USIC. H'iSTOaY^ ;LAR£NC.E:G,;HAHI:iJO-N,., ^^^1 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Ellen Wells MUSIC Cornell University Library ML 161.H2109 1913 Outlines of music history, 3 1924 017 066 543 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924017066543 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN Adolf Fremd (Sculp.) OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY BY CLAEENCE G. HAMILTON, A.M. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OK MUSIC AT WELLESLEY COLLEGE REVISED AND ENLARGED BOSTON OLIVER DITSON COMPANY /. NEW TOHK C. H. DITSON & CO. ^. '// LYON & HEALY iii>>*" Copyright, MCMVIII, By Oliver Ditson Compant Copyright, MCMXIII, By Oliver Ditson Company «- !& §« To MISS CAROLINE HAZARD WHO, BY HER INTEREST AND APPRECIATION, 18 A C0N8TAMT SOURCE OF INSPIRATION TO THE "MUSIC WORK AT WELLESLEY COLLEOf: PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION One of the chief attractions of the study of history is the fact that the subject deals with vital and progressive issues. In order that it may keep abreast of the times, therefore, a text-book must occasionally be overhauled and supplemented in the data which relate to recent events. In pursuance of this object, I have taken the opportunity to examine criti- cally each statement made throughout the book, and to make revisions wherever desirable. Several recent works of scholarly import have proved valuable aids, especially Pratt's History of Music, Baltzell's Dictionary of Musicians, and the new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Chapter XI, which deals with the most modem develop- ments, has been entirely rewritten. Two features have been added which should greatly increase the efficiency of the book, — a list of illustrative material to accompany the text, and several maps which display the fields of activity of the great musicians. I wish to express my appreciation of the cordial reception given the "Outlines" by brother musicians, educational institutions and the music-loving public. The increasing demand for books about music is a significant indication of the progress of the art in this country. CLARENCE G. HAMILTON. Wellesley, Mass., July, 1913. Vll PREFACE The " Outlines of Music History " is intended to meet the demand for a concise survey of the entire field of musical development, presented in the light of recent research. It is only within comparatively few years that Science has cast its searching eye upon historical statements hitherto blindly accepted; and in so doing it has found the Art of Music, especially, through its imaginative and emotional character, encrusted all along the way with a prolific growth of fables and myths. Modern music scholars have for some time been working to strip off these irrelevant accumulations and to arrange the known facts in logical sequence; and as a result the links in the chain which extends from the regions of remote antiquity to our own time are now becoming plainly visible. The present volume is designed, moreover, for use both by the general reader and for class work. It is hoped that many who wish to gain an intelligent conception of how music has developed may find it an effective means; and with this lesult in view the numerous illustrations have been selected with great care to illuminate the text as to the style and materials used in the different epochs and as to the personality and characteristics of the leading composers. For class work, conducted either by private teachers or in institutions, and for the use of music clubs, special features have been introduced. A system of paragraphing, by which topics are numbered and treated individually, with specific titles, is one of these; and as a unification of these divisions a summary is appended to each chapter. The Chronological ix X PREFACE Table at the end of the book furnishes also a means of keep- ing before the mind the connection of events in music history not only with each other, but also with those of contempo- raneous history. It will also be noted that in the latter category prominence has been given to events in American history. The possibility of expanding the study to any desired extent is provided for in the reference lists at the close of each chapter. A feature which is of prime importance in any music study is that of adequate musical illustration. The lecture course at Wellesley College which I have conducted for several years, and upon which the arrangement of this book is based, is accompanied by a correlative course of illustrative recitals, each designed to cover the ground traversed in the two previous lectures. Material for such a course is hinted at in the musical illustrations accompanying the text of the book; and as a further help in compiling programs, the recent volume by Arthur Elson entitled " Music Club Programs from all Nations " is earnestly recommended. I know of no more fascinating pursuit than that of tracing the steps by which mere unrelated sounds have been moulded, through ages of subtle invention, into a medium for express- mg some of the grandest and most elusive of human thoughts. If any are induced by this book to travel along this pleasant pathway, I shall feel rewarded for its compilation. CLARENCE G. HAMILTON. Wellesley, Mass., November, 1907. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC The illustrations cited below follow the order of the text, and are intended merely as suggestions of the large range of existent material. Compositions written for the pianoforte, violin, and solo voice have been chosen, as these media are generally most available. Where a piano-player or phonograph is at hand their advantageous use is self- evident. Many references are made to the volumes of The Musicians' Library, published by the Oliver Ditson Company, and indicated by the letters M. L. The selections are in general of medium grade, unless otherwise stated. Chapter I Most illustrations are of necessity fragmentary in character, and must be gleaned from books which deal with primitive or alien music. Such are: Parry, Evolution of the Art of Music, chap. 3. Wallescbek, Primitive Music (at end). RoTvbotham, History of Music, chap. 3. Naumann, History of Music, early chapters. Engel, National Music, excerpts throughout the book. Engel, Ancient Music. Specimens especially from China, Japan, Burmah, Egypt, Palestine, Assyria, Arabia, etc. Stainer, The Music of the Bible, part 4. Iialoy, La Mu^ique Chinoise, tunes at the end. Especially useful are two volumes of The Musicians' Library : One Hundred Folksongs of all Nations, and Sixty Patriotic Songs of all Nations (both edited by Bantock). A book of wide scope is Bro'wn, Characteristic Songs and Dances of all Nations. For development of negro tunes, see: M. L. Twenty-four Negro Melodies (Coleridge-Taylor), especially "Sometimes I feel like a Motherless Child," and "Steal away." For Indian tunes consult Alice C. Fletcher, Indian Story and Song. In Charles W. Cadman's Four Indian Songs, charming harmonic set- tings of Indian melodies are found. xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Chapter II Section 1. Illustrations of Plain Chant 'are given in Rowbotham, History of Music, book 3, chaps. 2 and 3, and especially book 4, chaps. 1-3. See also Naumann, History of Music, vol. 1, chap. 7; also The Oxford History, volumes 1 and 2. Helmore, Plain Song (Novello Primer) has many illustrations, given in modern notation in Chapter 14. Section 2. Books cited under Chapter I are useful here, especially the following: Parry, Evolution of the Art of Music, chap. 3. Rowbotham, History of Music, book 4, chaps. 2 and 5. Naumann, History of Music, vol. 1, chap. 8. Engel, National Music. Brown, Characteristic Songs and Dances of all Nations. M. L. One Hundred Folksongs of all Nations (Ed. by Bantock). See also Duncan, The Story of the Carol. Chapter III For examples of counterpoint, see Naumann, History of Music, vol. 1, chaps. 9-12; also Oxford History, vol. 2. Sir John Stainer, Dufay and his Contemporaries, contains useful illustrations of works of the early Netherland school. The following choruses and part-songs may be played, or, if possible, sung: Allegri, Miserere mei, Deus (Schirmer ed.). Arkadelt, Ave Maria (Schirmer ed.). Madrigals (Novello ed.): Lassus, Matona, lovely maideyi. Ye nightingales so pleasant and so gay. Palestrina, Ijt good faith,' ivhen fondly loinng. Where flow'ry meadows. Morley, Arise, awake. 1 follow, lo, the footing. My bonny lass, she smileth. O. Gibbons, Dainty-fine bird. O that the learned poets. Palestrina's 'Stabal Mater (Novello ed.) may also be played. Play or have sung hymns (found in any comprehensive hymnal) by xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Iiuther {Bin' feste Burg), Palestrina (Easter Hymn), Isaac, Tallis, etc. For old English songs see the following: M. L. One Hundred Songs of England (Ed. by Bantock). M. L. One Hundred Folksongs of all Nations (England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales) (Ed. by Bantock). M. L. Fifty Shakespeare Songs, parts 1 and 2 (Ed. by Dr. Vincent). Chappell, Popular Music of the Olden Time (2 vols.). Jackson, English Melodies from the Thirteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (J. M. Dent & Sons, London). Old English Clavier music: 'Weitzmann, History of Pianoforte Playing, Appendix 1. MvLsic by the Old Masters (collection Litolff, No. 397) : Dr. Bull, The King's Hunting Jigg. ■Wm. Byrd, Prelude and The Carman's Whistle. ' Chapter IV Section 1. Hitter, History of Music, chaps. 6, 7, 10, contains excerpts from early operas and oratorios. See also Oxford History, volumes 3 and 4, especially the former. ^ M. L. Songs from the Operas for Soprano (Ed. by Krehbiel) : Caccini, Wild woodland creatures. Pergolesi, A Serpina penserete (La serva Padrona). Rameau, Rossignols amoureux (Hippolyte et Aricie). M. L. Songs from the Operas for Mezzo-Soprano: Caccini, Amarilli, mia bella. Monteverde, Lasciatemi moriri (Arianna). Cavalli, Delizie contente (Grisona). A. Stradella, Region semper addite. M. L. Songs from the Operas for Alio: A. Scarlatti, AW acquieto di gloria (Tigrana). Gretry, Naissanles fleurs (Cephale et Procris). Lullyi Bois epais (Amadis). " Songs by Purcell: Nymphs and Shepherds (The Libertine). I attempt from Love's Sickness to fly. Full Fathom Five (Tempest). Piano: Cimarosa, Overture to "Le Marriage Secret" (Collection Litolff). , Section 2. Par. 83. Hymns by Blow, Clarke, Croft, Boyce, Attwood, etc. Par. 85. If an organ is accessible, a program of early organ workj3 can be played from the "Concert Historique d'Orgue," edited by Alex- ander Guilment and published by Sohott and Company. xiii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Pars. 87-8. Violin: Torelli, Concerto Op. 8, for two violins and piano (Augener ed.). Corelli, Sonata No. 9, Op. 5. Vivalfli, Sonata in A major (Augener ed.). Veracini, Sonata in A minor (Augener ed.). Somis, Adagio and Allegro (Augener ed.). Tartini, Sonata in G minor (Peters ed.). Par. 89. Clavier: M. L. Early Italian Piano Music (Ed. by Dr. P^sposito): Frescobaldi, Aria "La Fresoobaldi." Pasquini, Sonata (Fugue). D. Scarlatti, Tempo di Ballo. Also published separately, D. Scarlatti, Pastorale in E minor. M. L. Anthology of French Piano Music, vol. 1 (Ed. by Philipp): Chambonnieres, Canaries, in G major. F. Couperin, BuUerflies. The Little Windmills. Daquin, Le cuckoo. Lully, Courante, in E minor. Air lendre. Rameau, Le rfippel des oiscaux. Gavotte variee. La poide. Chapter V Section 1, J. S. Bach. Clavier: M. L., Shorter Compositions of J . S.Bach (Ed by Dr. Prout): Six Little Preludes. Two-part Inventions, numbers 1 and 8. First French Suite, in D minor. Sarabande and Passepied from Fifth English Suite. Well-tempered Clavichord, vol. 1: Prelude and Fugue No. 1 (C major). Prelude and Fugue No. .5 (D major). Prelude and Fugue No. 21 (B flat major). Preludes No. 8 (E flat minor) and No. 22 (B flat minor). ItaUan Concerto, Chromatic Fantasie (difficult). Gavotte in B minor (Saint-Saens). Loure from .3rd 'cello suite (Heinze). Songs: My heart ever faithful. Wiegenlied (from Christmas Oratorio). Bist du bei mir. Violin: Air from Suite in D (arr. by Wilhelmj). Sonatas for violin alone (Peters ed.). Album for violin and piano (arr. by Singer) Ditson ed. xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Section 2, Handel. Clavier: Suite No. 1, in A major. Suite No. 14, in G major. Harmonious Blacksmith. Fantasia in C major (Schmidt ed.). Gavotte in B flat (Sivrai) . Pieces in Handel Album (Peters ed., vol. 1821). Voice: M. L., Songs and Airs for Low Voice by Handel (Ed. by Dr. Prout) : Verdi Prati {Verdant Meadows) from " Alcina." Lascia ch'io pianga {Sadlij I languish), from "Rinaldo." He shall feed His flock, from the "Messiah." Viohn: Largo from "Xerxes" (arranged): Sonata in E major (Augener ed.). Sonata in A major (Schirmer ed.). Section 3, Gluck. Piano: Overtures from "Orpheo," "Alce.ste," " Armide," "Iphig^nieen Auhde," "Iphig^nie en Tauride" (collection Litolff). Ballets from "Orpheo," "Alceste, " etc. (vocal score). Gavotte in A major, from "Iphig^nie en Aulide" (Brahms). Songs: Che farb senza Euridice, from "Orpheo." Divinites du Styx, from "Alceste." Vieni. che poi sereno, from "La Semiramide." Chapter VI Section 1. M. L. Early Italian Piano Music (Ed. by Esposito). D. Scarlatti, Sonatas in D (Tempo di Ballo) and A major. Clavier Music of the Old Masters (col. Litolff, No. 397): Durante, Studio. Paradies, Sonata in A major. Kuhnau, Bible Stories (Novello ed.), No. 1 "David and Goliath." Clavier Music of the Old Masters (col. Litolff No. 396) : Benda, Sonata in G minor. ■Wagenseil, Sonata in E major. W. F. Bach, Sonata in C major. J. C. Bach, Sonata in B flat major. Sonatas by C. P. E. Bach (Peters ed., vol. 276). Section 2, Haydn. Clavier: M. L. Twentij Piano Compositions by Haydn (Ed. by X. ^charwenka) : Sonatas in E minor, C major, D major. XV LIST OF ILLVSTRA,TIVE MUSIC Gipsy Rondo (arranged). Rondo in A major. Symphonies, arranged for four hands (Peters ed.). Voice: Austrian National Hymn. My mother bids me bind my hair. With verdure clad, from the "Creation" (difficult). Violin: Sonata in G major No. 8 (Peters ed., vol. 190). Section S, Mozart. M. L. Twenty Piano Compositions by Mozart (Ed. by Reinecke): Sonatas in A major and F major. Fantasias in D minor and C minor. Rondo in D major. Overtures to operas (col. Litolff). Symphonies, arranged for four hands (Peters ed.). Voice: Das Veilchen (The violet). M. L. Songs from the Operas for Soprano (Ed. by Krehbiel): Voi che sapete, from the "Marriage of Figaro." , Batti, batti, from "Don Giovanni." Violin: Sonatas Nos. 1 and 17, both in A major (Peters ed. vol. 14). Minuet in A major. Chapter VII Section 1, Beethoven. Piano: Albimileaf in A minor. Bagatelle in E flat, Op. 33, No. 1. Sonatas Op. 2, No. 1; Op. 13; Op. 14, No. 2; Op. 26; Op. 27, No. 2; Op. 90. Most of these are in M. L. Piano Composition of Beethoven, two volumes (Ed. by d' Albert). Voice: An die Hofnung (To Hope). Der treue Johnie (Faithful Johnnie). Adelaide, Op. 46 (difficult). Violin: Minuet in G major. Romances in F major and G major. Section 2, Schubert. Piano: M. L. Selected Piano Compositions of Schubert (Ed. by Spanuth). Minuetto Op. 78, No. 3. Moments musicaux Op. 94, Nos. 1 and 2. Impromptus Op. 90, No. 2, in E flat; Op. 142, No. 3, in B flat. xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Voice: M. L. Fifty Mastersongs (Ed. by Finck); Hark, hark, the lark. Du bist die rah {My peace thou art). My abode. The erl-king. See also M. L. Fifty Songs by Schubert (Ed. by Finck). Violin: Sonatine, Op. 137, No. 1. Ave Maria, arranged by Wilhelmj. Section 3. Von 'Weber. Piano: Rondo brilliante in E flat. Invitation to the Waltz. Overtures to "Der Freischutz," "Oberon," "Euryanthe" (col. Litolff). Voice: M. L. Songs from the Operas for Soprano (Ed. byKrehbiel): Wie nahte mir der schlummer, from "Der Freiscliutz" (difficult) Echoing bell-tones, from "Euryanthe." Spohr. Piano: Overtures to "Faust," "Jessonda," "Der Berggeist" (col. Litolff). Songs: Der kriegeslust ergeben, from "Jessonda." To Minona (Serenade). VioUn: Concerto Op. 2, No. 2. Pianists. Hummel, Rondo in C, Op. 52. Clementi, Sonata Op. 36, No. 6. Dussek, La matinee. Czerny, The Chase, or Hunters' Rondo. Cramer, J. B., Le petit rien, Romance vari^e. Field, Nocturnes in B flat. No. h; in F, No. 6. Chapter VIII Section 1, Mendelssohn, Piano: M. L. Thirty Compositions by Mendelssohn (Ed. by Dr. Goetschius) : Songs without Words, Nos. 9, 25, 30, 31. Scherzo, Op. 16, No. 2. Rondo capricdoso, Op. 14. Songs: Morgengruss (Morning greeting). Auf fliigeln des gesanges (On wings of song). rest in the Lord, from "Elijah." Jerusalem, from "St. Paul." Violin: Slow movement from concerto. XVll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC Section 2, Schumann. Piano: M. L. Fifty Piano Compositions by Schumann (Ed. by Scharwenka) : Papillons, Op. 15. Warum and Grillen, from Op. 12. Nachtstiick, in F. Arahesqus, Op. 18. Songs: M. L. Fifty Mastersongs (Ed. by Finck): Widmung (Dedication) . Ich grolle nicht [I'll not complain). Die lotosblume (The lotus flower) . See also M. L. Fifty Songs by Schumann (Ed. by Henderson). Violin: Romanze, Op. 28, No. 2. Marchenbilder, Op. 113. Section S, Chopin. Piano: M. L. Forty Piano Compositions by Chopin (Ed. by Huneker) : Mazurka in B flat, Op. 7, No. 1. Waltz in C sharp minor, Op. 64, No. 2. Polonaises in C sharp minor, Op. 26, No. 1; in A major. Op. 40, No. 1. Nocturnes in F sharp, Op. 15, No. 2; in B, Op. 32, No. 1. Preludes in B minor. Op. 28, No. 6; in D flat, Op. 28, No. 15. Impromptu in A flat. Op. 29. Scherzo in B flat minor. Op. 31 (diflicult). Berceuse Op. 57. Etudes in A flat, Op. 25, No. 1; in G flat, Op. 25, No. 9. Ballade in G minor. Op. 23. Songs: The maiden's ivish. My delight. Section 4- Berlioz. Piano: E.xtracts from the "Damnation of Faust," arr. by J. Holbrooke (Breitkopf ed., No. 1991). Hungarian march (Breitkopf ed.. No. 2429). Songs: Villanelle, Op. 7, No. 1. La Captive, Op. 12. My heart unth grief is heavy, from the "Damnation of Faust." Iiiszt. M. L. Twenty Original Piano Compositions by Liszt (Ed. by Spanuth) : Gondoliera. Ave Maria. Etude in D flat. Consolation, No. 3. Liebesiraum, No. 3. xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MUSIC M. L. Twenty Piano Transcriptions by Liszt (Ed. by Spanuth): The nightingale (Alabieff). The maiden's vrish (Chopia). Du bist die ruh (Schubert). Hungarian Rhapsody, No. 11. Songs: M. L. Fifty Mastersongs (Ed. by Finck): „ The king of Thule. Die Loreley. See also M. L. Thirty Songs by Liszt (Ed. by Armbruster). Chapter IX Section 1. Cherubini. Piano: Overtures to "Lodoiska," "Les deux journ^es," "Medea" (col. Li tolff). Song: Ave Maria. Salieri. Piano: Overture to "Les Danaldes." Mehul. Piano: Overture to "Joseph" (col. Litolff). Song: O des amants le plusjidUe, from "Ariodant." (M. L. Songs from the Operas for Alto.) Spontini. Piano: Overtures to "Ferdinand Cortez," "La Vestale" (coL Litolff). Song: O des infortunes, from "La Vestale." (M. L. Songs from the Operas for Mezzo-soprano.) Boieldieu. Piano: Overtures to "Le Calife de Bagdad," "Jean de Paris," "La dame blanche" (col. Litolff). Auber. Piano: Overtures to "Fra diavolo," "La muette di Portici," Potpourri from "Fra diavolo" (Cramer). Song: Flamme vengeresse, from "Le domino noir." (M. Jj. Songs from the Operas for Mezzo-soprano.) Herold. Piano: Overture to "Zampa" (col. Litolff). Halevy. Piano: Overture to "La Juive" (col. Litolff). Rossini. Piano : Overtures to " The Barber of Seville," " Semiramide," "William Tell" (col. Litolff). Songs: Bel raggio, from "Semiramide" (M. L. Songs from the Operas for Soprano). Una voce poco fa, from "The barber of Seville." (M. L. Songs from the Operas for Mezzo-soprano.) Donizetti. Piano: Overtures to "L'elisir d'amore," "Lucia di Lam- mermoor," "Lucrezia Borgia" (col. Litolff). Potpourris from "Lucia" and "Lucrezia Borgia." (Cramer), . Song: 7Z• ^ 2So« 10 CO O' O St" i- □ W P o O K t— ^ O O 02 B S P m M O S fc '^ 2 S g •7 W S ►-^ Q O ° o * pj pq CONTENTS P»OB Introduction 1 CHAPTEE I Alien Musical Systems 3 Sect. 1. Systems only remotely affecting our own ... 4 2. Systems which have affected ours indirectly . . 12 3. Systems which have influenced ours directly . . 17 CHAPTER II Medieval Music 28 Sect. 1. Religious Music 28 2. Secular Music 40 CHAPTER III The Epoch of Vocal Counterpoint 48 Sect. 1. The Contrapuntal Schools 48 2. Music in the Protestant Churches 58 3. Keyboard Instruments 66 CHAPTER IV The Development of Monophony 74 Sect. 1. The Opera and the Oratorio 75 2. Influence of the Operatic Style 88 CHAPTER V Bach, Handel, and Gluck 98 Sect. 1. Johann Sebastian Bach 99 2. George Frederick Handel 106 3. Christopher Willibald von Gluck Ill xxxvii « xxxviii CONTENTS CHAPTER VI Page The Perfection of the Sonata Form 117 Sect. 1. Experiments in Sonata Form 118 2. Francis Joseph Haydn 124 3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 131 CHAPTER VII The Transition to the Romantic Style 141 Sect. 1. Ludwig van Beethoven 141 2. Franz Schubert 150 3. C. M. von Weber and Contemporaries .... 155 CHAPTER VIII The Great Nineteenth Century Romanticists. . . . 164 Sect. 1. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 164 2. Robert Schumann 170 3. Frederic Chopin 176 4. Berlioz and Liszt 180 CHAPTER IX Opera in the Nineteenth Century 190 Sect. 1. The Opera before Wagner 190 2. Richard Wagner 199 3. Other Nineteenth Century Opera Composers . 208 CHAPTER X Other Nineteenth Century Composers 216 Sect. 1. Music in Germany and Bohemia 216 2. Music in the Northern Countries 225 3. Music in France and England 230 4. Pianists and Violinists 235 CONTENTS xxxix CHAPTER XI Paqb , Recent and Contemporary Composers 242 Sect. 1. Music in Germany and Austria 243 2. Music in Scandinavia and Russia 251 3. Music in Italy, France, and the Netherlands . . . 259 4. Music in England and America 263 Conclusion 278 Chronological Table 280 Index 297 Outlines of Music History INTRODUCTION 1. The Nature of Art. Art deals with the expression of elevated thought. An art work, therefore, possesses value in proportion to the importance of the thought involved, and the degree of success with which this thought is presented. This manner of presentation, known as the Form, seeks to combine a succession of relative and cumulative details into a unified expression of the central idea. 2. Interrelation of the Arts. Of the five principal arts, Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting are classified as mate- rial, Literature and Music as immaterial ; since in the first group ideas are conveyed through visible and tangible objects, while in the second they are transmitted more directly from mind to mind. While Literature and Music are thus closely allied, and are frequently found in combination, the former seeks primarily to express exact thought, while the latter can express only abstract sentiments or feelings, dependent upon strictly tonal effects. 3. Slow Development of Music. On account of this indefinite and immaterial character, music developed later than the other arts. Moreover, before any musical system could be formed it was necessary to select certain tones upon which to base it; and, as different systems were founded upon different selections, these systems contra- dicted, rather than aided each other. Again, owing to the difficulty of accurate notation, whole systems have passed away, leaving scarcely a trace behind them. I 2 INTRODUCTION 4. Scope of Music History. We have now to study some alien systems of importance, and then to trace the way in which our own grew up, following, as it did, the law of the survival of the fittest. This study involves the considera^ tion of how certain tones were selected, and formed into scales ; how notation came into use ; how means for the production of music, vocal and instrumental, were elabor- ated; how forms satisfying the demands of art were slowly worked out; and, finally, how great movements were carried on by nations and by individuals, resulting in the develop- ment and perfection of various kinds and styles of music. 1 ■ ^raft k ^^^^Hk1I RMI Ih H wl^^'^iZ: ^ W^ 'r^^^^^ ■ m I ■ m^ ^sj| 1 1 Hlt^ WL 1 I Cvl^ZLk ^'^^^^^ ililBHI MMH wH^^H^^^^^H SmHSK Apollo with a Cithara {National Museum, Atfi£n8) CHAPTER I Alien Musical Systems 5. Extent of our Knowledge. Alien musical systems include those of primitive peoples, of ancient nations, and of modern nations, like China, where ancient traditions have not given place to European civilization. Our knowledge of all of these is, at best, scanty, since even in the case of modern nations it is difficult to obtain accurate data or to appreciate kinds of music which frequently clash with our own, and which are also inadequate in notation. In the case of abandoned systems we are often reduced to mere theories, deduced from inscriptions or other rehcs, and reliable only as to general characteristics, such as the kinds of instruments employed ; while the actual effect of the music as to scale intervals and pitch is impossible of deter- mination. In a few cases, melodies have evidently been handed down by tradition from so remote a time as to furnish at least a glimpse of former ages ; but where such melodies have been deciphered by antiquarians, the differ- ence in the conclusions drawn by individuals has been too great to allow them much credence. From the study of instruments, however, we can mark clearly the steps in advancement from the crudest beginnings up through the various grades of civilization. The increase in skill of manufacture and in scope of these instruments shows the use of a greater number of tones, a systematizing of these tones into scales, and a consequent growth in the technical abilities of the musicians. Joining this study to that of all other historical data available, we are able to tabulate a number of conclusions, of which a r^sum^ follows. 4 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 1 SYSTEMS ONLY REMOTELY AFFECTING OUE OWN 6. Music of Primitive and Savage Peoples. When, among primitive peoples, anything like musical systems have ex- isted, the traces of these are, of course, well-nigh extinct. But by the study of the development of music among savages, it is possible to distinguish certain common attri- butes which primitive man must also have possessed ; while the observation of the first musical impulses of children is also useful in determining something about the dawn of musical intelligence. Such research teaches us that the element of rhythm must have been the first to be appre- ciated; that tones, selected gradually, were employed to form melodies ; that these melodies consisted at first of a short group of notes constantly reiterated, but that design appeared when a contrasting phrase or phrases were used in alternation ; and finally that tones were arranged, accord- ing to the intervals between them, into scales, which differed greatly in such arrangement. The intervals of the fourth, fifth, and octave were the first to be discovered ; and, when other notes were added, those were chosen which did not produce half-tones with the primary notes, since the former were found difficult to sing. In this way arose the pPMta- tonic scale, containing the same succession of notes as is produced by playing in succession the black keys on the piano. This pentatonic scale, therefore, became not only common among primitive races, but also penetrated into many of the more advanced systems. Probably there were no attempts at combining tones into chords, and there was also a lack of tonality, or the reference of all the scale tones to a central tone. The absence of these important factors, as well as the inability to modulate from one scale to another, furnished important reasons why not only primitive OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 5 music, but also the music of more advanced systems soon came to a standstill. Music was at first purely vocal, and was probably employed as early as speech itself ; but it was not long before the sounds produced by natural objects attracted attention, and attempts to make use of them resulted in the formation of instruments. These divided themselves into three types : — the drum or percussion type, suggested by rhythmic beatings upon resonant objects, in time with the dance movements ; the pipe or reed type, discovered when reeds or horns were blown upon ; and the lyre or string type, perhaps born from the twang of the bowstring. Here let us note that as the last type requires the most intellectual power for its develop- ment, so the grade of civilization of a nation is found to be higher in proportion as the stringed instruments take pre- cedence over those of percussion. The music forms of primitive peoples are aptly illustrated in our own country in the songs of the southern Negroes, and of the Indians ; indeed, American composers are now American Negro Song. ¥ ?^ ■il^_jM jL^ T=^=^^=^=^ BometimeB I feel like a moth - er • less child, Sometimes I feel like a moth* er - less child, long ways from home. A Song of the Chiquitos (Showing the two themes, A and B). A B devoting much attention to this material, as furnishing a basis for a national school (par. 257). The emotional power of music among both Negroes and Indians is immense ; and one of its important functions is thus in connection with social institutions : — religious ceremonies, war dances, sere- 6 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY nades, and the like, in which it is participated in by many of the people together. Sometimes, when employed by chosen individuals, such as the Medicine Men among the Indians, it is used as an aid toward the manifestation of supernatural powers ; so that certain kinds of music come to be regarded with awe, as possessing divine attributes. Ojibway Song. i3F With the growth of civilization among ancient nations, more definite musical systems developed, especially among the countries of the Orient. Scales became fixed, instruments were made and employed with more skill, theorizing upon the nature of music was rife, and the uses of music were defined. We now, therefore, consider the result of this evolutionary process in some of the most important nations of antiquity. 7. Music in China. The most complete ancient system arose here ; but, although it existed from a very early date, soon, like other institutions, it became so conven- tionaUzed and minutely regulated as to preclude further advancement. Beginning with Huang Ti (B.C. 2697) Chinese music assumed its characteristic form. The Emperor Shun (b.c. 2255) composed the piece called Ta Shao, which sixteen hundred years later so deeply impressed Confucius that for three months " he did not know the taste of meat." The great restorer of ancient virtue, Confucius was, himself, an enthusiastic musician. Already in his day (c. 550 B.C.) the true old music was less practised, and three hundred years later it was lost beyond recovery in the reign of the vandal Emperor Shi-Huang-Ti, the destroyer of books. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY The many existent treatises, of which the earliest dates from the eleventh century B.C., show the speculative character of the Chinese mind. Tradition ascribes the division of the octave into twelve parts to the famous musician Lyng-lun. Wandering in the forest, he was attracted by the song of a male and a female bird, who sounded respectively the six odd and six even tones of the octave. These tones he imme- diately fixed by tuning a separate bamboo reed to each. The pentatonic, however, is the only scale now in common use; but this may be based upon any one of the accepted tones, according as notated* Tao-tin (The Guiding March). Played as the Emperor enters the Temple of Confucius. $ Wm $^ E^E i£^ ^ =l=t- -| r -^-^ir ^^^EEfE^E3^EE^E^^^^E^EE^^E^ ^E^^E^ $ ^^^m ^ ^= ^^ -1 — i- The Chinese think of their scale as descending rather than ascending like ours, — a characteristic common in older sys- tems, — and, with the customary union of art and politics, they give the individual tones iiames from state institutions. Kung — The Emperor = Tonic. Shang — The Minister = Supertonic. Chiao — The People = Mediant. Chih — Affairs of State = Dominant. Y'li — Material objects == Submediant. The most pervasive number in Chinese philosophy is five, and the tones of the pentatonic scale correspond also to the five planets, five points of the compass, five colors, five ele- ments, and so on. The melodies have a peculiarly wandering character, since 8 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the Chinese centre the interest in the color rather than the progression of individual tones ; and of these tone-colors eight varieties are distinguished, according as the material from which they are derived is skin, stone, metal, baked earth, silk, wood, gourd, or bamboo. The instruments fashioned from these are both fanciful in workmanship and symbolic in character, with those of percussion in the great majority ; and especially noteworthy are the King, an organ made of Playing the King Playing the Shenq sixteen carefully-selected stone plates struck by a mallet, which give out a sound described as " less tart than metal, brighter than wood " ; the Bell Organs, similarly made but with bells instead of stones ; the Sheng, a precursor of our reed organ, made by inserting twenty-one bamboos, each having a metal reed, into a gourd, which is blown into through a mouth-piece ; and the many varieties of drums, in some of which the tone is altered by the insertion of rice. The combination of these instruments into orchestras is common. Outside of its use in religious functions Chinese music is cultivated only by the lower orders. The most characteristic melodies, therefore, are either ancient hyrnqs or the folk-songs of the sailors and mountaineers. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Song of Chinese Rowers. Solo by the master. ^gjfe^^^gii^^g^ Chorus by crev. ^r^^^^-^-w ^=^^,k=B^^^^^m 8. Kindred Systems. The most important of these are found in Japan, Java, Siam, and Burmah ; and in all of them the pentatonic scale is common, although it undergoes many modifications. In Japan the instruments include the Samisen, a three-stringed lute; a rude violin called the Kokiu; an oboe used as a trumpet, and made by inserting a tube in a sea- shell; and a number of other stringed instruments, of which Playing the Koto the Koto is the most important. Women are admitted into both rehgious and secular orchestral performances; and the music is poetic and popular in character, sometimes founded upon a scale approaching our chromatic form. The native music, however, is in danger of extermination, on account of the general adoption of the European system into the public schools. 10 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Japanese Aik. 'i^^:^^^^m^^^^^:^^m^^^^^^^^ m He to tsu to yah . . . He to yo a ka de mmm^MmM^^^^m Nek hee ya ka de, Nek hee ya ka de, Ka za du ^^^^^^^^^ t=j- ta te ta ru, Ma - tsu ka za du, ma - tsu ka za du. The Javanese have a number of instruments; and in Burmah the instruments include bell and gong organs of twenty-one tones each, and a wooden crocodile with three brass strings on top. In Siam orchestras are numerous, and the characteristic instrument is the Ranat, consisting of wooden or metal bars played with a hammer. 9. Music in India. The same tenacity of institutions exists here as is found in China ; but the more lively imagination of the Hindoos voices itself in a richly adorned poetry which is reflected in their music by varied rhythms, embellished melodies, and complicated scales. The origin of music is ascribed to the gods ; and a well-developed musical system is apparent in the four sacred books called Vedas, which date from cir. 2000 B.C. The Brahmins produced many songs or Ragas, which are built upon strict formulse, and each of which is devoted to a special occasion, is personified as a deity, and is supposed to exercise supernatural powers. Indeed, the use of some of them was so restricted that the person who unlawfully sang them was punished by death. The musicians are chiefly comprised in two classes of Bayaderes, the first consisting of high-caste maidens devoted to the service of the gods, and the second of itinerant musi- cians of the lower classes. Religious music, strictly regu- lated and combined with dancing, occupies an important placa There are also orchestras and music dramas. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Hindustani Melody. 11 There was formerly an enormous number of scales, of which not more than twenty are now in common use. These are based upon twenty-two minute srutis, or nearly-equal divi- sions of the octave, and are akin to ours in that they have seven tones to the octave. Songs are plentiful, and are ren- dered with lavish and weird decorations. Playing the Vina The Magoudi Instruments, too, are exceedingly numerous, and show a higher development than those of the Chinese, in the pre- dominance of the strings. The national instrument is the Vina, said to have been given by the 'consort of Brahma, and consisting of a long hollow tube with nineteen movable bridges, over which are stretched seven metal strings, and the tone of which is reinforced by two hollow gourds. Besides this the Magoudi, a long-necked, four-stringed guitar, and two rudimentary violins, one played with a bow, are noteworthjr. 12 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 10. Music in Peru and Mexico. Although these nations were widely distant from the Oriental countries under dis- cussion, it is interesting to note that musical systems were found to exist in both localities when they were first opened to European civilization. These systems were, however, widely different in character: for while that of Peru was idyllic and pastoral, that of Mexico was blatant and bar- barous. In Peru the flute was the most popular instrument, the melodies being rendered by a group of four Panpipe players, each of whom sounded the notes belonging to a quarter of the complete scale. The barbaric pomp delighted in by the Mexicans resulted in producing strongly rhythmic music, voiced by numerous instruments of percussion, like bells and rattles, and accompanied by dancing. Music was also the subject of religious fanaticism to such an extent that, at an annual festival, a youth was sacrificed to the god of music. Section 2 SYSTEMS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED OURS INDIRECTLY 11. Music in Persia and Arabia. There is little actual knowledge of the ancient Persian system, but, since many of its characteristics were undoubtedly transmitted to Arabian music after the Mohammedan conquest of Persia about 700 A.D., we are able to judge something of its nature from the study of the music of the Arabs. The well-known mathe- matical propensities of the latter people wei'e applied to the structure of the scale, resulting in a very perfect division of the octave into seventeen equal parts, each consisting of one-third of a tone. Thirty-four scales were formed from the notes thus derived, of which twelve were principal ; and the minute intervals were employed in the prevalent chant-like melodies, which were dreamy and voluptuous in character, with the peculiarity of alternating duple and triple metre. , Such an appreciation of very small musical intervals OUTLINES OP MUSIC HISTORY 13 would seem to point toward the existence of delicately adjusted instrvunents ; and of these the Arabs had a great Arabian Song. # :^=&c.: number, chiefly of the string type. One of these, el 'ud, which transmitted its name to the mediaeval lute (precursor of our mandolin), consisted of a pear-shaped body having a rather short neck, from which the head was bent sharply back. Its four or more strings were plucked by a plectrum. Similar to this, but of a smaller body and longer neck, was the tambura. The modern santir is a kind of zither, or table instrument, with many strings. Of a number of members of the viol family, the strings of which were played by a bow, the Re- bab, a two-stringed violin, was a direct ancestor of our violin. It was chiefly through these instruments that Ara- bian music finally came to have important effects upon our own ; for when the Arabs, under the influence of Mohammedanism, over- ran Egypt, North Africa, Turkey and Spain, in the 7tt and 8th centuries, they carried with them their musical institutions which later on, espe- cially through the Crusades, came into contact with European civilization. Since, also, Mahomet disapproved of music in Playing the Rebab 14 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY connection with religion, the Arabian music was largely used for social diversion, and hence affected European music prin- cipally on the secular side. 12. Music in Egypt. As is the case with other Egyptian institutions, music was very ancient in its origin, antedating Men and Women Singing to the Lyke, Double-pipe, and Hahp 3000 B.C., and was intimately connected with religion and through this with astronomy. There were many stages of development, which culmi- nated in the Golden Age, 1500-1200 B.c.,when music was employed as a social diversion and as an adjunct of religion, and was placed in the hands of carefully trained professional danc- ers, players, and singers, who formed orchestras and choruses. National poetry, thus united with song, re- ferred to death, the frailty of human things, and the blessed future state. Af- ter the Golden Age, music gradually degenerated, losing its individuality when Egypt was finally conquered by Persia in 525 B.C. Egyptian Harp of Eleven Strings OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 15 The data from which we have derived our only knowledge of Egyptian music have been gleaned from hieroglyphics, bas-reliefs, paintings, and remains of instruments ; and these show tnat stringed and wind instruments vastly predomi- nated. The national instrument was the Harp, which was Early Egyptian Horizontal Harp Playing the Shoulder Harp made in all sizes, from the portable kinds to the magnifi- cently decorated and enormous temple harps, played upon only by men. The harps varied in number of strings up to twenty-three, and were always constructed without a sup- porting pillar in front. Other stringed instruments were lutes' and lyres. Priestesses with Sistra A SiSTRTJM (Nine inches high. Berlin Museum) The chief wind instruments were single and double pipes and flutes; while for martial music there were trumpets, drums, and the Sistrum, the last-named a horseshoe-shaped instrument with a handle, played upon by jangling the metal bars fastened across it. 16 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY From the structure of the instruments we infer that the scale was diatonic ; and also, from the size of the orchestras in which women were allowed to take part, it is possible that some sort of harmony existed. In these orchestras, which were always represented as having a leader, stringed instru- ments preponderated. 13. Music in Assyria. An equally ancient system existed here, the outcome of the culture of Babylon, which city, dating from 3000 B.C., was merged in the Assyrian Empire Dulcimer AsoK Double-pipe about 1300 B.C. At Nineveh, resplendent in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., the warlike character of the people was reflected in their instruments, which, though similar to those of Egypt, were yet constructed so that they might be strapped to the body, and thus carried in processions. Procession of Assyrian Musicians {From the ruins of Ninevak) The most popular of these was the Dulcimer, shaped like a zither, played by little hammers held in the hands, and made OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 17 in both horizontal and vertical form ; while other instruments were portable harps, lutes, double pipes, trumpets, drums, tambourines, etc. Many instruments of percussion were in use, and all the music was high-pitched and shrill ; indeed, the women are represented on monuments as pinching their throats to produce the desired high tones. Section 3 SYSTEMS WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED OTJKS DIRECTLY 14. Music in Palestine. The Hebrews probably derived their music from Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria ; but though they adopted the instruments of those nations, and them- selves contributed little to music on its artistic side, they yet exalted it infinitely, regarding it as a direct means of Ancient Hebrew Tune. ^^ ■ ^ 1 r" — "": » ^^^^3E^^^^ ?^^ r=^=^ ^ communication with God. After the founding of the mon- archy, cir. 1050 B.C., music was much used by the prophets, who regarded it as necessary to inspiration, uttering their words of wisdom to the sound of "cithars, harps, and timbrels " ; and music acquired a prominent place in the temple, where it was performed by large choirs which were accompanied by instruments of a harsh and shrill character. At first men alone were allowed in these choirs, but after- wards women also were admitted, and sometimes dancing was joined to the music. Under Solomon the height of magnificence was reached, and the enormous number of four thousand musicians was provided by the Levites to assist in the service. In the reign of the succeeding kings, how- ever, music lost much of its lofty character through the introduction of secular bands. 18 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY It is probable that the melodies were of limited compass, much embellished, and sung in unison. The most inter- esting feature of the Hebrew singing, however, came from the rendition of the parallel couplets into which most of the Hebrew poetry is grouped, and which form a series of balancing phrases. Thus in Psalm 24 : — «. The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof j h. The world, and they that dwell therein. a. For he hath founded it upon the seas, b. And established it upon the floods. a. Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord ? h. Or who shall stand in his holy place ? etc. These responsive verses were probably sung in turn by the two sides of the choir, or by the choir answering a leader ; and this antiphonal singing afterwards took a prominent place in Christian worship. Three, five, and six stringed Lyres or Kinnors {From Hebrew copper coins, British Museum) There are many records in the Bible of the use of music. Its invention is ascribed, in Genesis, chapter 4, verse 21, to Jubal, inventor of stringed and wind instruments. Trumpets, made of silver or horn, figure prominently in religious functions, and are headed by the Shofar, a horn trumpet used to call the congregation together. Moses directed the manufacture of two immense silver trumpets to be used as signals ; and in Joshua, chapter 6, verse 20, the walls of the enemy's city fall at the sound of the trumpets blown by seven priests. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 19 Of stringed instruments the principal were the Kinnor, translated harp but probably a form of lyre, upon which The supposed Hebrew Lyre, or Kinnor Shofars used in Jewish Synagogues David played before Saul ; the Nehel or psaltery, a square table instrument, the strings of which were plucked by the fingers ; and the Asor, an oblong psaltery. Besides these, Egyptian instruments of rhythm, and flutes were employed, although it is a notable fact that drums were wholly absent, 15. Music in Greece. ^ Much importance was attached to music in Greece, and its nature and uses were made the object of study by the most profound philosophers ; yet for several reasons music did not develop at all proportionately to the other arts. One of these reasons was the Greek predilection for the visual arts, which voiced itself in the beauty of line and the symmetrical proportions of plastic productions. Another was the fact that, while occasional supporting chords might have been used with melodies, the Greeks never arrived at a logical system of harmonic combinations, with the result that music was severely limited in its scope. Partly on this account, also, music never attained an in- dependent existence, but was rigidly subject to poetry, as was painting to architecture. But with all its limitations, Greek music had a considerable influence on our own ; both directly, 20 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY transplanted to our system through the work of the early Christians, and indirectly, in the study of Greek ideals which has been active at vaiions periods. Notwithstanding the many ancient writings on the sub- ject of Greek music, however, our knowledge of it is extremely vague ; since many of these accounts, written at different periods, seriously conflict, and also since many of them are rather theoretical than practical. Very few authen- tic fragments of Greek music are extant, and the inter- pretation of these, even, is the subject of much controversy. 16. Periods of Greek Music. In considering the entire history of Greek music it is convenient to divide it into three periods. The first of these, extending from 1000 B.C. to 660 B.C., is largely mythical, and is valuable only in showing the general status of the art. The power of music at this time is con- sidered immense, as is shown by the story of Orpheus, who attracted rocks and stones by his playing, and of Amphion, who built Thebes to the sound of his lyre. The lyre, in- vented by Hermes, afterwards becomes an attribute of Apollo, who flays alive Marsyas, the flute player, for daring to contest with him musical supremacy. Homer (cir. 950 B.C:) asserted that music could arouse the deepest emotions ; and heroic poetry was recited by the bards to the accompaniment of the lyre. The Pythian games, also, founded about 1000 B.C., introduced musical contests as an important feature. Anacreontic Song. {From a gravestone o/thejirst century A.D.) While thou liv'st show thyself glad, Sor - row not, nor yield to care, l^^g^ ^i^^ P^^^^^g^^g ^^g^^^ For all too soon Life's hours are spent, And thou must yield to re - lentless Death. The second period, extending to the Macedonian conquest, 338 B.C., was begun by the impetus given to music through OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 21 the opening of intercourse with Egypt, in 660 B.C., and was marked by the union of music and poetry with instrumental accompaniment. The first important musician of the epoch was Terpander, the Spartan, who increased the four strings of the lyre to seven, improved notation, and founded the Lesbian school, which included the musician Avion, and the poets Alcceus and Sappho. Arion, to whom is attributed the invention of the dithyramb, or Bacchanalian song, was the subject of a mythical tale in which his music caused the dolphins to save him from drowning. Pythagoras (d. about 500 B.C.), a noted theorist and philosopher, added an eighth string to the lyre, and investigated musical intervals by the aid of a one-stringed instrument called the monochord, as a result of which he systematized the scales, making the octave to consist of the union of a perfect fifth and a perfect fourth. Sappho and Alc^us {Alma-Tadema) The most important use of music during this epoch, how- ever, was in connection with that outgrowth of the Bacchic festivals known as the Attic drama, which, with Sophocles, ^schylus, Euripides, and the comic writer Aristophanes as leaders, flourished in the fifth century B.c. during the golden 22 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY age of Attic supremacy. While all the dialogue may have been musically intoned, the chief use of music was in con- nection with the chorus, which, varying in numbers, sung while marching or dancing around the altar, to an accom- paniment of lyres and flutes, commenting meanwhile upon the action of the play. Tisias (640-556 B.C.), a noted chorus director, was the originator of chorus forms which after- wards came into conventional use, and which ultimately gave rise to laws still retained in connection with poetry: — the strophe, or turning towards the altar, the antistrophe, or turning in the opposite direction, and the epode, sung after these motions. It was considered an honor to belong to this chorus, whose numbers were recruited from the best families, and whose leader was also a man of distinction. The philosophers Plato (d. 347 B.C.) and Aristotle (d. 322 B.C.) exalted the aesthetic, in opposition to the scientific view of music held by Pythagoras, proclaiming its moral influence over youth ; and Aristoxenus, pupil of Aristotle, left an important musical treatise on the latter's doctrines. Late in this period Asiatic characteristics appeared in the enlargement and varied makeup of instruments, and in the rise of instrumental virtuosi. The third period extends beyond the Roman conquest, 146 B.C., and into the first centuries of the Christian era. It was marked by a degenerate taste for virtuosity. Several serious wricers, such as Plutarch (1st century a.d.) "and Alypios (4th centiu'y), left enlightening works. 17. Greek Modes. The original Greek scales, or modes, as they were called, were all constructed within the compass of a perfect fourth, the primary interval fixed by Pythagoras. Each mode consisted of four notes, corresponding to the original four strings of the lyre ; and the difference between these modes lay in the arrangement of their intervals, since only the highest and lowest notes were always the same distance apart, and in the pitch of this perfect fourth OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 23 within which they were comprised. Modes were thought of as extending downward ; and they were of three kinds, the diatonic, composed of tones and half-tones, the chromatic, of two half-tones plus an interval of a tone and a half, and the enharmonic, of two quarter-tones plus an interval of two whole tones. The diatonic modes were the most important, while the two other kinds were frowned upon by the purists ; and each of the diatonic modes was supposed to possess distinctive attributes, such as the Dorian, manliness, and the Lydian, inspiration. The principal diatonic scales were seven in number, namely the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixo-Lydian, Hypo-Dorian, Hypo-Phrygian, and Hypo- Lydian; and there were also combinations of tetrachords into the Lesser Perfect system, extending an octave and a half, and the Greater Perfect system, extending for two octaves. For notation the Greeks used letters, placed in different positions, to denote the pitch but not the character of sounds. 18. Greek Instruments. The Greeks were especially fond of stringed instruments, which were not fretted or played with a bow. A number of varieties were grouped under the general term of Lyre, all developments from the original construction of a tortoise shell with two branching horns, having also a cross piece to which the strings were attached. The strings varied in number from an original three to ten or even more, in the later period. Lyres were carried strapped over the right shoulder, and. were Greek Lyre, played either by the fingers or by a plectrum. °'^ Chelys The Cithara was an important variety of the lyre, more heavily built than the ordinary forms, however, and with wooden sides. The Trigon, or three-cornered instrument which took the place of the harp, and the Magadis, of which the strings were so divided that the upper part of them OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 25 Syrinx or Pan's pipe sounded an octave lower than the lower part, were later forms. From the latter instrument came the term to "magadize," or to sing with the voices an octave apart. Wind instruments were the Aulas, or long flute, the small single and double flutes, and the Syrinx, or Pan's pipe, — the last-named a mouth organ consist- ing of several reed pipes bound together, each giving a different note of the scale. Percussion instruments were few in- number, and of small size, including chiefly forms of tambourines and cymbals; and trumpets were also employed. 19. Music in Italy. The Etruscans were the earliest people of Italy to cultivate art, which they adopted from the Greeks of Asia Minor. Of Greek instruments, the flutes, single and double, were especially in vogue, figuring at sacrifices, funerals, and feasts, as early as 167 B.C. The Romans, whose genius was prac- tical rather than ideal, early borrowed Grecian instruments; and after the Roman conquests, and the establishment of the Empire, all kinds of alien music were introduced. Dionysian troupes of actors came from Greece, pantomimists from Egypt ; while large and blatant orchestras were organized. Trumpets, introduced by the Lydians, especially attracted Roman martial spirit, and were constructed in many forms. Roman emperors affected art, notably Nero (t 54-68 a.d.), in whose reign the organ, Performers on the Tuba AND BucciNA {From Trajan's Pillar) 26 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY invented in the third century B.C. by an Alexandrian mechanic, became popular. In these "hydraulic organs " wind was forced into the pipes by means of water pressure. Thus the Romans performed for music a service similar to that which they did for other arts ; namely, while contrib- uting little that was original, they yet disseminated broad- cast musical ideas hitherto peculiar to individual nations. A Roman who especially contributed to this result was the theorist Boethius, who impi'oved tuning and notation, and laid down rules in his " Art of Music " which sought to .reconcile the science of Pythagoras with the sestheticism of Plato and Aristotle. His book had wide influence, and was regarded as an authorized guide for composers up to the sixteenth century. Summary Of the beginnings of music we know little, save that it is probably as old as speech itself, that scales were built up slowly, and that instruments resolved themselves into three principal types. Of systems little connected with our own the most im- portant are found in China and nearby nations, and in India. The music in India is of a higher type than that in China, evidenced by the predominance of stringed instruments, and by the fact that, while the Chinese music is used merely for speculation or diversion, that of India is highly poetic. Both systems, however, are fettered by conventionality. Arabian music, which absorbed also that of Persia, indi- rectly affected our own system through Mohammedan con- quests, and then chiefly on the instrumental side. Egyptian and Assyrian music, involving many stringed instruments, of which the harp in Egypt and the dulcimer in Assyria were highly developed, reacted on Greek and Hebrew music, and through them upon our own. In close touch with our system were Hebrew music, with its energy and spiritual significance; Greek music, which OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 27 allied rhythm and melody, fixed the tetrachordal scale system, and exalted the function of music through the investigations and writings of philosophers ; and Roman music, which chiefly made known to the world the results of individual systems. READING LIST Section 1 Parry, Evolution of the Art of Music, chaps. 1-3. RowBOTHAM, History of Music. Introduction ; bk. 1, chaps. 7-10 ; bk. 2, chap. 3. Wallaschek, Primitive Music. Naumann, History of Music, chap. 1. Baltzell, History of Music, lesson 1. Dickinson, Study of the History of Music, chap. 1, Boise, Music and its Masters, chaps. 1-2. Engel, National Music ; Engel, Ancient Music ; Engel, Musical Instru- ments. Section 2 Parry, Art of Music, chaps. 2, 3. RowBOTHAM, History, bk. 3, chap. 4 ; bk. 2, chaps. 1-2. Nauistann, History, chaps. 2, 4. Baltzell, History, lesson 2. Hermann Smith, The World's Earliest Music. Section 3 Parry, Art of Music, chap. 2. RowBOTHAM, History, bk. 2, chaps. 3, 7 ; bk. 3, chap. 1. Naumann, History, chaps. 3, 5, 6. Baltzell, History, lessons 2-4. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 2. Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, chap. 1. Stainkr, The Music of the Bible. Boise, Music and its Masters, chap. 3. (Music of the Bible.) MuNRO, Modes of Ancient Greek Music. Chappell, History of Music (especially for Greek music). For all three sections, see Pratt's History of Music, Introduction and Part I. CHAPTER 11 Mediaeval Music 20. Sources. During the Dark Ages, two sources contrib- uted toward the formation of our musical system. The first, the religious, developed in the ritual of the early church, and acquired form and substance chiefly by the labors of the monks, cut off from worldly matters in the seclusion of the cloisters. The second, the secular, developed from the spontaneous songs and dances of the people, disseminated by wandering minstrels. The chief distinction between these two styles lay in the variety of rhythm peculiar to each. The rhythm of church music was verbal, dependent solely upon the expression conveyed by the words themselves, which were thus made prominent over musical structure ; the rhythm of secular music was that of gesture, corresponding to the physical movements of the dance, and therefore con- sisting of a series of pulsations, regular in time, and grouped into short and balancing periods. These two sources were of necessity quite distinct during the Dark Ages, extending to the twelfth century ; but later, the thought intercourse incited by the Crusades caused them to react upon each other. Section 1 RELIGIOUS MUSIC 21. Early Christian Music. The new ideas of Christianity, arising in the midst of the profligacy of Rome, gave impetus to a style of music removed as far as possible from that employed in the corrupt society of the times. Owino- to severe persecutions, notably by Nero, about 64 a.d., and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 29 Diocletian, about 303 a.d. , tlie adherents of t ue new tenets were obliged to cover up all traces of their acts ; and there- fore few records of their music are preserved. We know that it was purely vocal ; that it was spiritual and elevated in character ; and that it was in the form of simple unison chants, to which the psalms were sung, probably antiphonally, as in the synagogues. As Christianity flourished especially in Asia Minor, many melodies must have had a Greek origin ; while Hebrew melodies were undoubtedly also transplanted into the church. That music was held in high esteem is witnessed by the honor paid to its patron Saint Cecilia, who died about 230, and by the testimony given in the writings of both Christian and non-Christian historians of the period. The spirit of Chr}stianity, which centred the thought upon the joys of the futiu-e life, early voiced itself in hymns, the first complete one of which is by Clement of Alexandria (d. 220 A.D.). Parts of Hturgical songs, like the Gloria in Excelsis, and the Te Deum, may have been written even earlier. 22. Establishment of Ritual. The dream of a Holy Catholic Church which had arisen in the second century was realized when Emperor Constantine (306-337) made Christianity the state religion. He and his mother erected magnificent churches, church government was centralized and solidified on the lines of the Roman constitution, and a service was elaborated, befitting the new status of Christianity. Con- gregational singing was curtailed, and finally abolished except for a few responses, by the Council of Laodicea, which about 367 decreed that music should be rendered by choirs alone. To supply these choirs, singing schools were established at Rome, whence teachers were sent to other countries, where they formed other schools. Under Charlemagne, important schools of this nature were located at Metz and Soissons, A liturgy, adequate for the demands of the sumptuous ser- vises, was worked out gradually, as to words and music, 30 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY to its completion, probably in the eighth century. In this the mass was made the central feature, and the focus of most elaborately prescribed music. 23. Eastern and Western Church. After the division of the Roman Empire, in 395, church history divides into that of the Eastern and Western Churches, though the final schism did not occur till the eleventh century. An important con- tribution of the Greek church was the multitude of striking and devout hymns, written in the course of the first thirteen centuries, but culminating about 800. Many of these, like the Glorias and the Magnificat, made their way into the services and private devotions of the Western church. Latin hymnody, equally important, flourished during the same period. Music in the Eastern church developed on similar lines with that in the Western, though it tended toward more Oriental ornamentation, and more diversity of style, owing to lack of central government. The history of our music system follows, therefore, its progress in the Western church. 24. Plain Chant. The music adopted for the church ritual, probably founded upon the music used by the early Chris- tians, consisted of more or less elaborate melodies sung in unison, in the form of intonations, to be rendered by priest or choir, and for the performance of which rigid rules were laid do-^vn. These melodies varied widely in style, according to their texts and the epoch in which they were written. The compass was small, rarely exceeding an octave. They were either syllabic or florid; in either case the melody was abso- lutely dependent upon the words of the text. In the former case each syllable was sung to but one note; in the latter, syllables were sometimes emphasized by various inflections of the voice, which, in certain places, as on the last syllable of Alleluia, were elaborated to the extent of a complete melody. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 31 Early Hymn, Aeolian Mode, Syllabic. De - UB ere - a - tor om - ni - um \ ^ . Po • li • que rec - tor ves - ti - ens Di - em de - co - ro lu - mi - ne Noc - tern so - po - ris gra - ti - a. About the eighth century the custom arose of giving words to these ornamental notes, which the congregation were allowed to take up as a response. These responses were called Sequences, and, as a form of popular song, they multiplied greatly. The " Dies Irae " and the " Stabat Mater " are examples of these. Alleluia Expanded to a Sequence. Original : — a: - le - lu Laudea Deo con-ci-net or - bis u - bi - que to - tu3, qui gra - n - is est li - be - ra - tu% The entire process of intoning described above was called "Plain Chant," "Choral" or "Gregorian Chant," from Gregory the Great, to whom its compilation was for a long time erroneously ascribed. 25. Gregorian Modes. The scales selected as basis for the Plain Chant were named "Gregorian Modes," also after Pope Gregory, and were modelled after the Greek modes, with which they were supposed, probably erroneously, to be identical. The original Authentic modes, four in number, were named respectively Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixo- Lydian. Later, to give greater compass, four Plagal modes were added, each a fourth below its corresponding Authentic, and these were named from the originals by prefixing the 32 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY word " Hypo." After 800, four other modes were also adopted, but did not attain equal importance. Modes con- sisted of successions of whole and half tones, corresponding to intervals found in our major scale ; and in each mode the final, or sttirting note, and the dominant, or reciting note, re- ceived prominence. In the Authentics the finals were the lowest notes ; in the Plagals they were the fourth of each scale. The dominant was the fifth of each Authentic, and a third below that in its relative Plagal, except that B was always changed to C. In the following table the finals are in capitals, the dominants in italics, while connected letters show half tones : — Authentic Plagal I Dorian, D ef g a be d II Hypo-Dorian, a be D e/ g a III Phrygian, Ef g a be d e IV Hypo-Phrygian, be d Ef g a b V Lydian, F g a be d ef VI Hypo-Lydian, c d eF g a be VII Mixo-Lydian, G a be rf ef g VIII Hypo-Mixo-Lydian, d ef G a be d Table of Gregokian Modes. I ^ir-^, yi ■*- n «^ n-' s- .a. Finals. -(2. -^ Dominants. n — ^ n — ^ n & .— ^ s ^ -o s>~ — « -&- J2- -ts»- iS: -G>- ni ^- ^ ^- -^- 7^ ^^ V U '" VI ^ e- ^ & r^ '^J fill #-- ^ — iS>— & — ^'^"'^' ~ ^ ^ s '-^- &— OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 33 If the melody went to or above the sixth note above the final, the mode vi^as Authentic ; otherwise it was Plagal. Each note had especial emotional significance, though the Unes thus drawn were not absolute ; thus, the Dorian was grave, the Hypo-Dorian mournful (both used in the " Dies Irae " ) ; the Phrygian was exulting, the Hypo-Phrygian har- monious (hoth. used in the " Te Deum"); the Lydian was gladdening, the Hypo-Lydian devout ; the Mixo-Lydian was angelic (in the " Gloria " ), the Hypo-Mixo-Lydian was sweet. 26. Neumes. Notation was originally by letters, as in the Greek system ; but in this, the use of the first fifteen letters of the alphabet (omitting J) was simplified by Boethius (par. 19) to a double use of A to G, in capitals for the lower octave, and small letters for the upper, while the latter were doubled (aa, bb, cc) for the still higher octave afterwards added. Neumes J n )V /> II /J Ml /'J f gd Letters nr cfgfd d g g hg hi h kk lig cf Notation of XIII Centdby In the eighth century a system of so-called Neumes was invented, consisting of a number of graphic signs placed over words to suggest the trend of the melody. Especially im- portant were the virga / , meaning a rising inflection of the voice ; the punctum \ , a downward ; the podatus •/ , down and then up; the clivis f, up and down; the tor cuius f, down, 34 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY up, down ; the vorrectus f\J, up, down, up ; the scandicus ./, up three notes ; and the climacus ji, down three notes. From these, various combinations were formed, denoting more complicated inflections. The need of more definiteness, however, led to the adoption of a red starting line, about 900, to which the initial sound letter was prefixed, to show the pitch of the note on the line. Next, a yellow line was also drawn, and afterward two black lines were added, completing the four-hned staff, adequate for the compass of the Gregorian modes. Letters, still prefixed to indicate the pitch, afterwards became clef oy key signs. Neumes also took more definite shape for use on this staff, until they arrived at the "square notation" of the fif- teenth century, as M\ows:—virga ^, punctum ", podatiis J, clivis ^m, torcxdus *4a, and the like. porrectiis j^, scandicus I, climacus 27. Guido d'Arezzo. A Benedictine monk of Arezzo named Guido (died cir. 1050) was prominent in these reforms, whence he is sometimes called the "father of music." To Sane lo - ban - nes. Hymn TO St, John the Baptist. ut que - ant la xis Ee - 60 - na - re fi - bris, Mi - ra gea - to - rum Fa - mu - U tu - o - rum Sol Te pol - lu - ti Lo - bi - i re - a - turn him have been ascribed inventions probably perfected by himself, though incited by former musicians. One such in- vention was that of sobnisation, or the process of reading scales by the syllables id, re, mi, fa, sol, la, taken originally from the initial syllables of the lines of an ancient hymn to OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 35 John the Baptist, which began on successively higher degrees of the scale. Another divided the entire scale into seven in- terchangeable hexachords, or groups of six notes each, begin- ning on G, c, f, g, c', f, g'. The lowest of these started with a foundational G, or Gramma, called Gamma ut, whence the name Gamut, afterward applied to the entire scale compass. To effect the proper sequence of intervals in these scales, which always required a semitone between the third and fourth notes, B was made a movable note, sometimes marked B rotundurn (Bb, whence our flat), sometimes B quadratum (Bfl, whence our natural). Later the seventh note was fixed in the scale and took ' the syllable si, the first letters of the words Saint lean, to whom the hymn was dedicated. The sys- tem thus evolved was extremely complicated for the singers, and for simplicity there was used in the singing schools a cxirious device, known as the Guidonian Hand, by which each finger-joint represented certain syllables of the hexachords. 28. Organum. The first attempts at combining sounds are involved in obscurity. A form of such union called the drone bass, in which one part sang a continuous bass note to another moving part, was of great antiquity ; and, owing to the varied compass of voices, octave singing must always have existed where voices were used together. For the same Organum Quadruplum. ^ ^ Sit glo - ri - a Do '011-01 In eae - cu - U reason, a habit of singing the lower voices below the upper at a distance of a fifth or fourth came into use in mediaeval times. This custom was recorded in the treatises of various musicians who lived in the tenth and eleventh centuries, receiving the equivalent titles of organum and diaphony. According as one, two or three parts were added to the origi- 36 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY nal melody at distances of fourths, fifths and octaves from each other, the organum was called dupluni, triplum or quad- ruplum. 29. Discant. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the harshness and monotony of this primitive style was somewhat modified by the introduction of other intervals, called sym- phonies, and by the addition of some variety in respect to Example of Discant .(2-. m=^: (Early twelfth century.) zEt Ver • bum bo -num et au - a - ve Per - so - ne - mus il - lud A - ve W. 8 3—13 1 4 1 3 5 3 13 5 8 8 8 — 6 p l^p -"-^^-^ "7^-'^ i " • •^^ L_L_J ^^^ — -F'f— Per - quod Chria - ti fit con - cla - vo Vir - go ma - ter fl - li - a. ^ "■ "■ ^^^ ^ -- — — 1 ' -O ° s^ a.- a- -^ -*- B 3 — 15 1 1 6 4, 31 3 123 5, 4, 33 1 1 rhythm. Taking a known melody, either religious or secular, as basis, or cantus firmus, the composer wi'ote an additional part to be sung with it, but differing in rhythm, and in- volving, besides fourths and fifths, unisons, octaves, and a few so-called dissonances. The name discant, or "singing apart," was given to this process, and the additional melody was called the discanting part. 30. Counterpoint. The more definite assertion of the im- portant principle of contrast naturally followed. It was discovered that a melody which was opposed note against Old Italian Canon. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY note to the cantus offered great possibilities for the develop- ment of this principle ; and musicians eagerly attacked the new problems thus presented. Thus, after 1200, the new science of Counterpoint (^punotum contra puneturri), as it came to be called, grew rapidly, and the succeeding three centuries witnessed an unparalleled struggle over material which, from a formless and crude mass, was finally brought into a malleable and shapely condition. Beginning by adding a single melody to the given cantus, composers experimented with the conjunction of three, four, and sometimes many more parts, treating the work as an intellectual subtlety, in which the adherence to arbitrary rule was of paramount importance. A pecuhar phase was reached when two famil- iar melodies were, so to speak, rubbed together, by modify- ing rhythms, and by making changes absolutely necessary to eliminate the harshest dissonances. To secure unity, the principle of repetition was hit upon. A phrase stated in the original voice was repeated in another, and from this device the form of the Canon emerged, in which one voice imitates another, note for note, at a given distance. 31. Musica Ticta. Singers themselves contributed not a little to the resources of the new science by experimenting on their own account. Prominent vocalists delighted in varying their parts, as written, by embellishments, or by extemporizing chromatic notes to soften the harsh effect of some of the intervals. This musica ficta, " false music," as it was called, at first frowned upon by composers, finally made its way into authorized usage, and resulted in smoother 38 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Clefs writing for voices, as well as in the employment of acci- dentals, thus paving the way for modulation. 32. Mensural Notation. With part-writing came the necessity for expressing time values in notation, and to Franco, a musician of uncertain data who wrote a valuable treatise on the subject, is credited the invention of a vehicle for this purpose. It is certain that about his time a system of notes came into use modelled after the neumes, but express- ing time values. These were : — IB duplex longa, or maxima ■ brevis ■| longa perfecta * semi-brevis A difficulty which complicated mensural notation for a long time was the regulation of note values to allow their use in both triple and duple metre. At first a maxima equalled three longae in triple time, and two longae in duple time, -with propor- tional uses of the other notes ; and it was much later before the device of the dot was invented. The sign of a circle Q placed at the begin- ning of the staff indi- cated perfect or triple time, regarded as a symbol of the Holy Trinity ; while a broken circle Q indi- cated imperfect or duple time. A line of diminution drawn through the circle j> reduced the measure one-half its value. By the fifteenth century the five-lined staff was employed for vocal writing; and in the same century notes with white heads, modelled after the black ones, appeared. Lozenge- C clef F clef G clef XIII Cent. c XV Cent. 6 XVII Cent. XIX Cent. Development of the Clefs OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 39 shaped black notes with stems finally served for the shorter notes, as follows : — "— ] maxima q longa o brevis semi-brevis ^ minima i semi-minima A fusa Red notes were also in use, although their exact character is disputed. Accidentals were soon employed, though bars and braces did not exist till 1600. The influence of the neumes was shown in the complicated ligatures, which were still employed for groups of notes, to represent voice- inflections. Eahlt Notation Transition Modern Notation Netjmes VIII Cent. XIII Cent. XV Cent. XVII Cent. XIX Century Punctum V % ■ ■ <> o Whole note Virga / 7 1 1 t 1. r Half note Podatus _/ ^ a r X Quarter note Quarter rest Clivis 7 ^ n- y y Eighth reat Torculus J" J^ A m r^ Grouped eighth notea Porrectus N V r5 •• m Scandicus J .J i ... Climacus A ;•. !♦♦ ♦ ^ Eighth note The Development of Notation 40 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 2 SECULAR MUSIC 33. Polk Music. Songs and dances, characteristic of different nationalities, existed from a remote period. The origin of most of these is lost in obscurity. Many were very ancient ; some were derived from church music, while others were invented bj' minstrels in the Middle Ages. From their frequent combination with dancing, strong rhythms were prevalent; and from their adaptation to simple strophic forms of poetry, simple metric forms resulted. A great variety of instruments, used as accom- paniment to solo voices, gave rise to modern tonalities, and harmonies in which the pleasanter intervals of the third and sixth were freely employed. While all countries contributed their share of folk-music, that of Germany and France attained especial importance. In the former country it was characterized by conciseness of form and absence of embellishment; wliile in the latter it furnished themes for the contrapuntal schools which appeared in the Netherlands. 34. The Minstrels. In the Middle Ages there were two classes of Minstrels. Those of the first, called Bards, were found chiefly in the northern countries, where they encour- aged patriotism by their recital of heroic deeds. Those of the second class comprised a vast number of itinerant musi- cians who roamed over Europe, earning a precarious liveli- hood, performing tricks in addition to their music, and exhibiting trained animals at fairs and village festivals. At first they were treated as outcasts of church and society, outside the pale of the laws ; but, after their ranks had been largely recruited as a result of the Crusades, it was found necessary to enact restraining laws concerning them. They also came eventually to be employed to some extent i J OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 41 by the church, in its Miracle plays. In France, where they were especially numerous, they were called Jongleurs. Flocking to the cities, in the thirteenth century, minstrels frequently formed guilds, similar to those of other trades, which controlled the standards and actions of their members. Such guilds arose in France, England, and Ger- many, where some of them survived until quite recent times. Names like " Town Pipers " were given them ; and the leader of a guild was called " Piper King," " Violin King," and the like. Minstrels who did not join these guilds entered military bands or private orchestras. 35. Troubadours and Trouveres. The Age of Chivalry, which began in the twelfth century as an offshoot of the Crusades, resulted in France in the affectation of the ro- mantic manners of Provence. With the study of the Rondeau by Adam de la Hale. t)i. ^^^-M-^ S=^" X ;_:^- I J— j-j ^^P 1^^ Taut com vrai, N'» ^ ^^m ^ w Que 42 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ^1 iFd=fN ;i Ejg j;i^igEj !P I ^ i:^ ^ m. Proven9al customs and language came a taste for its poetry and music, and the consequent formation of a class of courtly poets and musicians, who travelled about, serenading their dames with their original compositions, assisted by hired Jongleurs, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the south of Fi'ance these were called Trow- badours, as also in Italy and Spain ; in the north of France they were called Trouveres. Prominent among them were William, Count of Poitiers ; Richard I. of England ; Thibaut, King of Navarre ; and, especially, Adam de la Hale (d. cir. 1287). Their simple rhymed stanzas of amorous po- etry, wedded to corresponding music, were in the forms of the chanson, sere- nade, pastor elle, tenson, and the like, all writ- ten in the churofi modes. ? Ti- a«vo UTS- ^ I tnr mon Notation of French Trouveres although m a clarified style. Unaffected at first, these songs afterwards degenerated through extravagance of language. Some of them, pene- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 43 trating to the lower classes, became the nucleus of folk- songs ; others became the basis of church compositions. 36. Minnesinger. These "love singers" carried on a movement in Germany, and especially in Suabia and Aus- tria, parallel to that of the Troubadours, although they wrote in a more serious style, and with a wider range of topics, A MiNNELiED. (Broken Faith.) Poetry by Heinvich von Morungen. Melody by Prince Witzlav. ^J P With deep feeling ■^==z:^ f _^ — =rrlll Fool - iflh Bpi - rit, wilt thou ne - , ver wea - ry Of this mad love that p rilard^ p hath so long de - lud - ed ? Sad and moum-ful I must part for ■ f ^ _^ l___j:==- riiard^ e - ver, Be - trayed by love all hope and faith have left me. P li - lies, red as ro - ses, Stood be - fore me, ra - diant as the f ^^ -==- p ritardf. sun-shine : Oh, wound-ed heart, Must thou for - e - ver sor - row ? which included Chivalry, Patriotism, Piety, and Nature. Many men of rank were among them, as also some of hum- bler birth, while Jongleurs were less often employed. Their compositions, written in the Gregorian modes, all showed "the simple heartiness of the German character." The 44 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY principal forms of composition were the lay, song (Lied), and the proverb. The "tone" of a song was synonymous with our word metre. In the twelfth century, KUrenberger, von Aist, and Spervogel were chief; in the thirteenth century, the "per- fection period of courtly poetry," were Wolfram von Eschenbaoh, Walther von der Vbgelweide, Prince Witzlav, and Heinrich von Meissen. The last named (d. 1318), called "Frauenlob," is a connecting link to the Meistersinger. 37. Meistersinger. An outcome of the work of the Minnesinger was the cultivation of highly conven- tionalized song- writing by the guilds of artisan musicians. The first of these was founded at Mayence in 1300 ; thence they spread to many other cities. These guilds were incorporated, and admis- sion through apprenticeship led to the grades of singer and mastersinger, for which candidates were judged at peri- odic contests held in churches, when their compositions were tested in public as to their conformity to scripture, their rhythm and rhyme, and their originality and conventionahty. These compositions, largely religious, were stilted and pro- saic, and the melodies received eccentric titles, like "The Glutton," " Maidenly Grace." Hans Sachs of Nuremberg (1494-1576) was the most famous Meistersinger. Reinmar, the Minne- singer (.From a MS., XIII Century) 38. Secular Instruments. Many Oriental instruments, im- ported by the Crusaders, were added to the list of those already existing, and were used for accompaniments to the songs and dances. A process of selection extending through several centuries resulted in the survival and perfection of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 45 those chosen for our modern orchestra. Stringed instru- ments were of two types, — those plucked or struck, and those bowed. Of the first class were the harps, guitars, psalteries, and lutes, of which the last named became espe- cially popular, and were made in many varieties of sizes and shapes ; also under this class were the keyed-stringed instru- ments, known as claviers (par. 65), which were later in de- velopment. Of the second class were the many forms of the viol, the predecessor of the modern violin family (par. 86), for which the Arabian Rehab and the Welsh Crwth probably served as progenitors. Many kinds of pipes were popular, including those of the reed and whistle types, while trumpets and horns served for martial purposes. Instruments of per- cussion were not numerous. 39. Tablaturea. With the increased compass of instru- ments an enlargement of the scheme of notation became Italian Lute Tablaturb. J J- ; ; ; ; ; //; ■/ j j TranBlation : — necessary, and this gave rise to systems of tablatures, adapted to individual kinds of instruments. The lute tablature, for instance, represented the strings of the instrument by lines, on which letters designated the positions of the fingers for the production of the required tone. 46 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Summary Early Christian music, systematized for use in the church ritual, developed into the Gregorian chant style, based upon the Gregorian modes, supposedly of Greek origin. In this process of intonation the rhythm was subsidiary to verbal expression ; at first syllabic, it afterwards became florid. Notation by neumes was made more definite by the inven- tion of the four-hned staff, yet time values were not at first expressed. The crude harmony of the orgmium, very ancient in origin, became the object of attention after the ninth century. Enlarged in application it was called discant, and in the thirteenth century the name counterpoint was given, on account of the increased interest in the opposition of melodies. This new style was cultivated vigorously, and to the fifteenth century its technique was worked out by many experimenters. Mensural notation became necessary, and though at first clumsy, it yet marked a decided advance. Singers aided smoothness in writing by their extemporiza- tions. A form basis was invented in the canon, based upon imitatio7i. Secular music was meanwhile working along th6 lines of simple rhythmic forms. The folk-songs and dances, em- ployed and added to by the minstrels, were further augmented by movements among the upper classes, especially in France and Germany. Music guilds exerted a controlling influence over professional musicians. Instruments were in great variety, and formed the prototypes of modern developments. READING LIST Section 1 Parry, Art of Music, chaps. 4, 5. RowBOTHAM, History, bk. 3, chaps. 2, 3 ; bk. 4, chaps. 1-3. Naumann, History, vol. 1, pages 168-225. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 47 Baltzell, History, lessons 5, 6, 8. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 1-3. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 3-6. Oxford History of Music, vols. 1 and 2. IIelmore, Plain-Song. Williams, The Story of Notation. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Modes, Notation, Plain-Song, etc. Section 2 Parry, Art of Music, chap. 4. RowBOTHAM, History, bk. 4, chap. 2. Naumann, History, chap. 8. Baltzell, History, lessons 7, 15. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 6. Engel, Musical Instruments ; National Music. Chorley, National Music of the World. Grove's Dictionary, article on Tablature, For both sections see Pratt's History, Part II. CHAPTER III The Epoch of Vocal Counteepoint 40. Characteristics. This period lasted till about 1600. Music, employed chiefly to reflect the spiritual state of the multitude, was of the impersonal aud idealistic character that distinguished other • branches of Pre-Raphaelite art. The rapid growth of composition before 1400 developed resources which succeeding composers employed for genuine expression, in connection with the different aspects assumed by religion, and with secular choral work. In the Catholic Church various styles of music resulted, while in the Prot- estant movements forms of music were adapted to the special needs. Section 1 THE CONTRAPUNTAL SCHOOLS 41. Music Schools. By a school of music is meant a distinctive style, worked out by a group of composers. Such schools are formed sometimes by favorable national conditions, sometimes by the transcendent genius of a single leader, and sometimes by a combination of both these causes. The first cause was chiefly responsible for the develop- ment of the contrapuntal schools, which were the outgrowth of activity in the art centres of civilization. Starting from Paris, they spread northward to the Netherlands, and their disciples thence migrated over Europe. Meanwhile dry and awkward musical attempts were transformed into living, colored, and expressive organisms. 42. Early French School. During the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries musicians in the North of France were active OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 49 in laying the foundations for the Art of Counterpoint. Their most important accomplishment was, however, the union of secular and ecclesiastical methods resulting from the influence of the Trouveres upon the church style. Much attention was given to such subjects as the improvement of mensural nota- tion and the development of imitation as a unif jdng factor in contrapuntal writing. The faux-bourdon, similar to the or- Faux-Bourdon. Gantus m r ' = f-^ r - £ ^^g^^ &c. m f^ =^^ ^^^^^4^^ ^^ 1^0 - us ere - a - tor om - ni - um- Po - li - que rec - tor, ves - ti - ens ganiun but with voice-progressions in the pleasanter intervals of the third and sixth, arose in France during the fourteenth century. 