fyxmll Uttivmitg ^itotg 
 
 -S^mgkHiNG L/BPA^v 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TN 455.G7W19 
 
 The laws which regulate the deposition o 
 
 3 1924 004 682 104 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004682104 
 
THE LAWS WHICH EEGULATE THE 
 DEPOSITION OF LEAD ORE. 
 
LONDON : PRIKTED UY 'W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STKEET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
I'LATE V. 
 
 fJrmvrv A/- H:Tii'-U£iJ--f.-. 
 
 NENT FORCE. 
 
THE 
 
 LAWS WHICH EEGULATE THE 
 
 DEPOSITION OF LEAD ORE 
 
 m VEINS; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY AK EXAMINATION OP THE GEOLOGICAL 
 STRTJCTXtRE OF THE MINING DISTRICTS 
 
 of 
 
 ALSTON MOOR. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM WALLACE. 
 
 " Quid sit prius actum, vespicere oetas 
 Nosti-a nequit, nisi qua ratio vestigia monstrat." — LcrOE. 
 
 LONDON: 
 -EDWAKD STANFORD, 6, CHARING CROSS. 
 
 1861. 
 
UNIVEBSITYil 
 \UeRARV 
 
 "Nature executes all her ideas with unnumbered variations, and in works whose 
 production occupies an immeasurable space of time. The complete idea is expressed in 
 the totality of all things. As a philosopher brings out one idea in the most varied forms, 
 or 33 a musician does so when he makes variations to a theme, so does Nature, though 
 with still greater variety. Each individual is thus a peculiar realization of the funda- 
 mental Idea of the thing. But fertile Nature does not limit herself to exhibit per- 
 formances of which the ideas are isolated ; she appears to us in innumerable alternations 
 of finite relations, which a prejudiced observer would designate as the most manifest im- 
 perfection, but which must appear to one who follows out the course of Nature to the 
 highest point to wliich it should be developed in the human race, as separate acts by 
 which the ideas of objects are revealed in their whole force to a powerful and penetrating 
 understanding." — Oersted's Sml in Nature, p. 24. 
 
TO 
 
 E. HUNT, Esq., F.E.S., ' 
 keeper of the mining eeooeds, jeemyn street, london. 
 
 My dear Sir, 
 
 With gratitude and pleasure I dedicate to you this 
 humble attempt to simplify inquiries into the complicated nature 
 of metalliferous deposits, and to lessen the hazard of mining spe- 
 culations ; for it is owing to your disinterested kindness, advice, 
 and assistance that my labours are now published. I am con- 
 scious of their defects; but, if they should induce more able 
 investigators to enter this new field of research, the object in 
 view wiU at least be promoted. Whatever may be the result, 
 let me express my sincere thanks to you, and remain with the 
 deepest feelings of respect, 
 
 Yours, 
 
 Most truly, 
 
 W. WALLACE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To collect, arrange, and harmonize the experience of many 
 generations on snbjects relating to the knowledge of external 
 nature is a difficult task, but more especially when the phe- 
 nomena are removed from ordinary observation and seen only 
 by few individuals, and at various periods of time. 
 
 This is peculiarly the case with everything relating to veins 
 and the metallic deposits they contain. It is often difficult, 
 and sometimes even impossible, to obtain information, and when 
 obtained, it is not unfrequently mixed with error, the result of 
 defective or bad observations. Men's ideas of a rich mine vary 
 much, and generally fluctuate with the marketable value of the 
 metal produced. Large profits might be obtained from mines 
 of lead, when lead sells at twenty-five pounds per ton; but 
 should it realize only twelve pounds per ton, the same mines 
 might be considered as utterly worthless. Again, they vary 
 according as the veias happen to be hard or soft, for it is 
 manifest, that large profits might accrue from lead ore scattered 
 in the rider of a soft vein, which would not repay the cost of 
 extraction from that of a hard one ; and vmless such conditions 
 be properly allowed for, in the investigation, it must necessarily 
 
viu PREFACE. 
 
 affect our ideas of the constancy of Nature's laws, or rather the 
 connexion between the cause and the amount of effect pro- 
 duced. 
 
 For inquiries relating to this connexion the comparative 
 richness of a vein may be indicated by two methods, either by 
 registering the quantity of lead ore produced per square fathom 
 of the vein irrespective of its width, or by the quantity produced 
 per solid fathom of vein mineral worked out in order to obtain 
 the ore exclusive of the rocky portions of pure limestone, sand- 
 stone, &c., whether comprehended in the middle of the vein or 
 worked from its sides. In a new mining field perhaps both 
 should be carried out in practice. I am not aware that either 
 of these methods has ever been attempted in Alston Moor, con- 
 sequently the colours upon the map which accompanies this 
 work relate more to the comparative mercantile value of the 
 veins than to the amount of lead ore actually deposited in them. 
 Could the veins have been coloured so as to denote the exact 
 quantities of lead extracted, and those in proportion to the 
 space excavated, my impressions are that the connexion between 
 the cause assigned in the following pages, and the effect would 
 have been exhibited in a still more striking manner. 
 
 The map is formed by the reduction and combination of a 
 number of general plans of mines, made by various individuals 
 and at different periods of time. Some portions of it are very 
 correct, while others are not so, more especially Mr. Fydell's 
 portion of the Priorsdale Manor, and those based upon the 
 survey of Alston Moor, completed in 1777. Eespecting the 
 mines in Kilhope I have not been able to obtaia either correct 
 plans or much information. Most of the map has, however, been 
 carefully collated with recent surveys, and the most defective 
 
PEBFACE. ix 
 
 portion is sufficiently accurate to illustrate the laws relating to 
 the distribution of lead ore in veins, and the theory of causation 
 which comprehends the whole. 
 
 For the lines denoting the outcropping of the strata I alone 
 am responsible ; they were carefully sketched upon pocket maps 
 during my geological rambles over the district. 
 
 While prosecuting this inquiry I have experienced the 
 greatest kindness from the proprietors and agents of the mines 
 in Alston Moor. The manorial plans belonging to the Green- 
 wich Hospital were kindly placed at my service by Mr. Paull 
 and his late father. Loans of maps have been granted me by 
 various parties, and valuable information has invariably been 
 given me with the greatest willingness and kindly feeling. I 
 avail myself of this opportunity of tendering my most grateful 
 acknowledgments to all these parties, and more especially to 
 Mr. Walton of Greenends House, Mr. Cain, Newhouse, Weardale, 
 and Mr. Nevin, Carshield House, West AUendale. Had it not 
 been for the information furnished me by these three gentlemen 
 a great portion of the map could not have been constructed. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tntrodi'ction .. .. .. .. .. I 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 OF THE FOKMATION AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE 
 MINING DISTRICTS OP ALSTON MOOR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OP THE LAWS WmOH HAVE REGULATED THE UEPOSITION OF THE MOUNTAIN 
 LIMESTONE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The analogy of causea now in operations — Key to past events . . . . . . 13 
 
 Of the sedimentary rocka situated below the Mountain Limestone . . 14 
 
 Of the change in the constituent parts of the Mountain Limestone . . 
 Of the correspondence of its thickness in Derbyshire and Alston Moor 
 The law of ita deposition . . 
 Its great development in South Wales 
 Its character in Scotland 
 
 Probable position of the Continent from the waste of whioli the materiala 
 
 were derived . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE ELEVATION OF THE ROOKS OF ALSTON MOOR TO THE POSITION 
 THEY NOW OCCUPY, ASO THE LAWS WHIOH HAVE REGULATED THE 
 DENUDATION OP THE COUNTRY. 
 
 The equable subsidence of the sea-bottom at the time of the deposition of the 
 
 Carboniferous system . . . . ■ . . . . . . . . . . . 26 
 
 This system brought to a close by the elevation of the land . . . . . . 27 
 
 The laws of elevation and the formation of anticlinal axes . . . . . . 28 
 
 The effect of these upon the denudation of the couutiy . . . . 30 
 
xu CONTENTS. 
 
 Of the general dip of the strata . . 
 
 Two denudation hypotheses — Oataclysmal one not tenable 
 
 Of the laws of denudation by oceanic and fluvial agency 
 
 Of the effects produced during the glacial epoch 
 
 The formation of the valleys chiefly due to breaker action 
 
 PAGE 
 
 30 
 36 
 37 
 47 
 48 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OP THE LAWS WHICH EEGTILATE THE FOBMATION AND DIBECTION 
 OF VEINS. 
 
 The minor streams of the country do not flow on the line of the strong cross 
 
 veins— nor upon that of the Great Sulphur vein .. .. .. ..49 
 
 The form and outline of the hills seldom affected by veins . . . . . . 50 
 
 Two tlieories on the formation of veins .. .. .. .. .. ■■ „ 
 
 No veins of Alston Moor formed by the shrinking of the enclosing rocks . . 51 
 
 Veins quite distinct from joints . . . . . . . . . . • ■ . . 52 
 
 Hypothesis respecting the formation of joints .. •• .. .. ..53 
 
 Three distinct kinds of mineral veins . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 
 
 The Great Sulphur vein and the Whin Dyke, each mi generis ■■ ■■ „ 
 
 Period of formation of the former in relation to the cross veins .. .. 56 
 
 Law of its formation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..58 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE LAWS REGULATING THE FORMATION AND DIBECTION OF THE EAST 
 AND WEST VEINS. 
 
 Brief description of the principal veins . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 
 
 Law of their formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 
 
 Connected in causation with the anticlinal axes . . . . . . . . . . 69 
 
 Must have been in existence before the formation of the valleys . . . . „ 
 
 And before the elevation of the land to its present position . , . . . . „ 
 
 No indications of violent volcanic agency since their formation . . . . 71 
 
 Reflections . . . . . . . . . • . . . • ■ . „ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF ALSTON MOOR AND COAL CLECGH CROSS VEINS. 
 
 Found of all degrees of magnitude 
 
 Brief description of the principal cross veins 
 
 Of the law and relative date of theil formation . . 
 
 Werner's doctrine of intersections 
 
 Supposed to be later formed than the east and west veins 
 
 72 
 73 
 76 
 
 it 
 
 78 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eeasona why they cannot be SO .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 79 
 
 Must have been formed contemporaneously with or anterior to the east and 
 
 west veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . 81 
 
 Their non-relation to axes of elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 
 
 Effect upon the position of the stiata , 
 
 Changes supposed to have been effected at the time of the formation of the 
 
 east and west veins . . . . . . . , . , . . . . . . 85 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE QUAETEB POINT VEINS OP ALSTON MOOB. 
 
 In the upper part of the district these veins are weak 
 
 Were probably in existence at the time of the formation of the east and west 
 
 veins 
 Later formed than the cross veins . . 
 Concluding Aphorisms 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 OF THE LAWS WHICH REGULATE METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, 
 ILLUSTRATED BY AN EXAMINATION OF THE LEAD VEINS 
 OR LODES OF ALSTON MOOR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OP THE MODE OP PKOSEOTJTING THE INQUIKY. 
 
 Brief resume of the last book . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 
 
 Lead ore not deposited throughout the whole extent of the veins . . . . „ 
 
 As the veins have not always been filled with minerals and metaUic sub- 
 stances, their deposition must be the result of certain antecedents . . . . 96 
 
 The laws which have regulated the distribution of metallic ores may be dif- 
 ferent from those relating to its origination . . • . . . ■ ■ • ■ >, 
 Two theories . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ■ • • • - ■ » 
 
 A knowledge of the distribution of metallic ores might prove more useful 
 than a knowledge of its origination . . - . . . . . ■ • ■ ■ .. 
 
 The experiments of Becqueral and others throw no light on the art of 
 mining, nor upon the source from whence the ores of metals are derived . . 97 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The amount of lead ore in the same vein and strata varies more than that of 
 
 any other mineral . . . . . . . . . . . . • ■ • ■ . . 98 
 
 Veins in Alston Moor are richest at the greatest distance from Plutonic 
 
 rocks . . . . . . . • . . . . • • - • ■ • . . 99 
 
 Lead and other ores found in situations where there could be no sublimation 
 
 from beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • ■ .. 
 
 Instances in shells, nodules, &c. . • • • • . . • • ■ • ■ „ 
 
 May be regarded as instantiss cmeie . . . . . . . . • • . . 100 
 
 The cause of its deposition must be proportional to the effect produced . • 101 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OP THE CONDITIONS COimECTEU \V1TH BAMPGILL VEIN. 
 
 Laws of succession best studied where the phenomenon exists in the greatest 
 intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 102 
 
 The phenomenon, lead ore exists in Rampgill vein in the greatest intensity . . 103 
 
 Description of the piano-section . . . . . . . . . . . • „ 
 
 General view of the conditions of the dip of beds in the rich and poor por- 
 tions of this vein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 
 
 The largest quantities of lead ore found at the intersections of quarter point 
 veins • • . ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 
 
 A circulation promoted by these to and in the vein, the unproductive portion 
 unfavourable to a circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
 A circulation prevented in great depths by thick beds of shale, in the upper 
 strata by the dislocations of the strong cross veins . . . . . . . . 106 
 
 The functions of the conditions differ from each other ; those connected with 
 the rich portion being favourable to a circulation, the other not so . . 107 
 
 Analogy of the former to the functions of life in vegetables and animals . . „ 
 
 CHAPTBE III. 
 
 OF THE LAWS BEGULATINfi THE DESCENT OF WATER BELOW THE SUBPAOE 
 OP THE EABTH. 
 
 Two theories ; the one supposes that water rises from the interior of the 
 earth ; the other, that it is precipitated from the atmosphere — the former 
 
 not tenable . • . . . • . • • ■ • . . . . . . . 109 
 
 The heat of the sun and gravity cause a compound circulation on the earth's 
 
 surface . . . . • • • . • • . . • . . . . . . . 110 
 
 Its effects upon animal and vegetable life . . . . . . . . . . Ill 
 
 The quantity of water precipitated on the hills of Alston Moor . . . . 113 
 
 The ^ret g(e^^era^a^« regulating its descent into the earth .. .. ..114 
 
 The second ditto ditto . . . . • . „ 
 
 The third ditto ditto 115 
 
 The /owft ditto ditto H7 
 
 T:\iefifth ditto ditto 119 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OP THE DECOMPOSITION AND CHANGE EFFECTED ON THE BOOKS FORMING 
 
 THE SIDES OF VEINS. PAGE 
 
 Difference between the action of water upon the surface and in the interior 
 
 of the earth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12I 
 
 Composition of the atmosphere, its impurities combine with rain water . . 122 
 
 Change produced upon living organisms by these impurities . . . . . . 123 
 
 The action of water upon roolrs at the surface always detersive . . . . 124 
 
 Contents of veins equally subject to decomposition as the enclosing rocks . . „ 
 
 Limestone under certain conditions especially subject to change . . . . 125 
 
 The action of water below the earth's surface reproductive as well as de- 
 structive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 
 
 Kain water holds carbonic acid in solution ; the latter plentifully found in 
 
 mines .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 129 
 
 Connected by some law with the state of the atmosphere . . . . . . 131 
 
 The important part it plays in disintegrating rocks . . . . . . . . 133 
 
 Instances of its effects — limestone at Clermont, Small Cleugh, Long Cleugh, 
 Tyne Bottom, Ashgill Field, Eampgill, Holey Field, Coal Cleugh, &c. 
 Mines .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. „ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE DEPOSITION OF VEIN-MINEBALS, AS CABBONATE OF LIME, BAETTES, ETC. 
 IN THE OPEN SPACES IN VEINS. 
 
 Resume of the preceding chapters.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 141 
 
 Question whether vein-minerals are related in kind to the enclosing rock . . 142 
 
 Fluor-spar found in veins whose sides are formed of Slate SUls, Firestone, &c. „ 
 
 Less of it found in the Little Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 
 
 The greatest variety of minerals found in veins in the Great Limestone . . „ 
 
 In the strata below the Great Limestone quartzose minerals predominate . . 144 
 
 But the veins occasionally contain much carbonate of lime . . . . • • „ 
 
 Carbonate of lime, barytes apparently less orderly arranged and less depen- 
 dent upon the enclosing rock than might have been expected . . . . 146 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 OP THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS BEGOLATING THE DESCENT AND 
 dBCHLATION OF FLUIDS, AND THE DEPOSITION OF LEAD ORE IN THE 
 VEINS OF ALSTON MOOK. 
 
 Difference in the metalliferous character of the upper and lower part of the 
 Mountain Limestone .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ■. 150 
 
 The inquiry, in the first instance, restricted to the upper part . . . . 151 
 
 If the deposition of lead ore is dependent upon circulating fluids, there must 
 be a connexion between the laws regulating their descent and the amount 
 of lead ore deposited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Notwithstanding that deposits of lead ore appear irregularly distributed in 
 patches, they must be subject to law and order . . . . . . ..152 
 
 Necessary to divide the district into portions comprising groups of veins . . „ 
 Of the connexion between laws of hydrous agency and the ore deposits in Mid- 
 dle Oleugh veins . . ■ . . • . . • • . . • • 153 
 And in the cross veins of the same district .. .. .. .. .. 154 
 
 Correspondence found to exist . . ■ • • . - • . . . • . • 156 
 
 The same veins on the east side of Carrs vein . . . . . . . . • . „ 
 
 Lead ore has been removed from Long Oleugh and Middle Cleugh second 
 
 sun veins in the Firestone stratum by oxygenous fluids . . 158 
 
 Connexion between the laws of hydrous agency and the ore deposits in the 
 east and west veins on the west side of Carrs vein . . . . . . . . 159 
 
 These east and west veins cease to contain lead ore in the Great Limestone 
 as they pass under the summit of Middle Fell . . . . . . . . 160 
 
 Conditions connected with the cross veins bringing them under the same 
 laws of hydrous agency as the east and west veins . . . . . . • • ,, 
 
 Of the deposition of lead ore in flats .. .. .. ..165 
 
 Exemplifications of the ^/6A Zaw .. .._ .. .. .. .. .. 166 
 
 General views depending upon the configuration of the district . . . . 167 
 
 CHAPTEE VIL 
 
 OP THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OE HYDROUS AGENOT AND THE 
 DEPOSITION OE LEAD OBE IN VEINS ON THE EAST SIDE OE THE KENT 
 BIVEE. 
 
 Non-correspondence between position of anticlinal axis and the heaven's 
 water division . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 
 
 Modifies the effect of the first law . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
 On the east side of Bridge Cleugh this modifying condition does not exist . . 169 
 
 The lead ore deposits in EampgiU and High Coal Cleugh vein vary as the 
 conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 
 
 EampgiU sun veins favourably situated for mineralization with lead ore 
 under the fourth law .. .. .. .. .. . . 171 
 
 Correspondence between absence of lead ore in all the veins and the unfavour- 
 able position for circulation of fluids under the fifth law . . . . . . 172 
 
 Lead ore deposits in Scalebum vein and flats depend upon the same condi- 
 tions as EampgiU vein, except in the upper strata of Slate Sills and Firestone 173 
 
 Of the unfavourable position of the cross veins on the north side of Scale- 
 bum vein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 
 
 Connexion between the laws of hydrous agency and the deposits of blende 
 and lead ore in Guddamgill vein .. .. .. .. .. .. 175 
 
 Connexion, &c., and the lead ore deposits in Brownley Hill veins 
 Ditto ditto Foreshield veins 
 
 Ditto ditto Blaygill and Thomgill veins 
 
 Ditto ditto Clargill and Aleburn veins 
 
 Eesults 
 
 178 
 182 
 183 
 185 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XVll 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 OP THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HYDROUS AGENCY AND 
 
 THE DEPOSITION 
 MIDDLE FELL. 
 
 OF LEAD ORE IN VEINS TRAVERSING THE MOUNTAIN 
 
 This district not much affected under the fifth law 
 
 Middle Fell isolated from the east and west range of mountains by Caple 
 Cleugh and Ashgill Burn. The fluids circulating in it entirely dependent 
 upon those which fall directly from the atmosphere . . 
 Laws of hydrous agency, and correspondence of the lead-ore deposits 
 in the two Caple Cleugh veins . . 
 
 Ditto Hangingshaw, Cowslitts, and Peatstack Hill veins 
 
 Ditto Longholehead and Black Ashgill veins 
 
 Ditto Dowgang veins ; modification ot first law 
 
 Ditto Nenthead Fields and Greengill East-end veins . • 
 
 Ditto Grass-field veins 
 
 Ditto GaUygill Syke and Gallygill WeU veins - . 
 
 Ditto HudgiU Bum veins and veins lying to the north of these 
 
 Ditto Holeyfield, Famberry, and Natti'ass veins 
 
 Ditto Flough Edge and Dowpot Syke veins 
 
 Ditto Craig Green veins . . 
 
 Ditto Black Syke and Pletoheras veins . . 
 
 Ditto Cowper Dyke Heads veins • . 
 
 Ditto Benty Field and the Browngill veins 
 
 Ditto Wellhope Knot vein . . 
 
 Form of the amolybdic groimd as affected by the different laws 
 
 And lastly, by the removal of the lead ore from the veins by atmospheric 
 
 agency - 
 
 187 
 
 188 
 189 
 191 
 193 
 194 
 196 
 197 
 
 n 
 
 199 
 200 
 201 
 203 
 
 205 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HYDROUS AGENCY AND THE 
 DEPOSITION OF LEAD ORE IN THE OTHER PORTIONS OF THE UPPER 
 STRATA SHOWN UPON THE MAP. 
 
 Decomposed and broken state of the Great Limestone near the surface, in the 
 
 ground between Nagg's Head and the Great Sulphur vein 206 
 
 Weak character of the veins which cross LittlegiU Bum 207 
 
 Of Windy Brae vein . . . . • • • ■ • • • ■ ,, 
 
 Of Broad Mea and Comrigga veins 
 
 Of veins traversing the Great Limestone on the north side of the Great Sul- 
 phur vein . . • . • ■ • • • • • • • ■ • • ■ • ■■ ,1 
 
 Of Cross Fell veins 208 
 
 Two theories . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ • ■ • ■ ■ • ■ • • ■ • 209 
 
 Variation in the amount of lead ore in different parts of the Great Limestone 
 
 stratum . . • . ■ • • • ■ ■ • • • • • • .. 
 
 Inferences .. ■• •• •• •• ■• ■ • -• 210 
 
 C 
 
xvill CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OP THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OP IIYDK0T3S AGENCT, AND THE 
 GEE DEPOSITS IN THE VEINS TKAVEESING THE " LOWER BEDS." 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Greater variation in position of lower than upper beds places the veins under 
 two conditions .. .. .. .. .• •. .. .. .. 211 
 
 The greatest number of trials made in the veins near the surface . . „ 
 
 Of the Dowgang veins in lower strata near the surface . . . . . . 212 
 
 Of the Brownley Hill and Grass Field vein .... . . . . . . • • „ 
 
 Of the Neutsberry Haggs vein . . - - . . . . . . . . 213 
 
 Of the Gallygill Well vems 
 
 General unproductiveness of veins in Middle FeU . . . . . . . . 214 
 
 Ditto ditto Tyneliead Manors 215 
 
 Of Providence or Tees-aide vein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
 Of Sir John's vein — Copper ore .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 216 
 
 General poverty of the veins in this district , 
 
 Of Kodderup Fell veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 
 
 Of the veins crossing Cashbum, Doukbum vein . . .. .. .. .. 221 
 
 Poor character of the ore deposits due to the absence of some ore-producing 
 principle in the enclosing rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
 Of lead ores being found in the lower beds situated at great depths below 
 the surface — hopeless except under very peculiar conditions . . . . 222 
 
 Of the High Coal Cleugh vein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . „ 
 
 Scaleburn vein, contrasted with Grassfield veins . . . . . . . . 223 
 
 Of the Caple Cleugh and Middle Cleugh veins . . . . . . . . . . 224 
 
 Of the Black Ashgill cross vein . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 225 
 
 Of the Guddamgill Burn cross vein 
 
 Of the Blaygill veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 
 
 Of the Browngill sun vein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 
 
 That lead ore be deposited in the lower beds, it is necessary that the condi- 
 tions of hydrous agency be intensified . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 
 
 Nothing resulting from the inquiry to support the theory of the sublimation 
 
 of the metals 
 Variation in the richness of lead-ore deposits depending upon the character 
 of the enclosing rocks .. .. .. .. .. .. .. __ 229 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 OP THE DEPOSITION OP METALLIC OBES IN VEINS THAVEESING CLAY-SLATE 
 AND GBANITE HOOKS. 
 
 No exception to the uniformity of Nature's laws.— Veins in granite and clay- 
 slate must be cquaUy subject to hydrous agency as those in the Mountain 
 Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . _ „„„ 
 
 Eiohest mines in decomposed granite . . . . . . . , oqi 
 
 Metallic ores sometimes found in the joints of the granite . . . , 232 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Probable conditiona of its deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 
 
 Association of dissimilar rocks . . . . ■ • . . . , . . . . „ 
 
 Gold, where found 236 
 
 Its formation connected with a closer relation fo the atmosphere than that 
 
 oflead,&c 237 
 
 Silver mines of Potosi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • „ 
 
 The intruded rock may in some instances have been the source from which 
 
 the metallic ore was derived .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 238 
 
 And the junction a passage for percolating fluids . . . . . . • • „ 
 
 Depth below the sea of some metallic ore deposits in the south. — How effected 240 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 
 CONOLUDING EEMARKfi. 
 
 Lead or its elements must form a component part of the rocks of Alston Moor 242 
 
 The inquiry would be simplified should lead be detected in the rooks . . „ 
 
 Possibility of metals being formed by chemical combination . . . . ■ . „ 
 
 Hypothesis of Sir H. Davy 243 
 
 Ammonia detected in the waters of the English Channel . . . . • ■ ,, 
 
 Lead may exist in sea-water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 
 
 Silver and copper detected in sea-water . . . . . . . . . . • . ,, 
 
 Analyses of the different parts of the Great Limestone, &c. desirable . . . . „ 
 
 Not likely to throw additional light upon the composition of metals . . . . 245 
 
 Sulphide of lead probably never deposited very near the surface . . . . „ 
 
 Probably now in the course of deposition in the veins of Alston Moor . . 246 
 If due to hydrous agency, the upper parts of the veins must have been first 
 
 subjected to this law . . . . . . . . . . • ■ • • . ■ 247 
 
 Supposed recent deposition of lead ore in Tyne Bottom flats . . . . . . „ 
 
 Glossary .. : 249 
 
 Index.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 251 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 '" I. Section of the Mountain Limestone To face Pa^ 17 
 
 '-' n. Section of the Strata at Tees-side Mine .. .. „ 18 
 
 " ni. Section of the Strata at Fallow Field Mine . . . . „ 19 
 
 ^ rV. Section on the Penine range of mountains . • . • „ 21 
 
 ti^ V. Nentforce .. .. .. •■ •• ■• ■• ■• Frontispiece 
 
 t- VI. Ashgill Force To face Page 41 
 
 I— VII. Sections across the Vale of the Nent .. .. .. „ 74 
 
 L~ Vni. Plan of the Middle Oleugh veins „ 81 
 
 ^ IX. Piano-section of Eampgill Vein . . . . „ 103 
 
 •— X. Sections of Bast and West Veios .. .. .. „ 116 
 
 ■— XI. Section of a cross vein . . .. .. .. .. „ 118 
 
 1— XTT. Section of a mountain, showing a position of strata unfavour- 
 able to the percolation of fluids . . . . . . „ 119 
 
 i-XIII. Section on the line A. B., Plate XIV „ 135 
 
 i- XIV. Piano-section of SmaU Oleugh Flats „ 136 
 
 I- XV. Ashgill Field Flats „ 137 
 
 ■--XVI. Sketch of a portion of Handsome Mea Cross vein, and sec- 
 tion of Cowper DJke Heads vein . . . . . . „ 144 
 
 '— XVn. Section across Carrs and small Cleugh veins . . .. „ 166 
 
 — XVin. Section showing dislocations of the strata by cross veins on 
 
 the north side ;of GiUgill Burn .. .. .. „ 175 
 
 t- XIX. Section showing ditto near Guddamgill Burn . . „ 180 
 
 ■- XX. Section of Nentsberiy Haggs Sun vein . . . . „ 182 
 
 1- XXI. Cross Section of Browngill vein . . . . . . „ 202 
 
 ^ Map of the Mining districts of Alston Moor . . At the end of the Volume. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is mainly owing to the vast stores of coal and iron, and the 
 hardy industry and mechanical ingenuity of her sons, that Great 
 Britain has attained such an exalted position among the nations. 
 Her greatness is more especially dependent upon the production 
 of coal, as a motive power, and also as an agent in the reduction 
 of the yarious ores of iron and other metals : for however rich 
 and abundant these may be, they are useless until reduced to a 
 pure metallic state, which is now almost entirely effected by the 
 heat derived from the combustion of coal. Without a plentiful 
 supply of iron for tools, machinery, railroads, and implements of 
 war, it is scarcely probable, that the ingenuity and industry of 
 the inhabitants could support the high position she now occu- 
 pies, or prevent her from sinking to a second or even to a third 
 rate power. It has been well remarked, that it can only be 
 after the exhaustion of the last coal-field of our country that 
 the apocalyptic New Zealander will sketch the ruins of St. 
 Paul's. 
 
 The tin, copper, and lead mines of the country are secondary 
 in importance only to those of coal and iron. The investiga- 
 tions of geologists during the last fifty, years, have, by assigning 
 limits to the various coal-fields in different parts of the country, 
 
2 INTRODQCTION. 
 
 taught the miner to search only in certain localities and among 
 strata occupying a certain position, and thereby the hazard of 
 mining for coal has been lessened. It was probably the art of 
 mining for tin, copper, &c., that gave birth to the science of 
 geology : so little has geology, however, yet effected towards esta- 
 bKshing a science of mining for these metals, that it was lately 
 stated by an eminent mining engineer, " That there were no 
 greater facilities for ascertaining the productive character of a 
 mine now thap formerly. The difference was simply in improved 
 machinery. Our knowledge was not greater than that of our fore- 
 fathers." * This, doubtless, is substantially correct ; indeed my 
 impressions are, that mining for lead in Alston Moor is a more 
 hazardous undertaking now than formerly. Without funda- 
 mental principles, one mining agent recommends a trial to be 
 made, which another rejects as unworthy. Consequently, should 
 there be fands at command, and a sufficient period of time 
 allowed to elapse, no portions of the veins or lodes are left 
 untried, and practically, the art of mining has degenerated into 
 a mere trial-all system. 
 
 If such is the tendency of the present system of mining, it 
 would appear that undue importance has been attached to the 
 opinions of experienced men. 
 
 The business of the mining engineer includes two very dis- 
 tinct agenda ; namely, the selection of suitable trials, and the 
 construction of mining works to effect the proposed object. 
 
 In the North of England, the mining agents are chiefly selected 
 from among the workmen, on the supposition that their expe- 
 rience will enable them, not only to propose suitable trials, but 
 also to plan and direct the mining operations in the most 
 effective and economical manner. Now, the experience of the 
 
 * Evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons on the Mines' 
 Eating Bill, by John Taylor, Esq., June 28th, 1856. 
 
INTRODUCTION. y 
 
 common miner relates chiefly to the latter; and is concerned 
 with the sinking of shafts, making of rises, levels, &c. By long- 
 continued and daily exercise he attains a degree of skill, in pene- 
 trating the hardest rocks, in working and timbering safely, those 
 of a soft and loose character, truly surprising. As might reason- 
 ably be expected from the appointment of men trained in such 
 a school, the art of mining, so far as it relates to the construc- 
 tion of works, for proof of the veins, has been brought to a high 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 But it is manifest, that employment in such labours affords no 
 suitable training for those whose province it is to investigate 
 the most difficult problems of geology and mineralogy. It is 
 only in the school of Bacon that the mind can be properly dis- 
 ciplined for such inquiries. Habits of close observation must 
 be combined with the intellectual power of conducting rigorous 
 processes of inductive and deductive reasoning ; and this power 
 is only attained by profound study and reflection — by a long 
 coui'se of philosophic cultivation and logical habits of thinking. 
 It may be safely affirmed, that few working miners possess the 
 requisite time and means for prosecuting such studies. Hence 
 whUe the art of mining has attained great perfection, the science 
 of mining scarcely exists, and the opinions of practical men on 
 the subject are based upon an empiricism of the very lowest 
 order. 
 
 Should any one doubt the correctness of this statement, let 
 him coUect into a series of aphorisms all the exact knowledge 
 we possess on the subject of metallic deposits in veins, and he 
 will doubtless find the discordance in Nature to be most remark- 
 able, and that scarcely a smgle proposition has yet been esta- 
 blished which is not subject to numerous and unaccountable excep- 
 tions. That the deposition of metalUc substances in veins, is an 
 exeeption to that law and order which regulate the succession of 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 all natural phenomena properly understood, cannot for one 
 moment be entertained, by any one thoroughly convinced of the 
 universality and uniformity of Nature's laws. An intermix- 
 ture of effects, or a phenomenon the resultant of many concur- 
 ring causes, may, to the superficial observer, appear fortuitous, 
 discordant, and mysterious ; but this mysteriousness should not 
 prevent it becoming the subject of earnest inquiry. Mystery 
 haunts not the domain of philosophy — " Where science begins 
 there mystery ends." * 
 
 The impossibility of arriving at any knowledge of practical 
 value, respecting ore deposits in veins, is avowed by those who 
 with singular inconsistency attach the greatest importance to 
 individual experience. Even some, occupying high distinction 
 as directors or proprietors of mines, affirm, without qualification, 
 that it is impossible to see through solid rocks ; or they summa- 
 rily dismiss further consideration on the subject, by remarking, 
 that the old adage current among miners expresses an important 
 truth, namely — 
 
 " It is only by cutting the ground 
 That the metal is found." 
 
 The Cornish miners express their doubts by a similar phrase : — 
 
 " Where it is, there it is." 
 If these are not the apology of indolence and ignorance they 
 certainly are the utterances of despair. When such are the 
 Adews pf those, who have it more especially in their power to 
 generalize the experience of the past, it is no wonder that our 
 knowledge of the laws of formation and filling of veins with 
 metallic substances does not exceed that of our forefathers ; for 
 as Bacon remarks : " Sed longe maximiim progressibus scientiarum, 
 et novis pensis ac provinciis in iisdem suscipiendis, obstaculum 
 
 * Powell's Essays ' On the Unity of Worlds ' (second edition), p. 62. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 deprehenditur in desperatione hominum et suppositione impossi- 
 bilis." * It is the province of reason to lay open things which 
 are under a veil, no matter how thick and opaque the material 
 of that veil may be ; or according to an ancient definition, it 
 leads one from facts perceived to that which was not per- 
 ceived. -j- 
 
 The finality in the progress of the science of mining is dis- 
 astrous to the interests of practical mining. Advantage is 
 taken in seasons of prosperity to make numerous trials, few of 
 which are attended with successful results. Doubtless many of 
 these would be considered worthless, after investigations based 
 upon general laws, even of an empirical character, — ^but care- 
 fully eliminated from a wide range of facts. The consequence 
 is, that a great part of the large profits which ought to result 
 from the working of rich veins is wasted ; or, if the mines are 
 poor, the expense of these worthless speculations proves ruinous 
 to the proprietors, often terminates in their embarrassment, and 
 ultimately leads to the abandonment of the mines. 
 
 It may be well to remind those who are not satisfied unless 
 every object suggested is proved by mining works, that mining 
 is one of the dearest departments of the school of experience ; 
 and, as now conducted, Mr. Taylor is convinced, that, on a large 
 scale, as much is paid for dead work as for raising the ore. Not- 
 withstanding that this fact is well known to mine agents and 
 proprietors of mines, no attempt has been made to classify and 
 arrange the phenomena, ascertained to exist in Alston Moor and 
 the adjacent districts, by the extensive explorations which have 
 been made in the veins during the last hundred and twenty years. 
 Had this been done forty or fifty years ago, the risk of mining 
 
 * ' Novum Organum,' Lib. i. Ap. 92. 
 
 t " Ratio, quEC ex rebus perceptis, adid quodnon peroipiebatur, adducit." — Cic. 
 Acad. Qwsstiones, lib. iv., 8. 26. 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 operations, in these districts at least, would have been much di- 
 minished, and large sums spent abortively would have been saved. 
 
 So expensive are mining explorations, that it is absolutely 
 necessary, for all who aspire to project and conduct such works, 
 " to determine not to conjecture and divine, but to find out and 
 know ;" and they may rest assured that " neither genius, thought, 
 nor argument can be, substituted for this labour, search, and 
 inspection {mundan(Bperamhulatiom)." Their fii?st step must be to 
 obtain a knowledge as perfect as possible of the geological struc- 
 ture of the district, and, as there is a natural antipathy to descend 
 below the Earth's surface, should this prevent them making the 
 necessary observations, they certainly are unfit to discharge the 
 duties they are expected to perform ; and their interference must 
 prove prejudicial, if not ruinous, to the interests of the pro- 
 prietors of the mines.*' 
 
 This labour of personal observation should be pursued unre- 
 mittingly, as it is the nature of mining works to efface the 
 
 * The passage — from which the extracts in this paragraph are taken — was, 
 when written, applicable to the state of science in general. It is, however, 
 so peculiarly appropriate to the science of mining at the present time, that I can- 
 not forbear giving it and the two short succeeding paragraphs entire. " Verum 
 iis, quibus non oonjicere et hariolari, sed invenire et scire propositum est ; quique 
 Don simiolas et fabulas mundorum comminisci, sed hujus ipsius veri mundi natu- 
 rum introspicere et velut dissecare iu aninio habent ; omnia a rebus ipsis petenda 
 sunt. Neque huic labori, et inquisitioni, ac mundanse perambulationi, ulla inge- 
 nii, aut meditationis, aut argumentationis substitutio, aut compensatio sufBcere 
 potest ; non si omnia omnium ingenia coiemit, Itaque aut hoc prorsus haben- 
 dum, aut negotium in perpetuum deserendum. Ad hunc vero usque diem ita cum 
 hominibus actum est, ut minime mirum sit, si natura sui copiam non faciat. 
 
 " Nam primo, sensus ipsius informatio, et deserens et fallens : ohservatio, indili- 
 gens et infequalis, et tanquam fortuita ; traditio, vana et ex rumore : practioa 
 operi intenta et servilis : vis experimentalis, cseca, stupida, vaga, et prserupta : 
 denique historia naturaUs, levis et inops : vitiosissemam materiam iutellectui ad 
 philosophiam et scieutias congesserunt. 
 
 " Deinde, prrepostera argumentandi subtUitas et ventilatio, serum rebus plane 
 desperatis tentat remedium : nee negotium uUo modo restituit, aut errores aeparat. 
 Itaque nulla spes majoris augmenti ac progressus sita est, nisi in restauratione 
 c[uadam scientianim." — Bacon's Inst. Magna. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 phenomena tliey bring to light. The works frequently close up 
 soon after they are made, or are abandoned ; and even when adits 
 and other openings are preserved by walls, &o. the very means 
 of keeping them open prevent further inspection. When walls 
 or timber do not intervene, deposits of dirt, lime, or oxide of 
 iron conceal everytliing from view almost as effectually. Hence, 
 everything should be carefully observed and recorded when the 
 openings are made. 
 
 Impressed with the importance of research, and careful in- 
 vestigations in preventing an undue expenditure in mining 
 works, about the latter part of the year 1847 I commenced 
 copying numerous plans of the Alston Manor, and the adjacent 
 ones, and resurveyed carefully the whole of the Nenthead dis- 
 trict both internally and externally. My principal object was, if 
 possible, ]to find out some particular condition, or rather pheno- 
 menon, which as the cause of ore deposits invariably co-existed 
 with them ; and thus throw some light on the distribution of 
 lead ore in veins. I need hardly inform the student of Nature 
 that these investigations proved a total failure. They convinced 
 me, however, of the foUy of pursuing such inquiries in the mazes 
 of experience, without any theory, or guiding principle of 
 causation. 
 
 A few years later, I had some reasons for concluding that 
 increased responsibilities in connexion with the Nenthead mines 
 devolved upon me. I then began to investigate the matter still 
 more carefully, and endeavoured to look upon the phenomena 
 connected with the rich portion, and those connected with the 
 poor portion of the same vein, as two distinct machines, each 
 having separate functions to perform. What these were, was 
 the problem attempted to be solved. Whether this is done 
 correctly or not will remain for the scientific reader to determine. 
 The subject, however, has cost me much labour and thought ; 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and should I not succeed in unfolding a principle of causation, 
 and that, one the most important to mining interests^ I may 
 be allowed at least the credit of collecting and arranging a large 
 number of facts illustrating some other principle that is true. 
 It may however be observed, that the principle of causation, 
 ■which the following pages, but more particularly those of the 
 second book, are intended to unfold, has enabled me, in most 
 instances, to anticipate the results of trials, made in the Nenthead 
 veins in the upper beds. 
 
 This principle of causation appears also to sustain the various 
 characters of truth, " an agreement with facts such as will stand 
 the most patient and rigid inquiry ; a provision for predicting 
 truly the results of untried cases; a consilience of induction 
 from various classes of facts ; and a progressive tendency of the 
 scheme to simplicity and unity."* Mistakes may however 
 occur, without affecting its truth, for careful inductions must 
 often be made in order to bring some particular case under the 
 general law. Eclipses of the sun and moon may be calculated 
 with great exactness from necessary laws ; the truth of which is 
 altogether independent of the falhbUity of those who make the 
 calculations. 
 
 The first book of this work wiU relate to the geology of the 
 district, and the laws of the formation and direction of veins. It 
 is not designed to instruct those deeply versed in the science of 
 physical geology ; but a far more numerous class engaged with 
 practical mining. That portion, which wiU be devoted to veins, 
 may serve to dispel the common error, that veins may exist any- 
 where, and that no principle can be discovered to guide the 
 miner in searching for them, or lessen the hazard of his expen- 
 sive explorations. 
 
 " Dr. WhewelVs 'N6vum Organon Keuovatum,' page 128. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 Tbe second book will relate chiefly to the filling up of veins 
 with lead ore. As the most natural arrangement, I intend to 
 follow the order and succession of ideas, as gradually unfolded in 
 my own mind. I can hardly hope that the foundation of facts, 
 on which the reasoning (as well as the .construction of the ac- 
 companying map) will depend, is in all cases free from error.- 
 These must necessarily occur, in a first attempt of this kind ; 
 and can only be removed by the suggestions of those interested 
 in the investigations. I have however taken much pains to 
 ascertain their correctness, and not unfrequently has theory, 
 which the facts are intended to support, led to farther inquiry 
 and the correction of the latter. To delay the publication of a 
 work of this kind until perfected, would prevent its publication 
 altogether. Perhaps I may be permitted to adopt the apology 
 of an eastern writer, though somewhat modified : " What cannot 
 be known with perfect precision, ought not to be totally neg- 
 lected, for a knowledge somewhat imperfect is better than the 
 ignorance of the whole,"* 
 
 As to the execution of the work, I beg the indulgence of the 
 highly educated reader, as it has not been my lot to obtain the 
 inestimable boon of a careful literary training, without which, 
 few ever attain the art of writing purely and perspicuously. 
 Besides, had I possessed this advantage, the distraction of thought 
 unavoidably caused by the performance of official duties, neces- 
 sarily tends to render the style unequal, and the chain of ideas 
 somewhat broken and disconnected, especially upon a difficult 
 subject depending upon long and intricate investigations, 
 carried on in a locality where there is no assistance to be ob- 
 tained from scientific libraries, or intercourse with scientific 
 men. The apology of Sir Thomas Browne is likely to be more 
 
 * Oaokley's 'IDstory of the Saracens.' 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 applicable to the pages which have to follow, than to the work 
 to which they were originally prefixed. 
 
 " And first we crave exceeding pardon in the audacity of the 
 attempt ; humbly acknowledging a work of such concernment 
 unto truth, and difficulty in itself, did well deserve the conjunc- 
 tion of many heads. And surely more advantageous had it 
 been unto truth, to have fallen into the endeavours of some co- 
 operating advancers, that might have performed it to the life, 
 and added authority thereto ; which the privacy of our condition, 
 and unequal abilities cannot expect. Whereby notwithstanding 
 we have not been diverted ; nor have our soKtary attempts been 
 so discouraged, as to despair the favourable book of learning 
 upon our single and unsupported endeavours. 
 
 " Nor have we let fall our pen upon discouragement of contra- 
 diction, unbelief, and difficulty of dissuasion from radicated 
 behefs, and points of high prescription ; although we are very 
 sensible how hardly teaching years do learn, what roots old age 
 contracteth into errors, and how such as are but acorns in our 
 younger brows grow oaks in our elder heads, and become in- 
 flexible into the powerfuUest arm of reason. Although we have 
 beheld, what cold requitals others have found in their several 
 redemptions of truth ; and how their ingenuous enquiries have 
 been dismissed with censure, and obloquy of singularities."* 
 
 ' Pseudodoxia Bpidemica.' 
 
BOOK I. 
 
 THE FORMATION AND GEOLOGICAL STEUCTURE OF THE 
 MINING DISTRICTS OF ALSTON MOOR. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE LAWS WHICH HAVE REGULATED THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE IN GEEAT BEITAIN. 
 
 When we endeavour to trace the causes by which the present 
 state of things, upon the surface and in the interior of the 
 Earth, has been evolved, we only proceed a short distance 
 until the twilight of uncertainties shrouds many of them from 
 our view ; and though all of them extend in linked succession 
 through an incalculable antiquity, yet it is only some that have 
 recorded their effects in "Nature's infinite book of secrecy." 
 The analogy of past events to those effected on the surface and 
 interior of the Earth, by causes now in operation, forms the key 
 by which the stony records are deciphered. Of many events 
 that have transpired, no records exist, or, as they extend into 
 the past, are dimmed by the effacing touches of ceaseless mu- 
 tation or perpetual change. 
 
 The greater portion of the knowledge we possess respecting 
 the interior of the Earth is the result of the labours of many 
 eminent geologists during the l3,st fifty or sixty years ; and the 
 least disputed portions of that knowledge, are those relating to 
 the chemical composition of all kiads of rocks, and the order of 
 succession of the sedimentary ones — from the lowest point 
 where they are metamorphosed, or their distinctive charac- 
 teristics obliterated by Plutonic agency, to the latest deposits, 
 now being effected, ia the oceans and seas which surround the 
 dry land. These rocks they have classified and separated into 
 
 D 
 
14 THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 
 certain groups, the exact relative position of each being well 
 defined, at least as they are found to exist in the British islands. 
 
 The lowest of these groups is termed the Cambrian. This 
 group of sedimentary beds rests upon Granite, and contains few 
 organic remains. They were formerly known by the names of 
 Lower Greywacke, Mica-Schist, and Quartz rocks ; and are well 
 developed in North Wales, and the lake district of Cumber- 
 land. Sir E. Murchison, relying on the measurements of the 
 government surveyors, made at Longmynd, estimates the total 
 thickness of these azoic rocks at not less than 26,000 feet. The 
 veins traversing them often contain copper ores, near the junction 
 of intrusive trap rocks. 
 
 Upon these metamorphic rocks rests the older Palaeozoic 
 group. It is composed of two divisions, respectively termed 
 Upper and Lower Silurian. The former consists of the Ludlow 
 and Wenlock beds ; the latter of Caradoc and Llandillo flags. 
 All these rocks are formed of alternating sandstones, limestones, 
 and shale; the greater portion, however, is composed of the 
 last ; and they all contain fossils which are of a marine charac- 
 ter.* Their thickness is estimated by the same authority at 
 30,000 feet, making a total with the imderlying Cambrians, 
 which bear a somewhat similar, though more crystaUine aspect, 
 of 56,000 feet — or a pile of subaqueous deposits reaching to the 
 stupendous height of upwards of ten miles ! f 
 
 * " The strata comprised in the Silurian system present all the usual charac- 
 ters of marine sedimentary deposits. The fossils comprise immense numbers of 
 extinct crustaceana, and of brachlopodous mollusca, some marine woi-ms, and 
 many cephalopoda, crinoidea, and corals ; a few placoid fishes, are the only ves- 
 tiges of vertebrated animals ; and fucoid plants the sole indications of the vegetar 
 ble kingdom ; not a vestige of any terrestrial animal or plant has been discovered. 
 These organic remains belong for the most part to peculiar types, some of which 
 extend into the upper Palseozoic formations, hut none occur in the secondary 
 deposits." — Dr. Mantell's 'Wonders of Geology,' p. 803. 
 
 t 'Siluria' (first edition), p. 175. 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 15 
 
 Eemembering that this vast thickness of rocks is -widely dis- 
 seminated, not only in the British Isles, but also in the conti- 
 nents of Europe, Asia, America, and Australia, and that the 
 greatest part of them is composed of finely comminuted par- 
 ticles of rocks which must have had a prior existence, and which, 
 being elevated above the level of the sea, formed shores to be 
 washed and disintegrated by the breakers ; while at the same 
 time, their whole elevated surface miist have been subjected to 
 gradual degradation by pluvial and fluvial forces, and the par- 
 ticles of disintegrated matter, transported by the latter to the 
 ocean, upon whose subsiding bed, they were spread out and 
 consoKdated ; and remembering, also, the slowness of operations 
 identical in character with those now being effected upon the 
 surface of the earth by the same forces ; the mind grows giddy, 
 not only with the contemplation of the ." abyss of time," but also 
 of space iUled with these groups of rocks. 
 
 The next strata, in the order of upward succession, are the 
 Devonian, forming the lowest portion of the upper Palssozoic 
 rocks, and so well known as the Old Eed Sandstone, from the 
 description of their physical development and zoological contents 
 in Scotland, by the lamented Hugh Miller. In the Lake district of 
 Cumberland they exist as beds of coarse conglomerate, resting 
 unconformably on the slates. A bed of conglomerate alter- 
 nating regularly with the other strata, bassets to the surface on 
 the western escarpment of Cross Fell. If this conglomerate is 
 identical with those similar beds on the west side of the valley 
 of the Eden, there is reason to suppose that the Old Ked Sand- 
 stone is more developed under the base of Cross Fell, or on the 
 east side of the Penine fault, than in the Lake district ; but 
 whether in the former district the Old. Eed Sandstone rests 
 conformably or unconformably upon the slates, is not known ; 
 their junction being below the base of the mountain. 
 
 d2 
 
16 THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 
 The other groups of the newer Palseozoio rocks, consisting 
 of the Mountain Limestone, Millstone Grit, Coal-measures, and 
 New Eed Sandstone, repose conformably upon the Old Eed 
 Sandstone ; and in the north of England, excepting the last, 
 they all pass iato each other by regular alternation, and are 
 well developed in the tract of country, about sixty miles broad, 
 lying on the west side of a line drawn from Nottingham to 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed, a distance of about two hundred miles. 
 The New Eed Sandstone is also widely developed on the east 
 side of the island, and as we have observed, its beds are not con- 
 formable to those of the Coal-measures. The line separating 
 these two groups of rocks extends from Nottingham to Tyne- 
 mouth, and slightly curves to the west opposite the Lake district 
 of Cumberland. 
 
 Mr. Page, in his advanced ' Text-Book of Geology,' observes 
 " that the Mountain or Carboniferous Limestone is one of the 
 most distinct and unmistakable in the whole crust of the earth. 
 Whether consisting of one thick, reef-like bed of limestone, or 
 of many beds with alternating shales and gritty sandstones, its 
 peculiar corals, encrinites, and shells distinguish it at once from 
 all other series of strata. In fact, it foims in the rocky crust a 
 zone, so marked and peculiar, that it becomes a guiding-post, not 
 only to the miner in the Carboniferous system, but to the geo- 
 logist in his researches among other strata." In the district 
 whose boundaries we have roughly indicated, the Mountain 
 Limestone is well developed, and constitutes the principal portion 
 of these rocks in England, They are, however, more widely 
 developed in Ireland, where, in connection with the Devonian 
 group, they cover four-fifths of the island.* They are also widely 
 developed in Eussia, North America, and many other parts of 
 the world. 
 
 * Johnstone's ' Physical Atlas.' 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 17 
 
 In the north of England its total thickness is about 2800 feet, 
 and consists of a series of alternating strata of limestone, sand- 
 stone, and shale, and one layer of trap rock. The upper por- 
 tion of this series bassets on the sides of the valleys of the 
 higher parts of the South Tyne, Wear, and Tees, forming the 
 rocks of the lead mining districts. In Alston Moor, the aggregate 
 thickness of these rocks is 1037 feet, and they are composed of 
 183 feet of limestone, 349 of sandstone, and 505 feet of shale. The 
 bed or layer of basaltic rock may be considered as forming the 
 base of the Alston Moor mineral strata, and it only out-crops in 
 two or three places. The lower portion of the Mountain Limestone 
 bassets on the western escarpment of Cross Fell. The section 
 Plate I., drawn to a scale of 200 feet in an inch, shows the total 
 thickness of the Mountain Limestone, as weU as the comparative 
 thickness of each stratum. These, however, vary much in diiferent 
 localities : the section can therefore only be considered as a 
 general representation. In the Alston Moor district, it is rarely 
 that any particular stratum is altogether wanting. In the Tees- 
 side and Troutbeck mines, the strata above the Whin vary con- 
 siderably in order and thickness from those which out-crop near 
 the Tyne river at Garrigill, as may be observed ^by comparing 
 the section Plate II. with the general section Plate I., which may 
 considered a faithful representation of the strata in the latter 
 district. In the Tees-side district, a greater thickness intervenes 
 between the top of the Whin and the bottom of the Scar Lime- 
 stone, than in the Garrigill district ; but in the latter, the Whin 
 is very considerably thicker than in the former, and the distance 
 in each case between the bottom of the Whin and the bottom of 
 the Scar Limestone is very nearly equal. The Copper hazles are 
 also better developed in the Tees-side than in the Garrigill dis- 
 trict. At Long Cleugh mine, the Firestone stratum is 54 feet in 
 thickness, but not more than half a mUe in a north-west direction. 
 
18 THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 
 it only exists as a thin bed of famp, while the Ironstone in the 
 same district increases from a few inches to a stratum of very 
 hard sandstone 12 or 14 feet thick. The limestone strata vary 
 the least, being of a uniform thickness throughout wide areas. 
 The beds of shale vary to some extent more than the limestone 
 strata, and the sandstones vary to a stiU greater extent, especially 
 those of a coarse description. The limestones generally repose 
 upon a bed of sandstone ; if a bed of shale intervenes, it is rarely 
 more than a few inches thick. 
 
 In addition to the minor variations which occur in all locali- 
 ties, this group of rocks, in the district under consideration, is 
 subjected to a general modification of its constituent parts by 
 the substitution of limestone for sandstone and shale, in a direc- 
 tion from north to south. Accordiag to Mr. Forster, who quotes 
 from Mr. Farey's Derbyshire report, its lower part in this dis- 
 trict is formed of 870 feet thick of limestone, with three beds of 
 igneous rock interspersed, whose aggregate thickness is 240 feet, 
 surmounted, as Mr. PhilKps observes, " by shale with their alter- 
 nations of sandstone, limestone, ironstone, &c., 500 feet, and the 
 hills are crowned by bold ranges of MiUstone Grit, and its 
 accompanying sandstones 360 feet in thickness."* 
 
 The Great Limestone of Alston Moor can be traced to Lune- 
 dale in Yorkshire, and from thence to Wensleydale, and at each 
 place the variation in thickness is not great. In the Long 
 Cleugh mine, Nenthead district, it is nearly twelve fathoms 
 thick ; in Wensleydale it is called the " Twelve fathoms lime- 
 stone." Its thickness is also imiform in an east and west direc- 
 tion ; from the furthest point it has been traced eastward in the 
 Derwent mines to the western side of Cross Fell. From Coal 
 Cleugh it can be traced to Cupola Bridge in Whitfield, where it 
 
 ' Manual of Geology,' p. 167. 
 
J>vBvm/i)ryf.Wa2Za£e^. 
 
 SECTION ofOie Stratcua 
 
 / Me,f 
 
 PZAIE II. 
 
 
 
 Zjrne^ttme ..- 
 
 Slabfrlfa^U 
 
 Saxj- Zimeattnu. 
 
 I*. ajicL JlJa/^ 
 
 .... 219 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,— 
 
 ^ -^=^ 
 
 BoAle/ 
 
 m^nJ^ 
 
 Postf Xjme^Ftont' . - 
 
 JJix/^^ 
 
 Mccte 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whctstem S. 
 
 WHIN 
 
 f^^~ 
 
 Zxmegtcm' 
 
 Rate, 
 
 iTeH^Zime 
 
 
 = ^ 
 
 
 
 
 SCALE, 200 FEE! 
 
 r PER 
 
 NCH . 
 
 

 
 SECTION of r/iC' Strata/ at FaUowKeM, 
 lA'ertfuanberland' ■ 
 
 
 PLATE m. 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 LOCAL KiMES 
 
 STRATA 
 
 S. STOKE 
 
 PLATE 
 
 LIME. 1 
 
 / 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 w 
 
 11 
 n 
 
 K 
 Ill- 
 is 
 K 
 
 n 
 
 !S 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 2S 
 
 TU- 
 % 
 
 Soil OayM. 
 Mate ajid' <firMe,£cd6 
 
 \ oandstane' 
 
 - m 
 
 
 42 
 11 
 
 n 
 
 25 
 
 SZ 
 I 70 
 
 SU- 
 23 
 31 
 10 
 61 
 
 3S 
 
 ei 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 2U0 
 
 u- 
 
 ISO 
 30 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 S6 
 
 1Z 
 
 in- 
 
 e 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 n 
 
 9 
 
 3S 
 11 
 
 U- 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0rey-J}eAs .„ 
 
 ^a7W[gtorbty .-..^ 
 
 GirXUyBuU _ 
 
 Sa/iZe^ 
 
 . . :^:.. :.'. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bastctrd. Zutne - 
 
 Jji^ht/ Coloured/ Juune/-- --- 
 
 
 
 
 
 GR^AT LTMESTOm: 
 
 GreyBeds 
 
 Zimestorief^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ^TuW Coal/ 
 
 
 
 Tyne/ toUcmj Bime, .._ 
 
 ^ muestjm^BecU. 
 
