buildings. What will 
 come of this in the way of religious reorganization 
 remains to be seen. This much seems sure, that 
 denominational antagonisms should give way to 
 cooperative religious work. Religious work, too, 
 can be broadened to include socially elevating forms 
 of recreation, intellectual and esthetic culture, and 
 social improvement generally. If these opportuni- 
 ties are not provided by the rural church, they will 
 be provided in connection with the public school, 
 under the leadership of the school principal as 
 civic secretary. The rural communities must have 
 opportunities for a social life in which both personal 
 and community ideals can be reahzed ; otherwise 
 sugar beets and dairy cows can be of little value 
 to the farmer, and he, with his products, becomes 
 but an economic means to the happiness of some one 
 else. The farmer should contribute to the general 
 economic welfare, but in so doing he need not sacri- 
 fice his own social inheritance and personality. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 COUNTY GOVERNMENT 
 
 AS a rule incorporated cities and towns manage City, town, 
 their strictly local aflfairs, and the county is ^IkT^^ 
 concerned with local government outside of cities 
 and incorporated towns. County government may 
 attend to the public schools in rural sections and in 
 the smaller cities, and also to relief for the poor, labor 
 for the unemployed, and kindred public business. 
 Sometimes counties and cities incorporated in them 
 have found it advantageous to consolidate their 
 governments, thus putting all their local problems 
 under one control. Since this is not the rule, how- 
 ever, we shall consider here only the usual problems 
 of county government. 
 
 Apart from the schools, which are commonly Roads 
 managed by a board especially elected for the pur- 
 pose, the building and maintenance of roads is the 
 chief concern of the county. Transcontinental 
 highways may be built by cooperation of state and 
 federal authorities ; state highways, by state ap- 
 propriation and control. Most of the roads in a 
 county are not, however, of this kind, and their 
 making and maintenance is clearly a county re- 
 sponsibility. Free, easy means of communication 
 to all parts of the community is a public necessity 
 that only government can well provide. It is 
 necessary to the conduct of business in a rural 
 community that the roads shall always be in good 
 
 121 
 
122 CITIZEN SHJl" 
 
 condition. To this end the board of county com- 
 missioners should employ competent civil engineers 
 and road supervisors. The old method of poll tax 
 and "working out the tax" have doubtless outlived 
 their usefulness ; although, as a system adapted 
 to strictly rural conditions, it may have served a 
 good end. As a tax assessment, however, it is 
 inequitable and economically unprofitable. Money 
 for roads is now generally raised in the same ways 
 as are other public funds. By expending this money 
 on a large scale and on a uniform plan under expert 
 direction, much more can be accomplished than 
 under the old methods. 
 
 In connection with the problem of road main- 
 tenance is that of sprinkling and lighting the main 
 highways. Outside of cities no unit smaller than 
 the county can well provide these necessities. 
 Where dust prevails sprinkling is necessary to health 
 as well as to comfort, and light is necessary to safety 
 on roads much traveled at night. 
 Health Health regulations must be maintained by public 
 
 authority. The necessity for this is so great that 
 health officers are given almost military powers. It 
 is unfortunate that the imagination of many people is 
 so dull and their mental habits so sluggish that they 
 will tolerate conditions that perpetually threaten the 
 lives of their neighbors. They may be very well-dis- 
 posed neighbors, too — always ready to nurse the sick 
 and to follow as mourners to the grave those that 
 have been killed by their negligence. There is great 
 necessity for public, authoritative protection from 
 
COUNTY GOVERNMENT 123 
 
 such ignorance or thoughtlessness. This applies to 
 the detection of contagious diseases and the enforce- 
 ment of quarantine regulations as well as to the 
 maintenance of other standard sanitary conditions. 
 
 A group of problems connected with relief for Relief for 
 the poor, work for the unemployed, medical and *''^p°°'^ 
 hospital care of the destitute, and widows' pensions, 
 to the extent that these matters are not cared for 
 by the state, call for action by the county. To 
 allow the destitute to beg on the street or from door 
 to door is a double wrong. It is unfair to the in- 
 digent, and it thrusts an unwarranted responsibility 
 upon the citizen who is asked to give. Who can 
 tell without investigation whether or not he ought 
 to give.? And by what means can a busy private 
 citizen discriminate between a worthy and an un- 
 worthy beggar.? Even with the best of intentions, 
 the individual solicited may do the wrong thing. 
 There should be a public tribunal to which the desti- 
 tute can appeal and submit their cases for investi- 
 gation and appropriate action. There should be 
 provision, too, whereby the able-bodied unemployed 
 may, at any time, secure work to provide for their 
 necessities. Much of this can be accomplished 
 through a publicly conducted employment bureau. 
 This, however, will need to be supplemented by 
 some public work for which the county itself can 
 pay an honest, industrious individual enough to 
 redeem hinl from beggary and want. No such indi- 
 vidual should ever be under the necessity of going 
 to the jail for a meal or a night's lodgings. 
 
124 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Widows' 
 pensions 
 
 Education 
 
 Worthy but unfortunate individuals too feeble 
 to work and without individual or family support 
 should be cared for by the public; otherwise they 
 will be driven to choose between crime and starva- 
 tion. It is contrary to public welfare and humani- 
 tarian principles that any one should be compelled 
 to make such a choice. The county should also 
 maintain a hospital, a medical staff, and a medical 
 dispensary where the destitute sick may be cared 
 for at public expense. This may include, where 
 necessary, medical attention in the home. 
 
 The widow's pension is properly a salary paid 
 the widow for the care and home education of her 
 fatherless children. It is akin to relief for the poor 
 in that such a pension or salary is paid only in case 
 of family need. The state has already taken over 
 the public education of all its children. In case 
 of inabihty of the family to rear them properly, 
 must not the state assume this additional responsi- 
 bility ? Where conditions are favorable, what better 
 method could be devised than to employ the mother 
 to care 'for her children.'' Home life and family 
 unity may thereby be maintained. As with public 
 education, so with widows' pensions, the state 
 must furnish the chief financial support. As a 
 guarantee of faithful administration, however, the 
 county may well be asked to contribute to this 
 fund. 
 
 The county consolidated school system is rapidly 
 replacing the old small-district system. This change 
 is to secure greater eflficiency and more nearly equal 
 
COUNTY GOVERNMENT 125 
 
 opportunities to all children. The general eflBciency 
 is advanced by making possible the employment 
 of professional superintendents and supervisors 
 of schools ; also, in many cases, the better grading 
 of pupils and provision of high-school facilities for 
 all. This may involve public transportation of 
 those not within walking distance of the schools. 
 These provisions, together with uniformly well- 
 trained teachers and a satisfactory school calendar, 
 are made possible by the constitution of a larger 
 unit of taxation for school purposes. The state 
 should be the chief provider, with the county or 
 other administrative unit as a second. This will 
 involve subjection of county control to state au- 
 thority. 
 
 The county school system should include, in 
 addition to the usual schoolroom arts, instruction 
 concerning local industries and current civic affairs. 
 This instruction, on the side of industrial education, 
 is being extended to all the people by cooperative 
 action of federal, state, and county governments. 
 It is seen in the work of farm and home demonstra- 
 tors, farmers' institutes, and extension and corre- 
 spondence courses of study. Similar methods might 
 well be employed for the public enlightenment on 
 all current educational, political, and social prob- 
 lems. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE TOWN AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The pur- 
 pose of 
 incorporat- 
 ing 
 
 Town water 
 system 
 
 Social 
 affairs 
 
 A VILLAGE may become an incorporated town 
 for the purpose of owning and operating local 
 public utilities and of securing a stricter control 
 in its social affairs. Wbether or not an incorporated 
 town shall assume the burden of the care and upkeep 
 of its streets, public sanitation and quarantine, and 
 other such civic functions depends upon the provi- 
 sions of law under which towns are incorporated. 
 State laws governing these matters should conform 
 to public needs. A village should be allowed to 
 incorporate for the purpose of regulating a few 
 purely local problems such as those first named 
 above, without also taking over civic functions that 
 can be managed better by a larger administrative 
 unit. 
 
 A purely local utility — a community water 
 system, for instance — is not usually managed by 
 county government. A village, if it would have 
 a water system, is therefore forced to choose be- 
 tween incorporating as a town or depending upon 
 private ownership and management for this public 
 necessity. This is also true of the establishment 
 and maintenance of a sewer system or other com- 
 munity need. 
 
 The control of social affairs may, however, be 
 managed by a local committee in cooperation with 
 the county authorities and the public schools. For 
 
 126 
 
THE TOWN AND THE CITIZEN 127 
 
 this purpose alone it is not really necessary to assume 
 the expenses of a town government. 
 
 A community library is frequently established Library 
 by town government. This is an important means 
 of public education, but it has been observed that 
 in order to make the most of the money invested, 
 it is well to have such a library connected with the 
 school and under the management of the educa- 
 tional authorities. For the same reason a small 
 park and playgrounds can serve a double purpose if 
 affiliated with the schools. A county library system 
 associated with the public schools may include books 
 and packages for circulation both within and with- 
 out towns. The point of this arrangement is to 
 avoid unnecessary duplication of public expenses 
 and administrative functions. 
 
 In the small town, as in the rural community, Economic 
 there wUl arise many social problems quite apart ^^°^ 
 from governmental authority, yet none the less prob- deveiop- 
 lems of citizenship. For instance, the perma- 
 nent well-being of any community must rest upon 
 a sound economic basis. Fifty thousand dollars 
 spent in starting a new industry is worth more to 
 a town than the same amount of money put into a 
 clubhouse, the chief purpose of which is to form a 
 meeting place for talking about building up the 
 town. In large cities it may be possible to have both 
 clubhouse and industries ; but even there, if choice 
 must be made, let it be in favor of the industries. 
 
 The attempt to build up fortunes by artificially Real-estate 
 booming town lots is no credit to the citizenship °°™^ 
 
128 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 The com- 
 mercial 
 center 
 
 Manufac- 
 turing in- 
 dustries 
 
 of any community. No real wealth is thus created, 
 and such fortunes must be made ultimately at the 
 expense of some one else. This is the essence of 
 gambling, which in its uglier forms is condemned 
 and is punishable by law. 
 
 We may divide towns into three types : com- 
 mercial, industrial, and residential. A town that 
 is the commercial center of a rural district may 
 normally grow with the increase of the business of 
 the district it serves. Whether or not it shall ever 
 become a large city will depend in part upon its 
 situation and in part upon the development of sub- 
 stantial business houses. 
 
 A second type is the town that is neither a com- 
 mercial center nor a residential suburb. Such a 
 town must build upon its industries. If these are 
 wholly agricultural and are to continue to be so, 
 the community must remain semi-rural and should 
 avoid small lots, excessive land values, or other of 
 the most common characteristics of towns. Very 
 high values tend to make agriculture a failure, and 
 in an agricultural community are sure to bring a 
 reaction, with financial disaster and despondency 
 to the citizens and investors. If this type of town 
 woiJd have permanent growth in population, wealth, 
 and property, it should estabhsh maniifacturing 
 industries as an economic basis. These may well 
 be related to the agricultural activities of the sur- 
 rounding district, such as factories that prepare 
 the raw materials of the farm for home use, storage, 
 or shipment, or industries that provide machinery. 
 
THE TOWN AND THE CITIZEN 129 
 
 vehicles, furniture, or other mechanical products 
 for use in the homes and in agricultural work. A 
 town that builds in this way may some day become 
 a great manufacturing city. 
 