43. Composers and Their Works. In the twelfth century Leonin and Perotin, organists at Notre Dame in Paris, were leaders. Later French composers and theorists included Johannes de Garlandia in the thirteenth century, and Johannes de Muris and Philippe de Vitry in ohe fourteenth. Although the Trouveres were essentially writers of melodies for the single voice, the forms and characteristics of these melodies Composition by Perotin, showing canonic imitation. m ST'- ^ii" u=^=y P 50 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY $ ^ — ^-1 i^ —^ f S ^^l^P^^^^ finally had a marked influence upon the chxirch style. Both secular and church musicians attempted contrapuntal set- tings of popular songs. Many graceful and naive chansons, rondeaux and ballades resulted, written generally for three voices. These, becoming more -lighly organized, developed in- to forms applied to the settings of certain portions of the mass. The motet, a kind of anthem with different words for each voice part, was written to both religious and secular texts. 44. Netherland Musicians. The scene of musical activity gradually moved northward, finally focusing in the Neth- erlands. Having studied the methods of the French school at Paris, its focal point, Netherlanders carried home its accom- plishments, enlarged upon them, and, in accordance with the commercial spirit then rife, spread them abroad, becoming apostles to all civilized countries. Thus, during several centuries, Netherland musicians occupied leading positions throughout Europe as performers, teachers, composers, and founders of national schools. 45. Gaiio-Beigic School. The forerunner of the Nether- land school proper was one established in the region em- bracing the north of France and the south of Belgium, and which existed from 1360 to 1460. While its clever musicians invented no strictly new forms, they did much toward securing naturalness and fluency in the use of former material, ameliorating the use of crude progressions, like consecutive fifths. Facility and variety were especially \ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 51 gained in the use of imitation. Voices were made to enter successively, imitation was placed at varying intervals, melodies were altered in imitation by lengthening or short- ening the component notes, reversing their order, or inverts ing the progressions. The practice arose of using the melodies of popular songs, of which the " Armed Man " was especially frequent, as eantus for masses ; and this even extended to the point at which the original secular words were sung to the eantus, while the Latin was retained in the other parts. 46. Composers. Details are meagre in regard to these. The father of the school was Guillermus Dufay (about 1400- 1474), at one time singer in the Papal Chapel at Rome, DuFAY. Secular Song. :^— J ^ eM ^^-^=1^=5^ Bea - ve - loos nous lea • ve • Ions a - mour - eux a - Ions au P -r^i^ -' Ions ent bien tos m m lona ent bien tos ^— J ' r'^^^ ^=^=^ boia may Ions ent and in his later life a canon atCambrai. Others were Binchois and Busnois. While their most pretentious works were in the form of the mass, a number of the secular part-songs 52 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY which have come down to us are especially interesting on account of their clear and unaffected style. 47. Netherland School. This school, which lasted till 1625, carried on the work of the Gallo-Belgic School, attain- ing the acme of technical facility in the use of contrapuntal devices. Many composers gained their chief renown in for- eign lands ; later ones introduced the element of real ex- pression, which eventually supplanted the philosophical and problematical characteristics. Example of Puzzle Canon Fuge qualuor vocum ex unica. ^M- -M I- :«= B The founder, Johannes Okeghem (1434 ?-1496 ?), who spent the most of his life in the service of the French monarchs, raised counterpoint to a pitch of virtuosity : strange and impenetrable problems were evolved in his " puzzle canons," Benedictus from Mass by Okeghem. y^ y jf"^ ' ^ jU i^^^ ^ ^ ■Hf=r\f=^fr^ I- I u OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 53 purposely made mystifying in their directions for perform- ance, for use in the secret guilds, who alone possessed the key to their solutions. Among Okeghem's followers in the fifteenth centiu-y were Ohrecht, chapelmaster in turn at Utrecht and Antwerp; Brumel, musician to the Duke of Ferrara; Tinctor, learned theorist; and Josquin des Pres (1445?-1521), the most celebrated of Okeghem's pupils. Des Pr^s was the first to infuse genuine expression into his music, clarifying and giving meaning to the work of his predecessors. He lived an active life, first as singer in the Papal choir, then at Ferrara, afterward at Paris, in the service of Louis XII. In his latter days he returned to his birthplace, Conde in Hainault, where he held a church preferment. Among his pupils were Gombert of Bruges, whose style was especially euphonious, and Jan- nequin, who wrote settings of eighty-two psalms and " The Proverbs of Solomon " as well as descriptive music, notably " La Bataille." 48. Oriandus Lassus (1532-1594). Lassus, the greatest composer of this school, was born at Mons, trained as a singer at home, lived in Italy, and after- wards became chapelmaster to Duke Albert of Bavaria. As leader of the latter's celebrated choir he became far- famed as the "Prince of Musicians," receiving numerous honors. His last years were spent at Munich. He was a prolific writer, leaving twenty-five hundred compositions, which include the notable " Seven Penitential Psalms " for from two to six voices, masses, motets, a " Stabat Mater " for two choirs, passion music, and secular madrigals, canzonets, musical jokes, etc. All these are of especial worth, owing to their complete subjection of the technical to the natural, their vivid word painting, and the simplicity of their con- trapuntal style. Lassus 54 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Fragment of Magnificat, by Lassus. ^ po - ten P in bra - chi 49. Other Netherlanders. Jacob Vaet (d. 1567) lived in the service of the Emperor at Vienna, where he wi-ote masterly but heavy choral works, notably a motet depicting the Judgment Day. Christian Hollander was a co-worker with him. Others became identified with the Italian schools. The last member of the Netherland School was Sweelinck (1562-1621), who was a student at Venice but afterwards passed his days at his home in the Netherlands, where, as organist and teacher, he perpetuated the best traditions, and laid the foundations for the style of Bach. 50. The Early Venetian School. The art activity of which Venice was the centre in the sixteenth century attracted many musicians, including prominent Netherlanders ; and xinder the leadership of Adrian Willaert of Bruges (cir. 1480- 1562), a school was founded which introduced the same ele- ment of color into music that characterized the parallel school of painting. This element was sought by the use of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 55 varied voice combinations, notably through two or more choirs ; and by the employment of instruments for religious and secular purposes, both with voices and for independent work. Thus the Ve\ietian school is said to have given to instrumental music an independent basis. St. Mark's church, built in Byzantine style in the eleventh century, was the focal point for teachers and students from all lands, and the scene of the activity of a long Hne of distinguished organists. As organist here, Willaert materially enriched the service by employing for the first time two and sometimes three choirs, each singing in four parts, and used both antiphonally and in combination. The idea of these choirs was probably suggested to him by the fact that St. Mark's possessed two fine and fully-equipped organs. Progressions of plain chords, and modern harmonic relations characterized his music. Many of his secular compositions were written in the form of the madrigal, which was given new vitality by him, and which gained immediate popularity in all countries. This was a form of motet, with chivalric words, tuneful simplicity, gay and delicate sentiment. Willaert left many pupils, of whom Cyprian de Rore (d. 1565), his successor at St. Mark's, used many chromatic intervals and modulations, still further developing his style. Others were Zarlino (d. 1590), a celebrated theorist and advocate of "equal temperament" in the scales (par. 96); and Andrea Gabrieli (cir. 1510-1586), another organist of St. Mark's, who infused much noble sentiment into his works, which include compositions for both voices and organ. The nephew of the last named, Giovanni Gabrieli (1557- 1613?), excelled in composition and organ playing at St. Mark's. His compositions show exceptional skill in the management of a large number of voice parts, sometimes as many as sixteen or even nineteen, and in rich tonal coloring, secured by bold chromatic modulations and by adding an orchestra to the voices. 66 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Many composers wrote secular compositions, madrigah, villotas, villanellas, canzonettas, and dances with vocal accom- paniment called ballets or barcarolles, all of which show skill and grace in part-writing. 51. Later Venetian School. This, still grouped about the organists of St. Mark's, existed in the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries. In the midst of the frivolous and artificial tendencies of the times it adhered to the lofty ideals of its predecessor, employing a more animated counterpoint, and a more expressive style. Chief composers were Legrenzi (cir. 1625-1690); his celebrated pupil Lotti (1667?-1740), a musician whose works were of great sincerity and grandeur ; and pupils of the latter. 52. The Roman School. While composers in the North of Italy were cultivating brilliant secular styles, those at Rome were pursuing a more conservative course. The exact- ing musical standards at such establishments as St. Peter's and the Papal or Sistine Chapel furnished ample incentive for the attainment of the acme of perfection in contrapuntal writing for voices. Netherland masters, such as Dufay and Des Pres, found here a natural centre of activity, handing on their ideals to Italian musicians. Among the latter by far the greatest was Giovanni Pierluigi (15267-1594), called Palestrina from the village near Rome where he was born. After early study in Rome, he served as organist in his native town so successfully that he was appointed chapelmaster at St. Palestrina Peter's in 1551, remaining in this posi- tion till 1555, when he was for a short time a singer in the Papal Chapel. He then became chapelmaster successively at the Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore. While he was occupying the latter position, the Council of Trent (1545-1563), ^ p 1 1 gj SiVii? OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 57 met to consider abuses in tiie church, decreed that the mean- ingless compHcations and degenerate style of singing in PoKTiON OF Magnificat, by Palestrina. De - po - 8U - it po - ten - $ i^^^^ De - po - su - it po - ten - tea de m i ^^ ^s ^ ^r=r ^^ de - po - su - it po - ten - tes de se - . - . - de, de - po - 8U - it po - t ^m Bi ^^^^^ ^^ ^ De - po 8U - it po -ten - tes de se de, de - po - su - it po - ten tes de de, et ex - al church music must be reformed; and, as a result of the appoint- ment of a committee of eight cardinals to consider the matter, Palestrina's "Mass of Pope Marcellus" was recommended as a model of purity of style. Soon after this event, Palestrina received the distinction of Composer to the Papal Choir,— an honor conferred only upon 58 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY himself and his successor Anerio. He was recalled to the post of chapelmaster at St. Peter's in 1571, a position which he retained till his death. His latter years were spent in an ease contrasting with his earlier ones, which were troubled by severe domestic afflictions and the cabals of jealous rivals. His nmnerous works include over 90 masses, over 500 motets, and many other compositions, mostly sacred, although em- bracing a number of graceful madrigals. His style is essen- tially vocal, unsensational, undramatic and impersonal. The structure is simple, plain chords predominating; yet much subtlety in expression is demanded for effective rendition. This so-called "Palestrina style" was practised by many contemporaries and followers who perpetuated; its forms and methods through the seventeenth and into the eighteenth cen- tury. Of these, Giovanni M. Nanini (d. 1607), whose brother G. B. Nanini (d. c. 1612) was also a famous musician, founded a school at Rome in which Palestrina taught. Gregorio AUegri (d. 1652) and Francesco Foggia (d. 1688) were also important. Section 2 MUSIC IN THE PROTESTANT CHURCHES 53. The Renaissance. This was a general thought- awaking under the stimulus of the Crusades. Its chief effect was the assertion of the individual in social relations, and the rupture of the bonds of convention and authority which had discouraged personal investigation. Beginning about 1300, this movement developed inventions, discov- eries, and new ideals in religion and art. Music was late in feeling its effects, and did not come fully under its domina- tion till the latter part of the sixteenth centur}'. Then, however, musical compositions became disseminated, through the invention of printing by movable types, which had come into practical use by 1500, and new styles developed, the most important of which were in connection with the Protes- tant movements. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 59 54. The Reformation. This revolution in religion started when Martin Luther, in 1517, posted the celebrated ninety- five theses in Wittenberg, defying the Pope; and when, three years later, he publicly burned the Pope's Bull of Excommunication, the rupture with the Roman Church became complete. Since Luther's intention, however, was not so much to subvert as to reform the old church service, he merely modified the form of worship to meet the new demands upon it, retaining many of its chief features. He asserted the inalienable right of the individual to communi- cate directly with God ; hence he caused much of the liturgy to be put into the vernacular, and arranged for the con- gregation to renew the custom which had prevailed in the early church, of singing hymns in the service. The tend- ency of the Church had been against this custom for many centuries; hence it became necessary to provide adequate music. For this purpose Luther sought the cob'peration of leading musicians, and with them adapted the tunes of old German religious and secular folk-songs, together with some Gregorian melodies, to the new Protestant hymns, of which a supply rapidly appeared. A simple and dignified strophic form was thus elaborated, to which the name of Chorale was given, and this came to assume a place in the Lutheran church similar to that of the Gregorian Chant in the Roman. Passion Chorale, from St. Matthew, " O sacred head, now wounded." (O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden.) ^i^ ^^ j^gl ^ P^^i^*^^^^^^^ 55. Rendition of Music. At first these chorales were sung in unaccompanied unison by the whole congregation ; but soon extra parts were written in the old contrapuntal 60 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY style, which were rendered by the choir, while the congre- gation sang the cantus in the tenor. The added parts, however, tended toward simplicity, so that plain chords became prominent, and, for convenience in harmonizing, the principal part was transferred to the soprano. The organ also acquired constantly greater prominence, and, after 1600, replaced the choir in rendering the additional choral parts, while instrumental interludes were often played between the verses. The mass, adapted to the new service, was at first still sung in Latin, though a "People's Mass" was later trans- lated by Luther. Choir anthems were also in motet form, in which, as cantus, chorale melodies were introduced. The chorale was also made the theme of separate organ selections, which were used as prelude or postlude. 56. Reformation Composers. Luther was himself a musi- cian of no mean ability, although it is probable that the settings of hymns formerly accredited to him were adapta- tions rather than original compositions ; yet he thoroughly recognized the power of music in religion, and encouraged musicians to write for the church. As a result, a multitude of composers appeared in Northern Germany who strove to adapt contrapuntal treatment to the demands of the new protestant style. Some of these wrote music for the story of the Passion (page 90). Luther's close friend and chief musical adviser was Johann Walther (1496-1570). Having won a high reputation as a musician, he was called to Wittenberg by Luther, and there, in 1524, he edited and published the first Protestant hymn-book. He afterwards wrote motets and sacred part- songs. 57. Calvinism. The Swiss Reformation movement, begun by Zwingli about 1518, and completed at Geneva by Calvin (1509-1564), adopted a style of music similar to that of the OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Ql Lutherans, but laid special stress upon the singing of metrical psalms. The first metrical psalter, by the Huguenots Marot and Beza, was finished after 1550. 58. Early English Music. There is evidence of consider- able activity in England in the development of counterpoint, closely associated with the work of the early Continental schools. Walter Odington (d. after 1330) wrote a treatise. John Dunstable (d. 1453) attained wide renown as theorist and composer. He has been cited as the model for Dufay and Binchois. Musical progress was furthered in the fifteenth century by the building of organs and the founding of choirs in cathe- drals and monasteries, by wide-spread interest in singing, and by the conferring of musical degrees at Oxford and Cambridge from 1463. 59. Protestantism in England. The break with the Roman Church occurred here in 1534, when King Henry VIII was formally declared the head of the Church. Succeeding this, the Bible was translated into English, and the liturgy was translated and adapted, appearing in an authoritative form in the Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, under Edward VI. This liturgy called for three varieties of musical setting, namely, that for the portions intoned by the priests alone or in the form of responses ; that for the chanting of the psalms ; and that for the fixed anthems, or canticles, like the Te Deum, prescribed for the various services. Outside the liturgy were occasional anthems with words from Scripture or the Prayer Book, and congregational hymns. Gregorian melodies were at first pressed into use ; later, however, distinct styles arose, based on the harmonic forms. 60. Early Church Composers. Henry VIII (d. 1547) was himself a musician and composer ; and with him the Chapel Royal, established in the fifteenth century, was conducted on a lavish scale. With it were connected many distinguished 62 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY composers, during this and succeeding epochs. The united efforts of a number of musicians were required to furnish music for the hturgy. Stone wrote a setting for the Litany in 1544, and /. Marbecke (1523-c 1585) adapted the intoning Beginning op a Motet, by Thomas Tallis. m bo - ne le ^^m ^=j=^b. m^ bo - ne le j g- ^ ^ " ^l^ - IK O bo - ne le ^^ ^=^=^=^ mm=ti O bo - ne le ^m ^^ ^ bo - ne le ^ -r— r— r^ ^^ ;f=l= S O bo - ne le ^^: ^ ^^U-JJ J- J^ ^^ ^ and chanting to Gregorian melodies in 1550. Christopher Tye (died in 1572) and Thomas Tallis (died in 1585) both wrote dignified settings for the choral portions of the ser- vice, in contrapuntal style. Tallis, the greatest of this group, was organist at the Chapel Royal, as was his pupil, William Byrd (15437-1623), another celebrated composer; and to- gether they received from Queen Elizabeth the exclusive OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 63 right to print music. Dr. John Bull (1563-1628), organist at the Chapel Royal, and later at the Antwerp Cathedral, was renowned as player and composer; while Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625) was the last member of this old contrapuntal school, which relied chiefly upon vocal effects. 61. Secular Music. Folk-songs and dances were numerous throughout the British Isles, the former often taking -^^ j^^^ -^^^^ the ballad form, which recounted some deed or episode. Queen Elizabeth set the fashion of culti- vating secular music, and herself posed as performer on the Pa VANE, by William Byrd. [^^^ 64 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY virginal. Madrigals were popular, many of which were written by Thomas Morley (d. 1604), pupil of Byrd and gentleman at thfe Chapel Royal, and the writer of a treatise Instruments op the Seventeenth Century iFrom a print of the period) used for two hundred years as text-book. John Dowland (1563-1626) was noted as madrigalist and lute-player. The six-stringed lute was especially popular in fashionable society, and concerted music in madrigal style was written for it, to which the name "Fancies" was given. The virginai was J J OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 65 especially a young ladies' instrument, and a volume of manuscript compositions known as " The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book" is still preserved at Cambridge. This in- cludes short pieces hy most of the composers of the day, either in dance form or in that of variations upon popular airs, all of which are in contrapuntal style, differing little from organ works. YaiOaci'i tffcmt^tirts xvn From "Parthenia," the first English engraved Clavier Music, 1611 62. Ptiritanism. The Puritans in England, true to the principles of Calvinism, abjured all but the most austere unison and unaccompanied metrical psalm singing. Their influence was felt during Elizabeth's reign, but did not achieve its full results till the time of the Commonwealth (1649-1660), when all churches were despoiled, and the progress of the art of music was effectually stemmed. Com- plete metrical versions of the Psalter appeared in 1549 and 1562. In 1592 a psalm-book published by Thomas Este con- tained tunes called by the names of places. Such tunes were plain in rhythm and cold in melody, which was severely diatonic, with no decoration. Not till nearly the eighteenth centviry did hymns take on more warmth and color, and the modem cheerfulness of tone. m OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 3 KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 63. The Organ. The invention of the organ in Egypt, in the third century B.C., and the popularity of water organs in Nero's time, have already been mentioned (par. 19). The latter attained considerable excellence in construction ; but in the centuries immediately succeeding, the organ was lost sight of, and it was only in the eighth century, when the Eastern Emperor sent one to Charlemagne, that it again came into prominence. In the following centuries there was a general development in organ mechanism, although the present form was not reached till about 1600. ^-^ ih. ., ^ *^^^ PoETATivE Organ Portative Organ ^Metropolitan Museum) Early organs were of three kinds: — the portatives, so small as to be easily carried about or held in the lap ; the positives, larger and heavier, sometimes established in churches, and sometimes so constructed that they might be wheeled about; and the great organs, large and powerful, built generally into the churches. The first two kinds had keyboards on the principle of ours, though exceedingly lim- ited, and designed to be played by the fingers. The posi- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 67 dve organs finally became attached to the great, becoming choir organs, and probably were originally used for choir accompaniment. l^-^ Early Positive, showing broad keys without semitones German Positive, XVI Century 64. Improvements in Organs. The great organs were at first very clumsy and noisy. The keys, originally six inches wide, and played by striking with the fists, were gradually narrowed, until the hand could span a fifth, and thence until the present dimensions were reached. The compass, origi- nally of twelve diatonic tones, was lengthened and filled in by the addition of chromatic notes, at first only in the middle register. Different sets of pipes, sounding different qualities and pitches of tone, were at first played only in unison, so that in some cases as many as forty pipes spoke together for each key struck ; but the introduction of sliding stops event- ually gave more adaptability. Before 1500 several manuals were employed, and pedals were added, with couplers. Fifteenth century organs had a compass of four octaves, — one " short," or lacking some notes, — with letters on the keys. The most difficult problems were in connection with the wind supply. Many pairs of bellows, blown either by 68 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY A XV Century Positive, showing short keys iFrom the painting by H. Van Eyck, at Ghent) OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 69 hand or by foot, were required, so that in some cases as many as seventy men were needed to blow a single organ. With the invention of the wind-chest, however, the problem was somewhat simplified. The use of the great organ must at first have been very limited, as its strident tone unfitted it for choir accompaniment. Its chief function must have been to give out the Gregorian tone before its vocal rendition. 65. Claviers. A number of instruments in which strings were set in vibration by means of keys, and called by the general name of claviers, came into use, first as substitutes Italian Clavichord, 1537 (Metropolitan Museum) Ebony naturals with ivory sharps. Compass, 45 notes (E to c^), obtained from 22 pairs of unison strings. The six lower notes are unfretted, bundfrei, the remainder fretted, gebunden, — two or three tangents striking the same pair of strings. for the organ, and employing the same music. Later, how- ever, they took on individuality, and became popular as social and domestic instruments. These were of two types, namely, the clavichord and the harpsichord. 70 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 66. Clavichords. In this type, derived from the dulcimer^ the strings were struck directly by upright tangents affixed to the backs of the keys. The earliest form was the mono- chord, used for scientific purposes (par. 16) ; later, instead of the one string, several were employed, all tuned in unison, and several keys struck the same string, made to give differ- ent pitches by a contrivance which shortened its length. These small clavichords were in oblong form, and were gen- erally placed upon a table when in use; but after 1700 a "bundfrei" clavichord was invented, of larger size, which had a separate string for each key. In this the strings were of varying lengths, supported by a diagonal wooden bridge. The tone of the clavichord, though weak and tremulous, was susceptible of some variation, and hence was preferred by many musicians. 67. Harpsichords. In this type, derived from the psaltery, the strings were plucked by quills attached to the ends of the Spinet made by Domenioo di Pesaro, Italy, 1561 (Metropolitan Museum) The instrument is removable from the outer case. Compass, four octaves keys. Various names were given to the first small instru- ments of this kind, such as spinet, virginal, clavecin, clavi' cembalo, and in form they were either oblong or triangular. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 71 Flemish Harpsichord with quill plectra, circa 1650 {M etropoHian Museum) The upper keyboard acts on the first of the three strings and with the Lute stop. The jack of this stop, by plucking the string close to the bridge, gives a reedy, lute-like tone. The lower keyboArd acts on the three strings without the Lute stop. 72 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY A resultant larger form, adapted especially for concert or orchestral use, was called the harpsichord, and was shaped like our grand piano, only much narrower. The tone, while more brilliant than that of the clavichord, was capable of no variation. To overcome this limitation, all kinds of de- vices were employed, especially in the eighteenth century, such as the introduction of several keyboards, reinforcing strings added by puUing out stops, various kinds of quills, pedals, and connection with an organ. 68. Clavier Makers. Many firms vied with each other in clavier construction. The Muckers family at Antwerp pro- duced elaborate instruments, frequently adorned by famous painters. Tabel in London, and Silbermann in Strasburg, were also prominent. There were many attempts to produce sustained tone in instruments like the piano violin, none of which, however, were successful. Summary The materials used in contrapuntal writing were worked out in a school which existed in France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, grouped about the organists of Notre Dame at Paris. Their teachings spread northward, and in a school which prevailed on the borders of Belgium (1360- 1460), contrapuntal technique was much improved. A pitch of virtuosity was reached in the Netherland School (1450-1625), in which complicated musical problems were propounded, but in which the element of genuine expression appeared, voiced by Josquin des Pi-es and Orlandus Lassus. Netherlanders became apostles to other countries, — Eng- land, Germany, Italy. A school founded by them in Venice added the element of color and gave an impetus to instru- mental music. The perfection of vocal counterpoint was reached in the Roman school, in the sixteenth century, especially in the works of Palestrina. \A ^ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 73 Independent thought, incited by the Renaissance, voiced itself in Germany and Switzerland in the reforms of Luther and Calvin, and in England in the establishment of a national church. Lutheranism developed the chorale, based largely on the folk-song ; Calvinism emphasized the singing of metrical psalms ; while the Church of England prepared a liturgy based on the old, but leading to new music styles. Instruments had little individuality of expression, merely reduplicating and strengthening the voice parts. Not until 1600 did the organ attain its present form, while the fore- runners of the piano, the clavichord and the harpsichord, were too faulty in construction to assume a dominant rSle. READING LIST Section 1 Naumann, History, chaps. 9-11, 14, 16. Oxford History, vol. 2. R0CK8TRO, History of Music. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 5. Baltzell, History, lessons 9-10, 12-14. Dickinson, History of Music in the Western Church, chaps. 5, 6. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 6-8. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 3-4. Section 2 Oxford History, vol. 4. (Chorale, etc.) Naumann, History, chaps. 12-13, 21, 22. " Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 9, 10. Dickinson, Music in Western Church, chaps. 7, 10. Baltzell, History, lesson 11. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 5. Crowest, English Music. Section 3 Baltzell, History, lessons 16, 25. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 7. Williams, The Story of the Organ. Weitzmann, History of the Pianoforte. BiE, History of the Pianoforte. Articles in Grove's Dictionary on Organ, Harpsichord, Clavichord, etc. For all three sections, see Pratt's History, Part II. CHAPTER IV The Development op Monophony 69. New Ideas in Music. Polyphony, or the combination of various melodies under accepted laws of agreement and contrast, gave voice to the impersonal spirit of mediseval- ism ; but, since the very equality of the voice parts in contrapuntal writing subordinated the individual to the general effect, it was necessary that a new element should be developed in music to express the essential spirit of the Renaissance. To this demand was due the invention and subsequent popularity of Monophony, or a single melody with the accompanying parts subordinated. As the latter came to lose individuality, interest in their melodic con- struction naturally waned, and finally came to be placed in another factor of their construction, namely, the harmonic. In Polyphony, chords were merely chance happenings, determined solely by the progression of the melody ; in Monophony, however, the chords themselves took a leading place, and hence it became necessary to study them individ- ually and in their relations one with another. In this way new musical forms were exploited, dependent upon har- monic design, — a factor which had its precedent in secular dance music, but which, neA^ertheless, had to be grasped through crude beginnings, and through many years of experiment. The main channels for the development of the mono- phonic style were the opera and the oratorio. From these it spread over all other branches of music, producing either new forms or modifications of old ones. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 75 Section 1 THE OPERA AND THE ORATORIO 70. Mediaeval Music Dramas. The introduction of music into dramatic productions was frequent during the Middle Ages. In the Mystery and Morality plays held in the churches jongleurs came to be employed (par. 34) ; and in the secular dramas which were an offshoot of these, music was often a feature also. During the sixteenth century a distinct taste grew up for the drama with musical setting, and a number of attempts to satisfy this taste were made ; with, however, only indifferent success, owing to the fact that the vocal contrapuntal style was ill-adapted to express individual emotion. The absurdity, for instance, of a solo delivered by a character on the stage while other voice parts had to be sung behind the scenes to complete the polyphonic composition, was clearly apparent. Such a drama, written by some of the Venetian contrapuntists for the Duke of Tuscany's wedding, in 1579, furnished an incentive to cer- tain art amateurs who were present at its performance to seek another means of musical expression. 71. Beginnings of Opera. These amateurs were members of a small band of Florentine enthusiasts who were united in their attempts to reproduce Greek forms of art. Their leader was at first the poet and philosopher Giovanni Bardi, and afterwards a rich nobleman named Corsi. The remainder of their number comprised both men and women, all noteworthy for attainments in the domain of art or letters. The first result of their musical activity was a monody, or cantata, patterned after the Greek tradition in that it consisted of a declamatory melody with occasional accompanying chords played on the lute. This was the work of Vincenzo Galilei, fa,ther of the famous astronomer, and its signal success re- sulted in other attempts which culminated in what is generally 76 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY known as the first opera, produced on the occasion of the marriage of Henry IV and Maria de Medici at Florence, in Extract from Peri's Eurydice. P ^^ ^ ^- =P E voi deb ! per pie - t4 del mio mar - ti ^ g=2= 3iE ■^^i^ ^J^.r._;^J_„._;-^^ _^EJEEJ=NEEJ =1= Clie nel mi - se - ro cor di - mo - - rae - ter - no, J ^ La - cri 3i- m =g= 1600. Rinucdni's poem, "Euridice," used as text for this, was given separate musical settings by Jacopo Peri (d. 1633) and Guilio Caccini (d. 1618), and from these settings the per- formed version was constructed. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 77 The name Dramma per la musica was given to this, since the music, without formal melody, simply intensified the rhetorical effect in its Stilo rappresentativo. Choruses were in madrigal style, and a supporting orchestra consisted of a harpsichord, two lutes, and a bass viol, together with three flutes for which, in one^ place, a sinfonia of fourteen bars was written. The two versions had no essential difference in style, though Caccini wrote more freely for the voices. 72. Monteverde. The new style became immediately pop- ular with the higher classes, and, of the many composers who appeared, the greatest, and perhaps the most remarkable musician of his day, was Claudio Monteverde (1567-1643), a native of Cremona. In his youth he studied the strict style, writing madri- gals, in the latest of which his new-style tendencies were recognizable. From 1613 he was chorus-master of St. Mark's, Venice. Before this he was employed by the Duke of Mantua, when, in 1607, he produced his first opera of "Orfeo," which immediately realized greater pos- sibilities, containing both declamatory and melodic passages. In 1608 his "Arianna" and "II ballo dell' ingrate" appeared, the former of which showed a tendency toward formal melodies; but his greatest work was not produced till 1624. In this. "The Combat of Tancred and Clorinda," he showed an entirely new concept of the province of the orchestra, introducing descriptive effects which included the first appearance of the tremolo and pizzicato, in the strings. For "Orfeo" the orchestra consisted of thirty-three instru- ments, of which strings played with a bow predominated. While Monteverde employed the figured bass customary for the indication of harmonies, these harmonies were used with imprecedented freedom. Combinations of instruments charac- 78 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY terized the personages of the drama, and instrumental pas- sages, ritornellos, romanescas, maurescas and the hke, were frequent. Song from Montevekde's "Aeianna." ^3 ^^Ei :p=I= La - ecia te mi mo - ri La - Bcia - te mi ri3t -^ * r F r— f^Pf i— fe^ SE ^-r I s =F =P -P feL_ e E che vo - le - te voi ■ bp- che mi con - for - te =t^ P^^^ =1= ^=^ P^- ^£ ^ — Pi_its=E; ^g^^ =i=i=i: £- ^E^ In CO - si dio - ra sor - te in co - si gran mar - ti - re ? La - feEfe ■^mm^ -f- f=f 73. Beginnings of Oratorio. This developed on lines parallel with the opera ; but, associated directly with the church, it was occupied solely with scriptural subjects. The name was derived from the fact that the first productions of the kind were performed in the oratory of the church of Santa Maria, in Vallicella at Rome, where parts of the work preceded OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 79 and followed the sermon. Here, in 1600, was produced what is known as the first oratorio, called the " Representation of Soul and Body," by Emilio del Cavalieri, acted out with elaborate scenery and costumes, and with the addition of dancing. For this the new operatic style was freely em- ployed, and succeeding composers wrote operas and oratorios Recitative fkom Carissimi's "Jephtha." §^=^=^ ^ m ^^WWfW^ ^ IS he de - ce - pi - ati Heu, heu mi - hi P gi ~W ^ i i =t=^ # W X -J- v^ - li-a u-ni-ge^ui-ta de-ce pis - ti me, et tu pa - ri-ter without distinction in workmanship. Carissimi (cir. 1604- 1674) excelled as a writer of oratorios, which number about fifteen^ all based on strictly Biblical subjects, and all dis- tinguished for their coherency, striking rhythms, dramatic choruses, and refined recitatives, which already show some 80 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY formal outlines. A. Scarlatti, the opera composer (par. 74) wrote numerous oratorios in musicianly style, and Alessandro Stradella (d. 1681), of whose life little is known, wrote a number of oratorios, displa3ang much effective dramatic ability. After this epoch the oratorio lost its popularity in Italy, finding a more permanent home in Germany and England. 74. Changes in Opera. Appearing first only as a diversion of the wealthy, the opera afterwards became popularized. Aria from Cesti'8 "La Dori." *^ Prin ft - ntiAT ni^hpr _ tA i\hi aa. fllnA fin - lf»T Con a - mor scher - zi chi Ba Che do - lor ^^ m ^^ ^ ^m Final Ending, or Codetta. t j ^^Mj=3^ :3^^^ non man - che - ra che do - lor non man - che - ra Si ri - tro - va m 3a r^=^ i^= =J^j4^ $ ^g un tal ve - len che si co - va o - gnor iu sen Ci6 che Bia g;"^r ^ (' i ^ ^ ir r I f ^^^ ^ D.S.^ w^ ca - nu - ta eta ge - lo - sia i^ ^ s ri - spon -de - ra m^ ^ In 1637 the first opera house was opened in Venice, and soon many others were erected here and in other leading Italian cities, as well as those of other countries, to which the craze for the new style rapidly extended. As a focal point for operatic development Venice became the scene of activity of composers, of whom Cavalli and Cesti were prom- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 81 inent, and who, following the instrumental ideals of the place, tended strongly toward formal Unes in their melody writing. These lines became even more rigidly drawn in the Neapolitan school, of which Alessandro Scarlatti (1659- 1725) was founder. Of soHd musical education, he succeeded in giving that symmetry to the operatic numbers for which other composers were striving, besides investing his works with a firmly-knit structure which his knowl- edge of contrapuntal methods, hitherto sparingly employed in the opera, made possible. These characteristics appeared notably in his orchestration. His over- ture took the form of three contrasting movements : — a fast, a slow, and a fast movement; and the previously barren recitative was made vital by a continuous orchestral accompaniment. The fixed Aria from A. Scarlatti's " Prigionikr Fortunato." ■■»■ A. Scarlatti m ^iz^=j^j^=e=^^g^^^^F^^^^ Sol per di - fen - de - re la mia ri - va - le i m ^ ti^g ij^i i =e grn f ^^ ^ =K^^g= gE =r=t: d'a-mor-lo stra - le mi ser-vi-ra m a m ^ Pen - sa d'ac-cen - de-re D.S.:B: 82 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Durante melodies were cast in various types of the aria form, which consisted of a succession of two contrasting sections fol- lowed by a repetition, or da capo, of the first. With these innovations the name dramma per la musica was changed to opera in musica, or, later, to simply opera. One of A. Scarlatti's pupils, Fran- cesco Durante (1684-1755), and after him ranking with Leo as one of the founders of the Neopolitan school, composed chiefly for the church; but Durante's many illustrious pupils, among them Jommelli, Vinci, Piccinni, Paisiello, and Pergolesi, took nearly complete possession of the lyric stage of Europe during the latter half of the eighteenth century. 75. Italian Opera in the Eighteenth Century. Thus the dra- matic ideals of the makers of the opera came quickly into conflict with the Italian fondness for formal design, and in the end the latter won a complete victory. Scarlatti's con- ventional forms, made still more rigid, became recognized as laws ; interest, transferred from the plot to the melody, proceeded thence to the singers themselves, and these finally became such absolute masters of the situation that, during the eighteenth century, itself an epoch of general artificiality, the opera degenerated into a mere concert for vocal display, with everything — plot, music, composer — subordinated to this end. Prima donnas dictated terms and received enormous salaries ; male soprani became popular, some of them acquir- ing wealth and political influence. Operatic plots, drawn chiefly from classic or Persian subjects, were made all on the same model, to exploit a succession of fixed types of arias, fifty to sixty in each opera. They were allotted in due proportion to the chief singers — three men and three women, with the bass voice eliminated — who considered it their OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 83 privilege to introduce all kinds of trivial embellishments to suit their vocal powers. There were no concerted numbers, except an occasional chorus at the end. The orchestration became weak and slovenly, while the overture, regarded merely as an accompaniment to conversation, was of the flimsiest structure. Great teachers of the hel canto, as the art of singing was styled, themselves wrote most of the operas, to show off brilliant pupils. Niccold Porpora (1686-1766 ?), the writer of forty-six operas, was perhaps the most celebrated of these vocal authorities. Altogether, although musical sin- cerity reached a low ebb, enormous facility in vocal technique was attained. 