 WHIN 
 
 .EoL^U/ 
 
 iI^vBifne^tane- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Drawrn^iy-'W.V^illact/ . 
 SCALE , 200 FEET IN ONE INCH 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 19 
 
 sinks below the bed of the Allen. It, however, reappears at 
 the surface on the north side of the Tyne, in the Haydon Bridge 
 mining district, where the Tumbler beds are separated from 
 the more compact limestone by a thick bed of plate or shale and 
 another of sandstone. The Tumbler beds are also divided into 
 two portions by a bed of sandstone. These changes are shown 
 upon the section of the strata of this district, Plate III. In Alston 
 Moor the Tumbler beds are separated from the Limestone by a 
 thin bed of shale, not more than 12 inches thick. 
 
 The Great Limestone invariably contains large numbers of 
 organic remains, as shells, madrepore, corals, &c. ; in consequence, 
 it must have been deposited in a sea of moderate and uniform 
 depth. Upon a section on the Une of the Penine range of 
 mountains, or in a direction north and south, and representing 
 the strata as originally deposited, this limestone ought to be 
 drawn in a horizontal position ; at least, in that portion compre- 
 hended between Cross Fell and Wensleydale. 
 
 Assuming that the Great Mebnerby Scar Limestone was de- 
 posited uniformly throughout the same wide area, and in a sea 
 of moderate depth, we might expect to find some correspondence 
 in thickness at the two places between the top of the Great 
 Limestone and the bottom of the Melmerby Scar Limestone, 
 At Cross Fell, according to section Plate I., which agrees with Mr. 
 Forster's, the depth from the top of the former to the bottom of 
 the latter is 1200 feet. The section of the Mountain Limestone 
 and Millstone Grit in Wensleydale, as given^^by Mr. Phillips, is 
 
 as follows : — 
 
 Feet. 
 
 i Coarse and fine sandstone, shales, and coal ] . 
 
 Coarse, fine, and slaty sandstones, shales, cherty beds, and I .. 
 coal I 
 
 Millstone Grit of Inglehorough, shales, cherts, and coal j 
 Upper I Thin limestones, sandstone, shale i 
 
 Limestone ] Main, or 12 fathoms limestone > 200 
 
 Belt. I Shales, sandstones, and coal underset limestone. I 
 
20 THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 
 Feet. 
 
 I Alternations of flagstones, of various quality, in great abund- ^ 
 
 anoe, with shales, coal, hard gritstones, and three or four I g^Q 
 
 strata of limestone from 6 to 30 feet thick. The hiack | 
 
 marble of Dent is nearly at the bottom of this group. .' 
 
 Scar ( Limestones of great thickness, with partings prmcipally of 1 jqq 
 
 Limestones, t shale; ' 
 
 The exact position of the "Twelve fathoms limestone" is not 
 given in the above section ; but it appears from the order to be 
 comprehended in the central part of the Upper limestone belt ; 
 consequently, the distance from the bottom of the Scar Limestone 
 to the top of this limestone does not differ materially from that 
 intervening between the bottom of the Melmerby Scar Lime- 
 stone and the Great Limestone, "as developed in Alston Moor ; 
 and probably if very accurate measurements were taken at each 
 place the agreement would be found still more close. This thick- 
 ness also corresponds with that of the mineral limestones and 
 toadstones of Derbyshire. We may therefore conclude that the 
 deposition of the Melmerby Scar Limestone, and the "Scar Lime- 
 stone of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, took place at the same period, 
 and upon a sea-bottom nearly horizontal ; and also, that during 
 the long period intervening between the commencement of the 
 deposition of the Melmerby Scar Limestone and the termination 
 of that of the Great Limestone, the rate of subsidence was nearly 
 uniform throughout the wide area occupied by the Mountain 
 Limestone in the central part of England. 
 
 If these views are admitted to be correct, then the series of 
 beds comprehended between the top of the Great Limestone and 
 Grindstone Sill in Alston Moor will correspond with the lime- 
 stone shale of Derbyshire, the thickness in each case being 480 
 feet ; and the Millstone Grit, which is fully developed in Alston 
 Moor, will correspond to the grits of Derbyshire and Wensley- 
 dale, with some little variation in thickness. It is not impro- 
 bable, however, that the MiUstone Grit on the tops of the moun- 
 
DEBBYSmRE 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 T— 
 
 CO 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ■o 
 
 m 
 71 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 INGLEBOURGH 
 
 JRMSGXONDALE 
 
 GAKRIGILI,. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE (3 
 
 OF OERBY<SHIRE \ Cq 
 
 ^ 1^ ^ t' 5. f 
 
 ^ I ^ 1^1 
 ?o .^ ?^ 
 
 
 FJLLOymJEW 
 
 tti 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 21 
 
 tains of Derbyshire and Wensleydale may have been degraded 
 by denudation. In Alston Moor the thickness of strata inter- 
 vening between the Great Limestone and Broekwell's coal is 
 935 feet. In Wensleydale, according to the section of Mr. 
 Phillips, it is upwards of 700 feet, and in Derbyshire it is not 
 less than 840 feet. 
 
 The following section, Plate lY., will show more clearly the 
 views we have attempted to express in the preceding para- 
 graphs ; it denotes the regular and horizontal manner in which 
 the strata were originally thrown down. The deposition of the 
 sandstones in the north of England must have been equally 
 slow with that of the limestone of Derbyshire. It is also 
 necessary to observe, that the space occupied by the Toadstones, 
 but for their overflow, would have been filled with limestone, 
 and comprehended in a single stratum 1110 feet or upwards in 
 thickness. 
 
 At Fallow Field, near Hexham, the space intervening 
 between the bottom of the Whin and the top of the G-reat Lime- 
 stone, corresponds very nearly to the space intervening be- 
 tween the same beds in Alston Moor. The correspondence in 
 the upper portion is less striking, and may be due to some 
 local and unequal rate of subsidence. 
 
 The law of deposition appears evident. The organically 
 derived Kmestones must have been deposited in a wide sea, 
 the bottom of which, throughout its whole extent, was gradually 
 subsiding, probably at unequal rates in time. The space 
 afforded by this subsidence was less than the bulk of matter 
 deposited. The sea would therefore be gradually fiUed ; and 
 the sandy sediment, derived from the waste of its coasts, and the 
 deltas of rivers, would be spread by currents in an orderly 
 manner upon the limestones which had previously been de- 
 posited in its deeper parts. After the Great Limestone was 
 
22 THE DEPOSITION OP THE 
 
 deposited tlie rate of subsidence became slower, and a shallow 
 sea was filled with sandy sediment forming the upper part of 
 the Mountain Limestone of Alston Moor, or the shales of Derby- 
 shire, and, ultimately, the Millstone Grit and Coal-measures ; 
 the seams of coal in the latter resulting from a luxuriant vege- 
 tation due to a hot climate, or, at least, to plants growing in one 
 of equable temperature, upon extensive marshes, which such 
 conditions were likely to produce. 
 
 Although it does not form a part of our plan to enter into 
 considerations respecting the geological structure of the neigh- 
 bouring districts, we may, notwithstanding, be permitted to ob- 
 serve, that a portion of the Cumberland and Westmoreland Lake 
 districts was probably dry land during the whole of the long 
 period embracing the beginniag and termination of the depo- 
 sition of the Carboniferous system, or newer Palaeozoic rocks. 
 Those districts may have existed as a number of low islands sur- 
 rounded by seas of moderate depth, which were gradually filled, 
 first with the conglomerates of the Old Eed Sandstone, and after- 
 wards with limestone ; forming, as Professor Sedgwick observes, 
 " a fringing coral reef round the cluster of the Lake mountains."* 
 The bottom of this sea must have subsided slower than that to 
 the east of the Penine fault ; or perhaps it ceased to subside 
 after the formation of the coral reef, and during the whole of 
 the time of the deposition of the Millstone Grit and Coal- 
 measures. On the south and west sides, where the great coal 
 field of Lancashire and that of Whitehaven are now worked, 
 the rate of subsidence appears to have been very similar. 
 
 The Carboniferous system is more developed in South Wales 
 than in the north of England. According to Mr. Phillips, " the 
 Scar Limestone almost unmixed with any sedimentary matter 
 is 1895 feet thick. From this we may infer that its deposition 
 
 * * Letters on the Lake District,' 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 23 
 
 took place at a greater distance from the shore, and in a deeper 
 sea. Ultimately, however, at the time of the formation of the 
 Millstone Grrit and Coal-measures, the conditions must have been 
 very similar, as will appear from the following general section : — 
 
 Feet. 
 Coal formation — no limestone (plants) . . .. .. 11,000 
 
 Millstone grit (called Farewell Eock, <fcc.). plants . . 300 
 
 Soar limestone (corals, &c.) .. .. .. .. 1,900 
 
 Lower shales, limestone (fish-beds, &o., a few plants) . . 400 
 
 Total .. .. .. .. .. 13,600 
 
 Or, an aggregate thickness of nearly two and three quarter 
 miles."* 
 
 In Scotland the limestones of the lower part of the Car- 
 boniferous system are very thin, as wiU. appear from the follow- 
 ing section of the rocks in the country between Edinburgh and 
 
 Glasgow. 
 
 Feet. 
 Bed sandstone (carboniferous) 
 
 Alternations of sandstone and shales, with coal and iron- 
 stone .. .. .. .. .. •■ 130-0 
 
 Limestone .. .. .. .. •• •■ I'O 
 
 Alternations, &c., five beds of coal 4 feet thick, and many 
 
 others less .. .. •• ■• ■• 1685'0 
 
 ' Gare' limestone . . • . ■ • • • • • 4: • 9 
 
 Intermediate strata .. .. •• ■■ ■■ 150-0 
 
 Ochrey limestone . . . . • . • • ■ • 3-0 
 
 Sandstone, with shale, &o., one coal .. .. •• 51-0 
 
 Limestone .. .. ■• •• •- ■• ^'^ 
 
 Alternations, &c., four coals of 2 or 3 feet, many ironstones 405 • 
 
 1st Cawmey limestone .. •• •• ■■ 1'6 
 
 Shale .. .. .. ■■ •- -• 8-6 
 
 1st Ednshaw limestone .. ■• •• •• 2-0 
 
 Alternations, and one little coal •• ■■ •• 16 "4 
 
 2nd Kinshaw limestone .. •• •■ •■ 2-10 
 
 Shale, with ironstone bulls .. •• •• ■• 29-5 
 
 2nd Oawmey limestone •• •■ ■• -- *'6 
 
 Shale, with ironstone band .. ■• • " 12- 
 
 Foulband limestone . . .. ■• •• -- 3-6 
 
 Alternations, &c., one coal of 1 foot 8 inches .. ■■ 86-0 
 
 Carried forward .. ■• 2580-4 
 
 * Phillips' 'Manual of Geology,' p. 169. 
 
24 
 
 THE DEPOSITION OF THE 
 
 Brought forward 
 3rd Cawmey limestone 
 Shale, with ironstone band . . 
 Main Umestone 
 
 Shale and fire-clay, with one coal 
 Coarse Hmestone, with intermediate band of fire-clay 
 Sandstone, with shale and a little coal . . 
 Limestone . . 
 
 Fire-clay sandstone, and shale, with one small coal 
 Oyster-shell limestone (produeta, &c.) . . 
 Alternations of shale, whitish sandstone and fire-clay 
 (Old red sandstone to an unknown depth.) 
 
 * Total .. 
 
 Feet. 
 2580-4 
 
 2-6 
 20-0 
 
 4-6 
 29-0 
 
 5-6 
 54-0 
 
 2-0 
 34-0 
 
 4-0 
 104-0 
 
 2839-10 
 
 The aggregate thickness of the limestones in this section 
 only amounts to 45 feet, or, about 1 in 62. 
 
 The same law of change from sandstones, shales, &c., to 
 limestones, in a direction from north to south, prevails also in 
 Ireland. 
 
 We have observed that during the whole period of the depo- 
 sition of the Mountain Limestone in Great Britain, the bottom 
 of the sea and its shores were slowly subsiding, while other 
 lands, and probably those from whose waste the sedimentary 
 matter was derived, must have been emerging from beneath the 
 waters. As sandy matter must have formed the shores of this 
 ancient sea, it would appear that the land lay to the north, 
 with a sea of vast extent stretching to the south, very slowly 
 but gradually increasing in depth from the shore. If the same 
 law prevails in that wide extent of country, formed of Carbon- 
 iferous and Permean rocks, triangular in form, and extending 
 from the Gulf of Riga, in the Baltic Sea, to the Ural mountains, 
 and bounded on the north-west by the Gulf of Finland, the 
 lakes Ladoga, Onega, and the eastern shores of the White Sea ; 
 one might be tempted to suppose, that when the Mountain 
 
 * ' Encyclopasdia Britanuica,' vol. xv., p. 203 (eighth edition). 
 
MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. 25 
 
 Limestone was thrown down, a continent of vast, superficial 
 extent, stretching from these lakes &c. to the shores of Labra- 
 dor, Hudson's Bay, and Barrow Straits, and comprising a vast 
 tract of country now submerged in the Atlantic, of which the 
 continent of Greenland is a portion, extended to the North 
 Pole. In this case, on the continent of America, it might be 
 expected, in a very general view, that the thickness of the 
 limestone or deep sea strata would increase in a direction 
 from east to the west. "The surveys of Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia show that the south-east was the quarter whence 
 the coarser materials of these strata were derived, so that the 
 ancientland lay in that direction. The conglomerate which forms 
 the general base of the Coal-measures is 1500 feet thick in the 
 Sharp Mountain, where I saw it near Pottisville ; whereas it 
 has only a thickness of 500 feet, about thirty miles to the north- 
 west, and dwindles gradually away when followed still further 
 in the same direction, till its thickness is reduced to 30 feet. 
 The limestones, on the other hand, of the Coal-measures 
 augment as we trace them westward. Similar observations 
 have been made in regard to the Silurian and Devonian forma- 
 tions in New York ; the sandstones and all the mechanically 
 formed rocks thinning out as they go westward, and the lime- 
 stones thickening, as it were, at their expense.. It is, therefore, 
 clear, that the ancient land was to the east, where the Atlantic 
 now is ; the deep sea, with its banks of coral and shells to the 
 west, or where the hydrographical basin of the Mississippi is now 
 situated."* 
 
 Lyell's ' Manual ' (fom-th edition), p. 329. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 OF THE ELEVATION OF THE EOCKS OF ALSTON MODE TO 
 THE POSITION THEY NOW OCCUPY, AND THE LAWS WHICH 
 HAVE EEGULATED THE DENUDATION OF THE COinSTTEY. 
 
 DuEiNG the time of the deposition of the Carboniferous system 
 in the central parts of England, the elevatory movements, if any 
 took place, must have been of very limited extent. Certainly, 
 there is no evidence to show that any interveniug portion has 
 suffered loss by denudation, which could not but have taken 
 place had the rocks been elevated above the surface for any 
 lengthened period of time. And from the extensive mining ope- 
 rations, we should certainly become acquainted with the fact, by 
 observing the strata deposited, afterwards resting unconformably 
 upon the denudated and abraded surface. Indeed the continuity 
 of the soft shale and coal seams throughout wide areas is truly sur- 
 prisiag. It is rarely that even a rOl has cut a passage into them 
 when they formed the shores of the sea. It is only in a district 
 perfectly flat that the conditions necessary to produce such results 
 could prevail ; and such districts must have been occasionally 
 covered with extensive marshes, whose luxuriant vegetable 
 growths, after subsequent subsidences had taken place, were 
 embedded and compressed into coal seams, by fresh layers of 
 sedimentary matter deposited upon them. 
 
 The Carboniferous system was brought to a close in Great 
 
DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY. 27 
 
 Britain, by the elevation of the land. Apparently, this at first 
 took place either by unequal rates in limited tracts of ground, 
 or limited tracts continued to subside while other portions re- 
 mained stationary. In the north of England, the period inter- 
 vening between the close of the Coal-measures, and the depositions 
 of the Magnesian Limestone, or Permian group of rocks, evidently 
 constitutes a long geological epoch : for the matter denuded from 
 the former, before the commencement of the deposition of the 
 latter, is certainly very great. The abrasion of the Coal-measures 
 and Mountain Limestone, by breaker action, must have also taken 
 place subsequently to the commencement of the formation of the 
 Permian rocks ; the latter being not unfrequently formed of the 
 debris of the former. An instance of this kind may be seen at 
 Kirkby Stephen in Westmoreland, in the conglomerates of the 
 New Eed Sandstone. And Sir C. Lyell observes, that " near 
 Bristol, in Somersetshire, and in other counties bordering the 
 Severn, the unconformable beds of the Lower New Eed, resting 
 immediately upon the Coal, consist of a conglomerate called 
 ' Dolomitic,' because the pebbles of older rocks are cemented 
 together by a red or yellow base of Dolomite or magnesian lime- 
 stone. This conglomerate, or breccia, for the imbedded frag- 
 ments are sometimes angular, occurs in patches over the whole 
 of the downs near Bristol, filling up the hollows and irregulari- 
 ties in the Mountain Limestone, and being principally composed 
 at every spot of the debris of those rocks on which it imme- 
 diately rests. At one point we find pieces of coal shale, in 
 another of Mountain Limestone, Recognisable by its peculiar shells 
 and zoophytes."* In the north of England the Magnesian Lime- 
 stone generally Lies unconformably on the Carboniferous strata, 
 being also much less broken by elevatory forces than the latter. 
 
 ' Manual of Geology ' (fourth edition), p. 305. 
 
28 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 Taking a very general view of the district occupied by the 
 Carboniferous system in the centre of England, it is evident, 
 that if the length of time since these rocks began to emerge 
 from the deep is to be measured by the effect produced by de- 
 nudating forces ; then, the districts now occupied by the Penine 
 chain of mountains must have been elevated above the surface 
 long prior to the districts situated near the eastern coasts. It is, 
 however, questionable whether the whole of the denudation is 
 due to breaker action; large quantities of matter may have 
 been removed by the force of currents before the land fairly rose 
 above the surface. But after making every allowance for the 
 effect produced by currents, it is certain, that the great lines of 
 faults, the existence of which is evidently due to forces of elevation 
 or depression, were formed, and the whole of the country between 
 the great Penine fault and the eastern coast thrown out of its 
 original horizontal position, and more or less denuded, before the 
 deposition of the New Eed Sandstone or Magnesian Lime- 
 stone. 
 
 The greater elevation of the strata on the line of the Penine 
 range of mountains may be due either to a variation in the in- 
 tensity of the elevatory forces, to lines of weakness, or of less 
 resistance ; — or to a combination of both these causes. 
 
 We have aleady pointed out that the Mountain Limestone en- 
 circling the Silurian rocks of the Cumberland and Westmoreland 
 Lake districts is very thin, when compared with the same 
 group of rocks on the east side of the Penine fault ; and also, that 
 the rate of subsidence of the sea bottoms in these two districts 
 must have varied very considerably. We cannot conceive, how- 
 ever, of two adjoining tracts of sea bottoms subsidiug slowly, but 
 at very unequal rates, without at the same time conceiving a 
 fracture or fault being made on the line of boundary, especially 
 when the total difference in the amount of subsidence may ulti- 
 
AND DENUDATION OP THE COUNTB?. 29 
 
 mately amount to several thousand feet. Under such circum- 
 stances, the strata first thrown down must necessarily be the 
 most fractured and broken, on the line of such faults, as they are 
 lowered to greater depths. It is obvious, that under such condi- 
 tions faults may be forming at the same time that the strata in 
 which they occur are in the course of being deposited ; and after 
 the formation of a vast thickness of rocks no indication of such 
 a fault would appear at the surface. 
 
 But when the period of subsidence had terminated, and eleva- 
 tory forces began to raise the rocks from the great depths to 
 which they had sunk, it is evident, that such a line of fault 
 would not offer the same amount of resistance as the strata 
 lying consolidated and undisturbed. Nor is there anything im- 
 probable in the supposition, that the same causes which pre- 
 vented the free subsidence of the strata, on one side of such 
 faults, would also prove a preventive to their free elevation ; or 
 even, that the strata on one side of such faults might continue 
 to subside while the other was being slowly elevated. Hence 
 the greater elevation of the strata on the range of the Penine 
 mountains may be due, in some measure at least, to a line of 
 least resistance. Such a condition is certainly in harmony 
 with established laws of geological changes. 
 
 The elevation of the Carboniferous series of beds, upon the 
 sides of the mountains of the Lake district, may not have taken 
 place contemporaneously with those on the east side of the Penine 
 fault. Their elevation may be due to local volcanic causes of a 
 more active character, and limited to the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of these lulls ; while at the same time, the greater portion 
 of the valley of the Eden was lowered, affording space for the New 
 Eed Sandstone ; which reposes unconformably upon the older 
 class of rocks, and abuts against the terrace of Cross Fell. The 
 general dip of the Carboniferous beds across the valley of the 
 
 E 
 
30 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 Eden must, however, be the same as that on the east side of 
 the Penine fault. 
 
 On the east side of the Penine range of mountains, there is no 
 reason to conclude, that lines of least resistance, at aU similar to 
 that of the Penine fault, existed when the upward movement of 
 the rocks began to take place : the portions, therefore, elevated 
 higher than the rest, are due, as we have just observed, either to 
 the continued subsidence of limited tracts, while other portions 
 remained stationary or nearly so, or to a variation in the inten- 
 sity of the elevatory forces. The most remarkable of these anti- 
 clinal axes or lines of greatest elevation of the strata, is one 
 which extends eastward from the summit of Cross Fell, and curves 
 around the source of the Tyne. From thence it extends in a 
 north-easterly direction, and coincides very nearly with the 
 Heaven's-water boundaries separating the basins of the Wear and 
 Tees from that of the Tyne. At Kilhope Law, it takes a more 
 southerly direction, and probably curves around the AUenheads 
 mining district. The general strike of the beds on one side of 
 this anticlinal axis is to the north-east, or rather very nearly due 
 north ; on the contrary side, in the valleys of the Wear and 
 Tees, the geimral dip is to the south-east. 
 
 On the line of the Penine range of mountains, the beds rise 
 rapidly to the summit of Cross Fell, and from thence to the point 
 of intersection of the great Penine fault with the Standard vein. 
 This intersection takes place in the neighbourhood of Brough. 
 On the south-west side of the great Standard vein the beds dip 
 very rapidly ; in some parts of Lunedale the rate of inclination 
 is as steep as the sides of the hiUs. 
 
 We have abeady observed, that the greatest amount of denu- 
 dation has taken place in the elevated districts, where the Tyne, 
 the Wear, and the Tees take their rise ; it is remarkable, how- 
 ever, that in these districts certain lines of greatest elevation of 
 
AND DENUDATION OP THE COUNTRY. 31 
 
 the strata should have suffered the least, and in consequence 
 the range of the summits of the mountains coincides with them. 
 To the investigation of the effect of this unequal elevation of 
 the rocks upon the geological structure of the upper part of the 
 basin of the South Tyne we shall now proceed. " The pheno- 
 mena of rivers are highly instructive in theoretical geology, and 
 that abrupt changes in their courses are distinct indications of 
 variation in the nature of the formations through which they 
 flow, as well as of movements undergone by these. This law holds 
 with small rivulets as well as large streams."* 
 
 During an excursion from Lambley up the course of the Tyne 
 river, a careful observer would note that the strata rise more 
 rapidly than the bed of the river. At Eals, in the parish of 
 Knaresdale, the Great Limestone forms a foundation for the 
 bridge across the Tyne, and is gradually elevated to basset on 
 the mountain sides. At Eorkhaugh the Scar Limestone occupies 
 a similar position relatively to the bed of the river as the Great 
 Limestone at Eals, and it also rises so rapidly that a portion of 
 the town of Alston is built upon its outcropping. At GarrigiU, 
 the Great Limestone has attained an elevation on the sides of the 
 mountains of 480 feet above the bed of the river, which here 
 flows upon the Tyne bottom Limestone, and continues to do so 
 almost uninterruptedly to the point where the Great Sulphur 
 vein crosses the stream a little below Tyne head Smelt mUl. 
 
 Near to Alston the river Nent branches from the Tyne in a 
 south-east direction ; and almost immediately forms a pretty 
 cascade over the Scar Limestone, Plate V. Above the waterfall the 
 rise of the bed of this river is much more rapid than that of the 
 Tyne. Notwithstanding the rise of the beds, in a direction op- 
 posite to the flow of the stream, the strata gradually pass under 
 
 * Dr. Nicoll in Johnstone's 'Physical Atlas,' p. 2. 
 
 B 2 
 
32 THE ELEVATION Ol' THE STRATA 
 
 its bed. Hence the village of Nenthead, lying directly opposite 
 to Garrigill, is bnUt upon the Four fathoms Limestone, while the 
 latter is built upon a bed of gravel — a former bed of the river 
 Tyne — ^but occupying a position from which the Tyne bottom 
 has been removed. 
 
 A little above Alston, Black Bum mingles its waters with the 
 Tyne, after flowing for some considerable distance in an easterly 
 direction, or one nearly at right angles to the course of the 
 latter stream from Garrigill. Black Bum probably furnishes 
 two-fifths of the water which passes through the Tyne bridge at 
 Alston. It is formed by the union of two principal branches, 
 EowgUl Cleugh and Shield Waters. The former of these streams 
 flows from the highlands of Hartside and Gamblesby Fell, the 
 latter collects its waters chiefly from the north side of Cross Fell. 
 Black Burn and Shield Waters rise gently, and maintain nearly 
 the same relative position with the outcropping of the Scar 
 Limestone stratum to the neighbourhood of the Great Sulphur 
 vein. On the south side of this vein the principal stream is 
 called Cash Bum, the bed of which rises very rapidly to the 
 source of the stream near Cross Fell Smelt miQ. 
 
 South from the junction of Black Bum and the Tyne various 
 streams flow into the latter from each side of the hills. On the 
 west side the principal are Dryburn and CrossgUl ; on the east, 
 Nattras Gill, Garrigill Bum, Ashgill Burn, and Clargill Burn at 
 Tyne head. 
 
 The course of the Tyne between Haltwhistle and Tynemouth 
 is nearly parallel with the Ninety fathoms dyke, and situated 
 at no great distance to the north. Its direction from Haltwhistle 
 southward is rather more than ninety degrees from its former 
 course, as may be seen upon the best -geological maps. In con- 
 nexion with this great bend of the stream, it may be observed, 
 that on the west side, the rise of the strata is more rapid to- 
 
AND DENUDATION OP THE COUNTRY. 33 
 
 wards the summits of the Penine range of mountains than on 
 the east side, and the course of the river seems to be a general 
 boundary between the different rates of inclination. 
 
 Gilderdale and Thornup Burns flow from the west into the 
 Tyne a few miles below Alston. The inclination of the strata 
 is very rapid in a direction opposite to that in which these 
 streams flow. At the top of Hartside the bottom of the Great 
 Limestone is elevated about 1540 feet above the sea ; and the 
 difference in the amount of elevation at Hartside and Gilder- 
 dale Burn head is probably not very much. At the foot of Gil- 
 derdale Burn the bottom of the Scar Limestone is probably 
 elevated 736 feet above the sea. The thickness of the strata 
 intervening between the bottom of the Great Limestone and the 
 bottom of the Scar Limestone, as represented upon the general 
 section, is 331 feet. If we deduct this from the 1540 feet, there 
 remain 1209 feet, denoting the elevation of the Scar Limestone 
 at Hartside top. The difference of elevation at this point and 
 Gilderdale Burn foot is therefore 473 feet, thus showing the incli- 
 nation of the beds between these two places to be about 1 in 55. 
 The rate of inclination between Nentforce level mouth and the 
 point where Browngill veins cross the Tyne river is about 1 in 51. 
 From Alston the course of the Tyne river to its junction with 
 Black Burn is westerly to its general direction. On the same 
 parallel the Nent trends to the west, and the course of the 
 Black Burn, as already observed, is nearly at right angles to tlie 
 direction of the Tyne southward from the point of their junction. 
 Now, in connexion with this tendency of the streams to run in 
 an east and west direction, or at right angles to their general 
 course, there exists also a variation in the direction and the rate 
 of inclination of the strata. Between Black Burn and Gilder- 
 dale Burn, and in a direction at right angles to the former, the 
 strata must be lying nearly horizontal, if indeed there is not an 
 
34 THE ELEVATION OP THE STRATA 
 
 actual rise from the former to the latter. This supposition 
 receives support from the fact that the stratum of Whia, bassets 
 to the surface in. Gilderdale Bum, but iu Black Burn it is lying 
 a number of feet below the bed of the stream. It seems as if 
 there had been an effort made by subterranean forces of sub- 
 sidence or eleTation, to form an anticlinal axis in a direction of 
 parallelism to that which exists near the boundary of the water 
 basins of the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees. The greatest effect 
 has been produced at the head of Gilderdale Burn, and the 
 direction of this incipient axis may be shown by a line from 
 this point, which passing for some distance down the water shed 
 of Park Fell, is deflected to the south a little aboye Alston. 
 From the latter place it bends to the north for a short distance, 
 and then passes through Newshield Moss. On the east side of 
 the Tyne there is, however, no indication of its existence, except 
 in a less rapid iaclination of the beds. 
 
 From Shield Waters the strata rise very rapidly to the west, 
 and contiaue to rise on the south-west side of the Great Sulphur 
 veia, until they out-crop on the contrary side of the mountain ; 
 in a direction of south 81 west (magnetic) the rate of inclination 
 is about 1 in 8. In this district, the stratum of Whin forms the 
 culminating ridge of the Penine range of mountains. So rapid 
 however is the inclination of the strata, and so great is the 
 throw of the Great Sulphur vein, that at Rodderup Fell low- 
 level-mouth it is probably 48 feet below Black Burn. 
 
 From the point where Eodderup FeU vein crosses the Tyne, 
 the strata rise very rapidly in the direction of Dryburn to the 
 Great Sidphur vein ; and on the south-west side of this vein 
 they continue to rise to the anticlinal axis which intersects the 
 Penine range of mountains at Cross Fell, Between the point 
 where Fletcheras vein crosses the Tyne river, and Cross FeU 
 Smelt mill, the diiference of elevation of any particular stratum 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY. 35 
 
 (for instance the Scar Limestone), is probably not much less 
 than 600 feet ; the average rise from the former to the latter 
 place being about 1 in 40. From the same point on the Tyne 
 river, in an opposite direction (northward), the rate of inclina- 
 tion is probably not more than 1 in 300. On the west side of 
 the Tyne river, above Pletcheras vein, and in a direction at 
 right angles to that portion of the anticlinal axis ranging from 
 Bel Beaver to Cross Fell, the beds have a very rapid inclination. 
 From Browngill vein, in the direction of Littlegill Burn, they 
 also rise very rapidly to the Great Sulphur vein. 
 
 The Nent is the principal stream that flows into the Tyne 
 from the east side. Between Nenthead and Blaygill Burn foot 
 its direction nearly corresponds to the dip of the beds. On the 
 east side of the Kent an anticlinal axis is formed, corresponding 
 in position and direction to the water-shed of the mountain sepa- 
 rating the valleys of Nent and West Allen. In the valley of the 
 Nent the strata are lying at various degrees of inclination to 
 the powerful cross veins ; but notwithstanding, in a section 
 across the valley, from the summit of Middle Fell to the axis of 
 elevation on the opposite side, they will be found at the extreme 
 points occupying the same relative position to the datum line. 
 
 From what we have stated above, it will be perceived, that 
 from Alston as a centre the strata rise in all directions, except 
 to the north and north-west. The summits of the mountains 
 which encircle the basin of the Tyne form the boundaries of 
 this acclivity, from whence they incline in contrary directions. 
 Through the summit of the Penine range of hills the rise is 
 however continued, and as the strata of hard rock basset on the 
 west side, they form a succession of terraces, stretching from the 
 vaUey of the Eden to the summit of Cross Fell. We are there- 
 fore justified in concluding, that the formation of the valleys, 
 and direction of the main streams, are connected by some 
 
36 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 law of causation, with the iDclination of the strata ; or, whatever 
 may have been the cause or causes of their formation, their 
 action must have been regulated by this circumstance. For, 
 that the stratum which out-crops on one side of a valley, and is 
 found on the contrary side, occupying its exact position between 
 other layers of strata, was at some former period a continuous 
 and unbroken sheet, no one who has paid attention to the sub- 
 ject doubts for one moment. 
 
 The question therefore arises, by what laws of causation have 
 these upper portions of the hydrographical basins of the Tyne, 
 the Wear, and the Tees been formed ? — what are the agencies 
 which have removed one after another, such widely extended 
 sheets of stratified rocks, until an aggregate thickness of not 
 less than 1000 feet is cut through — whether by the streams 
 which now flow down the sides and at the feet of mountains, or 
 by the action of waves, when the land was slowly emerging from 
 beneath the level of the sea, or by a series of cataclysms, — for 
 no single flood, however violent, could produce such results. 
 
 Of the last hypothesis we ShaU. only observe, that it is not 
 easy to perceive how a series of broad floods, sweeping in 
 certain directions across a country, could produce any orderly 
 effects, unless it were to bring down all elevated objects, 
 and reduce the surface of the land to a uniform level, the 
 very opposite to the formation of valleys. But in the language 
 of an able writer : — ^' Those who continue reaUy to indulge ia 
 the visions which misled 'geology ia its infancy, the dreams of 
 universal cataclysms, and sudden creations, of a kind wholly 
 remote from physical analogies, and to which it would be wrong 
 to seek to apply physical explanations, so far place their specu- 
 lations out of the pale of the inductive philosophy."* 
 
 Leaving out of consideration those cases where valleys are 
 * Powell's ' Essays on the Unity of Worlds,' p. 64. 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY, 37 
 
 formed on the line of immense fissures or dislocations, of which 
 no instance occurs in Alston Moor, no other theories referable 
 to causes now in operation, except the two former, have been 
 proposed by geologists to account for the formation of valleys : 
 — namely, the gradual abrasion and removal of the rocks, by 
 pluvial and fluvial agencies, or by the action of breakers and 
 oceanic currents ; the abraded matter being carried away by the 
 latter, and spread out upon the bottom of the sea. 
 
 The quantity of matter that has been removed is truly enor- 
 mous. After a careful examination of the district, no one can 
 doubt that the Millstone Grit which caps the mountains must 
 have existed an unbroken sheet over the valleys of Alston 
 Moor. There is, however, reason to suppose that upon these must 
 have reposed the Coal-measures. Certainly, on the north side 
 of the Ninety-fathoms dyke, the Newcastle coal-field is found 
 thrown down, and lying opposite to the Millstone Grit or the 
 upper part of the Mountain Limestone ; which renders it con- 
 clusive, that a portion of the former at least was superimposed 
 upon the latter at the time of the formation of this great dyke. 
 
 Setting aside the considerations respecting the denudation of 
 the Coal-measures, it is difScult to conceive that the removal 
 of the Millstone Grit, and such a great thickness of the Moun- 
 tain Limestone, could be effected by pluvial and fluvial forces — 
 by rain, floods and frost, or other decomposing atmospheric 
 agents, no matter how long continued. Indeed, it is question- 
 able whether such effects could be produced by these agents, 
 during the longest cycle of those changes of level sustained by 
 the solid matter of the globe — cycles which have been ever re- 
 curring, since the lowest sedimentary rocks were thrown down, 
 up to the latest deposits which are now taking place at the 
 bottom of the sea : the length of each being in all probability 
 determined by some unknown laws. 
 
38 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 The erosive effect of the waves and currents of the sea upon 
 stratified rocks, appears calculated to form wide extended 
 plains, and very gentle slopes around elevated tracts of sea- 
 bottom. In some countries these effects are well distinguished 
 from those resulting from pluvial and fluvial forces. Mr. Cathn 
 observes, that " the summit level of the great prairies, stretch- 
 ing off to the west and the east from the river (Missouri) to an 
 almost boundless extent, is from two to three hundred feet 
 above the level of the river, which has formed a bed or valley 
 for its course, varying in width from two to twenty miles. This 
 channel or valley has been evidently produced by the force of 
 the current, which has gradually excavated, in its floods and 
 gorges, this immense space, and sent its debris into the 
 ocean."* The rocks which form the surface of these wide ex- 
 tended plains are silicious limestones and Greensand Marl, 
 corresponding to the Upper Cretaceous rocks of Europe. 
 
 The general features of such wide and comparatively level 
 river basins as the Mississippi, may have been, and probably are 
 at the present time in the course of being, modified by very slow 
 elevations and subsidences produced by subterraneous forces. 
 The erosive effect of streams in such countries will, however, in 
 every case be readily distinguishable from the effects of the 
 former, as deep channels grooved out leaving steep and precipi- 
 tous banks. Indeed such appears to be an invariable law of 
 running water, and especially so when the rocks are very hard, 
 and a considerable inclination in the direction of the streams. 
 
 This tendency of water to cut for itself a deep and narrow 
 channel whenever it flows over steep inclinations, applies equally 
 to the mightiest rivers as to the puniest streams. Sir C. Lyell 
 observes that " the Falls of Niagara afford a magnificent ex- 
 
 ' North American Indians,' Tol. i., p. 19. 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTEY. 39 
 
 ample of the progressive excavation of a deep valley in solid 
 rock. That river flows over a flat table land, in a depression of 
 which Lake Erie is situated. Where it issues from the lake it is 
 nearly a mile in width, and 330 feet above Lake Ontario, which 
 is about thirty miles distant. For the first fifteen miles below 
 Lake Brie the surrounding country, comprising Upper Canada on 
 the west, and the State of New York on the east, is almost on 
 a level with its banks, and nowhere more than thirty or forty 
 feet above them. The river, being occasionally interspersed with 
 low wooded islands, and having sometimes a width of three 
 miles, glides along at first with a clear, smooth, and tranquil 
 current, -falling only fifteen feet in as many nules, and in this 
 part of its course resembling an arm of Lake Erie. But its 
 character is afterwards entirely changed; on approaching the 
 rapids, where it begins to rush and foam over a rocky and 
 uneven limestone bottom, for the space of nearly a mUe, tiU at 
 length it is thrown down perpendicularly 165 feet at the Falls. 
 Here the river is divided into two sheets of water by an island, 
 the largest cataract being more than a third of a mile broad, 
 the smaller one having a breadth of 600 feet. When the water 
 has precipitated itself into an unfathomable pool it rushes with 
 great velocity down the slojping bottom of a narrow chasm for a 
 distance of seven miles. This ravine varies from 200 to 400 
 yards in width from cliff to cliff, contrasting, therefore, strongly 
 in its breadth with that of the river above. Its depth is from 200 
 to 300 feet, and it intersects for about seven miles the table- 
 land before described, which terminates suddenly at Queenstown 
 in an escarpment or long line of inland cliff, facing northwards 
 towards Lake Ontario."* It will be observed that the St. Law- 
 rence river must have flowed equally long in that portion below 
 
 * ' Principles of Geology,' p. 214 (ninth edition). 
 
40 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 Lake Erie, where it is nearly level with the flat country on 
 each side of its banks, as in the other portion, where it has cut 
 out a deep gorge; — the difference of effect produced in the 
 latter case being entirely owing to the greater inclination of 
 its bed. 
 
 Probably the most striking illustrations of the excavating 
 power of water in cutting passages through the hardest rocks 
 are to be found in volcanic districts, where the sides of the 
 mountains are often very steep. Though some of the deep 
 ravines in such regions may have been originally shaped out by 
 subterranean convulsions, and indicate the line of chasms or 
 wide fissures, yet many clear instances of the erosive power of 
 water do exist. Some beautiful examples of this character are 
 given in Mr. Scrope's 'Yolcanoes of Central France.' One 
 of the most picturesque is a scene in the valley of Montpezat 
 ArdSche, where lava has been poured out in sufficient abund- 
 ance to fill the valley in some places entirely, .and to an 
 average depth of perhaps 150 feet, and a width of nearly half a 
 mile. The mass of Basalt thus deposited, as well as the sub- 
 jacent Granite, have been since cut through to depths varying 
 from 100 to 200 feet, by the powerful action of the rivers whose 
 channels the Basalt usurped.* In the same district of Central 
 France Sir C. LyeU observes, that on the western side of the Puy 
 Eouge, near Clermont, a powerful stream of lava has issued and 
 flowed into the valley of the Sioule. The river has since ex- 
 cavated a ravine through the lava and subjacent Gneiss, to the 
 depth of 400 feett 
 
 The least erosive effect produced by water is at the summit 
 of mountains ; as it descends it flows into channels, where it gra- 
 
 * ' Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France,' p. 187. 
 t ' Manual of Geology ' (fourtli edition), p. 427. 
 
FLATEn. 
 
 J}nam/ ^WWhOcuai: 
 
 ASHGILL FORCE. 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY. 41 
 
 dually accumulates and its power for the disintegration and trans- 
 portation of rocks is much increased ; its effects in this respect 
 being proportional to the quantity of water and the amount of in- 
 clination of its bed. The effect produced by the small streams 
 of Alston Moor must bear some resemblance to the steep 
 valleys of erosion in volcanic districts. On the east side of the 
 Tyne a steep escarpment, often precipitous, is formed by the bas- 
 seting of the Scar Limestone. Whether this stratum has formed 
 the banks of the river at some former period we shall not now 
 inquire. The Ashgill, after flowing with a gentle inclination 
 from the south-east, falls perpendicularly over this stratum of 
 limestone before mingling its waters with those of the Tyne ; a 
 beautiful cascade or waterfall, some 70 feet in height, is the 
 result. It is evident, that the increased velocity of the water at 
 this point, has enabled this small stream to cut itself a passage 
 not less than 90 or 100 feet deep for a considerable distance 
 through ihe Scar Limestone and the rocks below. 
 
 The following sketch, Plate VI., represents this waterfall. As 
 at the Falls of Niagara, the limestone reposes upon shale, which 
 decomposes more rapidly than the former : the consequence is 
 that the limestone projects sufficiently to protect a terraced 
 passage behind the falliug water, formed upon some grey beds 
 of soft sandstone interposed in shale.* 
 
 * No place can be more cool and refresliing than this during a hot summer's 
 day. The falling water, which is dashed into foam and spray among the huge 
 blocks of limestone lying in confused masses below, conveys an uncommon, but 
 not a disagreeable sensation. The summits of the rocks, and the sides below the 
 waterfall, are planted chiefly with larch fir : and I cannot but agree with Words- 
 worth's opinion respecting the unpioturesque character of this species of fir for 
 the decorations of such situations. At the bottom of the sketch is shown the 
 ruins of some old washing floors, and one of the entrances into the Ashgill Field 
 lead mine, both on the right side of the waterfall. At the time when these wash- 
 ing floors were made, large blocks of limestone had to be removed, and the horns 
 of deer were found mixed with the small rubble and decomposed shale below. 
 It is said that the hills of Alston Moor formerly abounded with wild deer, 
 
42 THE ELEVATION OP THE STBATA 
 
 Gamgill Burn has also evidently cut itself a passage of con- 
 siderable extent through the Six-fathom hazle, and afterwards 
 forms a small waterfall over the Slaty hazle. Here, as at 
 AshgiU Field, the rocks cut through and forming the sides of a 
 deep gorge rise considerably above the waterfall. Taking into 
 consideration the small yearly impression this stream makes 
 upon the hard rocks forming its bed, one cannot but be struck 
 with the enormous length of time, which must have elapsed, 
 before it could produce the effect which is so evidently due to 
 its action. In a field on the north side of the burn, a former bed 
 of the stream may be traced ; it is now thickly covered with rich 
 soil, and in some places to the extent of several feet ; indeed 
 the subsoil of the fields lying on the north side of the burn, 
 between the waterfall and the Tyne river, is composed entirely 
 of gravel and water-worn stones, the debris left by the stream at 
 former periods. A number of years ago, while a labourer was 
 digging in this locality, he found a large stone shaped like a 
 watch-glass ; it was lying about 2^ or 3 feet below the surface, 
 the convex side being upwards. Below this stone were found 
 pieces of water-worn pebbles and sand, clean and fresh as if 
 they had been washed and left by the stream only the previous 
 day. 
 
 Higher up on the mountain side Garrigill Burn has cut a pas- 
 sage through the Four-fathoms Limestone and Nattrass Gill hazle 
 
 which did not totally disappear until about the year 1760.* The precipitous soars 
 rise considerably above the top of the waterfall on each side of the stream. On 
 the Priorsdale side there is a passage through the limestone, leading to their sum- 
 mits. This passage is called the " Faerie Hole." From the rooks, at the termi- 
 nation of this passage, the view below is very impressive, and had care been taien 
 in planting suitable trees in proper situations at the bottom and summits of the 
 rocks, leaving open spaces from the road leading into this deep glen, it would have 
 rendered the place sufficiently romantic for a wood scene in a " Midsummer 
 Night's Dream." 
 
 Hodgson's ' History of South Tynedale.' 
 
AND DENUDATION OP THE COUNTRY. 43 
 
 deeply into the stratum of shale below. Still higher up it has 
 formed a narrow gorge in the Great Limestone. It has also 
 formed a deep glen in the plate bed below the Firestone 
 and strata below to the top of the Coal Sills. The erosion of 
 deep glens, however, is not confined to the Ashgill and Garrigill 
 Burns. In some parts of their course it is found connected with 
 all the minor streams of the country, the depth and extent being 
 proportional to the quantity of water and the steepness of the 
 mountain sides. 
 
 It needs scarcely be observed that the inclination of the bed 
 of the Tyne is less rapid than its tributary streams. At Tyne- 
 head, above the point of its junction with ClargiU Burn, the in- 
 clination of its bed is very rapid. The quantity of water flow- 
 ing in it does not exceed that of some of the minor streams ; 
 its erosive effect in this part of its course is therefore similar 
 and of equal amount ; for, from Clargill Burn it has hollowed 
 out a deep glen, which extends to the Great Sulphur vein. 
 This vein throws up the Whin Sill above the present bed of 
 the river ; and since the formation of the deep glen the water 
 has worn out this hard basaltic rock for about 66 feet on the 
 south-west side of the vein, and is now precipitated over it, 
 forming a waterfall of no great beauty. From this waterfall 
 the water has hollowed out a narrow gorge in the same hard 
 rock extending to Tynehead Smelt miU. 
 
 Above Tynehead Smelt mill a deep glen extends to Dosey 
 lead mine. No doubt can be entertained but that its formation 
 is due to the erosive action of the Tyne river, which at this 
 point has dwindled to a very small stream. The Whin dyke has 
 evidently formed a barrier ; it is now, however, completely cut 
 through. Allan's Cleugh branches from the Tyne on the east 
 side, and a little above the Smelt mill it is a very deep gorge, 
 formed so recently that its sides are very little grassed over. 
 
44 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 This cleugh must owe its formation to floods and the working of 
 Allan's Cleugh lead vein, since the quantity of water flowing in 
 it is very smaU. Unlike any other stream in Alston Moor, it is 
 formed on the line of one of the lead veins, and chiefly in a 
 thick bed of shale. 
 
 A deep glen is formed by Black Burn and Shield Waters, ex- 
 tending from the Tyne river to Cashburn Force, its total length 
 being about 4J miles, and the aggregate thickness of the strata 
 through which the water has cut its passage probably not less 
 than 120 feet. As the inclination of the bed of this stream is 
 by no means rapid, the length of time necessary for such a 
 small body of water to wear down and remove such a large 
 quantity of hard rock exceeds computation. At the Great Sul- 
 phur vein the stratum of basaltic rock is placed above the bed 
 of Shield Waters, which stream has excavated a passage in it to 
 a greater extent than that at Tyne head. Cashburn Force is 
 formed by the water faUing over this stratum of hard rock, and 
 the scenery on the south side is similar to that at Tyne head, 
 being wild and barren in the extreme. 
 
 It may be observed that the stratum of basalt which occasions 
 these waterfalls, is the same which forms the bed of the Tees 
 about 15 miles from its source, occasioning likewise the more 
 celebrated waterfalls of Tees Force and Cauldron Snout. In 
 both these places deep gorges have been excavated below the 
 waterfalls, the sides of which are frowning tower-like cliffs, 
 reared above the foaming waters dashing along their rocky bed 
 below. 
 
 That the bed of the Tyne river is in the course of being gra- 
 dually lowered, there can be no doubt. Below the village of 
 GarrigiU, and during the last century, it has lowered its bed 
 several feet. At one place, stone warrens, built to prevent the 
 land from being destroyed by the river, are now in the middle 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY. 45 
 
 of a meadow field ; and it is remarkable, that the land which 
 those warrens were intended to preserve is situated upon former 
 beds of the stream at a still higher position. Should the bed of 
 the Tyne continue to be lowered considerably, then, all trace of 
 these former beds must be obliterated by the falling in of the 
 banks, to be removed by the action of the stream. The village 
 of GarrigiU is built upon an ancient bed of the Tyne river, 
 several feet higher than that upon which it is flowing at the 
 present time. 
 
 Indeed, if such large quantities of matter have been eroded 
 and carried away by the minor streams, we are justified in con- 
 cluding, that a still greater amount of erosive effect must have 
 been produced by the collected waters of those streams. Viewing 
 it in this light, it is difficult to resist the inference, that the bed 
 of the Tyne river above Alston must have been some 200 feet 
 higher than it is at present. Its elevation to this extent would 
 give the country a flatter appearance, and would materially di- 
 minish the rate of inclination of that portion of the minor streams 
 situated near to the bottom of the valley. It is also evident, 
 that those deep gorges in the Scar Limestone and strata below, 
 which we have attempted to describe, could have had no exist- 
 ence, until the waters of the Tyne had cut a passage through 
 the same series of beds in which they are formed. 
 
 While, therefore, Httle doubt can be entertained, that the bed 
 of the river was at a former period considerably elevated above 
 its present position, there are less clear indications of its occu- 
 pying stiQ higher positions during periods yet further removed 
 from the present. We are not, however, justified in concluding, 
 from a mere negation, that the erosive effects of the river com- 
 menced at the point where we cease to trace its action. The 
 evidences of the work of denudation are defective, because it is 
 the nature of every destroying cause to obliterate the signs of 
 
46 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA 
 
 its own agency.* As the river deepened its channel, and the 
 sides of the hills were decomposed and carried away by pluvial 
 agency, all marks of ancient river beds must have been de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 As all traces of ancient river beds on the sides of the hUls, if 
 they ever existed, must have been obliterated long ago, it may 
 be inquired if any trace of ancient sea beaches can be found in 
 still higher positions. Some geologists have concluded, that 
 distinct indications of them may still be traced on the line of 
 outcropping of a few of the thickest beds of limestone and sand- 
 stone. It is, however, questionable whether proofs of their 
 existence of a very decided character can be established. Such 
 rocks must resist the decomposing effects of meteoric agency 
 more effectually than the softer shale ; and the effect of breaker 
 action and atmospheric agency, must, under such circumstances, 
 be difficult to distinguish. 
 
 It is now well established that before the elevation of the land 
 to its present position, a period occurred, during which the tem- 
 perature of the air was much lower than it is at present. During 
 the summers of this cold period large masses of ice, such as 
 avalanches and glaciers, descended from elevated lands ; other 
 masses were broken from the ice-bound coast, and floated by 
 the winds and currents to other localities. In these drifting 
 icebergs large masses of rock were frequently embedded and 
 thrown down by the stranding or melting of the ice. In this 
 manner, the Shap granite has been scattered far and wide across 
 the valley of the Eden, and is now found on the western side of 
 Cross Fell, elevated about 1800 feet above the sea. None of 
 these erratic boulders passed over that portion of the Penine 
 range of mountains, forming the western boundary of the upper 
 
 * Lyell's ' Principles of Geology,' p. 154. 
 
AND DENUDATION OF THE COUNTRY. 47 
 
 part of the hydrographical basin of the Tyne; the eyidence 
 that might be derived from their position on the sides of the 
 hills, respecting the amount of stream erosion effected since 
 that period, is therefore wanting. 
 
 The absence of these boulders in the upper part of the Tyne 
 basin leads us to infer that, at that period, the summits of this 
 part of the Penine range of mountains were elevated above the 
 sea, forming a narrow island ; and this inference is confirmed by 
 the fact, that these boulders of Granite have floated over, and 
 been stranded upon the less elevated portion of Stainmoor, and 
 are also found scattered far and wide over the low lands of 
 Yorkshire, even to the coast of Holdemess. 
 
 But if the more elevated portions of the Penine range of 
 mountains existed as a group of islands, constituting the whole 
 of the dry land, during the glacial period, all the rest of the 
 country being submerged beneath the sea, it is manifest, that 
 masses of rock might be embedded in ice, and floated from them 
 in the same manner as the Wastdale head and Shap granite. 
 Many blocks of sandstone are found in Alston Moor, in positions 
 not easily accounted for, but which may be due to this cause. 
 Unfortunately, from the similarity of sandstones to each other, 
 the evidence that such has been the case is inconclusive. 
 
 On the top of Noonstones there are large quantities of quartz 
 scattered upon the surface, with scarcely any covering of moss 
 or other kinds of vegetation. These blocks of quartz are due to 
 the denudation of the Great Sulphur vein, its great width at this 
 point being almost entirely filled with this substance. The 
 quartz is very compact and solid ; its appearance is also peculiar 
 and different from the quartz deposited in the veins on the east 
 side of the Tyne. Quartz which cannot be distinguished from 
 it, is, however, plentifully embedded in the Alluvial clay at 
 Black AshgUl head, and not situated near any of the mineral 
 
 V 2 
 
48 THE ELEVATION OF THE STRATA. 
 
 veins. It is also found scattered in large lumps on the hill 
 separating Littlegill Burn from the'Tyne river in a direct line 
 from Noonstones to Black Ashgill head. In this locality there 
 are no veins sufficiently strong or wide to contain it in such 
 large masses. Indeed, so strikingly similar are the pieces of 
 quartz found at Black Ashgill and below Arlo hiU to those 
 scattered upon the surface at Noonstones, that the conclusion is 
 forced upon the mind of their having been transported from the 
 latter to the former places by floating ice. 
 
 If this conclusion is correct, it necessarily follows, that the 
 sheets of strata, which once stretched from the more elevated 
 sides of the mountains across the valleys far above the bed of 
 the present streams, were gradually removed by the action of 
 the waves and currents of the sea ; and further, that previously 
 the strata had been thrown out of their original horizontal position, 
 the erosion being regulated by those portions which were most 
 elevated on the range of the Penine mountains, and by the 
 anticlinal axis stretching east from the summit of Cross Pell to 
 the source of the Tyne, and from thence north-eastward to 
 Kilhope Law. The exact point, however, where breaker action 
 ended, and the erosive action of the streams now flowing in the 
 country began, is not perhaps determinable. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 OF THE LAWS WHICH EEGULATE THE FORMATION AND 
 DIEECTION OF VEINS. 
 
 It is remarkable, that in no case do the streams of Alston Moor 
 flow upon or in the line of the great Cross Veins ; nor does it 
 appear that the existence of the latter have ever influenced even 
 the direction of the former. The bed of the Nent river, in the 
 upper part of its course, is formed upon strata elevated con- 
 siderably above the same beds on the east side of Carrs vein. 
 Above the village of Nenthead, the Nent crosses Carrs vein at an 
 acute angle, but its direction is not in the least degree altered, 
 and, between this vein and Foreshield Burn, the direction of this 
 stream does not vary much from a direct course, which, as 
 pointed out in the preceding chapter, nearly corresponds with 
 the dii-ection of the general dip of the strata. 
 
 It will also be observed upon the map, that no stream flows 
 upon or in the direction of the Great Sulphur vein. On the 
 contrary, in that part of its course between Duffergill and Cash- 
 burn, its existence is marked on the surface by a series of low 
 mounds consisting of quartz mineral. It does not appear that 
 this powerful vein has ever modified the direction of even the 
 smallest streams. The same remarks are applicable to the 
 east and west veins. Browngill vein — the strongest east and 
 
50 THE FORMATION AND 
 
 west vein in Alston Moor — dislocates the strata at least 80 
 feet. Yet no indication of this vein is found upon the sur- 
 face. The hills are rounded off without any apparent modifi- 
 cation of their outline. Generally it is only where the streams 
 have worn a channel in the solid rock that veins appear at the 
 surface. 
 
 Had these powerful veins been formed at the same time that 
 the land emerged slowly from beneath the sea, and when the 
 principal portion of the valleys was scooped out by denudatory 
 forces, it is not easy to conceive otherwise than that the unequal 
 elevation of the strata, consequent upon their throws, would have 
 modified the action of those forces, so as to connect the direction 
 of the veins with certain lines of least denudation. Such, 
 however, is not the case ; no matter how great the amount of 
 displacement of the strata, the form and outline of the hills are 
 seldom if ever affected by it. Two questions therefore arise : 
 Under what conditions were they formed, and at what period 
 with relation to other geological changes which have affected the 
 structure of the district ? 
 
 The formation of mineral veins is considered by some geo- 
 logists as the result of two very opposite causes. The formation 
 of one class is supposed to be the result of the shrinking of the 
 enclosing rocks during their consolidation from a semi-fluid 
 state, or from their cooling down from a higher temperature 
 than they at present possess. These are called veins of segrega- 
 tion. Another class of veins is considered to be simply fractures, 
 formed at the time when the rocks forming their sides were 
 elevated into the position they at present occupy. In this class of 
 veins, the strata composing the sides or cheeks (as they are called 
 by the miners of Alston Moor) are displaced, in some cases only 
 a few inches, in others many hundreds of feet. 
 
 Of the former class of veins none are found in Alston Moor, 
 
DIRECTION OF VEINS. 51 
 
 or if they exist cannot be distinguished from joints, and never 
 contain lead ore. Joints found in the limestone strata of this 
 district not unfrequently contain carbonate of lime. The ap- 
 pearance of this mineral when found in such situations is very 
 different from the carbonate of lime deposited in mineral veins. 
 In the former case it is chiefly found in amorphous masses 
 without cleavage, breaking with a conchoidal fracture. Carbo- 
 nate of lime, when deposited in the veins of Alston Moor, is 
 generally- crystallized in some or other of the numerous forms 
 of which this mineral is susceptible, except in some instances 
 where the veins are filled with calc spar, which then, however, 
 possesses a very distinct cleavage. 
 