 Of quite a different type is the town that is a Suburban 
 suburb of a large city ; its growth must depend ^'*^'='*°°^ 
 upon its attractiveness as a residence district. To 
 this end the residents of the town may beautify 
 their homes, keeping all buildings in first-class condi- 
 tion, improve every foot of ground, and remove all 
 noxious weeds and ugly sights, including billboards. 
 
 To one seeking residence in the suburbs the edu- 
 cational facilities, the social life, and the moral 
 tone of the community are primary considerations. 
 Satisfactory conditions in these respects attract 
 young families from the more crowded quarters of 
 the city. Heads of such families are usually look- 
 ing for a good place to bring up boys and girls. 
 They want excellent schools, both elementary and 
 secondary, and opportunities for esthetic enjoy- 
 ment — art and music — in everyday life. They 
 want to live in a community of intelligent, sympa- 
 thetic men and women, a people always ready and 
 willing to cooperate in any feasible undertaking for 
 social betterment. It is upon these characteristics 
 in its citizens and civic life that any town may 
 safely build. 
 
sewer 
 systems 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PROBLEMS OF THE CITY 
 
 Sanitation f I ^HE problems of municipal government vary 
 -*• with the size of the city, the prevaiUng indus- 
 tries, and the characteristics of the inhabitants. 
 There is, however, always the great problem of keep- 
 ing the city physically and morally clean. Sanita- 
 tion, in this enlarged sense, is the greatest concern 
 of both the government and the citizens. 
 
 Water and Physical sanitation requires an abundant supply 
 of pure water for culinary purposes, and if this pure 
 water is limited to household use, an additional water 
 system for flushing streets and sewers is needed. 
 This is a reason why a city should never depend 
 upon privately owned water or water system. In the 
 arid regions especially an ambitious city must plan 
 far ahead in seciu-ing its water supply, which is as 
 much a public necessity as are the streets. It is 
 needed for many pubhc piu-poses and must be sup- 
 plied to every householder by pubhc authority. In 
 a large city there is danger in allowing famihes to 
 use drinking water from wells or other sources that 
 are subject to contamination. The health of the 
 whole city may thus be endangered. Whatever 
 may be the source of an epidemic of typhoid or 
 other disease must be eliminated. For like reasons 
 a sewer system must be provided, to be extended 
 as the city is built up, and every householder must 
 be required to connect with the system. Cess- 
 
 130 
 
PROBLEMS OF THE CITY 131 
 
 pools in a city are a private nuisance and a public 
 menace. 
 
 All that we have said in the chapter on Public Public 
 Regulation of Food Markets applies with special ™"'^**^ 
 force to the city. It is not safe to eat a raw oyster 
 or to drink a cup of milk unless the source and 
 methods of handling these supplies have been of- 
 ficially inspected. Since perishable products are 
 an ever increasing danger as time goes on, it is highly 
 desirable, for sanitary as well as for other reasons, 
 that these products pass as quickly as possible from 
 the producer to the consumer. This process is facil- 
 itated in some measure by the maintenance of public 
 markets. The parcel post has also been helpful. 
 
 With all the provisions for distribution that have Garbage 
 thus far been made, there is still considerable waste 
 of perishable food supplies. These and other waste 
 products need to be quickly removed from the city. 
 For this purpose every city must maintain a system 
 for the removal and disposal of garbage. All com- 
 bustibles that cannot be put to beneficial use should 
 be burned, and all else so disposed of as not to be 
 an eyesore or a stench to people on the outskirts of 
 the city. 
 
 The maintenance of isolation hospitals, the regu- Health 
 lation of quarantine and fumigation, and the fre- 
 quent medical inspection of children in the schools 
 is part of the very important duties of the health 
 ofiicers. This relates to matters of life and death. 
 Careless exercise of the functions and powers of 
 the board of health or a disposition on the part of 
 
132 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 citizens to evade these regulations may cost many 
 inhabitants their Uves and many homes the loss or 
 serious disability of their children. This is a case 
 where ignorance is inexcusable and thoughtlessness 
 a crime. 
 Lighting Abundant light is imperative in streets and 
 
 ^^'^'^ parks, if open at night, not only for physical com- 
 
 fort and safety, but also for social reasons. Only 
 the boldest criminals are not afraid of the hght; 
 and darkness, itself, may be a temptation to wrong 
 doing. Ownership by the city of its own lighting 
 plant, especially if it is run by water power, fosters 
 the abundant use of electric lamps. 
 Heating Closely alhed to the lighting problem is that of 
 
 '' " ^ heating. The unregulated use of soft coal is often 
 
 the bane of city Kfe. If it is needful to require 
 prompt disposal of sewage and garbage, may it not 
 be equally needful to restrain a householder who 
 would pass smoke too freely into his neighbors' 
 nostrils ? But it may be as hard for the individual, 
 unaided, to control this as it would be for him to 
 dispose of other waste products. Where smokeless 
 fuel or cheap electrical energy is not available, the 
 city may have to supply smoke-consuming heating 
 plants for private as well as for public buildings. 
 These undertakings call for cooperation of citizens 
 on a large scale. The municipal corporation itself 
 is the most eflFective means of accomplishing this. 
 Mere bemoaning the evil or exhorting citizens to 
 do what they individually cannot well accomplish 
 will never remedy the situation. 
 
PROBLEMS OF THE CITY 133 
 
 In a large city many people are compelled to live Tenement 
 in tenement houses. Many of these renters with °"^** 
 relatively small incomes have to secure the cheapest 
 quarters available. Experience has shown that, in the 
 absence of public standards and inspection, many 
 landlords will continue to lease antiquated, poorly 
 lighted, and generally insanitary buildings. People 
 do not, of course, want to live in such quarters if they 
 can avoid it ; but even if they did, there is no more 
 reason why they should be permitted to do so than 
 to drink milk loaded with typhoid germs. No one 
 has a moral right to expose himself, still less his 
 family, to disease if it can be avoided without 
 neglecting duty. Tuberculosis contracted in an 
 illy ventilated, poorly lighted tenement house is 
 not simply an individual or even a family tragedy; 
 it is a public wrong, the evil effects of which cannot 
 weU be measured. 
 
 The hotels, rooming houses, and cafes are, for the Hotels and 
 most part, a means of entertainment for the stranger '* ^ 
 within the city's gates. If these public places are 
 insanitary or morally corrupt, it is an offense to the 
 guests, for which offense the city must be responsi- 
 ble. It is one of the most ancient and valued tra- 
 ditions of the human race that the stranger received 
 as a guest shall be protected at any cost. The gen- 
 erous hospitahty of primitive men to friendly trav- 
 elers is echoed by modern cities in the efforts to se- 
 cure conventions, to welcome visitors by means of 
 electric signs, and to pass to them the keys of the 
 city. This is all very well, but it is a mockery if 
 
134 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Control of 
 
 these visitors are not provided with clean beds in 
 which to sleep and a moral atmosphere in which to 
 live. 
 
 There are two main reasons why amusements 
 amusements gj^Q^i^j j^g publicly regulated : first, to insure 
 sanitary conditions of the building, especially in 
 regard to ventilation, and secondly, to guard against 
 bad moral influences. On the latter ground of 
 action the public has not generally seen fit to go 
 beyond the negative attitude. Some municipalities 
 have, however, established their own houses of 
 amusement, as they have libraries, parks, and 
 playgrounds. With public ownership and manage- 
 ment of amusements, positive educational methods 
 may be introduced. Unregulated theatricals, pic- 
 ture shows, and dance halls are among the greatest 
 dangers to youth. The people have seen fit to abol- 
 ish the saloon and forbid entirely the liquor trafiic. 
 May not the same principle of prohibition apply to 
 the poison offered over the stage footlights ? There 
 can be no doubt of the right and the duty of the city 
 thus to prohibit. 
 
 The modern moving picture, notwithstanding 
 its frequent perversion, can be made an acceptable 
 instrument both of amusement and of education. 
 For the latter purpose it would be well to have every 
 school building equipped with moving-picture ap- 
 paratus and appropriate films. These facilities 
 could also be used in the evening for the enter- 
 tainment and instruction of the public. The phono- 
 graph, with sets of the best musical records, might 
 
 Broadening 
 of educa- 
 tional 
 activities 
 
PROBLEMS OF THE CITY 135 
 
 be similarly utilized. These observations apply also 
 to schools in towns and rural districts, and what 
 has been said in previous chapters of libraries, parks, 
 and playgrounds applies with equal or greater force 
 to the large city. Here also, in the heart of the 
 business district where it is not advisable to have 
 schools, small parks and reading rooms should be 
 supplied. 
 
 In cities compulsive methods of physical sanita- 
 tion are so imperative as to demand public owner- 
 ship and management of all the means of com- 
 munity sanitation. People have, however, been 
 slow to recognize their mental and moral needs. 
 These needs are not restricted to children in the 
 schools or to the traditional work of the schools. 
 The functions of municipal governments are being 
 so expanded as to provide no less for man's moral, 
 intellectual, and esthetic development than for his 
 physical weKare. 
 
CHAPTER Xin 
 
 THE STATE OR PROVINCE 
 
 Education TT' DUCATION is the chief business of the state. 
 ■*-^ No other unit of government is so well fitted 
 to be responsible for the training and instruction 
 of budding citizens. The individual rights of chil- 
 dren and the social needs of the future should not 
 be put in jeopardy either by the negligence or the 
 poverty of a local community, although it is well to 
 permit the various coimties and cities to participate 
 in the management of their local schools. The 
 authority of county and city boards of education 
 is, however, derived from the state and is subject 
 to state revision as the cause of education may re- 
 quire. The management of higher and profes- 
 sional education is directly in the hands of the state, 
 whose business it is not only to provide but also to 
 coordinate and regulate the work of higher institu- 
 tions. Mere local interests and factions should be 
 entirely subordinated to the educational welfare of 
 all the people of the state. 
 
 State control of education may very well imply 
 state support. Institutions under the direct man- 
 agement of the states will be supported entirely by 
 these divisions, with such aid as may be given by 
 the federal government. Schools controlled by 
 city or county boards of education may properly 
 receive partial support from these respective divi- 
 sions, Financial inability of a city or county should 
 
 136 
 
THE STATE OR PROVINCE 137 
 
 not, however, interfere with educational efficiency. 
 This difficulty may be overcome by special grants 
 of school fimds to counties and cities thus situated. 
 
 The United States government has been very Federal 
 Kberal in providing funds, both in lands and in f^gH^ 
 money, and in placing these resources at the dis- 
 posal of the states. This is justified on the ground 
 that the public lands, as a part of the common herit- 
 age, may properly be used as a means of educating 
 each new generation. Since these lands are held 
 in the name of the national government, and the 
 control of education is with the states, a certain 
 portion of public land has been transferred to the 
 states. The sale or rental of these lands provides 
 a permanent fund toward the support of public 
 education. It is one of the great responsibihties of 
 state governments so to manage these lands and 
 funds derived from them that the schools will re- 
 ceive the greatest possible aid. As a general policy 
 it may not be best for the state to retain permanent 
 ownership of all these lands; it is, however, quite 
 possible for the state to sell to the highest bidder 
 and to decline to sell below a fixed minimum price. 
 It has happened in some states that school lands 
 have been sold in unlimited quantities at a low fixed 
 valuation. These lands have thus become an ob- 
 ject of speculation to build up private fortunes, while 
 the schools have had to part with their heritage for 
 a mere pittance. 
 