76. The Opera Buffa. To relieve the monotony of the opera seria, diversions were introduced between the acts, in the form of dances or comic songs. These were called intermezzi. The dances developed into the ballet, while the songs became enlarged to a comic musical sketch, and then to a complete little opera. Its subject was drawn from real hfe, and its music made as pithy and characteristic as pos- sible, — everything in strong contrast to the conventional atmosphere of the serious opera. Thus arose the opera buffa, destined to infuse new life into the operatic style through its use of important new elements such as the bass voice, concerted numbers, and the ensemble, which was used to produce a cUmax at the end of the acts. This last feature, originated by Logroscino, was farther developed by Niccola Picdnni (1728-1800). Other eighteenth century composers of opera buffa, most of them writers also of opera seria, were Galuppi, Perffolesi, Paisiello, and Cimarosa. Ti. The Opera in France. The French taste for external effect demanded something more stimulating than the pure melodic outlines of the Italian opera, which, in its original form, consequently never gained a firm foothold in France. A distinct style was, however, developed by Jean Baptiste de 84 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Lully (1632-1687), a native of Florence, who was brought tu Paris at thirteen, and, through his musical ability, finally became leader of the orchestra at the brilliant court of Louis XIV. LuUy proved expert in adapting himself to the exigencies of the occasion. He at first wrote music for the spectacular ballets which were popular at court, and in which the king himself often danced ; and thence he developed the idea of introducing their chief features into the opera. The Italian opera had appeared in Paris in 1645, and hence the French were prepared to receive with acclaim the work of a composer who should combine the attractive features of the Italian style with the best-loved national characteristics. The result was a popularity which procured for Lully from the king the grant of a monopoly of French opera, and which made him the dominant figure on the French operatic stage for nearly a century. Ldlly 78. LuUy's Operas. He succeeded in bringing back much of the true dramatic element into the opera. The overture he placed on a dignified plane, establishing the form of a slow, followed by a fast fugal movement, with sometimes a concluding slow movement. The performance then Dance from Lully's " Phaeton." OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 85 opened with a spectacular prologue on a mythological sub- ject, containing choruses and dances, all tending toward a fulsome glorification of the reigning monarch. The opera which followed included dignified and dramatic recitative, without superfluous ornament; occasional arias; dances in concise rhythmic forms, and ensembles as climaxes. The harmonic style prevailed, except in the fugal part of the overture. The accompaniment, mainly of string tone, was monotonous, but there was unquestioned dramatic consist- ency in all the elements. Of LuUy's followers, Colasse, Charpentier, and Campra are prominent. 79. Rameau. Jean Philippe Rameau (1683-1764), bom at Dijon, who won his first laurels by his organ and clavier playing and compositions and his im- portant researches into the theory of music, began to write for the French stage at the age of fifty. In this direc- tion he produced works which marked great advancement in logical forms of melody, in dramatic choruses, and in brilliant orchestration, by means of which he described scenes like storms, battles, and earthquakes. While he thus perpetuated LuUy's ideals, he gave them more vitality, and relieved former monotony by a more skilful employment of har- monies and rhythms. Rameau 86 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 80. The Opera Comique. The opera huffa was imported into France about 1750, where it achieved instant popularity. A theatre was built especially for it, in 1753, and several Frenchmen distinguished themselves in this form of compo- sition. Of these G-retry (1741-1813) was especially suc- cessful, fitting the melody admirably to the words, and producing lively and pertinent eifects. Though thin in orchestration, his harmonies are well chosen. Later on, the opera comique became the medium for some of the best efforts of French composers. Its character changed in many respects, as it frequently followed a more serious vein, approaching that of the grand opera ; but it generally retained the salient features of naturalness of plot and unconventionality of action and forms. 81. The Opera in England. Here Puritanism retarded all dramatic music until it appeared in the form of incidental music to plays. After the Restoration, the consequent popularity of French music resulted in its study by English composers, notably Pelham Humfrey, a pupil of Lully's, who in turn became the teacher of Eng- land's greatest dramatic composer, Henry Purcell (cir. 1658-1695). The latter wrote anthems even while a boy singer at the Chapel Royal, and when about thirty he composed the opera "Dido and iEneas." This, in dramatic sincerity and command of musical resources, was a remarkable work ; though its absence of spoken dialogue placed it in advance of its age, and caused Purcell to cast his future dramatic attempts into the safer form of incidental play-music. Besides many such works, he wrote anthems, instrumental compositions, and music for masques. PurceU's music shows the sturdiness and tunefulness characteristic of the English. Clear and folk-songlike Purcell OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 87 Theme from Purcbll's Music to " Diocletian." Trumpet. Sound Fame, thy bra - zen trumpet melodies alternate with vigorous recitatives, in which every word receives individual expression, while strong counter- point solidifies the choruses and orchestration. Purcell stood alone as a composer of English opera, find- ing no worthy successor, and in 1705 the Italian opera, imported into England, began its unlimited sway. An adaptation of old ballads to a play, by Br. Pepusch (b. 1667), produced in London in 1728, and called the " Beggar's Opera," had great popularity, and was the first of a Ust of English ballad operas (par. 227). 88 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 82. The Opera in Germany. The singspiel, or play with occasional songs and dances, here preceded the opera, and was afterwards taken as the basis for a national school. In 1627 Heinrich Sohutz (1585-1672), who had studied in Italy, set to music his German translation of Rinuccini's " Dafne," of which the score has been lost, but which may be accounted the first German opera. Italian opera after- wards appeared fitfully ; finally, however, attaining immense prestige among the wealthy classes, and pushing German composers into other fields of work, notably that of religious music. The Hamburg Opera House was opened in 1678 with a singspiel by Schiitz's pupil Theile. Of this house Reinhard Keiser (1674-1739) afterwards became manager, himself writing for it a hundred and sixteen operas with German texts and in Italian style, yet showing German strength, real expression, and scenic splendor. But Italian influences increased. There was at first a mingling of German and Italian languages in the same performance, until at last the Italian supremacy was complete. Of Ger- man composers of Italian opera the chief were Sasse and Graun, the latter a favorite of Frederick the Great. Section 2 INFLUENCE OP THE OPERATIC STYLE 83. English Church Music. After the Restoration, in 1660, there was a tendency toward the new harmonic forms. One result was the Anglican Chant, which partly supplanted the Gregorian manner of chanting, and which consisted of a single or double tune of seven or fourteen measures, contain- ing recitation notes and endings. These tunes, probably of Gregorian origin, were harmonized in plain chords. While they were adapted primarily for rendering the Psalter antiphonally, similar chant forms were invented for the Canticles. Services and anthems came to be written in a OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 89 more florid style, and during the reign of Charles II the former unaccompanied style was largely supplanted by elabo- rate accompaniments by the organ or orchestra. While the influence of the opera did not seriously degrade the dignity of church compositions, its forms nevertheless had their effect, especially upon the anthems. These were written in three forms : — the full, sung throughout by the entire choir; the verse, in which selected voices rendered certain parts together ; and the solo, in which single voices were occasionally heard. The harmonic style was freely employed, although it did not by any means supplant the contrapuntal. After PurceU, whose anthems were models of excellence, a host of church composers, such as Dr. Blow, Clarke, Croft, Greene, Boyce, and Attwood, wrote worthy but pedantic church music; and it was only toward the middle of the nineteenth century that a more vigorous style arose. Congregational hymns were at first severely plain, but during the eighteenth century a more florid style arose, with varied supporting harmonies. 84. Church Music in Germany. A group of eighteenth century composers resisted for some time Italian influences, writing church music of great dignity in the old chorale and motet forms. Others introduced the solo style, and ultimately it found a permanent ])lace in church compo- sitions. The cantata, originating in Italy before 1600, be- SCENB AT THE GeAVE, FROM ScHUTz's " RESURRECTION." The Two Angels. Weib Weib was wei y^i JM > " % - tM . ■ J A- nest du ? ^^ ^^ 'im^ &*= 1 s Accompt. Weib was wei nest du ? 90 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Evangelist. m m^ Sie apricht zu ih The Two Marys. Sie ha-ben mei-nen Her - ren Accompt. - nom - men Sie ha-ben mei-nen ^ ^^^^- ^ Hot* _ var i=g^^^ Her - ren weg - ge - nom men und icb weiss nicht wo sie ihn m $ ge -le get ha - - ben. Ppii g^g^Si ? — t — ; — ^ i -t^ tr bin, imd ich weiss nicht wo sie ihn hin ge - le-get ha g m ben. &c. m came a popular form for church music. In the eighteenth century it consisted of an instrumental introduction, several choruses, arias for solo voices, and a concluding chorale. The mediaeval custom of representing Christ's passion was perpetuated in several forms of passion music, sung on Good Fridays. In its earliest form this consisted of intonations of the story by the priests ; next, chorus singing in motet form replaced the intonation ; and in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries the oratorio form was used, in which the story was told by a narrator, while solo voices and choruses rendered the words of characters and spec- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 91 tators, and congregational chorales reflected the feelings of the auditors. This connection with the church service distinguished the passion from the oratorio proper, which became relegated to concert uses. Many composers of opera, like Schiitz and Keiser, wrote passions, and Italian sentimentality finally detracted from their original sincerity of expression. One reason for the perpetuation of the contrapuntal methods in German church music was the important place allotted to organ music in the service. Under this special incentive, German organists attained a commanding position as players and composers. 85. Organists and Organ Composers. Instrumental music, which had long been wholly subject to vocal music, first began to free itself in distinctive organ compositions. In Theme from a Fugue by D. Buxtehude. ^^^^ e;^^ ^ H"-^^--^ ^F? ^ Venice, during WUlaert's time, these appeared under the names of fantasias or ricercari, and with Claudio Merulo and the Gabrielis there was a definite attempt to evolve instrumental forms. From a transference of the motet to the organ, with subjects used imitatively, the canzone and ricercare resulted, and these finally developed into the fugue. From the use of running passages with supporting chords came the toccata, prelude, and fantasia. The primal lack of coherency was afterwards remedied by the invention of 92 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY characteristic subjects, for whose introduction fixed laws were established. Such laws were worked out by Fresoo- haldi (1583-1644), the distinguished organist of St. Peter's at Rome, whose bizarre capricci show much individu- ality, and who was the first to assert the final fugue form ; the Tuscan Pasquini (1637-1710) ; Sweelinck of Amsterdam, renowned as a teacher; the Germans Froberger,Kerl, Pache.lhel, and Reinken ; and the Danish Buxtehude (b. 1637). The two last named lead directly to J. S. Bach, who was a close student of their works. Feescobaldi 86. The Violin. The result of the prominence of the strings in the orchestra was an increased activity in the manufiacture of this class of instruments. From the many kinds of bowed instruments in use during the Middle Ages a number of viols emerged, all characterized by flat backs and sloping shoulders ; and as an improvement in these the violin family won the first place, .finally driving out the older forms, except in the case of the still-used double bass. During the seventeenth century the violin attained a degree of perfection never surpassed, at the hands of the Cremona makers. The first of these were the Amatis, viol and lute makers from cir. 1520, of whom Nicolo Aniati (1596-1684) reached the highest standard, enlarging the former small model to a violin of graceful shape, with high back and front, and amber varnish. His instruments are renowned for their clear, sweet tone. Antonio Stradivari (cir. 1644-1737), a pupil of Nicolo Amati, perfected the Amati model. He improved its acous- tic properties by lowering and making uniform the arch, strengthening the sides, equalizing the tension, making the scroll more massive, inclining the sound-holes toward OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 93 each other at the top, and perfecting the bridge. His in- struments, extraordinary in number and excellence, have rich and varied varnish. The later ones were increased in length. The Cremonese family of Guarnerius, of whom Joseph (1683 -cir. 1745) was chief, subordinated everything to strength of tone. In Germany Jacob Stainer (1621-1683) made vioHns of less graceful lines than the Cremonese, though patterned after them, and of excellent workmanship, but poor tone. The front was flattened at the top with an abrupt descent, the / holes were short and square-cut, and the varnish was lustrous. The bow was at first clumsy, and was perfected only at the close of the eighteenth century by Tourte, a Frenchman. The demand for cheaper instruments afterwards brought into the market many of inferior grade, though of similar models, so that the art of the first makers became practically extinct. 87. Forms of Violin Music. Together with the making of viohns, violin playing advanced. Solo work became pop- ular, and the best musicians were excellent composers. To serious instrumental compositions the name of sonata was given, to distinguish them from the cantata, or vocal piece ; and sonatas, originally of one movement, afterwards were written in a succession of contrasting but unified move- ments. From the opera overture came the sonata da chiesa, or church sonata, generally of four movements, all in digni- fied contrapuntal style ; from the popular suites, or collections of dances, came the sonata da camera, or chamber sonata. The two forms were soon mingled, however, by the introduc- tion of dance movements into the church sonatas. An important innovation, developed by Torelli (cir. 1657- cir. 1708), was the concerto form of the sonata, in which solo instruments were supported by others, for reinforcement or 94 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY contrast, — a form which afterwards also developed into the string quartet. 88. Violinists. The first violinist whose works still sur- vive was Arcmigelo Corelli (1653—1713), He brought former rambling attempts into concise form, using contrapuntal methods joined to modern harmonic forms, with refined and pleasant ex- pression. The variation form was used extensively in his works. Pupils and followers of his were Vivaldi (d. 1743), Veracini (1685-1750), Somis (1676- 1763), and Tartini (1692-1770), all Corelli of whom, as players and composers, de- veloped new resources in their instru- ment, attained much virtuosity, and infused breadth and dramatic fire into their works. 89. Clavier Players. The popularity of the lute, which aided in developing the harmonic style, yet retarded clavier composition. In Italy, the early or- ganists were clavier players, using the same compositions for both instru- ments. In the seventeenth century Frescohaldi and Pasqnini first asserted a distinctive clavier style, though ham- pered by the clumsy fingering then in vogue. The usefulness of the harpsi- chord in the orchestra, however, turned attention to its capabilities. Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), son of p Scarl^tti the opera composer, reaHzed these to a remarkable extent, introducing brilliant technical work like rapid runs, skips, double notes, and crossing of hands, which were far in advance of his age. His scherzo move- ments are especially vital in style, presaging the scherzi of i i OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 95 Beethoven. A native of Naples, he lived at Madrid the latter part of his life, renowned as a virtuoso. Other Italians wrote chiefly sonatas. D. Scarlatti — Theme from Scherzo. Vivace. The English school continued after Elizabeth's reign, and the first printed clavier compositions were published in the reign of James I, under the title "Parthenia." Purcell published sonatas and suites. The school had, however, little general effect. In France, a refined, elegant, and highly embellished school arose in the middle of the seventeenth century, founded by Jacques Champion de Cham- lonnieres (d. cir. 1670), who was noted at the court of Louis XIV for his remarkable touch. His contemporary WAnglehert published pieces, including variations on airs from LuUy's operas. Several Couperins, all organists, attained eminence, the chief of whom was Franfois, called " Ze Grand" (1668-1733), court clavier and organ player. His little suites, or ordres, contain com- pact tuneful movements of solid contrapuntal character, in the form of allemandes, saraba)ides, and preludes. He COUPEEIN 96 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY also wrote lighter works, rhythmic dance-tunes, and descrip- tive pieces with fanciful titles, all richly embellished. Louis Marehand and his pupil Louis Daquin were other composers of this period. J. P. Rameau, the opera composer, cham- pioned the tempered scale (par. 96), writing pieces in Couperin's style, but of more elevated character. F. CouPERiN — Theme from " The Little Wind Mills." In Germany most of the organists were also clavier composers, vsrriting many sonatas. Summary From attempts to revive Greek simplicity, at the close of the sixteenth century, the opera and oratorio were bom, with solo recitative as their most distinctive feature. But the Italian fondness for melody quickly introduced formal- ism and conventionality, and the opera in the eighteenth century degenerated into a mere vocal display. Meanwhile, from its status as a diversion of the wealthy, it had become popularized, and its influence spread over all Europe. In France something more than melody was demanded, and thus a better balance was obtained between the dramatic and musical elements. English opera, instituted by Purcell, succumbed to Italian influence, as did opera in Germany. But church music in England and Germany was slow to give up its old ideals, and never entirely abandoned them. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 97 Distinctive forms were the chant and anthem in England, and the cantata and passion music in Germany. Instrumental forms were meanwhile sought out. Organ- ists began to develop definite subjects, thus elaborating the contrapuntal forms of the fugue and toccata, involving also harmonic design. Violin makers and players brought their instrument to a foremost place, and the latter evolved the sonata and the concerto. Clavier playing, too, was devel- oped, especially in France, where the small, definite type of composition was in fashion. READING LIST Section 1 Naumann, History, chaps. 15, 18, 19, 23. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 6. Oxford History, vols. 3 and 4. Baltzell, History, lessons 17-22. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 11, 15-18, 22. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 18, 19, 21, 24. Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. Streatfeild, The Opera. Elson, a Critical History of Opera. Section 2 Naumann, History, chap. 20. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 9, 10, 12-14, 19, 20. Dickinson, Music in Western Church, chap. 8. Oxford History, vol. 3. Spitta, Life of Bach (Passion Music). Crowest, English Music. Barrett, English Church Composers. CuMMiNGS, Life of Purcell. RiTTER, Music in England. Hart, The Violin and its Music ; Famous Violin Makers and their Imitators. Stoeving, The Story of the Violin. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4, 5. Histories of Piano Playing by Fillmore, Weitzmann, and Bie. For both sections, see Pratt's History, Part IV, 7 CHAPTER V Bach, Handel, and Gltjck 90. Their Fields of 'Work. The dignity of the music art, which was in danger of becoming utterly degraded through the hypnotic sway of the ItaUan opera style, was again tri- umphantly asserted, in the first half of the eighteenth cen- tury, by the labors of three great musicians. Their work did not at first bear full fruitage, but eventually people werfe bored by the conventional platitudes and inconsistencies of the Italian style, and so came to appreciate the higher ideals which they furnished. Bach and Handel excelled in the lyric style, while Gluck's sphere was the opera. Of the three, Bach had the least immediate influence. His unswerving fidelity to his own lofty conceptions of art estranged him from his pleasure-loving generation; but even- tually the nobler elements in the human character asserted themselves, and as a result his compositions became recog- nized as ideals of musical expression. Handel, on the other hand, had a long education in methods of pleasing the pop- ular taste ; so that in his greatest works, produced late in life, he was able to mingle popular elements with the fine and genuine music sufficiently to make it immediately attrac- tive to his public. Gluck courageously set to work to upset all the deep-rooted conventional ideas of the opera. It was only through the fact that he addressed himself to the Paris public, which had never subscribed to the Italian style, that he was able to get an adequate hearing, and finally to accomplish at least a part of his object. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 99 Section 1 JOHANN SEBASTIAN BAOH, 1685-1750 91. Life. Bach inherited the concentrated genius of a long line of ancestors, who had held most of the important musical positions in Middle Germany since about 1600. Of the peasant class, all of them exhibited the Teutonic charac- teristics of integrity, strong family feeling, and solid art ideals. Bach was born at Eisenach, and obtained his first insight into music from his father, who taught him espe- cially to play the violin. Orphaned at ten, he was taken in charge by his brother Christoph, organist at Ordruff, who gave him some instruction, but did not on the whole encourage his enthu- siasm, which displayed itself in assidu- ous copyingof manuscript compositions. In 1700, becoming a choir boy at the Michealis school at Liineburg, he had the opportunity of studying the organ and clavier. After a short stay at the Weimar court, where he was employed as violinist, he obtained in 1703 the post of organist at Arnstadt. It is significant that while here he was reprimanded for his inno- vations in organ playing during the service. Yet his fame as organist spread, and in 1708 he assumed an important organ position at Weimar. Here he became acknowledged as an organist of the first rank, and here his chief organ works were written, besides cantatas, and arrangements for organ and clavier of concertos by the Italian violinists. Be- coming chapelmaster to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen, he had opportunities for directing and writing chamber music, besides enjoying advantages in the way of travel. The latter part of his life, from 1723, was passed at Leipsic, where he spent his time in unceasing labor as cantor of the J. S. Bach 100 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Thomas school, as organist of two churches, and in volumi- nous composing. His greatest works, the passions, the mass in B minor, and many cantatas, were written here ; but his positions were not lucrative, and he was frequently annoyed by unsympathetic officials. His eyes, too, gave out, and he was totally bUnd for several years preceding his death. 92. Character. Thus his life as a whole was simple and uneventful, devoted to his work and his family. He was twice married : first to a cousin, afterwards to a soprano Extract from Chromatic Fantasie. Ss^. ^ m)i \'l ^^m m^ fflJ3iJ singer, who proved a great help in his work. Of his family of twenty children, several of the boys inherited a part of his genius, although none attained to his eminence. His deep and reverent religious convictions were a determining element of his character, and the keynote to the unfaihng sincerity of his compositions. His unflagging industry is shown in the fact that he not only fulfilled faithfully his official duties, but that he also wrote a vast number of musical works, copied many compositions by other musi- cians, engraved the copperplates for printing his own, and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 101 even manufactured instruments, inventing a new violin and piano. His best pupils were his own sons, for whose in- struction he wrote many of his clavier works. 93. Musical Ideals. Bach is musically a direct descendant of the German organists who had remained faithful to the old contrapuntal school, despite the trivial tendencies of their times. Grounded, then, upon severe organ composi- tion, and bringing to this the depth and sincerity of his religious nature, he was able, in adopting other styles of music, to make them, too, the vehicles of true expression. Thus, primarily an organist, he wrote from the standpoint of instrumental music, and, while resting upon the contrapuntal style and forms, he availed himself of harmonic design to produce coherency of structure. The result was that he gave instrumental music the position of an independent art, satisfying all the recognized conditions as to balance, con- trast, unity, and variety. His vocal works, no less great than his instrumental, have nevertheless the effect of being an outgrowth of the latter. While occasionally using such forms as the aria, he never caters to merely vocal effect, but insists upon forceful expression at all costs. He essayed all forms except that of the opera, giving to each a new significance ; and in addition he occasionally wrote compositions, like his " Chromatic Fantasy," which led into new and daring fields, and pointed the way to styles which developed many years later. 94. Coherency. The most amazing element in his works is that of coherency. His subject-material, based upon an harmonic foundation, is marked by its originality and sig- nificance. Having asserted a theme, he subjects it to infinite analysis, turning it about, lengthening, shortening, or invert- ing it, but always keeping it built into the structure. And the supporting material is also derived logically from subor- dinate themes, or from the principal theme itself, so that 102 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY unity of thought is never abandoned. Especially in the fugues do these characteristics appear ; here, proceeding from the simple to the complex, he interweaves the parts Theme op Fugue No. 8, vol. 1, of Well-Tempered Clavichord. Later use of the same ; — t6;i se of t he same : — Theme — t Theme augmented f^ r^~r:i-r^ ^f=^ BS±: =^;=te ^^ ^^^= ^^ ^ teEJ= ^ =J^ -^ ^^ r ^ ^i1^ until the mind is lost in bewilderment, after which the tangled skein naturally unwinds, and the thought ends broadly, victoriously, simply. In all this the initial and dominant mood of the composition — melancholy, gay, tran- quil — is never lost sight of, so that the whole becomes the exposition of an emotional state. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 103 95. Organ 'Works. As the fugue is primarily an organ form, it was especially adapted to Bach's genius. His many Themes op Two Organ Fugues. Fugue in E minor. ivr^r'"- - 1 - ^ 1 = ^ — "^^ — ^ — p^ - -J-j — Tt *-* j-j- — >H~ J ^ — -.^rr ^c r ^-^{j^ Fugue in G minor. ^h^^r-^-m ^z^^ — * I B* — I —J — =!Et3! organ fugues have never been equalled for grandeur or dig- nity. In addition to these, he wrote many works in the forms of the toccata, prelude, canzone, and fantasia, as well as chorales, arranged both as independent compositions and to accompany the congregational song. 96. Bach and the Clavier. Bach preferred the clavichord to the other claviers of the day on account of its powers of expression ; and in two directions he opened the way to increased resources in this instrument. The first was by adopting a more rational fingering, in which all the fingers were used, instead of the former clumsy method, in which the thumbs hung down in front of the keys while the other fingers lay flat upon them. The second was his champion- ship of the tempered scale (pars. 50 and 89). A controversy had raged for many years over the correct method of tuning the intervals within the octave, and this question Bach, sup- ported by Rameau and others, solved by dividing the octave 104 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY into twelve equidistant semitones, tuning his own clavi- chords to carry out his theory. The matter was thus finally settled, since the tempered scale has been generally adopted from his day. 97. Clavier Works. Wishing to emphasize the inter- changeable character of the scales. Bach wrote twenty-four preludes and fugues, one in each major and minor key, and each with a distinct emotional character. Later he wrote twenty-four more of similar design, and the forty-eight Theme from the "Italian Concerto." Nt^^^'^^^S^CT^^T^ m together form the so-called "Well-tempered Clavichord," a collection the mastery of which is considered the foundational work for pianistic ability. As studies for fugue playing, he wrote a number of two and three part inventions. In the dance forms are his suites, — six small, called " French," and six large, called " English." Six partitas were suites of more dignified style. His concertos for from one to four pianos, and the dramatic " Chromatic Fantasy," complete the list of his best-known clavier compositions. 98. Orchestral Works. Orchestral color, produced by the characteristic use of instruments, was unknown in Bach's time; hence the continuous string tone, only occasionally OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 105 reinforced by other instruments, is apt to be monotonous. A touch of color was sometimes produced by the employ- ment of individual obbligato instruments as accompaniment to vocal solos. Bach's orchestra was small, rarely containing more than fourteen strings ; and his use of instruments now obsolete, like the viola d'amore, makes the performance of some works difficult. He wrote overtures and four suites, of which the most popular, in D major, is for strings, three trum- pets, three oboes, and kettle-drums. His "Concerti grossi" are much freer than those of previous writers : of these the three " Brandenburg " are most famous. Many other combina- tions of instruments are found in his works, which also in- clude solo compositions, such as violin and 'cello sonatas. 99. Vocal Works. Treating the voice in an instrumental manner, Bach uses an enlarged sphere of modulation, seeking emotional expression rather than vocaHzation. His cantatas, nearly three hundred in number, include five sets which provide a cantata for each Sunday and holy-day, and secular cantatas, like the " Coffee Cantata " and the " Bauern Cantate." These have the accompaniment of organ and orchestra. Other famous church compositions are his " Christmas Oratorio," and his celebrated mass in B minor, the length and difficulty of which unfit it for church performance. Particularly noteworthy are his settings of the passion, — one according to St. John ; one, now lost, according to St. Mark ; and the most famous, that according to St. Matthew, which was first produced at the St. Thomas church, Leipsic, in 1729, on Good Friday, the sermon being preached be- tween the two parts. In this, two choirs, each accompanied by orchestra and organ, represent sometimes the crowd, sometimes the apostles, and sometimes commentators upon the scene. A tenor voice sings the part of the narrator, or evangelist; most of the airs are soliloquies by the Daughter of Sion; while the full choirs sing the exquisitely harmonized 106 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY chorales. The instrumentation has continual diversity of part-writing, while obbligatos are skilfully used in the solo work. Altogether, the music, while strongly dramatic, ex- presses the deepest religious feeling, without sentimentality or catering to popularity. Section 2 GEORGE FKEDEEICK HANDEL, 1685-1759 100. Early Life. Unlike Bach, Handel had no musical ancestry. Born at Halle, his propeusities early appeared in his surreptitious practice of the clavichord. His musical studies were, however, opposed by his father, who destined him for the law ; but his father was finally forced to yield his wishes in deference to his patron, the Duke of Weissenfels, who, hearing Haiadel play at the age of seven, in- sisted that he should receive a musical education. After close study of theory, harpsichord, organ, violin, and oboe un- der Zachau, at Halle, he visited Berlin. Here he delighted the Elector by his extemporizing, and here he met noted musicians, like Ariosti and Buononcini; but refusing the Elector's offer to retain him at Berlin, he resumed his studies at Halle. His father's death in 1697 induced him to study law, meanwhile playing at the cathedral at a salary of fifty dollars a year ; but growing restive here, he went to Hamburg in 1703, where he quickly rose from a subordinate position as violinist at the opera house to the leading role of harpsi- chordist. His experiences here stimulated him to write a passion and a number of operas which proved successful. In 1706 he journeyed to Italy. Here several of his operas won him laurels, and he was welcomed by many musicians, including Domenico Scarlatti. Handel ■id OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 107 101. Handel in England. Returning to Germany in 1710, he became chapelmaster to the Elector of Hanover, after- wards George I of England. He soon, however, obtained leave of absence and visited England, where he eventually passed most of his life, becoming natui-alized. Italian opera had been introduced into England in 1705, and the English public were thus prepared to welcome him, fresh from his Italian triumphs, with acclaim ; so that his new operas were sumptuously mounted, and enthusiastically received. He was loaded with honors, and in a short time became a musical autocrat, whose word was law with the savants, litterateurs, and nobility of London. His Te Deum and Jubilate for the celebration of the Peace of Utrecht brought him a pension of $1,000 from Queen Anne; and George I, crowned in 1714, who was at first displeased with him for his long absence from Hanover, was so effectually won over by his " Water Music " that he added another $1,000 to his pen- sion. Becoming chapelmaster to the wealthy Duke of Chandos, at Cannons, he wrote while there his first oratorio, "Esther," harpsichord suites, anthems, and the pastoral serenata, "Acis and Galatea." But a series of troubles now pursued him. In 1720 he was made director of the new Royal Academy, where he produced his opera " Radimisto," and a joint work " Muzio Scevola," of which he wrote one act, while two other promi- nent musicians wrote the others. But his successes incurred for him the jealousy of these rival composers, and his iras- cible disposition involved him in numerous broils with the autocratic singers of the day. The Academy, for which he wrote fourteen operas, collapsed in 1728, and he afterward attempted other operatic ventures on his own account ; but the cabals of rivals, chief among whom was Buononcini, and the waning interest in Italian opera, resulted in two finan- cial failures, during which his naturally rugged health gave way. 108 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 102. Later Life. Oratorios. Convinced at last that the Italian opera had had its day, he turned his attention to the oratorio, a form in which he had already gained success, and in which his best work was eventually accomplished. His first oratorios had been written for the concerts which took Theme from the "Messiah." Amen Chorus. Allegro moderalo. m men, A men, A mkSE^E^^^^^^^E^^^^E^^^^^E^m f men, A JZEEEEEJEEgEgE^EjE^^gEE^E^^ A - me.Q, A - men, men, A men, A pn^ii^iiiai^^il i the place of the opera during the Lenten season. In 1739 his " Saul " and " Israel in Egypt " were produced, of which the latter, now reckoned one of his chief works, proved too ponderous for the public, on account of its heavy choruses. In 1742, invited to Dubhn, he produced various oratorios, among them giving the first performance of the " Messiah." This was first performed in England the next year, and was afterwards followed by the " Occasional Oratorio," " Judas," " Joshua," and others. While writing " Jephtha," in 1751, bhndness overtook him, yet he persisted in his work, pro- iMA OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 109 ducing the " Triumph of Time and Truth " at Covent Gar- den. His death occurred soon after a performance of the " Messiah," which he conducted. He was buried in West- minster Abbey. 103. Personality. Handel imbibed many of the English characteristics during his long residence in England ; and these appear in his works in the form of strong rhythms and blight melodies, which yet have the underlying Teutonic coherency and solidity. To this reflection of inherent English traits is due his dominant position in English music, which caused him to be slavishly imitated by hosts of following English composers. As a man, he was of strict integrity, sincerity, and loyalty ; of so independent a spirit, moreover, that his contempt for rank and his anger at oppo- sition brought him into countless broils with his associates. In his works are reflected this freedom from convention, and this direct and forceful expression. His benevolence and kindness of heart are shown in the fact that he gave the " Messiah " yearly for charity, never realizing a penny from this king of his works. Of great bodily strength and simple tastes, Handel's industry was unflagging, and his writing extraordinarily rapid. Of this his composition of the entire " Messiah " in twenty-four days is an instance. As organist he was considered Bach's equal, and he extemporized readily, even after he became blind. He was never married. 104. Vocal 'Works. Of his forty-two operas, parts stand out as possessing especial merit ; but as a whole their Italian triviality of style has denied them a permanent place. Yet by them Handel came to know his public intimately, and thus when he entered the domain of oratorio he brought to it those elements of effect which told with the audience, and which added a dramatic and epic interest hitherto wanting in this form of music. His first oratorios were given with scenery and costumes ; and, as with a play, Handel made the no OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY interest cumulative, piling up climax upon climax, dominat- ing Italian melodic beauty by expression and contrapuntal writing. His chorus takes the first place, assuming the r6les Imitative Passage from "Israel in Egypt." Alto solo. ^^ *: ESF.feE*E rtr. $ Their land brought forth frogs, Accompaniment. Their land brought forth ^g mu t^^=^>- L.H. l^ I Be frogs ; .en ^^^m ^—^-X ig &c. m B - j 1- ^- ^ =^ of the narrator and personages involved in the action. His use of embellishments and realistic effects, such as the imi- tation of hailstones or the hopping of frogs, has been criti- cised. Some of these devices, however, are extremely clever, and show his command over his orchestra. His free use of material copied from other composers has been the subject of much controversy. Other vocal works were anthems, two passions, ninety- four cantatas, ten pasticcios, some serenatas, and songs. 105. Instrumental 'Works. Handel's orchestration was somewhat crude, though he employed an unusually large number of instruments for his day, and his fondness for wind instruments caused him to be considered noisy. To OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY \\\ fill in the harmonies, the organ or harpsichord was relied upon, for which figured basses (par. 72) were written ; and to supply the parts suggested, succeeding writers, notably Mozart and Franz, composed additional accompaniments. Handel's organ concertos are popular in style, while his concerti grossi and overtures for orchestra are of unequal merit. For the violin he wrote sonatas which are still played. Of his two sets of harpsichord suites, the first is by far the best. Both of them embrace vigorous movements, though the prevalence of a single key through each suite inclines toward monotony. The strict part-writing and the emo- tional significance of Bach's works in this style are lacking. 106. Bach and Handel. The two masters furnish interest- ing points of contrast, and perhaps for that reason exerted a wider influence, since they filled different spheres. Bach lived the quietest of family lives, while Handel was continu- ally in the public eye ; so that the works of the one are introspective and reflective, while those of the other are brilliant and popular. Bach, too, wrote from the organ bench, producing rugged counterpoint and characteristic expression ; while Handel wrote for the singer, giving beauty of melodic form, and opportunities for vocal display. Even in recitative Bach maintained his elaborate and difficult interweavings, while Handel's recitative is Italian in its emptiness. Both were equally backward in instrumenta- tion, relying on the organ for sonority. Handel thus appeals to a much larger public than Bach, while Bach demands more mentality for his comprehension. Although so closely related in their work, the two masters never met. Section 3 CHRISTOPHER WILLIBALD VON GLUCK, 1714-1787 107. Early Life. Though somewhat later in his work than the two preceding composers, Gluck demands a place with them, since he, too, attacked the frivolous tendencies of the 112 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY times, and was instrumental in attracting men's minds to better things. Born near Nuremberg, of humble parents, he received a good education, studying instruments and sing- ing. In 1736 a Viennese patron sent him to Italy, where he studied counter- point and orchestration with Sammar- tini. Here several conventional Italian operas brought him into notice. Invited to London, he produced two operas at the Haymarket; but a subsequent failure, and Handel's scornful criticisms, determined him to study further. Visit- ing Paris, he was much affected by the dramatic character of Rameau's operas. On returning to Vienna he studied aesthetics, sought the society of literary men, and wrote symphonies of a stereotyped character, and several other operas. His work brought the honor of the title of "cheva- lier" from the Pope, and he became director of the Vienna Court Opera. 108. Later Life. Revolutionary Period. His mind, how- ever, had long been maturing plans for a reform in the opera which should bring back the dominance of dramatic sincer- ity. With this purpose he produced his " Orfeo " in 1762, in which he partly exploited these ideas. In "Alceste," Gluck Part of Aria from " Orpheo." Andantino. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 113 red, When day is dy - ing, when day is dy - ing, I|=&0, given in 1767, he proclaimed his principles in a polemical preface. This was followed by "Paris and Helen" in 1770. His boldness provoked severe criticism, and he became con- vinced by a member of the French legation that his proper field for action was in Paris. Proceeding thither, accord- ingly, he launched his theories, and, backed by influential friends, among them his former pupil at Vienna, Marie An- toinette, he produced " Iphig^nie en Aulide " at the Op^ra. This was so successful that he followed it by a revised ver- sion of "Orfeo," 1774 ; and by "Armide," 1777. But a strong opposition brought the talented Italian Piceinni to Paris, and for some time society was divided into two warring factions over the merits of the two composers. In a direct contest, in which each wrote a setting of " Iphig^nie en Tauride," Gluck won an unquestioned victory. 109. Gluck's Theories. Fitted by education and experience as a writer, Gluck was the first great musician qualified to present his theories in such a way as to command the atten- tion of the thinking men of the day. In these theories, and in his defence of them, he anticipated Wagner ; and it was only his lack of musical resources which prevented his taking a similar place. He is sometimes called the father of the music drama, since he insisted on the necessity for making everything, including the overture, choruses, and dances, contribute directly to the dramatic situation. The orchestra acquired much more character, notably by his use of certain groups of instruments to enforce situations and in his repre- 114 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY sentation of moods by different tone-colors ; indeed, this very emphasis of individual situations tended to destroy the unity of details. Recitatives become freer and more expres- sive, while arias appear only in the form of shorter songs. Sometimes the striving after intensity of expression produces an overplus of embellishments. 110. Reformed 'Works. These are comparatively few in number. In " Orfeo," the first of them, his treatment dif- Dance of the Furies, from Andante. ~,=^^P ?— .