 The hypothesis of veins having been formed by the shrinking 
 of the rock during its consolidation, has perhaps arisen from 
 some supposed analogy to the cracks formed during the indura- 
 tion of clayey matter by the heat of the sun. There is, however, 
 very little analogy between the two cases. Sedimentary rocks 
 have been consolidated under the bed of the ocean by immense 
 pressure. A mass of clay, consolidated under a pressure of some 
 hundreds of thousands of pounds per square foot, is not likely to 
 contain many cracks or fissures. Viewing the subject in this 
 light, it appears absm-d to suppose that any shrinking of a mass 
 of sediment could take place under such conditions, so as to 
 cause the formation of fractures at right angles to the beds, and 
 possessing a longitudinal direction. The consolidation of a 
 semi-fluid or pasty mass under immense pressure, would be 
 simply to diminish the thickness of each stratum without, 
 causing any fracture whatever. 
 
 Adits and other mining works made in soft shale generally 
 contract their dimensions, their sides in a long course of time 
 being sensibly pressed nearer each other ; and when water is 
 drained from harder rocks of limestone and sandstone there is 
 
52 THE FORMATION AND 
 
 no tendency to form cracks and fissures by the shrinking of the 
 mass. The contrary perhaps always takes place ; for many old 
 miners suppose that works made even in very hard rock slowly 
 contract their dimensions. 
 
 Mr. Phillips observes that " it is certain that in the limestone 
 dales of the north of England mineral veins are sometimes 
 directed along the master joints of the rocks."* A glance at 
 the map which accompanies this work will show that this can- 
 not be the case in Alston Moor. I think that the formation of 
 joints is due to a cause, whose action is limited to a very mode- 
 rate depth from the surface, when compared with the depth to 
 which veins extend. The aetion of the cause which has oc- 
 casioned joints in hard rocks may have been regulated by a 
 crystalline structure caused by heat, when the rocks were lying 
 at great depths, under an enormous pressure of other rocks 
 which have since been removed by denudation.! Limestone 
 strata near the summit of mountain ranges, even when under 
 considerable pressure, are found to contain more joints, and 
 those of a more open character, than the same strata, lying in the 
 valleys, at a much less depth below the surface. In the latter 
 case, the texture of the rocks is also more compact and harder. 
 
 Some of the veins in Alston Moor dislocate the strata not less 
 than 200 feet. On the thrown up side of one of these power- 
 ful veins, a limestone stratum near the surface is much broken 
 with joints often filled with soft clay. On the thrown down 
 
 " ' Manual,' p. 543. 
 
 t There is scarcely any doubt that the force which is concerned in aggregation 
 (of crystals) is the same which gives to matter its crystalline fonm : indeed a vast 
 number of bodies, if not all, which appear amorphous, are, when closely examined, 
 found to be crystalline in their structure : we thus get a reciprocity of action be- 
 tween the force which imites the molecules of matter and the magnetic force, and 
 through the medium of the latter the correlation of the attraction of aggregation 
 with the other modes of force may be established. — Grove's Correlation of Physical 
 Forces, p. 189. 
 
DIRECTION OF VEINS. 5o 
 
 side of the same vein the same stratum of limestone is very 
 compact. With the exception of very small fractures or leads 
 connected with the veins, scarcely a parting can be found to 
 denote even a crystalline arrangement into square masses. 
 That joints are most numerous, as well as more open, near the 
 surface must be acknowledged as a general law which in Alston 
 Moor admits of no exceptions. In many instances, at a very 
 moderate depth from the surface, they close up and almost cease 
 to exist. The law is alike applicable to sandstones as lime- 
 stones ; the degree however varies — limestone rocks are most 
 susceptible of joints, sandstones next, and shale the least. 
 
 It has already been stated, that sedimentary rocks have been 
 consohdated under enormous pressure. The effect that would 
 be produced by the removal of such pressure from extended 
 sheets of hard rock is well worthy the attention of geologists. 
 That some effect would follow no one can doubt ; and especially, 
 if the rocks subjected to such conditions should be traversed by 
 numerous lines of weakness intersecting each other nearly at 
 right angles. The question is, whether the particles composing 
 the rocks would not have some tendency to spring upwards, and 
 withdraw from each other in a horizontal direction ; thus causing 
 very small fissures corresponding to those lines of weakness. 
 No matter how small such fissures might be at the first, they 
 would gradually be enlarged by the percolation of water holding 
 carbonic acid, &c. in solution. Limestone is more susceptible of 
 decomposition by this acid than either sandstone or shale, and 
 from its greater hardness it would probably be more susceptible 
 of fracture; thus correspondmg with the facts derived from 
 observation. But whatever may have been the cause of joints, 
 the facts we have advanced are indisputable. It is evident, 
 therefore, that they must have been formed after the general 
 configuration of the country was modelled by the removal of 
 
54 THE FORMATION AND 
 
 large masses of rocks, which once filled up the present valleys, 
 and, as we shall endeavour to prove, long posterior to the for- 
 mation of veins. If mineral veins are directed along the joints 
 of rocks, the coincidence of direction is merely accidental, and 
 we may safely conclude, that joints have never in the slightest 
 degree modified the direction of veins in Alston Moor. 
 
 The flats found connected with mineral veins in some of the 
 limestone strata, when near the surface, are intersected with 
 joints often filled with clay. Where such is the case, they cut 
 through the seams of ore, spar, or the cavernous part of the flat 
 left unfilled with mineral matter ; nor is their direction modified 
 in the slightest degree by the foreign substances so different 
 from the general texture of the enclosing rock. The proportion 
 of matter, introduced into a stratum by flats, often bears only a 
 small proportion to the quantity of rock which has been left undis- 
 turbed in its original position : and although in many cases it 
 has undergone some chemical change, the lines of crystalline 
 arrangement appear not to have been interfered with. Hence, 
 when the joints were formed, the forces seem to have been suf- 
 ficiently powerful to breakthrough the foreign matter introduced 
 into the heart of the stratum ; thus tending to support the 
 conclusion, that joints were not only formed after the veins, but 
 subsequently to the deposition of the mineral substances they 
 now contain. 
 
 If the mineral veins of Alston Moor are considered due to 
 subterranean forces ; before we can establish the period of their 
 formation, in relation to that of other geological phenomena, it 
 is necessary to inquire, in the first instance, whether their forma- 
 tion and direction are regulated by any law. 
 
 In their direction and mineralization very distinct character- 
 istics arise, upon which a classification may be founded separat- 
 ing them into three distinct kinds. 
 
DIRECTION OP VEINS. 55 
 
 The first class comprehends the east and west running veins ; 
 their direction however varying between N. 60° E. and S. 
 60° E. magnetic. These veins are generally well mineralized ; 
 and metallic substances may be found in them when their 
 sides are formed of any of the hard strata of limestone 
 and sandstone. The second class comprehends the veins run- 
 ning in a north and south direction. This class of veins 
 varies its direction much less than the east and west veins. In 
 the strata above the Great Limestone they seldom contain 
 metallic substances, and indeed very little vein mineral of any 
 kind. Much lead ore has been produced from them in the 
 Great Limestone : and both lead and copper ores in the strata 
 below. Both these classes of veins are intersected by another 
 class, of small veins, traversing the country in two directions, 
 the one being about S. 55° E. the other about S. 55° W. 
 magnetic. Like the second class of veins, they contain little 
 vein mineral in the strata above the Great Limestone. In the 
 strata below, they seem to be filled with copper and iron pyrites, 
 salts of lime, &c., but very seldom contain lead ore either in 
 limestone or sandstone. Those having a south-easterly bearing 
 are probably more numerous than the others. 
 
 We have observed above, that these veins are weak. The 
 Great Sulphur vein forms, however, a remarkable exception in 
 this respect ; as well as in the extraordinary quantity of vein 
 mineral it contains, chiefly quartz and iron pyrites. But 
 on account of its great width and mineral character, so totally 
 different from that of any other vein in the district, it may 
 be well to consider it sui generis. When compared with the 
 other veins in Alston Moor, the width of this vein is indeed very 
 remarkable. Its exact width is not so well defined at Cashburn 
 and the Tyne, as it is at Crossgill, where it is not less than 
 300 feet, and presents the appearance of originally having 
 
56 THE FORMATION AND 
 
 been a very wide fissure, the sides of which coming together, 
 occasioned the formation of a series of parallel fissures ; all of 
 which have subsequently been filled with quartz and iron 
 pyrites. 
 
 Following the direction of this vein from the north-west to 
 the south-east, it will be perceived that the character of its 
 mineral varies in different localities. At Cashbum, it is chiefly 
 filled with quartz not much crystallized. In a portion of ground 
 between Cashburn and Crossgill, its direction is indicated by a 
 number of low round hills, consisting chiefly of quartzose mineral, 
 which apparently has resisted the decomposing influences of 
 atmospheric agency, more effectually than the rocks on each 
 side. At Crossgill, in addition to quartz, it contains much iron 
 pyrites, which is slightly auriferous ; some of the weaker strings 
 contain copper pyrites, which has not hitherto been found in quan- 
 tities sufficient to repay the cost of mining. On the top of Noon- 
 stones, its great width is apparently entirely filled with quartz. 
 At the Tyne river it contains less quartz, and that of a more impure 
 character ; and at Darngill Bridge, the character of the vein does 
 not seem to differ much from the strong east and west veins in 
 the district. The quartz has almost entirely disappeared, and 
 the vein is filled with douk where plate or shale forms its sides. 
 
 No mining works have been made to prove any of the east 
 and west veins at the poiat of intersection with this powerful 
 vein. All those veius, however, exist on opposite sides of this 
 veiu apparently not much changed m their strength and other 
 mineral characteristics, which I think can only be explained on 
 the supposition that the Great Sulphur vein is of posterior for- 
 mation. Mining works were made in the point of intersection 
 between Sir John's vein and the Great Sulphur vein, and I am 
 informed that all trace of the former vein was lost in the latter. 
 After continuing the works on the line of Sir John's vein, to 
 
DIRECTION OP VEINS. 57 
 
 the south-west side of the Great Sulphiir vein, the former was 
 
 found shifted about 20 fathoms. This is easily accounted for, 
 
 without supposing any shifting of the strata iu a horizontal 
 
 direction. In the strata below the Scar Limestone Sir John's 
 
 vein hades very rapidly to the east, so much so that in Leehouse 
 
 Well mine the difference between the position of the veiu in the 
 
 Scar Linaestone and its position in the Six-fathoms hazle is not 
 
 less than 37 fathoms, — that is, the vein in the Scar Limestone is 
 
 lying not less than 37 fathoms on the west side of its position 
 
 in the Six-fathoms hazle. In Stow Crag mine the hade appears 
 
 to be much less than this ; but, like most of the cross veins in 
 
 Alston Moor, it must have a considerable one. Now, on the 
 
 supposition that the formation of the Great Sulphur vein is 
 
 posterior to that of Sir John's vein, it is evident, that a vertical 
 
 displacement of the strata some 30 fathoms by the former must 
 
 place the latter in the lower stratum of limestone, in a position 
 
 west of the point where it entered the Great Sulphur vein on 
 
 the contrary side ia the Six-fathoms hazle ; or in other words, 
 
 the shifting must equal the hade of Sir John's veiu, in the 
 
 strata comprehended iu the throw of the Great Sulphur vein. From 
 
 this circumstance, I apprehend, that the formation of the Great 
 
 Sulphur vein is posterior to that of the cross veins of Alston Moor. 
 
 On the south side of this vein a whin dyke traverses the 
 
 country nearly in a parallel direction. No displacement of the 
 
 strata takes place. It seems to have been a simple opening or 
 
 fissure, glutted with melted matter, as soon as the opening or 
 
 rent was formed, no time intervening to allow the sides of the 
 
 fracture to fall in. It is magnetic. A theodolite, furnished with 
 
 a delicate needle, was, duriug a survey, placed near it, when 
 
 the needle was deflected from its proper position 1|°. Mining 
 
 works were made in it at the point of its intersection with Douk- 
 
 burn vein. No trace of the vein was found in the dyke ; but 
 
58 
 
 THE FORMATION AND 
 
 after the latter was cut through, the former was found in its 
 
 proper position or bearing. We are therefore justified in 
 
 ^ inferring that the Whin dyke is of later formation 
 
 than the metallic east and west veins of Alston 
 
 Moor. 
 
 It may be observed that if there is any law 
 regulating the formation and direction of veins, it 
 will be best traced in the phenomena connected 
 with those which are the strongest. 
 
 We have already pointed out the direction of 
 the dip of the strata on the west side of the Tyne 
 river as being nearly at right angles to the 
 general direction of that portion of an anticlinal 
 axis comprehended between the Tyne river and 
 the summit of Cross Fell. It will be observed 
 upon the map, that the direction of the Great Sul- 
 phur vein is parallel to this axis, and as the strata 
 on the south-west side are elevated some 180 feet, 
 it would appear that the vein is simply a fracture 
 and displacement of the strata; which may be 
 illustrated by the annexed figure. 
 
 Let A B represent a series of rocks, stratified 
 and of indefinite thickness, as originally deposited 
 horizontally at the bottom of the sea ; now, if these 
 sheets of rock are raised by elevating forces 
 ^ '^ at 0, or, the depression of a^ b^ to b a respec- 
 tively, the strata must be subjected to a degree. of tension, and 
 should it give way, open fractures may be formed as at t>' v^. 
 From this simple diagram it is easily seen how the Great 
 Sulphur vein has been formed by the fracture of the strata, 
 resulting from the tension to which it was subjected when 
 thrown out of its original horizontal position. 
 
DIRECTION OP VEINS. 59 
 
 It will be perceived that on the east side of Damgill Bridge, 
 instead of being parallel, its course is nearly at right angles to 
 the anticlinal axis. No sooner does this take place, than the 
 character of the vein is modified to suit the altered condi- 
 tions ; and this is effected by its ramification into different 
 portions, thos^ thrown off on the north side throw up the north 
 cheek, thus neutralizing that of the other or south portion, and 
 clearly proving that its formation and that of the anticlinal axis 
 are connected in one law of causation. 
 
 This great vein cannot be traced on the contrary side of the hill, 
 and doubtless ceases to exist as it approaches the anticlinal axis. 
 
 The remarks on the Great Sulphur vein apply also to the Whin 
 dyke, the only difference being in the amount of displacement 
 of the strata, which in the latter is scarcely perceptible. No 
 trace of this dyke can be found in Crook Burn. It may be 
 supposed that it gradually closes and ceases to exist, before it 
 reaches the anticlinal axis. If this can be proved to be the 
 case, its formation is evidently due to the same law of causation 
 as the Great Sulphur vein. The strata dip rapidly from the 
 anticlinal axis on each side of this Whin dyke to the Great 
 Sulphur vein, the dyke slightly modifying the rate of in- 
 clination, which is more rapid on the north side. Sir C Lyell 
 observes that ramifying dykes of trap pass through the fossili- 
 ferous strata at Markernd, near Christiania, in Norway, without 
 deranging their strike or dip.* 
 
 If the formation of this dyke is connected in causation with 
 the anticlinal axis — a supposition which seems to be highly pro- 
 bable — it is evident that it cannot be connected with the stratum 
 of basalt, which occupies a certain and unvarying position, 
 among the rocks of the district ; and, consequently, is subjected 
 
 ' * Elements of Geology ' (fourth edition), p. 446. 
 
60 THE FORMAT [ON OP DYKES. 
 
 to all the dislocations and inclinations undergone by these. And 
 further, the basaltic dyke must cut through the stratum of 
 basalt, descending to vast depths, through its narrow passage, 
 into which it was originally suddenly propelled and sustained 
 by subterranean forces — a liquid, fiery mass, filling up the 
 smallest interstices of the fissure, " et presm gravitate sui " with 
 all the force that an elevation of many miles could give ; yet 
 too light in the Plutonic balance, it solidified into the hardest 
 stone, and remained in its narrow prison — a memento of forces, 
 compared with which man's mightiest engines are mere toys 
 and playthings. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 OF THE LAWS EEGULATING THE FOEMATION AND DIRECTION 
 OF EAST AND WEST VEINS. 
 
 At Tynehead, the group of veins comprehended between Dosey 
 and the Tees-side mines are mostly of small magnitude, dis- 
 locating the strata very little. With the exception of Providence 
 veins, they all cease to exist as they approach the anticlinal axis 
 in their course westward ; and also in their eastward course 
 several of them dwindle to nothing near the summit of Bel 
 Beaver. 
 
 None of the veins between Calvert and Littlegill veins, in- 
 cluding both, are remarkably strong. Some of them contain 
 much sparry matter in the strata below the Great Limestone. In 
 their direction eastward they all cease to exist, before reaching 
 the anticlinal axis. Calvert veins forming Swarth Beck vein 
 may be traced to the west side of the Penine range of mountains. 
 Littlegill vein has also been traced, at several points, through 
 the vale of the Tyne to the Cross FeU mines. 
 
 The next group are comprehended between Longman Hill and 
 Hound Hill. On the west side of Eodderup Fell cross vein, 
 none of the veins forming this group are strong. In their 
 direction eastward they converge, and though most of them are 
 
 G 
 
62 FORMATION AND DIRECTION OF 
 
 in existence at the Tyne river, further east they dwindle to 
 nothing. 
 
 The most important east and west yeins of Alston Moor are 
 Browngill and Benty Field veins, including those which branch 
 from the former. 
 
 It will be observed upon the map, that Benty Field vein is 
 ramified into weak strings, on the south side of Eodderup Fell 
 vera. AtDryburn these strings are collected, and a vein of con- 
 siderable width is formed, which dislocates the strata perhaps 
 not less than 60 feet. This vein continues strong, until it crosses 
 Garrigill Bum, but from this point to Old Groves cross vein its 
 width and throw gradually decrease. From this cross vein to 
 the east boundary of the Alston Manor, it is a vein of uniform 
 and moderate size. 
 
 On the west side of the Tyne river, and on the south side of 
 Benty Field vein, two or three weak veins are found, which 
 scarcely dislocate the strata to the extent of a few inches ; though 
 extensive flats are connected with them in the Tyne-bottom 
 Limestone. On the east side of the Tyne, these veins combine, 
 forming Browngill vein, which, in its course eastward, increases 
 in both width and throw in proportion as those of Benty Field 
 vein decrease. At the intersection with Garrigill Burn Old 
 Groves cross vein, Browngill vein throws up the sun cheek not 
 less than 60 feet. Still further! east its throw is about 84 feet. 
 At the intersection with Nunnery cross vein, the greater portion 
 of this east and west vera takes the direction of the latter ; but 
 in its direction southward it rapidly decreases in magnitude, and 
 is also apparently much broken into strings before it intersects 
 Black Ashgill cross veia. The north portion also splits up, form- 
 ing the Gaple Cleugh and Middle Cleugh veins. Long Cleugh 
 vein traverses the district in the direction of BrowngUl vein, but 
 its throw at Carrs vein is only 10 feet. With the exception of 
 
EAST AND WEST VEINS. 63 
 
 Middle Cleugh second sun vein, all the Caple Cleugh and Middle 
 Cleugh veins cease to exist before reaching the east boundary of 
 the Alston Manor. 
 
 It will be observed upon the map that several other veins 
 besides those just noticed are thrown off Browngill vein. Briggle 
 Burn is by far the strongest of these ; this vein increases its 
 width and throw as it approaches Carrs vein. After its intersec- 
 tion with this cross vein it is divided into two parts, respectively 
 termed Eampgill and Scalebum veins. After this separation, 
 the former takes the dii-ection of a quarter point vein, for about 
 180 fathoms, and then resumes its general bearing, in which it 
 continues to the east boundary of the Alston Manor. At this 
 point it ramifies ; the principal portion being deflected to the 
 south combines with EampgiU high sim vein. On the west side 
 of this combiaation the latter is a weak vein, possessing only a few 
 inches of throw. The direction of the Coal Cleugh east and 
 west vein is nearly parallel to the anticlinal axis. In the Nent- 
 head mines Eampgill vein displaces the strata about 18 feet ; 
 in the Coal Cleugh district about 36 feet, but after its intersec- 
 tions with the powerful Coal Cleugh cross veins, its throw is 
 diminished to 15 feet, and this is counteracted by a north 
 portion whose throw is about 8 feet north side up. 
 
 On the north side of Benty Field vein, the Cowper Dyke 
 heads and Fletcheras veins are also formed from weak strings ; 
 and, on the west side of the Tyne river, traverse the district 
 in a parallel direction. On the east side of the Tyne aU these 
 veins are deflected into a more northerly direction. Except- 
 ing Brownley hiU vein the rest cease to exist before reaching 
 the east boundary of the Alston Manor. 
 
 Near GarrigiU Burn cross vein. Black Syke vein comes into 
 existence and traverses the district near to and parallel with 
 Fletcheras vein. Both of these veins are of very considerable 
 
 G 2 
 
64 FORMATION AND DIRECTION OF 
 
 magnitude. Blact Syke vein, however, throws np the north 
 cheek nearly as much as Fletcheras vein does the south cheek, 
 thus neutralizing each other's effects, and, as the hade of a vein 
 in a downward direction is opposite to that of its throw, it is 
 evident, that in such instances the two veins must become one, 
 at no great depth below the surface. 
 
 Eodderup Fell vein throws up the north cheek about 15 feet. 
 It is displaced in a longitudinal direction at the West cross vein ; 
 with this exception, its bearing between Shield Waters and 
 Black Ashgill cross vein is very direct. At How Hill on the 
 east side of the Tyne river, a strong portion bears off in a 
 more northerly direction and wastes into very small portions 
 or leads as it approaches Elough edge vein. 
 
 Flough edge and Nattrass Eedgrove veins traverse the district 
 in a direction parallel to Browngill vein, and from Eedgrove 
 vein a number of east and west veins split off the north side in 
 a somewhat similar manner; with one or two exceptions all 
 these dwindle to nothing in their course eastward. 
 
 The direction of Bayle HjII and Fistas Eake vein is nearly 
 parallel to Eodderup Fell vein ; both are of small magnitude. 
 In the Blaygill mine the latter is moderately wide, but only 
 dislocates the strata about three feet, 
 
 Thomgill veins traverse the district in the same direction as 
 Browngill veins. These veins possess considerable strength. 
 They enter into combination, and, as Lough vein in the Blay- 
 gill mine dislocates the strata not less than 24 feet. The direc- 
 tion of the Slote vein does not vary greatly from that of the 
 Thomgill veins. It will be observed, that this group of veins 
 differs from the Browngill and Nattrass Eedgrove veins, in not 
 being connected with a series of veins falling off on the north 
 side. 
 
 In Alston Moor, the east and west veins generally throw up 
 
EAST AND WEST VEINS. 65 
 
 the south cheek, and hade, dip, or strike from the surface in a 
 contrary direction. In the following pages, whenever their throw 
 is given, this fact will be understood, unless the contrary is ex- 
 pressly stated. 
 
 Such is a brief description of the principal east and west veins 
 in the district. We shall now endeavour to prove, that their 
 existence and direction are due to the tension to which the 
 strata were subjected when thrown out of their horizontal 
 position. 
 
 In tracing this connexion, we shall begin with the Browngill 
 fissures : excepting the Great Sulphur vein, these are of much 
 greater magnitude than any other east and west veins in the 
 district. To whatever phenomena veins may be related in 
 causation, the coimexion will be most clearly seen where the 
 greatest amount of effect is produced. 
 
 At the point where the two anticlinal axes join in Kilhope, 
 and at the point where Eodderup Fell vein is intersected by the 
 West cross vein, near Shield Waters, the beds are elevated to 
 the same horizontal position. Between these two points is the 
 general bearing of the great BrowngiU line of fissures ; conse- 
 quently this series of veins traverses the district on the level 
 line of the strata, or in other words, it traverses the district 
 nearly at right angles to the general strike of the beds on the 
 south side of the fissure. 
 
 We have already pointed out, that between Black Burn and 
 the higher part of Gilderdale Burn, the strata must be lying 
 nearly horizontal, if the dip is not indeed in an opposite direc- 
 tion to that on the south side of the former stream. As this 
 great fissure approaches the point where this change of inclina- 
 tion takes place, it suddenly breaks up into portions^ so weak, 
 that they have scarcely been noticed in the Eodderup Fell 
 mine. Now in connexion with this circumstance, it is neces- 
 
66 POEMATION AND DIEECTION OF 
 
 sary to observe that, had this powerful vein been produced 
 westward, in the same direction, its relation to the dip of the 
 strata would have been changed, and, instead of corresponding 
 with the level line, there must have been a considerable accli- 
 vity of the beds in its direction towards the heights of Hartside. 
 
 At the east end of the course of this great fissure, its depen- 
 dence upon the tension undergone by the enclosing rocks is 
 equally remarkable. As it approaches the anticlinal axis, it 
 breaks up into a number of veins which are deflected to the 
 north. We may consider its full termination to take place at 
 Carrs vein, where it is represented by Long Cleugh vein, 
 which, as before observed, only dislocates the strata ten feet. 
 Had this vein or fissure been prolonged into the Weardale 
 district, there must have occurred a considerable declivity of 
 the beds in the line of its direction. From the conditions con- 
 nected with its terminations, a presumption arises that this vein 
 is simply a fracture or opening in the rocks, and a dislocation 
 effected by subterranean forces of elevation or depression, and 
 is consequently dependent upon the unequal position to which 
 the beds are raised. 
 
 Again, from the intersection of the axes of elevation in the 
 Kilhope district, the beds rise in the direction of the east and 
 west axis, and culminate between Burnhope Seat and Dow- 
 green, or the source of the Tyne river: from thence in its 
 north-westward direction to Cross Fell Smelt mill they incline 
 considerably. Now in their direction from the east to the west, 
 the magnitude and throw of the Browngill fissures vary in the 
 same or a corresponding manner. This vein or fissure exists in 
 its greatest magnitude precisely opposite the point where the 
 strata are most elevated on the line of the axis ; and in propor- 
 tion as the strata incline in each direction from this highest 
 point of elevation, so do the magnitude and throw of BrowngOl 
 
EAST AND WEST VEINS. 67 
 
 vein dimmish ; thus establishing a real correlation between the 
 two kinds of phenomena, and proving that they are dependent 
 upon the same laws of causation. Mr. Mill lays down as the 
 fifth canon of his experimental method, " Whatever phenomenon 
 varies in any manner, whenever another phenomenon varies in 
 some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of that 
 phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of causa- 
 tion."* 
 
 The Browngill fissures are not only the greatest in magni- 
 tude, but also in extent, of those having a similar direction in 
 Alston Moor. Now it may be pointed out, in connexion with 
 these circumstances, that their position corresponds with a line 
 which would form one of the diagonals of the trapezoidal-shaped 
 district, bounded by the two antichnal axes and the Birchy 
 Bank vein on the north side of Black Burn, and precisely where 
 the longest fissure could be formed without being prolonged 
 into strata dipping in different directions from those on the 
 south side of the vein. 
 
 But if the strata were subjected to the greatest amount of 
 tension in the direction of the east and west diagonal of the 
 trapezoid, it is evident that, subject to no other disturbing force, 
 they would be subjected to the least tension in the direction of 
 the other diagonal — a conclusion which corresponds with the 
 facts of the case ; for there are no veins of the slightest impor- 
 tance traversing the district in this direction. 
 
 Again, the Caple Cleugh and Middle Cleugh veins thrown off 
 on the north side of the BrowngiU fissure, traverse the district 
 on the level Kne of the strata ; but they aU terminate in their 
 direction eastward. The east end of the Browngill fissure is 
 deflected a little to the south ; and it is remarkable, that a line 
 
 ' Logic,' vol. i., p. 435. 
 
68 FORMATION AND DIRECTION OP 
 
 drawn on the general bearing of that portion where it exists in 
 the greatest magnitude, coincides in a general way with the 
 various points of termination. The existence of the north por- 
 tions (in a part of the district, in which the strata dip in a dif- 
 ferent angle to that on the south side of the main fissure, and 
 to which they conform in their direction), is dependent upon 
 the same cause as the formation of the principal fissure. 
 
 In the Nenthead district, the Briggle burn veins traverse on 
 the level line of the strata. In the Coal Cleugh district the 
 beds incline a little in the direction of the veins eastward ; and 
 as they approach the Swinhope district their direction is not 
 parallel to the axis : in this case they either terminate abruptly, 
 or their throw is diminished, and in a great measure counter- 
 acted, by the formation of another vein on the north side, which 
 dislocates the strata in a contrary direction. 
 
 Next to Browngill, Fletcheras vein is the strongest of its class 
 in Alston Moor. It traverses the district on the level line of 
 the strata. On the south side of the vein, and at the point 
 where it crosses the Tyne river, and near to Carrs vein where it 
 terminates, the beds are elevated to exactly the same horizontal 
 position. Like the Browngill fissures, it wastes to nothing in 
 its direction westward; it also dislocates the strata to the 
 greatest extent opposite that point on the axis of elevation 
 where the strata are the most elevated. 
 
 Except Crag Green sun vein, which terminates at Old Groves 
 vein, no veins are thrown off on the north side of Fletcheras 
 vein. In its direction eastward, where, as we have shown in 
 connexion with Browngill vein, a dislocation of the strata is less 
 necessary on account of the lower position, the strata are ele- 
 vated on the anticHnal axis — it maintains its throw, which 
 however, is counteracted by, that of Black Syke vein. In the 
 Gallygill Syke mine, the latter vein throws up the north cheek 
 
EAST AND "WEST VEINS. 69 
 
 to nearly the extent that Fletcheras vein does the south cheek, 
 thus producing an effect of the same kind on the strata as 
 would have resulted from its breaking up into a series of weak 
 veins, ultimately dwindling to nothing. 
 
 It is unnecessary to pursue the subject further. The other 
 east and west veins of Alston Moor are related to the same phe- 
 nomena as BrowngiU and Fletcheras veins — are dependent upon 
 the same laws of causation, and were formed contemporaneously 
 with them. Their magnitude is proportional to the intensity of 
 the elevatory forces, as denoted by the effect upon the strata ; 
 and their direction varies as the dip, or, to speak more forcibly, 
 ihdr magnitude and direction are proportional to the amount of 
 twisting, or wrenching, undergone by the strata, when their horizon- 
 tality was disturbed by subterranean forces, either of elevation or 
 depression. 
 
 We have shown in a previous chapter, that the denudation of 
 the rocks in the district and the formation of the valleys were 
 regulated by the axes of elevation, which form the boundary of 
 this portion of the hydrographical basin of the South Tyne 
 rivei:. In this chapter I trust we have satisfactorily shown, that 
 the formation and direction of the east and west veins are con- 
 nected in causation with the formation of this axis — are, in fact, 
 correlated phenomena — consequently, the veins must have been 
 in existence before the removal by denudation of the rocks 
 which once filled up the valleys. 
 
 But there appears to be grounds for concluding, that they 
 were reaUy formed at a period of time long antecedent to that 
 of the formation of the valleys of Alston Moor. The Ninety- 
 fathoms dyke traverses the country in a somewhat parallel direc- 
 tion, and is related to an unequal elevation of the strata in a 
 manner similar to that of the metalliferous east and west veins 
 of Alston Moor. It seems, therefore, probable that these veins 
 
70 FORMATION AND DIRECTION OP 
 
 and the Ninety-fathoms dyke were formed contemporaneously. 
 Professor Phillips observes that the Penine " fault is cut off to 
 the north by the Ninety-fathoms dyke, and to the south by the 
 Craven fault ; and there is every probability that it is actually 
 continued along the lines of these faults to a direction right- 
 angled, or nearly so, to its ov?n course. If this be so, and the 
 whole is one complex dislocation, we may surely conclude that 
 the middle portion, even if not of the same age as the extremes, 
 was produced in the same manner."* There is one circumstance 
 which is not connected with both faults. On the north side of 
 the Ninety-fathoms dyke the beds of the Newcastle Coal-mea- 
 sures are found, but on the west side of the Penine fault there is 
 no reason to support a conclusion, that across the valley of the 
 Eden these coal-beds are reposing beneath the New Eed Sand- 
 stone. The fact of the Coal-measures being found on the north 
 side of the Ninety-fathoms dyke is sufficient to prove that at the 
 time of its formation this series of beds was reposing upon the 
 Millstone Grit and Mountain Limestone of Alston Moor. If the 
 Coal-measures were deposited across the vale of the Eden, they 
 were probably removed by denudation before the connexion of 
 the Penine fault with upward movements of the strata lying on 
 the east side. 
 
 Such are the facts, on which we may base the hypothesis of 
 the formation of the east and west veins taking place before the 
 removal of the Coal-measures by the currents of the sea or by 
 breaker action, and which enable us to conclude, with great 
 probability, that the east and west veins were in existence when 
 the strata were lying at a depth of at least 5000 feet below 
 the highest point of their present elevation. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be observed, that with the exception of 
 
 ' Manual,' p. 571. 
 
EAST AND WEST VEINS. 71 
 
 a single basaltic dyke, there are no indications that the district 
 under consideration has_ ever been subjected to volcanic agency 
 of a violent or spasmodic character. It seems probable that the 
 removal of the Coal-measures and the denudation of the valleys 
 are due to causes much of the same kind as those now in opera- 
 tion on the earth's surface. K this is the case, the period of 
 the formation of the east and west veins is separated from the 
 Glacial epoch by immeasurable periods of time. We vainly 
 attempt to lift the curtain and unveil the innumerable colloca- 
 tion of things and succession of events, which must have oc- 
 curred upon the surface and in the interior of the earth from 
 that remote period to the present time. Yet this vast series of 
 changes was ordained and controlled by an infinite Intelligencej 
 a Being who existed from everlasting, and who must regard the 
 longest cycle which geology compels us to assume as but " a point 
 of time, a moment's space," when contrasted with those vaster 
 periods which have transpired since His fiat called matter into 
 existence, and impressed it with laws which cannot be broken ; — 
 since He began to evolve the phenomena of the universe by a 
 linked succession of causative events. 
 
 The contemplation of these affords us the most sublime en- 
 joyment, and brings us into closer communion with their great 
 Author. 
 
 " A presence that diaturbs me -with the joy, 
 Of elevated thoughts ; a sense sublime 
 Of something far more deeply interfused, 
 Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns. 
 And the round ocean and the living air, 
 And the blue sky, and in the mind of man : 
 A motion and a spirit, that impels 
 All thinking things, all objects of all thought. 
 And rolls through all things." 
 
 Wordsworth. 
 
CHAPTEE V. 
 
 OF THE LAWS CONNECTED WITH THE FORMATION OF THE 
 CROSS VEINS OP ALSTON MOOE. 
 
 The cross veins are the next class which conies under considera- 
 tion. They traverse the district in a direction about 30° east of 
 south, true meridian, and their general bearing is more imiform 
 than that of the east and west veins. 
 
 Veins traversing the lead-mining district in this direction are 
 found of all degrees of magnitude. A displacement of the strata 
 to the amount of 260 feet is found connected with Carrs vein in 
 some parts of its course, while CowhiU cross vein dislocates the 
 strata only a few inches ; but the throw of each particular vein 
 varies greatly. In the strata above the Great Limestone few of 
 them contain sparry vein minerals ; it is more especially when tliis 
 limestone forms their sides that they are found to contain such 
 kind of minerals. In this respect they differ very much from the 
 east and west veins ; but in the Great Limestone the width of 
 the veins varies much. In some parts of any particular vein 
 large quantities of mineral are found, while in others, little 
 removed from the former, they contain scarcely any, being 
 chiefly filled with douky matter. The mineral contents of the 
 east and west veins are generally harder and more compact 
 than those of the cross veins. These simple facts are sufficient 
 
OP CROSS VEINS. 73 
 
 grounds for placing the cross veins in a separate class, and the 
 propriety of so doing will appear during the inTestigation.* 
 
 In the first instance we shall attempt to give a short descrip- 
 tion of the principal veins of this class traversing the miaing dis- 
 tricts of Alston Moor and Coal Cleugh, commencing with those 
 found in the latter district. 
 
 The Coal Cleugh east cross vein is the one situated furthest 
 east in the district represented upon the map. This cross vein 
 throws up the east cheek about 96 feet. Another vein is found 
 at a short distance further west, which throws up the west 
 cheek about 88 feet. The throws of these two veins in a great 
 measure neutralize each other, and at no great depth below the 
 surface the two must hade to each other and become one vein. 
 Their direction is nearly parallel through the whole extent of 
 the Coal Cleugh and Kilhope districts, but in their course 
 southward the West cross vein becomes much stronger, and in 
 the latter district dislocates the strata not less than 120 feet. 
 
 About 220 fathoms further west, another vein is found, called 
 Pump Sump cross vein. It is a vein of less magnitude than the 
 last, and throws up the west cheek about 36 feet. I think it 
 not improbable, that this vein is identical with the Longhole head 
 vein of the Kilhope district. About 80 fathoms west another weak 
 vein is foimd, which throws up the west cheek about 4 feet. 
 
 The Bounder end cross vein is the next in order of succession. 
 It dislocates the strata very little. But for the extensive flats 
 of lead ore which have been found on each side near its inter- 
 section with Rampgill vein it would have been considered as of 
 no importance whatever. 
 
 * Where a certain apparent difference between things (though perhaps in itself 
 of little moment) answers to we know not what number of other differences', per- 
 vading not only their known properties, but properties yet undiscovered, it is not 
 optional but imperative to recognise this difference as the foundation of a special 
 distinction.— Mill's ' Logic' vol. i., p. 137 (fourth edition). 
 
74 THE FORMATION OP 
 
 Proceeding further west into the Nenthead district, the first 
 vein of importance is Kampgill and Scaleburn cross vein, whose 
 throw is only 4 feet east side up. It is, therefore, a vein of 
 small magnitude, although very considerable quantities of lead 
 ore have been produced from it, especially on the south side of 
 Eampgill, and on the north side of Scaleburn veins. In its 
 course northward, this cross vein enters into combination with 
 the east portion of the group of powerful cross veins which tra- 
 verse the rocks of Alston Moor on the east side of the Nent river. 
 
 In the Haggs mine, all these cross veins are comprehended 
 in two — Carrs vein and Wellgill cross vein ; the former throws 
 up the west cheek, the latter the east cheek ; in consequence 
 they must hade into each other, and become one vein at no 
 great depth from the surface. In their direction southward 
 through the Nenthead mining district, these veins are ramified ; 
 the east and west portions dislocating the strata in opposite 
 directions, and hading to each other in a downward direction ; 
 but as the different portions approach the anticlinal axis they 
 nearly aU throw up the west cheek and hade in the usual 
 manner to the east. The dislocations of the strata at these 
 cross veins may be seen on Plate VII. 
 
 On the west side of Carrs vein, and situated no great distance 
 from it, two cross veins are found, neither of which possesses 
 much throw. In its direction northward, Cowslitts cross vein 
 dwindles to nothing. On the south side of Long Cleugh vein, 
 Cowhill cross vein, is found considerably stronger than on the 
 north side of that vein. It throws up the east cheek from 12 to 18 
 feet ; and probably continues to do so, in its direction southward. 
 
 The next vein, in the order of succession, is Black Ashgill 
 vein. On the north side of the Caple Cleugh veins, it is of 
 great magnitude, dislocating the strata not less than 60 feet ; 
 the east cheek being thrown up. On the north side of the 
 

 
 
 
 
 I 'I. A IE VI! . 
 
 
 
 
 DiUiun Liti£. 1C('l> Fc€t above, tfte- Sen. 
 
 
 \ '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 D.,tum- L:nv IrCV hWi ,t/vi,' the -S'm 
 
 L V . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 fh,/j,m U/itvKW Frt'L fJ^n-e- tht.Sm. 
 
 
 V- A — V= 
 
 
 / 
 
 ■J 
 
 Datinnluu JOOC Peet a4u-iv. iJif Scm, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Datu^n LcM ]IVr Fr^i uJvrf .'/■y .(>« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rnactf'i U„( IWC l'ei-4, „f'CYetJu: Sin 
 
 
 
 VHINNIE 
 
 CROSS VEIN. 
 
 i^NENT, 
 
 ai]([ also. the DISLOCATIONS 
 
 (^flectecl al the 
 
 
 
 
CROSS VEINS. 75 
 
 Dowgang veins it is found ramified into several portions ; their 
 throws, however, scarcely displace the strata 30 feet. Between 
 the Grassfield and Hudgill Burn mines, it is a vein of moderate 
 strength, and exists in two portions situated at no great distance 
 from each other. Northward from Hudgill Burn, it gradually 
 diminishes both in width and throw. In the Foreshield mine, 
 it is found in two portions, neither of which possesses much 
 magnitude. On the north side of Blaygill Burn it diminishes 
 to a mere string, with little or no throw. 
 
 On the south side of the Caple Cleugh veins its throw does not 
 exceed 40 feet. It diminishes rapidly, on the south side of its inter- 
 section with Black AshgUl east cross vein. In Priorsdale, its throw 
 does not exceed 6 feet ; and it does not at aU seem improbable, 
 that, in its direction further south, it dwindles to nothing. Black 
 Ashgill east cross vein, however, increases both in magnitude and 
 throw. It throws up the west side, and near the anticlinal axis 
 its throw is considerably more than in the Black Ashgill lead mine. 
 
 Near the intersection of Black Ashgill vein with the Dowgang 
 veins, two weak veins are formed on each side of the former vein ; 
 the one passes through the Hudgill Burn lead mine, the other 
 crosses the Nent river ; both cease to exist in their direction north- 
 ward. 
 
 The next cross vein of importance is Garrigill burn or Old 
 Groves vein. On the south side of Browngill vein, it is found 
 in two portions, both of which are weak, and like Black AshgiU 
 cross vein, probably dwindle to nothing, in their direction south- 
 ward. Northward from the Browngill veins, it gradually in- 
 creases in magnitude, until it intersects with Pletcheras vein. 
 From this point it gradually diminishes, and ceases entirely to 
 exist before reaching Nattrass Gill. 
 
 Windshaw Bridge is another cross vein, whose direction for a 
 considerable distance corresponds with that of the Tyne river. 
 
76 THE FORMATION OP 
 
 This is a very weak vein, its throw being not more than 18 or 
 24 inches east side up. 
 
 On the south side of the Great Sulphur vein Sir John's cross 
 vein exists, and is ramified into two portions which rapidly sepa- 
 rate from each other. It is also split into two portions on the 
 north side of CrossgUl. It is a very wide vein at the point of 
 intersection with Eodderup FeU vein in the Slaggy Bum mine. 
 At Gilderdale and Thornup Bums, both portions of this vein are 
 strong, and dislocate the strata very much, but in opposite direc- 
 tions. Like some of the Nenthead cross veins, by hading to each 
 other, they must become one vein, at no very great depth below 
 the surface. 
 
 Eodderup Fell cross vein has not been found on the south- 
 west side of the Great Sulphur vein. This vein is moderately 
 strong, and throws up the west side about 12 feet. 
 
 One or two weak cross veins intersect Cross FeU vein near 
 the Smelt Mill. They are probably identical with the Nether 
 Hearth cross vein, which may divide into two portions in its 
 direction northward. 
 
 Such is a brief description of the principal cross veins which 
 traverse the Alston Moor miaing district. Two questions na- 
 turally arise — Is their formation due to the same laws of causation 
 as the east and west veins ; and what is the date of their forma- 
 tion in relation to the latter kind of veins ? 
 
 Werner was the first to point out the importance of inter- 
 sections ia determining the relative period of the formation of 
 veins. He laid down the general law, " that every vein which 
 intersects another, is newer than the one traversed, and is of 
 later formation than those which it traverses ; of course, the oldest 
 vein is traversed by all those that are of a posterior formation, and 
 the newer veins always cross those that are older."* This appears 
 
 ' New Theory of the Formation of Veins,' chap, iii., sec. 31. 
 
CROSS VEINS. 77 
 
 unexceptionable so far as it goes. In its application to any 
 particular case, it is necessary, however, to determine the inter- 
 sected and intersecting veins. The Saxon Professor takes it 
 for granted that this can easily be done. My impression is that 
 to make such observations correctly, is in the majority of cases 
 a very difficult undertaking, requiring not only careful examina- 
 tion in the mine, but also all the aid that can be derived from a 
 profound analysis of the facts. 
 
 For instance, let us suppose a district like Alston Moor 
 traversed by a strong cross vein A b, which dislocates the 
 
 strata some 10 or 20 fathoms. After some indefinite period, let 
 us suppose another weaker vein, c d, formed. Now; if the 
 strong cross vein is filled with douk, as is almost invariably the 
 case in the upper beds, it is evident that a fissure formed in 
 such soft clayey matter must almost immediately close, leaving 
 no room for the deposition of various kinds of sparry mineral 
 or metallic substances, which may afterwards be deposited in 
 the vein, c d. Let us suppose further that mining operations 
 are extending from c to e, or from c? to e ; when e, the point of 
 intersection, is reached, the sparry minerals and metallic sub- 
 stances are abruptly cut off, and it may be, all trace of the 
 vein is lost : especially if the posterior formed vein occurs a few 
 feet or fathoms out of its direct line of bearing. In such 
 instances, an ordinary observer would consider the vein o d 
 
 H 
 
78 THE FORMATION OP 
 
 as the intersected vein, and the older formed vein the in- 
 tersecting one; and he would be justified in doing so from 
 Werner's definition of the phenomena presented at the point of 
 intersection, namely : " When two veins cross, one of them, 
 without suffering any derangement or interruption, traverses 
 the other ; this last is interrupted and cut across, through its 
 whole thickness, by the former. The first of these is said to 
 traverse the other, and the latter to be traversed by the 
 former."* 
 
 For this supposititious case, real instances of bad observation 
 might be substituted. Mr. Forster observes " that, in Alston Moor 
 the veins, bearing north and south, called cross veins, generally 
 traverse those that are termed right running veins, which pursue 
 a point nearly east and west. If Werner's doctrines are correct, 
 we may, therefore, infer that cross veins are of a more recent 
 formation.f With this conclusion Professor Phillips seems to 
 concur. Speaking of the connexion between the metalliferous 
 veins, and the great lines of disturbance, as the Penine fault, &c. ; 
 he observes, that the numerous faults of an ordinary character 
 which cross the country in all directions between those great 
 lines of convulsion, seem evidently related to and dependent 
 upon them ; — a remark which receives corroboration from many 
 parallel inquiries. Amongst these faults it is possible, perhaps, 
 to distinguish two periods of disturbance, — the older one marked 
 by a direction nearly east and west, which is that of most of the 
 metalliferous veins, the other by a direction from north to south, 
 which is that of several whin dykes, and some few lead veins. 
 Perhaps these different directions may have taken their rise from 
 
 * ' Ne* Tlieory of the Formation of Veins,' chap, iii., sec. 31. 
 t ' Treatise on a Section of the Strata,' p. 209. 
 
CROSS VEINS. 79 
 
 the two directions of the axis of convulsion which bound the 
 district.* 
 
 Excepting the few instances given by Mr. Forster, which 
 could not be easily explained by Werner's doctrine of intersec- 
 tions, I am not aware that these opinions have ever been very 
 seriously questioned. By the miners in Alston Moor, the cross 
 veins are always considered as later formed, and on that account 
 produced certain effects, well known to them, upon the prior 
 formed east and west veins. 
 
 K it is granted that the east and west veins were formed before 
 the cross veins — that Crag Green sun vein, for instance, was 
 formed before GrarrigiU Bum cross vein — then, from the facts 
 respecting the former vein, it foUows; that, this moderately 
 wide east and west vein, dislocating the strata a number of feet, 
 terminated at one point, without leaving the least vestige of its 
 existence on the strata in its general line of bearing ; and also 
 that, at some future indefinite period, Garrigill Burn cross vein 
 was formed, and traversed the district in such a direction, that 
 it coincided exactly with the point where the east and west vein 
 terminated. In this case every individual, who understands 
 the subject, must admit a reduetio ad impossibile — must admit 
 that the two conclusions are incompatible with each other. 
 
 Crag Green sun vein forms part of Fletcheras vein, and splits 
 from it, on the west side of the Tyne river. Now, Fletcheras 
 vein is found on each side of Garrigill Bum cross vein ; it also 
 passes through Black Ashgill cross vein ; and at the points of 
 these crossings, I have no doubt, presents all the appearance of 
 an intersected vein ; but at Oarrs vein both it and most of the 
 other Nentsberry Green veins terminate in the same manner as 
 Crag Green sun vein. Thus supplying an instance of a vein split 
 
 * ' Manual of Geology,' p, 571. 
 
 h2 
 
80 THE FORMATION OF 
 
 up into two parts (in connection with several others), both termi- 
 nating when possessing their full magnitude and throw precisely 
 at points where two cross veins were afterwards to be formed ! 
 
 In the same manner, it is probable that several of the Hud- 
 gill Bm-n veins terminate at Black Ashgill cross vein. These 
 veins have not been worked at the point of their intersection 
 with this cross vein : the direct proof that such is the case is 
 therefore wanting ; but as there are no east and west veins found 
 traversing the district in their line of bearing, the indirect proof 
 is almost equally conclusive. 
 
 The Nenthead Fields veins also terminate abruptly at Carrs 
 vein. 
 
 Several of the veins composing a part of the Browngill vein, 
 either terminate in the same manner at some of the cross veins? 
 or undergo some considerable modification both in width and 
 throw. Hangingshaw vein and Middle Cleugh vein both termi- 
 nate at Carrs vein. The Whitewood portion of Eampgill vein 
 terminates at one of the Coal Cleugh cross veins, and Scaleburn 
 or Low Coal Cleugh vein terminates at the west portion of 
 Whetstone Mea cross vein. Middle Cleugh vein is of consider- 
 able width and throw, but on the east side of its intersection 
 with Carrs vein, it exists as a mere string, with only a few inches 
 throw. Middle Cleugh second sun vein, in its direction east- 
 ward from the point of intersection with Carrs vein, gradually 
 changes its throw and hade ; but, at the point of its intersection 
 with Handsome Mea great cross vein, these are reversed. On 
 the east side of this cross vein, it throws up the south side about 
 11 feet, and on the west side, it throws up the north side 11 feet. 
 On account of the vein hading in opposite directions there is an 
 apparent shift of 180 feet or more in the Firestone and Slate Sills, 
 while at the point of intersection in the Great Limestone the shift 
 amounts only to a few feet. (See Plate VIII.) It will be evident. 
 
I'LAn: Mil. 
 
 ■D 
 
 r— 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 r-> 
 
 
 s = 
 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 ri 
 
 33 
 
 O 
 W 
 
 t3 '^ 
 
 3 
 
 fd 
 
 
 *T 
 
 
 ^ ^. 
 
 :? 
 
 < 
 
 ^ •:^ 
 
 C/l 
 
 m 
 
 k5 « 
 
 
 
 ^ ::^ 
 
 SS Co t- 
 
 :;f: 
 
 
CROSS VEIJSS. 81 
 
 to every one who clearly compreliends these facts, that such 
 phenomena could not be produced by any longitudinal shifting 
 of the strata, at the time of the formation of the cross reins, on 
 the supposition that the latter were formed after the east and 
 west veins. 
 
 It is unnecessary to pursue the subject further. Notwithstanding 
 in all the instances we have adduced, the cross veins are apfa- 
 rently the intersecting and the east and west veins the inter- 
 sected ones, — the facts pointed out are sufficient to establish the 
 foUowiug proposition, namely, the cross veins in the mining dis- 
 trict of Alston Moor were formed either anterior to, or contempo- 
 raneously/ with, the veins which traverse the district in an east and 
 west direction. 
 
 The question now arises — Are there any phenomena, or class 
 of facts known, sufficient to establish the prior existence of the 
 cross veins ? 
 
 We have shown that the existence, magnitude, and direction 
 of the east and west veins are dependent upon a certain line 
 or axis of unequal elevation of the enclosing rocks. Like all 
 other operations of Nature upon inorganic matter, the produc- 
 tion of mineral veins is doubtlessly due to causes whose effects 
 are uniform. If the two classes of veins were produced con- 
 temporaneously we might reasonably expect that their exist- 
 ence would be connected in causation with the same phenomena 
 — would be dependent upon the same axis of unequal elevation^ 
 It wUl be observed upon the map that the cross veins pass 
 through the axis of elevation situated at the head of the Tyne 
 and Nent rivers, without any apparent modifications of their 
 bearings and throws as they approach it. In this respect they 
 differ from the east and west veins. It is true that in the Kilhope 
 district the Coal Cleugh East cross vein decreases in magnitude 
 while that of the West cross vein is ,eonsiderably increased ; 
 
82 THE FORMATION OF 
 
 the strata being elevated much higher on the west than on the 
 east side of these cross veins. Changes, however, similar to 
 those take place, in connexion with some of the cross veins, in 
 the Nenthead district, without passing through an axis of eleva- 
 tion. But as there is a rise of the strata south-west, or in the 
 direction of the axis from Long Cleugh head to Burnhope Seat, 
 at the first glance it seems probable, that the existence of the 
 cross veias may be connected with the rise of the beds in this 
 direction, and consequently connected in causation with the 
 formation of the east and west veins. 
 
 Plate VII. Section No. 1 is made on the line of a portion of this 
 axis extending from Patterdale vein to Burnhope Seat (between 
 A and B upon the general map). It will be perceived that all 
 the strongest veins throw up the west cheek, or in the direction 
 of the acclivity of the strata on the line of the axis. The incli- 
 nation of the beds between the different veius is, however, 
 chiefly to the west ; thus tending to neutralize the effect of their 
 throws. From Black Ashgill east cross vein to Burnhope Seat 
 there are no veins of any kind to disturb the uniform inclination 
 of the strata. Now, if in that portion traversed by strong cross 
 veins, there is a greater amount of effect produced towards 
 elevating the strata than in the undisturbed portion, we might 
 be justified in concluding, that, at the time of the elevation of 
 the axis, the strata were subjected to a greater amount of ten- 
 sion in the former than in the latter case. This, however, has 
 not been the case ; for, when the line of inclination in the south- 
 west portion, is continued through the disturbed portion to the 
 east side of Patterdale vein, it is found to coincide with the 
 thrown-down cheek of this vein. Or, in other words, if these 
 veins had no existence, the horizontal position of the strata on 
 the east side of Patterdale vein would not have been different 
 from what it is at present. 
 
CROSS VEINS. 83 
 
 Here, then, where there are no east and west veins to com- 
 plicate the inquiry, there is no evidence to establish a connexion 
 in causation between the formation of cross veins and this axis 
 of elevation which is intersected by them. Nor, in consequence, 
 any proof of the contemporaneous formation of the two classes 
 of veins. 
 
 We have already stated that the east and west veins traverse 
 the district on the level line of the beds. Variations from this 
 law occur when the veins are dwindling to nothing, or in some 
 limited portions which are due to some local conditions. Sec- 
 tion No. 2 is drawn in the direction of Long Cleugh vein, on the 
 east side of Carrs vein. This section exhibits the throws of the 
 cross veins, &c., and their effect upon the strata does not appear 
 to differ much from No. 1. It will be observed that the beds 
 are less elevated at the east than at the west end of the section, 
 and in connexion with this circumstance Long Cleugh vein gra- 
 dually becomes of less magnitude, if it does not altogether cease 
 to exist on the west side of the point where it should intersect 
 Middle Cleugh second sun vein. A section drawn on the line 
 of the latter vera exhibits the beds on the east side of Patter- 
 dale vein and the west side of Black AshgiU vein lying in the 
 same horizontal plane. 
 
 Section No. 3 is drawn on the line of Eampgill vein. When 
 compared with the two last sections, it will be perceived, that the 
 throws of these veins and the inclination of the strata are 
 considerably modified. The strata are displaced by Black Ash- 
 giU vein not less than 60 feet, and, between this vein and Carrs 
 vein, no other vein exists to displace the strata in a contrary 
 direction, as in sections Nos. 1 and 2 ; since Oowhill and Cow- 
 slitts are both weak veins and produce scarcely any effect upon 
 the beds. The throws of the veins on the east side of Carrs are 
 diminished, only one or two displacing the whole thickness of 
 
84 THE FORMATION OF 
 
 the Great Limestone. Between Black Ashgill vein and Kamp- 
 gill cross vein the strata are lying at various degrees of inclina- 
 tion and in opposite directions ; but on the opposite sides of these 
 veins they are found nearly in the same plane of elevation. 
 
 Section No. 4 is drawn on the line of Guddamgill vein. On 
 the east side of the Nent river the cross veins shown on No. 3 
 have combined with each other in such a manner as to form two 
 strong veins, namely Carrs and Guddamgill Burn veins. The 
 former throws up the west side 240 feet, the latter the east side 
 about 46 feet. Black Ashgill cross vein is split into three por- 
 tions, and the throw of this vein is considerably diminished ; 
 but, as in the last section, on the opposite sides of all the cross 
 veins, the strata are found in the same plane of elevation. 
 
 Section No. 5 is drawn on the line of the Brownley Hill and 
 Grassfield yeins, and also shows the throws of the strong cross 
 veins as well as the inclination of the strata from them. At this 
 point Guddamgill Burn vein is reduced to a mere string, and is 
 not shown upon the section. Another, called WellgiU cross 
 vein, has formed on the west side, which displaces the strata to 
 the same amount. The throw of Carrs vein is nearly the same 
 as in Section No. 4. On the west side of the west portion of 
 Black Ashgill cross vein, and on the east side of Guddamgill 
 Bum cross veins, the beds are found placed in an equal position 
 of elevation. 
 
 Section No. 6 is drawn on the line of Hagg's or Fletcheras 
 vein. It varies very little from the section on the line of 
 Brownley Hill vein. 
 
 Section No. 7 is drawn on the line c D upon the map. It 
 does not correspond with the direction of any east and west 
 vein, but, as might be expected from the angle it makes with 
 the Holyfield and High Eaise veins, the beds are found lower on 
 the east than on the west side of the cross veins. It will be 
 
CROSS VEINS. 85 
 
 perceived that Carrs vein is ramified or split into two portions. 
 The throw of the west portion is much less than that of the 
 other. It is called Blaygill cross vein, and in its direction 
 northward gradually increases in magnitude and throw. 
 
 Few mining works have been made in these cross veins 
 further north. In consequence, cross sections could only be 
 made somewhat indirectly, after long and careful investigations, 
 by levelling, &c., upon the surface. Those given are, however, 
 suiEcient to render doubtful the hypothesis of the formation of 
 the cross veins being connected in causation with the formation 
 of the east and west axis of elevation. 
 