 The safe and profitable investment of school- 
 land funds, the use of the interest only, and the 
 
138 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Powers of 
 a state 
 govern- 
 ment 
 
 Taxation 
 
 Labor 
 laws 
 
 guarantee of the integrity of the principal, are all 
 reasonable requirements for a general government to 
 make of a state. It is also in the interest of the 
 states themselves to do this, since they must in 
 any event supplement these funds by others de- 
 rived from taxation. 
 
 The American federal constitution provides that 
 the enactment of the great body of law pertaining 
 to property, contracts, and crimes be left with the 
 legislatures of the various states. This is in agree- 
 ment with the principle of federal government which 
 recognizes self-governing states as its components. 
 
 In previous chapters we have discussed property 
 rights and the alhed subject of taxation and control 
 of public utilities. It may be well to say further 
 that the state has not only the problem of enacting 
 revenue laws in conformity with sound principles 
 relating to taxation, it has also the problem of cor- 
 relating its own system with that of the nation on 
 the one hand and that of the county and city on the 
 other. This is a practical problem that demands 
 the greatest wisdom of legislators and expert econ- 
 omists. There need, however, be no sacrifices of 
 the fundamental principles of taxation, as is too 
 often the case. 
 
 The development of complex industrial situations 
 has, in recent years, made it necessary for legis- 
 latures and courts to modify older views of the right 
 of freedom of contract. It is now commonly recog- 
 nized that the exercise of this right must be strictly 
 subordinate to the general welfare. A mere formal 
 
THE STATE OR PROVINCE 139 
 
 freedom is of little value compared with the real 
 freedom guaranteed to the worker by just labor 
 laws. 
 
 In manufacturing communities the regulation of industrial 
 industrial plants and local transportation companies '°™™^^'°° 
 in the interests of the health and safety of employees 
 and the public is an important state function. This 
 may include measures to forbid befouhng the air 
 with poisonous fumes, dust, or other substances 
 injurious to health. Within each industry there 
 may be need of regulating the hours of labor, the 
 lighting, ventilating, and general sanitation of 
 buildings ; devices for protecting employees from 
 dangerous machinery ; and similar measures. These 
 matters can be managed better by an industrial 
 commission imder legislative authority than by 
 detailed laws. 
 
 AMn to these problems are the making and ad- Employers' 
 ministration of employers' liability and workmen's and'work- 
 compensation laws. These laws aim to provide, men's com- 
 without the delay and expense of litigation, an 
 equitable basis of settlement. This is a matter of 
 justice to the families of those that pay the toll of 
 industry in disabiUty or death. 
 
 Another public service both to industries and to Labor 
 workmen may be accomplished through a state ^^'^ *°^* 
 labor exchange. This office might well do its work 
 in cooperation with the county employment bureaus. 
 The social value of finding laborers for every legiti- 
 mate industry and suitable jobs for the unemployed 
 is self-evident. 
 
of crime 
 
 140 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Widows' Under County Government we have spoken of 
 
 and^insur. ^he widows' pension. This must be provided for 
 a^ce by a state pension fund. A state may safeguard 
 
 itself against excessive pension burdens by oflEering 
 a limited amount of state Hfe insurance at cost, or 
 by providing for insurance in mutual companies 
 under state supervision. The successful operation 
 of such a plan would make at least partial provision 
 for a great many otherwise dependent widows and 
 children. 
 Suppression The Suppression of crime has to do, first of all, 
 with the preservation of civilized society. Society 
 must not be put in jeopardy by the hcense of any 
 individual. On the contrary it is the business of 
 the state to resort to whatever means of restraint 
 may be necessary to prevent such trespass upon the 
 present and future welfare of the race. In the case 
 of juvenile offenders it is assumed that society may 
 be adequately protected and the individual offenders 
 saved by educational methods. Accordingly pa- 
 rental and reform schools, juvenile courts, and de- 
 tention homes have been provided by the state for 
 the training of these abnormal individuals while 
 their characters are still plastic. Efforts are also 
 being made to provide work and other means of 
 character building for adults under sentence for 
 crime. The state does not engage in punishment 
 for the mere sake of punishment. It punishes for 
 the protection of society and, in so far as possible, 
 the reform of the offender. Neither of these ends is 
 accomplished by vindictiveness on the one hand 
 
THE STATE OR PROVINCE 141 
 
 or a foolish sentimentality on the other. This 
 sentimentality is sometimes manifested by persons 
 of abnormal constitution, or by adherents of a self- 
 contradictory theory that denies individual respon- 
 sibility to the criminal for his acts of violence, yet 
 holds society responsible for its so-called crime of 
 punishing. 
 
 The state has, or may have, the privilege of co- Relation 
 operating with the national government in the federal 
 execution of plans for large irrigation and drainage government 
 systems, agricultm-al experiment stations, agricul- 
 tural education, and the improvement of rural credits. 
 There is no reason why this public activity may not 
 be extended more freely to experiments in new 
 manufacturing and mining industries, or similar 
 undertakings for the promotion of the general good. 
 
 Since the Civil War the authority of the states 
 of the American Union has in some respects been 
 curtailed, while that of the national government has 
 been extended. This extension of national authority 
 has recently been further accelerated by the exi- 
 gencies of both peace and war. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE NATION 
 
 National 
 defense 
 
 Regulation 
 of com- 
 merce 
 
 A S the world is now constituted, national defense 
 -^*- is an imperative demand that is forced upon 
 us. This governmental function should be cared for 
 by the largest pohtical imit. Under this plan 
 states and provinces are armed, not for protection 
 against each other, but, through the national or- 
 ganization, for protection against a foreign national 
 outlaw; this may be necessary so long as there are 
 such outlaws. The difficult problem is to provide 
 for necessary defense without cultivating a love of 
 war and a tendency toward foreign aggression. 
 
 The national government is the only proper 
 authority to conduct diplomatic aflfairs, to regulate 
 foreign trade, and to discover and promote legitimate 
 ways of advancing national prosperity. To this 
 end, domestic trade is no less important than foreign 
 trade. Interstate commerce and interstate indus- 
 tries are also regulated by the national government ; 
 and where internal trade is highly developed, this 
 has become one of the most important national prob- 
 lems. Interstate commerce may concern the manu- 
 facture, distribution, and sale of any article that 
 passes over a state boundary; the tariff charges 
 for distribution; the rates and conditions of pas- 
 senger service; and the prohibition of such traffic 
 as may be in opposition to the public welfare. 
 Another phase is the relation between capital in- 
 
 142 
 
THE NATION 143 
 
 vested and labor employed in interstate commerce, 
 which raises problems most serious in character and 
 most difficult of solution. The national govern- 
 ment deals with all the above problems through 
 departments and commissions whose duties are to 
 attend to the details of administration and to make 
 such rules and rates as circumstances may require. 
 In this type of public service a federal employment 
 bureau as a means of correlation between the state 
 bureaus and in connection with labor in interstate 
 business might accomphsh much toward the most 
 advantageous distribution of labor. Government 
 has done many things for the promotion of industry 
 and commerce and thereby, indirectly, for labor. 
 Is there any good reason why it should not oflfer 
 more direct aid to labor ? 
 
 The public necessity of convenient means of Ownership 
 transportation and communication and the diffi- ofpubUc 
 culties involved in regulating transportation com- utilises 
 panics have led some nations to take over the owner- 
 ship and operation of the railroads as well as of 
 telegraph, telephone, and postal systems. All are 
 subject, even when privately owned, not only to 
 public regulation, but to public command, in case 
 their failure to operate interferes with the functions 
 of government or with public necessity. This does 
 not involve annulling property rights ; it does involve 
 their subordination to the well-being of society, 
 which is the first concern of government. 
 
 The postal system is an example of what govern- The postal 
 ment can do for the public convenience and at the ^y^**™ 
 
144 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 same time use its power for the suppression of forms 
 of communication that are in opposition to public 
 morality and progress. The lottery business by 
 correspondence was thus suppressed. Later the 
 use of the mails was forbidden to any scheme 
 devised primarily to create business by appealing 
 to the gambling instinct. On this account some 
 promoters and boosters for business have found it 
 necessary to print on their advertising cards and 
 prize coupons a notice such as this : "Do not mail 
 this card! The U. S. postal regulations prohibit, 
 under severe penalties, the maihng of any prize 
 coupon." Heavy penalties are also provided against 
 the transmission through the mails of obscene Utera- 
 ture or other matter designed to promote the social 
 evil. 
 Prohibition One of the most recent important developments 
 tt&mc°^ of a national function is that of national prohibition 
 of the liquor traffic. As in the case of many other 
 reforms, this one had its beginnings in local com- 
 munities. But town or coxmty prohibition under 
 a local-option law was not always effectual. This 
 fact led to state-wide prohibition. May we not 
 hope that this will lead ultimately, by the concert of 
 nations, to universal prohibition of this source of 
 human degradation? This reform has been long 
 delayed because of the assumption that it involved 
 an interference with individual rights. The voters 
 are, however, coming to see that no man has a right 
 to anything that will degrade either himself or 
 others. 
 
THE NATION 145 
 
 Although the states have assumed responsibility Education 
 for the education of their citizens, financial aid and 
 cooperation in investigations by the federal govern- 
 ment have always been welcome. Federal appro- 
 priations of money to the land-grant colleges and 
 agricultural experiment stations are examples of 
 cooperative support with state control, subject to 
 the conditions of the federal appropriations. The 
 United States Bureau of Education, while having 
 no authority over education in the various states, 
 is a great help to them through its system of collect- 
 ing and freely distributing useful information con- 
 cerning the progress of education, both at home and 
 abroad. 
 
 Mihtary and naval academies, and schools for 
 the aborigines as wards of the nation, are supported 
 and controlled by the federal government. The 
 federal government undertakes other investigations 
 and educational work through the Department of 
 Agriculture, the National Museum, the Smithsonian 
 Institution, the Geological Survey, the Coast Survey, 
 and similar organizations. The Department of 
 Commerce, including the Bureau of Labor and Sta- 
 tistics, has both educational and business functions. 
 A national university at the seat of government 
 that shall bring together and extend all these instru- 
 ments of research has been much talked of. The 
 realization of this ideal would be a fitting climax to 
 the educational work of the nation. 
 
 To the national government is committed the 
 responsibility of controlling the use of all natural 
 
146 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Conserva- 
 tion of 
 natuial 
 resources 
 
 Public ex- 
 penditures 
 
 resources which, together with labor and human 
 ingenuity, form the ultimate economic basis of so- 
 ciety. This responsibihty sometimes requires the 
 exercise of administrative duties in parts remote 
 from the seat of government. The practical diffi- 
 culties of this type of administration have led to the 
 suggestion that the national government should 
 transfer control of local resoxu-ces to local authorities. 
 The use of power sites, with retention of public 
 ownership, may be an example of giving control 
 of a resource to the particular community that 
 is able to use it advantageously without depriving 
 other communities or future generations of similar 
 opportunities. National forests, in so far as their 
 value for grazing purposes is concerned, have like- 
 wise a local use. This use must, however, be sub- 
 ordinated to the main purpose of forest reserves, 
 whose chief product will be available to the whole 
 nation. 
 