-^ Armide.' fered from the hundred other settings which preceded him; notably in the grand scene introductory to the second act, in which the entreating Orpheus is repulsed by the furies, and the barking of the three-headed monster Cerberus is delineated in the orchestra. The rest of the work is Italian in character, though the characteristic recitative and the short>- ened arias point toward his later manner. In " Alceste " he OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 115 reached the climax of his dramatic style, while " Paris and Helen " has more subjective treatment, and is not so popular in character. " Iphig^nie en Aulide " shows a union of classic conceptions with the more modern and warmer hu- manizing spirit, which is displayed in impressive climaxes. In " Iphig^nie en Tauride " Gluck rose to his greatest heights, causing the text and music to correspond inti- mately. It is also free from the customary commonplaces, and has greater unity and consistency. Gluck had no immediate followers, owing to the domi- nance of the Italian opera. The French Mehul was the first to carry on his theories, and in the realm of comic opera Bittersdorf also furthered them. SUMMABT J. S. Bach inherited the spirit of the German organ school, which had withstood Italian tendencies. The fugue form appealed especially to his genius for investing complicated details with coherency, and thus his organ, clavier, and voice fugues attained an unsurpassable degree of perfection. His power of genuine expression extended also to other types of church music, and to dance forms ; while, in addition, he wrote works in a freedom of style which pointed toward much later schools. Bach reached the climax of the instru- mental polyphonic style, based on simple harmonic design. Handel gained, through long experience as an opera com- poser, the technique of the stage. Thus, when he turned to the severe form of the oratorio, he applied to it stage methods, with such success that a formerly heavy style of music came within the grasp of the people, who were able to comprehend and enjoy it in its more sincere and elevated setting. Gluck, a man of culture and power of thought, became dis- gusted with the triviality of Itahan opera, in which he had himself gained success, and set himself the task of reviving dramatic truthfulness. In this he was seconded by many of 116 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the thinking minds in France, and as a result produced the works which effectually established his theories, and paved the way for future operatic reforms. READING LIST " Section 1 Spitta, Life of Bach. Biographies of Bach by Williams and Poole. Parry, Art of Music, chaps. 7, 8. Famous Composers and their Works. Naumann, History, chap. 26. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 20 ; Music in the Western Church, chap. 9. Baltzell, History, lessons 24, 28. Oxford History, vol. 4. Grove's Dictionary, article on " Temperament." Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. \. Section 2 Biographies of Handel by Rockstro, Williams, Marshall, Schoelcher. Oxford History, vol. 4. Naumann, History, chap. 27. Baltzell, History, lessons 24, 28. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 21. Henderson, How Music Developed. Haweis, Music and Morals. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Handel, Oratorio, Additional Accom- paniments. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. Section 3 Newman, Gluck and the Opera. Oxford History, vol. 5. Naumann, History, chap. 27. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 9. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 22; Story of Music, chap. 6 Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 23. Historie.'! of the Opera by Apthorp, Streatf eild, and Elaon. See also Pratt's History, Part V for sections 1 and 2; Part VI for section 3. CHAPTER VI The Perfection op the Sonata Form 111. New Instrumental Forms. The enthusiasm for instru- mental music which overspread Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created a demand for adequate forms for its expression. The fugue form had met this demand, in the hands of the masters of the polyphonic school, but with the supremacy of the harmonic style this became no longer available in its original shape, and a strictly harmonic form was therefore sought for. At first the simple forms of the dances and the aria were used for the lighter compositions, while the contrapuntal forms were still used for more serious works ; then both these forms appeared together in the so- natas of the Italian violinists. But as contiapuntal writing became still less in vogue, composers adopted the expedient, in their more important compositions, of broadening the original dance form by adding to it a subject, in the guise either of an Italian melody or the more characteristic fugue theme, and by discussing this subject under various condi- tions. New divisions then came into the original form, and the problem of making all its parts balance nicely and satisfy art conditions became the matter for many experi- ments. These were finally crowned with success in the works of Haydn and Mozart. Furthermore, certain varie- ties of instrumental combinations came to be adopted. The invention and development of the pianoforte furnished a convenient instrument for such experiments, and a multitude of sonatas were written for it, alone, and in combination with other stringed instruments, notably the violin and 118 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 'cello, used either separately or together. The sonata ap- plied to the orchestra became the symphony; applied to strings alone it became the string quartet; and applied to solo instruments with orchestra it became the concerto. Section 1 EXPERIMENTS IN SONATA FORM 112. The Pianoforte. The piano appears as so important a factor in these developments that a sketch of its history is necessary. Its invention is now conceded to Cristofori Cristofori Pianoforte, 1720 (Metropolitan Museum) (1653-1731), a harpsichord maker of Padua, who exhibited four gravicemhali col piano e forte in 1709, which contained the essential characteristics of our modern instrument. In these, hammers, located on a wooden frame above the key- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 119 levers, were directed against the strings by the action of the key, the cubical heads of the hammers being covered with buckskin. Though improved by Cristofori, his pianos were criticised for hard touch and dull tone, and so did not win immediate popularity. After attempts by Marius, a French harpsichord maker, and Sohroeter, a German, a standing was finally given to the piano by Gottfried Silhermann (b. Saxony, 1683), an expert organ builder, who took such good advantage of J. S. Bach's criticism of his early pianos that he afterwards won his unqualified approval. His pianos were in " grand " form, and their action was based on that of Cristofori. The next makers were Friederici of Gera (d. 1779), who employed the "square" form, and Spdth of Ratisbon (d. 1796), who made grands praised for their dampers, which lay on the strings. Georg Andreas Stein (d. 1792), trained in Silbermann's shop, was the inventor of the so-called Viennese action, noted for its lightness of touch, which was due to the fact that the hammers were annexed to the keys. His pianos were adopted by Mozart. The hammer principle of the Cristofori action, which pro- duced a heavier touch but a more solid tone, was perpetu- ated by the English house of Broadwood, whence its name of English action. In France the Erard pianos were most important, designed about 1777 by a clever Strasburg in- ventor named Sebastian Erhard, who introduced many in- genious devices, like the "double action," and founded a house in England. The Pleyel pianos, founded in France in 1807, were of sympathetic tone. The succeeding history of the pianoforte is that of un- ending inventions and the multiplication of manufactories. The piano improved rapidly in quality of tone, sustaining power and compass, while mechanical devices, like the pedals, contributed to its resources. In America, especially, the mechanism and construction of the piano has reached a high degree of excellence, and a power to withstand the severe strain of modern technique. Of the three original 120 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY styles of grand, square, and upright, the square is now no longer made, while the grand is growing in popularity. 113. The Orchestra. The beginning of an independent or- chestral style was established when orchestras began to give concert performances of opera overtures. The technique of these overtures had sunk to a low level in the degenerate days of the opera. As they served no serious purpose, com- posers wrote the scores of these in the most slovenly manner. They frequently directed several instruments to play together on the same parts, and gave only general directions, by means of figured basses, for the notes to be played, besides writing with a total disregard of proper tone-proportion. But with the growth of interest in independent music of this nature a greater degree of accuracy resulted. The overtures played apart, still in the three-movement form, were called symphonies, and their most immediate change consisted in the dropping of the harpsichord, and a consequent addition of responsibility to the orchestral instruments proper. 114. German Orchestras. The greatest orchestral activity took place in Germany, where, in the eighteenth century, every large establishment had its private band, which fur- nished entertainment for the lord of the house and his guests. As there was little printed music available, the leader of the orchestra was forced to act as composer, and tlius a vast deal of music was written, and many important problems were worked out. At first the music was thin and monotonous ; the strings played constantly, while occasion- ally other instruments — generally oboes, flutes, or horns — reinforced the tone. Such were the symphonies of Wagen- seil, '■'• a Jf. -parties obligees, avec ears de chasse ad libitum.'" A great advance, however, was made by the Bohemian vio- linist Stamitz (1717-1761), leader for the Elector of Mann- heim, who made a study of the possibilities of tone-color. Writing much more accurately for the strings, he paid care- ful attention to phrasing, bowing, and the like, developing OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 121 the crescendo and diminuetido, which up to this time had been a totally unknown element. The Belgian Grossec (1734-1829) developed the element of effect in France, as did also K. P. E. Bach in Germany, who chose subjects decided and vigorous in character, and introduced clever and interesting modulations. In the smaller German establishments, a band of four string players, frequently made up of servants, furnished the music. Thus developed a class of composition finally known as the string quartet. 115. Sonatas. A composite picture of the early violin sonatas is somewhat as follows : — first, the intellectual move- ment, a fugal allegro, following a slow introduction ; second, the soulful movement, an adagio ; third, the rhythmic move- ment, a lively dance. These characteristics were generally retained in succeeding sonatas, though the number of move- ments varied greatly. In the symphonies a minuet was introduced between the second and last movements. But the first movement changed most as to structure ; and these changes are best illustrated by a study of the clavier sonatas up to the time of Haydn. The underlying dance form, taken as a basis for the first movement, or sonata form, as it came to be called, consisted of two parts ; the first, short, a transition from the initial key to a contrasting key ; the second, longer, a return from the contrasting key to the original key. To enlarge this, com- posers began by giving a much greater definition to the first key. Then, in proceeding to the contrasting key, the traces of a new and contrasting subject were sometimes visible. The longer second part of the dance form was now length- ened to nearly twice the limits of the first, and was made to embrace, first, a free treatment of material already presented, with digressions into foreign keys ; -and, second, a return to the original subject and key, in which the movement closed. For the other movements sometimes this form was used, with necessary modifications, and sometimes dances were 122 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY introduced, while the air with variations was also common. Another simple form was the rondo, in which a theme re- curred in its original key several times, separated by free digressions or episodes. 116. Italian Sonata 'Writers. _Z). Scarlatti entitled several of his light and active pieces "sonatas," although they had but one movement, of which the two halves were approxi- Theme from Sonata by Paradies. Vivace. tr i^i^a ^^ -^^rt^ ii i^^H#4 d ^ m mately equal in length, and were occupied by the exploita- tion of a number of characteristic figures. Francesco Durante (1684-1755) wrote sonatas, each of which consisted of a fugal studio and a lively divertimento, in the same key. Alherti (d. 1740 ?) wrote purely harmonic though monotonous two- movement sonatas. Pier Domenioo Paradies (1710-1792) also left two-movement sonatas, though of a much higher grade. His first movements are brilliant allegros, containing attractive melodies, while his second movements have rapid imitative work which requires a crisp technique. OUTLINES OF MUSIC .HISTORY 123 117. German Sonata Writers. While the sonata principle arose in Italy, it was in Germany that it attained fruition. Here the earhest printed clavier sonatas were by J. Kuhnau (1660-1722). His " Fresh Fruit" sonatas of four or five movements, and his "Bible" sonatas, quaintly descriptive of Bible stories, and containing from three to eight move- ments, have little in common with the later sonata form, and rely chiefly on contrapuntal effects. Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) was an ardent champion of music, Theme from Sonata by K. P. E. Bach. Allegro. 1^ =T*= himself composing sonatas for the flute; and during his reign clavier music became much cultivated. A number of musical journals whicli flourished from 1700 gave an impetus to composition, and a chance for composers to hear and profit by each others' experiments. Stolzel, Benda, Muller, Wolf, Marpurg, and Wagenseil were among these ; while several of Bach's sons, although not inheriting in full their father's genius, did important work in the new style. Of these, William Friedemann (1710-1784), the Halle Bach, possessed great musical gifts, which were unfortunately clouded by his dissipated habits. His three-movement sonatas are coherent and compact, developing themes of much character. The London Bach, J. Christian (1735-1782), lived long in Italy, 124 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY where he absorbed the Italian style ; and when he afterwards became a successful teacher in London, his clavier sonatas enjoyed great popularity on account of their melodious themes. His first movements are the first to contain two complete subjects. It is also noteworthy that he was the first eminent musician to adopt the pianoforte. The Berlin Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel (1714-1788), the second son, was the most talented of Bach's children ; and this talent he displayed to advantage during his long residence at the court of Frederick the Great, where he was employed as harpsichordist. All these contributed individual ele- ments to the form finally adopted. The assertion of themes in the first and third sections of the sonata form became more definite. The middle section, however, gave more trouble, since there was no precedent for the harmonic development of themes. At first composers fell back upon contrapuntal work ; then themes were repeated in kindred keys ; finally portions of themes, interwoven with modulations, formed a climax which led to the final section. K. P. E. Bach Section 2 FEANCIS JOSEPH HAYDN, 1732-1809 118. Early Life. The scion of an Austrian peasant family was destined to bring these varied attempts into a fixed form. The second of twelve children, Haydn was born at Rohrau, lower Austria, of honest and religious parents, of whom the father was a wheelwright and the mother a cook. As the lit- tle "Sepperl" showed decided musical tendencies almost from the cradle, he was taken charge of by a distant cousin, and put to school at Hainburg. In the school choir he became a fine singer, and gained some facihty with musical instru- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 125 Haydn ments, so that he attracted the attention of Reutter, chapel- master at the important church of St. Stephen's at Vienna, who undertook his education. But, although Haydn ad- vanced in knowledge of instruments and singing, Renter neglected him, teaching him little or no musical theory, and fi- nally turning him into the streets when his voice was no longer serviceable. An outcast in Vienna, he found a friend in Spangler, a tenor singer, almost as poor as himself. By doing all kinds of odd music jobs he contrived to hire an attic, where he pored over K. P. E. Bach's scores with the aid of a tumble- down harpsichord. In the same house the distinguished opera hbrettist Metastasio happened to reside, and becoming interested in Haydn he introduced him to the eminent vocal teacher Porpora. To the latter Haydn became serviceable as accompanist ; and in this capacity he was brought into contact with people of wealth and influence, some of whom recognized his ability. Among these was a certain von Fiimberg, to whom Haydn dedicated some string quartets, and who in return secured for him a position as director and composer for the Bohemian Count Morzin, in 1759, in which capacity he had control of a small but excellent orchestra. 119. Service with the Esterhazys. On the dismissal of this orchestra, in 1761, he was immediately engaged by Prince Paul Anton Esterhazy, at Eisenstadt, Hungary. The Ester- hazy family were eminent patrons of music, and Haydn remained attached to them for the remainder of his life, continuing in active service for thirty-three years. Freed from pecuniary cares, having under his direction an excel- lent orchestra and a band of trained singers, and incited by the warm appreciation of his patrons, he was able to devote all his energies to the development of his genius, and to experimenting with his fund of musical ideas. At first he 126 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY was somewhat hampered by the fact that his position was secondary to Werner, a musician of the old school ; but after Werner's death, in 1766, Haydn became first in command. Prince Nicholas Esterhazy succeeded his brother in 1762, and assumed a state of regal magnificence. At the new summer palace Esterhdz, which rivalled Versailles, Haydn was cut off from the world for three-quarters of the year in a daily round of rehearsals, concerts, and composition, upon which the two theatres made constant demands. Occasionally the whole establishment would -visit Vienna ; and by this pub- licity Haydn's fame spread abroad, while his printed sym- phonies, trios, and quartets were eagerly demanded. 120. Later Life. On the death of Prince Nicholas, in 1790, Haydn found his services no longer actively required, al- though the succeeding prince pensioned him liberally. He was now free to accept an invitation of Salomon, the London publisher, to produce some of his works in England. The result was two visits to England, during both of which he was welcomed with enthusiasm and received special marks of honor, such as the degree of Doctor of Music at Oxford. In the course of these visits he also produced twelve new sym- phonies, which are recognized as the culmination of his or- chestral style. The rest of his life he passed in Vienna, writing his two great oratorios, and receiving numerous honors from at home and abroad. His death occurred soon after the bombardment of Vienna by the French. 121. Character. He was thoroughly a Teuton by nature. This is shown in his love of life, resulting in an optimistic view that drew around him scores of friends, who gave him the soubriquet of " Papa Haydn." Joined to this was a love of humor which caused him trouble in his boyhood through his practical jokes, and which never afterward deserted him. Next, his loyalty is to be mentioned, manifested in his kind- ness to an uncongenial wife, and in his faithfulness as son, brother, and employee. His breadth of view and freedom OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 127 from jealousy is shown in his admiration for the younger Mo- zart, whom he declared to be " before God, the greatest living composer," and from whom he did not hesitate to learn. As a writer he was careful and painstaking, showing his industry by bequeathing to tlie world over eleven hundred works. 122. Style. These traits of disposition are amply reflected in his works. Everywhere the sunny, kindly spirit appears, while melancholy strains are only occasionally introduced as passing clouds. Quaint conceits, Uke the startling chord Theme from Symphony, showing the "Surprise" Chord. Andante. in the " Surprise symphony," show his effervescent humor, while his loyalty to his national heritage is found in the countless tunes founded directly on the peasant folk-songs. Simplicity and absence of artifice are everywhere apparent ; he speaks straight from the impulse of the heart. 123. Haydn and the Sonata Form. The numberless experi- ments in elaborating the first movement form for the sonata had brought it to a point where Haydn was able to catch the exact principle of proper balance between its sections. By the immense number of movements which he wrote in this perfected form he effectually demonstrated its ability to meat all demands upon it. Briefly, this form was as follows : — 128 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY \st Section 2ii Section 3rf Section Exposition Development of Reprise 1st theme themes presented, 1st theme, in original key Transition finally modulat- Transition 2d theme ing to the 2d theme Close Close (Coda). In the first section the transition leads to the key of con- trast, in which the second theme and the close occur ; in the third section the transition does not lead away from the ori- ginal key, in which the second theme and the final ending are asserted. Thus, three distinct parts take the place of the original dance form ; and in Haydn's works the divisions of these parts are marked off by decisive cadences. 124. Clavier Works. A convenient opportunity for study- ing Haydn's use of form is afforded in his fifty-three piano sonatas. They have sometimes two, but more frequently three movements, and the first of these is invariably cast in Theme from Sonata in F Major, showing Embellishments. Allearo moderoio, i^-l .-f OUTLINES OF MU^IC HISTORY 129 the sonata form. The bright first theme is short and con- cise, while the second is more diffuse, sometimes similar to the first, and sometimes contrasting with it. The develop- ment section is generally short, and the third section bal- ances the first accurately. The second, or slow movement, generally in the sub-dominant key, is sometimes the develop- ment of a broadly expressive air, in which triUs and other embellishments make up for the thinness of tone of Haydn's instrument ; and sometimes a theme with variations, in which case the variations are all in the same key, which, however, changes to the minor in one of them. The third, quick movement, is either a dance, a rondo, or it has the first movement form. Other clavier works were fantasias, rondos, variations, concertos, and the like, all of which show the same delicate spirit, dainty passage work, and fragile but perfectly balanced harmonies. 125. Other Chamber Works. These include sonatas for piano and violin, trios for piano and strings, and similar works, all cast in the same general form. The most im- portant of Haydn's chamber compositions, however, are his string quartets, seventy-seven in number. Haydn has been inaccurately called the father of the string quartet and the symphony. While he did not originate them, he gave them once and for aU. an adequate art form, and the quartets still hold their place as models in this respect. The flexibility and contrapuntal ease with which each part is treated are never allowed to obscure the melodic interest. In one of these quartets occurs the th,eme and variations on the Austrian Hymn, sufficient alone to have secured Haydn's fame. 126. Symphonies. Haydn's one hundred and twenty-five symphonies amply show his advancement from the restricted lines of his predecessors to a fully developed vehicle of ex- pression. The chief of these were written after he had 180 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY learned from Mozart; and about eighteen are now consid- ered to be representative of his best style. They follow, with larger scope, the lines of the piano sonata. The first Themes from Symphony in D Major. Allegro. ^ ^^^^"J ^HJEEEJ ^ ^ — -( & --■■ S- f m. ^m ^^^^^^^gi^ 1 13^ d=J= r 'm ^=^^ ^m ■-^ ^^=^^M te^E m [ m^f :i &c. ^^m Minuet. _^ . .^ movement generally has a short slow introduction ; and a sparkling minuet is inserted between the last two. Each OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 131 moYement is complete in itself, and always in strong con- trast to its predecessor. Haydn increased the number of instrumental parts from the original eight used by Stamitz, to seventeen in his latest symphonies, including, besides the string quartet, horns, oboes, bassoons, trumpets (each in pairs), kettledrums, and finally clarinets. Thus he established the complete wind- band, which he used sometimes to support the strings, and sometimes in dialogues with them. There is always a normal proportion of instruments. Each is treated with clearness, whUe contrapuntal writing is fluent, although it sometimes induces thinness of effect. 127. Vocal Works. These include a number of Italian operas, now obsolete, and many simple and fresh songs, cantatas, and masses which have been criticised for their popular style, but nevertheless still hold their place in the Catholic Church. Most important are his oratorios, the " Creation," and the " Seasons," of which the former is by far the best. Both of them, written after his English visits, show the influence of Handel. In the first two parts of the " Creation," especially, are found fresh and tuneful melo- dies, — which are never overpowered by the orchestra, and are full of vital rhythms, — effective choruses, like " The Heavens are Telling, " and quaint, humorous orchestral de- scriptions of nature. The third part, with its continuous duet, is less interesting. Section 3 WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZAET, 1756-1791 128. Early Life. No more striking example of precocious genius is known than that afforded by Mozart's career. He was born at Salzburg. His father, himself a musician of ability, quickly recognized his son's exceptional gifts, which displayed themselves in attempts at composition from the 132 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Mozart age of four. So he began Wolfgang's musical education jointly with that of his sister Maria Anna, who was five years older. In 1762 he set out with the two children on the first of several toure, during which they appeared as concert performers and composers. After suc- cesses in Munich and Vienna, Paris was visited. Here the children became the pets of the brilliant Versailles court, and here four sonatas of Wolfgang's were printed. Similar successes attended them in London. After this journey Mozart applied himself to serious study in Salz- burg, producing his first opera in Vienna. Soon also he was appointed concertmaster to the Archbishop of Salzburg, a post which afterwards became irksome through ill-treatment, and which proved a constant source of trouble. On several Italian jom-neys, Mozart excited great enthusi- asm, receiving signal honors, such as the election to an ex- clusive musical society, and producing a number of operas with success. Returning to Salzburg, he was finally forced to abandon his post with the new archbishop, and set out for Paris, at the age of twenty-one, with his mother. On the way he stopped at Augsburg, where he saw and adopted for his concerts the Stein pianos ; and at Mannheim, where he learned much from the orchestra founded by Stamitz, and became enam- ored of a soprano singer, Aloysia Weber, whose sister he afterwards married. Arriving at Paris, he met with a cold reception, as the Gluck-Piccinni controversy (par. 108) was occupying the musical public ; and on the death of his mother he returned to Salzburg, resuming his old position. The opera " Idomeneo," his first great dramatic work, was written for the Munich carnival of 1781; and in the same year, turned adrift by the overbearing archbishop, he went to reside with the Weber family, then living in Vienna. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 133 129. Later Life. His marriage with Constanze Weber marked the beginning of a series of troubles which filled his remaining life. He secured no lucrative position ; and this fact, coupled with mismanagement of household affairs and the care of a sickly wife, involved him in continual pecuniary difficulties, which occasional lesson-giving and the sale of his works were powerless to prevent. Meanwhile, some of his greatest compositions were produced. In 1782, at the Empe- ror's conunand, appeared " Die Entfuhrimg aus dem Serail." The " Marriage of Figaro," produced successfully in 1786, was so enthusiastically received at Prague that he moved there, bringing out his "Don Giovanni" in 1787. Returning to Vienna, he wrote "Cosi fan tutte," " Titus," and " The Magic Flute." An anonymous commission to write a requiem mass was accepted by him ; and, worn out by his troubles, he conceived the idea during its composition that it was destined for his own funeral. Such proved to be the case, as he did not live to complete it. His burial in a pauper's grave was in accord with the neglect which had always attended him. 130. Character. Mozart has often been compared to Raphael. Both led short but brilliant lives, and revealed rare ex- amples of inborn genius. Mozart was not only abnormally sensitive to musical impressions, but was equally quick in assimilating them. Thus he absorbed each kind of music with which he came into contact; and thus he exhibited wonderful versatility, composing equally well Italian arias and abstruse contrapuntal works. He seems to have written music as readily as others write words. As a man he was insignificant looking, except when playing ; was fond of society and dancing, and was thoroughly impractical in worldly matters. Unobsequious, he would not truckle to patrons ; and this fact, coupled with his unmethodical habits, made him unpopular as a teacher. His most celebrated pupil was J. If. Hummel. 134 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 131. Clavier Style. Beginning his career as a virtuoso, Mozart cultivated a style which pervaded his clavier works. From the facilitated fingering announced by Bach, and the light action of the Stein pianos, came the continual use of delicate scale passages and embellishments, and a breaking up of accompanying chords into arpeggio figures. The fashion of extemporizing, too, was provided for in his con- Themes from Sonata in E Minor. y^ pp ^gjjgg^ g ^g^:^^ ^ i^^^^; J=,=£ ^^ -^- I fe^^^^^iS 3^i ^=f^ ^^^^mm^ r l^^^^ip^^^S^^ i ^^^= i •^•H^ i •.— , •- ..-Ji. ^m t±=t m =B»^ &a ^m certos, according to the custom of the time, by pauses at the ends of movements, where the performer might extemporize freely on the themes presented. Such cadenzas were written out in the works of later composers. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 135 On account of their very virtuoso style, however, his piano works, though of unquestioned musical value, are now anti- quated. The twenty- two sonatas, generally of three move- ments each, have the form prescribed by Haydn ; but their treatment is individual mth Mozart, more nearly correspond- ing to that of the London Bach. In his first movements the themes have more contrast ; since the first is thematic, while the second is an Italian melody, more compact than the second theme as used by Haydn. There is much light and , shade, the elegance of melody making for grace rather than force ; the return of a passage grows in charm through grace- ful and pertinent embellishments ; and sonority is sought by the frequent delayed cadences. A greater depth of melan- choly appears in his serious strains, yet the lines of tonal beauty are never departed from. Thus Mozart's music marks the perfection of the formal instrumental classic style. The sonatas in A major, F major, and the fantasia and sonata in C minor are especially interesting; in the last- named his contrapuntal facility is evident. Other fantasias, rondos, and variations are numerous. In the twenty-eight concertos for one or two pianos the balance is finely main- tained between the piano and orchestra, and the musioal pertinency of the brilliant style is always predominant. 132. other Chamber Works. The most important of these are his string quartets, of which the six dedicated to Haydn are most popular. All are characterized by individualization of instruments without contrapuntal confusion, and by a clearness and polish that show much reworking. His string quintets, in which the viola part is doubled, are equally important ; and there are many compositions in varied forms — serenades, nocturnes, cassations, divertimenti — which treat solo instruments with the support of others in varied . com- binations. His violin and piano sonatas are melodious and modulatory, but not deep. 136 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 133. Symphonies. Some of his most important work was done in this foi'm. Writing his first symphony at eight, he afterwards learned from Haj'dn, then from Stamitz's band; and, assimilating and enlarging upon this instruction, he became Haydn's model. Thus his final orchestra had prac- tically the same dimensions as Haydn's. He was the first to use the clarinet and establish its place in the orchestra; so also he recognized the independence of the wind band, opposing it alternately to the strings, for color contrasts. Trombones he used only in his opera scores, where their sparing employment gives tremendous effect. Themes from First Movement of Mozart's Symphony in G Minor. Allegro moUo. Strings. With lower octaves. I r ri> <• -— «^>-i — V4 f j ^ j ^ j —s^ =d I ^-v rn — ^ mr^ ^^f=^ m I ' Sus. W. j ^hM— ^^^ ^ ^^ ^=^^'= ^l =r^=F-FFFf= E^E^^E^ ^^1 s. -r ^ r 1 ^^ ^m &c. |g Ef-=f-H"f^-fHEpEEErE^^ liil OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 137 Mozart developed rapidly after his contact vnth. the Mann- heim- band; and the list of his forty-one symphonies culmi- nated in the three produced at Vienna in 1788, — the E flat, the G minor, and the C with fugue, called " Jupiter." These show a free treatment of design, — short, subtle excursions from the principal key, variations in the repetitions by altera- tion of melodic and harmonic details. His cantilena has more depth and range of expression, with an undercurrent of melancholy. 134. Vocal Works. These embrace a few lieder to poor words, but with naive music; some concert arias; church music, including fifteen rich and beautiful masses, and the unfinished requiem, highly dramatic in style; several can- tatas and oratorios, and operas. In the operas he attempted to found a German national school, but his distinctively Italian cast of thought and his lack of resources made this impossible. Yet his mastery of Canzone, FROM "Marriage of Figaro." Cberubino. Yoi che sa - pe - te che co - sa ^ a - mor. ^ ^n [ -^—^ ^S^^^^^^ rr y; * I ^ J J^-iJiTt^^J-'-^n e P 138 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ^^^ ^^ 3:: -m ne, ve - de 1' ho nel cor. PESi wwmw^^ orchestral effect, his coherent treatment, and the beauty of his melodic style secure for them a permanent place. Al- ready in " Idomeneo " the meaning given to each note by the orchestra, and the articulate character of the whole, make it an epoch-marking work. "Figaro" and "Don Juan" felic- itously combine the styles of serious and comic opera. Their rapid dialogue, especially in the finales, is exceed- ingly vivid, although in some parts formality occasionally detracts from dramatic intensity. The singspiel is followed in " Die Entfuhrung " and " The Magic Flute." The latter, founded on a Masonic subject, prefigures the romantic opera, and contains many dignified and noble passages. Summary The form of the sonata, which had been the subject of ex- periment during many years, was finally fixed by Haydn and Mozart, and applied by them to all large instrumental works. Many sonatas were written for the piano, which, invented by 1709, was finally adopted first by J. C. Bach, and then by Mozart for his concert work. Orchestras became popular in Germany, and, increasing in importance, were made the subject of more careful study, so that their component parts acquired a better proportion, and the possibilities of instrumental combinations became better understood. Haydn applied the sonata form so successfully to the sym- phony and the string quartet that he has been called the OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 139 father of both. In his later work he borrowed ideas from Mozart. Through their united efforts, therefore, the sym- phony orchestra took its present shape, and its music ob- tained an adequate medium for expression. While Haydn fixed this form, Mozart perfected its outhnes and realized in it the climax of abstract beauty. Both Haydn and Mozart wrote for the church. Haydn composed tuneful oratorios after Handel's pattern, while Mozart wrote operas which, though mainly Italian in style, were yet models of dramatic sincerity. READING LIST Section 1 Oxford History, vol. 5, chaps. 2, 7 ; also Vols. 3 and 4. Histories of Piano Playing by Weitzmann, Bie, Fillmore. Shkdlock, The Pianoforte Sonata. Grove's Dictionary, article on Sonata. Henderson, How Music Developed, chaps. 7-12. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 9. Henderson, The Orchestra and Orchestral Music, part 4. Baltzell, History, lesson 29. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 14. Section 2 Oxford History, vol. 5, chaps. 8, 9. Haydn, Biographies by Townsend, Nphl, Hadden. Grove's Dictionary, article on Haydn. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 12. Henderson, The Orchestra, part 4. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 11. Naumann, History, chap. 29. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 24. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Form, Sonata, Symphony, Quartet, Oratorio. Baltzell, History, lesson 33. GoEPP, Symphonies and their Meanings, 2 vols. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. 140 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 3 Oxford History, vol. 5, chap. 9. Mozart, Biographies by Jahn, Gehring, Holmes. Grove's Dictionary, article on Mozart. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 25. Baltzell, History, lessons 24, 31. Mozart's Letters. Henderson, How Music Developed, chap. 12. Histories of Piano Playing by Fillmore, Weitzmann, Bie. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Concerto, and as under sect. 2. Histories of the Opera by Apthorp, Streatfeild, Elson. Henderson, The Orchestra. Goepp, Symphonies and their Meanings. Naumann, History, chap. 30. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. See also Pratt's History, Parts V and VI for section 1, Part VI for sections 2 and 3. Apollo and the Muses. — Gidlio Romano (Pitti Gallery, Florence.) CHAPTER VII Thb Transition to the Romantic Style 135, Democratic Ideas. The spirit of human equality which voiced itself at the close of the eighteenth century in the American and French Revolutions influenced also all forms of art. One result was that artists who had before depended upon wealthy patrons for their maintenance now found means of support and inspiration in public patronage ; another was that they turned their attention from classic subjects and ideals of abstract beauty to the consideration of every-day life and the thoughts of the every-day individual. In Germany, after Napoleon's overthrow, a vital national spirit arose which furnished still greater incentive to such ■ study, and poets and musicians began to take for their sub- jects not only the real peasant life, but also the rich fund of traditions and myths perpetuated in German folk-lore. Thus arose the romantic school, which did not at first abandon the formal lines of preceding art, yet rendered these subject to the intense expression of individual emotion. Section 1 LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN, 1770-1827 136. Early Life. Beethoven's position in relation to this romantic movement was unique, in that he furnished a link between it and the formal style. Thus, conserving the best fruit of each, he spoke easily in the art forms which had been proven adequate by long experiment, and dominated these forms by expression deep, intense, and original. Like 142 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Haydn and Mozart, he was of peasant birth, his mother being daughter of a cook, and his father a singer in the Elector of Cologne's chapel. Born at Bonn, he showed early musical talent, and was taught first by his father and then by local musicians, especially Neeje, of the court chapel. At eight he played the violin well, and at twelve had mastered the chief contrapuntal clavier works. His first compositions were also published in 1783, and his remarkable extemporizing attracted the attention of , influential people. This gift, displayed at Vienna in 1787, won the praise of Beethoven Mozart, who asserted that "he would make a noise in the world." Beethoven's mother and sister died in this year, and his home was soon rendered unbearable by the growing intemperance of his father, a part of whose salary was made over to him by the courts, in 1789. Mean- while he formed valuable friendships with the cultured von Breiming family, who aroused his interest in German and English literature, and with Count Waldstein, his staunch supporter in after years. 137. First Period. In 1792 he was sent by the Elector to Vieima, where he studied with Haydn, and afterwards with the contrapuntist Alhrechtsherger and others ; but while these older musicians looked askance at his free ideas, he was warmly welcomed in Viennese society, where his mu- sical gifts excused his eccentric and independent manners. Theme from Third Piano Concerto. Allegro con brio. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 143 He also appeared as a concert pianist, making his first ap- pearance with his C major concerto in 1795. His compo- sitions during this time, extending to the year 1803, and embracing those from opus 1 to opus 50, are classed as be- longing to his first period, and include the first two sympho- nies, the first three piano concertos, many piano sonatas, etc. 138. Second Period. During this time, extending to 1815, his hearing, which had begun to trouble him about 1800, Themes from Funeral March in Third Symphony (Eroica). Adagio a^sai. V'^ 144 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY m bp — — ^ r f-- I 1 :i:^t^ grew steadily worse, obliging him to use an ear-trumpet. The faithlessness of his two brothers and the care of an ungrateful nephew added to his troubles, which so preyed upon an irritable disposition as to cause him at times to become suspicious of his best friends. Meanwhile domes- tic mismanagement, and frequent changes of servants and lodgings, kept him in a constant tui'moil. Yet he turned from these annoyances to write some of the sublimest strains in music — the " Eroica " symphony, the opera " Fidelio," piano concertos, sonatas, and the like. 139. Third Period. This, extending to his death, marked the culmination of his troubles, for by 1822 he was stone- deaf. Yet many faithful friends rallied about him and pre- served him from pecuniary want, while so great was his fame that it is said 20,000 people attended his funeral. His most Themes from the Ninth Symphony. Opening Theme. :^.M OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 145 Theme of Choral Part (Words from Schiller's " Ode to Joy ")• Allegro assai. W^^^^f^^^^^=^^- iBt end V 2nd. 1 1^ ^^£ ^ f^p^ F^^ ^^^^^m^ ^ ^gJEEE M'— MJ E^^g^g^ -^ iE ^p^ daring works, the ninth symphony, the Solemn Mass in D, and his later piano sonatas, were fruits of this time, all of which called down a storm of hostile criticism which was finally silenced by the recognition of their greatness. 140. Character. Beethoven exhibited a strange mixture of unworldliness and sublimity of thought. When engaged in composition, he frequently spent days apparently uncon- scious of his environment, sometimes performing absurd actions in his absent-mindedness. Yet his neglect of his person and surroundings did not at all extend to his writ- ings, which were scrupulously exact in notation, and were frequently reworked many times. His nature was that of a sturdy Teuton, of unimpeachable uprightness and depth and originality of thought; slow, moreover, to mature, in marked contrast to Mozart. In social circles his eccentric manners won him the title of an " original "; independent of spirit, he treated marks of rank with disdain. An enthusi- ast over democratic principles, he at first hailed Napoleon as the champion of liberty, dedicating to him his " Eroica " symphony; but on learning of Napoleon's election as Emperor, he trampled on the title-page in rage. With his contemporaries he mingled but little ; and his impatient spirit unfitted him for teaching, so that of his pupils Ferdinand Ities alone attained eminence. His mind lent itself most readily to composition for the orchestra, and traces of this orchestral cast of thought are found in all his other works. Many effects afterwards em- bodied in his symphonies were discovered by experiment upon the piano, so that the piano works are in musical re- 10 146 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY source generally in advance of the symphonic. From this it also follows that the division of his works into fixed periods is somewhat arbitrary, since these necessarily overlap. 