 That the strata were subjected to much tension, before they 
 were fractured and dislocated so much as is represented upon 
 this series of cross sections, is a conclusion that hardly admits 
 of question. Now, in Alston Moor at least, all evidence of their 
 being connected with an axis of elevation is wanting ; it does not 
 therefore appear an improbable hypothesis, that, at the time of 
 the formation of the east and west veins, the axes of elevation con- 
 nected with the cross veins were obliterated, and the dip of the strata 
 changed to nearly at right angles. 
 
 If we adopt this hypothesis, we may infer, that at the time of 
 the formation of the east and west veins, several cross veins 
 might come into existence, and combine Avith the prior-formed 
 ones, in such a manner, that it is now no easy matter to dis- 
 tinguish the one set from the other. As most of the cross veins 
 hade to each other so rapidly in a downward direction, they 
 must become one vein at no great depth below the surface ; it 
 is not unlikely, but that the formation of some of them is 
 connected with subsequent movements in the strata (facilitated 
 by the prior-formed cross veins as lines of weakness), the effect 
 of which was, in a great measure, to level former axes of eleva- 
 tion ; thus rendering it very difficult, if not impossible, to de- 
 
86 THE FORMATION OF 
 
 termine what was the relative position and inclination of the 
 strata prior to the formation of the east and west veins. From 
 the uniform direction of Carrs vein through many miles of 
 country, not only in Alston Moor but also in Weardale, I am 
 led to infer, that the axes of elevation connected with these 
 cross veins must have traversed the mining districts iu a parallel 
 direction: and it also seems probable to me, that when the 
 strata were moved by forces of elevation, in an east and west 
 direction, the effect in the first instance might be to raise the 
 depressed portions lying between such axes or ridges into an 
 equal position, and this more particularly near the line of 
 greatest intensity of force, and likewise form at the same time 
 the east portions of the cross veins ; and that afterwards the 
 beds were again wrenched into unequal positions of elevation, 
 and the formation of the east and west veins effected. 
 
 From facts of a more particular kind, but which are difBcult 
 to describe clearly, I am led to conclude that Carrs vein, at 
 least, must have been in existence prior to the formation of the 
 cast and west veins. Some of the latter, which terminate at 
 Carrs vein, for some distance on the west side, throw up the 
 north cheek although the acclivity of the beds is in a contrary 
 direction. Before the strata gave way, it would appear a con- 
 siderable amount of force was pent up, sufficient to prolong 
 some of the east and west fissures to this cross vein ; or, be- 
 yond the point necessary for the rocks to be fractured and 
 displaced, to allow of portions being raised to higher positions, 
 and in different planes of inclination. 
 
 We are now in a position to affirm, that the cross veins, as 
 well as the east and west veins, were in existence soon after the 
 close of the Coal-Measure period, and before the formation of the 
 lower Permian rocks. The Magnesian Limestone rests uncon- 
 formably upon the former, and the Ninety-fathoms dyke passes 
 
CROSS VEINS. 87 
 
 underneath the latter without dislocating its beds. It is owing 
 to the movements effected at the time of the formation of the 
 metalliferous veins of Alston Moor and the adjacent districts, 
 that the rocks were subjected to denudatory forces, from which 
 they had been exempted ever since the commencement of the 
 Old Eed Sandstone formation. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 OF THE QUARTER POINT VEINS OF ALSTON MOOR. 
 
 In the upper part of the district, this class of veins is generally 
 of very small magnitude, their throws not exceeding a few 
 inches. The strongest in the Nenthead mines is Kampgill 
 second sun vein, which dislocates the strata about sis feet. For 
 about 180 fathoms Eampgill veia traverses the district in the 
 direction of this quarter point vein. It would appear, therefore, 
 that it had formed a line of least resistance, and may have been 
 in existence at the time of the formation of the east and west 
 veins. 
 
 In the lower part of the district, veins of this class appear to 
 be much stronger. There is one in the Kodderup Fell mine, 
 bearing in a north-east or south-west direction, which throws the 
 north-west side up not less than 40 feet. This vein is parallel 
 with several veins or dykes of still greater magnitude, that are 
 found in the old collieries situated at Gilderdale head. 
 
 We have stated above, that one of these quarter point veins 
 has formed a line of least resistance for Eampgill vein, and that 
 for some considerable distance. In connexion with the east 
 and west veins, a few instances of this kind occur in other 
 parts of the district. I am not aware, however, of any cross 
 
CONCLUDING APHOMSMS. 89 
 
 veins being diverted from their line of bearing in a similar 
 manner ; and in consequence I am led to suppose, that the quarter 
 point veins were formed posterior to the cross veins, and either 
 contemporaneously with, or anterior to, those of the east and 
 west veins. With respect to this alternative, it may be observed, 
 that the relation of veins to each other with reference to their 
 period of formation can only be safely determined by careful 
 observations of their connexion with the inclination and position 
 of the strata. It is only in the upper part of this district that 
 I have had opportunities of studying this connexion where, as 
 just observed, the veins are comparatively weak. In conse- 
 quence of which I have not been able to arrive at a more de- 
 finite conclusion. 
 
 Having now brought the inquiry to a close, we shall state, in 
 a few aphorisms, the conclusions arrived at. 
 
 I. The strata were originally thrown down in nearly a hori- 
 zontal position. This could only be effected by an equal sub- 
 sidence of sea-bottom throughout wide areas, and that during 
 the whole period occupied in the deposition of the Old Eed Sand- 
 stone, Mountain Limestone, and Coal-Measures. 
 
 II. That at the close of this period, and before the Per- 
 mian rocks were deposited, this vast thickness of rocks was 
 thrown out of its horizontal position by forces of subsidence 
 or elevation, probably the latter, and the cross veins formed, 
 these being simply fractures parallel to lines of greatest effect 
 produced. 
 
 III. Afterwards the great axis of elevation, which commences 
 at Cross Fell and extends eastward, was formed, and with it a 
 series of east and west veins, the formation and direction of 
 which evidently depend upon the tension the strata were sub- 
 jected to by unequal elevation and the irregular bendings of 
 this line of greatest intensity of force, as indicated by its effects. 
 
90 CONCLUDING APHORISMS. 
 
 When this took place the Coal-Measures had not been removed 
 from the Millstone Grit. 
 
 IV. The denudation of the Coal-Measures now took place, and 
 also the formation of the Permian rocks, the action of the denuda- 
 tory forces being regulated by the lines of greatest elevation of 
 the rocks, the Coal-Measures being entirely swept from off broad 
 areas of country. 
 
 During the period in which this immense mass of matter was 
 removed the whole series of sedimentary strata comprised be- 
 tween the Permian and the Pleiocene, inclusively, were depo- 
 sited in the bottoms of the surrounding seas. At its termination 
 the tops of the Penine mountains, and those extending eastward 
 from Cross Fell to beyond Kilhope Law, were islands dotting the 
 surface of the ocean, their summits being at least 1800 feet 
 lower than at present. From these ice-bound islands masses of 
 ice were floated off during the summer to be dashed and broken 
 on tempestuous coasts. What a contrast to the mild atmo- 
 spheres and splendid vegetation of the Carboniferous period ! 
 Numerous races of animals had flourished and passed away, and 
 the majority of species now inhabiting the earth had come into 
 existence. 
 
 At the termination of the Glacial period the whole of the dis- 
 trict between the Penine fault and the German Ocean was 
 slowly elevated, in a manner analogous to the slow and equal 
 subsidences throughout wide areas, which took place when the 
 strata were deposited, the effect of the elevatory force being 
 inversely proportional to the distance from the Penine fault. 
 My convictions are, that the axis of elevation and associated 
 mineral veins were scarcely if at all affected by this last great 
 upward movement. There is some reason to conclude that the 
 Great Sulphur vein is later formed than the east and west veins. 
 Numbers of the latter, even of a weak character, are found on 
 
CONCLUDING APHORISMS. 91 
 
 each side of the former ; on account of the acute angle made by 
 the intersections of these veins this could hardly have oc- 
 curred had they all been formed contemporaneously ; yet at the 
 close of the Glacial period the Great Sulphur vein contained the 
 same quartz minerals it does at the present time. Again, had 
 this vein been reopened and further dislocations been effected 
 after this epoch, lines of precipitous cliifs must have been 
 formed at several places where hard rocks are lying near the 
 surface. Such is not the case ; the surface, with the exception 
 of a few conical hills, is smoothed off without being modified in 
 the least degree by the existence of this powerful vein in the 
 rocks below. Nor is it at all probable, that a line of cliffs on 
 the summits of the mountains could be worn and eroded by 
 pluvial and hyemal agencies, since the ribs of quartz contained 
 in this vein and the hard sandstones composing its walls or 
 sides are nearly as indestructible as the granite boulders, which 
 must have been exposed to the action of these agents on the 
 opposite side of the mountain. 
 
 V. If, since the glacial epoch, the district of Alston Moor has 
 been raised some 1800 feet, it is evident that this must have 
 been effected by a more wide-spread or deep-seated force than 
 that which produced the axes of elevation then in existence. It 
 appears also, that during this upward movement the dislocations 
 occurred chiefly, if not entirely, at the great lines of fault as lines 
 of least resistance; wide tracts of country being uniformly 
 raised, the axes of elevation which traversed it were not modified, 
 nor further dislocations effected on the lines of the correlated 
 mineral veins. 
 
 It will be observed, that the antecedent, or cause of aU these 
 changes and resulting phenomena, is simply the subsidence and 
 elevation of a portion of the earth's crust. But what is the 
 cause of this oscillation, and what are the laws of its action ? 
 
92 CONCLUDING APHORISMS. 
 
 To these questions science has as yet furnished no satisfactory 
 reply. Attempts have been made to estabKsh a relation in time 
 between parallel mountain chains or axes of elevation. But the 
 grouping of effects based on this relationship throws no light on 
 the laws of causation, and until this is determined by induction, 
 it seems probable that the subject will continue to be shrouded 
 in much obscurity.* Whatever law regulates the action of these 
 forces, we may rest assured that, like all the rest in Nature, it 
 must be uniform and eternal, the mandate of a Supreme Being 
 with whom there is neither variableness rwr shadow of turning. 
 Or, as it has been well expressed by a profound thinker, " The 
 searching eye of man, whether he regards his own inward being 
 or the creation surrounding and encompassing him, is always led 
 to the Eternal Source of aU things. In all inquiry the ultimate 
 aim is to discover that which really exists, and to contemplate 
 it in its pure light, apart from all that deceives the careless 
 observer by only a seeming existence. The philosopher will 
 then comprehend what, amidst ceaseless change, is the Constant, 
 the Uncreated, which is hidden behiud unnumbered creations ; 
 the bond of union which causes things not to fall apart in 
 spite of their manifold divisions and separations. He must 
 soon acknowledge that the independent can only be the con- 
 stant, and the constant the independent, and that true unity 
 is inseparable from either of these. And thus it is in the nature 
 of thought that it finds no quiet resting-place, no pause, except 
 in the Invariable, Eternal, Uncaused, All-causing, All-compre- 
 hensive Omniscience, "t 
 
 * Seo Johnstone's 'Physical Atlas.' 
 t Oersted's ' Soul in Nature,' p. 136. 
 
BOOK II. 
 
 THE LAWS WHICH EEGULATB METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS 
 ILLUSTEATED BY AN EXAMINATION OP THE GEOLOGICAL 
 STEXJOTUKE, AND OF THE LEAD VEINS OK LODES OF ALSTON 
 MOOE. 
 
" Whosoever understandeth the fructifying quality of water ■will quickly appre- 
 hend the congruity of that invention which made the cornucopia to be filled with 
 flowers by the Naiades or Water Nymphs." — Sir Thomas Browne's Miscellanies. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE MODE OF PROSECUTING THE INQUIBT, 
 
 We have slio\m that the district of Alston Moor is diversified 
 by hill and dale, formed by the erosion of vast quantities of 
 stratified rocks ; that the eastern part of the district is traversed 
 by powerful north and south veins, locally termed cross veins, 
 which dislocate the rocks, often, to a very considerable extent ; 
 and that these veins are intersected with two other classes of 
 veins, respectively termed weak quarter poiut and §ast and west 
 veins. It is from the east and west veias that the greatest quan- 
 tities of lead ore have been produced for many generations. We 
 have also shown that in connexion with these veins the stratified 
 beds are lying at various angles of iaclination. 
 
 It is now necessary to observe, that the lead ore has not been 
 deposited uniformly in any of the veins, but, on the contrary, that 
 large portions of the richest veins contained very little, and that 
 those portions which have been worked or cut out for the ore 
 they origrually contained varied very much in their productive 
 character, probably in each extreme not less than 100 to 1 bing 
 (8 cwt.) per fathom. The minimum quantity per fathom that 
 will repay the cost of mining is necessarily dependent upon the 
 softness of the accompanying vein-miueral, and also of the 
 enclosing rocks. 
 
 I 2 
 
96 MODE OF PEOSBCUTINa 
 
 We have also sliowii that these veins have not always been 
 in existence, that they are not contemporaneous with the enclos- 
 ing rocks ; but that when first formed they were only simple 
 fissures containing no vein-minerals. The accumulation of lead 
 ore in certain portions of the vein must be a resultant from cer- 
 tain antecedents regulating such deposition. If the uniformity 
 of Nature's laws, whether chemical or mechanical, be admitted, 
 it follows that a certain class of antecedents or causes must have 
 invariably preceded the deposition of lead ore in all cases. To 
 ascertain these is an inquiry the most important to practical 
 mining. 
 
 Two theories have been proposed to assign the source from 
 which the ore has been derived or its elements have been sup- 
 plied ; the one supposes it to be a segregation from the enclosing 
 rocks, the other a sublimation from great depths and connected 
 with volcanic influences. 
 
 It is necessary to observe, that the laws which have regulated 
 the distribution of the ore in the veins may be of a different 
 character from those connected with its origination; the for- 
 mer may be mechanical, the latter, if the metals are substances 
 compounded from certain elements unknown in a separate state, 
 must be chemical. If, however, they are simple substances, 
 which have risen to the surface as gaseous emanations from the 
 interior of the earth, then the distribution or accumulation of 
 the ore into certain portions of the veins may have taken place 
 after its deposition sparsely throughout the whole extent of the 
 fractures in the rocks. If they are derived from rocks, in 
 which their existence cannot be detected then the compounding 
 and localization of the ore may have been contemporaneously 
 effected. 
 
 If metals are compound substances, as some of the most able 
 and ingenious chemists have supposed, then a knowledge of the 
 
THE INQUIRY. 97 
 
 process or processes by which Nature has manufactured such 
 large quantities of valuable metals would be exceedingly inte- 
 resting, even in a scientific point of view alone, though it 
 seems improbable that its use would be altogether restricted 
 to chemical experiments or to abstract speculations, and that 
 it should not in some form or other ultimately prove practi- 
 cally beneficial to the interests of man ; but were we in posses- 
 sion of this knowledge, and had the requisite skill to produce such 
 substances so essential to civilized life, it is questionable whether 
 we could do so economically ; it is not improbable, but that we 
 should be under the necessity of searching for them as at pre- 
 sent by mining operations. Should this be the case, a know- 
 ledge of the laws, which have regulated the distribution of the 
 ores in the veins, would even prove more valuable to the prac- 
 tical wants of man than the knowledge of the laws of their com- 
 bination from elements, whether these are derived by sublima- 
 tion from beneath or segregation from the rocks. 
 
 The experiments of Becquerel and others have shown that 
 metals in solution may be crystallized and combined with other 
 substances by electro-chemical agency, forming minerals exactly 
 similar to those found in Nature. Interesting as those experi- 
 ments are, in a scientific point of view, they render no assistance 
 to the practical miner in guiding him to the deposits of metallic 
 ores so irregularly distributed in the veins. Their experiments 
 relate more to crystallography and mineralogy than to prac- 
 tical mining ; and it should be borne in mind that crystals of 
 various kinds are foimd where none of the ores of the useful 
 metals exist. Nor do these experiments throw any light on the 
 source whence the metals have been derived. They only show 
 that electro-chemical forces map have been feebly exerted 
 throughout the long periods of time necessary to the accumula- 
 tion of the ores in certain localities. The practical miner has 
 
98 
 
 MODE OF PROSECUTING 
 
 still to depend upon expensive explorations, — frequently long and 
 tedious, — before he meets with the valuable ores, the only reward 
 for all his toil and anxiety ; and even after making the most 
 extensive explorations, he is often doomed to disappointment 
 and the loss of all the capital expended. 
 
 No kind of mineral contained in the veins of Alston Moor 
 varies so much in quantity, in different parts of the same 
 vein, and in the same stratum, as lead ore. It is found plenti- 
 fully deposited with quartz, carbonates and sulphides of lime and 
 iron, fluorspar, barytes, oxides of iron. Black Jack, &c., and it 
 is frequently absent in the same stratum, when the veins contain 
 large quantities of some one or other of these minerals. Hence, 
 its deposition is not dependent upon the presence or absence 
 of any one of these minerals ; and whatever may have caused the 
 deposition of the latter, it is evident that it has not interfered to 
 prevent the operation of those causes which regulated the de- 
 position of lead ore. If the variation in amount of lead ore, in 
 the same vein, and in the same stratum or kind of rock, is 
 greater than that of any other mineral, the law of such variation 
 is more likely to be ascertainable. 
 
 If, however, ores in veins are due to sublimations from be- 
 neath, and are found plentifully anly in those places where the 
 exhalations effected a free passage upwards, the causes or con- 
 ditions might be of a deep-seated character far removed from 
 observation. Then the apparent discordance of the phenomena, 
 observed to be connected with deposits of ore, in the veins, would 
 not be at aU likely to be cleared up, by even the most careful 
 generalization and elimination of particulars, nor, consequently, 
 the risk of mining speculation at all lessened, by the most ela- 
 borate statements of facts. Deep-seated causes are the least 
 likely to be ascertained : indeed, it does not seem at all im- 
 probable but that even all trace of them might vanish as soon 
 
THE INQUIBY. 99 
 
 as the deposits were made, and this more especially, if comiected 
 with melted matter in a state of Tolcanic activity. But even in 
 such cases, where we would fail to perceive orderly arrange- 
 ment, the laws of deposition would be uniform; although in 
 seeking for them we should wander in the dark mazes of ex- 
 perience, out of which the most orderly methods of investiga- 
 tion would fail to lead us to the open daylight of axiomatic 
 truth.* 
 
 In Alston Moor, the veins have been the most productive in 
 situations furthest removed from Plutonic action; the richest 
 deposits having been effected in the upper part of the Mountain 
 Limestone, where no igneous rocks are found, either in the form 
 of dykes, or sheets intermingled horizontally, with the stratified 
 rocks. The lower part of the strata, ia this district, comprehends 
 a stratum of Basaltic Greenstone, and also a Basaltic dyke, but 
 the veias generally have contained very little lead ore when 
 these rocks form their sides, or walls. Doukeburn east and 
 west vein, has been proved to contain scarcely any ore, for a 
 considerable distance, on each side of the Basaltic dyke. So far 
 as this district is concerned, there is nothing to support the 
 theory that lead is due to exhalations from beneath, or to matter 
 injected in a fluid state among the consolidated sedimentary 
 rocks. 
 
 The nodules of carbonate of iron, so often found arranged in 
 layers in beds of shale, have generally undergone some degree 
 of contraction in the interior ; after the exterior has been con- 
 solidated to a degree sufficient to Hmit the shrinking of the 
 central part of the mass. Into these cracks, sulphides of lead, 
 zinc, and iron, copper pyrites, and certain other minerals of a 
 different class, have not unfrequently been introduced. In such 
 
 * Bacon's ' Novum Org.' I., 82. 
 
100 MODE OP PBOSECUTING 
 
 cases it seems exceedingly improbable tbat those substances 
 could be derived from exhalations from beneath. There can be 
 httle doubt that their component parts have come by infiltra- 
 tion from -without, through their exterior pores, and through 
 those and the laminse of the surrounding argillaceous shales. 
 It also is evident that these bodies or their component parts were 
 in a soluble state when they entered the cavities formed by the 
 cracks of the nodules.* 
 
 Such infiltrations are not limited to the nodules of argillaceous 
 shales, but have often been introduced into the cavities left by 
 the decomposition of mollusc-shells, in various kinds of rocks. 
 At St. Agnes, Cornwall, ciystals of Felspar have been removed 
 from Elvan and replaced by peroxide of tin. Instances of this 
 kind are of a deeply important character, and are almost conclu- 
 sive that metals or the elements of metals are diffused, perhaps 
 in varying proportions, throughout the whole mass of all kinds 
 of rocks. They indicate, probably, 'that the existence of metals 
 in veins is the result of combinations and changes, which can- 
 not be always, if indeed ever directly connected with volcanic 
 influences ; and although the quantities of metal infiltrated are 
 infinitesimally small, when compared with the deposits in veins, 
 they may be regarded as in^tantice crucis, indicating at least 
 the direction which the inquiry ought to take. Lord Bacon 
 observes, " that mean and small things discover great, better 
 than great can discover small, and therefore Aristotle noteth well 
 that the nature of everything is best seen in its smallest portions."t 
 The same sentiment is also more forcibly expressed by the 
 poet : — 
 
 " Duntaxat rerum magnarium parva potest res 
 Exemplare dare et vestigia notitiai." — Imct. 
 
 * Sir H. T, De la Beche's ' Geological Observer,' p. 764. 
 + ' De Augracntis,' Lib. II. 2. 
 
THE INQUIRY. 101 
 
 Assuming therefore, as the more probable view of the case, 
 that the deposition of lead ore ia the veins of Alston Moor is due 
 to segregation from, or decomposition of the rocks, which form 
 the walls of the veins where such deposits are found ; then, the re- 
 gulating causes must be sought for in the phenomena connected 
 with the rich portions of the veins and enclosing rocks, and 
 equally so in the phenomena connected with the unproductive 
 portions. The former should be carefully studied, in order to 
 discover if possible the functions they are adapted to perform, or 
 the natural forces they would call into action as eflfecting the 
 deposition of lead ore ; the latter, in order to discover their in- 
 adaptation to produce the same results. 
 
 Viewing the subject in this light, it is evident that the action 
 of the regulating causes must have varied in intensity, propor- 
 tional to the effect produced, providing there was no modifica- 
 tion of such effects by the interference of other causes ; for 
 instance, such modification would result from a variation in the 
 amount of space left open, when the fracture was produced. The 
 width or the original open space in veios is generally pro- 
 portional to the amount of throw they possess ; but this is not 
 invariably the case ; the same generally very wide vein is some- 
 times straight in hard rock even where no diminution of its throw 
 has taken place. Occasionally, the wide open spaces in a vein 
 have been completely filled with shale, shortly after the forma- 
 tion of the fissure, thus preventing entirely the deposition of 
 metallic substances. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 OF THE CONDITIONS CONNECTED WITH EAMPGILL VEIN. 
 
 The laws of succession are best studied in those places where 
 the greatest amount of effect has been produced, or where such 
 effect exists in its greatest intensity. For it is there that the 
 antecedents, conditions, or causes, must exist, or have existed, in 
 a state the best adapted to produce such results; and as a 
 consequence the dependence or relation of the two classes of 
 phenomena, as cause and effect, are more likely to be ascer- 
 tained, as well as their relation to each other, under different 
 circumstances, which have obscured the laws of their action, and 
 where their direct study would lead to no favourable result.* 
 It is also necessary in aU cases to reduce the inquiry to the 
 simplest form possible, in order to diminish the risk of connect- 
 ing the effect with causes or antecedents which have no relation 
 to it. In the inquiry respecting the distribution of lead ore in 
 the veins of Alston Moor, we shall endeavour to act in accordance 
 with this obvious truth. 
 
 As the deposits of lead ore in the veins of Alston Moor are 
 divided horizontally, and are generally kept distinct from each 
 other, by beds of plate or shale, in which the veins very rarely con- 
 tain much lead ore, the investigation may be limited, in the first 
 instance, to a uniformly wide vein in a peculiar stratum, in which 
 the veins are generally the most productive, where it is the en- 
 
 * See Mill's ' Logic,' vol. ii„ p. 279. 
 
OF RAMPGILL VEIN. 103 
 
 closing rock, or where it constitutes the sides or walls of the vein. 
 And probably such conditions are found to be the most clearly 
 connected with a portion of Rampgill veui, extending westward 
 from the boundary between the Coal Cleugh and Nenthead 
 mining districts to the Nent river ; for through the whole extent 
 of this ground it is uniformly wide and generally well filled with 
 vein miuerals. The very rich deposits of lead ore are, however, 
 in a great measure limited to the east portion, which is included 
 in a length of 300 fathoms. From_,this portion vast quantities 
 have been produced, in all, probably, not less than 300,000 
 bings.* The remaining portion has not contained much ore : 
 indeed, so far as deposits in the Great Limestone are concerned, 
 it may be considered as an unproductive or barren vein. If the 
 inquiry is restricted to the vein in the Great Limestone, it is pro- 
 bably reduced to the simplest form the subject will admit of. 
 
 We shall endeavour to point out the dissimilarity of 
 the conditions connected with the rich portion of this vein 
 and the enclosing rock, and those connected with the poor 
 or unproductive portion. The sketch Plate IX., may be 
 called a piano-section of Rampgill vein. The ground on 
 the south side of the section is intended to represent the 
 Great Limestone, as it would appear if denuded of the super- 
 incumbent strata, which at the boundary between Northumber^ 
 land and Durham comprise a series of beds not less than 600 
 feet thick. The drawing combines a section on the line of 
 Eampgill vein, extending from the Nent river to Swinhope- 
 head, clearly denoting the inclination and various dislocations of 
 the strata, with a plan of the ground to the south, which as 
 clearly shows the boundaries or Heaven's-^vater divisions, as 
 well as the supposed position of the anticlinal axis on the 
 
 A bing is 8 cwt. 
 
104 CONDITIONS CONNECTED 
 
 Durham side of the boundary. It also shows the direction of 
 the quarter point and cross veins, which form intersections with 
 Eampgill vein ; the throws of the latter being denoted upon the 
 section. It will be observed, from this piano-section, that the 
 Great Limestone stratum on the west side of Carrs vein (No. 1) 
 is almost entirely wasted away by the abrasive forces connected 
 with the formation of the valley of the Nent. It is necessary 
 therefore to eliminate this portion from the inquiry. 
 
 Commencing at Carrs vein, the first circumstance to be 
 observed is that this cross vein dislocates the strata not less than 
 84 feet, the east cheek being thrown down. Another disloca- 
 tion takes place a short distance further east by Small Cleugh 
 cross vein (No. 2) ; the strata are thrown up about 48 feet or 
 more on the east side. These two cross veins combine a little 
 north of their intersection with Eampgill vein. On the east 
 side of Small Cleugh vein the strata dip to the east, till they 
 reach Low Fairhill cross vein (No. 3) ; they are then thrown up 
 a few feet: their position, however, is almost immediately 
 changed by the throw of High Fairhill cross vein (No. 4), which 
 throws the strata down on the east side not less than 24 
 feet. The strata continue to dip rapidly to the west portion of 
 Handsome Mea great cross vein (No. 5), where they are dis- 
 located some 24 feet, the east side being thrown down. The 
 East portion (No. 7) throws up the strata some 73 feet, or brings 
 the Great Limestone nearly into the position it occupies on the 
 west side of High Fairhill cross vein. From the east portion of 
 Handsome Mea cross vein the strata continue to dip in the 
 direction of Eampgill vein until Patterdale vein is reached, 
 where they are again thrown down very considerably. From 
 this point the beds commence to rise and continue to do so with- 
 out interruption to KampgiU cross vein, where they are thrown 
 up only four feet ; from this cross vein they continue to rise to 
 
WITH RAMPGILL VEIN. 105 
 
 the summit of the hill which divides the vales of the Nent and 
 the Allen. 
 
 Taking a general view of these conditions, in relation to the 
 inclination of the beds, it is observable, that in the rich portion 
 of the vein they incline in a direction from the east to the west, 
 or towards the valley, which the vein crosses at nearly right 
 angles. In the unproductive ground, the inclination is towards 
 the summit of the hill, or in a contrary direction. It may also be 
 observed that no lead ore of any importance has been deposited 
 below the dotted line a b; it is not until the bottom of the 
 stratum has risen from Patterdale vein to the position repre- 
 sented by this line, that the vein is filled with lead ore through- 
 out its whole thickness. 
 
 In the productive portion of the vein, the largest quantities of 
 lead ore are invariably found where it is intersected with quarter 
 point veins, which are well shown upon the piano-section ; at 
 such points of intersection, the effect towards the deposition of 
 lead ore is intensified to a high degree, beyond the ordinary 
 large quantity found in this productive vein. We have already 
 observed, that these quarter point veins are very straight, and 
 contain no vein mineral of importance ; indeed they have a 
 greater correspondence to simple fissures than mineral veins. 
 The strata rise gently in their direction south-eastward to the 
 anticlinal axis, which is represented upon the piano-section with 
 uncoloured space. It is evident that all the water which might 
 descend into these fissures would flow in the open spaces con- 
 tained between hard strata towards Eampgill vein ; and that the 
 open spaces in this vein would contiuue the circulation westward 
 to the point of its intersection with Patterdale vein. In this 
 respect Eampgill vein would naturally form a kind of main 
 drain or channel, into which all these small veins would dis- 
 charge the whole of the water or fluids circulating in them. 
 
106 CONDITIONS CONNECTED 
 
 The dip of the strata, as we have seen, being to the west, the 
 circulation of the fluids must have been in that direction. The 
 unproductive portion is also much intersected by cross veins and 
 north and south strings or leads connected with them. But it 
 should be especially observed, that these veins seldom contain 
 any lead ore or other kinds of vein-mineral in the strata above 
 the Great Limestone. They are usually filled with a pasty clay 
 called by the miners douk. This clayey matter is evidently 
 composed of argillaceous shale either decomposed by percolating 
 fluids or pounded by the friction occasioned by the formation of 
 the vein. And a dyke of pounded clay pressed firmly iu the 
 interior of the vein is very unfavourable to a free circulation of 
 water, be the inclination of the beds ever so favourable, although 
 it may slowly percolate it. The beds rise southward in the 
 direction of these veins, and in this respect do not differ from 
 the very productive portion to the east. 
 
 It is probable that the east and west veins in the plate beds 
 would be nearly fiUed with this pasty clay, or douk, at the time 
 of their formation : we shall, however, shortly recur to this sub- 
 ject in connexion with the laws regulatiag the descent of water 
 into the interior of the earth. It may be assumed for the pre- 
 sent that such was the case : as a consequence, a circulation in 
 Eampgill vein in such kind of rock would be prevented by this 
 circumstance. Bearing this in mind, it wiU be found, upon a 
 simple iaspection of the section, that the greater portion of the, 
 strata below the Great Limestone in this locality is chiefly com- 
 posed of shale, and from the elevated position of the thick plate 
 bed below the Nattrass-gill Hazle on the west of Carrs vein, a 
 free circulation of fluids or water in a longitudinal direction in 
 RampgOl vein, was probably prevented ia all the ground below 
 the dotted line to the east side of Eampgill cross vein. In 
 reference to that portion of the Great Limestone elevated above 
 
WITH RAMPaiLL VEIN. 107 
 
 the dotted line west from Patterdale vein, it may be observed 
 that the dislocations of the strong cross veins would be a suffi- 
 cient preventive to the circulation of water; the cheeks or 
 sides of the vein composed of Great Limestone, being placed on 
 opposite sides— against beds of plate, which are situated above 
 or below this stratum; thus forming a constant interruption 
 even in a direction by no means favourable to a free circulation. 
 We are now in a position to affirm, that the conditions con- 
 nected with the very rich portion of EampgiU vein, in the Great 
 Limestone, differ from those connected with the portion which 
 has been very poor in this most important particular ; that they 
 would promote a free circulation of water or fluids in a longitu- 
 dinal direction, to and likewise in the vein. The analogy of 
 this circumstance with other great operations of nature towards 
 the production of physical phenomena is very striking, and 
 hardly needs be pointed out to the intelligent reader.* We 
 have already observed that the variation in amount of lead ore 
 in the same vein and in the same stratum is greater than that 
 of any other mineral found in veins. The assumption is therefore 
 warrantable, that such a variation is due in all cases to certainlaws 
 regulating the circulation of fluids, the effect of such circulation 
 being modified by various conditions. Under such circumstances, 
 a certain analogy may be traced in the deposition and crystallisa- 
 tion of metallic matter, with the circulation of sap in vegetable 
 growths, and of fluids or blood in animal forms. And although 
 the mechanical circulation of fluids in veins certainly differs 
 
 * Humboldt observes that every being considered apart is impressed with a par- 
 ticular type, so, in like manner, we find the same distinctive impression in the 
 arrangement of brute matter organized in rocks, and also in the distribution and 
 mutual relations of plants and animals. The great problem of the physical 
 description of the globe, is the determination of the form of these types, the laws 
 of their relations with each other, and the eternal ties which link the phenomena of 
 life, and those of inanimate nature.—' Travels in South America.' 
 
108 ANALOGIES. 
 
 very essentially from the vis d tergo which impels the sap up- 
 wards to the terminal point of every branch, or in animals, from 
 the vital farce concerned in assimilation and secretion, which 
 probably not only changes the nature, but also produces the 
 movement in a stream of which the flow is development ;* still 
 the circulation of fluids in veins may so far resemble that of 
 sap in vegetables and blood in animals, as to promote certain 
 chemical changes and combinations, to which not only the dis- 
 tribution, but also the origination of metallic substances in veins 
 may be due. 
 
 Dr. Whewell's ' History of Scientific Ideas,' vol. ii., p. 215. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE LAWS REGULATING THE DESCENT OP WATER BELOW THE 
 SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 No extensive explorations can be made by mining in the 
 interior of the Earth, without coming in contact with consider- 
 able quantities of water. In the mines of Alston Moor, the 
 adits or levels are generally drains for the water to flow to the 
 surface; and such adits are often planned with considerable 
 care and skill, to accomplish this object the most effectively and 
 economically. 
 
 Two theories have been proposed, to assign the source whence 
 the water found in the interior of the earth is derived. One 
 of them, now exploded, supposes that the veins are channels in 
 which water has risen from great depths to the surface, at some 
 former period ; and that metallic ores have originally been held 
 in solution by the water of these ascending springs, and deposited 
 upon the sides of the veins. Many even suppose that the springs 
 now issuing at the surface, not only in the valleys, but also near 
 the summits of the mountains, are due to water ascending from the 
 interior of the earth. So far, however, as a district like Alston 
 Moor, formed of stratified rocks, is concerned, such a supposition 
 is of a very unphilosophical character. For what is the force 
 which must sustain and propel a column of water of several 
 
 K 
 
110 THE DESCENT OF WATER 
 
 thousand feet against gravity ?* Nor does such a supposition 
 appear the less strange when we bear in mind that the stratified 
 rocks, through which it must ascend to elevated situations, are 
 deeply cut into by valleys, as weU as rendered porous by fissui-es 
 traversing them in various directions. We may therefore exclude 
 all consideration of ascending springs as a source of the water's 
 flowing in the veins and fissures of stratified rocks ; and so limit 
 the investigation to the other theory which supposes that the 
 water found among the rocks of this district descends from the 
 surface. 
 
 The Sun is the great source from which the earth derives its 
 heat. To the action of this heat the diffusion and suspension 
 of water, in the form of vapour, in the atmosphere is due. This 
 vapour is condensed and precipitated upon the earth as dew, rain, 
 or snow. Hence by the influence of this heat a large quantity of 
 water is kept in perpetual motion ; for what is evaporated from 
 the surface of the land or sea returns to it again in showers. 
 This constant and compound circulation of the most universal 
 solvent produces a series of never-ceasing changes upon inor- 
 ganic matter, exposed to its action on the surface of the Earth, 
 disintegrating the hardest substances, and, in some cases, carry- 
 ing them unobserved by mankind generally, in springs of purest 
 crystal, to some other locality, where, Proteus-like, they may 
 assume other conditions of existence. 
 
 But its effects are not confined to things inanimate ; it enters 
 abundantly into the composition of animal and vegetable matter. 
 
 * Ko agency known of, excepting heat, could sustain and raise water to the 
 surface against gravity. Occasionally it may have been forced up similarly to 
 that of volcanoes ejecting melted matter ; but the cause producing such effects 
 would, in aU probability, be spasmodic, and restricted to local conditions, and I 
 think fails to account for the diffusion of those mineral substances, which have 
 been attributed to such causes, so universally, and in the manner they are found 
 in veins. 
 
BELOW THE EARTH'S SURFACE. Ill 
 
 in each of which, while they are in a state of living organism, 
 it is kept in a constant state of circulation, promoting important 
 changes essential to their very existence. We cannot cast our 
 eyes abroad without being forcibly reminded of the part which 
 this substance plays in adorning the landscape with 
 
 " The pomp of grovee, and gamituie of fields." 
 In the dry countries of the East — the cradle of civilization — its 
 effect towards causing the Earth to bring forth food for man 
 and beast must have been forced on the observation of men ia 
 the very earliest times. AUusions are made in the ancient 
 book of Job to such effects : " For there is hope of a tree, if it be 
 cut down, that it will sprout again, and that the tender branch 
 thereof will not cease. Though the root thereof wax old in the 
 earth, and the stock thereof die ia the ground, yet through the 
 scent of water it will bud and bring forth boughs like a plant." And 
 simUar allusions are frequently made in other parts of the 
 sacred writings. Its effects have also formed a theme for poets, 
 and a subject of the deepest thought to the philosopher. In 
 a passage of great beauty, Lucretiu?, ^lule proving that things 
 cannot lapse into a state of non-existence, observes, that showers 
 of rain which Father Ether precipitates into the lap of Mother 
 Earth, though supposed by some to be lost, are not so, but that 
 from them the shining fruits are produced, and the branches 
 of the trees clothed with leafy green ; the trees themselves are 
 enlarged and burdened with produce; not only men but the 
 race of beasts are nourished ; joyful cities abound with youth ; 
 and the leafy woods resound in all directions with the songs of 
 new-fledged birds ; the weary herds, plump with browsing upon 
 the rich pastures, repose their bodies, and the white milky 
 liquor flows from their distended udders; their new-born 
 offspring sports unrestrained with tottering limbs over the tender 
 grass, their spirits exhilarated with the rich draughts of pure 
 
 K 2 
 
112 THE DESCENT OP WATER 
 
 milt.* Thales, the most ancient of the Grecian philosophers, 
 maintained that eyerything arises or is originated out of water^ 
 and that into water aU will again return or be resolved. 
 
 Nature peoples this wonderful fluid with innumerable beiags 
 too smaU for the unaided eye of man to perceive. Its vast re- 
 servoirs are also the abodes of life and enjoyment — the habita- 
 tions of myriads of creatures from beings less than the tiniest 
 shrimp, up to others whose gigantic proportions far exceed in bulk 
 the largest terrestrial animals. Man economises the force which 
 water produces in passing from a higher to a lower level ; and as a 
 motive power it grinds his corn, saws his timber, or crushes up the 
 hardest stones to slime, and afterwards, by its action, the precious 
 ore is separated from the worthless earthy matter with which it 
 has been blended. It would be a hopeless task to enumerate all 
 the useful effects produced by water in a fluid state. When it is 
 converted into an elastic vapour a motive power is generated, 
 which transcends all others in its adaptability to produce useful 
 effects. It carries man and his merchandise across seas and con- 
 tiaents with an imtiring speed, which exceeds that of any other 
 mode of locomotion, and almost that of the swiftest of the winged 
 inhabitants of the air. 
 
 ' pereunt imbres, ubi eos pater aether 
 
 In gremium matris terraa prsecipitavit : 
 At nitidse surgunt fruges, ramique virescunt 
 Arboribus ; crescunt ipsse, fcetuque gravantur. 
 Hino alitur porro nostrum genus atque ferarum : 
 Hinc Isetas urbes pueris florere videmus, 
 Frondiferasque novis avibus canere undique silvas ; 
 Hinc fesBse pecudes pingues per pabula Iseta 
 Corpora deponunt, et eandens lacteus humor 
 Uberibus manat diatentis ; hino nova proles 
 Artubus infirmis teneras lasciva per herbas 
 Ludit, lacte mero mentes percuasa novellas. 
 Haud'igitur penitus pereunt quteovmique videntur : 
 Quando alld ex alio refioit natura, nee ullam 
 Kern gigni patitur, nisi morte adjuta aliena." 
 
 Lucr. lib. i., 251—265. 
 
BELOW THE EARTH'S SUEPACE. 113 
 
 The quantity of water which annually falls upon the hills, or 
 rather elevated district, of Alston Moor, is probably not less 
 than 55 or even 60 inches upon the highest parts of the coun- 
 try — a quantity nearly corresponding to the average amount 
 of precipitation over the whole surface of the earth during one 
 year.* A portion of this large amount of water is evaporated : 
 the amount of evaporation, however, is probably much below the 
 average of other districts, seeing that during a great portion of 
 the year the sky is enveloped in clouds, collected by the attrac- 
 tion of the hills, and these clouds are only partially dispelled 
 even by the heat of the summer months. The remaining por- 
 tion must either flow upon, or sink beneath the surface. Now, 
 of the quantity which falls upon the summit of the mountains a 
 portion must flow to a lower level, and this quantity must gra- 
 dually be augmented in some proportion to the distance from the 
 water-shed of the mountain. Hence it is evident that the 
 surface of a country must be more subjected to the influence of 
 aqueous agency, when it is situated near the bottom of the val- 
 leys than upon or near to the summit of the hills. 
 
 Again, the quantity of water which sinks beneath the surface 
 must bear some proportion to that which falls upon and flows 
 over it, all other circumstances for promoting its descent being 
 equal. Excluding for the present aU consideration respecting 
 veins and fissures in promoting the descent of water, we may 
 observe that at the present time the water chiefly sinks into, or 
 percolates, the joints of the harder rocks ; open joints being 
 rarely found in the beds of plate, the greater portion of it flows 
 in the joints of such hard strata until it issues to the surface 
 in the form of springs ; and of the smaller quantity that per 
 colates the beds of shale below, a portion circulates in the joints 
 
 * Johnstone's ' Physical Atlas.' 
 
114 THE DESCENT OP WATER 
 
 of the next hard stratum and issues to the surface. Hence the 
 FIRST GENERAL LAW regulating the circulation of water in the 
 interior of the Earth is that, cceteris paribus, the quantity in cir- 
 culation beneath the summit of the mountains must be in inverse 
 proportion to the depth from the surface, and in direct proportion 
 to the distance from the water-shed of the mountain. We have 
 already shown that joints gradually close and become fewer, and 
 in many of the mines are not found to exist at eren a moderate 
 depth. This circumstance must therefore tend to lessen the 
 quantity which would otherwise find a passage to great depths, 
 were the strata at such depths equally broken with joints. The 
 real amount circulating below the surface would probably be 
 more truly represented by a series rapidly converging to zero. 
 It is also evident that under those lateral ridges, extending from 
 the summit of the mountain, towards the bottom of the valley, 
 the circulation of water must be effected m a similar manner 
 but in a lesser degree. 
 
 The quantity of water which descends is also affected by the 
 declivity of the mountain sides. A great portion of the water 
 precipitated upon the sides of steep mountains is gathered into 
 rills in which — 
 
 " Aslant the hollow channel rapid darts, 
 And faUing fast &om gradual slope to slope, 
 With wild in&aoted course, and lessened roar 
 It gains a safer bed, and steals at last 
 Along the mazes of the quiet vale."* 
 
 Under such circumstances the water quickly flows to the bottom 
 of the valley, and in consequence there is less time for its per- 
 colating than when the sides of the mountains are gentle slopes 
 covered with deep alluvial soil and herbage. Hence the second 
 LAW Thai the quantity of water sinking beneath the surface in 
 
 * Thomson's ' Seasons.' 
 
BELOW THE EARTH'S SURFACE. 115 
 
 any locality must bear an inverse proportion to the steepness or in- 
 clination of the mountain sides. In accordance with this law, the 
 quantity which sinks on the western side of Cross Fell, and into 
 the steep sides of the mountains of the Cumbrian Lake district, 
 must be very small compared with the quantity which sinks 
 in the gentle slopes on the eastern side of Cross Fell or Penine 
 range of mountains. 
 
 We have hitherto considered the conditions regulating the 
 descent of water through strata lying horizontally, a case which 
 seldom occurs in Natm-e. More generally the beds are lying at 
 various angles of inclination. Now it is evident that water will 
 circulate more freely in joints of strata having an inclination to 
 the side of the hill, or towards the line of its out-cropping, than 
 when the inclination is towards the interior of the mountain ; a 
 case resembling a drain or conduit with an inclination opposite 
 to the direction in which the water is intended to flow. The 
 former case will promote a freer circulation of water n£ar the 
 surface, the latter a less free but one more favourable to its per- 
 colation to greater depths. Hence we deduce the thied law 
 — That thefreeness of the circulation of water near the surface is 
 directly proportional to the amount of inclination of the beds towards 
 the sides of the hill, and vice versa ; but that the series which severally 
 denotes the quantity that sinks into each of the strata below, must 
 more rapidly converge to zero than when the inclination of the strata 
 is towards the summit. 
 
 Veins and fissures at the time of their formation would some- 
 what resemble the joints now found in the strata, and the three 
 laws which we have deduced relating to the descent of water in 
 the latter must equally apply to the former, so far as the two 
 classes of phenomena are in accordance with each other. Veins, 
 however, differ essentially in some respects from joints, and 
 those differences are of such a character as to modify the descent 
 
116 
 
 THE DESCENT OP WATER 
 
 and circulation of water in the interior of the earth. Unlike 
 joints, veins even of the weakest kind extend to unknown depths, 
 and invariably fracture and dislocate the rocks to a greater or 
 less extent. As east and west veins descend they almost inva- 
 riably have a hading in a direction contrary to that of the side 
 thrown up, and this hade chiefly takes place in the beds of plate. 
 Plate X., Fig. 1, represents a cross section of one of the east and 
 west veins of Alston Moor, and the black line a vein with very 
 little throw : the open spaces between the sides of such veins 
 are generally very straight, and therefore called weak veins. 
 Should however a further displacement occur, say to the extent 
 of six or eight feet, the spaces would be much widened in that 
 portion of the vein comprehended perpendicularly by the sides 
 of hard rock, as shown in Fig. 2. And it should be observed 
 that the pressure exerted against the sides of the vein in the 
 plate beds would generally prevent the softer material of the 
 plate from falling in and filling up the spaces formed in the 
 harder rock.* 
 
 This latter section (Fig. 2) very faithfully represents a cross 
 section of one of the east and west veins from which a large 
 quantity of ore has been raised. 
 
 Now it is evident that these open spaces agree so far with 
 joints as to promote the descent and circidation of water in a 
 longitudinal direction in the vein ; and the laws regulating such 
 
 * If the reader make a section upon a piece of cardboard, similaT to Fig. 1, 
 and divide it with a sharp knife along the line representing the vein, by sliding 
 the two pieces upon a table, in such a manner that the out edges of the oaidpaper 
 touch each other, it will be clearly seen how the more open spaces in Fig. 2 are 
 formed. It rarely happens that the cheeks of hard rock forming the walls of the 
 vein are not more or less fractured, and form what miners call strings or leads. 
 It is not, however, necessary to notice these, as they are simply a portion of the 
 vein. In some instances these strings or leads have evidently promoted the flow 
 or descent of water. 
 
BELOW THE EARTH'S SUEFACE. 117 
 
 circulation in the former apply equally to the latter. They 
 differ however in this important particular, that the fracture in 
 the plate bed, although unfavourable to a circulation in a longi- 
 tudinal direction, allows the water to percolate it more freely 
 than it can do through the unbroken sheets of plate which un- 
 derlie the joints in hard strata. Hence, it not unfrequently hap- 
 pens, that levels and other miniag works made in" such plate 
 beds are often quite dry even at moderate depths beneath the 
 surface. When water begins to ooze out in the forehead of such 
 levels or advanced works, it is generally considered by miners 
 as an indication that they are approaching a vein. And when 
 the veins were newly formed, and before mineral matter was de- 
 posited in them, the percolation of water to great depths would 
 be less obstructed than at present. 
 
 In a district much broken with quarter point veins or fissures, 
 the quantity of water which sinks below the surface must be 
 considerably more than in a district where veins of a similar 
 character do not exist ; and when the inclination of the beds 
 in connexion with them is favourable towards promotiag a cir- 
 culation to another class of veins traversing the coimtry in a 
 different direction, and containing wider spaces between the 
 cheeks of hard rock, it is evident that the quantity circulating 
 in the latter must be proportionally increased with the number 
 of these intersecting veins or fissures above that which would 
 simply descend in them had such intersections not taken place. 
 Hence it may be stated in general terms as a fourth law — 
 That the quantity of water circulating to and in the wide spaces of 
 the stronger veins will be in proportion to the number of weak veins 
 or fissures traversing in a somewhat different direction the rocks of 
 a country. 
 
 We have already observed that the cross veins of Alston 
 Moor rarely contain lead ore, or even much of any other kind 
 
118 THE DESCENT OP WATER 
 
 of vein-mineral, in strata above the Great Limestone. Because 
 of their general unproductiveness few exploratory works have 
 been made, and consequently less of their character in the 
 upper strata is known. Their hade in such strata is more regu- 
 lar, and appears to be little influenced by the harder kind of 
 rocks, excepting when they are of considerable thickness. The 
 following section, Plate XI., the whole of which has been con- 
 structed from measurements very carefully taken, represents 
 very accurately the hade and throw of one of these veins which 
 contained a rich deposit of ore in the Great Limestone. It differs 
 strikingly from the sections Plate X., where the open spaces 
 represented in the strata above the Great Limestone are much 
 better adapted by their form for remaining open than the long 
 uniform space represented on Plate XI., now filled with douk, 
 mixed confusedly with stony matter which has fallen from the 
 sides of the vein. The cause of the hade in the cross veins 
 beiQg more uniform in such strata than that of the east and 
 west veins is not easily assignable, imless we suppose that they 
 were formed when the strata were less consolidated and of a more 
 uniform consistency. If this supposition be correct, it will fur- 
 nish an additional argument in favour of the priority of their 
 formation to that of the east and west veins. Below the Great 
 Limestone the cross veins have less hade in the hard strata of 
 limestone and sandstone, and their other appearances likewise 
 conform more to those of the east and west veins. 
 
 The intersections of veins of this douky and impervious cha- 
 racter with east and west veins, can only be considered as un- 
 favourable to a free circulation of water in the open spaces of the 
 latter as shown in Plate X. But when the cross veins are weak, 
 the obstruction would probably be very slight, especially if the 
 east and west veins are of later date. The inclination of the strata 
 varies more near strong cross veins than when near east and 
 
^Icf^Je. Seii^ 
 
 PLATE a. 
 
 Mfe.stcnc 
 
 
 mqhaalSili\ 
 lai'CocdSili 
 
 lyreat 
 l,\me.<!t{!nc 
 
 Tufb 
 
 QiuanHajlo 
 
s 
 § 
 
 
 3 
 
 t -^ fs I 1 1^ N ■■S'l >! I i t| 
 
 ^ 
 
BELOW THE EAETH'S SURFACE. 119 
 
 west veins ; and, in accordance with the third law, such incli- 
 nation would either promote a free circulation of water near the 
 surface, or otherwise retard it, and cause it to penetrate to 
 greater depths. The throws of the cross veins are often very 
 considerable, and this circumstance must necessarily have great 
 influence towards promoting as well as preventing, — as the case 
 may be, — the descent of water into any particular stratum. It 
 is evident that the Great Limestone, or any other stratum of 
 hard rock, lying at moderate depths from the surface, and 
 having an inclination to its outcroppiag, is placed in a more 
 favourable position for water percolating, and also for circulat- 
 ing ia a longitudinal direction, than the same stratum thrown 
 down 100 or 200 feet, on that side nearest the water shed of the 
 mountain, as shown in Plate XII. The dyke of clayey matter 
 contained in the cross vera a b must render this portion of the 
 dislocated strata still more unfavourable to the circulation of 
 water in a longitudinal direction. 
 
 Having shown that the circulation of water in the interior 
 of the Earth is promoted and regulated by certain causes 
 which have a correlation to other causes preventing its descent 
 and circulation, we are now in a position to affirm the 
 FIFTH LAW, — namely, that in all localities those reciprocating 
 causes must exist — the intensity of the effect produced by the one 
 set is continually diminishing, as that of the other is continually 
 increasing, and vice versa; but that in a district traversed by 
 powerful cross veins, the variations and counter-changes must 
 necessarily be the greatest and most abrupt. 
 
 The descent of fluids below the earth's surface in any parti- 
 cular district is also dependent upon the character of the allu- 
 vium which covers up the rocks. Some of the thick beds of 
 sandy clay are certainly more adapted than thin loose soils to 
 
120 THE DESCENT OP WATER. 
 
 prevent the water from flowing over the surface, and to allow 
 it slowly to percolate in greater quantities the rocks below. It 
 is obvious that such conditions cannot be reduced to definite 
 laws. It is scarcely necessary to point out to the careful reader 
 that the last jour laws are simply conditions modifying the effect 
 of the first law. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OP THE DECOMPOSITION AND CHANGE EFFECTED ON THE BOCKS 
 FOEMING THE SIDES OF VEINS. 
 
 The descent of water — the most umversal of all solvents — into 
 rocks, and its circulation in them, during long periods of geo- 
 logical time, must necessarily produce a series of changes upon 
 the sides of its channels. Lord Bacon observes " that the great 
 winding sheets that bury all things in oblivion are two : deluges 
 and earthquakes." * Waters in deluges leave monuments of 
 their ravages to be contemplated by many generations; but 
 even these are ultimately obliterated by the gentler touches of 
 its " efifaciug fingers." Nor have we any reason to suppose, that 
 by the still more gentle contact of immersion, the hardest sub- 
 stances would remain unaffected by its action in. those dark 
 chasms, where it must unremittingly and in silence have carried 
 on its Laethean operations of oblivion and change, ever since the 
 mountains emerged from the deep. The quantity, however, 
 which sinks under ordinary circumstances is small, compared 
 with that which flows over the surface. In the latter case, the 
 freeness of its action and consequent amount of effect, in dis- 
 
 * Of Vicissitude of Things. 
 
122 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 integrating the same class of rocks, far exceed that of the 
 former ; besides, the rocks are not only submitted to chemical 
 influences, assisted by great variations of heat, but are also 
 ground down by its mechanical action ; in the former case, the 
 rocks are subjected to 'chemical influences only, and in a uni- 
 form temperature are softened, dissolved, and ultimately carried 
 away in springs of purest crystal, and other substances brought 
 to supply in some measure the place of that which has been 
 removed, and to blend with that which has been softened and 
 permeated with water. 
 
 The air we breathe contains oxygen and nitrogen in the pro- 
 portion of 20 • 8 of the former to 79 • 2 of the latter, and in 
 addition a portion of watery vapour and carbonic acid gas. The 
 carbonic acid in elevated districts, where it is found, probably 
 amounts to about -^^-^ of the whole. "This small portion 
 of carbonic acid in the atmosphere affords an important part 
 of the food of plants, and the watery vapour aids in keeping the 
 surfaces of animals and plants in a moist and pliant state ; while 
 in due season, it descends also in refreshiag showers, or studs 
 the evening leaf with spai-kling d«w. "* 
 
 The atmosphere also contains other substances. Nitric acid 
 is formed in it by electricity, and certainly some ammonia 
 as weU. Humboldt observes that " the admixture of car- 
 bonate of ammonia in the atmosphere may probably be con- 
 sidered as older than the existence of organic beings on the 
 surface of the earth."! Many other substances must exhale from 
 the surface of the earth, to return to it again, after. having 
 mingled with the condensed particles of water floating in the 
 atmosphere. The consequence is that rain water is never found 
 in a state of purity. " The purest water which can be found as 
 
 * Johnston's ' Agricultural Chemistry,' p. 34. 
 t 'Cosmos,' vol. i., p. 317.— Bohn's edition. 
 
OF THE ROCKS. 123 
 
 a natural product, is procured by melting freshly fallen snow, 
 or by receiving rain in clean vessels at a distance from houses. 
 But this water is not absolutely pure ; for if placed imder the 
 exhausted receiver of an air-pump, or boiled briskly for a few 
 minutes, bubbles of gas escape from it. The air obtained in 
 this way from snow water is much richer than atmospheric air 
 in oxygen gas. According to Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, it 
 contains 34 • 8 per cent, of oxygen, and the air separated by 
 ebullition from rain water 32 per cent.* 
 
 Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, carbonic acid 
 gas enters into combination with water in about equal volumes ; 
 all rain water therefore contains a portion, "and after heavy 
 rains the moist state of the ground diminishes the quantity of 
 the gas, apparently by direct absorption." -f Indeed all the dif- 
 ferent substances floating in the atmosphere must be precipitated 
 in rain upon the surface of the earth, or absorbed directly by 
 the living organisms of plants and animals and other chemical 
 products forming there. 
 
 If water in the atmosphere contains impurities they must be 
 increased after its precipitation on the earth's surface. Prom 
 decaying vegetation and putrid animal matter an extra quantity 
 of carbonic acid as well as ammonia must be derived. A large 
 portion of each is absorbed by the roots of growing plants, and 
 thus from the ashes of living organisms Nature ever produces 
 new Ufe. Coleridge observes that " the metal at its height of 
 being seems a mute prophecy of the coming vegetation, into a 
 mimic semblance of which it crystallizes." The relation of 
 vegetables and minerals may not consist in a mimic semblance 
 only ; it may be that the same kind of particles in different 
 combinations enters into the composition of both. It is certain 
 
 * Turner's 'Chemistry' (sixth edition), p. 256. t Ibid., p. 268. 
 