 A very prominent item in the nation's business 
 is that of revenues and appropriations. Since the 
 principles of taxation have already been discussed, 
 we may pass to those of public expenditures. Here 
 we are at once confronted with the twin pohtical 
 monsters, the spoils system and the "pork barrel." 
 Government of any kind can never measure up to 
 reasonable standards of efficiency and morality so 
 long as these sons of greed have any part in it. The 
 "pork barrel" has led occasionally to unnecessarily 
 large appropriations for town post offices and the 
 waste of hundreds of thousands of dollars in seed 
 
THE NATION 147 
 
 distribution. This has been one means of increas- 
 ing the pubhc debt, in direct violation of sound busi- 
 ness principles. All the routine and technical 
 work of government should be limited to public 
 needs, including the most profitable pubhc invest- 
 ments. Whatever needs to be done by the largest 
 cooperative effort of the people should be under- 
 taken by the national government. The govern- 
 ment may properly use its credit in the construction 
 of highways of commerce, irrigation systems, or 
 other public investments that will themselves repay 
 the debt ; it has no moral right to borrow for current 
 expenses except in a national emergency, and ex- 
 penses thus incurred should be paid as quickly as 
 possible, that burdens may not be heaped upon 
 future generations. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE SUFFKAGE 
 
 The right 
 of suffrage 
 versus the 
 duties of 
 electors 
 
 The suf- 
 frage and 
 military 
 service 
 
 Woman 
 suffrage 
 
 /CITIZENS have too often thought of the right 
 ^-^ of suffrage more than of the duties of electors. 
 This condition should be reversed. No one can 
 claim suffrage as a moral right imtil he is able to 
 exercise it for the public good. This conclusion 
 is the result of experience with representative gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Political history shows that the elective franchise 
 was at first more a matter of might than of right and 
 that its extension was closely coimected with that 
 of military service. Until recently association of 
 these two functions prevented men from seeing 
 any inconsistency between denying the elective 
 franchise to women and sustaining a woman as their 
 sovereign. From this view of the suffrage, growing 
 out of the conditions and customs of the past, there 
 has developed the newer notion that the right of 
 suffrage finds its only proper basis in the intelli- 
 gence and responsibility of the citizen. On this 
 ground many states have conceded this right to their 
 women citizens. Others are still debating the prob- 
 lem. It should be noted that the burden of proof 
 is with those that deny the suffrage to any adult 
 citizen. While it must be admitted that men and 
 women are in some respects different, it has not been 
 shown that these differences are of a kind that 
 should admit men and exclude women from the 
 
 148 
 
THE SUFFRAGE 149 
 
 polls. Protection, education, and the promotion 
 of morality are the most important functions of the 
 state. Are women less interested and less con- 
 cerned in these questions than are men? Do men 
 or women suffer more when these vital public mat- 
 ters are neglected or profit more when they are 
 cared for.!* If it is contended that husbands repre- 
 sent their wives at elections, it must be noted that 
 some wives are better able to represent themselves 
 and that some mature women have no husbands. 
 
 This problem is not one for compromise between 
 men as a class and women as a class. With inter- 
 est in public welfare as a basis of classification, 
 there are no such classes. Humanity is so consti- 
 tuted that men and women must always work to- 
 gether for the common good, as they do in the ideal 
 family. 
 
 The franchise is denied to minors because they Limitations 
 are wanting in matmrity of judgment and in responsi- °f sufirage 
 bility. For similar reasons this right is withheld 
 from savages or semi-civilized peoples residing 
 within the boundaries of a republic. This condition 
 is, however, presumed to be temporary, awaiting 
 the education of those concerned in the prerequisites 
 of citizenship. 
 
 Criminals guilty of felony are generally disfran- 
 chised because they are wanting in moral purpose. 
 The right of franchise might be withheld from others 
 if there were available an unmistakable method of 
 determining all that are seriously wanting in moral 
 purpose. A test based upon reading ability is not 
 
150 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Primaries 
 and 
 
 political 
 conventions 
 
 satisfactory even as a test of intelKgence ; as a test 
 of character it is practically valueless. 
 
 Proper and complete exercise of the suffrage 
 requires knowledge of ethical and political prin- 
 ciples and social problems, and familiarity with 
 current public affairs. This must be supplemented 
 by knowledge of public men, especially those who are 
 candidates for office. If this is impossible for the 
 mass of voters, the selection of candidates should 
 be delegated to conventions composed of citizens 
 who have the time, opportunity, and character to 
 exercise wisely this delegated power. The delega- 
 tion of power calls for attendance of every citizen 
 at the primaries; and where the method of direct 
 nominations has been established, there follows the 
 duty of voting for candidates at primary elections. 
 The establishment of this more democratic method 
 of making nominations for public office has, in some 
 respects, been disappointing to the friends of democ- 
 racy. There are two main reasons for this : first, 
 inability or indisposition of voters to exercise this 
 political function with adequate knowledge of candi- 
 dates and discretion in voting, and secondly, the 
 tendency of candidates to engage in extensive 
 self-advertising, often involving the expenditure of 
 large sums of money. It is within the power of 
 the electorate to correct both of these evils. The 
 public may teach candidates that it is character, 
 ability, and adaptability to a given position that 
 counts, rather than self-advertising and hauling 
 voters to the polls. 
 
THE SUFFRAGE 151 
 
 The primary election may be very well adapted 
 to municipal or county government, but not well 
 adapted to nominations for state and federal offices, 
 because in local government voters have better 
 opportunities to become acquainted with candidates. 
 This problem will have to be solved by experience 
 and future practice determined on the pragmatic 
 principle that that plan of government is best which 
 works best. 
 
 The convention plan of making nominations is 
 most generally associated with the functions of 
 pohtical parties. Under a system of government 
 by parties, the greatest issues are usually decided 
 in the convention. The party decision of these 
 issues is proclaimed to the voters in the platform 
 or declaration of principles. It is assumed that 
 all candidates named will be morally and politically 
 bound to carry out, if elected, the policies adopted 
 in the platform. When all parties are through 
 with these prehminaries, the voter on election day 
 may discover, too late, that he is reduced to a choice 
 between evils — bad and worse candidates. To 
 avoid this the voter must begin his work at the pri- 
 mary. Besides choosing politically wise and trust- 
 worthy delegates, the voters may instruct these 
 delegates concerning the adoption of important 
 public policies and the nomination of candidates 
 to carry out these policies. In matters of detail 
 or emergencies, however, delegates should not be 
 denied initiative. 
 
 The chief evils of party government and strict 
 
152 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Partisan party aflBliation of voters is the tendency on the 
 ''° '^ part of some voters and even party leaders to put 
 loyalty to party above devotion to right and public 
 welfare. Every worthy citizen must hold prin- 
 ciples above allegiance to party and always be ready 
 to support a just cause even though his party is 
 against it. Under a system of party government the 
 citizens generally must affiliate with a party in 
 order to exercise all their political duties. It is 
 undesirable, however, that they should act on strict 
 party lines in the selection of officers whose duties 
 are not concerned with the issues on which party 
 lines are drawn. One of the incongruities of our 
 government is that parties are formed on federal 
 issues, and these same parties govern in local affairs 
 where the issues are quite different. What have 
 questions of tariff and free trade, currency, or a 
 national banking system to do with city, county, 
 or state problems ? The commission form of munici- 
 pal government is designed to free the city from 
 partisan political control. Should not county poh- 
 tics be equally independent of national parties.? 
 And may not the same question be asked concerning 
 state politics .'* State legislatures are not concerned 
 ordinarily with the same problems as is the federal 
 Congress. Why then should the national platforms 
 and candidates be influential factors in the election 
 of state legislators ? So long as United States sena- 
 tors were elected by the state legislatures there was 
 an excuse for electing legislators on national party 
 issues. There is now, fortunately, no such excuse. 
 
THE SUFFRAGE ' 153 
 
 It is generally conceded that judges and school- 
 board members should be chosen strictly on their 
 qualifications, regardless of political affiliations. 
 Are there not good reasons for applying this method 
 to all phases of local government ? 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PUBLIC OFFICE 
 
 The pur- 
 pose of 
 govern- 
 ment 
 
 Officers 
 elected or 
 appointed 
 
 "pUBLIC officials are necessary to the functions 
 -'■ of government. Whatever the form of gov- 
 ernment or the method of its operation, its only 
 legitimate purpose is the good of the governed. 
 All acts of public officials should be guided by this 
 principle. It is as true of the government of colonies, 
 however wild and undeveloped, as it is of the gov- 
 ernment of the most highly cultivated self-govern- 
 ing community. This principle is the pohtical 
 version of Kant's maxim: "So act as to regard 
 humanity, whether in thine own person or in that 
 of another, always as an end, never as a means." 
 By this principle slavery, peonage, excessive or 
 deadening child labor, white slavery, or any similar 
 exploitation of humanity is condemned. There 
 is one inalienable right that belongs to all humanity, 
 that of personaUty — the right to Hve a moral life. 
 Upon this no pubhc officer has a right to trespass 
 by exploiting his fellow men or the resources upon 
 which they depend. 
 
 In democratic government there are two methods 
 of securing office, by election and by appointment. 
 Officers whose duties are primarily legislative or 
 executive, relating to execution of the expressed 
 will of the voters, are elected. Judicial officers 
 and public attorneys or prosecutors may be either 
 elected or appointed. It happens that the federal 
 
 154 
 
PUBLIC OFFICE 155 
 
 government has adopted the appointive plan, while 
 the states generally follow the elective plan. In any 
 case there is no occasion for party poHtics in the 
 administration of justice. Oflficers whose duties 
 are clerical, or administrative under the direction 
 of a chief executive, or subject to the approval of 
 some poKtical body, are usually appointed. This 
 apphes also to commissions charged with the ad- 
 ministration of laws and to boards of control of 
 pubHc institutions. Citizens usually accept such 
 offices as an honor, without indulging in campaign- 
 ing to secure appointment. Commissioners hav- 
 ing to do with the administration of laws, such as 
 those relating to interstate commerce, must have 
 had special training and experience to fit them for 
 their technical duties. This fact makes it especially 
 desirable that those appointed to membership on 
 such commissions should make this their hfe's work, 
 except as they may be promoted to more responsible 
 positions. The case is different with boards of 
 control of institutions, in that the members serve 
 for hmited periods. They should, of course, be 
 men of wide experience and high character. These 
 boards, however, properly delegate all technical 
 work to experts whom they hold responsible in all 
 administrative matters. These experts also become 
 public officers, with a degree of permanence com- 
 parable to that of expert commissioners. 
 
 In case of clerical or other similar offices it is civU 
 evident that efficiency and justice to individuals ^®'^'=® 
 call for permanence in office, assuming that the 
 
156 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 public good is in view when appointments are made. 
 It was on account of this need that civil service laws 
 were first enacted, and have since been extended in 
 their scope. 
 
 Whether an officer is to be elected or appointed, 
 it is manifest that fitness is the only proper test. 
 In case of elective officers the ultimate determining 
 factor is the good sense of the voters. In the appoint- 
 ment of judges, commissioners, and regents or 
 trustees, the people must depend upon the faithful 
 exercise of the appointive power. In professional and 
 clerical offices appointments are guarded by civil serv- 
 ice regulations or the spirit of the civil service laws. 
 Corrupt Among the evils that have grown up in connection 
 
 practice ^i}i elective public offices is that of excessive cam- 
 paign expenses. This evil is a menace to the integ- 
 rity of the republican form of government. If 
 heavy campaign expenses are permitted, the rich 
 candidate is given advantage over the one of small 
 means — an advantage that may be wholly unwar- 
 ranted and against pubHc welfare. If large cam- 
 paign expenses are contributed by a few wealthy 
 supporters of a candidate, in case of election this 
 officer feels under obligation to these contributors. 
 This fosters boss rule. The common practice of 
 party assessment of candidates cannot be com- 
 mended. To the candidate it is too much like buy- 
 ing public office, and that by a method akin to lottery. 
 An office is a trust for public service and should 
 not be connected with any method of campaign 
 and election that tends to pervert its social purpose. 
 