141. Virtuosity. Like Mozart, Beethoven was eminent as a pianist, and was thus able to study the effect of his piano compositions upon his hearers. But, employing a piano which furnished far more resources, he was fitted to de- velop these to the expression of much greater individuality. Thus we find sonorous effects, full, rich chords ; a more sus- tained style in these chords, and in the melodies, made possible by the fuller tone of the piano and by pedal assistance ; and the use of a greater compass, which gives not only more bril- Hancy but also more contrast by the employment of different registers. In place of Mozart's light, delicate runs, we find runs with double notes, octaves, or interwoven with chords. 142. Piano Sonatas. The thirty-eight sonatas, extending from opus 2 to opus 111, and written from 1796 to 1822, claim first attention. The earlier ones have four move- ments, but later the number varies. Beethoven begins ap- parently where Haydn and Mozart left off, although in hit very first sonata we find enlarged forms, and a depth of ex- pression in the slow movement never before attained. The sonata form, employed in the majority of his large works, gradually becomes more elastic, sometimes being prefixed by a slow introduction, as in the " Senate Pathdtique," opus 13. The coda is finally enlarged to a fourth part. In the two sonatas, opus 27, the freedom in the use of form is a plausi- ble reason for calling them "Fantasia-Sonatas," while mth the " Waldstein," opus 53, and the " Appassionata," opus 57, form is quite subordinated to vigorous emotional treatment. Titles are occasionally given, as an index to the general mood. In the last five sonatas, beginning with opus 101, Beethoven adopts a number of short movements, each em- bodying some intense personal expression, and all connected OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 147 by the principle of contrast ; while in the free use of form he even returns to the fugue, which is embodied in a free polyphony, mingled with modern harmonies. Pertinency and connection of thought are most noticeable in the sonatas. The themes are short, sharply defining the key, while the more tender second theme contrasts with the vigorous first. In the connecting passages the transition is made so organic by the continued use of thematic material, that there is no perceptible break in the thought, the ideas overlapping and coalescing perfectly with one another, with an infrequent appearance of the full cadence. Other de- vices for unity are sequences, the piling up of climaxes, and the use of characteristic subordinate figures. Emotional ideas are emphasized by decided and original rhythms and accents, for which Beethoven employed an unheard-of number of expression marks. His slow movements, full of deep feeling, are generally in the abridged sonata form, or the rondo form. The minuet, when used, becomes later the lighter and quicker scherzo ; while the last movement is frequently cast in a union of the sonata and rondo forms developed by Beethoven, and attains a climax of intensity in contrast to the somewhat trivial style of the earlier writers. Although there is seldom thematic unity between the movements, the organic unity of thought in each sonata is quite evident. 143. other Piano Compositions. Beethoven showed equal ■ progress in his numerous variations, in which he finally comes to treat the theme with a marvellous command of resources, varying it not only melodically, but also rhythmically and harmonically. Among his solo piano works there are also r a number of rondos, bagatelles, waltzes, etc. [ . The five piano concertos embody the technical resources _, of the times ; these, however, are always subordinated to the musical content. In the fourth and fifth, which are the h most elaborate, he abandoned his former custom of allow- 148 OUTLINES OP MUSIC HISTORY ing extemporization in the cadenzas, writing the entire movement in full. 144. Orchestral Works. Reethoven wrote nine overtures and nine symphonies,* adopting for these the orchestra as constituted by Haydn and Mozart. The clarinet is a fixed member, while other instruments, especially trombones, Themes pkom the Fifth Symphony. First Movement, 1st Theme. Allegro con brio. Et First Movement, 2d Theme. $ 3^^ ^a^EEiiEE^ ^ ^ m -n. -r m m ^ Second Movement. Andante con moto. i I Q^r=^ ^'■^^ : &c. T appear occasionally. The climax in number of instru- ments occurs in the ninth symphony, where extra horns, a piccolo, double bassoon, triangle, cymbals, big drum, and voices are added. The string compass is much extended by Beethoven, and the 'cellos are separated from the basses. He has perfect command over the individuality of the * Another early symphony, the "Jena," haa recently been found. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 149 instruments, using each for its particular shade of expres- sion. His scoring is full and normal, never blatant. The development of the wind band gives especial opportunities for contrast of tone color ; and in this direction wonderful effects are frequently obtained by the simplest means, as with the horn trio in the scherzo of the third symphony. The first and second symphonies, in C and D, follow Mozart closely ; the third, " Eroica," asserts the master hand ; the fourth, in B flat, is subjective in feeling; the fifth, in C minor, most popular of all, is compact and vigorous ; the sixth, in F, is called the " Pastorale," and contains descrip- tions of nature ; the seventh is in A ; the eighth, in F, is bright and joyous ; while in the great choral symphony, num- ber nine, in D minor, he oversteps all boundaries, finally call- ing the chorus to his aid. In form, the symphonies, except the ninth, show the same characteristics as the piano sonatas, except that the movements are always four in num- ber. The enlargement of the coda was an outcome of his genius for thematic development, which invested each move- ment with constantly increasing intensity. Modulations, and key transitions between the movements, are of much greater variety, and are employed to emphasize particular moods. 145. Other 'Works. Beethoven's chamber works include string quartets, trios, sonatas for piano with violin or 'cello, two octets, a septet, and a celebrated violin concerto, all displaying characteristics similar to those already discussed. His principal vocal work is the opera " Fidelio," for which he wrote four overtures. Of these the third is most popular. The music of this opera, written in Italian forms, is grand and impressive, with orchestration which paints the climaxes with great intensity. It did not however affect the devel- opment of opera to any great extent, since it did not assert any especially new forms. Many settings of folk-songs, and original songs of great beauty, besides choruses and cantatas, make up the list of 150 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Beethoven's other vocal works. Especially noteworthy are his oratorio " The Mount of Olives " and the " Missa Solen- nis" in D, an imposing and difficult work, adapted to the concert hall rather than the church. Section 2 Franz Schubert, 1797-1828 146. Life. Schubert passed the most of his uneventful and commonplace life in Vienna, existing only for his music, which filled his every thought. One of nineteen children, he was born in Lichtenthal, a district of Vienna, and was educated in violin and piano playing by his father and brothers, who were school teachers. At ten he was a choir boy in the parish church, receiving what appears to have been somewhat superficial instruction in %-^^^^^I^^R theory from the choir master; and the — -^^^^^^^M next j^ear he attended the Konvict, a school which prepared boys for the Im- perial Chapel. Here he suffered many privations, but his remarkable musical gifts, displayed in his violin playing and compositions for the school orchestra, made him popular with his fellow pupils and teachers. These early attempts at composition were pretentious, and show an irregularity of form which indicates his romantic tendencies. At sixteen he began to teach in his father's school, in order to avoid military service. His musical genius already displayed itself in a multitude of songs of every character, which he poured forth in a continuous stream all his life. Even the earliest of these showed his remarkable abihty for adapting music to the sentiment of the text, a notable instance of which was the " Erlking," writ- ten in 1815. A mass, performed in 1814 in the Lichtenthal church, excited much enthusiasm, and was followed by an OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 151 opera, another mass, and other large works. After three years he resolved to set out by himself upon a strictly musi- cal career, and accordingly took lodgings with a friend in Vienna. In such Bohemian surroundings his remaining life was passed. His retiring and modest disposition prevented him from attracting much attention, and the sales of his works brought a scant income. A few friends appreciated his abilities, notably the singer Vogl, who performed his songs and gave him practical advice ; but numerous rebuffs from the public and publishers wounded his sensitive nature. Beethoven recognized his genius only when too late to be of any assistance ; and Schubert died in poverty and neglect. 147. Character. Schubert had a kindly disposition. He was content to remain in a narrow circle, and was always cheer- ful and free from jealousy. He has been called the least schooled of the great musicians, and his melodic facility seems to have constrained him to throw aside the prescribed limits of structure, especially in his larger works. Yet this very freedom enabled him to indulge in a wealth of intimate melodic expression which has sometimes been characterized as possessing " heavenly length," and of which the occasional diffuseness was redeemed by emotional sincerity. Everything tends toward the simple utterance of feeling. Possessed by a given mood, he often repeats passages, sometimes with slight alterations ; wavering between major and minor, as if revelling in the melody he has evoked. Schubert wrote with great rapidity, sometimes completing several songs in a single day. This rapidity of thought, however, made him averse to revising his compositions, as did Beethoven. 148. The German Lied. The art-song developed late in Germany, owing to a lack of poetry in the vernacular and to the need of extraordinary musical resources to voice the language and concentrated thought of the Germans. The volkslied, developed by the Mastersingers, was hidden dur- ing the ItaUan dominance, showing, however, through the 162 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY songs of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Schubert now voices his personahty in the lied, bringing it to a high state of perfection. The melody is appropriate, and though always predominant, yet has a fitting setting in the accompaniment. The lieder thus endowed fall into three general classes: first, the folk-manner songs, in which the same tune is repeated for each verse ; second, the durchkomponirtes song, in which the melody follows each word and sentiment; and third, the ballad, or narrative song. 149. Songs. In his more than six hundred songs Schu- bert uses all these forms, writing mainly in the first two styles, which are frequently blended. This latter effect is produced by setting several verses to the same tune, and then intensifying it for the remaining ones, as in " Du bist die Ruh" and the "Linden Tree"; or by changing from major to minor, or the reverse, as in " Gute Nacht " of the " Winter's Journey." Each song is made to express a dom- Huntee's Evening Song (Jagers Abendlied). Lento e piano. (Sehr langsani, leise.) inant mood; and this is treated in a general manner, as in "Sylvia" and "Das Wandem"; more specifically, as in " Death and the Maiden " and the " Erlking " ; dramatically, as in " Prometheus " ; or descriptively, as with " Auf dem Wasser zu singen." Love, religion, nature, and ecstasy, as in " Hark, hark, the Lark ! " are his themes, and his poetry he drew from all sources; mainly from Goethe (72 songs) Mayrhof er (47) , Schiller (46) , and Muller (44) . In his use of an OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 153 immeuse variety of resources, he shows how completely he was dominated by the spirit of the poem ; indeed, his music so accurately reflects this that many inferior poems have My Peace thou art (Du bist die Ruh). Lnrghetio. (Langsa-m.) My peace thou art, thou art my rest ; From thee my pain, in O come, O dwell for - ev - er here, — for - ev - er here. &c. correspondingly inferior music. His song cycles, the " Mil- ler's Daughter " and the " Winter's Journey," embrace examples of every style, each song having its peculiar at- mosphere. Besides solo songs, he wrote part-songs for male, female, and mixed chorus. 150. Chamber Music. Schubert's most elaborate piano works are the twenty-four sonatas, which, although replete with charming ideas, have never appealed to virtuosi on ac- 154 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY count of their great length. His short pieces — impromptus, moments musicaux, etc. — are dainty bits, full of contrasts of style, harmonic shadings, and gems of melody. They all require a fluent and reposeful technique. The variations in B flat are unsurpassed for refined tonal painting. Simple forms, like those of the aria and the old dance, prevail in these genre pieces. His waltzes and four-hand polonaises and marches have much national color. Of his music for strings, the quartets in D minor and G major and the quintet in C major are especiallj' significant ; while his violin pieces also have much refined beauty. 151. Symphonic and Choral 'Works. It was long before the worth of Schubert's ten symphonies was recognized; but of these the symphony in C major and the "Unfinished" Theme from Andante op C major Symphony. Oboe. Andante con molo. m te con molo. ^m Strings. uuyrffm e O-^ ^-*=^ ^gte fe |,r J " I J" ^ in B minor are now considered worthy of a place beside Beethoven's works. The former symphony, though of great length, holds the attention through its virile rhythms and accents, its scherzo effects, and its fund of melody, exploited in a conversational style between the various instruments, rather than by polyphonic devices. The two movements of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 155 the latter are favorites through their sympathetic and emo- tional song-style. Of other orchestral works, the incidental music to the play of "Rosamunde" is deservedly popular. Schubert's essentially lyric style unfitted liim for operatic composition, so that his singspiele and operas never attained success. In the field of church music his masses, notably those in A flat and E flat, are still sung, although they are not of exceptional importance. Section 3 CARL MARIA VOIST -WEBBE (1786-1826) AND CONTEMPORARIES X52. Early Life. Weber, the descendant of a line of im- pecunious barons, was the first great musician of aristocratic birth. His father, a man of loose habits and constantly in debt, was a wandering musician and actor. Carl Maria was born at Eutin, where his father had settled for a time as town musician with his second wife, a singer. Carl showed such musical gifts that, though he was a delicate child, his father became ambitious to make him a second Mozart. He placed him under Michael HaydrCs instruction, also bring- ing out two of his youthful operatic at- tempts with indifferent success. Weber, ^'&^^ however, advanced rapidly in piano playing, and showed exceptional talent for extemporizing. He finally studied with the brilliant Ahhe Vogler in Vienna, who attracted his attention to folk-music, and through whose influence he obtained a conductorship at Breslau, at the age of eighteen. Here he successfully managed the opera and gained expe- rience as orchestra conductor; but he fell into dissipated habits and his health gave way. Both of these drawbacks were aggravated when he became secretary to the king's 156 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY brother Ludwig, at Wiirtemberg. Here his difficulties culmi- nated in his arrest and banishment, through having incurred the displeasure of the king. 153. Later Life. This event marked a turning point in Weber's character. Proceeding to Mannheim, he afterwards settled in Darmstadt, where Vogler then lived. Here he engaged in composition and literary work, eventually form- Two Themes from Soprano Recitative and Aria from " Der Freischutz." Adagio. jk jiauyw. ^ i= &c. M y^v• Soft - ly sigh - ing, day is dy - ing, Soar, my prayer, heav'n - ward fly-ing, Vivace. ^^^^^MEgE^E^ PE ^EEE^gEp^ Ep ^^gb^ ^ ^^^ How eT* - ry pulse is fly - ing, And my heart beats loud and fast, m^m - 1 7~^ r ing, with several kindred spirits, a society for musical criticism. Two operas proved fairly successful, and his fame spread. After a long German concert tour, during which his father died, he was appointed musical director at the Prague theatre, where he successfully reorganized the company, and won popular favor after Napoleon's banishment by writing nat- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 157 ional songs. In 1816, leaving Prague, he undertook to organ- ize a German opera at Dresden, in opposition to the Italian troupe. In the nine years spent here, during which he married an opera singer, he was much harassed by intrigues and by poor health. "Der Freischtitz," produced at Berlin in 1821, aroused wide-spread enthusiasm, while "Euryanthe," per- formed at Vienna in 1823, met with indifferent success. Though in wretched health, he accepted an invitation to visit England, and in 1826, in London, brought out his "Obe- ron," which was received with acclaim. A following concert was less successful, and as he was preparing to return home he died suddenly. His burial was conducted with great marks of honor. 154. The Romantic Opera. Weber was eminently fitted to be the founder of German opera by his temperament, which Themes from Weber's Concertstuck. Larghetto. March of the Crusaders Orchestra. 158 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY flew from the extreme of gaiety to the extreme of morbid- ness ; by his national spirit, voiced in his folk-style melodies and his love of mysticism ; and by his education in stage- craft and orchestral music. The romantic opera, which he thus established on lines leading directly to Wagner, was derived from the eighteenth century singspiel, which had already been used in Dittersdorf 's operas, and was suggested by Mozart in his " Magic Flute." Formed by the union of the commonplace with the supernatural, its subjects were drawn from both mediteval and modern sources. It included four chief elements, — the imaginative, the national, the comic, and the realistic. The supernatural was embodied sometimes in a delicate fairy atmosphere, as in " Oberon," and sometimes in a suggestion of the weird and dreadful, as with the demon hunter in " Der Freischiltz." 155. Operas. " Der Freischiitz " is an epoch-marking work. It deals for the first time with German peasant life, which is surrounded by genuine folk-music. It retains the spoken dialogue of the singspiel, and completes the romantic style by its supernatural atmosphere and landscape music. Both " Euryanthe " and " Oberon " were ultimately less success- ful, owing chiefly to their weak librettos. Spoken dialogue, absent from the former, reappears again in the latter, which has charming pictures of elfland, chivalry, and the Orient. Weber's delineation of character in his music is a striking feature, for even in concerted numbers the traits of each per- son are kept distinct in the music assigned them. In the grand scena, Weber merges the recitative and aria, producing thrilling climaxes from quiet and reposeful beginnings. But his orchestration is his most remarkable achievement. The overtures, which combine airs from the operas, are com- pact in form and brilliant in effect. During the opera, great dramatic heights are reached by utilizing special tones and registers, and even the defects of the instruments. Nothing has ever been written which approaches in weirduess and OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 159 intensity such a scene as that in the Wolf's Glen, in " Der Freischiitz." 156. other 'Works. Weber was no less brilliant as a pianist, and his large hand caused him to elaborate au orchestral style which, proceeding mainly from the school of Mozart and Hummel, was the precursor of Liszt's technical feats. Long stretches, jumps, glissandos, and pas.sages in thirds and sixths are common ; while the use of arpeggio figures in sequence gives sparkling cascades of sound. His works include four irregular sonatas, ten sets of variations, three concertos, four-hand pieces, and salon pieces, the last-named including the popular " Invitation to the Dance." The "Concertstiick," for piano and orchestra, in its depiction of a scene from chivalry, is a forerunner of the symphonic poem. Other works include chamber music of various kinds, concertos for the clarinet, an instrument of which Weber was fond, masses, part-songs, cantatas, etc. 157. Louis Spohr (1784-1859). Born at Brunswick, of mu- sical parents, Spohr early showed a predilection for the violin. He gained his musical education by the practice of this instrument and by the close study of orchestral scores. In later years he travelled extensively as a violin virtuoso, accompanied by his wife, a harpist, and occupied leading positions as conductor. His most important works were written while chapelmaster to the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, which position he held continuously after 1822. Spohr's best, work was in his fifteen Spohr violin concertos, still performed. Of ten operas, " Faust " and " Jessonda " are prominent, while of his oratorios, dis- tinguished by solid choruses and effective orchestration, the " Last Judgment " is best. Besides these he wrote various 160 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY other vocal works, much chamber music, and nine sympho- nies, which show his romantic tendencies in their titles, such as the "Consecration of Sound." Though thematic and smooth, his works are not great contrapuntally. All have purity of style and beauty of melodj^ which sometimes, however, become tiresome through mannerisms. His cho- ruses are rendered difficult by chromatic work. Brusque and conceited in manner, he was a poor critic ; yet he was kindly at heart, was much respected, and left many pupils. 158. Piano Playing. The Viennese school, an outcome of the work of J. C. Bach and Mozart, claims as its founder Mozart's pupil, J. N. Hummel (1778-1837), the most bril- liant virtuoso of his day, who pushed to extravagance Mozart's love of ornament. His piano concertos and his masses are still popular. The English scliool, based on the heavier Broadwood action, took on a more ponderous tone. It found exponents in Beethoven and the technician Muzio Clementi (1752- 1832), who was active as virtuoso, teacher, composer, instru- ment maker, and publisher, spending much time in England. Highly respected by Beethoven, he embodied the results of his teaching in his " Gradus ad Parnassum," three volumes of studies for the piano. The two piano schools afterward overlapped. Many books were written, laying down pedantic rules for tech- nique ; and a horde of virtuosi, having Vienna as their focal point, made display their chief aim, playing frivolous opera ari'angements and descriptive pieces, yet solving technical problems. Extemporizing gradually disappeared. The es- tablishment of the Paris Conservatoire, in 1795, produced many salon composers, such as Kalkbrenner (d. 1849). The Bohemian J. L. Dussek (1761-1812), one of the first to write exclusively for the piano, composed clear and melo- dious sonatas. The etude did much to evolve technical possibiHties. Carl qUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY IQl Czerny (1791-1857), pupil of Beethoven, wrote many etudes while a teacher at Vienna. Of dementi's pupils were /. B. Cramer (1771-1858), distinguished as pianist, teacher and 6tude writer; Ludwig Berger, Mendelssohn's teacher; and John Field (1782-1837), a virtuoso who finally settled in St. Peters- burg, and wrote many charming and delicately embellished melodies in the form of the nocturne. Summary Beethoven, starting his work where Haydn and Mozart left off, imprinted more and more upon their forms the ele- ment of individual expression. In his later works, formal lines were entirely subordinated, and the heights and depths of emotion were sounded. Primarily an orchestral com- poser, he used each instrument to express its peculiar shade of meaning, and imbued his other works with this orchestral cast and style. Schubert, of gentler nature, spoke more naturally in the lyric vein, although, as in his symphonies, he sometimes wields thrilling rhythmic force. Though unequal in merit, his songs yet embrace gems which mark the perfection of sympathy between voice and accompaniment, and of propor- tion in structure. The romantic spirit is here reflected in the intense individuality of each song. Weber was preeminently a dramatic composer, and as such founded the German romantic opera, ideally realized in "Der Freischiitz." The brilliancy and pertinency of his melodies and orchestration are reflected in his other works, notably those for the piano. Spoljr's concertos for the violin, and other large works, show a classic style with romantic tendencies. His man- nerisms detract from the permanent value of his works. Piano virtuosity was popular in this period ; and the Vien- nese and English schools of playing, becoming merged, pro- duced brilliant players whose chief contribution to music was the solution of difficult technical problems. 11 162 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY READING LIST Section 1 Biographies of Beethoven by Schindler, Rudall, and Nohl. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 12. Oxford History, vol. o. Baltzell, History, lessons 32, 33. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chap. 32. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 26. Grove's Dictionary, article on Beethoven. Grove, Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies. GoEPP, Symphonies and their Meanings, 2 vols. Histories of Piano Playing by Weitzmann and Bie. '' Fillmore, History of Pianoforte Music. Kdllak, Beethoven's Pianoforte Playing. Shedlock, The Pianoforte Sonata. Henderson, How Music Developed; The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. Mason, Beethoven and his Forerunners. MoscHELES, Recent Music and Musicians ; Beethoven's Letters. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. Section 2 Biography of Schubert by Frost, and that in Grove's Dictionary. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chap. 33. Baltzell, History, lesson 42. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 28. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers. Elson, History of German Song. Grove's Dictionary, article on the Song. Oxford History, vol. 5, chap. 12. Histories of Pianoforte Playing by Weitzmann and Bie. Fillmore, History of Pianoforte Music. Weingartner, The Symphony Since Beethoven. GoEPP, Symphonies and their Meanings, 2 vols. * Upton, The Standard Symphonies. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 1. Section 3 Naumann, History, vol. 2, chaps. 33, 34. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 27, 29. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 163 Oxford History, vol. 5. Henderson, How Music Developed. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Singspiel, Weber, Spohr, etc. MoscHELES, Recent Music and Musicians. Biographies of Weber by Max von Weber, Benedict, Krehbiel (in Famous Composers and their Works, series 1). Baltzell, History, chaps. 41 and 43. Histories of Piano Playing by Weitzmann and Bie. Henderson, Preludes and Studies. Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. Streatfeild, The Opera. Elson, History of the Opera. Fillmore, History of Pianoforte Music. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. For all three sections, see Pratt's History, Part VII. CHAPTER VIII The Great Ninbteekth Centuet Romanticists 159. General Tendencies. Incited by the work of the com- posers just studied, succeeding musicians tended from the expression of individual moods toward more definiteness of meaning, and finally toward musical realism. New forms were sought out, intricate successions of dissonances were employed to give thought continuity, and the emotional re- sources of instruments were enlarged by much study. The five leaders now to be discussed contributed, each in a dif- ferent way, toward these results. They are representative of the musical thought during the nineteenth century ranging from that school which acknowledges the value of classic traditions to that which is absolutely defiant of conservatism. Section 1 FELIX mendelssohn-baetholdy, 1809-1847 160. Early Life. Mendelssohn belonged to a cultivated and wealthy Jewish family. His grandfather, Moses, was noted as a philosopher, while his father, Abraham, a Protes- tant Jew, was a prosperous banker. Felix was born at Hamburg, and when that city was occupied by the French he was taken to Berlin, where the Mendelssohn house be- came the centre of refined society. Receiving a thorough education in all branches, in music he was taught at first, to- gether with his sister Fanny, by their mother, and afterward by Berger and Zelter, the latter of whom introduced him to Goethe, who conceived a warm attachment for him. Felix's OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 165 development as an extemporizer on the piano and as a com- poser was marvellous. The Sunday morning concerts held at the Mendelssohns' home, at which the boy conducted an orchestra which often performed his original symphonies and other works, were the delight of the many prominent musicians who frequented them. At fifteen he had written four operas, and on a visit to Paris he won praise from so severe a critic as Cherubini. In 1826 his overture to " A Midsummer Night's Dream " was written, and in the next year his opera " The Marriage of Cama- cho" was given at Berlin. Becoming Mendelssohn enthusiastic over Bach, he revived appreciation of his music by giving the St. Matthew " Passion Music " in 1829, for the first time since Bach's death, with the Berlin Singakademie. A visit to London, where he played and directed his C minor symphony, won hosts of friends, who were charmed by his manners no less than by his music. This was followed by travels in Scotland and Wales. During subsequent visits to Italy, Paris, and again to London, he reigned everywhere as a social favorite, meanwhile laboring assiduously upon his compositions. 161. Later Life. In 1833 he was made director of the Dtis- seldorf festival, and in 1835 he conducted the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic and the festival at Cologne. In the following year he produced his oratorio of " St. Paul " at Diisseldorf. After his marriage, in 1837, his life continued to be filled with constant composing, social engagements, and conducting, notably at the Birmingham festivals. An at- tempt to found a music academy at Berlin, under a com- mission from the king of Prussia, proved troublesome and fruitless ; but in 1843 he became director and teacher in the new Leipsic Conservatory. One of his latest works was 166 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the production in 1846 of his oratorio "Elijah," at Bir- mingham. Undermined by overwork, he was unable to stand the shock of the death of his beloved sister Fanny, and he himself died in the following year. 162. Character. Mendelssohn differs from most great com- posers in that he lived a successful, feted life, free from great troubles or anxieties. His sunny disposition, and his love of nature and society, made him a universal favorite, and won many friends. Yet for this very reason, his works, while showing remarkable refinement and taste, do not rise to Beethovenish heights of passion. In an age tending strongly toward license of expression he did much toward restoring the balance by his devotion to the classics ; and with this devotion was united a poetic nature which invested the old forms with the ideas of romanticism. Like Mozart, he seems to have sprung forth a fully developed musician, writing works which he never surpassed, such as the overture to " A Midsummer Night's Dream," while a mere boy. His painstaking system of composition, which caused him to pore for hours over the polishing of a single phrase, is ex- hibited in the forty-four manuscript volumes of his works, which, begun in 1820, and written with scrupulous accuracy, are now preserved in the Imperial Library in Berlin. Men- delssohn was followed by scores of imitators, especially in England, who slavishly copied his style. 163. Compositions. Three principal styles are distinguished. The first, the religious, is shown in broad, smooth melodies, plain in rhythms, sometimes chorale-like in character, and supported by churchly, full, and close harmonies, with fre- quent suspensions. Larger works end frequently with a grand fugue, worked up to an imposing climax, which some- times ends in a full chorale. The second, brilliant, style is displayed in passage work, notably in the large piano com- positions, made up of attractive technical figures woven into OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 167 tonal avalanches. The third, mystic, style appears in his elfin, staccato manner, blended in chromatic progressions, and joined in his orchestral works to romantic instrumental ef- Opbning of Midsummer Night's Dream Overture, showing "fairy " theme. Allegro vivace. ^ — ^ P £^?SE :^= .^SL ^^ PP ^ Sffi ^ m pp i fects. His chief defects are monotony of rhythm and fre- quent mannerisms. Sometimes, too, the polished and elegant treatment is a cover for poverty of thematic material. 164. Piano Compositions. The ever-popular forty-eight "Songs Without Words" are little tone-pictures, in the simplest forms, with poetic, sometimes sentimental melo- dies, enhanced by rich harmonies. Models of dehcacy are found in the "Spring Song," and the "Spinning Song"; while the " Gondellieder " evoke memories of the Italian atmosphere. The youthfuV " Rondo capriccioso " combines Mendelssohn's various characteristics of style. The van- 168 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ations, caprices, Etudes, fantasias, preludes, and fugues all possess his refinement of expression, sometimes combined with his faults. Several sonatas are less successful ; but the works for piano and oichestra, notably the concertos in G and D minor, and the Capriccio in B minor, are distin- guished for great brilliancy and compact form. Theme from Third Organ Sonata, illustrating "religious" STYLE. Andante tranquillo 165. Organ Works. Mendelssohn and Bach were the only great composers to write distinctive organ works. In his preludes and six organ sonatas, Mendelssohn adopts a broad and sonorous style in keeping with the instrument. The sonatas are not in the form of the piano sonata, but contain fugues, chorales, and expressive airs on classic lines, of a seriousness which occasionally inclines toward monotony. 166. other Instrumental 'Works. In his orchestral works Mendelssohn appears at his best. Using substantially the same orchestra as Beethoven, he wrote with a smoothness and polish which make his scores well worthy of the stu- dent's attention. New effects, like the division of the violins in the " Midsummer Night's Dream " overture, add romantic color. Both symphonies and overtures have gen- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 169 eral titles as clews to their purposes or moods, although the classic forms are invariably retained. Of the symphonies, the " Reformation," which includes a treatment of Martin Luther's Chorale and the Dresden Amen, is dry and unin- teresting ; the " Italian " gives a German poet's conception of Italian environment; while the "Scotch" has real local color in its use of the Scotch scale and rhythms. The over- tures were written solely for concert performance, and show much vigor and inspiration in their nature painting, as in the " Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage," and the " Hebrides." To the charming " Midsummer Night's Dream " overture was Themes from the Scotch Symphony. First movement theme. Allegro un poco agitalo. Theme of Scherzo, showing use of Pentatonic Scale. Vivace non troppo. added, much later, incidental music for the entire play. The orchestral style is prevalent in the piano trios, string quar- tets, and other chamber works. An octet, written at fifteen, contains a marvellous treatment of individual parts; while the violin concerto is a universal favorite with violinists on account of its musical value and its adaptability to the instrument. 167. Vocal 'Works. Mendelssohn's enthusiasm for Bach and Handel is perceptible in his two oratorios. The chorales and 170 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY contrapuntal choruses in St. Paul smack strongly of Bach ; and there is apt musical characterization of the Christian, Jewish, and Greek religions. Touchingly expressive melo- dies appear in this, as well as in " Elijah." In the latter the effectiveness of color, the climaxes and contrasts, savor of Handel. In his practical, fluent choral writing Mendelssohn reaches the golden mean between formalism and modern ex- pression. His command over orchestration permits him to characterize fitly each scene, and yet blend all into a unit. Of smaller choral works, which include anthems and can- tatas, the " Hymn of Praise," on the hues of Beethoven's ninth symphony, is the most important, though many in- spired passages are connected by monotonous " filling in." His rehgious compositions are in concert, rather than in church, style. There are many favorite short choruses and part-songs. The solo songs show much beauty, but no great individuality. The settings of Greek tragedies, and the music to Goethe's " Walpurgis Night " are less important. Section 2 EGBERT SCHUMANN, 1810-1856 168. Early Life. Schumann's father, a bookseller of some literary achievements, had five children, of whom Robert was the youngest. Rob- ert was born at Zwickau, in Saxony. At the age of six he took lessons from the local church organist, soon after be- ginning to compose short pieces which portrayed the character of his school- mates, and the like. At eleven he tried more pretentious compositions, writing pieces for a school band at the Zwickau Schumann Academy. On his father's death, in 1826, he essayed to carry out the latter's wishes by entering OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 171 Leipsic University as a law student ; but his musical pro- pensities drew him from his other studies. Inspired by the works of Byron and Jean Paul Richter, he wrote romantic music in imitation of their style, meanwhile studying the piano with Friedrich Wieck, whose daughter Clara (1819- 1896) afterwards became his wife and the able interpreter of his works. Later, while a student at Heidelberg, the old conflict of inclinations reached its end, and with his mother's consent, he definitely adopted music as a profes- sion. His intention of becoming a pianist was foiled by the lameness of his right hand, brought on by an experiment for strengthening the fourth finger ; whereupon he resolved to devote himself to composition, studying with Dorn, con- ductor of the Leipsic opera. 169. Later Life. After writing a symphony and a piano concerto, afterwards abandoned, Schumann produced before 1840 a number of piano compositions, chiefly groups of small pieces, and numbered op. 1-op. 23. In 1840 his marriage inspired a flood of over a hundred and thirty songs, op. 25- op. 40. Prepared by this practice in the smaller forms, he next started upon larger works, writing three symphonies, string quartets, and the famous quintet for piano and strings. His choral writing began in 1843 with the cantata " Paradise and the Peri," founded on Moore's " Lalla Rookh." This was followed by music for Goethe's " Faust." An important feature of Schumann's life was his alliance- with Schunke, Knorr, and Wieok, about 1834, for the fur- therance of musical sincerity and the reform of conventional- ism. In his ten years' editorship of their journal, the " Neue Zeitschrift ftir Musik," he uttered a succession of sound critiques on composers past and present, giving salu- tary encouragement to rising geniuses, like Chopin, Raff, and Brahms.^ He was much inspired by Mendelssohn's advent, 1 These critiques were written under fanciful names, like " Plores- tan" and "Eusebius," members of an imaginary " Davidsbund," or society for combating the musical Philistines of the day. 172 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY and became a teacher in the Leipsic Conservatory ; but from this position, as well as from his editorship, he was forced to retire by a growing nervous trouble. From 1846 he wrote fugal works after Bach, his C major symphony, his opera "Genoveva," which proved disastrous at Leipsic in 1850, and his Rhenish symphony in E flat. He was made con- ductor at Dresden and afterwards at Dusseldorf, but was compelled to resign in 1853 on account of ill health, and finally died in an insane asylum near Bonn. 170. Character and Work. Schumann's reserved nature caused him to shrink more and more from society, until he became almost a hermit. On the other hand, he was a pro- found thinker, as is evidenced by the sound judgments and cultured style of his literarj' works. Of powerful imagina- tion, he was by nature an adherent of the advanced romantic school ; and although he was a close student of Bach, he yet accomplished his best work in new forms which he invented for his individual expression. His desire for special effects led him to try novel experiments, some of which were successful. In the mere technique of his art he was much Mendelssohn's inferior, yet the greatness and suggestiveness of his thought more than compensated for its lack of completeness. 171. Piano Compositions. Most characteristic are his groups of short tone-poems, each portraying some mood, character, or scene, and all together forming long suites. Joyous moods prevail, with contrasting lyric and forceful passages, while poetic titles are given, generally after com- position. Among his themes are child-life, the carnival, and Ms friends ; and to give unity motto phrases are found, as those derived from proper names, — "Abegg," "Aesch." New forms, tending to emphasize episodes, jire found in the " Novelletten," "Arabesque," Op. 18, the "Fantasia in C," and the " Etudes symphoniques." Of three early sona- tas, only one, the least successful, has the classic form, while OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 173 that in F sharp minor is the most popular. Schumann's greatest piano work is the concerto in A minor. Schumann never descends to the bravura style, yet his forceful expression and orchestral polyphony demand a new Some Uses of Theme A-es-c-h, in the Carnival, Op. 9. Arlequin. Vivo. ^^^^ &c. ^ ^==t i=^ Eusebiua. Adagio. g=^-r-^fl^= f=^ fe^q!:fep technique. Extended chord positions, novel keyboard and pedal effects, all involve a large and sustained tone; while sound-massings and compression of ideas underlie the in- strumental and unembellished melodies which are woven into the structure imitatively. New rhythms, chromatic 174 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY modulations, unfinished cadences, are used to express ro- mantic conceptions involving much inner feeling. 172. Other Instrumental "Works. The chamber composi- tions — trios, quartets, and the like — are musicianly but heavy in style, with the exception of the melodious piano Themes from First Symphony. First Movement. Andante. EHE i^jj^il^- Second Movement. Largheito. §S m. W- p ^^^ ? T 3=^;= -ta 1— — ■ - u- ■ ^ ^b?--4:" Fourth Movement quintet. The same tendency toward heaviness is found in the five symphonies, including the " Overture, Scherzo, and Finale." These require special treatment to secure the proper balance of tone, and seem more pianistic than or- chestral in conception. The brevity of the poetic themes IS compensated for by many sequential repetitions of little WA OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 175 phrases, — a device sometimes carried to extremes. The names given to two of them— the "Spring" and the "Rhenish"— are very general in character. Novelty of form appears, especially in the symphony in D minor. The overtures, especially those to "Manfred" and "Genoveva," show more abandonment to romanticism, and are consequently Schu- mann's best orchestral works. 