124 
 
 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 that in each case the substances of which they are composed are 
 derived from the crude and heterogeneous masses of inorganic 
 matter constituting the crust of the globe. It would appear, 
 therefore, that their various properties or attributes, which enable 
 us to become cognizant of their existence, are the result of the 
 organization of a few simple substances according to chemical 
 and in the case of vegetables to semi-vital laws regulating the 
 formation and ascent of sap. Minerals, like vegetables, are also 
 subject to decay ; and could we watch, through indefinite periods 
 of time, the processes of formation and corrosion, we might apply 
 to them the beautiful language of Spenser : — 
 
 " For all that from her springs, and is ybredde, 
 However fayre it flourish for a time, 
 Yet see we soone decay ; and, being dead. 
 To turn again into their earthly BUme : 
 Yet, out of their decay and mortal crime. 
 We daily see new creatures to arize. 
 And of their Winter spring another Prime, 
 Unlike in forme, and chang'd by strange disguise : 
 So turn they still about, and change in restlesse wise." * 
 
 The action of water upon inorganized matter at the surface 
 of the earth is perhaps in aU cases detersive, but as it sinks to 
 greater depths its action appears to be modified, probably by 
 some chemical change upon the various substances it holds in 
 solution. Its detersive effect also extends below the surface to 
 varying depths, the extent of wfiich is regulated by circum- 
 stances, its action being chiefly restricted to the decomposition 
 of all lands of rocks as well as all other mineral substances.| At 
 greater depths its action appears to be not only detersive but 
 also reproductive, other substances being often brought by it to 
 
 * ' The Faerie Queen.' 
 
 t It was somewhat fancifully supposed by the mystical school of Biologists, 
 "that all things are alive, eat, drink, and excrete; even minerals and fluids."— 
 Whewell's ' Histoiy of Scientific Ideas,' vol, ii., p. 175. 
 
OF THE EOCKS. 125 
 
 supply to some extent the place of those that have been 
 removed. 
 
 It is no doubt owing to the wasting of the limestone rocks by 
 the percolation of water through them that the wide spaces in 
 the joints are due ; certainly not to any contraction of the lime- 
 stone by a consolidating process taking place after its exposure 
 to the surface, since, as before observed, the limestone at great 
 depths, where no joints are found, is equally hard and conso- 
 lidated, and even more so than that near the surface. If the 
 hypothesis previously hazarded respecting the formation of 
 joints be admitted — namely, that they are due to the expansion 
 of the hard limestone and sandstone rocks vertically, after the 
 denudation of the superincumbent rocks and the consequent 
 withdrawal of their particles laterally, corresponding to some 
 lines of least resistance previously affected on the rocks by crys- 
 talline action, when they were sunk far below the surface — then 
 there can be no doubt entertained, but that water and the other 
 substances it holds in solution entering into these small frac- 
 tures would, by their solvent properties, decompose the hard rocks 
 forming their sides, and during a long course of geological time, 
 being slowly enlarged, they would assume the appearance of 
 wide joints, as seen in precipices and scars, and which are so 
 well known to every observer and admirer of rocky scenery. 
 
 We have observed above, that the effect of water on the sur- 
 face is always wasting, never reproductive. The formation of 
 sheets of tufa, or travertine, by springs holding bicarbonate of 
 lime in solution, may seem to be an exception ; but it can 
 hardly be considered so. It simply proves, that concentrated 
 solutions flowing to the surface in springs of mineral waters, 
 may be precipitated in quantities greater than can be removed 
 in the same time by the wasting effects of atmospheric agency. 
 Eocks formed in this manner only occur where such springs 
 
 L 
 
126 
 
 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 issue to the surface. No broad extent of country like Alston 
 Moor could ever be covered by sheets of tufa or travertine, 
 although minor patches of these are by no means uncommon. 
 Such rocks, like all others, are equally subject to decomposition 
 after the springs cease to flow, or, changing their direction, 
 issue to the surface in some other locality. Sir Charles Lyell, 
 however, observes that "those persons who have merely seen 
 the action of petrifying waters in England wUl not easily form 
 an adequate conception of the scale on which the same process is 
 exhibited in those regions which lie nearer to the active centres 
 of volcanic disturbance." * But from this author, we are led to 
 infer, that the extended sheets of travertine in the volcanic dis- 
 tricts of Italy have been deposited in the bottom of extensive 
 lakes only ; similar to the depositions that must be .going on at 
 the present time in the lake of Solfatara. In the volcanic dis- 
 tricts of Central France the matter deposited by the calcariferous 
 springs appears to be limited even to small portions of the 
 gorge in which they flow ; the more uniform and extended sheets 
 of limestone, which resemble the Italian travertine, having origin- 
 ally been deposited in the ancient lakes, fed by waters derived 
 from springs of this character. On the 22nd page of Mr. Powlett 
 Scrope's second edition of his geology of this district there is 
 a description of a deposit from a petrifyiug spring 240 feet in 
 length, and also a beautiful illustration of its termination as a 
 natural bridge, 16 feet high and 12 feet wide, thrown across one 
 of the streams near Clermont, 
 
 To the decomposing effects of meteoric agents at and a little 
 below the surface, the contents of veins are equally subject as the 
 enclosing rocks, and in many cases even more so. The sul- 
 phides of lead and zinc are changed into carbonates. The 
 
 * ' Principles of Geology ' (ninth edition), p. 240. 
 
OF THE ROCKS. 127 
 
 sulpliur oxidizes and passes away as sulphuric acid. The oxides 
 of lead and zinc are then attacked by carbonic acid, and car- 
 bonates are formed. Ultimately, however, both are dissolved 
 and carried to the surface by the circulating water. The time 
 necessary to effect the transformation of sulphide of lead iiito 
 carbonate does not appear to be long where carbonic acid exists 
 plentifully. In peat moss where lead ore has occasionally been 
 accidentally placed, a period of fifty or sixty years, or even less, 
 is sufficient to produce a coating of carbonate of a very percep- 
 tible thickness. Sir H. De la Beche states that in the very old 
 workings of the Derbyshire mines, some of which may reach 
 back 1700 years, the small pieces of sulphide of lead, found in 
 the old refuse, are wholly changed into the carbonate, and the 
 larger pieces are thickly coated with the same substance. The 
 water in which this change has been effected usually contains 
 much bicarbonate of lime in solution.* In some of the very old 
 mines in Alston Moor the same effects have been observed. 
 
 We shall not at present take into consideration the particular 
 cases where metallic matter may have been wholly or par- 
 tially decomposed and removed from the veins of Alston Moor, 
 but endeavour briefly to point out the general conditions which 
 have modified the action of the decomposing agents. 
 
 Limestone strata, when lying in broad plateaus with other 
 strata thinly superimposed, and their basset forming precipitous 
 cliffs along the sides of the valleys, are placed in a situation 
 favourable to decomposition by atmospheric agency, and, as 
 already pointed out, are much broken with joiuts. In such a 
 position, it is evident that the metallic substances, deposited 
 in the veins, would be gradually removed by the percolation of 
 water contaioing common air and other substances held in 
 
 * 'The Geological Observer,' p. 794. 
 
 L 2 
 
128 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 solution, after the denudation of the sides of the valleys had 
 brought the rocks and the veins formed in them under the 
 influence of such decomposing agencies. The consequence is 
 that veins in such localities are generally destitute of rich depo- 
 sits of metals, or, in the language of the Alston Moor miners, 
 termed " broken," and the " strata imsound," and such grotmds 
 are considered unfavourable to successful mining operations. The 
 broken and unsound character of the veins and rocks is not, 
 however, the cause of the absence of metallic substances, as the 
 miners suppose, but only a condition favourable to the wasting 
 operations of meteoric causes, as rich deposits of lead ore have 
 been found in such situations, but then, almost invariably under 
 thick beds of clay, or where the decomposition has been ar- 
 rested by the filling up of the interstices of the veins and rocks 
 with clay, or iron oxides, or some conditions tending to preserve 
 the sulphide of lead from meteoric influences. 
 
 As water descends to greater depths, its decomposing cha- 
 racter is modified : so much so that, while one kind of substance 
 subjected to its influence is decomposed, another is not prevented 
 from being deposited, or the materials of the former are remo- 
 delled under different conditions of existence. To attempt to 
 demonstrate synthetically the cause of this modification, in the 
 effects of water as it descends below the surface, is certaioly 
 not my province. I wish to call the attention of thp chemist to 
 the fact that water, as it falls upon the surface of the earth, 
 contains something promoting changes which end in sulphides 
 of lead, zinc, or iron, being converted into carbonates, but 
 after it has descended to some depth, these sulphides are not 
 effected in the sHghtest degree. Dr. Daubeny has drawn 
 attention to the small quantity of oxygen that is intermixed 
 with the waters of thermal springs.* I apprehend that this 
 
 * ' On Volcanoes,' p. 561. 
 
OP THE BOOKS. 129 
 
 equally applies to the waters, . whether thermal or not, which 
 circulate in the fissures of stratified rocks at even moderate 
 depths below the surface. Nor does the supposition of Professor 
 Rogers seem at all improbable, that the absorption of the oxygen 
 is due chiefly to protoxide of iron, since iron exists plentifully 
 in all beds of shale. Can therefore the difference between^ the 
 effects of water at the surface and the interior of the earth be 
 owing to the greater quantity of oxygen intermixed with it in 
 the former case, which in the latter is absorbed by the rocks, 
 as it descends through the fissures ? 
 
 We have already stated that rain water, when precipitated 
 upon the earth, contains a portion of carbonic acid which in- 
 creases its solvent properties, and promotes the decomposition 
 of the rocks at or near the surface. The part it plays, however, 
 is not confined to the production of chemical effects near the 
 surface ; it appears as one of the great agents of change at very 
 considerable depths, certainly as far into the interior of the 
 earth as mining works have been extended, and probably as far 
 as water ever penetrated when the fissures through which it 
 descends were first formed. Dr. Daubeny, while allowing that 
 common springs often give off carbonic acid gas, seems to limit 
 its existence in large quantities chiefly to volcanic districts, or 
 to those lines of upheaval or fractures which, extending to great 
 depths, allow it to ascend.* It, however, exists only too plenti- 
 fully for the health and comfort of the miner, in the veins of 
 Alston Moor, where the conditions are of such a character as to 
 preclude all idea of its ascending from great depths. 
 
 In levels, driven in solid plate, perfectly compact and free 
 from open spaces, the air becomes highly charged with this gas, 
 so that it becomes imperatively necessary to supply the work- 
 
 * ' On Volcanoes,' p. 563. 
 
130 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 men -with pure air, forced ttrougli wooden boxes, or cast iron 
 pipes, in order to neutralize its noxious effects. It is not only 
 levels ia plate beds, but all advanced works, that need to be 
 suppKed in this manner with pure air. Nor is it an uncommon 
 occurrence, for the intermediate space between the point where 
 the pure air enters the pipes, and that to which it is conducted, 
 to be filled with this gas to such an extent that candles will not 
 burn ; while at the level foreheads, &c., the workmen carry on 
 operations of blasting, &c., without difficulty. 
 
 A few years ago, an attempt was made to form a communi- 
 cation with the surface, in order to ventilate a portion of Long 
 Cleugh mine at Nenthead. The total thickness of the strata 
 between the highest level and the surface amounted to 336 feet. 
 To effect this object, it was determined, in the first instance, to 
 make a Rise from the level, as high as it could be conveniently 
 extended, and afterwards to sink a Shaft from the surface to 
 communicate with it. The Eise, after ascending 90 feet, reached 
 the Firestone stratum (Plate I., No. 20), and drained from 
 it a very considerable quantity of water, which continued to 
 flow regularly in connexion with a large quantity of carbonic 
 acid gas. Much pure air was forced up the Rise by a powerful 
 ventilator; but it availed little in counteracting the noxious 
 effects of the gas. The operation of rising could, therefore, only 
 be carried on under great difficulties and much loss of time, and 
 bad ultimately to be suspended. 
 
 The operation of sinking from the surface was even less success- 
 ful than that of rising. After attaining a depth of 54 feet, the 
 quantity of water which flowed into the Shaft was so great that it 
 prevented further operations. It was then determined to commu- 
 nicate with the Eise-top by boring through the remaining portion. 
 The boring had to be made through the Slate Sills and several 
 beds of plate. After it reached the High Slate Sill the water 
 
OP THE ROOKS. 131 
 
 flowed from the Shaft and borehole into the joints of that stratum. 
 Ultimately the Firestone stratum was reached, when, with great 
 violence, the water ran out of the borehole, and flowed down 
 the rise. The quantity which continued to flow for a few weeks 
 was sufficiently large to turn a moderately-sized over-shot 
 wheel. Water still continues to flow, though in a much less 
 quantity than formerly. The quantity of carbonic acid gas is, 
 however, so much increased that it is only occasionally, in some 
 peculiar state of the weather, that a lighted candle can be car- 
 ried to the bottom of the Eise, which is situated only a few feet 
 from a circulation of pure air. 
 
 At the present time, the quantity of water dashed down the 
 Eise amounts to 24 gallons per minute ; it must, therefore, carry 
 off a large portion of the latter in solution. From the higher 
 specific gravity of carbonic acid gas over that of common air, a 
 portion probably settles into the lower parts of the mine, or 
 mingles with the moist ah, and is ultimately borne by the cir- 
 culation of the latter to the surface. It is not easy to point 
 out the source of such a large supply of carbonic acid gas, but 
 assuredly it is not due to exhalations from great depths. There 
 exist, at the surface, widely extended beds of peat, which in some 
 places are 10 feet thick : it is perhaps from the decomposition 
 of these that a portion of the carbonic acid gas is derived. 
 
 In another part of the same mine, situated 420 feet below the 
 surface, and about one mile from the entrance, a Sump was in 
 the course of being made into the Great Limestone, in order 
 to find deposits of lead ore in Long Cleugh vein ; when several 
 small caverns connected with the vein were broken into, from 
 which carbonic acid gas issued, accompanied with a hissing 
 noise. The miners filled up the caverns with stiff clay to pre- 
 vent the gas from flowing out, but in vain, for it made an 
 opening through the clay ; and in one place threw up the water 
 
132 
 
 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 with considerable force. In order to explode a blast, one of 
 the workmen was let down the Sump to relight a match which 
 the gas had extinguished, when he nearly lost his life, so large 
 was the quantity of gas which had flowed into the Sump in the 
 course of a few minutes. It is remarkable that much rain fell 
 afterwards from a very murky atmosphere. Generally there is 
 a close connexion between certain states of the atmosphere and 
 the supply of this gas in the mines. It frequently flows out of 
 the caverns and other small openings in the veins in a manner 
 very similar to water. There is, however, this difference, — water 
 can be heard and seen trickling down the sides, whereas car- 
 bonic acid gas is generally noiseless and always invisible. A 
 lighted candle placed within one inch of the gas as it flows from 
 the crevices often burns brilliantly, but when removed this 
 short distance into the stream, it is instantly extinguished. 
 
 Before levels and other horizontal openings were made, the 
 open spaces in the veins were doubtless filled with water, hold- 
 ing carbonic acid in solution, since it is evident that the latter 
 can only assume the gaseous form after the veins are drained. 
 Occasionally the same results would be effected by natural 
 openings to the surface, through which the water would issue in 
 the form of springs. But in Alston Moor it is only portions of 
 the veins near the surface, that have been drained naturally, 
 and in most instances this is due to joints in the limestone 
 strata. 
 
 The quantity of carbonic acid gas absorbed by water is in 
 exact ratio to the compressing force ; that is, water dissolves 
 twice its volume when the pressure is doubled, and three times 
 its volume when the pressure is trebled.* It does seem probable 
 that in many places below the earth's surface, compound pro- 
 
 * 'lurnor's ' Chemistry,' p. 294. 
 
OP THE ROCKS. 133 
 
 portions of tMs gas must be absorbed by the water. In conse- 
 quence, the disintegrating effects produced by such combinations 
 of these corroding substances, upon all kinds of rock, but more 
 especially upon limestone, are materially increased. Sir Charles 
 LyeU observes " that many springs hold so much carbonic acid in 
 solution that they are enabled to dissolve a much larger quantity 
 of calcareous matter than rain water."* AU rocks in which fel- 
 spar enters as a constituent part are liable to be decomposed by 
 a combination of carbonic acid and water ; and by their joint 
 action, the oxides of iron are rendered soluble, and entering 
 into combination with them flow to the surface, where they issue 
 as springs of chalybeate water. The eminent author just 
 quoted states that " in the environs of Pont Gibaud, not far from 
 Clermont, a rock belongiug to the gneiss formation, in which 
 lead mines are worked, has been found to be quite saturated 
 with carbonic acid gas, which is constantly disengaged. The 
 carbonates of of iron, lime, and manganese are so dissolved, that 
 the rock is rendered soft, and the quartz alone remains unat- 
 tacked."t In veins, specimens of pure quartz crystallized are 
 often found lying quite detached in the crevices and smaller 
 caverns, and especially when their walls are formed of limestone 
 rock. I have now in my possession a nest of quartz beautifully 
 crystallized in the interior. It was found lying quite loose in a 
 small cavern in a vein ; at one period the quartz had evidently 
 been attached to the limestone, and was probably disunited 
 from it by the disintegrating effects of water holding much car- 
 bonic acid in solution. 
 
 The action of water and carbonic acid upon the rocks forming 
 the sides of veins in Alston Moor, is no less remarkable than 
 that undergone by the gneiss rocks in the lead mines of Cler- 
 
 * ' Principles of Geology,' p. 239. 
 
 t On the authority of Ana. Scient. de 1' Auvorgne, tome ii., June 1829. 
 
134 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 mont. Near the veins, limestone rock has evidently been 
 subjected to some rearrangement of its particles, giving it a 
 crystalline structure, which it originally does not possess. In 
 many instances, it evidently contains a proportion of carbonic 
 acid greater than is found in pure limestone, and which could 
 only enter into combination with it when in a softened state. 
 In this case, it is more indurated than common limestone ; but 
 from the disengagement of the carbonic acid, it decomposes 
 more rapidly in the open air. The limestone is also often 
 impregnated with iron, diffused throughout the whole mass, in 
 such a manner as could only occur when the limestone was in 
 a soft or porous condition. On the south side of EampgiU 
 vein, in the Fell-top Limestone, to such an extent has this re- 
 arrangement and substitution of particles taken place, that it is 
 now converted into a rich ironstone, which has been carted a 
 distance of upwards of five miles to Alston, and afterwards con- 
 veyed to Newcastle by rail. Such changes and rearrangement 
 of particles in limestone rocks are well worthy of being sub- 
 mitted to chemical investigation. 
 
 The limestone strata are divided horizontally by thin beds of 
 argillaceous shale. Some of the layers are more susceptible of 
 decomposition and change than others; and from this cir- 
 cumstance they are termed flat posts. The Great Limestone 
 contains three posts of this character, respectively termed the 
 High, Middle, and Low flat. In the Scar and Tyne bottom Lime- 
 stones, posts more susceptible of decomposition than the rest are 
 also found to exist. When near to veins, the latter limestone 
 has undergone a greater degree of change and decomposition, 
 throughout its entire thickness, than any other in Alston Moor. 
 
 Near veins, large caverns are frequently met with in limestone 
 strata, more particularly in these flat posts. They are often 
 beautifully lined with crystals of various kinds of spar, but occa- 
 
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OF THE ROCKS. 135 
 
 sionally they present a jagged or corroded surface, with no lining 
 of spars. A few years ago one was found between two portions 
 of Long Cleugh vein, in the High and Middle flat posts, that 
 contained twenty cubic fathoms of open space, all lined with 
 galena. Black Jack, and carbonate of lime. Caverns of lesser 
 dimensions than this are by no means uncommon ; they are, 
 however, seldom found larger. Where they occur in the 
 Nenthead mines, the limestone is a compact mass entirely free 
 from joints or any fissures except veins. . It is not an uncommon 
 circumstance to find a sandy residue left in the bottom of these 
 caverns, which is sometimes slightly cemented into a porous 
 mass, not unfrequently containing perfect crystals of galena. 
 
 The caverns are, however, generally small, and had no mineral 
 matter been deposited in them, the limestone had presented a 
 very honey-combed appearance. Most of the caverns are 
 elongated in a horizontal direction, and the very thin seams of 
 argillaceous shale, which may occasionally form their roof, 
 remain undisturbed. Upon the section, Plate XIII., showing the 
 position of the strata between Small Cleugh and Handsome Mea 
 Great Cross vein it is attempted to delineate a flat on the west 
 side of the latter vein ; the black lines represent the beds of shale 
 dividing the limestone into horizontal layers, or posts. It shows 
 the flats as they are usually met with in the Great Limestone 
 stratum. In this instance the west side gradually merges into 
 pure limestone, and the portion most corroded lies near the 
 cross vein. Occasionally flats terminate abruptly at strings or 
 even very weak leads connected with some of the veins. When 
 lead ore occurs in flats, it is found deposited in these caverns, 
 and sometimes gives the flat a seamy appearance, especially 
 when the caverns are almost fiUed with pure sulphide of lead. 
 In the formation of flats the quantity of limestone changed or 
 transported from many places is very great. The Small Cleugh 
 
136 ' DECOMPOSITION 
 
 flats are represented on the Piano-section, Plate XIV., and do 
 not occupy an area less than eight acres, three of which have 
 probably been worked for the lead ore deposited ui them. They 
 are chiefly situated in the low flat post, which is fifteen or six- 
 teen feet thick ; consequently m this post alone not less than 
 5,000,000 cubic feet of limestone have undergone decomposition 
 and rearrangement of its particles, besides the large quantities 
 which have undergone similar changes in the middle and high 
 flats. The decomposing agents have originally entered the lime- 
 stone through very weak north and south running leads. These 
 leads are connected with the cross veins, and their width scarcely 
 equals that of a penny piece. The east and west leads shown 
 upon the sketch are simple openings or cracks often unfilled 
 with mineral matter. They cut through the galena, spar, &c., 
 deposited in the cavernous parts of the flat ; and a proof of 
 their recent formation is derived from the fact that they have 
 not modified the action of the decomposing forces in the slightest 
 degree. The greatest amount of change and decomposition has 
 been effected near to Handsome Mea Cross vein, where also 
 carbonate of iron enters more abundantly iato the composi- 
 tion of the limestone remaining in situ. Near to this vein, car- 
 bonate of iron is also more plentifully deposited iu the caverns. 
 
 In the Tyne bottom mines more of the Tyne bottom Lime- 
 stone has been affected by decomposition than that of the Great 
 Limestone described in the instance above ; but in the Tyne bottom 
 mines larger portions of the flatted limestone are unworked, the 
 lead ore not being so plentifully diffused through the mass as to 
 repay the cost of mining. Flats are also found in this lime- 
 stone in various other localities, but none as yet have been 
 discovered in Alston Moor as extensive as those in the Tyne 
 bottom mines. Those which have been worked in the Ashgill 
 Field mines are represented upon the sketch Plate XV. No 
 
Missing Page 
 
OF THE ROCKS. 137 
 
 very large quantities of lead ore have been at any time produced 
 from them. 
 
 The Scar Limestone, when removed from the surface, has per- 
 haps suffered less change from aqueous and other decomposing 
 agents than either the Great Limestone or the Tyne bottom Lime- 
 stone : at all events, ilats containing ore in sufficient quantities to 
 repay the cost of mining are not so often found. In Alston Moor 
 the principal flats which have been worked for lead ore occur in 
 the Ashgill Field mines, and are represented on the sketch 
 Plate XV. by three or four patches of shaded space, a, h, c, d. In 
 connexion with these flats there are considerably more inter- 
 secting strings and leads than in the Small Cleugh flats. The 
 flat a was cut off abruptly at the east end by a weak quarter-point 
 vera. No doubt can be entertained but that these weak veins 
 and leads have afforded a passage for the decomposing fluids into 
 the heart of the limestone at a period long anterior to the 
 formation of the joints which now exist ; since joints have not 
 influenced the action of the decomposing agents in the slightest 
 degree, although in consequence of the flats occurring so near 
 the surface many of them are foimd in the limestone. Veins 
 and flats iu this stratum near its outcropping often contain brown 
 oxide of iron ; for instance, in the neighbourhood of the Nest and 
 Manor House, Lowbyer, it occurs sufficiently rich to repay the 
 cost of working and carriage by rail to Newcastle. 
 
 Flats of considerable extent are found in the Great Limestone 
 in Dowgang mines at Nenthead. At one particular place they 
 are connected with a strong vein, which dislocates the strata 
 considerably. This vein leaves the principal Dowgang vein in 
 a north-west direction, and shortly afterwards begins to divide 
 into separate portions, to such an extent, that before intersecting 
 Dowgang East Cross vein (see Map) it exists only as a widely 
 diffused group of strings and leads. In these mines a very 
 
138 DECOMPOSITION 
 
 great quantity of limestone has been subjected to decomposition 
 and change. In the Holey Field mines, in the same stratum of 
 limestone, extensive flats are found in the walls or sides of the 
 veins. In these flats some large caverns were found which 
 contained rich deposits of lead ore. 
 
 Flats of considerable extent are connected with the veins in 
 Eampgill mine, particularly in the group of sun veins on the 
 west side of Eampgill cross vein, and on both sides of the latter 
 vein about the places of intersection with the sun veins. In 
 connection with Eampgill vein large quantities of limestone 
 have undergone decomposition and change where no lead ore 
 has subsequently been deposited. In the east portion of the 
 mine, and on the south side of Eampgill vein, the flats which 
 have been worked for the ore they contained are chiefly con- 
 nected with quarter-point veins. 
 
 Much change has been produced upon the Great Limestone 
 forming the sides of Scaleburn vein. The decomposition in 
 many places extends to a considerable distance on each side. 
 Extensive mining works have been made in these flats to pro- 
 cure the lead ore deposited in them, but on account of their 
 very hard character much flatted ground remains unworked, 
 the lead ore deposited in them being too small to repay the 
 cost. 
 
 In the Coal Cleugh mining district the limestone strata have 
 undergone similar changes, and the quantity so acted upon is 
 indeed very great. The mining works made in these flats are 
 extensive, and very large quantities of lead ore must have 
 been produced from them, as scarcely any doubt exists of their 
 having been worked, to a greater or less extent, for the last hun- 
 dred and thirty years. 
 
 It is unnecessary to notice further a phenomenon found to be 
 connected, in some degree, with all the veins of Alston Moor. 
 
OF THE KOCKS. 139 
 
 Even where flats are not formed, limestone cheeks of reins have 
 in all cases undergone change and rearrangement of their par- 
 ticles. Indeed, no mineralogist or geologist could view the 
 corroded and hardened state of the limestone near to veins in 
 the mines of Alston Moor without being deeply interested. Such 
 observations, however, are best made as the mining works ad- 
 vance, since they frequently remain open for a short time only, 
 and are then closed up for ever. Sometimes the phenomena 
 remain open to inspection, more particularly where the levels or 
 open drifts happen to be made in some of the flat posts of the 
 limestone strata. 
 
 In sandstone strata the effect of the decomposing agents 
 is less striking. Occasionally, however, in such strata small 
 caverns are found on the sides of veins, which are evidently 
 formed by the disintegration and dissolution of the rock. In 
 these caverns sandy residue often remains at the bottom. In 
 the vicinity and interior of veins sandstones as well as lime- 
 stones have suffered considerable change in their constituent 
 parts, the former, however, not to the same extent as the latter. 
 Under such circumstances the sandstones are more indurated 
 than the same kind of rock situated at some distance from 
 veins. Sometimes strings of pure sulphide of lead are found in 
 sandstone, which in appearance at least has undergone no change 
 or transformation of its particles. 
 
 Such is ^the nature of the effects produced by erosive fluids 
 upon rocks, not only at the earth's surface, but far down in its 
 silent depths. Substances so hard that they can only be pene- 
 trated by the art of man, and at a great cost of labour, are 
 slowly disintegrated, the tombs of myriads of zoophytes and 
 moUusca are ruthlessly opened, and by the unremitting action 
 of subtle fluids, their marble monuments vanish as surely as 
 the snows of April. Even these exist not as the invari- 
 
140 TRANSFORMATIONS OP IRON. 
 
 able. Metals of aU kinds are equally if not even more sub- 
 ject to change. After their deposition in one place they are 
 dissolved and transported to other localities, it may be to assume 
 the same conditions of existence, or perhaps to enter into other 
 combinations in which there are no indications of the changes 
 previously undergone by them. The transformations of iron are 
 better known than any of those of the other metals, and they 
 have been pointed out in such a forcible manner by the late 
 Hugh Miller that I cannot forbear giving the passage entire, as 
 a proper conclusion to this chapter and an introduction to the 
 next. " How strange, if the steel axe of the woodman should 
 have once formed part of an ancient forest ! — if after first exist- 
 ing as a solid mass in a primary rock, it should next have come 
 to be diffused as a red pigment ia a transition conglomerate, — 
 then as a brown oxide in a chalybeate spring, — then as a yellow 
 ochre in a secondary sandstone, — then as a component part in 
 the stems and twigs of a thick forest of arboraceous plants, — 
 then again as an iron carbonate slowly accumulating at the 
 bottom of a morass of the coal-measures, — then as a layer of 
 indurated bands and nodules of brown ore underlying a seam of 
 coal, — and then, finally, that it should have been dug out, and 
 smelted, and fashioned, and employed for the purpose of handi- 
 craft, and yet occupy, even at this stage, merely a middle place 
 between the transmigrations which have passed and the changes 
 which are yet to come."* 
 
 ' The Old Red Sandstone,' p. 251 (seventh edition). 
 
CHAPTEK V. 
 
 OF THE DEPOSITION OF VEIN MINERALS AS CAEBONATE OF LIME, 
 BAEYTES, ETC., IN THE OPEN SPACES OF VEINS. 
 
 In fhe preceding chapters of this book, we have attempted to 
 point out the conditions regulating the descent of water into 
 the interior of the Earth, in mountainous districts and through 
 stratified rocks. It has also been stated that it must carry with 
 it carbonic acid, and probably other substances, which in com- 
 bination are calculated to dissolve some of the hardest rocks, 
 and that, in the fissures or channels through which water and 
 its contained substances descend at the present time, certain 
 phenomena of decomposition and transformation are found, 
 which can only be effected by erosive fluids. We have also 
 shown that the quantity of rock transformed or borne away 
 bears some proportion to the solubility of the rock itself, and 
 to the number of channels through which the erosive fluids 
 descend, or by means of which they permeate the rocks. In 
 sandstone, as might be expected, the phenomenon of change, 
 &c., is much less strikingly exhibited than in limestones ; the 
 former being less soluble in carbonic acid than the latter. We 
 have also pointed out the improbability, if not the impossibility 
 of erosive fluids ascending from great depths. We are therefore 
 
 M 
 
142 THE DEPOSITION 
 
 justified, from this circumstance in connexion with the effects 
 produced, to conclude that the decomposing agents are entirely 
 derived from the atmosphere and the earth's surface. 
 
 We previously pointed out the proportions of limestone, 
 sandstone, and shale, whose aggregate thickness forms the Lead- 
 measures of the Mountain Limestone strata of Alston Moor and 
 the adjacent mining districts. We shall now proceed briefly to 
 inquire into the connexion (if any exist) between the different 
 kinds of rock and the deposition of ordinary vein minerals. As 
 these rocks have all undergone decomposition, particularly the 
 limestones, it will naturally be supposed that deposits from 
 such solutions, in different combinations, ought to be found 
 lining the sides of the cavities or fissures : in short, that quartz- 
 ose substances and the various kinds of carbonates of lime 
 and iron ought at least to be found in the veins. 
 
 We have already shown, that on account of the hade of the 
 east and west veins taking place chiefly in the beds of shale, 
 the sides of the veins in such soft strata approach each other, 
 and the little space is often filled with a soft clayey matter. It 
 has also been stated that water percolates the veins, in a down- 
 ward direction, when filled with this clayey substance, but that 
 the circulation horizontally must take place chiefly in the open 
 spaces comprehended between the cheeks or sides of sandstone 
 and limestone. Now, as the water which circulates in such 
 open spaces holds a quantity of decomposed matter in solution, 
 derived from the sides of its channels, the question arises, does 
 the mineral matter deposited on the sides of the veins in any 
 particular stratum, bear any relation in kind to the enclosing 
 rock? 
 
 In the strata, included between the Grindstone Sill and 
 the top of the Little Limestone (see Plate I.), the quartzose 
 substances deposited in the veins are much less than might 
 
OF VEIN MINERALS. 143 
 
 be expected from the silicious nature of the rocks. Indeed, 
 fluor spar (fluoride of calcium), carbonate of lime, and some- 
 times the oxides of iron are the prevailing minerals. The 
 carbonates of lime occur crystallized in various forms, and gene- 
 rally, the crystals of all these minerals are found in the greatest 
 perfection where the largest quantities of lead ore are deposited. 
 It seems probable, that the lime is separated from the sandstone, 
 in which it exists as a cement, holding together the small 
 particles or grains of quartz. But it is not so easy to point out the 
 source of the fluorine with which it has entered into combination. 
 It has however been proved by Dr. Geprge Wilson that fluoride 
 of calcium may almost always be found in those waters which 
 contain bicarbonate of lime, and also in most sedimentary rocks 
 and alluvial soils. The waters which issue in springs from the base 
 of the Slate Sills and other thick beds of hazle, almost invariably 
 contain bicarbonate of lime, and also some iron in solution. 
 
 In the Nenthead district, and in the Little Limestone stratum, 
 veins frequently contain much blende and iron, and also a 
 greater proportion of quartz than in the sandstone strata above. 
 Fluoride of calcium and carbonates of lime are by no means 
 uncommon in this stratum of limestone, and in the Coal SiUs 
 below. Generally some considerable amount of quartz is found 
 in connexion with the sulphide of zinc. The converse, how- 
 ever, does not follow; since veins almost entirely fiUed with 
 quartz often contain no sulphide of zinc. 
 
 In the Great Limestone stratum, a greater variety of minerals 
 is mingled together in the veins than in any of the strata above. 
 In the Nenthead mines, however, fluoride of calcium is rarely 
 met with in considerable quantities. At some former period it 
 must have been plentifully deposited in the veins of this district, 
 since casts of its crystals in quartz are by no means uncommon, 
 even in veins where not the smallest particle of the substance 
 
 M 2 
 
144 THE DEPOSITION 
 
 can now be found. At Grarrigill, in the Cowper-dyke-liead's 
 mines, carbonate of lime and fluoride of calcium exist plenti- 
 fully in the Great Limestone, the veins being almost fiUed with 
 these substances. A narrow stripe of ore generally Kes against 
 the limestone, and the rest of the open space originally formed 
 in the veins is filled with these sparry substances, containing 
 nodules of sulphide of lead. Sometimes the centre of the 
 sparry mass is cavernous, with crystals of fluor spar lining the 
 sides of the open space ; the filling of the vein is then repre- 
 sented by the section Figure 1, Plate XVI. In the Weardale 
 and Allenheads districts the veins in aU the strata are chiefly 
 filled with lead ore, carbonate of lime, and fluor spar : in this 
 respect they difl^er very materially, from the veins in the Nent- 
 head and Coal Cleugh mining districts. From the circumstance 
 of the veins in the latter districts having once contained this 
 mineral, where none of it now exists, it may be inferred, that 
 the vein deposits have undergone some great change, from which 
 those in the Weardale and Allenheads mines have been exempt. 
 The veins in the last-named districts difier also from those in 
 Alston Moor in not containing much sulpliide of zinc. 
 
 In the sandstones below the Great Limestone, the east and 
 west veins generally contain more quartzose minerals than in 
 the Slate Sills, Firestone, &c., or even in any of the veins in the 
 Great Limestone. In the Nenthead district, so far as the veins 
 have been proved in such strata, the sulphide of zinc dis- 
 appears, at least it rarely occurs in masses as the principal 
 mineral in the veins, though crystals of it, deposited upon the 
 carbonates of lime ' and iron, when such occur, are not unfre- 
 quent. Quartz, however, is not the predominating mineral in 
 all the strata below the Great Limestone, since both the east 
 and west, and north and south veins, occasionally contain so 
 much carbonate of Hme, in the limestone strata, as to be almost 
 
jfZATjrXVl. 
 Sh/c/i ■■i/<f'nc'/uy /lie posclU'ii vf' i-i irr/t l^:a<'/ ore dcpcnt in Jla/id.s('/rn' .Uca 
 GREAT CROSS VEIN. 
 
 Fu/.l 
 
 ('jiiiod Liiru'^ittrnt- 
 
OP VEIN MINERALS. 145 
 
 filled with it. For instance, in Carrs vein in Lovelady Shield 
 mine, and also Black AshgiU cross vein in the Four-fathoms 
 Limestone, immediately below a very rich deposit of lead ore in 
 the G-reat Limestone. In this latter instance, the rhombohedral 
 cleavage, so characteristic of calc-spar, is very distinct. A 
 number of the veins proved in the Scar Limestone from Nent- 
 force level, appears to be filled with carbonate of lime. Li this 
 stratimi GuddamgiU vein contains not less than three feet wide 
 of this substance. HudgiU Bum cross vein (a continuation 
 northward of Black AshgiU cross vein), contains an equal width 
 of it in the same stratum. 
 
 Both east and west and north and south veins in the Scar 
 Limestone, at its outcropping near the banks of the Tyne river 
 in GarrigiU, seem to be filled in a great measure with a hard 
 kind of quartz rider which has not, as yet, ever been found con- 
 nected with much lead ore, although small particles of it are very 
 frequently blended in the rider with crystals of quartz. This 
 kind of quartz rider may easily be seen at the surface where 
 Benty Field vein crosses Garrigill Bum near the road between 
 Alston and Garrigill. 
 
 The veins which have been worked for lead, ore in the Tyne 
 bottom Limestone, often contain much carbonate of Hme, though 
 quartzose minerals are by no means uncommon. In the flats, 
 in this stratum, the former occurs beautifully crystallized in 
 various forms. In the Tyne bottom mines six-sided prisms 
 were often found three or four inches long and scarcely more 
 than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. These prismatic 
 crystals are formed in small caverns in the flat, and are found 
 sometimes crossing each other, or more frequently arranged 
 regularly like the quills upon the porcupine's back. These 
 beautiful specimens were found in the greatest perfection where 
 the flats contained the richest deposits of lead ore, but it was 
 
146 THE DEPOSITION 
 
 scarcely possible to obtain undamaged specimens out of the 
 small caverns. In connexion with these specimens of carbonate 
 of lime man)' excellent ones of quartz occurred, often splendidly 
 crystallized ; also some chalcedony, and much iron pyrites. In 
 some parts of the same mine fluor spar is found in very clear 
 and fine crystals, generally very small, and deposited upon such 
 a brittle base that the specimens obtained rarely exceeded a 
 cluster of two or three crystals. Occasionally these crystals 
 of fluor contained a small cavity in the centre, filled with 
 water. 
 
 In the Tyne bottom mines, some proof of the veins in the 
 underlying Basaltic rock has been made, in which stratum they 
 are filled with calc-spar and some carbonate of iron, but contain 
 no lead ore. Their contents are similar to the minor veins in 
 the igneous rocks of Derbyshire which, as Sir H. De la Beche 
 observes, are often filled with calcareous spar.* One or two 
 veins at the surface, in the Whin Sill near Tynehead Smelt Mill, 
 are filled with a very hard silicious veinstone, not at all mixed 
 with lead or any other kind of ore except iron. 
 
 On the west side of the Tyne, in the beds below the Great 
 Limestone, the veins seem to be filled either with carbonate of 
 lime and fiuoride of calcium, or with quartzy spar. Where lead 
 ore occurs plentifully, it is always accompanied with fluor spar, 
 though fluor spar occasionally exists where very little lead ore 
 is deposited. 
 
 Looking at the facts connected with the subject generally, the 
 distribution of vein minerals whose specific gravity is lighter 
 than the ore of lead — and the elements of which are thought to 
 be derived from the decomposition of the rocks forming the 
 sides of the veins — is apparently subjected to less law and order 
 
 ' Geological Observer,' p. 766. 
 
OF VEIN MINERALS. 147 
 
 than perhaps might be expected. Veins in one locality may 
 be filled with carbonate of lime or fluoride of calcium, but the 
 same Teins in the same strata may be filled in a great measure 
 with quartzose substances, which are generally much crystallized, 
 the crystals being often very small. It may, however, be 
 stated, very generally, that in those portions of the veins, where 
 the conditions are favouralble to a free percolation and circu- 
 lation of fluids, the greatest variety of minerals is found, and 
 those crystallized in the greatest perfection. On the contrary, 
 when the conditions are unfavourable to a free circulation, the 
 veins are filled either with amorphous carbonate of lime, or 
 quartz, or in some instances with fluoride of calcium. Under 
 such circumstances long continued, and keeping in mind the 
 abundance of carbonate of lime held in solution, it is not sur- 
 prising that lime should have occasionally been thrown down so 
 abundantly as to fill up the entire space in the veins. That 
 quartz may be formed under quiescent conditions, is also evident, 
 from the fact of crystals of this substance having been formed in 
 a phial charged with silicious particles kept undisturbed for 
 years.* From this it would appear probable, that the veins in 
 the Scar Limestone in Garrigill have been mineralized before 
 the Tyne river cut its bed through this stratum of limestone, 
 and since then, the contents of the veins have not been subjected 
 to any great law of change. 
 
 Many changes, however, occur for which it is not easy to 
 assign a mechanical cause ; for instance, why the veins in the 
 Nenthead mines should contain much blende, and the conti- 
 nuation of the same veins in Garrigill none. Mr. Forster ob- 
 serves " that the mines (veins) on the east side of the Great 
 Burtreeford Dyke or vein, are generally of a softer nature than 
 
 * Mill's ' Logic,' vol. i., p. 421. 
 
148 THE DEPOSITION 
 
 those on the west side, as at Allenheads, and_all the extensiye 
 mines in Weardale and Derwent, which are (situated) on the 
 east side of the Burtreeford Dyke ; likewise, that the mines 
 (veins) which are (situated) on the west side of the above men- 
 tioned vein, are generally of a harder nature, frequently con- 
 taining a great deal more of jack and rider, as at Coal Oleugh, 
 all the mines in Alstone Moor and Kilhope, and the mines in 
 
 Teesdale On the east side of the above great vein the 
 
 veins contain mostly the calcareous or fluor spars."* It is pro- 
 bable that the conditions of mineralization are or have been 
 different on opposite sides of this great vein. On the south-east 
 side the beds incline rapidly from the vein. Mr. Forster also 
 observes that in the Cross Fell mines the veins which are all filled 
 with fluoride of calcium, on the contrary or west side of the 
 mountain contain little else than sulphate of barytes and some 
 galena-t Here, where there are no great dislocations of the 
 beds by cross veins, and where the different portions of the 
 same veins would be subject to mineralizing processes at the 
 same time, their contents differ as greatly as the contents of the 
 veins situated on the opposite sides of Burtreeford Dyke. Sir 
 H. De la Beche observes that, " If in a limestone country, such 
 as the mining districts of Derbyshire, an observer found the 
 successive coatings upon the sides of the veins composed of cal- 
 careous spar, he might be led to infer that this substance was 
 derived from the limestone beds, so abundant around, and in 
 which the fissures may be formed, while, if composed of siilphate 
 of baryta, a common mineral in parts of that district, he might 
 be induced to seek other sources of supply. Should the single 
 substance in a vein amid limestones be fluoride of calcium, 
 while he would see that an abundant supply of calcium was at 
 
 * ' Section of Strata,' p. 269. t Ibid., p. 276. 
 
OF VEIN MINBEALS. 149 
 
 hand to combine with fluorine, he might question the limestone 
 having been the source of the latter substance in the quantities 
 found in the veins."* Both Eampgill and Middle Cleugh second 
 sun veins contain barytes (baryto-calcite) in the Grindstone 
 SiU, but not a particle or trace of it in any of the strata below. 
 In such situations, nearly on the top of the hills, it is not easy 
 to conceive from what other source the baryta can be derived 
 than from the enclosing rock ; and the presence of this and 
 many other substances of an anomalous character is probably 
 due to laws of chemical combination as yet unknown, but the 
 action of which may be still in daily operation. In Welhope 
 vein, sulphate of barytes is deposited in the upper beds of sand- 
 stone, but in the Great Limestone, carbonates of barytes. 
 
 ' Geological Observer,' p. 798. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE CONDITIONS EEGULATING 
 THE DESCENT AND CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS, AND THE DE- 
 POSITION OF LEAD OEE IN THE VEINS OP ALSTON MOOE. 
 
 The eifect of rocks in modifying the amount and kind of mineral 
 deposit in veins is most strikingly exemplified in the deposition 
 of lead ore, occurring so plentifully under certain conditions, in 
 both limestone and sandstone strata above the Tuft ; while the 
 same veins in the limestones and sandstones below the Tuft, 
 under precisely similar circumstances, seldom contain lead ore, 
 except in small quantities. In the Alston Moor district the 
 Tuft forms a line of separation, so marked as to lead to the con- 
 viction that the difference is due to lead or substances from 
 which it is derived, existing less plentifully in the lower 
 strata. This difference in the metalliferous character of 
 the upper and lower parts of the Mountain Limestone does not 
 seem to be restricted to the North of England. Sir H. De la 
 Beche observes : " Taken as a whole, the upper part of the 
 Mountain Limestone series is the most metalliferous, and in it 
 certain beds appear more favourable for the occurrence of the 
 ores of leads than others. This seems to hold equally well 
 whether the sulphide of lead be found in fissures traversing all 
 
LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 151 
 
 the rocks, or in the joints and cavernous places in the limestone 
 series."* 
 
 We have seen, that the conditions connected with the produc- 
 tive portion of EampgUl vein differ from those connected with 
 the unproductive portion, in this important particular, that they 
 would promote a circulation of water, in a longitudinal direc- 
 tion, to and in the vein : and have also shown, that water flowing in 
 the interior of the earth, must contain in solution particles of the 
 rocks through which it had percolated, as well as other substances 
 derived from the atmosphere and the surface of the earth. We 
 have stated in the preceding paragraph, as a law of experience, 
 that the rocks forming the sides of the veins have exerted an 
 important influence upon the deposition of lead ore. An investi- 
 gation of the conditions which have promoted, as well as those 
 which have prevented the deposition of lead ore, may be advan- 
 tageously confined, in the first instance, to the veins in the upper 
 part of the Mountain Limestone. It is in these beds that the 
 most striking contrasts of effects are produced, and it has been 
 well observed, that " in attempting to explain any class of phe- 
 nomena, it would be well to begin with the distinct and end with 
 the obscure."'!" 
 
 In the second chapter of this book, it was laid down provision- 
 ally, that a circulation of fluids is a law of causation essential to 
 the deposition of lead ore ; and in the third, it has been at- 
 tempted to prove, that the percolation and circulation of water 
 below the earth's surface are regulated generally hj five laws. 
 If these general propositions be correct, it foUows, that a con- 
 nexion must exist, between the laws regulating the percolation 
 and circulation of water in the open spaces of the veins, and the 
 deposition of lead ore. ' 
 
 * ' Geological Observer,' p. 783. t Dr. Fleming. 
 
^^^ CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 To a general observer, the metallic deposits seem to be very 
 irregularly distributed in patches over the whole district of 
 Alston Moor. It has evidently formed no plan of Nature to fill 
 up any of the veins with lead ore throughout their whole extent, 
 while, it must be readily admitted, by all who have considered 
 the subject attentively, that by the co-ordination of those laws, 
 which have reaUy regulated the distribution of the ores in veins, 
 the apparently discordant phenomena connected with them will 
 be cleared up, and the whole reduced to orderly arrangement. 
 Lord Bacon observes: "Vaga enim experientia, et se tantum 
 sequens mera palpatio est, et homines potius stupefacit, quam 
 informat."* And in another place of the same book : « At contra, 
 verus experientise ordo primo lumen accendit, deinde per lumen 
 iter demonstrat, incipiendo ab experientia ordinata et digesta, et 
 minime praepostera aut erratica." f It is the general law, or 
 theory which sets up the light directing the inquirer through 
 the mazes of experience, while by its co-ordination, experience 
 must ever supply a verification of the general law. 
 
 In order to prosecute this inquiry, it is necessary to separate 
 the district of Alston Moor into portions, in which each vein 
 may have been subjected to similar conditions of mineralization, 
 and make the boundaries of these portions conform to the water- 
 shed of the mountains, the powerful cross veins, or some other 
 equally distinctive marks, including as much as possible groups 
 of the metalliferous veins. It has long been known, that veins 
 in the same district and situated near each other are frequently 
 filled with the same kinds of minerals. Pliny observes of silver 
 veins : " Ubicumque una inventa vena est, non procul invenitur 
 alia. Hoc quidem et in omni fere materia : unde metallia 
 Grseci videntur dixisse."J And Mr. Taylor " has observed lines 
 
 * ' Novum Organum,' Lib. i., Ap. 100. 
 t Ap. 82. t ' Naturalis Historia," 33, 6, 3] . 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 153 
 
 of greater productiveness ranging nearly north and south across 
 the bearing of the veins." The district of Alston Moor fur- 
 nishes no general exception to these empirical laws. 
 
 Keeping what we have just stated in view, we shall endea- 
 vour to divide the district under consideration in as orderly a 
 manner as possible, and commence with the examination of a 
 portion of the Nenthead mines, in the south-east part of the 
 Alston Manor, lying near the boundaries between the counties of 
 Cumberland and Durham. The portion enclosed by this county 
 boundary, on the east and south, includes the Middle Cleugh 
 veins, on the east side of Handsome Mea great cross vein, two or 
 three east portions of this latter cross vein, and another cross vein 
 intersecting the east and west veins in the centre of the ground. 
 In this plot of ground, the conditions connected with the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids are somewhat opposite. The 
 surface rises gently for some distance on the east side of Long 
 Cleugh Burn, forming a smooth surface of comparatively broad 
 extent, anciently called Handsome Mea.* According to the 
 second law, this gentle inclination is favourable to the percola- 
 tion of water below the surface. Near the east boundary the 
 bill rises more rapidly to the summit, which by the first and 
 second laws is unfavourably situated for the free percolation of 
 fluids below the surface. The inclination of the strata is in a 
 north-east direction, or towards the valley ; and by the third 
 law, is lying in a position favourable to a free circulation 
 near the surface. Handsome Mea great cross vein throws down 
 the strata not less than eighty feet on the east side, or the side 
 next the water-shed of the mountain, which, according to the 
 fifth law, is unfavourable to a free circulation of fluids, especially 
 
 * " And richly clad in thy fair golden fleece, 
 
 Doo'st hold the first house of heav'n's spacious meese.'' 
 
 8yh>. Dularl, 1. iv. See Wright's Dictionary. 
 
154 CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 at great depths below the surface. The conditions connected 
 with the inclinations of the beds and the throws of the veins, as 
 affecting the circulation of fluids, are more particulaj-ly shown 
 upon Plate YIII, 
 
 In this ground, the principal ore-producing stratum, the Great 
 Limestone, is placed at a considerable depth below the surface, 
 and by the first and fifth laws, in a position very unfaTourable to 
 the free percolation and circulation of fluids, especially near the 
 east side of Handsome Mea cross vein, in which the douky clay, 
 and the impervious strata of plate thrown up on the west cheek 
 would prevent a circulation in all the veins in a longitudinal 
 direction. If, therefore, a connexion exist between the deposi- 
 tion of lead ore, and a circulation of fluids iu the open spaces of 
 the veins, none ought to be found in the veins in this locality, 
 as has indeed been proved to be the case, since scarcely the 
 smallest particle of ore has been seen in any of them, in the 
 ground extending one himdred fathoms on the east side of 
 Handsome Mea cross vein, — east and west, north and south veins, 
 being alike characterized by the total absence of this substance. 
 
 By the rise of the strata to the east on the line of Middle 
 Cleugh second sun vein, the upper part of the Great Limestone 
 on the east side of the cross vein, a a, is level with the lower 
 part of the same stratum on the west side of Handsome 
 Mea cross vein. As the Great Limestone rises into this position, 
 lead ore is deposited in the Second sun vein, so sparsely, how- 
 ever, that hitherto it has not defrayed the cost of extraction. 
 The small quantity, found in this east and west vein, is probably 
 due to the veins and leads which intersect and place it under 
 the influence of the fourth law. I am not aware, that any ore 
 was found in the cross vein a a, at its intersection with the east 
 and west vein. 
 
 Under Handsome Mea, where (as pointed out) the conditions 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 155 
 
 are favourable to the percolation and circulation of fluids near 
 the surface, lead ore has been deposited in the east and west 
 veins in the upper stratum, comprising the Slate Sills, Firestone, 
 and Little Limestone, and even as low as the High Coal Sill, 
 which, by the dislocation of Handsome Mea cross vein, is 
 placed opposite the Great Limestone in the thrown-up or west 
 cheek. It occurs so low in the Second sun vein only, and prin- 
 cipally where it is intersected by weak quarter point veins and 
 leads, or where the circulation to the vein has been promoted by 
 the fourth law. 
 
 About 120 fathoms from the countj' boimdary, Long Cleugh 
 vein exists only as weak leads, that in all probability combine 
 with the Second sun vein a little farther to the east. The 
 inclination of the beds is unfavourable to the circulation of 
 fluids in the weak portions of the former to the latter vein ; 
 and where these intersections take place no lead ore has been 
 deposited in Middle Cleugh second sun vein. Lead ore has, how- 
 ever, been extracted in considerable quantities from Long 
 Cleugh vein in the Firestone stratum, at least, at a point near 
 the cross vein a a, and is probably due to the fluids circu- 
 lating' from the east in the detached portions of the vein. 
 From the point of intersection of Long Cleugh vein with the 
 Second sun vein, to the east boundary, the percolation of fluids is 
 regulated by the first and second laws, and the quantity in cir- 
 culation must have been small. Here also the correspondence 
 between the conditions of circulation and deposition of lead ore 
 is perfect ; for, notwithstanding the considerable width and 
 throw of Middle Cleugh second sun vein, lead ore has not been 
 found deposited in it, in quantities sufficient to defray the cost of 
 mining operations. 
 
 On the south side of Long Cleugh vein, an east and west vein 
 remains unproved ; at the surface it is apparently a weak vein. 
 
156 CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 From what has been stated respecting the mineralization of 
 veins in this locality no hope can reasonably be entertained that 
 lead ore will be found deposited in it so low as the Great Lime- 
 stone stratum. If by future trials ore is found it must be 
 in the Slate Sills, Firestone and Little Limestone. Should the 
 vein prove a wide one, and be subjected to the influence of the 
 fourth law, it is barely possible that the deposition of lead ore 
 may be effected as low as the High Coal Sill. 
 
 After a careftd inspection of the general map, and the sections 
 connected with this portion of mining-ground, the attentive 
 reader cannot fail of being struck with the exact correspondence 
 between the laws regulating the descent and circulation of fluids 
 and the deposits of lead ore in the veins. In the Great Lime- 
 stone stratum — the most plumbiferous in the district of Alston 
 Moor — ^lead ore is almost entirely absent from all the veins : but 
 then, as we have shown, this stratum is lying in a position 
 unfavourable to the action of ore-depositing fluids, while in the 
 higher strata of sandstones, which are lying in a position more 
 favourable to a circulation, comparatively rich deposits of ore 
 have been lodged in the open spaces of the east and west veins. 
 Most of the veins in the Great Limestone have recently been 
 proved, and the result of these trials corresponds exactly with 
 the conclusions based on the principle of circulation, — conclusions 
 arrived at before the trials were commenced. 
 
 Further west, on the line of the same east and west veins, 
 and in ground included by Handsome Mea cross vein on the 
 east and Carrs vein on the west, the conditions for promoting a 
 circulation of fluids vary considerably. It will be observed upon 
 the general map, that the circulation over the surface in this por- 
 tion of the district is nearly at right angles to the direction of 
 the east and west veins, or a direction right across the head of 
 the vale of the Nent. The surface has a gentle inclination in 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 157 
 
 the ground traversed by the east and west veins, but rises 
 rapidly near the south boundary. The position and incliaation 
 of the beds vary considerably, as shown upon the section No. 2, 
 Plate VII., made from measurements taken on the line of Long 
 Cleugh vein. The beds also rise southward in the direction of 
 the cross veins — a general rise to the anticliual axis, which is 
 not affected by the dislocations of the powerful cross veins. 
 
 The position and direction of Carrs and Small Cleugh cross 
 veins, would promote a circulation from Middle (Jleugh east and 
 west veius to the outcropping of the Great Limestone stratum — 
 a circulation, which would also be promoted by the inclination of 
 the beds. In this respect the functions these cross veins per- 
 form contrast strikingly with that of Handsome Mea cross vein, 
 which, as already shown, proves a barrier to a free circulation 
 in all the ground situated on the east side. In the ground 
 under consideration all the east and west veins are straight and 
 weak, except Middle Cleugh second sun vein, which is the only 
 one that contained a very rich deposit of ore in the G-reat Lime- 
 stone. This deposit took place where the strata are most 
 elevated near Handsome Mea and SmaU Cleugh cross veins, 
 and extended about sixty fathoms on the west side of the latter 
 vein. It is evident that fluids would enter first the more ele- 
 vated portion of the stratum, and flow from thence iu the open 
 spaces of the vein to the west. In this case it might even be 
 supposed that metallic particles were first thrown down, and that 
 the lighter, or non-metalUferous, were carried further west to be 
 deposited near Oarrs vein, which, by its throw and douky cha- 
 racter, would prevent further free circulation westward at this 
 depth. The deposits of ore in the other east and west veins 
 have been very poor in the Great Limestone, except in a few 
 places, where a circulation would be promoted by the fourth 
 law. Elliot's string, lying on the south side of Middle Cleugh 
 
 N 
 
158 CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 second sun vein, might be expected to contain ore deposits of a 
 similar kind ; itis, however, a very straight vein, containing little 
 space either for ore deposits or any other vein minerals. In this 
 vein, small quantities of ore were formerly produced, but only in 
 the elevated portion of the Great Limestone near Handsome Mea 
 cross vein. 
 
 In this ground the Firestone stratum is lying at no great 
 depth below the surface, in a position favourable to the percola- 
 tion and circulation of fluids in the east and west veins. In 
 this stratum, however, Middle Cleugh second sun vein and 
 Long Oleugh vein have both been proved to contain no lead 
 ore. The matter contained in these veins is often broken and 
 loose, mixed with a sandy sediment or residue, and may be 
 considered as an indication, that after the deposition of the ore 
 was effected, it has been removed by some change La the compo- 
 sition of the circulating fluids.* Near Handsome Mea cross vein, 
 Middle Cleugh second sun vein contained some lead ore in the 
 Girdle beds, which are situated a little below the Firestone. In this 
 case, the lead ore might be protected from the erosive action of 
 the fluids, circulating in the more porous part of the vein in the 
 harder stratum above, by the platy or shaly matter which gene- 
 rally surrounds vein-stuff in these beds. Although the Middle 
 Cleugh veins are scattered and weak, some lead ore has been pro- 
 duced from them in the Firestone stratum. The ore is often found 
 loose and detached from the rock, upon which it had originally 
 been deposited, and not unfrequently partially changed into a 
 carbonate of lead. The old works, made in these veins upwards 
 of a hundred years ago, were lately opened out and partially 
 re- worked. I recollect in one place, a vein had been worked some 
 
 * Pliny supposes the contents of veins to be subject to decomposition. 
 "Ut plane intelligatur nihil aliud chrysocoUa quam vena putris." 
 