PUBLIC OFFICE 157 
 
 Most of the usual expenses of a campaign can 
 and ought to be ehminated. Neither parties nor 
 candidates should be permitted to convey voters 
 to the polls. All who are able should go independ- 
 ently; those who are not, should be conveyed at 
 public expense, or not at all. The amount that 
 can be expended for political advertisements should 
 be strictly limited or eliminated, as should also the 
 payment of money to so-called "ward heelers" or 
 house-to-house canvassers. Money paid for audi- 
 toriums might be saved by throwing the public 
 schoolhouses open, under proper restrictions, to 
 all political parties and candidates. Independent 
 newspapers might render a great public service by 
 publishing in condensed and dignified form the 
 arguments of the various parties in support of their 
 principles. 
 
 With all these reforms there might still be occa- 
 sion to spend a little money in political campaigns. 
 This should be raised by popular subscription of 
 the party members or those that believe in a cause 
 or a candidate. Of the various evils connected with 
 campaign expenses, this popular subscription seems 
 to be the least objectionable. 
 
 By the enactment of corrupt-practice laws limit- 
 ing expenses and contributions, and requiring en- 
 tire publicity, legislators have sought to eliminate 
 the evils of political campaigns. This may lead 
 to further legal prohibition of various kinds of cam- 
 paign expenses now current. Indirect bribery is 
 but one step removed from a penitentiary offense. 
 
158 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Principles Whether partisan or non-partisan before elec- 
 
 par^* tion, it is the business of every public official to serve 
 
 all the people according to his best judgment and 
 ability. In return he should have the support 
 and cooperation of all the citizens. When a public 
 official is working for party advantage, very natu- 
 rally he invites the opposition of the members of 
 other parties. These citizens are tempted, in retalia- 
 tion, to seek his embarrassment. Such a condition 
 is destructive of the ends of government. Further- 
 more, a minority member of a legislative body who 
 is an extreme partisan, develops the habit of oppos- 
 ing the majority in every measure they seek to enact, 
 irrespective of its merits. This subordination of 
 justice and public welfare to partisan politics is 
 unworthy of any citizen and, more especially, of 
 any public officer. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 
 
 "C^ROM the beginning of civilization it has been The Law 
 ■'■ customary for nations to have something by "^^^^'O"^ 
 way of common understanding as to their manner 
 of dealing with each other in peace and war. These 
 customary common understandings are the begin- 
 nings of the Law of Nations, which recognizes na- 
 tions as moral individuals responsible to the society 
 of nations. This responsibility has not always 
 been taken seriously, because there has been no 
 sufficient organization to hold any one nation to 
 strict accountability. As a consequence the Law 
 of Nations, including treaty rights, has often been 
 violated. 
 
 Under the rules of international law, independent 
 or sovereign nations are presumed to be equal, 
 without regard to their relative populations or mili- 
 tary prowess. Since there is no international legis- 
 lative body, international law must be developed 
 from the principles of social ethics. These prin- 
 ciples are agreed upon by publicists and modified 
 as custom and circumstances may require. 
 
 Hugo Grotius in 1625 published his treatise "De 
 Jure Belli et Pacis." This treatise gave breadth 
 and scientific form to the principles of international 
 law and won for its author the reputation of being 
 the father of these principles. Since the seventeenth 
 century there has been a gradual development of 
 
 159 
 
160 
 
 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Courts of 
 aibitratioa 
 
 Example of 
 
 federal 
 
 government 
 
 international law, and efforts have been made to 
 devise permanent means of interpreting and apply- 
 ing these laws ia all cases of international disputes. 
 The most notable result of these efforts is the estab- 
 lishment of an international court of arbitration at 
 The Hague. 
 
 It was the hope of the advocates of peace and 
 conciliation that the court at The Hague would 
 become the means of settling, on the principles of 
 law and equity, all international disputes what- 
 soever. While this hope has been deferred, it has 
 not been abandoned. 
 
 The recognition of ethical principles long since 
 led to the substitution of courts of law for personal 
 encounters, although until recently "gentlemen" 
 were permitted to settle a matter of personal honor 
 by fighting a duel. The exclusion of matters of 
 national honor from courts of arbitration is the 
 relic of this custom. Nations as moral individuals 
 follow the same path of moral progress as does the 
 individual citizen, but more slowly. This is owing 
 in part to the fact that the citizen is provided with 
 courts of law upheld by the strong arm of organized 
 society. These courts protect him, secure his 
 rights, and even punish him if he undertakes to 
 settle matters by physical force. Such authoritative 
 courts are the great need in the affairs of nations. 
 
 The union of states under a federal government 
 is a step in this direction. Notwithstanding their 
 federal union, the American people have had one 
 great civil war. That war has, however, settled 
 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 161 
 
 opinion as to the nature, permanency, and merits 
 of a federal union. No one now wishes to maintain 
 numerous independent states whose people speak 
 the same language and have common interests and 
 similar ideals of government. 
 
 This principle of cooperation can be extended to 
 nations by treaties providing for settlement of all 
 disputes whatsoever, first, by diplomatic concilia- 
 tion, and if this fails, by disinterested arbitrators. 
 This process can be greatly facilitated by the mainte- 
 nance of one great court of arbitration for the use 
 of all nations that fail to settle their differences by 
 diplomacy. 
 
 As there are outlaw individuals in every state, intema- 
 so we may presume that, for the present, there may ^^steation 
 be outlaw nations. In order that law and order 
 may be established universally, the law-abiding 
 nations wiU have to maintain a sufficient army 
 and navy for international service in enforcing obedi- 
 ence upon the lawless. This will do much toward 
 making these nations willingly obedient and render- 
 ing unnecessary an international military establish- 
 ment. It will not, however, do away with the neces- 
 sity of international civil officials. Arbitrators, com- 
 missioners, ambassadors and other foreign ministers, 
 and consuls are and will continue to be necessary 
 to the conduct of business between nations. To 
 these officials may be added delegates to an inter- 
 national congress — a concert of nations — whose 
 business it will be to determine more definitely 
 the details of international law and to promote such 
 
162 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 uniformity of national legislation as will secure the 
 greatest good of all mankind. Uniformity of legis- 
 lation and cooperation in its enforcement might relate 
 to the suppression of crime and the removal from 
 society of everything that fosters crime. Among 
 these things may be named the social evil, and traffic 
 in liquor and in opium and similar drugs. Of 
 greater consequence still would be the cooperation 
 of the nations in furthering the development of 
 industry, commerce, science, art, philosophy, and 
 religion — everything that makes for a richer life, 
 higher ideals, greater tolerance, and more intimate 
 and sympathetic relations among the citizens of all 
 nations. 
 
 In this suggested unity of nations there need be 
 no sacrifice of nationality. This hoped-for world- 
 wide social organism of the future may well consist 
 of all the different races and nationalities of man- 
 kind. Each individual may be loyal to his own 
 country and people without being less loyal to 
 humanity. 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 Part I 
 
 Chapter I. The Function of Schools 
 
 1. Why are there no schools among primitive peoples ? 
 
 2. Under what conditions do higher schools develop ? 
 
 3. Why are courses of study rapidly changing ? 
 
 4. Explain why secondary education for all is more necessary now 
 than it was a century ago. 
 
 5. Why is college education becoming more general? 
 
 6. What is the twofold purpose of schools ? 
 
 7. What does it mean to be educated ? 
 
 8. What is cidture ? 
 
 Chapter II. The Meaning of Civilization 
 
 1. Explain the difference between biological and social heredity. 
 
 2. How does civilization begin ? 
 
 3. Wby are the terms "savagery," "barbarism," and " civilization " 
 only relative ? 
 
 4. What elements of civilization are found among savages? 
 
 5. What elements of barbalrism are still found among civilized 
 peoples ? 
 
 6. On what grounds are peoples classified as barbarian or civilized ? 
 
 7. (a) What aspects of civilization seem generally to develop most 
 rapidly ? (b) What most slowly ? (c) How do you account for this ? 
 
 8. What is the most urgent need as a next step in social progress ? 
 
 Chapter III. The Material Benefits of Civilization 
 
 1. (a) Name some of the most common material benefits of a primi- 
 tive civilization, (b) Show how social life is modified by these material 
 goods, (c) What evils may befall a savage tribe for want of these first 
 elements of civilization ? 
 
 2. How do you distinguish between necessities and luxuries ? 
 
 3. What kinds of material benefits contribute most to real progress ? 
 
 4. How may material benefits become a hindrance (a) to individual 
 progress ? (6) to race progress ? 
 
 5. What makes a modern luxury a real benefit ? 
 
 163 
 
164 CITIZENSfflP 
 
 Chapter IV. Our Scientific Inheritance 
 
 1. How does science differ from mythology? 
 
 2. (a) Name some of the oldest sciences known to man. (6) Why 
 were these sciences developed earlier than others ? 
 
 3. (a) From what different points of view may persons be interested 
 in science? (6) Explain this phrase, "Science for science's sake." 
 
 4. What has specialization to do with the advancement of science ? 
 
 5. State some of the material benefits that have come from the 
 following sciences : surgery, bacteriology, chemistry. 
 
 6. How may an individual profit by a science to him unknown ? 
 
 7. WTiy should one know more science than he uses in material ways ? 
 
 8. Show how science is opposed to superstition. 
 
 9. Why have the social sciences developed slowly? 
 
 Chapter V. Our Literary Inheritance 
 
 1. WTiat is literature ? 
 
 2. WTiat elements in literature make for its permanency ? 
 
 3. Show how the ideals and other characteristics of a people are ex- 
 pressed in their literature. Give illustrations. 
 
 4. What literature was used as a basis of education by (a) the an- 
 cient Egyptians? (b) the Jews before the fall of Jerusalem? (c) the 
 Athenians before Pericles ? (d) the Romans before they came under the 
 intellectual influence of the Greeks ? Show in each case how literature 
 was related to the national life. 
 
 6. (a) How is a modem youth benefited by reading the literature 
 of contemporary foreign peoples? (6) How may such readings by the 
 youth of all nations influence progress ? 
 
 Chapter VI. Our Political Inheritance 
 
 1. In what ways is the savage free and in what ways is he not free ? 
 
 2. Does a law forbidding theft take away a man's freedom ? 
 
 3. Explain this statement: "Man is not born free, he must acquire 
 his freedom." 
 
 4. Explain the chief contributions to our political inheritance of each 
 of the following peoples : (a) the Hebrews, (6) the Romans, (c) the 
 Teutonic barbarians. 
 
 5. Explain the development of important political ideas in England 
 from the twelfth to the eighteenth centuries. 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 165 
 
 6. Show how the American Declaration of Independence was influ- 
 enced by French political philosophy. 
 
 7. What has been the most distinctive political contribution of the 
 United States of America ? 
 
 8. Show how positive and constructive functions of government 
 have recently gained in importance over the more negative functions. 
 