173. Vocal Works. Schumann's songs are more subjective than those of Schubert or Mendelssohn, while more limited in range of themes and in melodic invention than Schubert's. Conspicuously Teutonic, they are sometimes mere germs of melody. The rich accompaniment is intended to reveal the deeper meaning of the text, and has therefore equal or greater importance than the voice parts. Sometimes, indeed, the melody occurs only in the accompaniment, with the voice part in recitative. The poems are selected for their literary value, and in setting them to music Schumann seldom repeats words. The importance of the final symphonies in the Theme op " Widmung." Huoso. . # Aniinaio, affetiuoso. f^^g^ 176 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Poatlude. accompaniment is noteworthy. In the reflection of moods, and in the choice of appropriate harmonies and rhythms, Schumann shows a master hand. Not readily expressing himself in choral composition, Schumann's subjective, undramatic mode of thought made the success of his opera " Genoveva " and of his " Faust " and " Manfred " impossible. The cantata " Paradise and the Peri " shows his romantic power in its mystic story of the fairy-land of the East. His " Pilgrimage of the Rose " is sentimental and pleasing, but not deep. Of his religious works, the mass and requiem are not adapted for church uses. Section 3 FR^DtelC CHOPIN, 1810-1849 174. Life. Chopin was the son of a Polish mother and of a French father, who taught in the Gymnasium at Warsaw. Fr^d^ric was born near Warsaw, and was educated at his father's school, mingling there with tlie sons of aristocrats. Instructed in music, he developed rapidly, playing in public at nine a concerto by G-yrowetz and improvisations. His first compositions were polonaises, mazurkas, and waltzes, in national rhythms. In 1825 he published the rondo, op. 1, and the fantasy with orchestra, op. 2. Bright, strong, and sensitive as a youth, he immediately attracted attention by OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 177 his poetic piano playing in various German towns, and on visiting Paris in 1831 he achieved instant success at a concert in Pleyel's rooms. Becoming a favorite with musicians and Parisian so- ciety, he remained at Paris engaged as instructor to French and Polish aristo- crats, playing in salons and at yearly concerts. In 1837 he came under George Sand's influence, and, in failing health, went with her to Majorca in 1838. There consumption developed; and returning to Paris he lived in retirement till his death. He was buried in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. Chopin 175. Character. Schumann hailed Chopin in his journal with a " Hats off, gentlemen, a genius ! " Great was the spell that Chopin exerted as an artist. He was unique in achieving the first rank, although composing only for one instrument, Dance Themes. Mazurka, op. 7, no. 1. f cres. ^ i-t: f^ scherz. s* ms^^^i^^M i*^ ^£^EE Waltz, op. 42. Vivace. rbwv^==a i 3==F| p^^p.|=^z^ d fc^^-p^ -r f l""r r fT¥ the piano. Always of a poetic and sensitive nature, his disposition, buoyant in youth, became morbid in later life. Educated as an aristocrat, his fastidiousness as to his personal 12 178 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY surroundings extended also to his music, resulting there in a rare standard of excellence and an absence of banalities. As a pianist he was better adapted to the salon than the concert stage. He played with the same versatility, rhythm, and delicacy that distinguished his compositions, and magnetized his audiences by his poetic and emotional interpretations. 176. Piano Style. Chopin's distinctive work with the piano was to liberate its music effectually from orchestral domination by the development of unsuspected resources. These were : first, his use of the singing legato, for which he invented new rhythms requiring a more flexible and free use Theme of Nocturne, op. 15, No. 2, showing Cadenza Effect. Larghetto. ^"^ -ft- of the hand and fingers, and producing an overlapping and blending of tones ; second, his adoption of the tempo rubato, or flexible time element, much abused by following pianists, but permitting a freer play of emotion in Chopin's treatment of it ; third, a greater delicacy of nuance in the expression ,4 \& OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 179 of melody, with infinite shadings between piano and forte ; fourth, the apphcation of the vocal cadenza and embellishments to the piano, as in the nocturnes, always, however, as a direct emphasis of the spirit of the composition ; fifth, especially in the larger works and Etudes, extended arpeggio figures, with the interval of the tenth frequent, and smooth passage work in thirds and sixths. Chopin's individuality was strongly stamped on all his works, the harmonies of which were selected with super- sensitive delicacy, while rhythms combined with these to ex- press every shade of his thought. Chromatic modulations and harmonies produced a blending of outhnes which tended toward the ultra-romantic school. 177. 'Works. Although a romanticist, Chopin did not affix titles to his works, but simply grouped them according to their style. Such groups were : first, idealized dance forms, including mazurkas of strong Polish style, and with the erratic Slav rhythms, waltzes, and stately, chivalric polo- naises, some almost savage in effect ; second, nocturnes and preludes, he former suggested by the works of John Field, full of delicacy, sometimes rather morbid, and with a pro- fusion of Oriental ornament admirably adapted to the salon, and the latter, little tone poems of striking character, some- times fragmentary ; third, ballades, impromptus, scherzi, ron- dos, the " Berceuse," etc., in forms frequently invented on the spur of the moment to express some original thought, and of which the ballades especially contain exquisite con- trasts, with much nobility of conception ; fourth, three sona- tas — a form somewhat foreign to Chopin's mode of thought, yet permeated with invariable refinement ; fifth, itudes, won- derful in technical attainments and musical beauty; and sixth, two concertos, which embody the best of Chopin's thought, although hampered by weak orchestral accompaniments. Other distinctive compositions comprise a two-piano rondo, a trio for piano and strings, and a number of songs of deli- cacy and charm. 180 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORl Section 4 BEELIOZ AND LISZT 178. Programme Music. Attempts to express definite ideas in music had been made at an early period, as, for instance, in the " Bible Sonatas " of Kuhnau and the little genre pieces of the early French clavier school. An impetus was given to descriptive music by the opera and oratorio, even in early works like Monteverde's " Tancred and Clorinda," and later in the oratorios of Handel and Haydn. Beethoven, in such works as the " Pastoral Symphony," described scenes in music, and Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann accom- plished some of their finest writing in depicting scenes or characters. With the growth of orchestral color and intense romantic poetry, incitement was given for still bolder flights from the sphere of abstract music. Thus as an extreme development of the romantic school arose the group of com- posers who have avowedly championed the so-called " pro- gramme music," or music designed to illustrate some poem or poetic story by arousing the feelings incidental to it. Proceeding from the depiction of moods, this school of writers has sometimes attempted to reproduce in music the exact sounds connected with the scenes illustrated — the roar of battle, the calls of birds, and the like, — while the musical form is wholly sub- ordinated to the sequence of the poetic ideas. Hot controversies, not even yet settled, have arisen with the advocates of abstract or " absolute " music. 179. Hector BerUoz (1803-1869). Ber- lioz was born near Grenoble, in the south of France. At eighteen, sent by his Berlioz father to Paris to study medicine, his early musical propensities obtained control, and, after a vio- lent quarrel with his parents, he embarked on a musical OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 181 career, entering the Conservatoire. Here his radical opinions and dislike of restraint brought him into conflict with the authorities, especially Cherubini, who was then director. In 1830, however, he succeeded in winning the "Prix de Rome," which gave him two years' study in Italy and a year of travel. But in eighteen months he returned to Paris, where he made a scanty living by giving concerts, and by working for newspapers, proving himself an able critic. 180. Berlioz's Romanticism. One effect of the Revolution had been to produce in Paris a school of young poets and litterateurs — Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, etc. — of in- tense passions and radical theories, who gloried in pessi- mistic and morbid views of life. Hitherto French musicians had taken no part in this movement, still writing grandiose operas on conventional lines. But BerUoz, of frenetic moods and passions, readily associated with the band, setting himself the task of reproducing in music similar sentiments. With a mind which magnified the simplest feelings to the verge of insanity, he grasped at every possible means of representing these inflated imaginings, and in so doing developed a style so starthngly original as to baffle the critics, even to the present day. Boldly proclaiming his faith in programme music, he gave titles and programmes to all his works ; and, taking the orchestra as his chief medium of expression, he invented new combinations and uses of instruments which have won him the title of father of modern orchestration. The intensity of his musical works reached its height in the years immediately following his marriage to an Irish actress, Henrietta Smithson, in 1 833. His life with her was, unfor- tunately, miserable. After this time his ardor cooled some- what, and his works took on a more intellectual cast. But he never achieved populaiity in France during his lifetime. He obtained only subordinate positions, and earned a scant live- lihood, although his fame spread abroad in Germany, Russia, and England. 182 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 181. Berlioz's Style. He was a unique figure, having, ap- parently, no direct musical ancestors. His education was gained mostly through the study of scores, especially those of Beethoven and Gluck ; but his feeling for orchestral color Themes from the Symphonik Phantastiquk. " L'Idee Fixe." Allegro agitato. P^^^g ^ EE p ^i¥ &0. m Combination of the " Dies Irae " with the " Ronde du Sabbat" in the last movement. ^ V V ■ ■ ■ . ■* jr~-^^ I K was so intense and original as to dominate all other elements in his music. To interpret his extreme moods he added enormously to the volume of sound. He introduced new instruments, and tried new effects, like putting the wind in- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 183 struments in bags, and binding sponges on the drumsticks. Sometimes, though not always, he was successful in getting the realism which he sought. As a fruit of his experiences, he left a treatise on orchestration which has proved valuable as a text-book. Berlioz's melodies are peculiar to himself in form and rhythm, and are rendered still more striking by unexpected turns in harmony, which constantly occur. 182. Berlioz's Compositions. His first great work was the " Symphonic fantastique," written in 1829, while he was at the Conservatoire. In this, scenes from the life of an artist are realistically treated, the whole being unified by the device of a " fixed idea," or characteristic phrase which, aes- thetically altered, pervades the whole. Another symphony, " Harold in Italy," written in 1834, has a leading viola part ; while the form of the dramatia symphony, in which, follow- ing Beethoven's ninth, voices are occasionally introduced with the orchestra, is adopted in his " Romeo and Juliet," and the popular "Damnation of Faust." The "Requiem" is one of his noblest works, while several overtures, not- ably the " Benvenuto Cellini," are excellent. His operas did not achieve success, but the oratorio " L'Enfance du Christ " has passages of great purity and classic style. 183. Franz Liszt (1811-1886J gary, Liszt received his first instruction on the piano from his father, who was steward to Prince Esterhazy. He played a Ries concerto in public at nine. As a result, he was sent to Vienna, where he studied with Oarl Czerny and Salieri, and at eleven, gave a success- ful concert. In the same year, 1823, he went to Paris. He was there refused at the Conservatoire by Cherubini, but he quickly became the idol of the salons, Born at Raiding, in Hxm- musical Liszt 184 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY thereafter taking no more piano lessons. The success of his opera " Don Sancho," at the Grand Opera House, incited furtlier contrapuntal study ; and upon liis father's death he withdrew from society, occupying himself with the metaphysical sciences. But Paganints playing, in 1831, determined him to develop piano technique on similar lines ; and his resultant piano execution caused him to be classed in spirituality and in technique above the popular idol, Thal- berg. He also contracted a warm friendship with Chopin. Liszt's subsequent life was fraught with incident. On con- cert tours he received constant ovations in the large cities; he was instrumental in building a Beethoven monument at Bonn, and in aiding the sufferers at Pesth ; he lived for some time with the gypsies, studying their customs and music ; and, after ten years of travel, he settled at Weimar as chapelmaster. Here he brought out works of new com- posers like Berlioz, Raff, and Wagner; gathered artists about him ; composed music ; and wi'ote books and critiques. Finally, angered at adverse criticisms, especially of Cor- nelius's " Barber of Bagdad," which he produced, he resigned his position, and was made an Abb^ at Rome, in 1865. Thenceforth he spent his winters at Rome and his summers at Weimar, teaching, -and writing chiefly religious music. Feted throughout his life, he died universally popular. He breathed his last at Bayreuth, where he was attending a festival. 184. Liszt's Piano Works. Both as a player and a teacher Liszt is recognized as the greatest pianist. He realized to the full the resources of the modern piano with his orchestral style, which involves novelties in the way of varying touches, development of extreme registers, cadenza effects of interlock- ing hand figures, bold glissandos, and tremendous climaxes. His piano works include both original pieces and transcrip- tions. Of the former, his Etudes, Paganini studies, two con- certos, and sonata in B minor, reflect his mastery of tonal OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 185 color through technical devices ; while his quieter " Con- solations," " Liebestraiime," and " Annies de Pelerinage " are rich in harmony and melody. The transcriptions re- flect from a pianistic point of view the spirit of the themes chosen. They include piano arrangements of songs by various composers, especially Schubert, whose marches and Themes from Eleventh Hhapsodib. Andante sostenuto. waltzes he also treated ; of Bach organ preludes and fugues ; of orchestral works, embracing all the Beethoven sympho- nies ; of operatic airs worked into fantasias ; and of Hun- garian tunes collected int;o fifteen rhapsodies, all of which clearly reflect the national style. Liszt exerted no less influence on piano playing by his teaching, which was gratuitous in his later life. Many of his pupils are still leading performers and musical authorities. 185. Liszt's Orchestral Works. Even more important was his work in this field. As a conductor he founded a new style of orchestral expressiveness, and as a composer he allied him- self with the "programme" school, carrying ideas similar to those of Berlioz into new channels. From his work the 186 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORT symphonic poem emerged, now adopted as the symphonic form of the Programmists, and intended to illustrate some intensely dramatic poem or poetic story in music. With mar- vellous command of the orchestra, and with more subjectiv- ity than Berlioz, he wrote thirteen of these poems : some on Principal Theme of "Faust" Symphony. I^ento assai. f^ Strings. ff=~P Oboe. m^d ;!*=:» ? ^ 4* -=*- 3lR= filarinfitfi. Rati.ioon ^^ .-,■*■ ^^ J.*" ^r ."•" ,J ii^ Glarmets. Bassoon, ^^«f "p^f f^f /^ ' classic subjects, as "Orpheus," "Prometheus"; some reflec- tive, as " Les Preludes," or descriptive, as " Festal Sounds " ; and some patriotic, as the " Battle of the Huns." Two sym- phonies, the "Faust" and the "Dante," are descriptive in character. 186. Vocal Works. Liszt's songs are highly dramatic, and written in the durcJikomponirtes style, with rich 'orchestral accompaniment. Other works are for chorus with orchestra, or for men's voices alone. The religious compositions, in- cluding two masses, cantatas, psalms, and two oratorios, the " Holy Elizabeth " and the " Christus," are all strongly dra- matic and supported by highly colored orchestration. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 187 Summary Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Chopin all accomplished their best work on the lines of the romantic school. While acknowledging the value of classic forms, each sought orig- inal chaiinels of expression for more highly colored thought. Mendelssohn, cultured and early matured, was a close stu- dent of the classics ; but in his elfin music, his national col- oring, and his landscape painting, romanticism abounds. His works have much smoothness, polish of expression and ele- gance of structure, with the occasional fault of mannerisms and monotonous rhythms. Schumann was less finished in style, but more forceful and suggestive. His short and characteristic pieces are the most successful, as they are written in new forms, for the expres- sion of original ideas. His orchestration is clumsy compared with that of Mendelssohn, but his songs are subjective and rich in accompaniment. Chopin combined the passionate Polish nature with the elegance of the Parisian. Writing mainly for the piano, he developed technically and musically a new style of poetic expression. The later romanticists developed " programme " music, which sought to portray a sequence of definite scenes or actions. Berlioz, the founder of this school, evolved a new style of orchestral color by which he expressed extreme emo- tional ideas, couched in peculiar melodies, rhythms, and har- monies. The titles given to his works were illustrated with great definiteness. Franz Liszt was equally influential as player, teacher, con- ductor, and composer. For the piano he developed a new orchestral technique ; and to the programme school he con- tributed the form of the symphonic poem, of which he wrote examples showing wonderful mastery of orchestration. 188 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY READING LIST Section 1 Biographies of Mendelssohn by Stratton and Lampadiua. Grove's Dictionary, article on Mendelssohn. Baltzell, History, lessons 24, 43. Naumanm, History, vol. 2. Paruy, Art of Music, chap. 13. Famous Composers and their Works. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 31. MoscHELES, Recent Music and Musicians. Mendelssohn's Letters, 2 vols. Schumann, Music and Musicians, article on " St. Paul." Histories of Piano Music by Bie, Weitzmann, and Fillmore. Henderson, How Music Developed. Haweis, Music and Morals. Upton, The Standard Oratorios ; The Standard Symphonies. Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. Section 2 Naumann, History, vol. 2. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. Baltzell, History, lesson 44. Histories of Piano Music as above. Reissmann, Life and Works of Schumann; other biographies by Mait- land and Wasielewski. Grove's Dictionary, article on Schumann. Schumann's Letters. Schumann, Music and Musicians. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 80. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. 1. Ehlert, From the Tone World. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers. Elson, History of German Song. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. Section 3 NiECKS, Chopin as a Man and Musician. Biographies of Chopin by Hadden, Karasowski, and Liszt. Naumann, History, vol. 2. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 189 Baltzell, History, lesson 45. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 32. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. Henderson, How Music Developed; Preludes and Studies. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. 2. HuNEKER, Chopin, the Man and his Music. Histories of the Piano, as above. FiNCK, Chopin and other Musical Essays, Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 10. Section 4 Newman, Musical Studies : articles on Berlioz and Programme Music. Henderson, The Orchestra, and Orchestral Instruments. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. Naumann, History, vol. 2. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 33, 34, 36. Oxford History, vol. 6. Baltzell, History, lessons 36, 46. Histories of the Piano, as above. Ambros, The Boundaries of Music and Poetry. Upton, The Standard Symphonies. Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven. Grove's Dictionary, articles on Programme Music, Berlioz, Liszt. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. 1 ; Autobiography of Berlioz. Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. Schumann, Music and Musicians, vol. 1. LiNA Ramann, Franz Liszt, Artist and Man. Amy Fay, Music Study in Germany. Wagner, Prose Works, vol. 3: article on Liszt's Symphonic Poems. Article on Liszt by Saint-Saens, in Century Magazine for Februaiy, 1893. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3 and 10. Htjnekbr, Liszt. For all three sections, see Pratt's History, Part VIII. CHAPTER IX Opera in the Nineteenth Centuey 187. General Status. Italian opera became so trivial and conventional at the end of the eighteenth century that even its devotees lost interest in it. A salutary reaction began with the reforms of Gluck and the German developments under Mozart, Beethoven, and von Weber; but several phases had to be passed through before a more rational style was _ universally recognized. Here the eclecticism of the French taste made Paris the most fitting place for com- posers of other countries to exploit their individual ideas ; and we find Italian and German musicians adopting Paris as their scene of activity, grafting the traditions handed down by Lully and Gluck upon their national styles, and displacing French musicians on the grand opera stage, who were thus driven to write chiefly for the opera comique. We now proceed to discuss the results of these conditions. Section 1 THE OPERA BEFORE WAGNER 188. Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842). A native of Florence, Cherubini became in later life a leading figure in French music, occupying an autocratic position for many years in Paris. His early education was gained in Italy, and, as he showed marked talent for composition, in the year 1778 he was sent by a patron to Bologna, where he studied strict contrapuntal principles under Sarti. The first of his long fist of operas was written in 1780, in the Italian style. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 191 Cherubini Invited to London in 1784, he produced operas there, oc- cupying for a year the position of composer to the king. Af- ter this, taking up his permanent abode in Paris, he gave his "Ddmophon" there, in 1788. In this he abandoned his former trivial style, and inaugurated the so-called "grand style," pompous and dignified, which he and his successors afterwards carried to great lengths. Becoming a conductor, he achieved fame with " Lodoiska," in 1791 ; and " Les deux journ^es," in 1800, defi- nitely established him as the greatest living opera composer, a rank accorded him by Beethoven. Both this opera and his "Medee," which mark the climax of his powers, have tragic plots, but they are classed as "operas comiques," on account of their spoken dialogue. Cherubini was connected with the Conservatoire from its founding in 1795, although, since he incurred Napoleon's dislike, it was only much later that his talents received full recognition. Becoming director, in 1822, he filled the post for many years with energy and honor, and left an im- portant theoretical treatise as the fruit of his teachings. 189. Cherubini's Style. He was a purist to the verge of pedantry, subordinating everjiihing to intensity of expres- sion. Thus his extreme formality sometimes produces stiffness, which is, however, counterbalanced by his fine lyric melodies. His orchestration is rich and grand in Themes from Overture to " Le8 Deux Journ^es." Opening Theme. AndaTite vwlto sostenuto. 192 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY «5EE^:g^ n a; Allegro Theme character, especially in the overtures, which are regarded as classics. Following Mozart rather than Gluck, he links classic idealism to the modern realism in a broad, vigorous style, which is free from mannerisms, and is especially displayed in his concerted movements and choruses. 190. Followera of Gluck. The Gluck traditions, which, as prominent characteristics, required five acts to each opera, with ballets in the second and fourth, and set numbers con- nected by stately accompanied recitative, were perpetuated by a number of following composers, of whom three deserve especial mention. Gluck's pupil Antonio Salieri (1750-1825) was born in Italy, but spent most of his life in Vienna as court chapel- master. Of his operas, three written for the Paris stage are best known: — "Les Danaides," "Les Horaces," and "Tarare." He numbered Schubert and Beethoven among his pupils. I^tienne Henri Mehul (1763-1817), born at Givet in France, was originally an organist. Coming under Gluck's influence at Paris, in 1778, he finally continued Gluck's work in his many operas and religious compositions. Taking his themes from real life, with a penchant for national coloring, he invested the op^ra comique with serious aims. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 193 His greatest work, " Joseph," written during the Revolution, is dramatic, sincere, and grand in manner, and is considered by the French as superior to Handel's works. He was fond of attempting original combinations and effects, which were not always successful, but nevertheless show much individuality. Like many other composers, he suffered from poor librettos. Grasparo Spontini (1774-1851), an Italian who was born and died at Majolati, came to Paris in 1803, after winning suc- cesses in several Italian operas. There, finding little success with his early style, he cultivated the Gluck manner, and treated historic and heroic subjects with much pomp and splendor. His greatest triumphs were won with " La Vestale," " Ferdinand Cortez," and " Olympie." While acting as opera director at Berlin, his fame was eclipsed by the success of Weber's " Der Freischiitz," and, dis- heartened by the loss of popular favor, he retired to Italy. Imperious and conceited as a man, he was yet a laborious writer. His instrumental work lacked variety, owing to the fact that his musical resources were not equal to the magnitude of his themes. Spontini 191. Writers of Op^ra Comique. As has been said, native Frenchmen attained success chiefly in this form. Four of these composers are especially noteworthy. Frangois Adrien Boieldieu (1775-1834), a native of Rouen, in 1800 became professor of piano playing at the Paris Conservatoire. He then wrote operas and piano pieces. His first operas, which culminated in "Le Cahfe de Bagdad," were tuneful, but light. After a sojourn in Russia he pro- duced operas that were much more elevated in style and character, including "Jean de Paris," in 1812, and "La Dame Blanche," in 1825, of which the latter still survives. In these he combines dramatic utterance, piquant rhythms 13 194 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY which avoid the mere dance style, and sweetness of melody. His ensembles, especially, show individual treatment and organic unity. Daniel Frangois Esprit Auber (1782-1871), a thorough Parisian, was director of the Conservatoire in Louis Phi- lippe's reign, and imperial chapelmaster to Napoleon III. Continuing the traits of Boieldieu, without his mastery of ensembles, he was distinguished by brilliancy in orchestra- tion and sweetness of melody. His operas, many upon foreign subjects, include "Fra Diavolo," his most popular op^ra comique, and " La Muette de Portici," also called " Masaniello." The latter was written for the Grand Opera House, and incited the revolution in Brussels in 1830. It is impetuous in feeling, introducing new choral effects, but the lightness of its melody is inadequate for the subject. Auber has been called the prince of opdra comique. Louis Joseph Ferdinand Eerold (1791-1833), pupil of Mehul, is chiefly known for his "Zampa" and "Le pre aux clercs," the former being romantic in style and ably orches- trated. Jacques Frangois HaUvy (1799-1862) wrote many operas comiques and the historic grand opera " La Juive," dignified but dull. 192. Gioacchino Antonio Rossini (1792-1868). The decay- ing Italian opera was reinvigorated for a time by Rossini, who, by introducing new treatment of the old forms, and by the brilliancy of his style, brought it again to the fore. He was born at Pesaro of humble parents, whom he assisted at an early age by singing and playing the horn and piano accom- paniments. Having learned at the Bologna Conservatory only enough counterpoint to enable him to write conventional operas, he proceeded to turn these out in great numbers. Much success was gained by his " Tancredi," an opera seria, in 1813, while in the opera buffa his best work was done in the witty and sparkling " Barber of Seville," which was OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 195 at first regarded as a failure. Mozart's influence was seen in his "Semiramide," produced in 1823; while his "Moses in Egypt " partook of the oratorio style. After visits to Vienna and London, he settled in Paris as director of the Theatre Italien. His masterpiece, "Wil- liam Tell," after Schiller's play, was brought oat at the Acad^mie de Musique in 1829. This was to have had foxir successors on similar subjects; but Ros- sini became so discouraged by the Rev- olution of 1830 and by Meyerbeer's growing ascendency, that, although he superintended productions of his operas, he wrote no more of them. His last years were spent at Passy, where he attracted a brilliant circle of artists and musicians, and loved to pose as a pianist. Rossini's genius is especially displayed in his brilliant melodies and his concerted pieces and finales. He was the first to use the cabaletta — a virile, quick movement — after Theme from the " Barber of Seville." Andanie. Rossini nbf [H mio cor fe-ri-to6 gii, E Lin - dor fu che il piag6 the eavatina, or lyric air ; and he did much toward abolish- ing the senseless custom of improvising cadenzas by writing them himself, and insisting upon the use of his text. His fine instrumentation and choral treatment appear especially in "William Tell." Rossini's church compositions all have the florid style of his operas, with little regard to the character of the words. His " Stabat Mater " and " Solemn Mass " are yet undimin- ished in popularity. 196 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Donizetti 193. Rossini's Followers. The work of many of these, though popular, was mediocre. Two, however, deserve special study. Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848), an Italian, wrote sixty- five operas in both comic and serious style. Of the former, " Don Pasquale " and "La Fille du regiment" are nearly equal to those of Rossini ; while of the latter, " Lucrezia Borgia " and " Lucia di Lammermoor," after Scott's story, are best known. Donizetti is brilhant in characterization, though the hghtness of his melodies precludes great depths of passion. While his ensembles, such as the sextet in " Lucia," are highly effec- tive, his orchestration is weak. Vineenzo Bellini (1801-1835), also an Italian, composed only in the serious style. His melodies are merely lyric or elegiac, depending on the acting for dramatic effect, but their simplicity and sincerity make them touch the heart. In his most noted works, " La Sonnam- bula," " Norma," and " I Puritaui," he rises to greater heights than Donizetti ; yet Donizetti's works have retained their hold upon singers and the public, while Bellini's are now seldom heard. The vocal character of the roles in the operas of both these composers secured them immense popularity with singers ; also, though their melodies were much adorned, this embellishment was gener- ally subordinated to real feeling. Both adhered more strictly to Italian models than did Rossini. Bellini 194. Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864). It was reserved for a German, however, to cater so to French taste as to win Meyerbeer OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 197 the undivided admiration of French audiences. Originally named Jakoh Liebmann Beer, this composer was born in Berlin, the son of a Jewish banker and a cultivated mother. He at first set out on the career of a piano virtuoso, studying with Clementi, play- ing Mozart's D minor concerto in public at the age of seven, and later becoming a pupil of the Abbe Vogler (par. 152). But, although he became an accomplished pianist, he longed for more extensive fields of achievement, and so attempted opera writing. Failing in Germany, he went to Italy, where, actuated by Ros- sini's influence, he produced successful but trivial operas. In 1826 he was invited to witness the production of his "Crociato" in Paris, where he afterward lived. Meyerbeer's most wonderful characteristic was his power of assimilating different styles; and the result of this was shown in the fiu-ore attending the premiere of his "Robert le Diable," in preparation for which he had studied French ideals assiduously. "Les Huguenots," which appeared in 1836, was slower in achieving success ; but " Le Prophfete," produced at Paris in 1849, met with instant approval. Meanwhile his fame was augmented by the appearance of his operas in Berlin, aided by the magnetic singing of Jenny Lind in the title roles. Following these came the operas comiques " L'Etoile du Nord," in 1854, " Le Pardon de Ploermel " (Dinorah), in which he met the French in their own field with some success, and his " L'Africaine," labored on for twenty-five years and first performed two years after his death. 195. Meyerbeer's Style. With his brilhant gifts and pains- taking, even laborious work, it was unfortunate that Meyer- beer's ideals extended only to effects. His noble thoughts were invariably burdened with claptrap accessories, in which 198 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY the glitter and tinsel abounding in scenery and orchestra fail to disguise his lack of sequence and unity. Yet he did much toward increasing facility in orchestral technique ; in importing the romantic opera into France, in his " Robert " ; in originating new elements of contrast, as between the Aria from " Le Prophete." Andantino cantabile. L'in - gra - to m'ab -ban-do - na, ma il cor 6 di - ear - ma - to I im m0^ W^E^ *E,£ ztat gia, il cor e gia, La ma - dre ti per - do - na, ah ^^ ^ \^ pp i'A b i?- - r- - ^f. __ — . — K . . fc,- ■ .. - Ar 1^ b f—^-'.'> — ^-^-^- -^— ■— -r — \ ^=1— -^ J — r — ^^ — «J :. ^ -j^ io son tua ma - dre an - cor, Ah Gian - ni mio, fe B?6E. -^^. tua ma-dre io son, io son an 10 sono an psalm-singing and the frivolous music in " Les Huguenots " , and in demonstrating new stage effects, which involved a dramatic climax to each scene, however short. Of his operas, "Robert" is distinguished for its exuberance of style ; "Le Prophfete" is gloomy; " L'Africaine " is shadowy and poetic ; but " Les Huguenots " strikes his highest level of achievement. 196. German Opera Composers. We have seen how the German opera sprang from the singspiel, and how Weber realized from this a truly national product. The character- istic of spoken dialogue was generally retained ; even Spohr and Weber met with indifferent success when they elimi- nated this feature. A number of composers followed in Weber's footsteps, some of whom attained considerable success. Heinrich Marschner (1795-1861) revelled in the supernatural, writing OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 199 melodiously and with rich orchestration. His " Hans Heil- ing " still survives in Germany. Conradin Kreutzer (1780- 1849) wrote many operas in light vein, but with good concerted work, of which his " Nachtlager in Granada " is popular. Lortzing (1801-1851) wrote popular, tuneful, and well-contrasted operas, of which the " Czar and Car- penter " and " Der Wildschiitz " are chief. His humorous orchestration was the prototype of that of Arthur Sullivan (par. 229). Von Flotow (1812-1883), whose opera " Martha" is well-beloved, wrote in light Italian style. Otto Nicolai (1810-1849) used a tuneful style and good orchestration in his " Merry Wives of Windsor." The singspiel took the form of comic opera with such composers as Johann Strauss, Carl Milldcker, and von Suppe, while a higher form of opera has for its chief representative Victor Nessler, whose sentimental melody is displayed in his " Trompeter von Sakkingen " and " Rattenfiinger von Hameln." Section 2 RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 197. Youth. Wagner, the great opera reformer of the nineteenth century, employed the accumulated resources of preceding composers to expound his individual ideas and theories, revolution- ized the existing operatic style, and even put an indelible imprint upon all other forms of music. Born at Leipsic, he soon lost his father, who left a family of seven children, of whom Richard was the youngest. Two years later his mother married a Dresden actor and playwright named Geyer, who proved a good step- father. He also died in 1821. In school at Dresden Richard was an excellent Greek scholar, becoming enthusiastic over poetry and the drama. His musical am- Wagner 200 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY bition was fired by the works of Weber and Beethoven. A prevision of the daring flights of his later hfe was already seen in an overture performed at a theatre in 1830, which astonished the audience by its continuous use of the drum. In the next year Wagner matriculated as a student at Leipsic University, where he seems to have been more interested in music -than in other studies. At Leipsic he found a competent teacher in Weinlig, cantor at the Thomasschule, with whom he studied earnestly for six months. A sjTiaphony in C, afterwards lost, was given at the Gewandhaus concerts in 1833. About this time he wrote the libretto and part of the music for a tragic opera, "Die Hochzeit." He became chorus master, in 1833, at the Wiirzburg theatre, while there writing the words and music to a three-act romantic opera, "Die Feen." Acting as conductor of the Magdeburg theatre in the next year, he attempted a performance, which proved an utter failure, of an opera in two acts entitled "Das Liebesverbot," modelled after Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure," and constructed on the lines of Bellini and Auber. After this he went to Konigsberg, where, in 1836, he married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress. Frustrated in the hope of securing a position at the Konigsberg theatre, he next travelled to Riga in Russia. Here he met with more success. Fired with an ambition to try his, fate in Paris, the Mecca of opera composers, he wrote his "Rienzi," on the grandiose lines of Meyerbeer, and set out for Paris in a sailing vessel. A voyage of nearly four weeks brought him to London, whence he went to Boulogne, where he met Meyerbeer, who gave him a letter to the direc- tor of the Paris Opera. During his travels he heard the legend of the "Flying Dutchman," which he afterwards wove into the plot of an opera. 198. Paris and Dresden. At Paris Wagner met only rebuffs. His "Rienzi" was refused at the Op^ra, and he was reduced to all kinds of hack work to procure a livelihood. Finally selling a Fsench version of his libretto, the "Flying Dutch- OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 201 man," to the Op^ra management, he retired on the profits to Meudon, to work out the words and music of a German ver- sion, of which he completed three acts in seven weeks. He was encouraged in 1842 by the success of " Rienzi " at the Dresden opera, and in 1843 he was appointed court chapel- master there. During the six years spent at Dresden "Wag- ner's labor was imceasing. He gave several performances of opera weekly, conducted the chapel music in a Catholic church, and directed many concerts, in which he brought out the Beethoven symphonies. Early in his stay his " Flying Dutchman " was produced, and evoked a storm of criticism, tempered by the praise of Liszt and Schumann. "Tann- hauser," brought out in 1845, excited even more opposition, being frowned upon by Mendelssohn, Spohr, and Schumann, and it reached its seventh performance with difficulty. The next year was disastrous. Publication was expensive, his political attitude made him enemies, and the press was severe. He worked on " Lohengrin," of which the finale to the last act was performed in 1848, and also began an opera, " Siegfried's Tod." Then, banished for his political opinions, he fled to Liszt at Weimar, who helped him out of the country. 199. Banishment. Coldly received at Paris, whither he went first, Wagner hastened with other refugees to Zurich in 1849. Here, in retirement, he wrote philosophical and po- lemical articles, and a drama for the Paris Op^ra, which was refused. He now planned an ambitious enlargement of his original scheme in " Siegfried's Tod " to a cycle of operas which should illustrate the German mythological legends in the " Nibelungenlied." The prologue, "Das Rheingold," was written before 1854. " Die Walkiire " was finished in 1856, and the first part of " Siegfried " in the following year. Meanwhile Liszt's production of " Lohengrin " at Weimar, though unfavorably received by musicians and the press, stirred the public, and attained popularity. Wagner was 202 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY invited to conduct the Philliarmonio concerts in London, and was quite successful. Asked to write an opera for tlie em- peror of Brazil, he finished his " Tristan and Isolde " in 1859, which, however, proved too difficult for the available siugers. Another Paris campaign proved disastrous, through the cabals of enemies, but his views nevertheless won many adherents. 200. Later Life. Wagner was now permitted to re-enter Germany, where he was obliged to give concerts to relieve constant money troubles. Domestic difficulties, too, resulted in a separation from his wife ; and " Tristan " was abandoned at Vienna after the fifty-seventh rehearsal. In 1864, however, Wagner's fortunes suddenly changed for the better, when the young king of Bavaria, Ludwig II, be- came his stanch supporter. He invited Wagner to his court, where he became a naturalized subject. An immediate result was a superb production of " Tristan " in 1865, with the tenor Schnorr in the title role, and von Billow as con- ductor. "Die Meistersinger " was given at Munich in 1868, and in 1870 Wagner married the former Madame von Biilow. The " Ring " was completed in 1874, and " Par- sifal " in 1882. For the adequate production of these works Wagner evolved the ambitious scheme of having a special festival theatre constructed. The king was heartily in sym- pathy with the undertaking, but Wagner had incurred jeal- ousies at covirt, and Ludwig dared not assume the respon- sibility of the expense to be incurred. So, with characteristic pertinacity, Wagner addressed himself to the nation at large, offering shares for sale. Furthered by numerous Wagner societies formed in other countries as well as in Germany, the project was consummated when the corner-stone of the new theatre was laid at Bayreuth in 1872. The fund, not yet complete, was increased by Wagner through numerous concerts, and by the remuneration received for his " Festival March," written for the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. The final deficit was guaranteed by King Ludwig. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 203 A festival held at Bayreuth in August, 1876, was the first of a series, including performances every year or two, which has since continued. Notwithstanding its musical success, the first festival left a heavy deficit, which Wagner gradually lifted by concert giving and the proceeds from operas pro- duced elsewhere. His last work, "Parsifal," begun in his sixty-fifth year, was given at Bayreuth in the summer of 1882, when it had sixteen performances. He died in Venice and was buried at Bayreuth, where his grave is visited by the thousands of pilgrims to the festivals. 