 Nat. Eist. lib. 33, 5, 26. 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 159 
 
 ten or twelve feet above the roof of an opening drift, and not 
 more than six or eight inches wide, lead ore had been found 
 mixed with a loose sediment, the result of decomposition after 
 the deposition of the ore had been effected. The contents of 
 the vein had been abstracted by the miners by means of iron 
 prongs. Some~pieces of ory vein-stuff, which they had been 
 unable to bring down, remained suspended in the open space of 
 the vein, attesting their mode of operation. 
 
 Setting aside, for the present, the consideration of the condi- 
 tions connected with deposits of lead ore in the cross veins, we 
 shaU endeavour to point out those connected with the Middle 
 Cleugh group of east and west veins, on the west side of Carrs 
 vein. 
 
 We have already attempted to show why these east and 
 west veins are stronger and wider on the west than on the 
 east side of Carrs vein ;* and the elevated position of the strata 
 on the west side of this vein is shown upon the series of sections, 
 Plate Vn. It will also be observed that in the direction of these 
 east and west veins westward, the strata gradually sink into a 
 lower position. The Firestone may be considered as the highest 
 stratum of hard rock ; the Great Limestone is therefore situated 
 at a moderate depth below the surface. The veias traverse the 
 mountain side, at a considerable distance from its water shed, 
 and in accordance with the first law, a large quantity of water 
 must flow over and sink below the surface. The surface, thickly 
 covered with alluvium, iaclines gently, which, by the second 
 law, is favourable to the percolation of water below the earth's 
 surface ; while, by the inclination of the strata, this portion of 
 mining ground is equally favourable to a circulation in the 
 direction of the veins, from the east to the west. AU these 
 
 * See Book I., Ch. iv. 
 
 n2 
 
160 CIBCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 favourable conditions prevail until the veins begin to pass under 
 the summit of Middle Fell. 
 
 The connexion between these conditions regulating the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids, and the deposition of lead ore, 
 is very stxildng. All of them have contained very rich deposits 
 of lead ore in aU the hard strata, but particularly so where they 
 are most elevated near to Carrs vein, and where they are sub- 
 jected to the influences of the fourth law by intersections with 
 CowsUtts and Cowhill weak cross veins. As these east and 
 west veins pass under the summit of Middle Fell, they are 
 subjected almost entirely to the first law regulating the descent 
 of fluids. Here, the agreement between the laws effecting the 
 percolation of water and the deposition of lead ore, is no less 
 striking ; for the veins cease to contain this substance, first in 
 the lower part of the Great Limestone, and then in its upper 
 part, while, in the strata lying nearer to the surface, the quantity 
 of ore deposited in them is much diminished, and in many 
 places is too small to defray the cost of extraction. Under such 
 conditions, the most metalliferous limestone is unproductive of 
 lead ore, while near to Carrs vein, considerable quantities have 
 been deposited even in the plate beds. 
 
 In the two portions of ground we have had under considera- 
 tion, it is evident that the mineralization of the cross veins 
 with metallic substances should be connected in the same way, 
 to the laws of percolation and circulation of fluids as the east 
 and west veins. It has already been pointed out, in the third 
 chapter of this book, that their hade is less favourable to the 
 formation of open spaces in the upper strata than that of the 
 east and west veins ; but whether this is the only cause that 
 has prevented the deposition of lead ore in these cross veins in 
 such strata, is perhaps somewhat doubtful. It may however be 
 stated as a law of experience, that up to the present time, no 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 161 
 
 important deposits of ore have been found in them in such 
 strata, and that the trifling exceptions only occur, where the 
 conditions approximate to those of the east and west veins. 
 Our remarks are therefore restricted to deposits of lead ore 
 found in them in the Great Limestone. 
 
 The east portions of Handsome Mea cross vein are generally 
 wide and sparry when both sides of the veins are formed by the 
 Great Limestone ; but, as already pointed out, by the throw of 
 the west portion of the vein this stratum is placed in a position 
 very unfavourable to the percolation and circulation of fluids 
 The connexion between these conditions and the non-deposition 
 of lead ore is perfect : notwithstanding that extensive trials 
 have been made, wo lead ore has as yet been found in 
 them. 
 
 Upon inspection of Section No. 2, Plate VII., the careful reader 
 will note, not only the very different' position of the Great 
 Limestone, but likewise, how well the inclination of the beds is 
 adapted to promote a free circulation from the west cheek of 
 this powerful vein. It should however be remembered, that 
 on account of the throw of this west portion of the vein ex- 
 ceeding the thickness of the Great Limestone, this stratum 
 is placed in the thrown up cheek, opposite beds of plate, and, 
 the Coal Sills. Under such conditions, after the formation of 
 the vein, spaces could not long remain open, but would soon be 
 filled with broken strata and poimded or decomposed shale, and, 
 in consequence, no deposition of lead ore could take place. On 
 the north side of the Middle Cleugh veins, where the east por- 
 tions fall into and combine with the west portion, the throw of 
 the latter is so much diminished that its cheeks in the Great 
 Limestone are not thrown past each other. (See Fig. 2,PlateXVI.) 
 In this ground of about 55 or 60 fathoms in length, or from 
 a to 5 upon the same Fig. 2, a large quantity of ore was found 
 
i62 CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS^ 
 
 deposited, and has lately been abstracted. It is evident, there- 
 fore, that lead ore found in Handsome Mea great cross vein, is 
 the result of the same laws of causation as effected its deposi- 
 tion ia east and west veins ; the essential antecedents in each 
 case being conditions favourable to the formation of open 
 spaces ia hard rock, and those necessary to the circulation of 
 fluids. Lead ore is absent where one or both of these ante- 
 cedents are wanting ; as in the east portions of this cross vein 
 where extensive spaces have been formed, but through which 
 fluids circulated sluggishly or not -at all ; or as in the west 
 portion, where the conditions for promoting a circulation exist, 
 but where no open spaces have been formed: in the former 
 instance the veins are filled with carbonates of lime and iron 
 or quartz, in the latter chiefly with broken strata and douk. 
 
 No cross vein, hitherto discovered in Alston Moor, has con- 
 tained such rich deposits of lead ore as Small Cleugh cross 
 veia, in the ground northward from the Middle Cleugh veins. 
 Like Handsome Mea cross vein, the ore is only found iu it 
 where its opposite sides, or cheeks, are both formed of Great 
 Limestone. Where these rich deposits occur, the vein is situ- 
 ated in a trough or hollow, occasioned by the strata inclining 
 from Handsome Mea cross veiu, and also from Carrs vein, to- 
 wards it. Consequently the fluids would circulate to this vein 
 through the numerous small leads and strings connected with 
 the east and west veins. Upon a careful inspection of the 
 general map, and Plate XVII., it seems highly probable, that in 
 the ground lying between Handsome Mea and Carrs cross veins, 
 SmaU Cleugh cross vein has formed the main drain iu which 
 the fluids were collected to circulate to the surface — a circula- 
 tion which woidd be promoted, as previously observed, by the 
 general inclination of the beds to the north. 
 
 SmaU quantities of ore have been produced from the strings 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 163 
 
 and flats of the thrown-down cheek of this vein; in this 
 respect proving an exception to the other cross veins, which 
 have very seldom contained ore in such a position : but from 
 the general view we have taken of the functions of the vein in 
 promoting a circulation in a longitudinal direction to the sur- 
 face, the conditions do not appear very unfavourable to the de- 
 position of lead ore. The deposits have, however, been very 
 poor, and are only found where the vein is much subjected to 
 the fourth law. As this vein approaches the thrown-down cheek 
 of Carrs vein, it ceases to contain much lead ore, being chiefly 
 filled with carbonates of lime and iron. 
 
 On the south side of Long Cleugh vein, a combination of 
 Handsome Mea and Small Cleugh cross veins takes place. No 
 lead ore has been found at the point where this combination 
 occurs ; but in the west cheek, where the Great Limestone is 
 much elevated, and lying at a considerable inclination, some 
 ore has been deposited in the west strings. The trials for proof 
 of these veins have not as yet been extended further south than 
 a series of east and west leads which intersect the cross veins 
 about 50 or 60 fathoms on the south side of Long Cleugh 
 vein : it is probable, however, that the deposition of lead ore in 
 them has been prevented by the first law regulating the perco- 
 lation of fluids. Indeed it is questionable whether these cross 
 veins would have contained any ore in the locality of Long 
 Cleugh vein, but for the numerous intersecting strings and 
 leads which bring them in a peculiar manner under the influ- 
 ence of the fourth law. 
 
 Carrs vein, on the south side of Long Cleugh vein, contains 
 richer deposits of lead ore than have as yet been found in the 
 Small Cleugh cross veins, south of the same east and west vein. 
 The ore was found chiefly in the west or thrown-up cheek, and 
 the largest quantity, at the point where a combination takes 
 place, at a very acute angle between it and Cowslitts cross vein. 
 
^^ CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 Hence the west cheek is much fractured with numerous cross 
 strings as well as east and west leads, as may be observed upon 
 the map. Like Small Gleugh cross veins, in the ground further 
 south, its mineralization with metallic matter has probably been 
 prevented by the first law regulating the descent of fluids. In 
 this unproved ground the vein probably exists in two portions, 
 each of which throws the cheeks of the Great Limestone nearly 
 past each other, a condition unfavourable to the formation of 
 open spaces in the veins. Similar conditions also prevail on the 
 north side of the Middle Cleugh second sun vein, where the vein 
 is not ramified, and its throw places the bottom of the Great 
 Limestone in the thrown-up cheek opposite the plate bed below 
 the Coal Sills. In consequence, the vera is fiUed with douk. 
 
 Cowhill cross vein has also contained a very rich deposit of 
 lead ore in parallel ground, and of about equal extent to that 
 in Carrs vein. The open spaces in which the ore was lodged 
 and in connexion with sparry substances, nearly fiUed up, ai'e re- 
 ])resented upon Plate XI. It was found lodged chiefly between 
 a and h, but in both portions of the vein. The fluids which circu- 
 lated in this vein would descend chiefly through the numerous 
 east and west leads and two or three weak quarter point veins. 
 
 There is one circumstance, too remarkable to be passed over, 
 connected with ore deposits in these cross veins — namely, that 
 where proper spaces have been formed in the vein itself, and the 
 other conditions for promoting a percolation and circulation of 
 fluids are favourable, the deposition of lead ore has been effected 
 most abundantly in ground opposite to a point where an east 
 and west vein is broken up. In the instance of Cowhill cross 
 vein, Wellhope knot vein breaks up in the neighbourhood of 
 the Black Ashgill cross veins ; it 'is, however, highly probable 
 that portions not wider than a boot lace extend to Cowhill cross 
 vein ; and it may be, pass thi-ough it and exert an influence 
 upon the mineralization of Carrs vein. 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 165 
 
 From the fact of the ore deposits in the cross veins heing so 
 much influenced by the leads connected with the east and west 
 veins, it may be inferred that the mineralization of the former 
 with lead ore has taken place either contemporaneously with 
 the latter, or subsequently. This inference derives some con- 
 firmation from the fact, that on the north side of Long Cleugh 
 vein, Cowhill cross vein is much straighter and weaker than' where 
 the ore deposit occurs on the south side. It may be pointed out 
 that the throws of these two veins are affected at their intersec- 
 tion in an equal degree, the one losing and the other gaining 
 about seven feet. It seems therefore highly probable, that the 
 open spaces in Cowhill cross vein, on the south side of Long 
 Cleugh vein, were formed after its mineraHzation with carbonate 
 of iron, and that the deposition of this substance took place under 
 conditions different from those which subsequently effected the 
 rich deposits of ore in the Middle Cleugh veins.* It would also 
 appear tliat, on the north side of Long Cleugh vein, and at the 
 time of the formation of the open spaces in the east and west 
 veins now filled with lead ore, Cowhill cross vein was not sub- 
 jected to the same changes, or subjected in a less degree, for it 
 still contains the original deposit of carbonates of iron and lime, 
 and has not been subjected to the ore-depositing influences that 
 enriched the east and west veins. 
 
 In the portion of the Nenthead district we have had under 
 consideration, several extensive flats have been formed, and 
 their cavernous parts enriched with much lead ore. These ore 
 
 * While working the rich ground in Cowhill 'cross vein, the miners holed into 
 a large cavern, the lower part of which was filled with vein stuff, chiefly com- 
 posed of carbonates of lime and iron, all of which was fractured and broken in a 
 manner similar to the lumps of veinstone left in mines as refuse. When the 
 miners entered the cavern, they felt assured that they had holed into some old 
 works. It is remarkable that none of the fractured vein stuif contained the least 
 particle of lead ore. 
 
166 CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 deposits occur only where the Great Limestone is mnch elevated 
 above its regular position, or inclines considerably from the cross 
 veins. The conditions connected with Handsome Mea or Small 
 Cleugh flats, the most extensive ever found in Nenthead, or 
 even in Alston Moor, are represented upon the large map and 
 the sections Plates XIII. and XIV. These illustrations need no 
 further explanation ; for the attentive reader cannot fail being 
 impressed with their adaptation to promote a circulation of 
 fluids. We have already pointed out the large quantity of lime- 
 stone which has undergone decomposition and change where 
 these rich ore deposits in flats occur. Such changes have taken 
 place, and similar open spaces (but less extensive) have been 
 formed in other parts of the district, where no lead ore is 
 deposited in them. Some of these will be noticed, but it can in- 
 variably be shown that in the latter case conditions prevail which 
 are unfavourable to the percolation and circulation of fluids. 
 
 Upon the general map the comparative richness of the pro- 
 ductive ground is distinguished by the colours blue, red, and 
 yellow. The whole amount of variation can scarcely, however, 
 be represented upon any map to its full extent. The conditions 
 connected with the circulation of fluids suffer the most abrupt 
 changes by the throws of the powerful cross veins. A careful 
 inspection and study of the portion of the map representing 
 the district we have had under consideration, will lead to the 
 conviction that the deposition of lead ore is equally dependent 
 on those changes. This variation, corresponding as it does so 
 generally with the fifth law regulating the percolation and 
 circulation of fluids below the earth's surface, furnishes a strik- 
 ing proof that the former is a sequence of the latter, or con- 
 nected with it by some law of causation. 
 
 Again, looking at the subject from a still more general point 
 of view, it becomes evident that the percolation and circulation 
 
Tllandsoiiie Jfeti 
 lOreat G'o.iv Ian 
 
 
 Cn 
 m 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 n 
 
 3' 
 
 Z 
 (f> 
 
 XI 
 
 m 
 
 ■X) 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 Cress Vein 
 
 
 OARRS VEIN 
 
 fe 
 
 SI 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 167 
 
 of fluids in the interior of the mountains stretching eastward 
 from Burnhope Seat to Kilhope Law, must be promoted by the 
 erosion of the valleys of the Tyne, the Nent, and the Aliens on 
 the north, and the tributaries of the Tees and Wear on the south. 
 At the head of these valleys, a free circulation must be promoted 
 to greater depths than can take place at the junctions between 
 the more elevated east and west range of mountains and those 
 which separate these valleys from each other. Hence it follows, 
 that if the deposition of lead ore is dependent upon a circulation 
 of fluids, all veins traversing the east and west range should con- 
 tain richer deposits at the head of the valleys than at the points 
 where the two opposite ranges intersect or unite with each other. 
 We have already shown that in the veins situated at the head 
 of the Nent, this connexion exists ; that, subject to modifying cir- 
 cumstances, the veins have contaiaed the richest deposits at the 
 head of the Nent river ; and that, as they approach the ranges of 
 mountains, situated on each side of the valley of the Nent, they 
 cease to contain lead ore even in the most metalliferous 
 stratum of limestone rock. This exact correspondence of facts to 
 theory in its particular and most general aspects, tends to esta- 
 blish the doctriae of a circulation of fluids as a law of causation 
 essential to the deposition of lead ore, and as a truth of the 
 deepest importance to practical mining. 
 
 For the present, leaving the inquiry respecting the Middle 
 Cleugh veins, at the point on the west side of the Nent valley, 
 where they cease to contain lead ore in the Great Lime- 
 stone, we shall endeavour to trace a connection between the 
 conditions effecting the percolation and circulation of fluids in 
 the veins lying further north, and on the east side of the Nent 
 river. This portion of the district comprises Hangingshaw 
 east and west veins, Eampgill and Scaleburn veins, and their 
 continuation as the principal veins in the Coal Cleugh district. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HTDEODS AGENCY 
 AST) THE DEPOSITION OP LEAD OEE IN VEINS ON THE EAST 
 SIDE OF THE NENT EIVEE. 
 
 Bt referring to the general map, the reader will perceive that 
 on the east and west range of mountains between Long Cleugh 
 Head and Ealhope Law the Kne denoting the heaven's water 
 division bends to the north in the form of a triangle. The anti- 
 clinal axis also bends in the same direction, but the extreme 
 north point of the curve scarcely extends further than the out- 
 cropping of the Little Limestone or Coal Sills in the upper part of 
 the Kilhope valley; in consequence, the strata above these 
 continue to rise from the Coal Cleugh and Alston Moor Districts, 
 until they basset on the contrary side of the mountain. 
 
 This circumstance necessarily modifies the effect of the first 
 law regulating the descent of fluids, since it is evident, that water 
 which percolates the cross veins and quarter point fissures on 
 the south side of the mountain, must be carried by the inclina- 
 tion of the beds, and issue as springs on the north side, either 
 in the Alston Moor or Coal Cleugh district. The whole of the 
 ground comprehended between EampgiU cross vein and Coal 
 Cleugh east cross vein is traversed by veins of this character, as 
 may be seen upon an inspection of the map and piano-section. 
 
VEINS ON THE EAST SIDE OP NENT RIVER. 169 
 
 Plate IX., where these veins are carefully represented, espe- 
 cially upon the latter. It will be observed that the quarter point 
 fissures run between Kilhope and the Alston Moor district, while 
 the veins and strings running in a north and south direction 
 intersect the east and west veins in the Coal Cleugh district. 
 It is probable, that more of these intersecting veins and fissures 
 exist than are denoted upon the maps. We are therefore justi- 
 fied in concluding, that a considerable quantity of fluids must 
 have circulated in strata situated at great depths below the sum- 
 mit of this mountain. This circulation would also be pro- 
 moted by a broad surface on the Kilhope side being compara- 
 tively smooth and unbroken with glens, and also, by its being 
 thickly covered with alluvium, which, like a sponge, would hold 
 the water and allow it slowly to settle into the fissures travers- 
 ing the rocks. 
 
 On the east side of a tributary of West Allen river, called 
 Bridge Cleugh, the laws regulating the percolation of fluids are 
 not subjected to the modifying conditions we have just de- 
 scribed. The range of mountains separating the two Aliens 
 joins the east and west range, and at the point of junction the 
 latter takes a direction nearly south, separating the vale of 
 Kilhope from the upper part of East Allendale. Here, in a plot 
 of ground of considerable extent, surrounding Kilhope Law, the 
 conditions are unfavourable for promoting the free descent of 
 fluids into strata situated at a great depth from the surface. 
 Nor does it appear that their unfavourable character is much 
 modified by ike fourth law. 
 
 If the percolation and circulation of fluids are essential to the 
 deposition of lead ore, it is manifest that the conditions just 
 noticed must be accompanied with corresponding variations in 
 the quantity of lead ore deposited in Eampgill vein, and in its 
 continuation as High Coal Cleugh vein. We might reasonably 
 
170 ORE DEPOSITS ON THE 
 
 expect that lead ore would be deposited, even where the posi- 
 tion of the vein is near the watershed of the mountain, or one 
 generally unfavourable to the deposition of lead ore at great 
 depths below the surface, and such has really been the case. 
 In the whole extent of ground comprehended on the piano-sec- 
 tion between c and d the vein has contained very large quanti- 
 ties of lead ore in all the hard strata from near the surface to 
 the bottom of the Quarry hazle ; the richest portions being 
 situated near the thrown-up cheek of the cross veins, where the 
 strata have generally the greatest amount of inclination, which 
 promotes a longitudinal circulation in the vein. In the short 
 length of ground between the two powerful Coal Cleugh cross 
 veins, this east and west vein contained no lead ore in the Great 
 Limestone stratum. This accords with the position of the strata, 
 which is very unfavourable to a circulation in a longitudinal 
 direction, and according to the theory, unfavourable to the depo- 
 sition of lead ore. 
 
 That the deposition of lead ore, in such large quantities in 
 Eampgill and Coal Cleugh veins, is due to a circulation of fluids 
 from the opposite side of the mountain, receives confirmation from 
 the fact, that the other portion of the vein, situated below the 
 summit of the mountain which separates the vales of the two 
 Aliens, and where, we have shown, the modifying causes do 
 not exist, the ore deposits have been poor, and directly below 
 the summit of the hill have not been effected so low as the 
 Great Limestone stratum ; notwithstanding the vein is farther 
 removed from the summit of the east and west range of moun- 
 tains. To this latter circumstance, it is probably due, that a 
 sufficiency of fluids has descended to effect the deposition of 
 lead ore in the strata above the Great Limestone. 
 
 No large quantity of lead ore has, hitherto, been raised from 
 any of the Coal Cleugh cross veins. The throws of the two most 
 
EAST SIDE OF KENT BIVER. 171 
 
 powerful ones place the cheeks of the Great Limestone stratum 
 opposite beds of plate and thin sandstones. Like the Nenthead 
 cross veins under similar circumstances, they contain little else 
 than douk. The throw of the Pump-sump cross vein is not 
 more than 36 feet, and some ore has been produced from it. 
 The places most likely to contain ore deposits in these cross 
 veins are the strings lying off the principal portions of the veins 
 in the thrown-up cheeks, and where conditions exist moat 
 favourable for promoting a circulation of fluids. 
 
 In connexion with the Coal Cleugh veins, extensive flats have 
 been formed which have been enriched with much lead ore. 
 These flats are chiefly found in the upper flat post, and the 
 richest deposits occur near the cross veins, and in all cases they 
 are accompanied with numerous intersecting leads or strings 
 connected with the east and west as well as the north and south 
 veins. 
 
 The deposition of lead ore, in the weak east and west veins on 
 the south side of Eampgill vein, is due to conditions promotive of 
 the descent and circulation of fluids from the surface, the locality 
 being peculiarly placed under the influence of the fourth law, 
 or law of intersections. At the intersection of Eampgill second 
 sun vein and Eampgill cross vein the Great Limestone has under- 
 gone much decomposition and change ; and from some fifteen to 
 twenty fathoms in length of the former vein, on the west side of 
 the latter, an exceedingly large quantity of lead ore has been 
 extracted. Large quantities of lead ore have also been procured 
 from Eampgill cross vein and the flats formed on each side ; 
 but northward from EampgUl sun vein to Scaleburn vein the 
 ore deposits in it were very poor. About 100 fathoms Jsouth 
 of its intersection with Eampgill second sun vein, this cross vein 
 ceased to produce lead ore, and in a long tract of ground extend- 
 ing through the summit of the hill no trial of it has been made ; 
 
i72 CIBCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 and if the law of circulation is admitted to be essential to the 
 deposition of lead ore, then it seems probable that none will be 
 found in this unproved portion of the Tein, unless effected by a 
 circulation from the Kilhope side of the mountain, which seems 
 unlikely, its course being too near the summit of the hiU sepa- 
 rating the vaUeys of Kilhope and Welhope, and in accordance 
 with the first law, a free circulation of fluids could scarcely 
 be effected in this district so low as the Great Limestone 
 stratum. 
 
 Patterdale cross vein is situated west from RampgiU cross 
 vein, and traverses the mountain in a parallel direction. The 
 conditions connected with the percolation and circulation of 
 fluids are also very similar. Extensive trials have been made in 
 this vein, but with the exception of a short length of ground 
 between Rampgill and Rampgill sun veins, where it is placed 
 in a peculiar manner under the influence of the fourth law, no 
 lead ore has yet been found in it. Hangingshaw east end veins 
 have also been found quite unproductive of lead ore in the Great 
 Limestone stratum. The situation of these veins on the thrown- 
 down cheek of Handsome Mea great cross vein is one very un- 
 favourable to a free circulation of fluids. Some lead ore was pro- 
 cured from one of these east and west veins in the upper strata 
 of Firestone and Little Limestone, but the length of productive 
 ground was very limited. 
 
 The fluids percolating the Kilhope side of the mountain, and 
 flowing in the weak fissures to the north, would gradually dimi- 
 nish in quantity, first in the strata lying nearest the surface ; 
 for like a semi-fluid mass poured upon a level surface they 
 would become diffused as they settled to lower levels, and this 
 more particularly in the Great Limestone, which is placed hori- 
 zontally in a position most nearly corresponding to the bottom 
 of the valleys, and consequently, may be considered as the 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 173 
 
 lowest draining stratum. In the upper strata, the fluids would 
 be drawn off by entering channels communicating with the sur- 
 face, from which they would issue as springs. 
 
 The same quarter point fissures, which intersect Eampgill vein, 
 have also brought Scaleburn vein under the productive influences 
 of the fourth law. With the exception of the modification 
 pointed out in the preceding paragraph, it has been subjected 
 to the same conditions of circulation as Eampgill vein, for these 
 fissures have evidently been the channels in which the fluids 
 circulated to the vein. The deposits of lead ore, in Scaleburn 
 vein, occur chiefly in strata comprehended inclusively between 
 the Pattinson and the Tuft ; and similar to Eampgill vein, the 
 deposition of lead ore has been effected through the summit of 
 the lull separating the valleys of the Nent and West Allen. In 
 the Firestone and Slate Sills the vein contains very little lead ore, 
 in the Alston Moor side of the boundary. These are the strata 
 in which a circulation would be dependent upon the percolation 
 of fluids in the immediate locality, under the preventive in- 
 fluences of the fiV'St law, and also modified, unfavourably to its 
 permeation, by the sec<md. In the Coal Cleugh district the 
 vein, although not rich near the boundary, has contained lead 
 ore in the upper strata which has well repaid the cost of 
 extraction; and it is a confirmation of the laws of hydrous 
 agency, that in this district, the surface is more favourably 
 situated for the percolation of water flowing from the heaven's- 
 water division separating the counties of Northumberland and 
 Durham. The deposits of lead ore in Scaleburn vein were 
 generally less rich and more irregularly distributed than in 
 Eampgill vein. In some places, these ore deposits are so poor, 
 that considerable portions of the vein remain unworked. Like 
 Eampgill vein, on the west side of EampgiU and Scaleburn cross 
 vein, it gradually ceases to contain lead ore in the Great Lime- 
 
 o 
 
174 THE CmCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 stone, as this stratum sinks below its general position, approach- 
 ing the thi-own-down cheeks of the powerful Nenthead cross 
 veins. 
 
 Throughout the whole extent of Scaleburn vein in both the 
 Coal Cleugh and Kenthead districts, the Great Limestone has 
 suffered much decomposition and change, and extensive flats 
 occur, particulaiiy at the various points, where it should be in- 
 tersected by the quarter point fissures and cross leads that pass 
 through Rampgill and High Coal Cleugh vein. Large quantities 
 of lead ore have been produced at various periods from these 
 flats, the richest of which probably occuiTed between the Pump- 
 sump cross vein, and Coal Cleugh west cross vein. 
 
 On the north side of Scaleburn vein, a rich deposit of lead 
 ore was found in Eampgill and Scaleburn cross vein, at a point 
 much intersected with leads running in various directions. The 
 Great Limestone is moderately elevated above its position on 
 the thrown-down cheek of Carrs vein, and where it is traversed 
 by this vein, its considerable inclination to the north, and also 
 to the west, would be promotive of a circulation of fluids. 
 Northward from these intersections, only a small quantity of 
 lead ore is found in it, which has been partially worked to 
 within some forty fathoms of Broomsberry cross veia. 
 
 The ground west of EampgUl and Scaleburn cross vein, and 
 lying between Eampgill and GuddamgiU east and west veins, 
 is favourably situated for promoting the descent of fluids 
 under the first law : but on account of the great throw of Carrs 
 vein, in accordance with the fifth law, the conditions are very 
 unfavourable to their circulation. 
 
 An intimate connexion exists between these unfavourable 
 conditions for promoting a circulation, and the non-deposition 
 of lead ore. On the north side of Scaleburn vein numerous 
 trials have been made in these cross veins, but very little lead 
 
Co 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 CARRS VEIN 
 
 J^au-ltiH' ^cate 
 
 
 Gteat' 0^i\^^- Vfirt 
 
 I East- pta^ j 
 
 Pa iici tht'lc I «>// 
 
 \ \J^roi^^ Cf('6^ fart'. 
 
 (yx)SS fat} 
 
 m 
 O 
 
 t^ ^ 
 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 175 
 
 ore has been produced from them, the whole amounting to some 
 four or five hundred bings. This small quantity was found in 
 Fairhill cross veins, and close to the north side of Scaleburn 
 north vein. It will be observed on the piano-section Plate IX., 
 that the Great Limestone is elevated considerably above its gene- 
 ral position on the thrown-down cheek of Handsome Mea great 
 cross vein. On the north side of Gillgill Burn, as these veins 
 approach Carrs vein, they cease to contain even the smallest 
 quantity of lead ore. The conditions of position as verifying 
 the fifth law are also shown upon Plate XVIII. 
 
 In the ground situated between Gillgill and Guddamgill 
 Burns, and on the east side of the Nenthead cross veins, the 
 supply of fluids has probably been restricted to their percolation 
 from the surface ; and in accordance with ^e first law, under the 
 summit of the mountain and under the lateral ridge separating 
 Grillgill and Guddamgill Burns, the quantity circulating must 
 have been small. The strata in this tract of ground are not much 
 broken by veins of any description, the only one of importance 
 being GuddamgiU vein. 
 
 This vein is of a similar character to Scaleburn and Eampgill 
 veins ; it is wide, and contains much vein mineral. In the direc- 
 tion of its course eastward, the strata, after being thrown down 
 by Carrs vein, do not rise so rapidly into an elevated position as 
 they do on the line of the east and west veins just named, in 
 which, as previously pointed out, no lead ore of importance has 
 been deposited in the Great Limestone when depressed below a 
 certain level. It is owing to a similar reason, and also to its 
 proximity to the lateral ridge, that a free percolation and circu- 
 lation have not been effected in Guddamgill vein, and conse- 
 quently no rich deposits of ore lodged in the Great Limestone west 
 of its intersection with the Black Jack vein. Where this inter- 
 section occurs, the vein contained much ore in all the strata, 
 
 2 
 
176 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 with the exception of the Firestone, which lies close to the sur- 
 face. It is to be observed, that where this deposit occurs, all 
 the fluids, collected in a long tract of ground stretching to the 
 east boundary, pass over the vein, and percolate under the 
 favourable influences of the fourth law. 
 
 It is not a little remarkable, that Guddamgill vein, so poor 
 generally in deposits of lead ore, should contaia richer deposits 
 of sulphide of ziac than any other vein in Alston Moor. It is 
 found plentifully deposited in all the strata between the Pattin- 
 son and the Tuft ; but the richest deposits occur in the two lime- 
 stone strata. Generally in the Nenthead mining district, at the 
 bottom of a stratum, the east and west veins are filled with a 
 great quantity of sulphide of zinc, which gradually becomes 
 less in the upper part where the veins contain the most lead ore. 
 It is also found plentifully deposited in many veins where the 
 strata are placed in a somewhat unfavourable position for the 
 deposition of lead ore ; but when the strata are placed in a very 
 unfavourable position, it is never plentifully deposited, although 
 it may occur sparsely mixed with the carbonates of lime and 
 iron. From these facts, one might almost conclude, that a less 
 amount of circulation has effected the deposition of sulphide of 
 zinc than lead ore, and that the presence of the former in Gud- 
 damgill vein, in such large quantities, is an indication that the 
 circulation iu the vein has not been sufficiently free to eifect the 
 deposition of the latter more valuable metal. Sir H. De la Beche 
 observes : " In veins of mixed ores of different metals, where some 
 of each are found disseminated through them, the relative abun- 
 dance of the ores is sometimes found most materially modified 
 at different depths, and this occasionally even to a certain ex- 
 tent irrespective of the kinds of rock forming the walls of the 
 veins, though this influence requires always to be steadUy borne 
 in mind. Thus with some ores of ziac, lead, and copper, as, for 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 177 
 
 example, in the well-kno-wn Ecton mine, Staffordshire, the sul- 
 phide of zinc was foimd most abundant in the depth, the sul- 
 phide of copper occupied a central position, and sulphide of 
 lead was found in the higher parts. In the Spital vein at 
 Schemnitz, according to Mr. Warrington Smyth, where the sul- 
 phides of silver and lead are raised, though the latter is argen- 
 tiferous beneath, the ores towards the higher portions of the 
 vein are chiefly sulphides and other ores of silver, in which 
 either lead is scarce or absent."* It may be questionable 
 whether a difference in the freeness of a circulation is simply 
 the only cause why, in these instances, different kinds of metal- 
 lic ores are separately deposited more plentiftdly in one part of 
 the vein than in another. In the Nenthead veins, however, it is 
 evident that so far as the deposition of the ores of lead and zinc 
 is concerned, the laws of causation in each case are very inti- 
 mately connected. Speaking generally, the ores of lead occur 
 much more plentifully in the veins of Alston Moor, and in 
 larger and purer masses than the ores of zinc. The vertical 
 range of zinc ore is also more limited than lead ore ; scarcely 
 any has been deposited in the strata above the Little Limestone, 
 and so far as the veins are proved, very little of it below the 
 Great Limestone. In the Coal Sills and Little Limestone, the 
 oxides of iron and it are so intimately blended together, that it 
 is almost impossible to separate them by washing processes, 
 there being little difference in their specific gravities. In 
 consequence of this blending together, the ore of zinc produced 
 from such strata is rendered valueless, and cannot be smelted 
 to profit. 
 
 In the small patch of Great Lunestone, which constitutes the 
 surface stratum on the west side of Carrs vein and south from 
 
 ' Geological Observer,' p. 791. 
 
i78 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 Guddamgill vein, lead ore has been found in detached lumps of 
 rider lying near the surface. The vein stuff containing much car- 
 bonate of iron, deposited in limestone strata so near the surface, 
 must be subjected to the decomposing effects of atmospheric 
 agency ; and if the west strings of Carrs vein ever contained ribs 
 of lead ore they have been long ago removed from their places 
 of deposit, which are now filled with rich oxides of iron. 
 
 The next plot of ground Hes to the north of Guddamgill Burn, 
 and comprehends Brownley Hill veins and the continuation of 
 the principal vein into Wellhope. 
 
 The quantity of fluids which flow over a great portion of this 
 ground is modified to a considerable extent by the Dod, which 
 is a peaked elevation rising above the regular summit of the 
 mountain, and that to a considerable height. In consequence, 
 a long tract of siirface unbroken with cleughs or glens, is formed 
 on the east side of Brownley Hill cross veins, which is 
 favourable to the percolation of fluids. The formation of the 
 surface on the line of Brownley Hill old vein is also not un- 
 favourable to the percolation of fluids under the first and third 
 laws, although, on account of the steepness of tlie hill on the 
 south side of the vein, the conditions for promoting the descent 
 of fluids is somewhat unfavourable under the second. 
 
 Brownley Hill vein is about the same magnitude as Scaleburn 
 and Guddamgill veins. It has contained much larger quantities 
 of lead ore than the latter, though it has been less rich than 
 the former. On the east side of Carrs vein, the ground is 
 very favourable to the percolation of fluids ; but, by the throw 
 of Carrs vein, the strata are placed in a position very unfavour- 
 able to their circulation, and as in the case of the veins pre- 
 viously noticed, no lead ore of importance has been deposited so 
 low as the Great Limestone stratum ; and, corresponding with 
 the laws of circulation, it is not until this stratum attains a 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 179 
 
 higher position, on the east side of Guddamgill Bnrn cross vein, 
 that the vein contained in it rich deposits of lead ore. From 
 the last-mentioned cross vein, the strata rise somewhat rapidly 
 to the east on the line of Brownley Hill vein, thus promoting a 
 circulation similar to what has taken place in Eampgill and 
 Scaleburn veins. Directly below the anticlinal axis, the vein 
 ceased to contain lead ore in all the strata ; but the ground so 
 affected is comparatively short, for in Mr. Beaumont's Manor, 
 rich deposits occurred in all the strata from the top of the Slate 
 Sills to the bottom of the Great Limestone. The portion of the 
 vein in which these deposits were found is situated at the head 
 of Wellhope Burn and directly opposite to the Dod. The 
 strata, which are said to be much fissured, rise rapidly from the 
 south side of Wellhope vein, and continue to do so through the 
 summit of the Dod. It is evident, that all the fluids circulating 
 in these fissures, to the outcropping of the various strata in 
 Wellhope Burn, must flow over or circulate in this rich portion 
 of Wellhope vein. In the ground under the summit of the hill 
 separating Wellhope Burn from West Allen, the percolation of 
 fluids in large quantities would be prevented by the first law. 
 Accordingly no lead ore is deposited in WeUhope head vein. 
 Indeed in aU the ground traversed by Brownley hiU vein, the cor- 
 respondence between the conditions of percolation and circulation 
 of fluids, and the deposition of lead ore is close and well defined. 
 Brownley Hill high cross vein traverses the district in a direc- 
 tion nearly at right angles to the circulation of fluids, over the 
 long tract of surface extending to the Dod ; and which perco- 
 lating the numerous quarter point fissures must promote their 
 descent to great depths below the surface, under the influence of 
 the fmrth law. Brownley Hill sun veins, which exist on the 
 east side of Guddamgill Bum cross vein, break up altogether 
 before they reach these High cross veins. It is in the ground 
 
180 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 where intersections with them should have taken place, that the 
 richest deposits of ore were found in the cross reins. In this 
 respect, they resemble Cowhill cross rein on the south side of 
 Long Cleugh vein, which, as pointed out, contained the richest 
 deposit of lead ore, where it should have been intersected with 
 Woodmerwell or Wellhope knot vein. In their direction south- 
 ward, Brownley Hill high cross veins all become exceedingly 
 weak, and, with the exception of the Jug vein, ultimately waste 
 away. Under such circumstances, notwithstanding the favour- 
 able locality, for the promotion of the percolation and circulation 
 of fluids, no lead ore has hitherto been found in them. 
 
 Connected with the group of powerful veins traversing the 
 west portion of Brownley Hill mining plot, very favourable condi- 
 tions exist for promoting the percolation of fluids. This portion 
 of the ground is also very much fissured and broken with weak 
 veins and strings running in an east and west direction, par- 
 ticularly on the east side of Guddamgill Burn cross vein. The 
 throw of Carrs vein places the Great Limestone on the east side 
 opposite to the Four-fathoms Limestone and Nattrassgill hazle ; 
 but, on account of the denudation at the surface in GuddamgiU 
 Bum, it is lying veiy little below the surface. The conditions for 
 promoting a circulation are, however, best shown by the cross 
 section, Plate XIX., in the direction of GuddamgiU Burn, where it 
 will be perceived that in the ground between the two portions of 
 Carrs vein, the Great Limestone is lying in a very unfavourable 
 position for promoting the circulation of fluids. In this ground, 
 the east cross vein has been proved to contain no lead ore. 
 
 From this east portion of Carrs vein the strata rise to the 
 east, and at Wellgill cross vein have attained a position above 
 the bed of the .Nent river below its jvmction with Guddamgill 
 Burn. And it is a remarkable exemplification of the law of cir- 
 culation as being essential to the deposition of lead ore, that 
 
o 
 
 > 
 
 iC/IRRS VEIN 
 
 GtiT.s Veifi E poT-tiuriy. 
 
 m 
 o 
 
 rs3 
 o 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 ?3 
 
 Z 
 
 o 
 
 K 
 
 WeUgili Ovss T&n.'. 
 
 Brcorrbtbefij-' (jvss Vein/. 
 
 h 
 
 
 s 
 « 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 181 
 
 below Guddamgm Burn, where the greatest amount of denuda- 
 tion has been effected, this vein should contain a rich deposit of 
 lead ore. For, further south, veins of the same character, situ- 
 ated about the same distance from Carrs vein, and connected 
 with which are conditions in all respects similar, excepting those 
 relating to the circulation of fluids, are found to contain none. 
 As a result of our investigations, we have endeavoured to esta- 
 blish the general empirical law, that the thrown-down cheeks of 
 the Nenthead strong cross veins do not contain deposits of lead 
 ore, and that all veins lying near them on that side are also 
 barren. This exception, and that of Carrs sun veins, agree in 
 being connected with conditions promotive of a circulation, and 
 in consequence confirm the higher law of causation. In the 
 same stripe of depressed strata, WellgiU cross vein in its course 
 northward, under- the sides of a steep mountain, becomes very 
 poor, notwithstanding the many intersections promotive of a 
 circulation under the influence of the fourth law. On the 
 north side of Brownley Hill vein it ceased altogether to contain 
 lead ore. 
 
 Guddamgill Burn cross vein contained much ore in all the 
 ground between Guddamgill and Brownley Hill veins. On the 
 east side of the vein, so numerous are the intersecting veins and 
 leads, chiefly running in an east and west direction, that, at 
 some places near the surface, the Little Limestone is, by decom- 
 position and change, converted into a stratum of carbonate of 
 iron. On account of the rise of the strata to the east, the fluids 
 would flow to the upper cheek of the vein and settle from thence 
 into the lower. The general conditions promoting .their perco- 
 lation and circulation are manifestly the same as those connected 
 with WeUgill cross vein. 
 
 The plot of ground lying to the north of Brownley Hill veins, 
 and the south side of Lovelady Shield Burn, differs from that we 
 
182 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 have just had under consideration ia not heiag broken into by- 
 deep glens or burns. It will also be perceived upon the map, 
 that the heaven's-vrater division is less removed from the east 
 portion of the powerful cross veins. 
 
 On the west side of Carrs vein the Great Limestone is the 
 surface stratum, and is much broken by joints, and lying iu a 
 position very susceptible of atmospheric decomposition. If the 
 Nentsberry Greens veins ever contained rich deposits of lead 
 ore, which is not unlikely, it must long ago have been almost 
 entirely removed by these agencies. 
 
 The position of the Great Limestone on the east side of Carrs 
 vein is shown upon the section Plate XX. In this ground no lead 
 ore has been found. The Great Limestone is tilted into a some- 
 what higher position by WellgiQ cross rein, in which, a rich de- 
 posit of lead ore occurred at a poiat where the east cheek is much 
 broken with quarter point fissures, and also, where an intersec- 
 tion with Nentsberry Haggs veins would have taken place had 
 these veins not ceased to exist on the west side of Carrs vein.* 
 
 The few east and west veins found to exist on the east side of 
 Carrs vein are all weak. On account of the ground beiag con- 
 tiguous to the summit of the mountain a plentiful percolation of 
 fluids would be prevented under the first law. None of the veins 
 have contained lead ore except High Eaise vein in the Slate 
 SUls and Firestone, and in a short length of ground in the upper 
 part of the Great Limestone. 
 
 In the ground between Lovelady Shield and Foreshield Burns 
 only a small patch of Great Limestone exists on the west side of 
 
 * This section (Plate XX.), was copied from one made by the late Mr. Broadwood, 
 and is drawn on the line of Nentsberry Haggs sun vein. The red lines represent 
 the Old Haggs levels. The rich deposit of lead ore in Wellgill cross vein was 
 found at the point o. I apprehend that Wellgill and Old Carrs cross veins will 
 hade to eacli other more rapidly than drawn upon the section indeed it is pro- 
 bable they are one vein in the Whin. 
 
Missing Page 
 
Missing Page 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 183 
 
 Carrs vein. It is much broken with joints, and lying close to 
 the surface. In accordance with the fifth law the throw of 
 Carrs vein, being not less than 220 feet, places the Great Lime- 
 stone stratum in a position unfavourable to a circulation of 
 fluids in the east cross veins. Extensive trials were made, but 
 no lead ore of importance found in them. 
 
 At Foreshield the Nent river bends to the west. In con- 
 sequence, on the west side of Blaygill cross vein, a considerable 
 tract of ground is occupied by the Great Limestone and strata 
 above, all lying in a position more favourable to the percolation 
 and circulation of fluids than the same series of beds on the 
 east side of these strong cross veins. 
 
 In the ridge separating Blaygill and Foreshield Burns the 
 conditions for promoting the percolation and circulation of fluids 
 do not appear favourable under the second law, the sides of the 
 hni having a considerable inclination. It is, however, very much 
 fractured and broken by veins and fissures traversing it in 
 various directions, and in consequence very much brought 
 under the influence of the fourth law. The rise of the strata 
 from the Blaygill side right through this ridge of hill would 
 also promote a circulation of fluids from the south side to 
 the Blaygill veins, under the third law. 
 
 On the west side of Blaygill cross vein, where the conditions 
 are favourable to a free circulation of fluids, Blaygill east and 
 west veins have all contained rich deposits of lead ore, particu- 
 larly Fistas Kake vein, where it is intersected with the Sunny- 
 side veins : but on the east side of that cross vein none of any 
 importance. The Sunny side veins traverse the district nearly in 
 a quarter point direction. On the south side of Fistas Kake vein, 
 Blaygill cross vein throws the east side down only three fathoms. 
 In this ground, extending about ninety fathoms south, the vein 
 contained much lead ore. About thirty fathoms of ground on the 
 
184 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 north side also produced some lead ore ; the throw of the vein, 
 however, rapidly increases until it exceeds the thickness of the 
 Great Limestone ; under this condition, as might be expected, no 
 lead ore has been deposited in it. 
 
 Considerable quantities of ore have been raised from the 
 ThorngiU veins. The position of these veins is favourable to the 
 deposition of lead ore on the principle of a circulation of fluids. 
 Skirting as they do the sides of the mountain in a direction 
 nearly at right angles to its greatest rate of inclination, they 
 must have intercepted the course of the fluids as they flowed to 
 the surface. On account of the breaking up of Black Ashgill 
 cross vein, these east and west veins are subjected to an increased 
 percolation and circulation of fluids under the fcmrth law. 
 Under the ridge forming a kind of water-shed between Blaygill 
 Burn and the Tyne river, the ThorngUl veins have contained 
 no lead ore. On the west side of this ridge, ThorngiU vein con- 
 tained a rich deposit of lead ore, restricted, however, to the 
 strata above the Great Limestone. In this ground the Sun vein 
 was only poor. Still further west, in the Great Limestone near 
 the surface, these veins, as well as the numerous weak veins 
 which intersect or combine with them, must have suffered much 
 change by the decomposing influence of atmospheric agency. 
 
 Slote vein has also contained ore only where its situation is 
 favourable to the percolation and circulation of fluids. Under 
 the summit of Newshield Moss it contains none. Still further 
 east, near to Blaygill cross vein, where it is called Goangill 
 vein, it has been proved to some extent, but the lead ore it con- 
 tained was too poor to repay the cost of extraction. 
 
 I do not possess much information respecting the width 
 and throw of Taylor's Grove vein. The conditions for pro- 
 moting the percolation of fluids are modified by the second laiv ; 
 in other respects they do not appear to be very unfavourable. 
 
AND LEAD OKE DEPOSITS. 185 
 
 Their circulation, however, is parallel to the direction of the 
 vein, which, as already observed, appears to be less promotive 
 of the deposition of lead ore, than when the direction of the vein, 
 and that in which the fluids flow over the surface make some 
 considerable angle. The lead ore deposits in Taylor's Grove 
 vein have been very poor, and so far as proved have not repaid 
 the cost of extraction. 
 
 Clargill and Aleburn veins are proved to a considerable 
 extent, and found to contain very little lead ore. The conditions 
 do not appear to be unfavourable for promoting a free percola- 
 tion and circulation of fluids in the district traversed by Clargill 
 veins. I am informed, however, that the strata are much 
 broken with joints, and consequently their contents will have 
 been subjected to the decomposing effects of atmospheric agents, 
 and this remark more especially applies to Aleburn vera. It 
 was for proof of this vein that a level was made by the Lead 
 Company some seventy or eighty years ago. In the level an 
 opening was first made into Aleburn cavern, described in Mr, 
 Sopwith's account of the mining district of Alston Moor. 
 
 We have now pointed out the connection between the laws 
 regulating the percolation and circulation of fluids, and the lead 
 ore deposits found in the veins of the Coal Cleugh mining dis- 
 trict, and those traversing the mountain situated on the east 
 side of the Nent river. In relation to the first law, the modi- 
 fying condition of position of the strong cross veins is not 
 much varied on account of their direction being nearly 
 parallel to the river. The varied vertical positions into which 
 the strata are placed by their great throws, as well as the 
 combination of these powerful veins with each other, and the 
 denudation of the lead ore-producing strata from the west side 
 of Carrs vein complicate the inquiry. On the whole, as an illus- 
 tration of the ffth law, it is probably all that can be expected. 
 
186 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS. 
 
 Throughout the whole extent of these veins, in the depressed 
 strata on the east side of Carrs vein, no ore has been found of 
 any importance in them, no matter whether their direction 
 be east and west, or north and south, except at two or three 
 points where the denudation of the strata on the west side of 
 this vein has been effected so low as to allow of a circulation of 
 fluids under the proper conditions, and especially promoted by 
 the fourth law. Again, the peculiar conditions connected with 
 the Middle Cleugh veins, EampgiU and Scaleburn veins and 
 their continuation in the Coal Cleugh district — the great 
 number of east and west veins which terminate at Carrs vein — 
 the throws of the cross veins and their contiguity to the water- 
 shed of the mountain — ^render the connection between the first 
 law regulatiag the percolation of fluids and the deposition of 
 lead ore less obvious than may be desired. It will, however, be 
 observed upon the general map, that none of the veins on the 
 north side of Scaleburn vein contaia lead ore under the summit 
 of the mountain. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HYDROUS AGENCY, 
 AND THE DEPOSITION OP LEAD ORE IN THE VEINS TRAVER- 
 SING THE MOUNTAIN MIDDLE FELL. 
 
 We shall now endeavour to point out tlie connexion between 
 the laws regulating the percolation and circulation of fluids, and 
 the ore deposits which have been found in the veins traversing 
 the mountain of Middle Fell, which separates the Tyne from 
 the Nent river. The east and west veins are numerous, and in 
 most cases can be identified on each side of the mountain. In 
 this district only two important cross veins exist ; G-arrigill Bum 
 old Groves vein on the west side and Black Ashgill cross vein 
 on the east side of the mountain. Compared with the great 
 cross veins, which traverse the country on the east side of the 
 Nent river, these two veins may be considered as possessing 
 only a moderate width and throw ; and with the exception of 
 one or two places, the strata have not been placed by them in a 
 position unfavourable to a circulation of fluids. 
 
 It may be observed upon the general map, that at the head 
 of Black Ashgill and Caple Cleugh Burns, the Firestone is the 
 highest stratum ; and at this point, the lines denoting its out. 
 cropping on each side of the mountain curve in so much, that 
 only a small distance intervenes. Now, it is evident that the 
 
188 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 water which flows over the broad slopes of the higher east and 
 west range must fall into Caple Cleugh and Black Ashgill Burns 
 to be carried off in a different direction ; and also, that the 
 supply of fluids maintaining the increased percolation (in accord- 
 ance with theirs* law) at the bottom of the mountain must be 
 abruptly cut oE. The consequence is, that the supply of fluids, 
 flowing over the surface, and circulating in the interior of 
 Middle Fell is dependent upon, or derived entirely from, the 
 precipitation upon its surface ; thus forming conditions less com- 
 plicated, and of a more simple character than is generally found 
 in other mining districts. 
 
 We left off investigating the connexion between the laws 
 effecting the percolation and circulation of fluids and the lead 
 ore deposits in veins, at the point where the Middle Cleugh veins 
 cease to contain lead ore in the Great Limestone ; we shall now 
 resume the investigation at the same point, and commence with 
 a portion of ground which comprehends Caple Cleugh north 
 and sun veins on the west side of Carrs vein. This portion of 
 ground has already been partially described; these two veins 
 traverse the hollow or gap, which isolates Middle Fell from the 
 east and west range of mountains, the water flowing over the 
 surface in opposite directions towards them. Altogether the 
 conditions are favourable for promoting the percolation of fluids, 
 and also their free circiilation in the interior of the earth. 
 
 These two Caple Cleugh veins are very weak near their in- 
 tersections with Cowslitts cross vein, and the north vein is 
 altogether broken into weak leads before reaching Carrs vein. 
 Under such conditions, no lead ore of importance could be de- 
 posited in them ; although, in accordance with the fourth law, 
 they have evidently caused much lead ore to be deposited in 
 flats formed in the Great Limestone on the west side of Carrs 
 vein. On the west side of Cowslitts cross vein, the north vein 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 189 
 
 contained mucli lead ore, in all the strata, from the surface to 
 the bottom of the Great Limestone. Near Caple Cleugh Burn, 
 the Sun vein also contained lead ore deposits to the same depth. 
 As these veins approach the water shed of Middle Fell mountain 
 they cease to contain lead ore in the Great Limestone, and thus 
 verify the connexion between the first law and the deposition of 
 lead ore. 
 
 The ground, lying on the north side of Caple Cleugh north 
 vein, traversed by Cowslitts cross vein, is connected with con- 
 ditions favourable to the percolation of fluids : and also, by the 
 inclination of the beds, to their circulation in the direction of 
 the vein northward. The Great Limestone bassets to the surface 
 at no great distance from the east and west vein. It is also 
 thrown up by Carrs vein above its average horizontal position, 
 and lies at no great depth below the surface, which is covered 
 with a thick bed of clayey alluvium. The vein also skirts the 
 bottom of a steep hill, and must be subjected to the numerous 
 intersections of weak east and west leads, which are said to have 
 enriched Carrs vein. Taking all these favourable circumstances 
 into consideration, it is not surprising that this rather weak 
 cross vein should contain considerable quantities of lead ore. 
 
 The ground traversed by Cowhill vein and lying opposite and 
 parallel to the rich ground in Cowslitts cross vein, just noticed, 
 is however connected with conditions very different for promot- 
 ing the percolation of fluids, passing as it does through the sum- 
 mit of Cowhill. This vein is unproved in this locality ; it is 
 supposed to be very weak, and under these circumstances, it 
 seems probable that, when tried, it will be found to contain no 
 lead ore. 
 
 To the north of Cowhill, the surface of the country sinks 
 with no very rapid inchnation to the junction of Dowgang Burn 
 with the Nent river. This portion of the Nenthead district, 
 
 p 
 
190 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 known as Shaw side, is on the whole favourably situated for 
 promoting the percolation of fluids under the first and second 
 laws. The conditions for promoting a circulation are likewise 
 equally favourable. 
 
 For a short distance on the west side of Carrs vein, Hanging- 
 shaw vein contained a very rich deposit of lead ore in the Great 
 Limestone ; but the portion situated below the summit of CowhiU 
 contains none in any stratum, thus supporting the doctrine that 
 a free supply of fluids from the surface is essential to its deposi- 
 tion. In accordance with the laws of percolation of fluids, Cow- 
 hUl and CowsHtts east and west veins contained lead ore deposits 
 in the Great Limestone in ground extending further to the west 
 than that in which the lead ore deposits are found in Hangingshaw 
 vein. As these two east and west veins approach the ground 
 where the supply of fluids passing over them from the summit 
 of Middle Fell is cut off by Collier Burn, they cease to contain 
 deposits of lead ore. 
 
 Cowslitts and CowhiU cross veins traverse the portion of 
 ground most favourably situated for promoting the percolation 
 and circulation of fluids ; and notwithstanding, that in this locality 
 both are weak veins, considerable quantities of lead ore have 
 been extracted from them. 
 
 Peat Stack HiU vein, lying opposite and parallel to the pro- 
 ductive portions of CowhUl and Cowslitts east and west veins, 
 contained much lead ore in the Great Limestone ; and also, like 
 them, it contained almost none under the ridge situated on the 
 east side of Collier Burn. 
 
 In the portion of ground bounded by Peat Stack Hill or 
 Briggle Burn vein on the north, and extending southward to 
 Black AshgiU Burn, the conditions for promoting the percola- 
 tion and circulation of fluids, are subjected to greater variation 
 than those in the ground we have just had under consideration. 
 
AND LEAD QBE DEPOSITS. 191 
 
 Upon inspection of the map, it will be perceived that the 
 veins, in no case, are far removed from the water-shed of the 
 mountain ; below which the Great Limestone stratum is placed 
 at a great depth. At Longhole head the Fell top Limestone is 
 the highest stratum. By theirs* law, it is evident that the 
 Great Limestone is lying in a position very unfavourable to the 
 percolation of fluids from the surface, and this has been sufficient 
 to prevent the deposition of lead ore ; for although, in some 
 parts of this plot of ground, the veins are much subjected to the 
 influence of the fourth law, and in other respects favourably 
 circumstanced for promoting a circulation of fluids, yet, with 
 only one exception, in this stratum they are all alike unpro- 
 ductive. 
 
 The exception to which we have called attention occurs in 
 Black Ashgill cross vein, and tends to confirm the laws of per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids as essential to effect lead ore 
 deposits in veins. For this very rich lead deposit was found at no 
 great distance from the outcropping of the Great Limestone, iu 
 Black Ashgill Burn, and where the Firestone and all the strata 
 above are removed by denudation. 
 