 9. Name some of the chief obstacles in the way of further pohtical 
 progress. 
 
 Chapter VII. Social Institutions — Family, Church, State 
 
 1. Name the most fundamental social institutions. Why these ? 
 
 2. Show how the family as an institution is a most important part 
 of our race inheritance. 
 
 3. How does the family prepare the individual for life in other in- 
 stitutions ? 
 
 4. What great virtue may family lite cultivate? 
 
 5. TMiat are the most common fundamental notions of religion ? 
 
 6. Why is the church intimately associated with the lives of its 
 members ? 
 
 7. In what ways does the church further moral progress ? 
 
 8. (a) Name the most important purposes of the state. (6) Show 
 how these purposes are related to the welfare of the individual. 
 
 9. What are the essential conditions of progress from monarchy or 
 aristocracy to democracy ? 
 
 10. Should an institution be regarded as an end in itself or as a means 
 to social welfare? 
 
 11. Show that if a social institution is to serve any moral purpose it 
 must change to meet social conditions. 
 
 Chapter VIII. The Solidarity of the Race 
 
 1. Explain how there may be unity in diversity. 
 
 2. Show how the laws of nature indicate a measure of unity in all 
 things. 
 
 3. (a) Show how the interdependence of parts increases with diver- 
 sity of function. (6) How do our economic relations illustrate this prin- 
 ciple ? 
 
 4. In what ways other than economic is the individual dependent 
 upon the society of his time ? 
 
166 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 5. Give illustrations (o) of man's economic dependence upon the 
 past ; (6) of his intellectual dependence ; (c) of his esthetic dependence. 
 
 6. How does participation in the spiritual inheritance of the race by 
 one individual help the others ? 
 
 7. How is the fact of race solidarity related to race progress ? 
 
 8. What is meant by the conservation of spiritual resources ? 
 
 Chapter IX. The Use of the Natural Resources of the Earth 
 
 1. What is a natural resource ? 
 
 2. By what right does a government claim the ownership or regu- 
 lation of all natural resources within its territory ? 
 
 3. Explain how natural resources may be summarized under the 
 term "land." 
 
 4. (a) Why does government grant individual title to land? 
 (6) What are the usual limitations in making such grants ? 
 
 5. Why are some lands withheld from entry ? 
 
 6. (o) What is meant by the "imearned increment"? (6) By 
 whom is this value produced ? 
 
 7. (a) Under what conditions does water become a valuable re- 
 source ? (6) Explain the various bases of value in water and the need 
 of government control of this resource. 
 
 8. The value of a natural resource is relative to what ? 
 
 Chapter X. The Conservation of Natural Resources 
 
 1. What is meant by conservation ? 
 
 2. Name some resources (a) that can be conserved by non-use; 
 (6) others that cannot be thus conserved. 
 
 3. Show how failure to use a resource may be opposed to conserva- 
 tion. 
 
 4. To what extent may private ownership become detrimental? 
 Give illustrations. 
 
 5. What measures is government taking to conserve timber? 
 
 6. (a) Why is the preservation of bird life a measure of conservation ? 
 (6) What exceptions are there to this rule ? Why ? 
 
 7. What bad consequences may result from exhaustion of the coal 
 supply ? 
 
 8. What should be the aim of government in its measures of con- 
 servation ? 
 
 9. Why do some business men ignore the principles of conservation ? 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 167 
 
 Chapter XI. The Conservation of Human Life 
 
 1. Why is the conservation of human life the central problem of 
 all conservation ? 
 
 2. Why is the social evil one of the greatest enemies of human con- 
 servation ? 
 
 3. (o) What arguments have been used in opposition to prohibition 
 of the Uquor traffic ? (6) How would you reply to these arguments ? 
 
 4. What kind and conditions of labor are a hindrance to child develop- 
 ment? 
 
 5. Why are greater legal safeguards provided for women employees 
 than for men ? 
 
 6. Why is it not best to leave the hours and conditions of labor to be 
 regulated entirely by competition between employers ? 
 
 7. Why are health boards given almost military powers ? 
 
 8. Is the cure or the prevention of disease more important ? 
 
 9. Name some of the chief factors in preventing disease. 
 
 10. What may government do for the promotion of public health ? 
 
 11. To what extent are human resources or talents undeveloped for 
 want of educational and social opportunities, or because of excessive 
 toil and poverty ? 
 
 Chapter XII. Public Ownership or Regulation of Public Utilities 
 
 1. (a) What is a public utility? (6) How does it differ from a nat- 
 ural resource ? 
 
 2. Why is competition in a public utility often opposed to economy 
 and efficiency ? Give illustrations. 
 
 3. (a) What evils may come from unregulated private ownership 
 of public utilities? (6) What evils have been connected with pubUc 
 ownership? (c) How may these be overcome? Give illustrations in 
 each case. 
 
 4. (a) Why is public regulation of conditions of service as important 
 as regulation of rates ? (6) Show how this applies to street-car and tele- 
 phone service. 
 
 5. What does compulsory right of way for railways through private 
 property indicate in regard to the relation of the road to the public ? 
 
 6. (o) Why do municipalities generally own their water supply and 
 water systems? (6) May the same reasons apply to some other utili- 
 ties? 
 
168 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 7. In view of the present size and monopolistic power of industrial 
 concerns, is there still a good reason for adhering to the old basis of dis- 
 tinction between public service and non-public service corporations ? 
 
 Chapter XIII. Public Regulaiion of Food Markets 
 
 1. Why is public regulation of food markets more necessary now 
 than ever before ? 
 
 2. Show how knowledge of chemistry may be applied in either good 
 or evil purposes. 
 
 3. What led (a) to the passage of pure food laws? (b) to public 
 restriction on the manufacture and sale of patent medicines ? 
 
 4. Why is it desirable to have public inspection of the meat supply? 
 
 5. How does public inspection of fruit and vegetables on the market 
 react favorably upon the practice of agriculture ? 
 
 6. (a) Show in what ways inspection of dairies protects the public- 
 (6) How is such inspection related to infant mortality ? (c) What is the 
 effect of public inspection upon the dairy industry? 
 
 7. (o) What is a score card? (6) How may it be a means of im- 
 proving foodstuffs and market conditions ? 
 
 Chapter XIV. Public Regulation of the Selling Price of Necessities Con- 
 trolled by Monopolies 
 
 1. (a) What are some of the causes of abnormally high prices of 
 human necessities? (6) Which of these causes justify high prices and 
 which do not? (c) How can the unjustifiable causes be eliminated? 
 id) Is the present consumption of the luxuries of lite at all responsible 
 for the high cost of necessities of life ? (e) Do monopolistic prices neces- 
 sarily follow large-scale production ? 
 
 2. Why does the law of supply and demand in the regulation of 
 prices fail to work in some instances ? 
 
 3. Where a monopoly controls the supply, how may a public com- 
 mission determine what is a reasonable price for (a) a, ton of coal? 
 (6) a hundred pounds of sugar ? (c) a case of storage eggs ? 
 
 4. (a) Is monopolistic control of a product necessarily and always 
 to be condemned? (6) Under what conditions may the law recognize 
 such control? (c) This recognition would entail what responsibility 
 on the part of the government ? 
 
 5. What should be the attitude of the government toward specu- 
 lators who try to comer the market ? 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 169 
 
 Chapter XV. The Basis of Private Property 
 
 1. On what basis do persons hold or claim property? Illustrate in 
 case of (a) real estate ; (6) personal property in tools of production and 
 household or office furniture ; (c) stocks and bonds; (d) patents and 
 copyrights. 
 
 2. Why is government more concerned in guarding and regulating 
 property in stocks and bonds than in other forms of property ? 
 
 3. (a) To what limitations is private property right subject? 
 (6) May a person do anything he pleases with his own ? (c) Under what 
 conditions may title to property be canceled by government ? 
 
 4. (a) How and why are government grants of private title to land 
 limited ? (5) T\Tiy do these limitations fail to prevent concentration of 
 land ownership ? 
 
 5. What are the merits and the defects of the labor theory of prop- 
 erty? 
 
 6. (o) What are the merits of the utilitarian theory of property? 
 (6) In what institutions are its merits most fully exemplified ? 
 
 Chapter XVI. Principles of Taxation 
 
 1. Why is government under the necessity of levying taxes? 
 
 2. (a) On what principles should government determine its system 
 of taxation ? (6) How should the tax rate be determined ? 
 
 3. Where a property tax system is in force, what class of property 
 may properly be exempt from taxation ? Within what limits ? 
 
 i. What exemption should be provided in case {a)\ of an income tax ? 
 (6) of an inheritance tax ? 
 
 5. ^Tiat may be said in favor (a) of income and inheritance taxes ? 
 (6) of a tax on natural resources ? 
 
 6. (a) What are the objections to a general property tax? 
 (6) What may be said in favor of such a tax? 
 
 7. What are the objections (a) to a poll tax ? (6) to indirect taxes ? 
 
 8. What reasons may be given for taxing the unearned increment 
 on land values ? 
 
 9. What system or systems of taxation conform most nearly to the 
 requirements of social ethics ? 
 
 Chapter XVII. Reasons for Limiting Taxation 
 1. (a) Why are public authorities limited in their powers of taxa- 
 tion ? (6) What other needs may be more important than some public 
 improvements ? 
 
170 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 2. Can ability to pay be measured by public needs ? Explain. 
 
 3. How may ability to pay be determined? What other factors 
 than public needs must be taken into account? Why? 
 
 4. (a) On what principles must public needs be limited? (6) How 
 are public needs Uke private needs in respect to these limitations ? 
 
 5. How may reasonable public expenditures tend to equalize oppor- 
 tunities ? 
 
 6. (o) Why may public officials be tempted to create excessive tax 
 burdens? (6) In what way may the limitations of the taxing power 
 have a salutary effect upon public officials ? 
 
 Chapter XVIII. Financial Support of Public Education 
 
 1. How is taxation for the support of public education justified? 
 How is the problem related to (a) the right of a democracy to self-preser- 
 vation ? (6) to the social obligations implied in the fact of race solidar- 
 ity? 
 
 2. Show how the idea of publicly supported schools has grown. 
 
 3. (a) Under what conditions is public support of professional 
 schools justifiable? (6) Under what conditions may such support not 
 be justifiable ? 
 
 i. Show how public support of schools calls for a response of these 
 schools to local needs. 
 
 5. How may the principle upon which public schools are supported 
 be extended to such educational agencies as (a) playgrounds ? (b) gym- 
 nasiums? (c) libraries? (d) public lecture courses? (e) public con- 
 certs and recitals ? (/) public picture shows ? 
 
 6. Why should a bachelor be taxed to support educational institu- 
 tions? 
 
 7. Can you justify the statement that it is the duty of the state to 
 give all its children equal opportunities to develop their native powers ? 
 
 8. Show how it is a positive loss to allow the native powers of an in- 
 dividual to remain undeveloped. 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 171 
 
 Paet II 
 
 Chapter I. The Nature of Justice 
 
 1. How is the idea of justice expressed in (a) tlie Mosaic code? 
 (6) Plato's "Republic"? (c) Herbert Spencer's philosophy ? 
 
 2. What common element may be found in the various historical 
 notions of justice? 
 
 3. (a) TMiat is retribution ? (6) How does it operate independently 
 of human voUtion ? 
 
 4. What view of justice is embodied in criminal law? Why? 
 
 5. Why is Herbert Spencer's definition of justice inadequate? 
 
 6. (a) What bearing have the facts of race inheritance and race soli- 
 darity upon the principle of justice? (5) Show how justice includes 
 benevolence and all the so-called individual virtues. 
 
 Chapter II. The Relation of the Individual to Social Institutions 
 
 1. Viliy are social organizations necessary? 
 
 2. (a) Why should persons be loyal to the institutions of which they 
 are members? (6) In case of conflict, what type of loyalty may take 
 precedence ? 
 
 3. Loyalty to a political party should be subordinate to what ? 
 
 4. How do you distinguish between a social and an anti-social insti- 
 tution ? 
 
 5. (a) \Miat are the possibilities for good in organizations of people 
 engaged in the same occupation? Give illustrations. (6) What are 
 the possibilities for evil in such organizations ? Illustrate. 
 
 6. VSTiy is there danger in an organization without an aim ? 
 
 7. State the aims of the student organizations you know and esti- 
 mate their relative merits. 
 
 Chapter III. Parent and Child 
 
 1. What qualities of mind and character are regarded as (a) prima- 
 rily masculine ? (6) as primarily feminine ? What bearing have these 
 facts upon family life ? 
 
 2. (o) What are some of the chief obstacles to successful, happy 
 family life ? (6) How may these obstacles be overcome ? 
 
 3. How does the exercise of parental responsibility develop char- 
 acter? 
 
 4. (a) Why should children be trained in obedience to parental au- 
 thority? (b) What responsibility does this entail upon the parent? 
 
172 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 5. (o) Why is example better than precept? (6) Is example alone 
 a sufficient guide to children and youths? (c) Is negative teaching 
 sufficient ? 
 
 6. Make a list of the most important virtues that should be taught 
 to children in the home. 
 
 7. Why should mental defectives and degenerates be segregated and 
 denied the privilege of marriage? 
 
 8. (o) What duty on the part of the physically and mentally strong 
 is implied in the ideal of race improvement? (i) Under what circum- 
 stances may such individuals be morally exempt from this duty ? 
 
 Chapter IV. The Family as an Economic Unit 
 
 1. (a) How have new industrial conditions brought radical changes 
 in the economic lite of the family ? (6) How may these changes affect 
 the social life of the family? 
 
 2. How is the great increase in apartment houses as homes affecting 
 the family life ? 
 
 3. How does the want of a permanent home influence family life ? 
 
 4. ^\'hat guarantee have we that the economic changes that are 
 taking place will not entirely destroy the solidarity of the home ? 
 
 5. What should be the attitude of a, parent toward (a) the family 
 property ? (6) his own property ? 
 
 6. How may parents promote family unity, comfort, and happiness 
 by avoiding unnecessary individual expenses ? Give illustrations. 
 
 7. (a) How may parents indulge in unwise self-sacrifice? (6) How 
 may parents and children be injured by such sacrifice ? 
 
 8. (a) \Miy should children be trained to render some service to the 
 family ? (6) What may be the natm^ of this service ? 
 
 Chapter V. Vocations 
 
 1. What is (a) avocation? (6) an avocation? 
 
 2. What should be determined before choosing a vocation ? 
 
 3. Why should a rich man have a vocation ? 
 
 4. (a) What are the advantages to a poor man of having a vocation 
 as his permanent occupation ? (6) Why is this also socially beneficial ? 
 
 5. Do you think that every young man should have selected his voca- 
 tion by the time he completes his high-school education ? 
 
 6. What are the dangers of overcrowding the non-productive forms 
 of service ? 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 173 
 
 7. (a) Why do few college men engage in material production? 
 (b) As the number of college students increases what will be the effect 
 of this tendency? 
 
 8. What are some of the advantages of occupations having to do with 
 material production ? 
 
 9. Why should every woman qualify for two vocations? 
 10. In what vocations, as a rule, do women excel ? 
 
 Chapter VI. Business Organizations 
 
 1. (a) Why is cooperation in business now a necessity ? (6) What 
 legal provisions are generally made for such cooperation on a large scale ? 
 
 2. What are the advantages of the corporate method of doing busi- 
 ness (a) to the man of small means ? (6) to society ? 
 
 3. (a) In what kinds of business is the corporation method generally 
 a necessity? (6) In what kinds is it little needed and least successful? 
 
 4. Give reasons why a business corporation should not exercise all 
 the economic rights and privileges that are legally given to it. 
 
 5. Why is it difficult for a corporation to develop a sense of moral 
 responsibility ? 
 
 6. How should life-insurance business be managed? 
 
 7. What are the duties (a) of stockholders in a corporation? (6) of 
 directors ? 
 
 8. Why is the non-stockholding public interested in the conduct of 
 the business of a corporation ? 
 
 9. Of what use to society is the man who gambles in stocks ? 
 
 Chapter VII. Religious and Charitable Institutions 
 
 1. What changes have occurred in the relation of the church to the 
 state? 
 
 2. Why are houses of worship generally exempt from taxation ? 
 
 3. What purposes do churches have in common ? 
 
 4. (a) Why is a system of morals a prominent part of church doc- 
 trine ? (6) Why is a church more than a society for moral culture ? 
 
 5. What is the difference between the merely rationalistic and the 
 genetic method of criticizing institutions ? 
 
 6. What are some of the functions common to churches and to other 
 brotherhoods ? 
 
 7. Show how religious organizations provide opportunities for serv- 
 
174 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 Chapter VIII. The School Community 
 
 1. (a) What is civic pride? (6) How may it be expressed in the 
 school community ? 
 
 2. What constitutes loyalty to the school community? Illustrate. 
 
 3. (a) Why is moral courage one of the most praiseworthy virtues? 
 (6) How can it be cultivated in the school community life ? 
 
 4. In any plan of student self-government, why may not school 
 officials turn over to students without resenation all matters of student 
 discipline ? 
 
 5. Upon what does the success of student government depend? 
 
 6. In what ways may the successful practice of student self-govern- 
 ment contribute to the making of better citizens ? 
 
 Chapter IX. Cooperative Activities in Rural Districts 
 
 1. In a democracy, to what extent does cooperative effort through 
 government imply compulsion ? 
 
 2. Why should there be many purely voluntary cooperative activi- 
 ties in a community? 
 
 3. (o) For what purpose does a farmer owning land need capital? 
 (i) How may he secure this capital ? 
 
 4. What kinds of help may a farmer receive through government 
 agencies ? 
 
 5. (a) Why has the problem of marketing farm produce become very 
 important? (6) What solutions of this problem are being proposed? 
 (c) What can farmers do toward solving this problem in ways beneficial 
 to producers and consumers ? 
 
 6. How may farmers cooperate to improve the social, intellectual, 
 and esthetic opportunities in the country ? 
 
 Chapter X. County Govemmerd 
 
 1. Why is the maintenance of good roads an important problem of 
 county government? 
 
 2. Why is the poll tax being discontinued ? 
 
 3. How is road sprinkling related to public health ? 
 
 4. (a) Why are health conditions in some respects worse in the 
 country than in the city ? (b) What has this to do with county govern- 
 ment? 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 175 
 
 5. Why should county government concern itself with (o) relief for 
 the poor? (6) work for the unemployed? (c) medical care of the 
 destitute ? {d) widows' pensions ? 
 
 6. What are the advantages of consolidating the schools of a county, 
 or of a large division of a county, under one administration ? 
 
 7. How may the schools better serve the communities in which they 
 are located? 
 
 Chapter XI. The Tovm and the Citizen 
 
 1. (a) For what purposes may a village profitably incorporate as a 
 town? (6) What public functions may better be left to the county? 
 Why? 
 
 2. TMiat public functions may be carried on to the best advantage 
 in connection with the schools ? 
 
 3. (a) How may the habit of "boosting" be abused? (6) What 
 evil consequences may follow such abuse ? 
 
 4. Under what circumstances must the permanent growth of a town 
 depend upon the establishment of manufacturing industries ? 
 
 5. How may business houses contribute toward the development 
 of a town ? 
 
 6. What makes a town attractive to city people as a place of resi- 
 dence? 
 
 7. How may the residents of a town manifest their civic pride ? 
 
 Chapter XII. Problems of the City 
 
 1. Name the most important problems of municipal government. 
 Why these? 
 
 2. What are the chief means of physical sanitation in a city? 
 
 3. Why should a city own its water supply ? 
 
 4. Why should residents be compelled to connect their drainpipes 
 with the sewer ? 
 
 5. Why should spitting on the sidewalk and in other public places 
 be forbidden ? 
 
 6. Why is the culinary use of water from surface wells in cities ob- 
 jectionable ? 
 
 7. (a) How may want of thoughtfulness in regard to public-health 
 regulations be regarded as a crime? (6) Should a citizen report his 
 neighbor for violation of a city ordinance ? 
 
 8. Where soft coal must be used, why is public action and expendi- 
 ture necessary to overcome the smoke nuisance ? 
 
176 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 9. Why not allow the tenement houses, the hotels, the rooming 
 houses, and the caf& to regulate themselves by competition ? 
 
 10. (a) Why should the city control its amusements ? (6) How may 
 it connect its amusements with its public educational system ? 
 
 11. Mention four kinds or forms of protection now assumed by the 
 city but which were thought unnecessary when the place was a small rural 
 settlement. 
 
 Chapter XIII. The State or Prodnce 
 
 1. (a) Why is education the chief business of the state? (6) Why 
 should it be ? (c) From what source do local boards of education derive 
 their authority ? 
 
 2. (a) Why should public lands be made a permanent endowment 
 for public education ? (5) May not any natural resource be thus used ? 
 
 (c) How should these endowments be managed by the state ? 
 
 3. How may a state tax system be properly harmonized with all 
 other units of taxation — coimty, city, national ? 
 
 4. What are the duties of (o) a state industrial commission ? (6) a 
 state public utilities commission ? (c) a state insurance commissioner ? 
 
 (d) a state labor commissioner ? 
 
 5. (a) Why does society punish criminals? (6) Why should the 
 citizen be accountable to the state for wrongdoing? (c) Why does the 
 state maintain juvenile courts, probation officers, and parental schools ? 
 
 6. In what ways may the state and the nation cooperate in the pro- 
 motion of industries ? 
 
 7. In view of the recognized demand for greater control over 
 industrial, business, and commercial enterprises, what changes should 
 take place in the relative powers of the state and federal governments ? 
 
 Chapter XIV. The Nation 
 
 1. (a) Why do civilized nations maintain armies and navies? 
 (6) What are the advantages and what are the disadvantages of mihtary 
 preparedness? (c) Does the military life inspire true patriotism? 
 (d) Would national solidarity be destroyed if the military functions were 
 absolutely eUminated ? 
 
 2. How does the American federal government promote (a) foreign 
 trade? (ft) domestic trade and industries? (c) the welfare of wage 
 earners? (d) education? 
 
QUESTIONS AND EXEKCISES 177 
 
 3. WTiy may public utilities be subject to public command through 
 the national government? 
 
 4. (o) What has been the attitude of the American government 
 toward the lottery ? (6) How has this attitude been expressed ? (c) How 
 else has the federal government been concerned with public morals? 
 (d) What more needs to be done? 
 