 In the third chapter of this book it was attempted to prove, 
 that when veins throw the strata down on the side next the water- 
 shed of the mountain they are placed in a position unfavourable 
 to the circulation of fluids. It would also appear that, except under 
 some very peculiar conditions, connected with intersecting veins, 
 such kinds of throws, when of some considerable extent, are also 
 less favourable to the deposition of lead ore in the vein itself 
 than when the throw is in a contrary direction. Black Ashgill 
 vein throws up the east cheek, and on the Nenthead side of 
 Middle Fell places the deep strata in the thrown-down cheek 
 into an unfavourable position ; on the contrary, at Black Ash- 
 gill head, the side of the vein, next the outcropping of the strata 
 
 p2 
 
192 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 is thrown down, and consequently not placed in a position un- 
 favourable to the circulation of fluids. Black Ashgill east cross 
 veins throw up the west cheek ; and it is remarkable that in 
 the ground under consideration where the veins are not much 
 subjected to the influences oi the fourth law, they have not con- 
 tained much lead ore. It is only under conditions favourable to the 
 percolation of fluids, and where, in their circulation in the Great 
 Limestone, they must settle over the thrown-up cheek of the 
 latter vein, that rich deposits of lead ore have been effected. 
 
 The strata on the south side of Caple Cleugh and Longhole 
 head veins, and on the west side of Black Ashgill cross vein, 
 rise rapidly in a direction nearly at right angles to that of the 
 veins. In this ground, the Slate Sills are the uppermost strata. 
 In accordance with the third law, all the fluids that percolate the 
 broad summit of Flinty Fell must circulate to these veins. In 
 a portion of Longhole head vein, where it is ramified, large 
 quantities of lead ore were found deposited in these strata ; but for 
 130 fathoms in length directly below the summit of the moun- 
 tain, the lead ore deposits have not been effected lower than the 
 Firestone stratum. Further east they occur as low as the High 
 Coal SUl. As the broad extent of level surface diminishes, the veins 
 contain less lead ore in the Slate SiUs ; although moderately- 
 rich deposits have been extracted from them in the Little Lime- 
 stone and High Coal SiU on the east side of Black Ashgill cross 
 vein. It will be perceived upon the general map, that in 
 this locality, the conditions promoting the percolation of fluids 
 are somewhat similar to those connected with the east part of 
 Rampgill and High Coal Cleugh veins. 
 
 The ground, triangular-shaped, enclosed by Longhole head. 
 Black AshgiU and Dowgang veins, occupies a position under the 
 summit of the mountain unfavourable to the direct percolation 
 of fluids from the surface. By the throws of the two former 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 193 
 
 veins, and in accordance with i\i.Q fifth law, the strata are placed 
 in a position unfaTourable to their circulation in any direction ; 
 and this unfavourable position is not modified under the third 
 law, as the strata are lying in a position very nearly horizontal. 
 
 The connexion between these unfavourable conditions and 
 the non-deposition of lead ore is complete. No quantities of 
 the latter of the least importance have been procured from 
 thence. 
 
 In the ground traversed by Dowgang veins on the east side 
 of Black AshgiU. cross veia, there is a depression of the summit 
 of the mountain, Nunnery rising to some considerable elevation 
 on the north side and Longhole head on the south. Black Ash- 
 giU cross vein is ramified, and there are also numerous leads and 
 strings running in various directions. These conditions neces- 
 sarily modify the first law regulating the descent of fiuids, 
 causing an iacreased quantity to percolate near the water-shed 
 of the mountain. 
 
 Corresponding to these conditions for promoting the percola- 
 tion of fluids, the Dowgang veius have contained very rich 
 deposits of lead ore in the Slate Sill, Firestone, Little Limestone 
 and Coal Sills, and even as low as the upper part of the Great 
 Limestone, but, except on the east side of Black AshgiU cross vein, 
 the quantity is so small that it scarcely repays the cost of ex- 
 traction. 
 
 On the north side of Dowgang veins, a long tract of surface, 
 unbroken by deep cleughs or bums, stretches from the Nent 
 river to the top of Nunnery. The principal portion of the water 
 that falls upon Nunnery flows to the north, and this is shown 
 upon the map by the direction of the minor streams, A portion 
 however, circulates over the surface in the direction of Pity Mea 
 and Nenthead Field veins. Before reaching the outcropping of 
 the Firestone stratum, this stream is broken into three parts, one 
 
194 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 of which, deflected to the south-east, falls into Dowgang Burn, 
 another continues its course in a straightforward direction, and 
 the last falls to the north ; forming a lateral ridge in the imme- 
 diate neighbourhood of Greengill east end vein. 
 
 In this ground two portions of Black Ashgill cross veins con- 
 tained rich deposits of lead ore. In accordance with the fifth 
 law, the throw of the principal one is unfavourable to a circula- 
 tion of fluids. It will be observed on the map, that this law is 
 modified by numerous intersecting quarter point leads, which 
 would promote a circulation under i)i& fourth law. Many of these 
 veins or leads are of considerable strength, and where they are 
 partially collected near their intersection, or combination with 
 Dowgang veins, dislocate the strata three or four fathoms. 
 
 It is probable, that the quarter point veins do not extend in 
 their north-west direction further than the cross vein, which 
 occasions the greatest dislocation. In the strata depressed by 
 the throw, two west portions of Black Ashgill cross vein are situ- 
 ated ; but as yet no lead ore has been produced from them. 
 
 Nenthead Fields veins have not been traced further west than 
 Dowgang east cross vein. Between this point and the outcrop- 
 ping of the Great Limestone the sides of the mountain are very 
 steep, and consequently, under the second law, unfavourable to the 
 percolation of fluids. These two veins are not strong, and the 
 lead ore deposits they contained were comparatively poor. 
 
 Greengill east end vein traverses the lateral ridge, which 
 extends from the outcropping of the Firestone to the Nent river. 
 Under the first law, the conditions are certainly not favour- 
 able to the deposition of lead ore. This vein was proved in the 
 Great Limestone upwards of a century ago, and little is now 
 known respecting its contents, except that no lead ore was raised, 
 and that the extensive works made in it incurred a very con- 
 siderable, loss of capital. 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 195 
 
 On the east side of Black Ashgill cross vein, G-reengill east 
 end vein traverses a district favourable to the percolation and 
 circulation of fluids, under the first and fourth laws. It contained 
 rich deposits of lead ore in the Low Slate Sill, and Ironstone ; but 
 in the Firestone below, lead ore was only found in patches ; I 
 believe that little or none has been produced from strata below 
 these. A short length of this vein, on the very summit of the 
 hill, is much subjected to the influence of the fourth law. The 
 intersecting veins and leads are favourably situated as channels 
 to convey fluids northwards down the sides of the peaked ele- 
 vation of Nunnery. Here, at the very summit of Middle Fell, 
 a rich deposit of lead ore was lodged in the Slate Sills. Before it 
 was extracted, it had suffered considerably from decomposition. 
 Large quantities of sulphide of lead were found in thick clay 
 beds, rounded and the outsides of the detached lumps converted 
 into a carbonate of lead ; in the vein itself beautifully crystallized 
 specimens of the carbonate were obtained. Impure earthy car- 
 bonates of lead were also found, the lead and iron apparently 
 cementing the particles of decomposed sandstone into a solid 
 mass. 
 
 The lead ore deposits in this ground are not found lower than the 
 Slate SiUs ; even in the Firestone, which is placed at no great 
 depth from the surface, the little lead ore it contained would 
 not repay the cost of extraction. Altogether this case of a lead 
 ore deposit upon the summit of the mountain, which in a simple 
 empirical law would have constituted an exception not easily 
 explained, furnishes a striking exemplification of the connexion 
 between the laws of percolation and circulation of fluids and the 
 deposition of lead ore. 
 
 In connexion with the same conditions, promoting the de- 
 scent of fluids, but on the north side of Greengill east end vein, 
 and from about the point where the Firestone bassets to the 
 
196 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 surface northward to Grassfield vein, the Greeugill cross veins, 
 which are a continuation of Black Ashgill vein, contained very 
 rich deposits of lead ore in the G-reat Limestone. Where these 
 veins are most subjected to the percolation of fluids under the 
 fourth law, the richest deposits of lead ore were found. 
 
 It will be observed upon the map, that from Grassfield vein 
 the line denoting the outcropping of the Great Limestone bends 
 to the west. For some distance, its direction will not vary much 
 from one at right angles to the greatest inclination of the strata. 
 In this locality, a broad extent of surface is formed of a thick 
 bed of clayey alluvium, and the water, precipitated on the 
 north side of Nunnery, must flow over that portion of the Grass- 
 field veins situated between the outcropping of the Firestone 
 and the Nent river. 
 
 It is unnecessary to point out how peculiarly favourable these 
 conditions are for promoting the percolation of fluids under the 
 jirst law. This portion of the district is also much traversed by 
 veins, as well as by weak leads, running in various directions, con- 
 stituting conditions under the fourth law as favom-able to the 
 percolation of fluids as those relating to \hB first law. On the hne 
 of Grassfield veins, the Great Limestone is for a considerable 
 distance lying at no great depth below the surface. This and 
 the somewhat rapid incKnation of the beds on the north side of 
 the vein are favourable to a free circulation. 
 
 Grassfield veiu, from the outcropping of the Great Limestone 
 to within some twenty fathoms of Grassfield west cross vein, 
 has contained very rich deposits of lead ore, even as low as the 
 Four fathoms Limestone. Between the two east cross veins the 
 strata are elevated by their throws above their general position ; 
 and in accordance with the ffth law both the east and west 
 veins contained much lead ore. 
 
 On the north side of Grassfield veins, and the next in the 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 197 
 
 order of succession, are the two G-allygill Syke veins. The con- 
 ditions, however, for promoting the percolation of fluids are 
 very difierent. In the case of the two latter veins it wiU be 
 seen upon the map that the outcropping of the Great Limestone 
 approaches that of the Firestone stratum. Hence in the direc- 
 tion of Grallygill Syke veins the hill is much steeper than in the 
 direction of Grassfleld veias ; conditions which bring the perco- 
 lation of fluids under the second law. The circulation of fluids 
 over the surface more nearly corresponds to the direction of the 
 veiQS in the former than m the latter case. The correspondence, 
 however, between the conditions affectiag the percolation and 
 circulation of fluids and the deposition of lead ore ia GaUygiU 
 Syke veins is equally striking as in the case of the Grassfleld 
 veins, for in the former instance a much less quantity has been 
 deposited, and the length of productive groimd far shorter. 
 Though in both instances, westward from about the point where 
 the Firestone bassets to the surface, no lead ore has been de- 
 posited ia the Great Limestone. 
 
 The GaUygill Well and HudgUl Burn veins form a remarkable 
 group, from which — consideriag the extent of ground and 
 limited vertical depth of the deposits — vast quantities of lead 
 ore have been abstracted. Where the richest deposits were 
 found in the Great Limestone, very thick clay beds form the 
 surface of the country ; and near the jimction of the outcrop- 
 ping of this stratum of limestone with these clay beds, by driving 
 levels on the line of the veias, detached masses of rock were found, 
 contaiaing much sulphide of lead, which was found changed into 
 a carbonate of lead, where placed in actual contact with the clay : 
 the central parts of the masses, however, remained a sulphide. 
 Had these clay beds not been reposing on the surface, or had 
 the Great Limestone, instead of being covered up by them, 
 formed a line of precipitous clififi, fissured and broken with 
 
198 THE CIECULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 joints, as it assuredly would have been, it is certain that by the 
 percolation of water and atmospheric air nearly the whole of 
 the sulphide of lead would have been converted into a carbo- 
 nate, and ultimately dissolved and carried off in solution by the 
 circulating fluids. The conserving tendency of these clay beds to 
 prevent the decomposition of the ore, after it has once been de- 
 posited, may be illustrated by the fact that a piece of unfossihzed 
 wood of about six iuches long and four laches broad was found 
 in one of the veins iu Hudgill Burn mine. It was surrounded 
 with galena, and situated fifty fathoms below the surface. Mr. 
 Forster states that Mr. WUson, when relatiag the circumstance, 
 showed him the specimen. 
 
 The percolation of fluids in this district is regulated chiefly 
 by the first and fourth laws ; but peculiarly so under the latter : 
 for the strata are almost entirely broken up with intersecting 
 veins, strings, and leads. Like most of the east and west veins 
 traversing the east side of Middle Fell, this group has contained 
 very little lead ore in the Great Limestone west from the out- 
 cropping of the Firestone stratum. 
 
 North of the Hudgill Bum veins, the outcropping of the 
 Great Limestone and the water-shed of the mountain approach 
 each other, and consequently the district is less favourably con- 
 ditioned for the percolation of fluids under the first law. For 
 some distance from the line of its basset the Great Limestone is 
 much broken into detached masses, the intervening spaces 
 being filled with clay, and the whole covered by a very thick 
 bed of the same material. 
 
 In this district numbers of east and west veins exist, all of 
 which are found to contain no lead ore in the Great Limestone. 
 They are said to be generally straight and weak, and filled chiefly 
 with clay and carbonate of lime. By the laws of percolation 
 and circulation of fluids, it is evident, that if they ever contained 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 199 
 
 lead ore, it must have been near the present outcropping of the 
 Great Limestone : we may however safely conclude, that the 
 greatest portion if not the whole was abstracted long ago by 
 atmospheric agency, and its place supplied by amorphous masses 
 of carbonate of lime intermixed with clay. 
 
 In the ground comprehended inclusively between Bayle HiU 
 and Flough edge veins, the percolation of fluids is chiefly regu- 
 lated by the first and fourth laws, and the freeness of the cir- 
 culation modified by the third law. 
 
 With the exception of Holey Field and Fair Hill veins, which 
 have lately been worked, the richest portions of their contents 
 were extracted long ago, and no records of these are now ex- 
 tant. Calamine is deposited in considerable quantities in these 
 veins : it has probably resulted from the decomposition of sul- 
 phide of zinc, and in some instances has flowed in solution 
 from the veins, and is now found deposited in the joints of the 
 Great Limestone. The metallic contents of this group of veins 
 have in each case undergone, in a greater or less degree, atmo- 
 spheric decomposition and change. Nattrass vein is peculiarly 
 placed under the fourth law, and it seems probable that it is 
 owing to the laws of decomposition that less rich deposits of 
 lead ore were found in it than might otherwise have been 
 expected. 
 
 Dowpot Syke veins have only contained small quantities of 
 lead ore, and those chiefly in the upper strata. The Great 
 Limestone is lying below the bed of Nattrass burn, and this cir- 
 cumstance may have prevented a circulation in the vein suf- 
 ficiently free to effect the deposition of lead ore. 
 
 From Flough edge vein the line of outcropping of the Great 
 Limestone is nearly due west, and the course of Nattrass Gill 
 Bum is nearly parallel to that of the Tyne. Here a broad extent 
 of surface is found, which rises gently to the south, forming a 
 
200 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 lateral ridge near to Black Syke and Fleteheras veins, while 
 the water precipitated upon Middle Fell must flow into Nattrass 
 Gill Burn, thus isolating a tract of comparatively flat country 
 traversed by the Craig Green veins, and not unfavourably situated 
 for promoting the percolation of fluids under theirs* and f mirth 
 laws. In accordance with the fifth law the strata on the east 
 side of Garrigill Burn Old Groves vein are placed in a position 
 unfavourable for promoting a circulation of fluids. 
 
 All the veins in this district have contained rich deposits of 
 lead ore in the Great Limestone ; but on the west side of Gutter- 
 gill cross vein, a great portion of these had evidently been de- 
 composed and carried away by atmospheric agency. 
 
 Craig Green middle vein has produced some lead ore on the east 
 side of Nattrass Gfll Burn, which was found on the west side of 
 Newberry cross vein, and at a point where the vein is placed under 
 the influence of the fourth law by munerous quarter point leads. 
 
 The ridge formed between Nattrass Gill Bum and the Tyne, 
 traversed by Black Syke and Fleteheras veins, must modify the 
 first law regulating the percolation of fluids. Nattrass Gill Burn 
 cuts deeply into the mountain, and must effect not only the 
 percolation of fluids to deeper randoms than in that portion of 
 ground under the ridge, but also a circulation northwards, or at 
 right angles to the direction of the veins. Black Syke vein 
 throws up the north cheek very considerably, and in accordance 
 with the fifth law is unfavourable to a circulation of fluids. 
 Fleteheras vein throws the strata in a contrary direction, and 
 exceeds in amount that of Black Syke vein. 
 
 As might be expected from these conditions. Black Syke vein 
 has contained very little lead ore ; the little, however, it does 
 contain is found as low as the Great Limestone. In the ridge on 
 the west side of Nattrass GUI Bum this vein is weak, a condition 
 unfavourable to the deposition of lead ore. At the higher part 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 201 
 
 of Nattrass Gill Burn, Fletcheras vein contained much lead ore in 
 the Slate Sills and Firestone, and some smaU quantities are found 
 as low as the Great Limestone. Notwithstanding the favourable 
 position in which the strata are placed by the throw of Garrigill 
 Bum cross vein, under the ridge, Fletcheras vein contains very- 
 poor deposits of lead ore, especially in the Great Limestone. 
 
 The district comprehended between Cross Bum and Garrigill 
 burn, the first law regulating the descent of fluids is modified by 
 the second. In the upper part of its course Cross Burn cuts 
 very little below the surface, or into the strata. Hundy Bridge 
 and Cowper Dyke heads are the two strongest east and west 
 veins traversing this district ; the former near the outcropping 
 of the Great Limestone is ramified, but collected into one vein on 
 the east side of Garrigill Burn cross vein : it has contained 
 much ore in a short length of ground in the Great Limestone. In 
 the upper strata it contains very little vein mineral of any kind. 
 The lead ore deposits in Cowper Dyke heads vein, on the west 
 side of GarrigiU Bum vein, have been very poor, as might have 
 been expected from the laws of percolation of fluids. On the 
 east side of this cross vein it contained some little lead ore, but 
 not a sufficient quantity to repay the cost of extraction. In this 
 ground the vein is very weak, not more than a few inches in 
 width. The rest of the Cowper Dyke head veins are too weak 
 to contain much lead ore ; the little that has been produced 
 from them was found at their intersection with Garrigill Burn 
 cross vein. 
 
 GarrigiU Bum cuts deeply into the strata, and, in conse- 
 quence, the line of outcropping of the Great Limestone is 
 deflected to the east. 
 
 In the ground traversed by the Benty Field veins, the con- 
 ditions are favourable for promoting the percolation of fluids 
 under the first law; and where an increased supply has been 
 
ore were 
 
 202 THE CmCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 effected under the fmHh law, laxge quantities of lead . 
 
 found deposited in the veins on both sides of GarrigiU Bm-n. 
 
 On the south side of, GarrigiU Burn, several east and west 
 veins are found connected with conditions favourable to the 
 percolation and circulation of fluids. The ThoughtergiU Syke 
 veins contained lead ore, the chief portions of which were 
 abstracted long ago, and their productive character is now in a 
 great measure unknown. About the outcropping of the Fii-estone 
 stratum most of these veins are weak, and on the east side of 
 this line of rock none of them has as yet produced lead ore. 
 
 Browngdl vein has contained rich deposits of lead ore in the Coal 
 Sills and Little Limestone ; it also contained considerable quan- 
 tities in the Slate Sills. In the strata above the Great Limestone 
 this powerful vein is ramified, and its throw places broken pieces 
 of Coal Sills and Little Limestone in a series of steps, similar to 
 whatfiis shown upon the foUowmg cross section. (Plate XXI.) 
 From the sides of these masses of rock large quantities of lead 
 ore were formerly obtained. On the east side of its intersection 
 with Old Groves vein the aggregate thickness of the ribs of 
 pure sulphide of lead lodged between the detached portions of 
 Little Limestone amounted to from eighteen to twenty-one feet. 
 
 In the portion of Browngill vein, comprehended between the 
 outcropping of the Great Limestone and Firestone strata, there 
 can be no doubt but that the conditions are favom-able to the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids as low as the Great Limestone. 
 The quantity of lead ore, however, obtaiaed from the vein in this 
 stratum is comparatively small, and sufficient to repay the cost 
 of working only in the neighbourhood of its intersection with 
 Old Groves cross vein, and directly below the very productive 
 ground in the Little Limestone. The throw of the vein places 
 the opposite sides of the Great Limestone past each other. Open 
 spaces have been formed, now filled with quartz and other vein 
 
CROSS SECTION OF 
 
 BROMVNGILL VEIN. 
 
 riATE XM. 
 
AND LEAD OBE DEPOSITS. 203 
 
 minerals. In tMs respect, it differs from the Nenthead powerful 
 cross veins, which, as pointed out, seldom contain much vein 
 mineral when they dislocate the strata very much. Either the 
 lead ore has been abstracted from the vein by some natural cause, 
 or its non-deposition is the result of the interference of some 
 causes at present unknown, but which seem connected with the 
 great amount of dislocation of the vein ; for Browngill sun 
 vein, a comparatively weak one, not dislocating the strata more 
 than twelve feet, under precisely similar conditions for pro- 
 moting the percolation and circulation of fluids, and running in 
 a parallel direction, has contained much lead ore, not only in the 
 Great Limestone, but even as low as the Four-fathoms Limestone. 
 It may, however, be remarked that the lead ore in Browngill 
 vein in the Great Limestone is found precisely where extraordi- 
 nary deposits might have been expected, had not the effects 
 of ore-producing conditions been counteracted by other unknown 
 causes. 
 
 BrowngiU sun vein, near its intersection with Old Groves 
 cross veins, is straight and weak, and the deposits of lead ore it 
 contained poor. 
 
 Southward from Browngill sun vein, no east and west veins 
 of importance traverse Middle FeU, except Wellhope Knot. 
 There is only a short portion of this vein in the Great Lime- 
 stone, situated very near its outcropping. Under such unfa- 
 vourable conditions, as might be expected, the vein contained 
 very little lead ore. 
 
 We have now shown the connexion between the lead ore de- 
 posits found in the veins traversing Middle Fell and the laws re- 
 gulating the percolation of fluids. The Great Limestone being 
 elevated above the bottom of the valleys is not placed, except in 
 a few instances, in a position unfavourable to their circulation. 
 The tract of amolybdic ground in the Great Limestone, so 
 
204 THE CIBCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 clearly shown upon the general map, exemplifies in a remark- 
 able manner the connexion between the first law and the depo- 
 sition of lead ore, and also points out clearly that it is necessary 
 for fluids to be plentifully supplied, as well as to circulate freely 
 in the veins, in order to effect deposits of lead ore. In aU cases, 
 such deposits are found only where fluids must freely percolate 
 the surface, and circulate in the veins, and that these conditions 
 only occur where the strata are situated at a moderate depth 
 from the surface, and at some considerable distance from the 
 water-shed of the mountain. 
 
 The direction of the dip of the strata in Middle Fell is shown 
 upon the map by means of short arrows. In accordance with 
 the third law, it is evident that fluids circulating in the veins 
 would more readily find their way to the surface on the east 
 than on the west side of this mountain, and also the quantity 
 penetrating to great depths must be less in the former than in 
 the latter case. The correspondence between this law regulat- 
 ing the percolation of fluids and the deposition of lead ore is 
 very remarkable, since the greatest portion of amolybdic ground 
 is lying on the east side of the mountain. 
 
 Except in limited tracts caused by deep cleughs or bums, the 
 variation in the amount of inclination of the surface above the 
 outcropping of the Great Limestone in Middle Fell is not great : 
 the form of the amolybdic ground is not, therefore, much affected 
 under the second law ; and perhaps very striking illustrations of 
 this law are not to be found in Alston Moor. We have, how- 
 ever, pointed out a connexion in the case of Hangingshaw 
 vein on the west side of Carrsvein, the two GaUygill Syke veins, 
 and to these might perhaps be added the Dowpot Syke veins. 
 
 In accordance with theirs* law, the lateral ridges situated on 
 the sides of the mountain have affected the form of the amo- 
 lybdic gi-ound in the Great Limestone, the lead ore deposits having 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 205 
 
 extended further into the interior of the mountain, where the 
 strata above the Great Limestone have suffered the greatest 
 amount of denudation. On the east side of the mountain few 
 of the veins contain much lead ore in the Great Limestone on 
 the west side of the outcropping of the Firestone stratum, and 
 the few exceptions occur only when the veins are peculiarly 
 subjected to the percolation of fluids under the f mirth law. 
 
 The form of this ground has also been modified by the cha- 
 racter of the veins. It is an acknowledged empirical law that 
 weak veins are less regularly lead ore producing than stronger 
 ones, and are also worked to a less distance from the outcrop- 
 ping' of the strata. The Cowper Dykehead veins furnish the 
 best example of this condition. Of these the sun veins are the 
 weakest, and have contained less lead ore than Hundy Bridge 
 vein, which is the strongest of this group. 
 
 Those portions of the veins which are coloured blue have un- 
 doubtedly varied considerably in their productive character. 
 Of the portions so coloured, the richest deposits have been 
 effected where from some form of the mountain, the direction 
 of the veins is nearly at right angles to the flow or descent of 
 the water over the surface, and this is more particularly the 
 case where the percolation of fluids is promoted by the fourth 
 law. We have abeady pointed out' the Middle Cleugh, Grass- 
 field, and HudgUl Burn veins as exemplifications. 
 
 Lastly, its form has been affected by the removal of lead ore 
 by atmospheric agencies ; and more particularly so at the north 
 end of the mountain, where the line of amolybdic ground bends 
 to the very outcropping of the stratum. Undoubtedly, many 
 of those portions of the veins denoted upon the map with red 
 and yellow, contained, at some former geological period, much 
 richer deposits of lead ore than when first laid open by mining 
 operations. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HTDEOUS AGENCY 
 AND THE DEPOSITION OF LEAD OEE IN THE OTHEK POETIONS 
 OF THE UPPER STRATA SHOWN UPON THE MAP. 
 
 In the district comprelieiided between Naggshead and the Great 
 Sulphur vein, the Great Limestone, for some considerable extent 
 from its outcropping, is very much broken with joints, and de- 
 composed to such an extent that large " swallow holes," caused 
 by the falling in of the roofs of large caverns, are formed at the 
 surface. Many of these have broken through the two hard sand- 
 stones above, which in this locality are of very considerable 
 thickness. 
 
 The veins which cross Littlegill Burn are weak, and dislocate 
 the strata very little. Of these Littlegill vein is the strongest, and 
 has contained lead ore chiefly in the Little Limestone and strata 
 above. In the ground traversed by this vein on the east side of 
 Littlegill Bum, the conditions for promoting the percolation of 
 fluids are on the whole favourable ; but between the outcropping 
 of the Firestone and Great Limestone, their descent into the 
 latter stratum has been prevented by the second law. The 
 Great Limestone, for some distance from its outcropping, is in a 
 broken state, and should the vein ever have contained lead ore 
 
LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 207 
 
 deposits, these must have long ago been decomposed and removed 
 by atmospheric agencies. In the ground traversed by this and 
 the other Hole pasture veins, on the west side of LittlegiU Burn, 
 the Great Limestone is also very much broken with wide joints. 
 Trials in these veins have been made of considerable extent, but 
 no lead ore of any consequence was foimd in them. 
 
 Windy Brae vein is very much stronger than any of the east 
 and west veins which cross LittlegiU Bum. Near the outcrop- 
 ping of the Great Limestone it dislocates the strata not less than 
 twenty-four feet. For a short distance on the west side of the 
 outcropping of the Firestone stratum, and where there are many 
 leads promoting the percolation of fluids under the fourth law, 
 rich deposits of lead ore were found in the veia, chiefly in the 
 Great Limestone stratum. Eastward this vein became weaker 
 and ceased to contain lead ore in any stratum. 
 
 In the ground between Windy Brae and the Great Sulphur 
 vein. Whetstone Mea appears to be the only vein worthy of 
 notice. I have been unable, however, to obtain information 
 respecting it further than that no lead ore has hitherto been 
 produced from it. 
 
 On the west side of the Tyne, three patches of Great Lime- 
 stone are found capping the summit of the hills. Of these two 
 are very small ones. In the one at Looking Law, very short 
 portions of the broad Mea veins have been moderately produc- 
 tive. The small patch at the head of Dufi'ergiLl Bum is 
 evidently much decomposed, and broken with joints. It is 
 traversed by the Cornriggs veins ; but here they contain no 
 lead or copper ores. 
 
 The other patch of Great Limestone is much larger ; it lies on 
 the north-east side of the Great Sulphur vein, and extends to 
 Cashburn Force : in it are several veins running in various 
 directions. It is divided by Eodderup Fell west cross vein into 
 
 q2 
 
20« THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 two portions, in each of wliicli the conditions for promoting the 
 percolation of fluids are very different. 
 
 In the east portion, the strata rise rapidly in the direction of 
 Drybnrn towards the Great Sulphur vein. AU the east and 
 west veins that traverse this portion are said to be very weak. 
 Some trials have been made, but no lead ore of any importance 
 has as yet been foimd in them. 
 
 In the other portion the strata dip rapidly in a contrary 
 direction; so much so that, as previously pointed out, the 
 Great Limestone is lying opposite the lower part of the Whin. 
 In this ground the percolation of fluids under theirs* law is 
 (according to the second and third laws) much modified by the 
 steepness of the mountain sides and the inclination of the beds. 
 The veins traversing this ground are apparently very strong ; 
 but no extensive trials have been made in them, and, so far, 
 have produced very little lead ore. 
 
 It will be perceived upon the map, that the ore deposits in 
 Cross Fell veins are found at about the same relative position to 
 the outcropping of the Great Limestone, as those in the veins 
 which traverse Middle Fell. These veins, in their direction 
 westward, become very weak, and hence only give positive 
 instances of the connexion between the laws regulating the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids, and the deposition of lead ore. 
 Had they, however, contiaued to be strong veins under the 
 summit of Cross Fell, there is every reason to conclude, that 
 they would have contained no lead ore in the Great Limestone. 
 In the last three chapters we have endeavoured to establish 
 a relation, or sequence, between the percolation and circulation 
 of water below the earth's surface, and the deposition of lead 
 ore in the veins traversing the upper beds. If we have been 
 successful, the original inquiry is modified and presented in the 
 two following aspects : — 
 
AND LEAD OEB DEPOSITS. 209 
 
 1. If the lead ore was originally derived from ascending va- 
 pours, and sparsely deposited throughout the whole extent of the 
 veins, then, as the surface of the country became degraded by 
 pluvial and fluvial agencies, the contents of the veins were sub- 
 jected to decomposition and re-arrangement by the waters 
 circulating below the earth's surface. 
 
 2. If the lead ore is derived from the rocks which form the 
 walls of the veins, then the necessary decomposition and re- 
 arrangement in the veins are effected by the circulating waters ; 
 the metallic particles being derived from the rocks, or formed 
 from substances set free by their decomposition, and in con- 
 nexion with unknown laws of chemical combination. 
 
 Now if the former theory |be correct, it is evident that the 
 metallic ores in veins in the strata below the Great Limestone, 
 must be subjected to decomposition and re-arrangement in the 
 same manner as in the upper beds. We have previously stated 
 as a law of experience, that the veins are less metalliferous in the 
 lower than in the upper beds. This however might arise from 
 the conditions being less favourable to the percolation and cir- 
 culation of fluids. Before inquiring into the conditions con- 
 nected with ore deposits in the lower beds, we may observe, 
 that — 
 
 1. The Great Limestone throughout its whole thickness is not 
 uniformly metalliferous. It is remarkable, that the most metal- 
 liferous parts are certain posts which have undergone the 
 greatest amount of decomposition and change. Eich deposits of 
 lead ore are not often found in the Tumbler beds ; these beds, 
 even very near the veins, are seldom much changed by chemical 
 agency. The high flat post may be considered as the most 
 productive part of the limestone, and, as previously pointed out, 
 the amount of decomposition effected in it is truly surprising. 
 Below the high flat post are situated two or three others less 
 
210 THE CIECULATION OF FLUIDS. 
 
 metalliferous ; and these are rarely found to be much decom- 
 posed. The middle flat post is less metaUiferous than the high 
 flat : it is also less decomposable. Similar alternations take 
 place about the low flat post, the bottom of the stratum being 
 the least metaUiferous. 
 
 2. If the lead ore be derived from the enclosing rock, then 
 pither this metal or some lead ore producing principles, whatever 
 they may be, must have existed both in sandstones and lime- 
 stones. 
 
 3. As the veins in the sandstones often contain v&ry rich 
 deposits of lead ore, although this kind of rock is Jess decom- 
 posable than the limestones ; it is probable, therefore, that 
 they contain a greater amount of lead or of some lead ore pro- 
 ducing principles from which this metal is formed by unknown 
 laws of chemical combination. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LAWS OF HYDEOUS AGENCY, 
 AND THE ORE "DEPOSITS IN THE VEINS TBAVEESING THE 
 " LOWEE BEDS." 
 
 In Alston Moor, the position of the series of beds called the 
 "lower strata," is more varied than the group forming the 
 "upper strata^ In some places, they are considerably elevated 
 above the bottom of the valleys, or even basset at the summit 
 of the mountains ; in others, they lie buried at great depths, 
 the whole of the upper portion of the Mountain Limestone 
 and part of the MiUstone Grit reposing upon them. In the 
 former case, the conditions for promoting the percolation and 
 circulation of iluids in the veins, vary in a manner similar to 
 those connected with the veins in the upper strata; in the 
 latter, because of their being so far removed from the surface, 
 very little variation can occur. The subject may therefore be 
 viewed under two aspects: the conditions connected with the 
 deposition of lead ore in the veins near the surface, and those 
 connected with its deposition at great depths below. 
 
 It is in the former case, that the greatest number of trials for 
 proof of the veins in Alston Moor has been made. A glance 
 at the general map will show that the lower strata, in those 
 portions of Northumberland and Durham represented upon it, 
 do not basset to the surface. We shall therefore commence 
 
212 THE CIECULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 with an examination of the results of the trials made in the 
 ground comprehended between the outcropping of the Great 
 Limestone on each side of the Nent river. 
 
 The Dowgang veins, near the west side of the Nent river, 
 were worked many years ago in the Quarry hazle, but the pro- 
 ductive character of the veins is not known. There are, how- 
 ever, no indications at the surface that they contained rich 
 deposits of lead ore. The conditions connected with them for 
 promoting the percolation and circulation of fluids are very 
 favourable. On the east side of the Nent river, these veins 
 have also been proved in the Quarry hazle ; and by means of 
 Nentforce level, as low as the Slaty hazle. In some places 
 they contain very small quantities of ore, but not sufficient to 
 repay the cost of extraction. It is evident that, at a great 
 depth below the Nent river, the conditions are very unfavourable 
 for promoting a circulation of fluids in a longitudinal direction. 
 Similar trials have also been made in the Nenthead field and 
 Guddamgill veins, all of which contained lead ore, but quite 
 insufficient to repay costs. 
 
 The rapid inclination of the strata would promote a circulation 
 in the Grassfleld and Brownley Hill vein ; but on the east side 
 of the river tiie percolation of fluids is regulated by the second 
 law. Considerable trial of this portion of the vein has been 
 made, but no lead ore of importance found in it. On the west side 
 of the river the conditions for promoting the percolation of fluids 
 are very favourable .The Four-fathoms Limestone, which is the 
 surface stratum, reposes under a very thick bed of clay. Jn this 
 ground the vein contained very rich deposits of lead ore, which, 
 however, did not descend so low as the Nattrass Gill hazle. 
 Below this rich ground, in the Four-fathoms Limestone, a Else 
 was made from Nentforce level into the Slaty hazle ; the vein 
 was found to be strait, and contained small pieces of lead ore. 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 213 
 
 The conditions for promoting the percolation and circulation 
 of fluids in each of the Nentsberry Haggs and Nentsberry Greens 
 veias are apparently similar. Nentsberry Haggs sun vein is, 
 however, the only one that has contained much lead ore, and that 
 chiefly in the Four-fathoms Limestone and Nattrass GUI hazle ; 
 near the Alston and Nenthead road the deposits were found as 
 low as the Three-yards Limestone. It is not easy to point out the 
 conditions connected with this vein, which are different from 
 the north veins, and might promote an increased circulation in 
 order to effect the lead ore deposits. Perhaps it has formed the 
 principal channel in which the fluids circulating in Carrs vein 
 found an egress to the surface. 
 
 On the west side of the Nent, Nentsberry Haggs veins have 
 produced small quantities of lead ore, chiefly in the Four-fathoms 
 Limestone, and in connexion with conditions very favourable to 
 the percolation and circulation of fluids. Under similar con- 
 ditions GaUygill Well vein also produced some lead ore in the 
 same stratum. 
 
 Northward from GaUygill Well vera, some lead ore has lately 
 been produced from the west portion of Black AshgiU cross vein 
 in the Four-fathoms Limestone. The conditions for promoting the 
 percolation of fluids under the first and fourth laws are exceed- 
 ingly favourable. This lead ore deposit has, however, been com- 
 paratively poor. 
 
 StiQ further north, and under similar conditions for promoting 
 the percolation and circulation of fluids, this cross vein contained 
 considerable quantities of lead ore in the strata lying near the 
 surface. In a few places these lead ore deposits descended as low 
 as the Slaty hazle ; but in the Scar Limestone the vein is filled 
 with little else than calc spar. 
 
 In Middle Fell no other veins have produced lead ore of 
 importance in the lower strata, excepting the Tyne bottom veins, 
 
214 THE CIECULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 and these chiefly in flats. The flats occur where the veins are 
 very much ramified, and much subjected to an increased perco- 
 lation of fluids under the fmrth law. On the north side the 
 strata dip very rapidly from these veins, a condition very 
 favourable towards promoting a circulation of fluids ; and but for 
 this circumstance, these veins in the Tyne bottom Limestone 
 would in aU probability have contained little of any other kind 
 of vein mineral besides calc spar. In the Whin they are almost 
 filled with this mineral. Benty Field vein has produced no 
 lead ore in the Tyne bottom Limestone, and it is owing to the 
 conditions for promoting the cu-culation of fluids being less 
 favourable. Certainly the conditions for promoting their per- 
 colation in each case do not appear to be much different. 
 
 Taking a general view of these results, and remembering that 
 they are the same veins which have produced such enormous 
 quantities of lead ore in the upper strata, that are so very poor 
 in the lower ; and also bearing in mind, that the conditions of 
 mineralization in each case must be very similar, it is difficult to 
 arrive at any other conclusion than that the difference arises from 
 a greater proportion of metallic particles or of ore-producing 
 substance (or substances) entering as a constituent part into the 
 strata composing the wpp&r heds than must enter into those com- 
 posing the " lower." To particularize one case, the BrowngHl veins 
 on the west side of the outcropping of the Great Limestone are 
 connected with conditions very favourable for promoting the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids. Had these veins traversed the 
 upper series of strata, and the Great Limestone occupied the 
 position of the Scar Limestone, there can be no doubt whatever 
 but that they would have contained very rich deposits of lead 
 ore instead of the few poor ones which, with one or two excep- 
 tions, have not repaid the cost of extraction. 
 
 In the district comprehended between Ashgill Burn and Crook 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 215 
 
 Burn, many trials of the veins in the lower beds have been 
 made, and the poor deposits found in them occur only where the 
 conditions are very favourable to the percolation and circulation 
 of fluids. The Ashgill Field veins produced lead ore chiefly in 
 flats in the Tyne bottom and Scar Limestones, and an inspection 
 of the enlarged map (Plate XV.) will show, that where these 
 deposits occur, how very much the veins are subjected to the 
 fourth, law. Ashgill Field vein contained some ore in the Six- 
 fathoms hazle. Below the bed of Ashgill Bum the quantity of 
 lead ore extracted was, however, very small. 
 
 Most of the veins in the Tynehead district are connected with 
 conditions for promoting the percolation and circulation of fluids 
 very similar to those connected with the veins traversing the 
 upper strata in Middle Fell : indeed, on the south side of the 
 Great Sulphur vein, the rapid inclination of the strata forms a 
 condition for promoting the circulation of fluids more favourable 
 than occurs anywhere in Middle Fell ; and, in many instances, 
 so favourable are the conditions for promoting their percolation 
 under the fourth law that it is difficult to resist the conclusion, 
 that had the Great Limestone occupied the position of the Scar 
 Limestone, with the rest of the upper strata occupying their 
 relative position above, most of these veins must have contained 
 very rich deposits of lead ore, and this more especially in that 
 portion of the district traversed by the Clargill head veins. 
 
 On the west side of Bel Beaver most of the east and west 
 veins have contained poor deposits of lead ore, and these chiefly 
 near the outcropping of the strata towards the bottom of the 
 hill, and precisely where on the principle of a free percolation 
 and circulation of fluids such deposits might be expected to be 
 found. 
 
 Providence or Tees-side vein is said to have been rich in the 
 Tyne bottom Limestone, which is lying near the surface thickly 
 
216 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 covered with alluTitun. At one place wliere the vein is sub- 
 jected to increased percolation under the fourth law, lead ore 
 has been deposited as low as the Whin and Jew limestone, which 
 are situated at a considerable depth below the bed of the river 
 Tees. The strata dip rapidly in the direction ef the Tees, and 
 this circumstance has perhaps been sufficient to promote a cir- 
 culation, without which, it is probable, that this vein ia these 
 strata would have been filled with calc spar, like the Tyne 
 bottom Teins in the same beds. 
 
 On the west side of the Tjme, and on the south of Looking 
 Law, the conditions for promoting the percolation of fluids into 
 Calvert vein are favourable, and in some places peculiarly so 
 under the fourth law. Not having a good plan of this mine 
 many of these intersections are not represented upon the ge- 
 neral map. In this veia the lead ore deposits are found near the 
 surface, and, I am informed, seldom effected so low as the Scar 
 Limestone, Possibly more lead has been produced from Calvert 
 vein in the lower beds, than from any other in Mr, FydeU's 
 portion of Priorsdale Manor. 
 
 Li the Stow Crag and Lee House Well mines Sir John's veia 
 has contained both lead and copper ores ; but these are small 
 compared with the quantities of lead ore produced from the 
 Nenthead cross veios. The total quantity of copper ore produced 
 from Sir John's vein in the Stow Crag mine since 1823 amounts 
 to 895^ tons, and of lead ore since 1811, 1766^ tons. From 
 the same vein in the Lee House Well mine 639JJ tons of copper 
 ore have been raised since 1823, and 326^ tons of lead ore. 
 
 The conditions for promoting the percolation and circulation 
 of fluids in this vein, where these deposits occur, are similar to 
 those connected with the deposits of lead ore in the veins in the 
 upper strata, though a much less amount of effect has been pro- 
 duced in the former than in the latter case. The lead ore deposits 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 217 
 
 in Sir John's vein occur in strata situated at a moderate depth 
 from the surface, and where an increased percolation of fluids 
 would he promoted hy numerous intersections. Its direction is 
 nearly at right angles to the dip of the strata, which from this 
 vein rise rapidly to the Great Sulphur vein. And its situation 
 on the side of the mountain is very favom-able to the percola- 
 tion of fluids under the first law. We may therefore conclude, 
 that a principle of circulation of fluids is as essential to the de- 
 position of copper as of lead ore. Indeed, both were found 
 blended together in a manner very similar to that of the lead 
 and zinc ores in the Nenthead veins. Some copper ore was 
 raised from Sir John's vein on the north side of Crossgill Burn, 
 and many years ago a small quantity at Drybm-n. 
 
 It is remarkable that the richest deposit of copper was found 
 in the vein when its walls or cheeks were formed of sandstone 
 containing much crystallized iron pyrites. Are cupriferous 
 veins often found in rocks in the composition of which sulphide 
 of iron enters abundantly ? 
 
 Between Calvert and Eodderup Fell veins the east and west 
 veins have contained scarcely any lead ore. Trials have been 
 made to prove them in locahties, where the conditions for 
 promoting a free percolation and circulation of fluids, are as 
 favourable as those connected with veins in the upper beds, 
 which have contained rich deposits of lead ore ; thus tending to 
 support the hypothesis, that the poor deposits of lead ore in the 
 veins in the lower beds are due to the paucity of metallic parti- 
 cles^or to some unknown lead ore producing substance not enter- 
 ing so abundantly as a component part of the enclosing rocks. 
 
 To the general poverty of the veins in the lower strata 
 Eodderup Fell vein presents a remarkable exception. Large 
 quantities of lead ore have been produced from it since first 
 opened into in 1831. 
 
218 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 This vein is a combination of Craig-Green-Middle and How 
 Hill veiQS, and is wide and well mineralized ; it throws up the 
 north cheek about fifteen feet, a throw nearly equal to that of 
 Kampgill vein in the Nenthead district. 
 
 In its direction westward from Slaggy Bum, the surface of the 
 country is so thickly covered with clay and other alluvium, that 
 the outcropping of the strata cannot be traced, except close to 
 the banks of the Black Burn. The situation of the vein is 
 considerably to the south of the steep banks of this stream, and 
 under such thick deposits of clay, &c., as must have in a great 
 measure prevented the decomposing action of atmospheric agents 
 upon the lead ore it contained near the surface. 
 
 The course of the vein is at a considerable distance from the 
 summit of the hUl, and the elevation of the surface is not very 
 rapid. Its situation, according to the first and second laws, is 
 therefore peculiarly favourable to the percolation of fluids. The 
 direction of the vein makes an angle of about 55° with that of 
 the water-flow over the surface of the country, a circumstance 
 connected with some of the richest veins in the upper beds, and 
 apparently much more favourable to the deposition of lead ore 
 than when the veins traverse the country in a parallel direction. 
 
 The strata in this locality have a very rapid inclination, and 
 the dip must be nearly at right angles to the direction of the 
 Great Sulphur vein ; consequently, on the line of Eodderup 
 Fell vein, the strata rise in a direction from the east to the 
 west. The circulation longitudinally in the open spaces of the 
 vein in hard strata must therefore have been to the east. It 
 will be seen upon the map, that the strata on the south side of 
 Eodderup Fell vein must be much fractured or broken by inter- 
 secting veins and leads. Indeed, the whole of the east and 
 west veins, which traverse Middle FeU and cross the vale of 
 the Kent between Long Cleugh and Gallygill Syke veins inclu- 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 219 
 
 sively, fall into those portions of Rodderup Fell vein contain- 
 ing the richest deposits of lead ore. Nor can there be any 
 doubt, but that the numerous small leads into which these veins 
 are ramified have been channels in which fluids have been col- 
 lected and conveyed to Rodderup Fell vein ; thus placing this 
 vein peculiarly under the influence of the jmirth law. It is re- 
 markable, that such fluids after flowing in the leads in a north, 
 west direction would be forced to flow in a direction opposite, 
 or nearly due east. We have already shown, in the case of 
 some of the cross veins in the upper strata, that an abrupt 
 change from a higher to a lower level appeared favourable to 
 the deposition of lead ore ; in this case an abrupt change in a 
 horizontal direction appears to be no less so. 
 
 Rodderup Fell vein is intersected by two cross veins, both of 
 which throw up the west cheek ; and like the east and west veins 
 in the Nenthead district on the west side of Carrs vein, it has 
 contained very rich deposits of lead ore in the strata elevated 
 by the throws of these cross veins. 
 
 All the conditions favourable to the percolation and circula- 
 tion of fluids are found connected with Rodderup Fell vein, and 
 so combined with each other, that they must have performed 
 their functions in a peculiarly effective manner. We are there- 
 fore justified in concluding, that the laws regulating the percola- 
 tion and circulation of fluids in the wpper beds are also essential 
 to the deposition of lead ore in the lower, but that, on account 
 of the strata forming the lower beds containing either less of 
 metallic particles or of some unknown ore-producing substance, 
 or that entering into the composition of the rock in some less 
 soluble form, it is necessary, in order that equally rich deposits 
 of lead be lodged in the veins in the lower beds, that all the 
 various conditions connected with rich deposits of this metal in 
 the upper strata be combined and intensified in degree. 
 
220 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 Victoria vein has contained a small quantity of lead ore, 
 which as a whole hardly repaid the cost of extraction. It is of 
 less magnitude than Eodderup FeU vein, dislocating the strata 
 only three feet, north cheek up. Veins of Kke magnitude, and 
 connected with conditions very similar, have contained rich de- 
 posits of lead ore in the upper strata ; for instance, Middle Oleugh 
 north veiu. Victoria vein is less connected with the percola- 
 tion of fluids under the fourth law than Eodderup FeU vein, 
 although all the other conditions for promoting the percolation 
 of fluids are nearly the same. It does not seem improbable, 
 therefore, that the deposition of lead ore in such large quantities 
 in the latter vein is due in a great measure to this law. 
 
 A number of east and west veins cross Shield Waters, aU of 
 which have been proved to some considerable extent. The 
 quantities of lead produced from them during the last eighty 
 years and upwards are very small. They appear to be well- 
 mineraHzed veins, containing much quartz. Indeed it is impos- 
 sible for any person interested in such matters, to travel over 
 this district without being struck with the large quantity of 
 quartz veinstones scattered in all directions upon the surface. 
 These may however be the debris of the Great Sulphur veia left 
 during the glacial period. The conditions for promoting the 
 percolation of fluids in this portion of the district are not very 
 favourable, and had the veins traversed the upper strata instead 
 of the lower there are no reasons for supposing they would have 
 contained rich deposits of lead ore. 
 
 Some of the veins on the south-west side of the Great Sul- 
 phur vein contain, or are almost entirely filled with, iron pyrites 
 mixed with sulphuretted ores of copper and antimony. No 
 large quantity of copper ore has been produced from any of 
 them. It may also be observed that iron pyrites is deposited 
 most abundantly when the walls of the vein are formed of the 
 
AND LEAD OEE DEPOSITS. 221 
 
 Copper hazles, or sandstones (as previously pointed out), which 
 contain much crystallized iron pyrites disseminated throughout 
 their mass. 
 
 Near the source of Cashbum, Doukburn vein contained lead 
 ore chiefly in the Three-yards Limestone and strata below to the 
 bottom of the Scar Limestone. This ore deposit scarcely de- 
 scended so low as the Copper hazles ; and it will be seen, upon in- 
 spection of the general map, that it is situated in that portion of 
 the vein connected with conditions most favourable to the per- 
 colation and circulation of fluids. 
 
 K the principle of percolation and circulation of fluids is 
 admitted to be a law of causation essential to the deposition of lead 
 ore, then from the survey of the results of trials made to prove the 
 veins in the " lower beds " where such strata occupy a position near 
 the surface, it is evident that the poor character of the lead deposits 
 in the veias is due to some cause connected with the enclosing 
 rocks ; and whatever that cause may be, it is equally connected 
 with limestone and sandstone strata. The formation of limestone 
 and sandstone strata has been effected under very different con- 
 ditions and with very different materials. Both, however, agree 
 in being oceanic sedimentary deposits, both being non-metallifer- 
 ous in the lower beds, and in the upper beds both are highly me- 
 talliferous : is there not, therefore, some reason for the supposition 
 or hypothesis, that the lead or lead ore producing principle or 
 substance they contain has been held in solution by the waters 
 of the sea, and precipitated at the time when the strata were 
 formed ? Li this case it is necessary to suppose further, that at 
 the time when the " upper beds " were formed the water was 
 more highly charged with this substance and more of it thrown 
 down to enter into their composition. " In Derbyshire, beds of 
 limestone vary in their mineral constitution, some being of a 
 light yellowish dun, or cream colour (hence called Dunfitone)and 
 
222 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 containiag magnesia ; in these strata traces of fossil plants are 
 occasionally found. These magnesian limestones are of granular 
 texture, and extremely hard ; they are said to be very rich in 
 lead and calamine, and have been extensively worked." * Tlie 
 appearance of the different beds of limestones in Alston Moor 
 is very similar ; that their component parts are different may 
 however be suspected, from the fact that when in a state of de- 
 composition they differ in appearance, and some are less liable 
 to be pulverized and borne away by pluvial agency. 
 
 Of late years, the probability of lead ores being plentifully de- 
 posited in the veins in the lower beds directly below the ground 
 in which the same veins have contained very large quantities of 
 ore in the upper beds, has been a subject of much consideration. 
 
 If the deposition of lead ore is dependent upon the laws re- 
 gulating the descent and circulation of fluids, it is evident, that 
 in proportion to their depth is the probability of the veins traver- 
 sing them not containing lead ore ; and had the lower beds been 
 equally metalliferous as the upper, the circumstance of position 
 alone would be sufficient to prevent its deposition : but when 
 their non-metalliferous character is also taken into considera- 
 tion, the probability of finding ore in them, when lying at a 
 great depth below the surface, seems to be hopeless ; except in 
 some rare cases, where the conditions for promoting the neces- 
 sary percolation and circulation of fluids exist. Some trials 
 have been made of the Alston Moor veins, under such conditions ; 
 we shall now show how far the results agree with this conclusion. 
 
 The Coal Cleugh high sun vein has been proved as low as the 
 Eour-fathoms Limestone, in which the richest portion of this 
 
 * ManteU'a ' Medals of Creation,' p. 948. Sir H. De la Beohe, however, observes, 
 that among the limestone beds themselves, some are considered as more favour- 
 able, as walls to the vein, than others, and certain of them in which much carbonate 
 of magnesia occurs, are disliked, and looked upon as somewhat unfavourable. — 
 ' Geological Observer," p. 782. 
 
AND LEAD ORB DEPOSITS. 22S 
 
 vein contains no lead ore of importance. And as Mr. Nevin 
 informed me, the vein was filled with minerals, rarely associated 
 with rich deposits of lead ore. In the Quarry hazle stratum 
 it contained considerable quantities of lead ore. In this case 
 there does not appear to be any improbability in the supposition, 
 that the fluids, which circulated in this stratum, may have 
 derived their lead ore producing substances from the Great 
 Limestone above ; but which were abstracted while circulating 
 in the Quarry hazle, or, a circulation sufficient to effect a 
 separation was prevented by the increased depth. Sir H. De 
 la Beche observes of the veins of Derbyshire that "in cases 
 where a fair proportion of galena has been found in fissures 
 through the toadstones, it has usually happened that the vein 
 traversing the limestones above or beneath, and sometimes 
 both, contained much ore ; it thus appearing as if a super- 
 abundance of the ore found its way amid the toadstone, the effects 
 due to the limestone being sufficiently powerful for the purpose."* 
 
 This vein on the Alston Moor side of the boimdary has not 
 been much worked in the Quarry hazle. Some trials have 
 however been made, and the lead ore deposits in it appear to 
 be poor. It has also been proved in the Four-fathoms Lime- 
 stone, the appearance of the vein and the results were similar 
 to those in the Coal Cleugh district. 
 
 Two patches of lead ore were found deposited in Scaleburn vein 
 in the Quarry hazle, where it is much subjected to the influence 
 of the fourth law, by the intersection of quarter point leads 
 forming a condition favourable to a circulation of fluids to the 
 vein. Above these deposits in the Quarry hazle, in the Great 
 Limestone and strata above to the top of the Pattinson, the vein 
 was filled in each case with very rich deposits of lead ore ; even 
 
 * ' Geological Observer,' p. 782 (note.) 
 
 k2 
 
224 THE CIRCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 from the vein in the plate beds considerable quantities were 
 extracted. As in the case of Coal Cleugh and EampgiU vein, 
 this vein in the Four-fathoms Limestone, immediately below the 
 rich ground, contained no lead ore. 
 
 Contrasting these two or three instances of veins producing 
 lead ore in the Quarry hazle, and none in the Four-fathoms Lime- 
 stone with the Grassfield veins, in which rich deposits occur 
 not only in the Quarry hazle, but also in the Four-fathoms 
 Limestone, it will appear that the conditions in the latter case 
 differ from those in the former, in little, except that they are 
 more favourable to the percolation and circulation of fluids. 
 The Four-fathoms Limestone bassets to the surface, at no great 
 distance, on the north side of the Grassfield veins, and the in- 
 clination of the beds from the veins to this outcropping is very 
 considerable. Where the deposits of lead ore were found in 
 the Grass field veins in the Four-fathoms Limestone — for the 
 ore was not so imiformly deposited in this stratum as in the 
 Great Limestone or even in the Quarry hazle — the veins are 
 very much subjected to the percolation of fluids under the fourth 
 law. The lead ore deposits have not been efiected so low as the 
 Nattras Gill hazle, which in this district is only separated from 
 the Four-fathoms Limestone by a plate bed six feet thick. We 
 have previously observed that Grassfield vein was proved in the 
 Slaty hazle from Nentforoe level, the result being unsuccessful. 
 
 Caple Cleugh and Middle Cleugh veins have produced enor- 
 mous quantities of lead ore, on the west side of Carrs vein, and 
 have only produced it in the Quarry hazle immediately below 
 this rich ground in the upper strata. The quantities, however, 
 raised from them in this stratum are comparatively very trifling, 
 and hitherto, in no instance, has lead ore been found to extend 
 so low as the Four-fathoms Limestone. When the conditions 
 connected with these veins, in this very productive ground in 
 
AND LEAD OEB DEPOSITS. 225 
 
 the upper beds, are contrasted with those connected with the 
 Grrassfield veins, where lead deposits occurred in the Four-fathoms 
 Limestone, they differ only in the simple circumstance, that the 
 latter is more favourable for promoting the percolation and cir- 
 culation of fluids. 
 
 In Caple Cleugh mine an extensive trial has been made of 
 Black Ashgill cross vein in the Four-fathoms Limestone, and 
 directly below iiery rich ore deposits in j^the Great Limestone. 
 Instead of lead ore, the vein contains little else than calc-spar. 
 The conditions connected with this portion of the vein are not 
 unfavourable to the percolation of fluids. The circulation, 
 however, would probably be towards AshgiU Burn, or contrary 
 to the incliaation of the strata ; and it may be owing to this cir- 
 cumstance, in connexion with a greater depth from the surface 
 than the Great Limestone, that the vein is simply filled with car- 
 bonate of lime : the circulation not being sufficiently free to carry 
 this light substancej^to the surface. From the cross veins contain- 
 ing less rider and more douk in the plate beds than the east 
 and west veins, the effect of lead ore producing properties of one 
 stratum upon another is in a great measure prevented. When 
 the east and west veias contain lead ore in the Quarry hazle 
 and Four-fathoms Limestone, it is also often found in the plate 
 beds, perhaps poorer, but still in quantities sufficient to repay the 
 cost of extraction, thus showing a connexion between the richer 
 deposits in the Great Limestone and those below. Had the Four- 
 fathoms Limestone been equally metalliferous as the Great Lime- 
 stone and the sandstones composing the upper beds, it does not 
 seem improbable, but that Black AshgiU cross vein would have 
 contained deposits of lead ore in the ground under consideration. 
 