 5. How may the national government facUitate local Gommunity 
 use of natural resources ? 
 
 6. What is meant by (a) the spoils system? (6) the pork barrel? 
 Illustrate. 
 
 7. For what legitimate purposes may public debt be incurred ? 
 
 Chapter XV. The Suffrage 
 
 1. Why is the suffrage the elector's privilege and duty more than it is 
 his right ? 
 
 2. How is the elective franchise connected historically with mihtary 
 service ? 
 
 3. (a) On what grounds, in a modern democratic state, is the privi- 
 lege of suffrage given to any class of citizens? (b) Would it be proper 
 and practical to grant the franchise only after careful examination of the 
 citizen's intellectual and moral attainments ? 
 
 4. What are the chief arguments in favor of and against woman 
 suffrage ? 
 
 5. Why is the suffrage denied to (o) minors? (6) semi-civilized 
 groups within a republic ? (c) criminals ? 
 
 6. Why are primary nomination elections sometimes imsatisfactory ? 
 
 7. (a) Why is it generally desirable that electors affiliate with politi- 
 cal parties? (b) What should be the limitations of party allegiance? 
 (c) How do political parties sometimes become a hindrance to good 
 government ? 
 
 8. Upon what does the strength and progress of a democratic nation 
 depend? 
 
 Chapter XVI. Public Office 
 
 1. What should public officials recognize as the chief purpose of 
 government? 
 
 2. How is it determined whether an office shall be (a) elective or 
 appointive ? (5) salaried or non-salaried ? 
 
 3. What type of public service calls for permanency in office? 
 Why? 
 
178 CITIZENSHIP 
 
 4. (a) What may properly be regarded as excessive campaign ex- 
 penses ? (6) What are the chief objections to such expenses ? (c) What 
 remedies should be applied ? 
 
 5. What is the purpose of corrupt practice laws? 
 
 6. (o) Name some of the evil consequences of partisan conduct on 
 the part of public officials. (6) What should be the attitude of either 
 majority or minority members of a legislative body toward measures 
 proposed by the opposition ? 
 
 7. Whom should a lawmaker feel obligated to serve, his constituents 
 or the people generally ? 
 
 Chapter XVII. International Relations 
 
 1. On what foundations do the laws of nations rest? 
 
 2. Why are the sovereign rights of a small or weak nation regarded as 
 equal to those of a great and powerful nation ? 
 
 3. (a) Why is it best to settle international disputes, if possible, by 
 diplomacy ? (6) To what process is this analogous in case rf trouble be- 
 tween individuals ? 
 
 4. Why is it better to have a permanent international court of arbi- 
 tration rather than arbitrators especially appointed for each case? 
 
 5. The exclusion of cases of national honor from courts of arbitration 
 is analogous to what in the conduct of individuals ?j 
 
 6. Where international disputes are settled by war, what are the 
 chances for or against a just settlement? 
 
 7. (a) What are the advantages of the union of states under a 
 federal government ? (b) How may these advantages be extended to the 
 community of nations ? 
 
 8. Does or does not the highest type of morality require that we con- 
 sider first om: duty to our country, and secondly, our duty to humanity ? 
 
INDEX 
 
 American Revolution, 24. 
 Amusements, control of, 134-135. 
 Arbitration, courts of, 160-162. 
 Art, 8. 
 
 Bill of Rights, English, 25. 
 Brotherhoods, purpose of, 110. 
 Business organizations, 104-107. 
 
 Capital, need of concentration of, 
 
 104-106; management of, 104- 
 
 107; farmers' need of and how 
 
 secured, 116-119. 
 Charities, contributions to, 73 
 
 county, 123-124. 
 Children, 90-92. 
 Church, nature of, 28, 109-110 
 
 task of, 28-29, 109, 120; needs 
 
 of, 73; relation to individual. 
 
 110-111; relation to state 
 
 108. 
 Citizenship, world, 21, 162. 
 City, problems of, 130-135. 
 Civil service, 155-156. 
 Civilization, origin of, 5 ; meaning 
 
 of, 5-9 ; practical arts of, 6 ; 
 
 material benefits of, 10-13. 
 Commerce, 7; regulation of, 142- 
 
 144. 
 Commissions, public utilities, 52- 
 
 53; industrial, 139. 
 Conservation, of natural resources, 
 
 40-44, 145-146 ; discrimination 
 
 in, 40-41; of soil and moisture, 
 
 41-42; of farm products, 42; 
 
 of timber, 42-43; of grazing 
 
 lands, 43 ; of human life, 45-49. 
 Constitution, English, 24-25 ; 
 
 American, 25. 
 Conventions, vocational, 87-88 ; 
 
 political, 150-151. 
 
 Corporations, management of, 104- 
 107. 
 
 Corrupt practice, 156-157. 
 
 Courts of arbitration, 160-162. 
 
 Crime, suppression and punish- 
 ment, 140-141. 
 
 Education, primitive, 1 ; as devel- 
 opment, 4, 77; as world build- 
 ing, 15 ; a state function, 30-31, 
 136-138, 145 ; financial support 
 of, 76-79; vocational, 77-79; 
 industrial, 79 ; relation of work to, 
 96-97 ; county provision for, 124- 
 ,125 ; city control of, 134-135. 
 
 Employers' liability and work- 
 men's compensation, 139 
 
 Family, permanence of, 27; moral 
 purpose of, 27, 91-92; home 
 needs of, 72-73; parent and 
 child, 90-93, 95 ; as an economic 
 unit, 94-97; property of, 95-96 ; 
 changed conditions of, 94-95. 
 
 Farms, conservation of, 41-42; 
 capital for, 116; ownership of, 
 116-117. 
 
 Food markets, regulation of, 55-58, 
 131. 
 
 Freedom, price of, 22. 
 
 Government, constructive fimc- 
 tions of, 26; county, 121-125; 
 town, 126-129; state, 136-141; 
 relation of state and federal, 
 141; national, 142-147; ex- 
 ample of federal, 160-161. 
 
 Health, fight for, 48-49; county 
 provisions for, 122-123; city 
 provisions for, 130-133. 
 
 Highways, 50 ; county, 121-122. 
 
 179 
 
180 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Income tax, 67. 
 
 Individual responsibility, to social 
 institutions, 86; for exercise of 
 suffrage, 148-153; in public 
 office, 154-158. 
 
 Industries, education in, 79 ; manu- 
 facturing, 128-129. 
 
 Inheritance, scientific, 14-17; lit- 
 erary, 18-21; political. 22-26; 
 social, 33. 
 
 Inheritance tax, 70. 
 
 Insurance. See Life insurance. 
 
 Intelligence offices, 47-48, 139. 
 
 Interdependence of natural ob- 
 jects, 32. 
 
 International relations, develop- 
 ment of, 159-162. 
 
 Justice, nature of, 83-85; prim- 
 itive notion of, 83; Plato's idea 
 of, 83-84; Herbert Spencer's 
 notion of, 83-84 ; an all-inclusive 
 virtue, 84-85. 
 
 Labor, of children, 46; of women, 
 46-47; laws, 47, 138-139; in- 
 telligence offices, 47H18, 136; 
 state regulation of, 138-139. 
 
 Land, uses of, 37-38; tax, 67-69. 
 
 Law, Roman, 23-24; British, 24 
 international, 26, 159-160 
 labor, 47; pure food, 55-56 
 corrupt practice, 156-157. 
 
 Library, town, 127. 
 
 Life insurance, state or mutual, 
 105, 140. 
 
 Literature, 7 ; and national life, 18 ; 
 Greek and Roman, 19; Hebrew, 
 1^20; Oriental, 20; modem, 
 20-21; translations of, 21; and 
 world citizenship, 21. 
 
 Man, an end in himself, 44, 45. 
 Marriage, 90. 
 
 Monopolies, regulation or destruc- 
 tion of, 59-60. 
 Moral courage, value of, 113-114. 
 Moral thoughtfulness, 43-44. 
 Moral values, 12-13. 
 Music, 8. 
 
 Nation, government of, 142-147; 
 defense of, 142. 
 
 Natural resources, use of, 36-39; 
 control of, 36-37 ; property right 
 in, 36; water, 39; sharing and 
 saving, 39; conservation of, 40- 
 44. 
 
 Ownership, occupation theory of, 
 63-64; donation theory of, 64; 
 labor theory of, 65; utUitarian 
 theory of, 65-66. 
 
 Partisanship, in politics, 151-153; 
 principles above, 158. 
 
 Political rights, origin of, 22. 
 
 Postal service, 50-51. 
 
 Prices, control of, 59-62. 
 
 Primaries, 150-151. 
 
 Prohibition, of intoxicants and 
 drugs, 46, 144, 162. 
 
 Property, basis of private, 63-66. 
 
 Public money, use of, 74, 146-147. 
 
 Public office, responsibilities of, 
 154-158; elective and appoint- 
 ive, 154-156; corrupt practice 
 in, 156-157. 
 
 PubUc utiUties, ownership or regu- 
 lation of, 50-54, 143; highways, 
 50; postal service, 50-51, 143- 
 144; competition in, 51-52; 
 commissions, 52-53; water sys- 
 tems, 53-54. 
 
 Race solidarity, nature and mean- 
 ing of, 32-35. 
 
 Rural life, activities of, 116-120; 
 social needs of, 119-120. 
 
INDEX 
 
 181 
 
 Savages, life of, 10; bondage of, 
 22. 
 
 Schools, origin of, 1 ; function of, 
 1—4; elementary, 2; secondary, 
 2 ; colleges, 3 ; universities, 4 ; 
 state systems of, 30-31, 136-138; 
 school community, 112-115; ac- 
 tivities of, 115; federal aid for, 
 137-138. 
 
 Science, 7; scientific inheritance, 
 14-17; origin of, 14-15; the 
 social sciences, 16. 
 
 Score cards, 58. 
 
 Single tax, 67-fi8. 
 
 Social mstitutions, 27-31, 86-89; 
 dangerous kinds of, 86-87, 89. 
 See Family, Church, State. 
 
 Social morality, 8-9, 45—46. 
 
 Social progress, 134—135. 
 
 State, as an institution, 29-30; 
 government of, 136-140 ; powers 
 of, 138-141. 
 
 Student organizations, 88-89; loy- 
 alty to, 113-114; self-govern- 
 ment in, 114—115. 
 
 Suffrage, for women, 148-149; 
 
 right of, 148-150; duties of, 
 148-153. 
 
 Taxation, principles of, 67-71 
 income tax, 67; single or land 
 tax, 67-69; inheritance tax, 70 
 license tax, 70-71 ; limitation of, 
 72-75; state regulation of, 138. 
 
 Taxes, use of, 74. 
 
 Ten Commandments, 23. 
 
 Teutons, primitive, 24. 
 
 Towns, reasons for incorporating, 
 126-127; kinds of, 128-129. 
 
 Vocations, education in, 77-79; 
 purpose of, 98 ; as a responsi- 
 bility, 98-103 ; social significance 
 of, 98-100. 
 
 Water, 39; systems, 53-54, 126, 
 
 130. 
 Widows' pensions, provided by 
 
 state, 140; administered by 
 
 county, 124. 
 Women, as wage earners, 46-47; 
 
 vocations for, 92-93; as voters, 
 
 148-149. 
 
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INDIAN LIFE AND INDIAN LORE 
 INDIAN DAYS OF THE LONG AGO 
 
 BY 
 
 Edward S. Curtis 
 
 Author oj "The North American Indian" 
 
 Illustrated with photographs by the author and drawings 
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 N this book the author gives an intimate view of 
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 Edward S. Curtis 
 
 Author 0/ "Indian Days of the Long Ago" 
 
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