 Some lead ore has been produced from Guddamgill Burn cross 
 vein in the Quarry hazle. It was found chiefly connected with 
 the limestone post which lies on the top of this sandstone, and 
 
226 THE CIRCULATION OP FLUIDS 
 
 beneath a portion of very rich ground in the Great Limestone. 
 The Quarry hazle, where these deposits occur, is lying at no 
 great depth from the surface. 
 
 Some lead ore has been raised from Brownley Hill High west 
 cross vein ia the Quarry hazle and Four-fathoms Limestone. 
 These ore deposits occur directly below the very rich ground in 
 the Great Limestone ; but are very poor when compared with the 
 latter. 
 
 Blaygill old vein (Fistas Eake) produced much lead ore in the 
 Quarry hazle and Four-fathoms Limestone, in a short length of 
 ground on the west side of Blaygill cross vein. The outcrop- 
 ping of the Four-fathoms Limestone takes place at no great 
 distance westward from the place where these deposits occur ; 
 and the vein is much intersected with quarter point leads. 
 These conditions have evidently promoted the percolation and 
 circulation of fluids, and the latter have perhaps afforded 
 channels for the fluids impregnated with metallic matter derived 
 from the more metalliferous strata above. In this vein, how- 
 ever, the deposition of lead ore has not been effected lower 
 than the Four-fathoms Limestone. About the year 1730 a trial 
 was made to prove it in the Three-yard^ Limestone and Six- 
 fathoms hazle. A. memorandum of this trial still exists, which 
 states, that the " low siUs have not answered expectation, as they 
 were expected to be rich, but they may be yet so." Another 
 trial of this vein in these strata has been made more recently, 
 by means of a level driven from Blaygill Burn ; the result how- 
 ever was quite unsuccessful. In this case, if a superabundance 
 of lead or lead ore producing matter derived from the upper 
 strata percolated so low as the Four-fathoms Limestone, it was 
 effectually prevented from descending lower by the thick plate 
 beds which lie below the latter stratum. 
 
 On the south side of Fistas Eake \ ein, a portion of Blay- 
 
AND LEAD ORE DEPOSITS. 227 
 
 gill cross vein, about forty fathoms in length, contained a rich 
 deposit of lead ore in the Quarry hazle. 
 
 The conditions, for promoting the percolation and circulation 
 of fluids into Browngill sun vein, are somewhat similar to those 
 connected with Pistas Eake vein. By the tlirow of Browngill 
 vein, the Four-fathoms Limestone is placed in an elevated posi- 
 tion, or one in the same plane as the thrown-down cheek of the 
 Great Limestone. Had the throw bf this vein been in an opposite 
 direction, no lead ore could have been deposited in Browngill 
 sun vein so low as the Four-fathoms Limestone. Where the lead 
 ore deposits occur in Browngill sun vein in this stratum, the vein 
 is much subjected to an increased percolation of fluids under the 
 fourth law. The intersecting leads run chiefly in a quarter point 
 direction. Excepting a sump or two into the Nattrass Gill hazle 
 no trial has been made of the strata below. Admitting the 
 laws of percolation and circulation of fluids as essential to the 
 deposition of lead ore, little hope can be entertained that 
 Browngill sun vein will contain ore deposits in the strata below 
 the thick plate bed under the Nattrass Gill hazle. The condi- 
 tions are more favourable for promoting the percolation and cir- 
 culation of fluids to great depths in the district traversed by 
 Fistas Eake vein, in which, as pointed out, no lead ore deposits 
 occur, than in that traversed by Browngill vein. The proba- 
 bility is, that the trial of the latter which is now in progress, 
 will prove a total failure. 
 
 Such are the results of mining in the beds below the Great 
 Limestone in Alston Moor. This series of beds occupies the 
 whole of the area of this mining district, the upper strata being 
 left by denudation reposing upon it in patches. The lower beds 
 are traversed by the same veins under precisely similar conditions 
 for promoting the percolation and circulation of fluids, and, under 
 the^r-st law, often more favourably situated than any that are found 
 
228 
 
 - THE CIBCULATION OF FLUIDS 
 
 connected with the upper ; and if Eoddemp Fell vein is excepted 
 it is perhaps not too much to affirm, that several of the best veins 
 in the upper strata have singly contained more lead ore than the 
 aggregate of the whole produced from the lower strata. And the 
 greater part of this small quantity has been found iq the veins 
 near the surface, showing that its deposition, as depending upon 
 the laws of percolation and circulation of fluids, is more easily 
 prevented by increased depth, than it is in the upper strata, 
 and, as previously shown, in order that lead ore may be deposited 
 in the veins, in such strata, it is necessary that all the conditions 
 of hydrous agency be intensified in degree. 
 
 From this inquiry into the conditions connected with lead ore 
 deposits in veins traversing the lower beds, nothing has arisen 
 to support the theory of sublimation of metallic particles from 
 great depths, and their subsequent cumulation in patches by 
 hydrous agency. The conditions for promoting the percolation 
 and circulation of fluids connected with some portion of the veins 
 traversing the lower beds, are ia a few instances even more 
 favourable than those connected with any of the veins in the 
 upper beds. Yet how very different is the result in each case, 
 notwithstanding the similarity of the circumstances and condi- 
 tions. I am fully aware that phenomena may be related in 
 causation in modes inconceivable to the intellect, no matter how 
 vast may be its stores of knowledge ; for " subtilitas naturm sub- 
 tilitatem sensus et intellectus multis partibus mperat," otherwise, 
 one might have doubted even the possibility of any substance 
 entering into the composition of hard rocks of limestone and 
 sandstone, in such small quantities as to elude the searching in- 
 vestigations of the chemist, and yet vary the intensity of then- 
 attraction for metallic particles, whether suspended in vapour or 
 fluids : " the accumulated evidence from all parts of _the mineral 
 world," however, " proves that the contents of the veins depend on 
 
AND LEAD QRE DEPOSITS. 229 
 
 the peculiar character of the rocks they traverse. Although 
 this is an acknowledged truth amongst geologists and miners, 
 yet the ignorance or neglect of it has led to numerous practical 
 mistakes. It has been supposed that because veins were rich 
 in one place, the continuation of the same veins must be a con- 
 tinuation of the same riches. But if the veins intersect unpro- 
 ductive rocks, the riches come to an end. The pubhc are often 
 deceived by a plausible project which is brought forward on the 
 strength of the ground being near a prosperous mine. Works 
 have been carried on at great expense in unproductive ground 
 without a chance of success, simply because the lode happened 
 to be in the same direction as in a neighbouring rich mine."* 
 The rich mining district of Alston Moor is no exception to this 
 empirical law. Notwithstanding such facts, trials of the veins 
 in unproductive strata are often proposed by persons professing 
 to be miners. When once begun, it is not easy to divine where 
 or when they will end, the extent and cost being limited only 
 by the pecuniary resources of the proprietors of the mines : and 
 thus in the end they prove ruinous to their interests, and, by 
 destroying confidence, extremely prejudicial to mining interests 
 generally. 
 
 By the theory of lead or of some lead ore producing substance 
 entering into the composition of rocks in varied proportions, 
 variations in the amount of lead ore contained in veins under the 
 same conditions are easily accounted for. The decomposition 
 of the limestone and sandstone rocks by fluids circulating in them 
 near the surface, may be effected to as great an extent in the 
 lawer as in the upper strata : but in the latter case, it may be 
 that a less quantity of some unknown substance is set free to 
 enter into those combinations necessary to form lead ore. 
 
 * ' Encyclopaedia Britaunica' (eighth edition), vol. xv., p. 221. 
 
CHAPTEK XL 
 
 OF THE DEPOSITION OF METALLIC OEES IN VEINS TKAVEKSING 
 CLAY SLATE AND GRANITE EOCKS. 
 
 With the phenomena connected with veins in the granite and 
 clay slate rocks I am practically unacquainted, and conse- 
 quently not in a position to prove satisfactorily a connexion 
 between hydrous agency, and the deposition of the different 
 kiuds of metaUic ores, which are found in veins traversing these 
 rocks. In all mining districts, before the subject can be con- 
 templated from this peculiar point of view, it is probable that 
 additional observations must be made, and the whole body of 
 facts colligated and generalized. 
 
 To the uniformity of Nature's laws there can be no exceptions. 
 If the deposition of lead ore in the veins of Alston Moor is due 
 to the percolation and circulation of fluids, it is evident that no 
 land elevated above the sea can be exempt from the action of 
 tliese agents. They must regulate the deposition of the ores of 
 lead, zinc, copper, tin, silver, and perhaps gold, in other loca- 
 lities and in various kinds of rocks. The laws may be modified 
 by conditions, which in some instances produce a greater com- 
 plication of effects than those found connected with the veins 
 of Alston Moor. 
 
CLAY, SLATF., AND GEANITE ROCKS. 231 
 
 In the district we have liad under consideration, the lead ore 
 has been lodged in the veins chiefly since the Glacial epoch. In 
 other districts the laws of hydrous agency may have been in 
 operation during periods long antecedent to the formation of 
 the sedimentary rocks of Alston Moor. In some of the metalli- 
 ferous districts in the south of England the inquiry may be 
 much complicated by the repeated submergence and elevation 
 of the rocks, and the consequent denudation effected during 
 these changes by oceanic agency. 
 
 In this chapter, nothing more will be attempted, than to point 
 out generally the phenomena connected with veins in other 
 mining districts, which appear to be similar to those described 
 in the preceding chapters of this book. 
 
 We have shown that a connexion exists between the decom- 
 posable character of the limestone rocks, and the richness of the 
 lead deposits in the veins, where such kind of rocks forms their 
 walls. The same phenomenon appears to be connected with the 
 veins of Cornwall and Devon. Sir H. De la Beche observes : 
 " By carefuUy comparing the metalliferous localities with each 
 other, where granite and the porphyry, or elvan occur together, 
 we soon see reason to beHeve that there is much iu the struc- 
 ture of these rocks which may have influenced the results ob- 
 served. In Cornwall and Devon the miner prefers a plumb granite 
 or elvan ; in other words, granites or elvans which are in a greater 
 or less state of decomposition, and are consequently porous. The 
 china-clay districts of St. Austell are the most marked examples 
 of decomposed granite, and the plumb elvans occur in so many 
 places, and are so spread, that they cannot be said to be confined 
 to any particular district. In some cases the elvans are sufficiently 
 soft to be worked for cracible clay, and in others the felspathic 
 matter has been so removed as to give the elvan the appearance 
 of a coarse sandy rook. 
 
232 METALLIC DEPOSITS IN 
 
 " These decomposable granites and elvans seem to contain, 
 or rather to have been once partly formed of, potash felspars. 
 The extent to which some granites are decomposed in the 
 depths has often been observed, and the fact that hard granite 
 is often intermingled with the soft is also well known. Indeed, 
 decomposed granite seems to have been found at all depths in 
 the mines of Cornwall."* Sir H. De la Beche endeavours to ac- 
 count for the decomposition by the action of the water under 
 pressure and a high degree of temperature. It should be re- 
 membered, however, that similar effects have been produced 
 upon the rocks of Alston Moor by water, perhaps under consi- 
 derable pressure, but certainly not in a high degree of tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 The same author states, in another work, that at Penstruthal 
 copper mine the lode had been tried unsuccessfully at various 
 times in parts where the granite was hard ; but trial being made 
 where that rock was soft, it became one of the most profitable 
 mines in Cornwall.t And in another part of the same work it 
 is observed that the granite at St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall, 
 is traversed by joints which are well exposed by the insular 
 position of the Mount, and from the united action of the sea 
 and atmosphere, give the granite the false appearance of being 
 regularly divided into vertical beds, ranging about E 10° N and 
 W 10° S. A change in the structure of the granite is clearly per- 
 ceptible towards the joints, and in them are found quartz, mica, 
 topaz, apatite (phosphate of lime), peroxide of tm, wolfram 
 (tungstate of iron), tin pyrites (sulphide of tin and copper), 
 schorl, and occasionaUy other mmerals. What resemblance 
 the joints in the granite may bear to those in the Mountain 
 
 * 'Geological Eeport of Ooruwall and Deyon," p. 386. j 
 t ' Geological Observer,' p. 781 ; ibid., p. 786. 
 
CLAY, SLATE, AND GEANITE ROCKS. 
 
 233 
 
 Limestone I am unable to determine. Certainly, no metallic 
 matter was ever found deposited in the joints, traversing the 
 rocks of Alston Moor. Such substances are only found in 
 veins or what originally were fissures, formed by the unequal 
 elevation of the strata. We have already shown that the 
 formation of joiats is due to a different cause. 
 
 " The long-celebrated Carclase tin mine, near St. Austell, 
 Cornwall, also shows joints filled with mineral matter, in- 
 cluding peroxide of tin. Many of these have been worked 
 profitably, the granite in which tJiey occur heing soft from de- 
 composition. The granite being also white, these joint veins, 
 composed of black schorl and peroxide of tin, mingled with 
 quartz, have a marked appearance, as represented in the 
 annexed sketch. 
 
 A large portion of these Hnes wiU be found dipping beneath the 
 adjoining slates, as is usual with joint lines bounding the masses of 
 Devonian and Cornish granite, and they are crossed by other 
 joint lines, also in the usual manner. A large proportion of the 
 granite country on the north of St. Austell, particularly in the 
 vicinity of Hensborough, exhibits similar strings in which schorl 
 and peroxide of tin are intermixed, and so agree with lines, 
 
234 
 
 METALLIC DEPOSITS IN 
 
 representing joints, that they appear little else also than 
 the filliag of spaces among such divisional planes by mine- 
 ral substances finally much harder than the granite amid 
 which they were deposited, the latter having became to a consi- 
 derable extent decomposed. And it is added in a foot-note : " The 
 works upon these small joint veins, and upon the fissure veins 
 also traversiag the country, the channels it may have been 
 through which part, at least, of the contents of the former have 
 been derived, are very extensive in that part of Cornwall, the 
 tin ore having been of excellent quality, and the granite of the 
 district being easily worked, from its state of decomposition."* 
 So far as I understand this last sentence. Sir Henry has 
 supposed the contents of the joints in the granite to have 
 been derived from the fissure veins. With all deference to 
 such an authority, I cannot help concluding that it was derived 
 from the granite at the time of its decomposition, the conditions 
 being favourable in the locality for calling into action some 
 unknown chemical laws of combination of the substances set 
 free, and of a kind necessary to produce tin ore. The corre- 
 spondence between the more decomposable parts of the Great 
 Limestone in Alston Moor and the decomposable granite in this 
 instance, in being associated in the former case with pure and 
 rich deposits of lead ore, and in the latter with tin ore of ex- 
 cellent quality, is certainly very striking. 
 
 Under present conditions it is evidently impossible for lead 
 ore to be deposited in. the joints traversing the rocks of Alston 
 Moor. Indeed, wherever the strata are much broken with 
 joints the sulphide of lead in the veins is always more or less 
 converted into a carbonate, or otherwise decomposed. The 
 
 ' Geological Observer,' p. 787. 
 
CLAY, SLATE, AND GRANITE BOOKS. 235 
 
 question arises whether, at the time of the deposition of the tin 
 ore, the conditions for promoting the descent of fluids into the 
 granite joints were not different from what they are at present. 
 The joints in the granite may have been in existence before the 
 formation of clay slate, — a supposition deriving some support 
 from the fact of the joints dipping beneath these sedimentary 
 rocks. If the joints, now found to contain tin ore, were formerly 
 covered up with clay slate (since removed by denudation), I see 
 no reason why they may not have formed open spaces, into which 
 fluids percolated through the clay slate, to circulate under con- 
 ditions similar to those found connected with the productive 
 portions of the veins of Alston Moor. K, in the course of future 
 geological changes, the district of Alston Moor should be sub- 
 merged, and other rocks formed upon it ; and if these newly 
 formed rocks were elevated and denuded in such a manner as 
 to promote the percolation and circulation of fluids into the 
 joints now in existence, it is probable that the sides of the joints 
 would undergo decomposition and change ; and also that 
 metallic ores would be deposited in their open spaces, as 
 has been effected in the joints of the granite of St. Michael's 
 Mount. 
 
 There is another circumstance connected with metal- 
 liferous deposits in various parts of the world, which is not 
 at aU connected with the lead ore deposits of Alston Moor ; 
 I mean the association of dissimilar rocks, one or more of 
 them being of igneous origin. "In Scandinavia the crys- 
 talline schists are very rich in metallic ores and other 
 minerals, especially near the intrusive igneous masses, as silver 
 at Kongsberg, cobalt at Modum, copper at Fahlun, Tunaberg, 
 Eoras, and Alten; iron chiefly magnetic at Arendale, Utoe, 
 Dannemora and Sala ; and in these mines, and also in Finland, 
 
236 
 
 METALLIC DEPOSITS IN 
 
 are contained many rare and beautiful minerals."* Humboldt 
 evidently attaches considerable importance to the presence of 
 dissimilar rocks, for he associates the absence of metals from the 
 eastern portion of the American continent with the non-exist- 
 ence of pre-emitting openings, trachytic masses, and perhaps no 
 basalt containing ohvinct 
 
 It may be observed that gold is found chiefly in the older 
 Palaeozoic rocks, sometimes diffused through the body of such 
 rocks as well as in the intrusive masses of igneous origin. More 
 frequently gold is found in quartzose veinstones that traverse 
 slates more or less metamorphosed. Generally the richest 
 localities for this metal are near the junction of such slates 
 with the igneous rock. Sir R. Murchison supposes that the gold 
 which occurs in quartz veins in the solid slate rocks resulted 
 from an interior agency, in which heat and electricity were com- 
 bined with water or vapour. He also supposes that the preva- 
 lent matrix of quartz, whether ejected from beneath, or poured 
 in from above, was in a soft and gelatinous state when it filled 
 the cavities, resembling the silicious " sinter " which now rises in 
 a fluid spout from Hecla, and falling coagulates into a modern 
 quartz rock around the volcanic orifice. He seems to think, 
 however, that other causes may have modified the effects of heat 
 and electricity. The paragraphs in which this admission is made 
 seem to me so impoiiant that I shall transcribe them entire. 
 
 " In viewing the widely attested fact of the dispersion of 
 auriferous debris derived from the surface of certain rocks during 
 some of their last great denudations, we are naturally led to 
 fayour the suggestion of Humboldt, that the formation of gold 
 had some closer relation to or dependence upon the atmosphere than 
 
 * Johnstone's ' Physical Atlas.' f 'Aspects of Natui-e,' p. 360. 
 
CLAY, SLATE, AND GRANITE ROCKS. 237 
 
 that of the baser metals, lead, copper, and iron. An eminent metal- 
 lurgist, Dr. Percy, who has detected minute quantities of gold 
 in almost all lead ores, is, indeed, disposed to believe, that it may 
 have been thrown down by deposition from an aqueous medium. 
 
 " Whatever may be the correct hypothesis as to the original 
 mode of formation, the fact is undeniable, that wherever the 
 veinstones in the solid rock have not been ground down by 
 former, powerful denudation, but remain as partial testimonials 
 of the origin of gold, the portions which have as yet proved to he 
 the richest are those which are at or near the surface. Experience 
 too, dearly bought in numberless instances, has taught the miner, 
 throughout long ages, that in his efforts to follow the veinstones 
 downwards by deep shafts into the body of the rock, he has either 
 found the gold diminish in volume, or so difficult to obtain that 
 the cost of extraction has usually been greater than, the value 
 of the metal."* 
 
 We have, I trust, demonstrated the dependence of lead and 
 copper ore deposits upon atmospheric agents. It appears, from 
 the observations of these eminent men, that the formation of 
 gold is equally if not more dependent upon this agency, and 
 that the richest veinstones containing gold, as in those contain- 
 ing lead, copper, zinc, &c. (where no decomposition of these has 
 taken place) are found near the surface. 
 
 It would appear, however, that the presence of dissimilar 
 rocks may be a condition favourable" to the deposition of the 
 precious metals without being absolutely necessary ; for the cele- 
 brated silver mines of Potosi are situated in an insulated moun- 
 tain which rises to an immense height, in the form of a sugar 
 loaf, and about six miles in diameter. The mountain is com- 
 posed of a yellowish, firm, argillaceous clay, and is traversed in 
 
 * ' Siluria,' pp. 447, 448. 
 
238 
 
 METALLIC DEPOSITS IN 
 
 all directions by numerous veins which are filled with ferru- 
 ginous quartz forming the mati-ix of the silver ores. These 
 consist of native silver and vitreous silver ore, the latter having 
 yielded on the first discovery of the mine about half its weight 
 of pm-e silver. The veifis are extremely rich near the surface, hut 
 become poorer as they descend, and in the deepest part are scarcely 
 one-eighth part so rich as at the top. All the richer veins have been 
 wrought out and exhausted* From such facts, it is evident that 
 the formation of the ores of silver, as well as these of the baser 
 metals, is dependent upon atmospheric agency, and that the 
 presence of dissimilar rocks is not absolutely necessary. 
 
 That the presence of dissimilar rocks may have formed the 
 essential condition to the deposition or formation of metallic 
 ores in some localities must, however, be admitted. At the 
 time of the formation of the elvans, &c., the rocks would be 
 fractured in various directions, and these fractures would be fa- 
 vourable to the percolation of fluids. Besides, the temperature 
 of the rocks, which form the sides or mould, would be much 
 lower than the intruding molten mass ; consequently, the cooling 
 down of the latter would leave open spaces into which fluids 
 would percolate to circulate in the intersecting veins. As soon 
 as fluids penetrated these openings, the decomposition of both 
 kinds of rock would be effected, and various metallic ores thrown 
 down from the solution. In some instances, the metallic par- 
 ticles or the ore-producing substance might be entirely derived 
 from the intrusive or igneous rock, and this hypothesis derives 
 some support from an instance, adduced by Sir H. De la Bfeche 
 as an illustration of the accumulation of either tin or copper 
 ores, when a fissure traversing schistose and porphyritic dykes 
 (elvans) passes through the latter. " The following is a cross 
 
 ' Lonilon Quarterly Review,' Oct. 1857. 
 
CLAY, SLATE, AND GRANITE HOCKS. 
 
 239 
 
 section of the lode at Wheal Alfred, Gwinear. The elvan dyke, 
 ab, is about 300ft. in mdth, having a direction about N.E. and 
 S. W., and dipping at about an angle 
 of 45° northerly. The lode c d dip- 
 ping at an angle of 72° to the north, 
 traverses the elvan, a b, obliquely in 
 its descent at ef. While the fissure 
 traversed the upper and adjoining 
 slate, on the north, no great amount 
 of ore was obtained, but upon enter- 
 ing the elvan it became more rich, 
 and while passing through that rock the ore was found to be 
 so abundant as to afford a considerable profit (140,000Z.). After 
 quitting the elvan at /in its descent, and entering the slate 
 beneath, on the south, the lode became poor, and eventually the 
 mine was abandoned from the scarcity of ore, the amount of it 
 in the depths not repaying the costs of raising."* In this in- 
 stance, but for the condition connected with the formation of 
 the elvan the lode would probably have contained no metallic 
 substance of the least value. ■[• 
 
 It appears, that in mining districts in metalliferous rocks differ- 
 ent in character from the Mountain Limestone, no matter ia what 
 part of the world they may be situated, when two veins com- 
 bine or intersect at acute angles, very rich deposits of metallic 
 substances not unfrequently occur. We have endeavoured to 
 account for this phenomenon on the principle of an increased 
 quantity of metallic particles or some ore-producing substances 
 
 * ' Greological Observer,' p. 777. 
 
 t This mine has been again worked with an expenditure of 171,330Z., " without 
 any one connected with the undertaking hamjig received one farthing benefit."— See 
 Eeport of meetiAg, at which it was resolved to abandon the mine, in the 'Mining 
 Journal,' August 24tli, 1861. 
 
 s2 
 
240 METALLIC DEPOSITS IN 
 
 being chemically combined- and thrown down at the point 
 where two metalliferous streams (if we may use the term) com- 
 bine. We have shown, however, that a circulation must be 
 effected, or no metallic ore will be deposited even at the point 
 of such intersections. If due to chemical combinations it seems 
 probable that the disturbance of the particles held in solution, 
 by the meeting of the two streams, may have occasioned a more 
 energetic action of the chemical laws of combination necessary 
 to the formation of metallic substances ; for it may be observed, 
 that when the vein is divided into two or more portions, by the 
 isolation of large masses of rock similar to that which may 
 compose the sides of the vein, it not unfrequently happens that 
 rich deposits occuj at one or both ends of the isolated mass. 
 
 In some mining districts various kinds of metallic ores are 
 found plentifully iq veins at a great depth below the sea-level. 
 It is stated in the last edition of the ' Encyclopsedia Britan- 
 nica,' on the authority of R. W. Fox, Esq., that Tresavean 
 mine has gradually attained to the extraordinary depth of 2112 
 feet below the surface, or about 1700 feet below the level of 
 the sea.* The Consolidated Mines and several others in Corn- 
 wall have also attained a very great depth below the sea level. 
 Professor Phillips observes that there appears to be no limit 
 either to height above or depth below the sea which defines the 
 productiveness of veins, though in some countries the higher 
 and in others the lower situations are most favourable.t In- 
 stances of. metallic substances being found at great depths 
 below the sea level militate against the law of causation ad- 
 vocated in the preceding chapters. Certainly a free circulation 
 cannot be effected under conditions of this kind. Sir C. Lyell 
 supposes a twofold circulation of terrestrial waters, — one caused 
 
 Vol. XV., p. 223. + ' Manual of Geology,' p. 541. 
 
CLAY, SLATE, AND QEANITE EOCKS. 241 
 
 by solar heat, and the other by heat generated in the interior of 
 the earth.* It is to the former that the metallic deposits in the 
 veins of Alston Moor are connected in causation. If the cir- 
 culation from the interior of our planet could reaUy be proved 
 to exist, it might be inquired whether or not it may have affected 
 the deposition of metallic substances in other districts and in 
 rocks of more uniform hardness. 
 
 As before observed, the hypothesis of the water's ascending 
 from the interior of our planet appears unphilosophical, and 
 except in the case of volcanic agency has not been satisfactorily 
 proved. 
 
 Tlie fact of the ores of various metals being found below the 
 sea level, is best explained by the hypothesis of the land at some 
 former period being raised to a position above the sea sufSeiently 
 high to allow of a free circulation to the required depths. In 
 this case, the depths of the metallic deposits become a measure 
 of the height to which the land was elevated above the sea. 
 The period when such deposits were effected in the veias of Corn- 
 wall, in relation to the formation of the different groups of sedi- 
 mentary rocks, may be determinable from facts of a different 
 character. Into this subject it is not my intention to enter, 
 for had I the ability certainly I have not the opportimity of 
 prosecuting the inquiry to a satisfactory result. I will only 
 observe, that on the southern coasts of England, the fact of a 
 change of the relative level of land and water is acknowledged 
 by those who have investigated the subject, to have taken place 
 during very recent geological epochs. It also seems probable, 
 that since the deposition of metallic substances in the veins of 
 Cornwall, the land must have been submerged to a greater ex- 
 tent than at the present time. 
 
 * ' Principles of Geology,' p. 238 (ninth edition). 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS. 
 
 From the inquiry respecting the lead-ore deposits in the veins 
 of Alston Moor, now brought to a close, it would appear that 
 either lead in connexion with some basifying principle must 
 enter, in varying proportions, as a component part of the rocks 
 of this district, or some still more elementary substances fi-om 
 which it is formed by laws of chemical combination as yet 
 unknown. 
 
 I am not aware that the limestones and sandstones of Alston 
 Moor have ever been subjected to careful chemical investiga- 
 ,tion. If from their analyses it is proved that lead is diffused 
 throughout their whole mass, then the inquiry would be much 
 simplified, and chemists would be able to demonstrate the 
 changes which must be effected in order that sulphide of lead 
 may be deposited in the veins by the agency of circulating 
 waters. 
 
 Should the most searching investigations fail to discover lead 
 in the rocks, in this case I should feel inclined to adopt the other 
 hypothesis, that this metal is formed from still more elementary 
 substances as yet unknown in a separate state, but set free by 
 the decomposition of the rocks, and held in solution by the 
 circulating waters. As yet chemists have not been able to 
 analyze pure metallic substances into simpler elements, but we 
 
CONCLUDING HEMAKKS. 243 
 
 are assured- in the history of chemistry and by the opinion of 
 some of the best thinkers and experimentalists, that their sup- 
 posed elementary character is " a mere passing idea."* Should 
 this hypothesis be correct, then the comparative non-productive 
 character of the veins in the lower beds would be due to the 
 smaU quantity of these substances entering into the composition 
 of both limestone and sandstone rocks. 
 
 What these unknown substances may be is certainly not my 
 province to inquire ; I may observe, however, that after Sir H. 
 Davy had formed the amalgam from ammonia and mercury, he 
 was led to regard the former as a kind of type of the composi- 
 tion of the metals. He also observes, that by supposing them, 
 and the inflammable bodies different combinations of hydrogen 
 and another principle as yet unknown in a separate form, aU the 
 phenomena may be easily accounted for, and will be found in 
 harmony with the theory of definite proportions.f 
 
 According to the veiy careful analysis of the waters of the 
 English Channel by Schweider, they were found to contain a 
 distinct trace of ammonia. This alkali is also found in many 
 rocks forming the earth's crust. A perceptible quantity of it 
 combined with acids is found in mineral springs. Water falling 
 from the atmosphere upon decaying vegetation, &c., must take 
 up a portion of it in solution, and in this way it may be carried 
 to great depths below the earth's surface by the percolating 
 waters. Should Davy's conjecture respecting ammonia forming 
 a definite part of what are now considered as simple substances 
 be verified, it would strengthen the analogy which already to 
 some extent exists, between the production of at least some 
 kinds of vegetable matter and crystallized mineral substances. 
 
 * Oersted's 'Soul in Nuhirp,' p, 88. 
 t Works, vol. iv., p. S!>9. 
 
^^'l CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 Should the former hypothesis be the correct one, then it is 
 probable that lead will be, found in sea-water, and the highly 
 metalliferous character of the upper beds would be due to its 
 precipitation in greater abundance at the time of the deposition 
 of the upper part of the Mountain Limestone. 
 
 Eecently the presence of silver and copper has been detected 
 in sea-water by Malagute, Field, and Piesse. It is calculated 
 that in the course of six years the copper sheathing of the 
 vessels of England, France, and America acquires from the sea 
 nine tons of silver. Probably the motion of the vessel in the 
 sea-water is a condition accelerating the combination of copper 
 and chlorine ; hence a greater quantity of the metal silver must 
 be deposited than if the vessel remained stationary in still 
 water. The conditions of motion and decomposition are similar 
 to what takes place in veins where the metal lead is deposited ; 
 for even on the supposition (which I conceive to be improbable) 
 that neither lead nor the elements of lead are contained ia the 
 rocks of Alston Moor ; so different are their metalliferous cha- 
 racter that it is evident, from their decomposition by corroding 
 fluids circulating in them, some substances are set fi'ee in vary- 
 ing proportions, which promote chemical changes ending in the 
 deposition of sulphide of lead. 
 
 It is very desirable that careful chemical analyses of the dif- 
 ferent parts or beds of the Great Limestone be made, in order to 
 find out what occasions a greater susceptibility of decomposition 
 in those portions or layers in which flats occur. It seems very 
 probable, that a greater proportion of some substance may be 
 found in the more metalliferous layers than in those which are 
 less so. The limestones forming part of the lower beds should 
 also be subjected to analyses, and the results compared with 
 those of the Great Limestone. The sandstones possess a varied 
 degree of metalliferous properties ; the limestones, ' however. 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 245 
 
 being cliemically formed rocks, I think the results of their 
 analyses could be more depended on. 
 
 It is also desirable that the limestone in flats, which is meta- 
 morphosed, but which remains in situ, should' be analyzed, and 
 the result compared with that of the same layers which have 
 not been affected by decomposing and other chemical agencies. 
 Limestone of this kind is much harder than pure limestone ; 
 its analysis would show what it has lost, and what substituted. 
 It is upon limestone of this kind, which has evidently been at 
 one time in a softened or semi-plastic state, that the lead ore 
 found in flats is deposited. 
 
 On the supposition that these analyses fail to detect lead in 
 the rocks, it can scarcely be expected that they will throw 
 additional light upon the composition of pure metallic sub- 
 stances. Dr. Whewell observes : "As to the possibility of a 
 further analysis of our supposed simple bodies as compose a 
 well characterized class, no such step can be made, except 
 through some great change in chemical theory, which gives us 
 a new view of all the general relations which chemistry has 
 yet discovered. The proper evidence of the reality of any sup- 
 posed new analysis is, that it is more consistent with the known 
 analogies of chemistry, to suppose the process analytical than 
 synthetical."* In the analysis of metalliferous rocks, should any 
 substance be discovered, which is not so abundantly disseminated 
 in those which are less so, it might ultimately prove a step 
 leading to the great change in chemical theory that Dr. Whe- 
 well supposes must take place when the simple bodies are re- 
 solved into others of a more elementary character. 
 
 In connexion with this subject we may be permitted to 
 observe, that except under some peculiar conditions it seems 
 
 * ' His. luduclivci Sc' vol. iii., p. 15S 
 
246 CONCLUDING REMAEKS. 
 
 probable that sulpbide of lead is not deposited very near the 
 surface, though by the degradation of the latter by pluvial 
 agency, &c., the former is sometimes found in the veins at no 
 great depths ; but in such cases, as might be expected, it is gene- 
 rally found more or less changed into a carbonate. From this it 
 would appear, that when sulphide of lead is deposited in veins, the 
 circulating water contains less oxygen than that which falls from 
 the atmosphere, and a considerably increased quantity of car- 
 bonic acid in solution. 
 
 I see no reason why ores of lead aad zinc may not at the 
 present time be in the course of deposition, wherever the 
 conditions are favourable. It is certain, that not only portions 
 of the enclosing rocks, but also many minerals, are now in the 
 course of being removed from the veins by the waters circula- 
 ting in them. The deposition of metallic substances may take 
 place very slowly, even under the most favourable circumstances. 
 From facts connected with the extremities of some rich lead 
 ore deposits, one might be led to infer that galena is deposited 
 in small crystals, called by the Alston Moor miners, " buttons of 
 ore." These crystals dot the sides of caverns ; and it is pro- 
 bable that, but for the interference of mining works, all the 
 open space might be ultimately filled by a continued increase in 
 the size of the crystals, and the formation of new ones. In some 
 instances, lead and zinc ores may directly fill up the vacancy 
 formed by the decomposition and removal of other mineral sub- 
 stances by the circulating waters, thus forming that intimate 
 mixture of ore and earthy matter which is termed by the 
 Alston Moor miners " brangled rider." 
 
 If the deposition of lead ore is due to a circulation of mineral 
 waters, it is evident, that the veins in the upper part of the 
 mountains would be first subjected to this law, and conse- 
 quently, it would be in such positions that the first deposits 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 247 
 
 would be effected. These would gradually be extended to 
 deeper parts of the vein as the land emerged from beneath the 
 sea ; their comparative richness depending upon the metalli- 
 ferous character of the strata, and other conditions connected 
 with the percolation and circulation of fluids. It seems pro- 
 bable, that, in many localities, particularly in the Great Lime- 
 stone in elevated positions, the earlier lead ore deposits have 
 since been removed by atmospheric agency. 
 
 The lead ore deposits in flats in the Tyne bottom Limestone 
 scarcely ever extend beyond the outcropping of the Scar 
 Limestone ; the thickness of rocks intervening between these 
 two limestones being sufHcient to prevent the deposition of lead 
 ore in the former. In Ashgill Field lead mine, a large quantity 
 of lead ore was found in the flats in the Scar Limestone ; but 
 directly below, the flats in the Tyne bottom Limestone contained 
 no lead ore of any value, although, near the veins, the flat posts 
 of this limestone were rendered extremely flinty and hard, and 
 the open spaces contained various kinds of vein minerals, 
 chiefly, however, pure lime and quartz. 
 
 In the Tyne bottom mines, there is reason to suppose, that the 
 lead ore has been deposited in the flats at a comparatively recent 
 period, and one long posterior to the glacial epoch ; for, it is 
 very probable, that a great thickness of rocks, lying above this 
 limestone has been eroded and carried away by the Tyne 
 river since that time ; and until this was effected to some con- 
 siderable extent, it does not appear that much lead ore could 
 be deposited in the flats. 
 
 After a careful perusal of the preceding pages it will be un- 
 necessary to inform those interested in mining speculations in 
 Alston Moor that the productive character of the veins, as 
 denoted upon the map, relates to the discoveries already made. 
 It has not been my object to give opinions, or draw conclusions 
 
^^8 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS. 
 
 from the laws unfolded in this work, respecting the discovery of 
 new lead ore deposits. This, however, has unavoidably been 
 done to some considerable extent. More careful investigations 
 than I could possibly make may ultimately lead to some modi- 
 fication of those conclusions, especially in the beds above the 
 Great Limestone. In this stratum generally very considerable 
 portions of the best veins are proved in the amolybdic grounds. 
 But wherever new lead ore deposits may be found, I feel con- 
 fident they wiU be connected with conditions promotive of a free 
 hydrous agency. 
 
 It was my intention to add a third book, on the history of 
 mining in Alston Moor, embodying a critical application of the 
 principles laid down in the preceding pages. For this purpose 
 I had collected numerous working plans of mines, and much 
 information bearing on the subject. Prudential considerations 
 have however prevented me from carrying this into effect. 
 Mining works are of themselves a record indelibly impressed 
 upon the rocks with a pen of iron ; and it is only by the study 
 of these that we can make the experience of the past our own, 
 and this more especially when connected with principles of 
 causation relating to the distribution of metallic ores in veins. 
 
 All that now remains is simply to request of the earnest 
 students of Nature, and more especially those of them upon 
 whom devolves the serious responsibility of searching out objects 
 for trial, and also of planning mining works for the attaining of 
 those objects, — 
 
 " Si quid novisti reotiuB istia 
 Oandidus imperti ; si non, his utere mecum." 
 
GLOSSAEY OF A PEW LOCAL TEEMS. 
 
 Douh or DoM^e.— Probably derived from the Saxon deagan, to knead or 
 mix with water. It is a soft substance, often found in veins, especially in the 
 strong cross veins, and chiefly where their walls or sides are formed of shale. 
 It is evidently pounded or decomposed shale, though not unfrequently almost 
 as compact as the rock from which it is derived, but differs from the latter in 
 exhibiting no traces of bedding. Exposed to the atmosphere it rapidly decom- 
 poses into a blue kind of clay, 
 
 Famp. — Is a siliceous bed, composed of very fine particles. It possesses 
 little cohesion, and when exposed to the action of the' atmosphere it crumbles 
 into a sandy kind of clay. Beds of famp often separate the hard posts of 
 sandstone ; they also contain more mica than the sandstone rocks among 
 which they are interspersed. 
 
 Flats- — Are the decomposed parts of limestone strata, and often contain de- 
 posits of lead ore and other minerals, all of which are spread out horizontally. 
 The following is the definition of a Flat or Flot, as given by WiUiam Hooson, 
 a Derbyshire miner in 1747 : — "It is neither Vein, Pipe, Rake, nor Serin" 
 (the least or smallest kind of vein), " but a place that hath both Length, 
 Breadth, and Thickness, but all ujicertain, till we are very well acquainted 
 with them ; some of these Flots carry good ore where never Vein was yet 
 Discovered, tho' such are very rare ; the other most commonly lies on the 
 Top of the Lime, and are in some Places very Good ; these tye to the Vein 
 and run a great way with it ; the Dip of the Plot Discovers the Side that the 
 vein lies on, which proves mostly the Hading Side of the Vein ; and 'tis ob- 
 serv'd by the Old Miners, that the Flat always lies on that side of the Vein 
 which Paces the Water : this answers in Wales, where the mountains lie Bor- 
 dering near the Sea for the most Part ; and it holds good in all inland Coun- 
 tries that do afford Veins, with respect to the Rivers." 
 
 Orey Beds. — A stratum formed of a mixture of shale and sand. They 
 often possess a considerable amount of cohesion, and decompose less rapidly in 
 the open air than famp. 
 
 Girdle Beds. — Generally very thin beds of a hard and compact kind of 
 Sandstone, which are separated from each other by thin beds of shale. 
 
 Hdzle. — Probably a Saxon word, which, when used as a mining term, de,- 
 notes a sandstone that is mined with much difSculty. 
 
250 GLOSSARY OP A FEW LOCAL TERMS. 
 
 Leads.— Yexy small fractures in the rock, often of no greater width than a 
 bootlace. Leads are often, though not invariably, connected with veins; and 
 in the limestone strata they are frequently connected with flats. Where the 
 fractures in the rocks are sufficiently wide to contain deposits of lead ore that 
 will repay the cost of mining, and are situated near a vein bearing in a some- 
 what parallel direction, they are called strings. 
 
 Opening Drifts. — Are horizontal openings or adits made in veins. They 
 commence either at a Shaft or Rise, and do not communicate directly with 
 the surface. 
 
 Plate. — Synonymous with sbale. It is of varied degrees of compactness, 
 and when exposed to the atmosphere it splits up into small thin plates. 
 Hence its designation in Alston Moor. 
 
 Post. — The limestone strata are divided horizontally by very thin beds of 
 shale. These are termed posts. Some of these posts are well known, and 
 have their appropriate names ; such as the High, Middle, and Low flat posts 
 of the Great Limestone, the Limestone post of the Quarry Hazle. Sandstone 
 strata are also divided into horizontal layers by thin beds of shale or famp. 
 
 Eise. — An opening made in the rocks perpendicularly or nearly so is called 
 a Rise. Rises are generally made in the veins, and hade accordingly. "When 
 the workmen are employed in making these vertical openings they are said to 
 be rising. 
 
 Sill. — Denotes a stratum of any kind of sandstone rook ; it is rarely applied 
 to limestones. This word is probably derived from the Saxon Syl, a threshold 
 or any flat substance placed in a horizontal position. 
 
 Sun. — Synonymous with South. In Alston Moor veins are generally de- 
 signated by the names of the localities where they are first discovered. When 
 other veins are found near the same place they are often called Sun-veins, — 
 First Sun vein, Second Sun vein, &c.,— or North Veins, — First North vein. 
 Second North Vein, &o., — as the case may be. Or if the vein first discovered 
 traverses the country in a north and south direction, then the parallel veins 
 are called East cross veins, or West cross veins. 
 
 Sump. — A sump difl:er3 in no respect from a shaft, except in being com- 
 menced from a level or opening drift. Workmen employed in making Sumps 
 or Shafts are said to be sinking. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 This Index refers to names of places, &c., for which space could not he 
 found upon the map. 
 
 The map is divided by fine lines into square-mile divisions. The large 
 Arabic numerals and letters of the Alphabet correspond to those upon the 
 border of the map. The small Arabic numerals refer to the jjarticular places 
 in the corresponding square-mile divisions upon the map. 
 
 1 G 1 Bassetting of the Great Limestone. 
 
 1 H 1 An old Hush. 
 
 2 A cross vein found near the Great Sulphur vein, and which bears 
 
 in this direction. 
 
 3 Supposed continuation of Allenhills old vein, but more probably 
 
 a vein which crosses the Tyne river a little above the Smelt 
 Mill, as shown upon the map. 
 
 4 East portion of Sir John's vein. 
 Ill Metal Band Sun vein. 
 
 2 Do. vein 
 
 3 Supposed Tees-side Sun vein. 
 
 4 Great Vein or Eough Hill vein. 
 
 5 Supposed continuation of Hardshins vein. 
 
 2 1 Hiudmarsh's vein. 
 
 2 Hazley Hill vein. 
 
 3 Bell's vein. 
 
 4 Middle Grove vein. 
 
 5 Vein. 
 
 6 Old Moss vein. 
 
 7 Tweed vein. 
 
 8 Longholehead vein. 
 9^ Trent vein. 
 
 2 H l' Clargill head vein. 
 
 2 Sir John's vein. 
 
 3 Baxter's vein. 
 
 4 Supposed continuation of Tyne-bogs and Pedder Syke vein. 
 
 5 John's Burn head veins. 
 
 6 Hush made by the London Lead Company in 1761. 
 
 7 Clargill Burn. 
 
252 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 2 H 8 Darngill Burn. 
 
 2 J 1 Dowgreen or Powder-house vein. 
 
 2 Mark Groves vein. 
 
 3 1 Level Grove vein. 
 
 2 T. Gibson's vein. 
 
 3 Silver sides vein. 
 
 4 Henrake vein. 
 
 5 Vein. 
 
 6 Bum Grove vein. 
 
 7 Kilhope vein. 
 
 8 Whitfield's vein. 
 
 9 Vein (weak). 
 
 10 Vein (weak) 
 
 11 Longhole head vein. 
 
 12 Cross vein. 
 
 13 Do. 
 
 14 Do. 
 
 15 Do. 
 
 3 D 1 Eampgill and Scaleburn cross vein. 
 
 2 Patterdale vein. 
 
 3 East part of Handsome Mea great cross vein. 
 
 4 West part of do. do. 
 
 5 Weak quarter point vein. 
 
 6 Do. do. 
 
 7 East portions of Handsome Mea great cross vein, 
 
 8 Small Oleugh west string. 
 
 9 Do. do. 
 
 10 Long Cleugh east Sun vein. 
 
 11 Do. vein. 
 
 12 Elliot's string. 
 
 13 Middle Cleugh, second Sun vein. 
 
 14 Do. first do. 
 
 15 Do. vein 
 
 16 Gullyback string. 
 
 3 E 1 East part of Carrs vein. 
 
 2 West do. do. 
 
 3 Junction of Cowslitts and the west portion of Carrs vein. 
 
 4 Long Cleugh cross vein. 
 
 5 Long Cleugh vein. 
 
 6 Middle Cleugh second Sun vein. 
 
 7 Do, vein. 
 
 8 Do. North vein. 
 
 9 Priorsdale Dam. 
 
 3 H 1 Tynehead Farm-house. 
 
 2 Dortgill cottage. 
 
 3 Farm House. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 3 H 4 
 
 Cocklake Farm-house. 
 
 5 
 
 Shellwell Parm-liouse. 
 
 3 I 1 
 
 Calvert fold Farm-liotise. 
 
 40 1 
 
 HardsHn portion of Eampgill vein, 
 
 2 
 
 Hudson's string. 
 
 3 
 
 North string. 
 
 4 
 
 Bampgill high Sun vein. 
 
 5 
 
 Bounder-end cross vein. 
 
 4d 1 
 
 Eampgill and Scalebum cross vein, 
 
 2 
 
 Patterdale vein. 
 
 3 
 
 East part of Great cross vein. 
 
 4 
 
 West part of do. 
 
 5 
 
 Small Cleugh cross vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Carrs vein. 
 
 7 
 
 Cowslitts cross vein. 
 
 8 
 
 Oowhill cross vein. 
 
 9 
 
 Eampgill low Sun vein. 
 
 10 
 
 Eampgill vein. 
 
 11 
 
 Woodhouse quarter point vein. 
 
 12 
 
 Scaleburn vein. 
 
 13 
 
 Do. North vein. 
 
 14 
 
 Kilhope head veins (weak). 
 
 15 
 
 Hangingshaw, east end veins. 
 
 16 
 
 Hangingshaw vein. 
 
 17 
 
 Wallace's Sun veins. 
 
 18 
 
 Carrs Sun veins. 
 
 19 
 
 Cowhill vein. 
 
 20 
 
 Old Cowslitts vein. 
 
 21 
 
 Peatstack hill vein. 
 
 22 
 
 High Eairhill cross vein. 
 
 23 
 
 Low do. do. 
 
 24 
 
 Small Cleugh. 
 
 25 
 
 Long Cleugh. 
 
 26 
 
 Middle Cleugh. 
 
 27 
 
 Caple Cleugh. 
 
 28 
 
 Eampgill second Sun vein. 
 
 29 
 
 Eampgill. 
 
 80 
 
 GiUgiU. 
 
 31 
 
 Dowgang Burn. 
 
 32 
 
 Smelt Mill chimney. 
 
 33 
 
 Cottages at Hill-top. 
 
 34 
 
 Cherry-tree Hill. 
 
 35 
 
 Nenthead House. 
 
 36 
 
 Timber Yards, &o. 
 
 37 
 
 West Nenthead. 
 
 38 
 
 Primitive Methodist Chapel. 
 
254 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 41) 39 
 
 Shaw Syke. 
 
 4 E 1 
 
 Caple Cleugh Sun vein. 
 
 2 
 
 Do. North vein. 
 
 3 
 
 Priorsdale House. 
 
 4 
 
 Woodmerwell vein. 
 
 5 
 
 Archer's vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Longholehead veins. 
 
 4g 1 
 
 High Lee House. 
 
 2 
 
 School House. 
 
 3 
 
 Low Lee House. 
 
 4 
 
 Howgiil Syke. 
 
 5 
 
 Crossgill vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Stow Crag cross vein. 
 
 7 
 
 J. Elliott's Holme-foot vein. 
 
 8 
 
 Nursery Nook vein. 
 
 9 
 
 Ashgill Field vein. 
 
 10 
 
 Potato-garth vein. 
 
 5 1 
 
 Guddamgill vein. 
 
 2 
 
 Guddamgill Farm-house. 
 
 3 
 
 Brownley Hill high cross vein. 
 
 4 
 
 Do. west high do. 
 
 5 
 
 Moss Cross vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Brownley Hill old vein. 
 
 7 
 
 Do. North vein (weak). 
 
 8 
 
 Sun vein. 
 
 9 
 
 Blueback string. 
 
 10 
 
 Middle vein. 
 
 11 
 
 North vein. 
 
 12 
 
 Guddamgill Burn cross vein. 
 
 13 
 
 Do. North or Black Jack veiu 
 
 14 
 
 Do. Moss cross vein. 
 
 5 D 1 
 
 Dykeheads Cottages. 
 
 2 
 
 Wellgill Syke. 
 
 3 
 
 Do. Cottages. 
 
 4 
 
 Nenthead Church. 
 
 5 
 
 Hillersdon Terrace. 
 
 6 
 
 Holmesfoot Cottages. 
 
 7 
 
 Piper Eow. 
 
 8 
 
 Moorcock Hall. 
 
 9 
 
 Donks Hall. 
 
 10 
 
 Donks ViUa. 
 
 11 
 
 CowhiU cross vein. 
 
 12 
 
 Grassfield vein. 
 
 13 
 
 Do. North vein. 
 
 14 
 
 Do. Farm-house. 
 
 15 
 
 Do. Cottages. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 5D 16 
 
 Greengill Syke cross vein. 
 
 17 
 
 Greengill cross vein. 
 
 5 E 1 
 
 Dowgang east cross vein. 
 
 2 
 
 Do. cross vein. 
 
 3 
 
 Briggleburn vein. 
 
 4 
 
 Pinkey vein. 
 
 5 
 
 Browngill vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Dowgang vein. 
 
 7 
 
 Do. North vein. 
 
 8 
 
 Greengill west end vein. 
 
 5 P 1 
 
 Garrigill Burn Old Groves vein (east portion). 
 
 2 
 
 Do. (west portion) 
 
 3 
 
 Thoughtergill Syke vein. 
 
 4 
 
 Thoughtergill Syke north vein. 
 
 5 
 
 Hill-close vein. 
 
 6 
 
 Blinker's Hill Farm-house. 
 
 7 
 
 Loaninghead Cottages. 
 
 8 
 
 Windy Hall. 
 
 9 
 
 High Snappergill. 
 
 10 
 
 Low Snappergill. 
 
 11 
 
 Bridge End Cottages. 
 
 12 
 
 Crooks. 
 
 5 G 1 
 
 Howgill Syke Farm-house. 
 
 2 
 
 High Crossgill Farm-house. 
 
 3 
 
 Primitive Methodist Chapel. 
 
 6 D 1 
 
 Gallygill Syke vein. 
 
 2 
 
 Do. North vein. 
 
 3 
 
 Do. Well vein. 
 
 4 
 
 Hudgill Burn fourth Sun vein. 
 
 5 
 
 Wailes' string. 
 
 6 
 
 Hudgill Bum second Sun vein. 
 
 7 
 
 Strings. 
 
 8 
 
 Hudgill Burn Sua vein. 
 
 9 
 
 Do. vein. 
 
 10 
 
 Black Ashgill or Hudgill cross vein. 
 
 11 
 
 Eden braes level. 
 
 12 
 
 NenthaU. 
 
 13 
 
 Browngill House. 
 
 14 
 
 High Loveladyshield Farm-house. 
 
 15 
 
 Nentsberry Haggs Sun vein. 
 
 16 
 
 Do. do. North vein. 
 
 6E 1 
 
 Hudgill Burn cross vein. 
 
 2 
 
 Do. third Sun vein. 
 
 6 P 1 
 
 Dodberry Farm-house. 
 
 2 
 
 Beldy Cottages. 
 
 3 
 
 The Gin. 
 
256 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 6 F 4 Red Brow House. 
 
 5 Wesleyan Chapel. 
 
 7 Middle Houses. 
 
 8 Shield Hill. 
 
 9 High Shield Hill. 
 
 10 Cowper dyke heads Sun veins. 
 
 11 Garrigill Burn cross vein. 
 
 12 High Pewsteads Farm-house. 
 
 13 Pewsteads Farm-houses. 
 
 14 Hundy Bridge Farm-house. 
 
 15 High Craig Farm-house. 
 
 16 Crops Hall do. 
 
 17 Middle Craig do. 
 
 18 Craig Shield do. 
 
 6 G 1 High Eed Wing do. 
 
 2 Red Wing Farm-house. 
 
 3 High Skides do. 
 
 4 Middle Skides do. 
 
 5 Low Skides do. 
 
 6 High Drybum do. 
 
 7 C 1 Foreshield Grains farm-house. 
 
 2 Cocklake Farm-house. 
 
 7 D 1 Loveladyshield House. 
 
 2 Foreshield Farm-house. 
 
 3 Whightelty vein. 
 
 4 Blaygill Burnfoot cross vein. 
 
 5 Low Cocklake farm-house. 
 7 E 1 Nattrass or Eedgroves vein. 
 
 2 Andrew's String. 
 
 3 Nattrass middle vein. 
 
 4 Do. North vein. 
 
 5 Do. second North vein. 
 
 6 Holey Field Svm vein. 
 
 8 Do. North vein. 
 
 9 Farnberry vein. 
 
 10 Do. North vein. 
 
 7 P 1 Low Craig Farm-house. 
 
 2 How Hill do. 
 
 3 Guttergill veins. 
 
 4 Nether Craig Farm-house. 
 
 5 High Silly Hole do. 
 
 6 Flat Farm-house. 
 
 7 Low Silly Hole do. 
 
 8 High Flat do. 
 7 G 1 Drybum do. 
 
 2 High Rodderup do. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 7 Gr 3 Slaggyljurn do. 
 
 4 Lowhouse do. 
 
 5 Littlegill do. 
 
 6 Low Eodderup do. 
 
 8 C 1 Lough vein. 
 
 2 Hugh Pattinson'a vein. 
 
 3 Lough Slitts vein. 
 
 4 Blaygill Head Fann-house. 
 
 5 Do cross vein. 
 8 D 1 Sunnyside veins. 
 
 2 Thomgill Sun vein, east end. 
 
 3 Do. vein, east end. 
 
 4 Blaygill Cottages. 
 
 5 Blaygill Hilltop Farm-house. 
 
 6 Do, do. 
 
 7 Corby Gates Farm-house. 
 
 8 Four Dargue do. 
 
 9 Binka do. 
 
 10 Greenends vein. 
 
 11 Upper Skelgill Farm-house. 
 8 B 1 Do. do. 
 
 2 JSTether Skelgill do. 
 
 3 Do. do. 
 
 4 Nent Leas do. 
 
 5 Low Skelgill do. 
 
 6 Cottages. 
 
 7 Physio HaU. 
 
 8 Work House or Low Fairhill. 
 
 9 High Fairhill Farm-house. 
 10 Bridge-end Corn-mill. 
 
 8 F 1 Bleagate Farm-house. 
 
 2 High Cowgap. 
 
 3 Wesleyan Chapel. 
 
 4 High Kest. 
 
 5 Low Cowgap. 
 
 6 The Nest. 
 
 7 High and Low Annatwalls. 
 
 8 Forth House. 
 
 9 Crosslands. 
 
 10 Bridge-end Farm-house. 
 
 8 G 1 Howbum Farm-house. 
 
 2 Blackburn Old Corn-mill. 
 
 3 Leadgate. 
 
 5 J Ameshaugh Hamlet. 
 •6 ) 
 
258 INDEX. 
 
 8 G 7 Wesleyan Chapel. 
 
 8 High Brownside. 
 
 9 Do. 
 
 10 Low Brownside. 
 
 9 C 1 Brewery allotment Farm-house. 
 
 2 Moscow Farm-hoTise. 
 
 3 Whitelee Farm-house. 
 
 4 Clargill do. 
 9 D 1 Cottage. 
 
 2 Clarghyll Hall. 
 
 3 New Shield Farm-house. 
 
 4 Clargill Tumpike-gate cottage. 
 
 5 Loaninghead Turnpike-gate cottage. 
 
 6 Mount Holey. 
 
 7 Clargill Turnpike-gate cottage, &o. 
 9 E 1 Alston "Woollen factory. 
 
 2 Do. Brewery 
 
 3 Lowbyer House. 
 
 4 Spency croft. 
 
 5 Lowbyer Old Manor House. 
 
 6 Loaning House. 
 
 7 Cotlith Hill. 
 
 8 Lowbyer Gardens. 
 
 9 Mark Close Turnpike-gates cottages. 
 
 10 Low Park Farm-house. 
 
 11 Foul Loaning. 
 
 12 Sheep riggs. 
 
 13 High Harbut Law. 
 
 14 Wanwood Egypt. 
 
 15 Do. Well. 
 
 16 Harbut Lodge. 
 10 D 1 Leases House. 
 
 2 Ale Hamlet. 
 
 3 Pasture House. 
 
 4 Lowfield House. 
 10 E 1 Eandal Holme. 
 
 2 Wanwood hill. 
 
 3 Wanwood. 
 
 4 Low Wanwood. 
 
 5 Maiden or old Roman way. 
 
 6 Howgill Rig. 
 
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