201. Wagner as Man and Artist. The virulent controver- sies which have been waged over his place as a musician, and have called forth the extremes of praise and vituperation, are now subsiding into a sincere recognition of his genius by all musicians, with a corresponding acknowledgment of his defects. Admiration for his work need not detract from the praise due to his predecessors, — Beethoven, Weber, Bellini, and others, — who made his achievements possible, and furnished an inspiration which he himself acknowledged. The power of Wagner's personality appears not only in his works but in his whole life. It was a dogged battle against tremendous discouragements, in which undaunted perse- verance and self-confidence alone won the final victory. Yet, like Beethoven, he was easily aroused and thrown into ex- tremes of passion by trifling vexations. A portrait given by his brother-in-law is as follows : " The double aspect of this powerful personality was shown in his face; the upper part beautiful with a vast ideality, and lighted with eyes which were deep, severe, gentle, or malicious, according to the circumstances; the lower part wiy and sarcastic. A mouth cold, calculating, and pursed up, was cut slantingly into the face beneath an im- perious nose, above a chin which projected like the menace of a conquering will." 204 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 202. Theories. Wagner's contentions for the opera fol- lowed out the lines laid down by Gluck. According to his views, Beethoven, in his ninth symphony, had acknowledged that future musical development must call vocal music to the aid of instrumental. Pursuing the same logic, Wagner contended that all the arts should finally co-operate to produce a unit of emotional expression. As literature and music are most closely allied, he laid greatest stress upon their union ; but in his festival theatre he attempted to add, as nearly equally important factors, action and scenic acces- sories. Thus dramatic truthfulness was his fixed aim, and in the end to secure this he entirely eliminated conventional musical forms, making the trend of the music depend upon the action, and adopting the leitmotiv, or descriptive musical figure, as a basis for coherency. Regarding subjects, Wagner arrived at the theory in his later works that music should be employed only where words were inadequate, and that plots should be based not upon reason but upon the imagination and the emotions. Thus he abandoned themes like "Rienzi" and the "Flying Dutch- man " in favor of mythological subjects involving allegorical and typical characters ; and for these he employed a musico- dramatic language, intensified by stage effect. 203. Operas. "Rienzi," written as a bid for Parisian favor, is in direct imitation of the grandiose and spectacular style of Meyerbeer, with the conventional number of five acts, a number which was changed to three in succeeding operas. In " Tannhauser," however, Wagner threw down the gauntlet by exploiting his new theories of continuous action. Yet fixed numbers are still present, as also in " Lohengrin." The latter, however, has more continuity and a psychological motive of action emphasized by characteristic themes. The tremendous task involved in the composition of the Nibel- ungen Cycle — " Das Rheingold," " Die Walkiire," " Sieg- fried," " Gotterdammerung " — ^was made possible by a high OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 205 pitch of mastery over his subject, and a consistent adherence to his perfected theories. The fact that the operas were not composed in the order of their sequence made many incongruities inevitable, and dreary wastes of dialogue and Swan motive from " Lohengkini" Lohengrin. ^h^ f g r ^ J E g— ,^ r- ^j gz^ gEg^^ Nun sei be - dankt^ mein lie - ber Schwan ! Zieh' durch die wei - te ftt ^i -j^-f gd= P^E-C— M^^T^ Fluth zu-riick, da - bin, wo - ber mlch trug dein Kabn, g p^r g g g I i ^¥^^- bfi=: ^ kebr wie - der nur zu un - serm G-luck ! Drum ge - treu dem F^gftt ^E ^^ ^E gE^SE^^J^M^-^ EgEE^gg^ &c. DienBt ge - than [ Leb* wohl ! Leb' wohl, mein lie - ber Schwan I soliloquy are involved. " Tristan," a tragedy of love and passion, is his most perfect and consistent work. The comic " Meistersinger," with self-abnegation as its motive, contains attractive characterization ; while " Parsifal " is composed of a mixture of religion and mysticism. 204. 'Wagner's Music. In his fully developed operas Wagner employs music as a constant commentary on the text and action, and in so doing he makes the music depict the real feeling of the character, sometimes in opposition to the words uttered, as when hypocritical language is used. The mel- ody, composed chiefly of leitmotive, each of which has signifi- cance, is carried by the orchestra. It is passed about from one instrument to another, its component bits connected by frequent modulations ; and above this the singer musically declaims his thoughts, unfettered by fixed lines. The leit- motiv, generally short and simple, is capable of necessary variation in augmentation, diminution, inversion, and the 206 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY like, but is always recognizable. Its characterization may be imitative, as in the " Ride of the Valkyries," or sugges- tive, as with the eucharist in " Parsifal," or a simple philo- sophical conception. Sometimes it has an invariable harmonic or rhythmic form; but generally it is found altered in rhythm, harmony, orchestration, or structure ; and sometimes it has a predilection for a special key. Brunhilde's call, from " Die Walkure." The musical structure is founded on contrapuntal rather than harmonic lines, with a tonality that is fixed for definite or simple ideas, but which shifts continually for mystic or involved conceptions. The latter are also suggested in chro- matic progressions and by the prevalence of dissonant chords, while the consequent absence of perfect cadences carries the thought on without interruption. Apparent harshnesses in the score are often lessened when the individuality of parts is made clear by the different timbres of the instruments. Wagner's orchestration involves no complicated methods, so OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 207 that sonority results from the perfect part-balance. His use of the brass instruments is to make them an equal factor with the strings and wood- wind, while new instruments appear, such as the cor anglais and hass clarinet. New effects are also introduced by the subdivision of parts, as of the viohns in the Lohengrin prelude, and the three parts fre- quently given to flutes, oboes, clarinets, etc. Wonderful Themes from Overture to "Parsifal." Faith Motive. A 5t= Ml fel g^ "(r 4*= ^w-=- ff ^r^~T ^gi ^-T-^ E^E tezz -*i- :^ :t=d^ =BF ^ ^^eM=^ ^^l =1S=R= =*=fej! ^»'-=^- ^ fe- -•- bs-. -"^^- f -f C_# il ^V^ -f EdEE^I^ =j 3^ J J . - J^-^i ^S =p T=^D- Dresden Amen ^^E^ use is made of the individual tone colors in the presentation of the leitmotiv. Preludes are used instead of overtures to prepare the mind for the scenes immediately following. Ensembles are rare, since Wagner considered them inconsistent with the action. In the voice-parts tricks of vocalization are not demanded, since the dramatic sincerity of the music calls rather for com- mand over the emotional tone-coloring. Melodic ornamenta- tion is rare. The influence which Wagner has had can hardly be over- estimated, and the bitter attacks upon his innovations have given place to a general acceptance of his style. 208 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Section 3 OTHER NINETEENTH CENTURY OPERA COMPOSERS 205. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). The son of an innkeeper in the Itahan town of Roncole, Verdi became an organist at ten years of age. After studying music at Busseto he was sent to Milan by a merchant who per- ceived his genius. There, entrance to the Conservatory being denied to him, he studied two years with Lavigna. Marry- ing and settling at Milan, he produced the opera "Oberto" in 1839; but soon after, disheartened by the loss of his family, he resolved to give up his chosen career. Fortimately, however, he became in- terested in a libretto that was offered him, and wrote several successful operas, of which "Ernani," in 1844, was the most popular. Although on conventional lines and thinly orchestrated, these yet Verdi A MELODY or Bellini's compared with one by Verdi. Bellini, Quartet from " I Puritani." Largo, Verdi, Quartet from " Rigoletto." p Andante. ^ ^ OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 209 struck a new note of dramatic power which steadily in- creased. His reputation spread to France and to England, wliere he was invited to conduct one of his operas. After a number of less important works, he brought out his great successes : " Rigoletto," in 1851 ; " II Trovatore " and " Traviata," both in 1853 ; and the " Sicilian Vespers," at Paris, in 1855. All these show a decided growth in dramatic sincerity, so that Verdi was prepared by his own experiences and by his quickness in assimilating the new ideas of Wagner to write his maturest works, — "Aida" in 1871, "Otello" in 1887, and "Falstaff" in 1893. In these the orchestra is treated in a masterly manner, the recitatives are enriched, and formal melodies are less fre- quent. The excellent librettos to " Otello " and " Falstaff " were the work of Boito (1842- ), himself the composer of " Mefistofele," produced in 1868, an opera of signal merit. Verdi wrote over thirty operas, besides some church music, which included his "Manzoni Requiem" (1874), a fine work in his later style, and the beautiful and melodious "Stabat Mater." 206. Charles Francois Gounod (1818-1893). A thorough Parisian, Gounod fed his early musical enthusiasm upon the works of Weber, Rossini, and especially Mozart. In 1836 he entered the Con- servatoire, where he graduated with the -prix de Rome. Repairing to Italy, he made there an exhaustive study of the works of Palestrina and Bach. On his return he studied theology for two years, finally, however, renouncing his inten- tion of becoming a priest. His long period of silence was broken in 1861, when his "Messe solennelle," for cho- G°™°° rus, orchestra, and organ, was performed in London. Two grand operas, which were produced at the Academic in Paris, 14 210 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY were unsuccessful. These were followed by the opera com- ique "Le M^dicin malgr6 lui," a gem of refined setting, in 1858; and in 1859 his "Faust" was performed at the The- atre lyrique. The latter, which firmly estabhshed his fame, won its way more and more into popularity. It appeared in 1869, with an additional ballet, at the Paris Opera, where Portion of Love Duet ix "Faust." Pauat. _ Adagii M pS^^^^^^^^^p it has since been performed a multitude of times. Its at- tractiveness comes from the ravishingly sensuous and vocal charm of its music, which, without resorting to the device of the Wagnerian leitmotiv, yet emotionally characterizes each person and scene, embracing varied and interesting recita- tives between its charming solos and ensembles. After the graceful and delicate comic opera "Philemon and Baucis," produced in 1860, Gounod wrote other grand operas, of which the most noted, "La Reine de Saba" and " Romeo and Juhet," are inferior to "Faust," by reason of their evi- dent mannerisms. While in London, where he lived during the Franco-Prussian war, he founded the celebrated "Gounod Choir" and appeared in a number of concerts. Of his or- atorios the "Redemption" was produced at the Birming- ham festival in 1882, and the "Mors et Vita" in 1885. Through these Gounod came to occupy a position toward modern English music analogous to that formerly held by OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 211 Handel and Mendelssohn, since he inspired a crowd of followers. His rehgious music, though occasionally empty and inclined toward sentimentalism, yet contains rare melodies and grand climaxes. His orchestration has many mannerisms, such as his use of the harp, which tend to weaken it. Many tasteful and elegant songs came also from his pen. 207. Other French Composers. These accompHshed work involving novelty and finesse of execution in their particular field, the op^ra comique. ' Under Wagner's influence the style of Meyerbeer became less conspicuous, giving way to a more genuine spirit, while the prominence of the recitative caused the name of opera comique to give place to that of drame lyrique. The following are the leaders : Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896) entered the Conservatoire in 1828, winning the grand prix. From 1837 he wrote many operas, of which the principal ones are "Mignon" and " Hamlet," in style refined and melodious, though Ught. Seguidilla from Bizet's " Carmen." pp Carmen, ^,— f ^^ ^ ^ Chez =5=*=fc ^:^^e0Me^3^^e^ =^' 212 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY From 1871 he was the director of the Conservatoire, suc- ceeding Auber in the post. , Feliden David (1810-1876), revelled in the use of Oriental color, a characteristic exhibited in his symphonic poem "Le D&ert" and his opera "Lalla Rookh." Georges Bizet (1838-1875) wrote several operas, of which the last and greatest is " Carmen," produced in 1875. This contains strong Spanish color, brilliant orchestration, and sustained verve. He is the first Frenchman to show Wag- ner's influence. The greatest work of Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) is " Le Roi d'Ys," intensely tragic in atmosphere. He also wrote excellent orchestral and chamber music. Leo Belibes (1886-1891) wrote " Lakm^," an Oriental opera, in graceful and finished style. Typically French, he excels in ballet music. Alexis Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894) wrote brilliant orchestral and chorus works, besides two operettas, two striking operas, and an unfinished opera, "Briseis." Benjamin Godard (1849-1895) wrote clever piano pieces and eight operas, including "Jocelyn," "Le Dante" and "La Vivandifire." Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880) was the originator of the popular opera bouffe. His keen and melodious music is dis- played in many burlesque and satirical operas. The most pretentious of his works, " Les contes d'Hoffmann," is still deservedly popular. Many followers, among them Audran and Planquette, carried on his style. Summary In the first half of the nineteenth century the centres of operatic activity were France, Italy, and Germany. In Paris the chief composers for the Op^ra were either Italians or Germans. Of the former, the purist Cherubini, and several of Gluck's followers, wrote in a formal and grandiose style, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 213 until Rossini appeared to revivify Italian opera by the use of a number of devices which increased its dramatic effectiveness. Rossini's popularity was eventually, however, overshad- owed by that of the German Meyerbeer, whose laboriously written operas were a compendium of external, sensational effects, often degenerating to the level of clap-trap. In Italy, Bellini and Donizetti wrote on Rossini's lines, in lyric rather than dramatic style, however, and with much genuine, attractive melody. A number of Germans followed in the footsteps of Weber, mostly with semi-comic operas founded on the singspiel. No one attained the highest rank, however, until the advent of Richard Wagner, who, with indomitable perseverance under aU sorts of difficulties, finally succeeded in overcom- ing the most virulent opposition, and establishing firmly his chief contentions. His most important theory asserted the unity of the arts, and the consequent interdependence of music and poetry. This he attempted to realize in his music dramas with mythological subjects, in which the leitmotiv heard continually in the orchestra comments upon the musi- cal declamation. His bold flights of orchestral polyphony, and his invention of new material, immensely enlarged the resources of music. Verdi, the Italian, lived a long life of continual progress from a light Italian style to a grandeur inspired by Wagner. His works are full of dramatic fire. Many Frenchmen excelled in the field of op^ra comique, which finally came under the influence of Wagner's style. Gounod's "Faust" and Bizet's "Carmen" have attained wide-spread popularity. READING LIST Section 1 Baltzell, History, lessons 23, 37, 38, 39. Dickinson, The Study of Music History, chaps. 36, 37. 214 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present. Strkatfeild, The Opera. Elson, Critical History of Opera. Upton, The Standard Operas. Annesley, The Standard Opera Glass. Henderson, How Music Developed. Grove's Dictionary, ai'ticles on the opera. Naumann, History, vol. 2, chaps. 34, 36, 37. Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. Famous Composers and their Works, articles on Rossini, and others. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4. Section 2 The Wagner literature is very voluminous and varied. Works sug- gested are only those considered most helpful. Lavignac, The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Henderson, Richard Wagner. FiNCK, Wagner and his Works, 2 vols. Newman, A Study of Wagner. Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. 1. Henderson, The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. Weston, Legends of the Wagnerian Drama. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Naumann, History, chap. 38. Baltzell, History, lesson 40. Grove's Dictionary, article on Wagner. Books on the history of Opera cited under section 1. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 38. Wagner, "My Life" (2 vols.), also other Prose Works and Letters. Elson, Music Club Programs, chap. 2. Section 3 Baltzell, History, lessons 89, 51, 52. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 40, 41. Books on the Opera cited under section 1. Articles on the composers in Grove's Dictionary. Crowest, Verdi. Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music; Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 16 (Verdi). OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 215 Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 14. Famous Composers and their Works, articles. Hdneker, Overtones, chap. 7. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 4. For all three sections, see Pratt's History, Parts VII and VIII. Terpsichore CHAPTER X Other Nineteenth Century Composers 208. Sourcea. From the study of leading nineteenth century musicians it is evident that Germany maintained her supremacy, producing composers, writers on music, con- ductors, orchestras, and all kinds of musical institutions. Musicians of other nationalities, too, frequently studied in Germany, and became so grounded in German musical styles as to be classed ultimately with the musicians of their adopted country. Others, however, of these students who had become fired with the enthusiasm grown from their intercourse with Ger- man composers and institutions, on returning to their own countries, sought to develop there new styles which should express the character of their own people. The result was a study of the scales, rhythms, harmonies, and melodies which had lain dormant among the peasant class for centuries, sometimes the undeveloped offspring of medieval modes, which had survived in the folk-songs and popular dances. Thus exotic forms of music sprang to the fore, presented by composers animated by patriotic zeal, and enriching material which was in danger of becoming hackneyed. Bohemia, Scandinavia, and Russia contributed the largest share of the new ideas, and a number of musicians in these lands attained a high degree of excellence, giving an impetus to music study which is still active. Section 1 MUSIC IN GERMANY AND BOHEMIA 209. Johannes Brahms (1833-1897). Born at Hamburg, the son of a double-bass player, Brahms, while a boy, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 217 attained a mastery over the piano and musical theory, study- ing especially the works of Bach and Beethoven. During the years 1848-9 he appeared several times as a concert pianist. The following years, to 1853, were spent in study, after which he went on a tour with the violinist Remenyi, meeting Joa- chim, Liszt, and Schumann. The last- named heralded him in his paper as the coming musica prophet, and thus drew the eyes of the world upon him. After his first publications, which extend through opus 10 and are characterized by youthful exuberance, Brahms passed several years in a close study of the classics, only occasionally playing or conducting in public. In 1859 he performed his first piano concerto at Leipsic. The serenades for orchestra, op. 11 and 16, struck a note of strong individuality, while the "German Requiem," produced in 1868, established his fame. After 1862 he lived mostly in Vienna, spending most of his time in composition, and only rarely acting as pianist or conductor. Brahms 210. Brahms's Work. An unfortunate circumstance in con- nection with Brahms was the position in which he was placed by the advocates of " absolute " music as their champion. In reality, his opposition to the "programme" school was more fancied than real, as he shows many of the traces of the modern spirit in his free use of materials. Like Bach, he lived a simple, unostentatious life, reflecting in his com- positions a normal, genuine character. Though fond of folk-music, he could yet write works of unparalleled com- plexity ; and the profound and reflective style of his greatest compositions is an evidence of the slowness with which he matured, causing him to delay until after the age of forty before writing a symphony. His wonderful complexity of structural work and his lack of tonal coloring sometimes 218 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORF resulted in a dry, academic flavor. Nevertheless he re- vealed many new possibilities of classic form by employing old modes and thematic uses, and by revivifying old forms, especially that of the variation. Classed with Bach and Beethoven by von Bulow as one of the three great musical B's, he justified such an association by combining Beethoven's harmonic structure with Bach's interest in individual parts. In the use of melodies and rhythms he invented many novel and complex effects, sometimes thus again reviving old or disused methods. 211. Brabms's Chamber Compositions. These include works in nearly all forms. Of piano works we note three sonatas and a scherzo, early and virile compositions which prefigure his later characteris- tics ; short ballades, caprices, intermezzi, and rhapsodies, all of much individuality ; the brilliant waltzes, opus 39 ; studies and arrangements demanding a powerful technique; varia- tions, of tremendous difficulty ; and two concertos, in D minor and B flat. They all abound in octaves, thirds, and sixths. The four-hand " Hungarian Dances " are popular. Other chamber music, of all kinds, includes the famous piano quintet, opus 34. The four-movement form prevails in all these long works, while the developments are lengthy and complex, and the codas elaborate. 212. Brahms's other Compositions. His orchestral works include two spirited serenades ; the brilliant variations, opus 56, which form nine tone pictures, ending with one which has the theme in the bass ; and four symphonies, of which the second is most popular, and the fourth most learned. Innovations occur in these symphonies, like the substitution of an allegretto for the scherzo in the first and third. The orchestration, though masterly, is heavy. The "Academic Overture " is strong in thematic development. There are many chorus works of all kinds, of which the grand and imposing " German Requiem "is in cantata style. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 219 Themes fkom Brahms' First Symphony. First movement. Introduction. Un poco sostenuto. Sec. k )d^=^ WSf^- m Allegro. ^^^=^4 ^ K-l J iJ<- fef=£^ i J"T^^ w — fVt-^ Slow movement. A ndante sostenuto. eib; ^f^f^^.. ^E£E5 /o a^^ i^^ E^ Ei EE =s-fc- ^ ^ Brahms' songs, about two hundred in number, weld closely words and accompaniment, displaying much melodic bea\ity and rich harmony. Love themes predominate, while many songs are in the folk-manner form. 213. Instmmental Writers. Robert Volkmann (1815-1883) wrote in a melodious and musicianly style. Joseph Rhein- berger (1839-1901), who held important positions at Munich as teacher and conductor, produced much chamber music, and twenty organ sonatas, which are melodious but some- times dry. Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) stands midway between classicism and the new school, and shows in his nine symphonies a wealth of melody and greatness of thought which are marred by a lack of coherency. He was powerfully affected by Wagner's work. Woldemar Bargiel, a follower 220 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY of Schumann, and Salomon Jadassohn, a professor at the Leipsic Conservatory, have written in large forms worthily, but have opened no new paths. 214. Song Writers, Carl Loewe (1796-1869) attained a high degree of perfection in his thrillingly dramatic ballads. Rohert Franz (1815-1892), the greatest lyric writer since Schubert, was, like him, slow to be recognized by his country- men. Finally becoming deaf and paralyzed, he was only rescued from abject poverty by the subscriptions of his admirers, many of them in other nations. Franz based his works on the classics, of which he was a close student. This is instanced in his writing " additional accompaniments " to the works of Bach and Handel. The result was especially shown in the accompaniments to his songs, which are composed of melodically flowing parts, contrapuntally treated. Above these the melody, of a declama- tory character, is intended to portray intimately the subjective moods which Franz was so skilful in treating. The personal character of his works, which caused Liszt to call him a "psychic colorist," makes him most successful with themes like love and nature, cast in simple strophic forms. While, with his The Rose Complaixed (Es hat die Rose sich beklagt). Larghefto. Fervent n-nd tender. (Innig und zart.) Es hat die Ro - Be sich be - Espressivo. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 221 P -K ^^-J^j! ^, q r} ^-=^p- l==^i :S=:&^= klagt, dass gar zu Bclinell der Duft ver - ge - lie ; den ihr der ^m t^^— i^:_^-t^JM ^ 5T|^-ff ^ m^ — : 1^ I ? h J classic tastes, he makes frequent use of old church modes and the chorale style, modernisms, such as emotional modulations and broken chords assimilated by the pedal, are likewise often found. He used little verbal repetition, and strenu- ously objected to the transposition of his songs to suit varying voice-ranges. By no means their least attractive features are the charming postludes appended to complete the meaning. Altogether Franz's finesse of execution resulted in an unusually large proportion of really fine songs. Franz Aht (1819-1885) wrote many songs in a light and tuneful manner. His part-songs are especially popular. Adolf Jensen (1837-1879), who led a life of poverty and ill health, wrote a hundred and sixty songs. The earlier of these were love songs, and the later, produced after he had embraced Wagner's opinions, took on a more dramatic style. The smooth and vocal melodies of these songs are supported , by difficult and characteristic accompaniments. Jensen's 222 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY piano works are mostly in the form of short songs without words. Uduard Lassen (1830-1904), who was born in Copen- hagen, and became Liszt's successor at Weimar, wrote many diamatic songs, besides more elaborate compositious, includ- ing operas. 215. Music in Bohemia. Bohemia, " the land of harp play- ers and street musicians," is renowned for the natural musical gifts of its inhabitants, which appear in its striking folk- music. During the eighteenth century strolling musicians were found everywhere ; each village had its native band ; and the private establishments of the nobility, Jike that of the Esterhazys, were of a high order. In Prague, the musi- cal centre, composers like Gluck, Mozart, and Weber found true appreciation when other lands were oblivious of their merits. It was not till the middle of the last century, how- ever, that Bohemia produced composers of lasting fame. 216. Friedrich Smetana (1824-1884). Smetana, the first great Bohemian musician, was a fine pianist, a pupil of Liszt. After serving for some time in various musical posts, notably as opera conduc- tor at Prague, he became afflicted with a growing deafness which eventually unbalanced his mind, and caused his death in an insane asylum. He wrote a number of operas, of which his " Bartered Bride " is best known ; also considerable chamber music, as well as symphonies and symphonic poems. His style is intensely dramatic, showing the Smetana influence of the new school. 217 Antonin Dvofdk (1841-1904). Dvofdk was thor- oughly a peasant by birth, his father serving as an innkeeper and butcher at Miihlhausen, Bohemia, where the composer OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 223 was born. Although his father intended him to follow his own trade, the boy became a musical enthusiast, following in the wake of every strolling musician who visited the town, and thus becoming saturated with the national folk-style. Taught by a school- master to sing and play the violin, he also studied harmony and the organ, copying dance music from the score. In 1857 his father sent him to Prague, where he entered a school for organists. There he fell into poverty, and was obliged to do all kinds of odd jobs in orchestras; but attracting the attention of Smetana, he was befriended by him, and began to Dvokak write serious music, studying the classics assiduously. In 1862 his first string quartet was written; and in 1873 he was made organist at St. Adalbert's church, with a salary of sixty dollars per annum, on the strength of which he married. His hymn for chorus and orchestra, "Heirs of the White Mountain," performed at local concerts, brought him into notice; and, appljdng for help to' the Ministry of Education at Vienna, he finally received a stipend. Brahms found a publisher for some of his works. His " Slavonic Dances" made him famous. Liszt secured a performance of his works, and he was invited to England after his " Stabat Mater" had been produced in London. There his " Spectre's Bride" was written for the Birmingham festival of 1885, and the oratorio "St. Ludmila" for the Leeds festival in the follow- ing year. He was made Doctor of Music at Cambridge in 1891, shortly before this having become a Professor of Music at the Prague Conservatory, which he left to become di- rector of a conservatory in New York, at a salary of $15,000 a year. But his love of home made him abandon this post after a few years, and he returned to Prague, where his opera "Armida" was unsuccessfully performed shortly before his death. 224 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 218. DvofAk'3 Character and Works. Dvorak was at heart always the simple-minded peasant, fond of home and do- mestic ties, and undaunted by failures. With a nature quick to recognize what was best in all forms of his art, he was especially fond of folk-music, and by the frequent use of Tunes in Negro style employed by Dvorak. Theme from Symphony " From the New World." Allegro, m *-*- ^^ :^ i^:r^ ^PS^^E-^E^ :&c. Finale from String Quartet, Op. Vivace. :^^i ^WWr^^^ ^^^m i^EE^EE^ :^=t $ J.^^^ ?T>rp , -n .y-r^ mm^ W m ^ ruwu^=w^^ir^^ u _ n m ^3E ;^iai m s ^^^5^ &c. m ^ folk-tunes did much toward perpetuating national styles. Yet while he welcomed with enthusiasm even the work of itinerant musicians, he was an unflagging student of the classics, notably the works of Mozart, Beethoven, and Schu- bert. The warmth of his imagination, his chromatic style, and keen sense of form, especially fitted him for orchestral writing; and in this direction his works, which belong to OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 225 the " absolute " school, are distinguished by glomng color, perfect naturalness, abrupt, daring modulations, and marvel- lous rhythmic flow of parts. The rapidity of his writing and his prodigality of resources are evidenced in his many compositions, which include for orchestra overtures, the " Slavonic Dances and Rhapsodies," symphonic poems, and five symphonies, of which the opus 95, " From tlie New World," provoked much discussion in America on account of its reminiscences of negro melodies. Other compositions were many pieces of chamber music, several unsuccessful operas, cantatas, an oratorio, the " Requiem Mass," a " Stabat Mater," and many solo and part songs. Section 2 MUSIC IN THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES 219. Scandinavian Music. The rich store of northern folk- music was first revealed by such native singers as Jenny Litid and Christine Nilsson. Most of the melodies are short, and upon repetition adopt a quicker rhythm. Denmark was the birthplace of Bach's great predecessor, Buxtehude. In the nineteenth century •/. Hartmann, diiector of the Copenhagen Conservatory, won the name of " father of Danish music." The first great composer, however, was Nii'Js Wilhelm Gade (1817-1890), who was born at Copenhagen. Brought up to his father's trade of making musical instru- ments, after a desultory musical edu- cation he joined the Royal Orchestra. A prize offered by the Musical Union of Copenhagen was won in 1841 by Gade's opus 1, an orchestral overture. " Echoes from Ossian." This, as well as his first symphony, was played at Leipsic by Mendelssohn, who afterwards became his firm friend. Gade succeeded Mendelssohn as 15 226 • OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY conductor of the Gewandhaus concerts. In 1848 he returned to Copenhagen, acting as organist and conductor, and finally becoming court chapelmaster there. Gade belonged to the Romantic-Classic school, and though a follower of Mendelssohn, was not simply his imitator. The northern flavor of his melodies, his chaste style, and absence of bombast unite to produce quite original effects. He was a fluent writer for orchestra, leaving eight symphonies. His choruses, songs, and piano pieces are of great merit. In Sweden and Norway most of the important composers are still living. Ole Hull, the distinguished violinist, did much for Norwegian music during the last century, as did Halfdan Kjeriilf (1815-1868), who was born in Christiania, studied in Leipsic, and afterwards devoted himself to compo- sition. His songs were introduced by Jenny Lind, Sontag, and others. Like his short piano pieces, they are strongly national and musically refined. 220. Music in Russia. The exotic characteristics of the border countries — the use of antiquated modes, the ming- ling of tonalities, strange and varied rhythms — are lavishly displayed in the mass of folk-music in Russia. It tends to extremes of savage gaiety and profound melancholy; and em- braces martial and festival tunes, cradle songs, and the lyrics of the peasants which they sing while at work. Church music, too, savors of the national taste for strong color. Purely vocal in character, it is impressive in its arrangement of parts, by which upper and lower voices double each other in the octave, and by its use of an additional sub-bass voice. Italian opera was introduced in 1737, and enjoyed uninter- rupted popularity until it was out-rivalled, after 1800, by French opera. The national enthusiasm for music also at- tracted many foreign artists, who found their talents appre- ciated, especially at St. Petersburg. It was not, however, till the first of the nineteenth century that a definite attempt was made by native composers to employ the resources of OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 227 the national music for the development of a Russian school. Since then progress has been remarkable, and has resulted in the infusion of a new and stirring element into musical composition. 221. Michael Glinka (1804-1857). Glinka may be con- sidered as the father of this movement. Educated at St. Petersburg, he studied the piano with John Field and Charles Mayer. He afterwards became a confirmed invalid ; and though he occupied for a time an official position at St. Petersburg, he travelled largely in quest of health, re- maining for some time in Paris, where he became interested in Berlioz's work. A close student of Russian folk-song, Glinka employed his grasp of it, as well as his mastery of melodic and harmonic Song from " Life for the Tsar." P Adagio. Con moUa anima. Glinka 228 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY ^^^^s^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ~^^ combinations, in the composition of many large works. These included chamber and orchestral productions and operas, of which "Life for the Tsar" and "Ruslan and Ludmilla" convincingly reflect the national life. 222. Peter iiyitch Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). The Russian whose fame has been the most far-reaching, however, was Tchaikovsky. Born in the Ural district, the son of a mining engineer, he began to play the piano at eight. When ten years old, he entered the School of Jurisprudence at St. Peters- burg. Graduating from this in 1859, he became a clerk in the first division of the Ministry of Justice. His musical en- thusiasm still continued. He studied the piano, and became especially inter- ested in the work of the Italian opera composers, notably Bellini, and also cul- TcMAiKovsKY tivated Mozart's works. His serious study of music, however, began in 1861, Avhen he entered the theory classes of Zaremha, who received in 1862 a professor- ship at the new St. Petersl)urg Conservatory, which Tchaikov- sky accordingly entered as student. Here he also studied composition with Anton Rubinstein, graduating with honor in 1865. Appointed Professor of Harmony in the Moscow Conservatory in 1866, he labored unceasingly for some years. In addition to his academic duties, he produced a number of unsuccessful operas and wrote critiques for Moscow OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 229 papers. Hard work, combiaed with troubles over an un- happy marriage, caused a nervous breakdown in 1877, after whicli he lived in retirement, except during a few tours in which he acted as orchestral conductor, visiting the United States in 1891. Morbidly sensitive throughout his life, he became more and more subject to tits of exti'eme depression in later years. He died in St. Petersburg of cholera. 223. Tchaikovsky's "Works. Tchaikovsky is best known for his orchestral works, which include six symphonies, seven symphonic poems, four suites, several overtures, and smaller Themes from Tchaikovsky's " Symphonie Pathetiquk," No. G. From first movement. irjcaJztindo. 't r rr M. — m . — m—i ^— — — ^— .^ invuiziiiiiiu. ^. J I I "^^s I J I I pieces. Especially fine are his two piano concertos, while other instrumental compositions include a variety of chamber music. The vocal works embrace songs and choruses, as 230 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY well as eleven operas which have not been heard to a great extent outside of Russia, and three ballets. Tchaikovsky's intensely emotional, sometimes morbid, na- ture appears in all his compositions ; yet his thorough musi- cianship always keeps control over these tendencies, and gives a perfectly articulate structure to his works, which are unified by powerful polyphony. While the minor mode predominates, riotous moods are frequent, and his vivid climaxes are rich in melody and orchestral color. 224. The Glinka School. Both Rubinstein and Tchaikov- sky are reproached with ultra-German tendencies by a coterie of cultured amateurs, most of whom have occupied or are occupying government positions ; and, while basing their theories on dramatic sincerity in the opera, these condemn equally the emptiness of Italian opera and Wagner's trans- ference of the chief melody into the orchestra. The highly colored style in which they write savors frequently of the barbaric, and is well adapted for programme music. Of the five leaders, two completed their work in the nineteenth cen- tury. These were: Alexander Borodin (1834-1887), a phy- sician and scientist, who wrote large and complicated works bristling with bold dissonances, and enjoyed a close friend- ship with Liszt; and Modeste Moussorgsky (1839-1881), who lived a Bohemian life, interrupted by several government positions, and wrote music which, though " weird and formless," yet contains effective and original melodic work. Section 3 MUSIC IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 225. Cesar Franck (1822-1890). The chief labors of French musicians of the nineteenth century were in the field of opera, and have thus been discussed. A composer, however, whose work was in marked contrast to that of other Parisians of his day was Cesar Franck. Franck was OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 231 not strictly a Frenchman, since he was a native of Li^ge, Bel- gium, but he became a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire at fifteei.. This he left in 1842, and after staying two years in Belgium, he spent the entire remainder of his life in Paris, occupied in an unflagging round of lesson-giving, composition, and organ playing at the church of St. Clo- tilde. In his simple, frugal life and his lack of public recognition he reminds us of Bach. The enthusiasm which he im- pressed upon his pupils inspired them with a filial affection which caused them to give him the name of "Pater Seraph- icus." Contrasting with the age in his unquestioning piety and idealistic trend of thought, he sacrificed everything to genuine expression. The chief of his works, of which the greatest were written late in life, is his " Beatitudes," in oratorio form. This was not performed till a year after his death. Two other oratorios, a number of songs, and three operas, are included among his other vocal compositions. His orchestral works include symphonic variations, a great symphony in D minor, and symphonic poems, of which " Psyche " introduces vocal numbers. His chamber music embraces a violin sonata, three great chorales for the organ, and some piano music. Franck 226. Pranck's Compositions. These have as basis a pure polyphony, written in a grand " cathedral style," and differ from Bach's in their continual use of chromatic progressions. A mystic by nature, Franck invests his music with a rich and blended polyphonic background, from which snatches of melodies continually emerge. Definiteness and convention- alism are sedulously avoided by the use of unexpected turns of melody and harmony. Spiritual unrest is indicated by un- usual progressions, while the avoidance of formal harmonic structure gives at times an inarticulate effect. Franck's 232 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Themk from the " Beatitudes." ^mi troppo lento. ^£="1: ^ ^^ ^^ 1 I - ed are the mourn - ers, Bless - ed are the ^ ^ mouni - ers, they shall ^ U- ^ ^ J- i^ J J ; Ei -J—.^ ii" >: :^ j^ ^ . J- i ^ By permission of G. Schinner, owners of the copyright. harmonies are full, and his rhythms are lacking in spright- liness. As a whole his music is introspective, impersonal, and vague, yet imbued throughout with loftiness of spirit. 227. English Music. The tendency of composers to sink their originality in the imitation of leaders — Handel, Men- delssohn, Gounod — has already been commented upon. A general dryness of style resulted, which made the period up OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 233 to the middle of the nineteenth century comparatively uninter- esting. English ballad operas (par. 81) occasionally attracted popular favor, especially those written by Michael William Balfe (1808-1870), an Irish opera singer of whose long list of operas only the well-known tuneful "Bohemian Girl" survives. A peculiarly English form of vocal music was the kind of harmonic motet called the glee ; and at convivial meet- ings every one was expected to carry his part in the ensemble of these compositions. Many church composers wrote in a solid style which smacked of pedantry, among them Sir John Goss (1800-1880) and Henry Smart (1813-1879), a melodious writer. 228. Sir WUliam Steradale Bennett (1816-1875). This composer, the most notable in England in the early nine- teenth century, was a choir singer as a boy, and entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1826. So promising was his genius, revealed in a piano concerto written at sixteen, that he was sent to Leipsic for study by the house of Broadwood. There he became intimate with Mendelssohn and Schumann, winning laurels both as a composer and as a pianist. On his return to England he labored long for the promotion of English music as conductor, professor at Cambridge, and director of the Royal Academy of Music, in which last posi- tion he was particularly successful. While shining as a pianist, he also wrote many choral, orchestral, and piano works which displayed a polish suggestive of Mendelssohn, as well as considerable originality. His cantata, " The Woman of Samaria," is especially melodious. 229. Other English Composers. Sir George A. Maefarren (1813-1887) was a prolific composer of operas and oratorios, which are solid in construction but dry in style. Sir Joseph Barnby (1838-1896) was prominent as or- ganist and conductor, leaving many excellent anthems and other choral works, of which a fine sample is the cantata " Rebekah." 234 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Sir John Stainer (1840-1901), for many years organist at St. Paul's, London, was well known as the author of valu- able text-books and composer of impressive anthems. Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842-1900), the son of a clarinet player and teacher, began his musical career as a choir boy in the Chapel Royal at London ; entered the Royal Academy of Music on the recently founded Mendelssohn scholarship, in 1856 ; and became a w ite student at the Leipsic Conservatory in' %j^ " 1858, where he remained three years, JSf^ ^M^ '^"'i wrote his music to Shakespeare's ^^Kw j^i^^M "Tempest." This composition estab- ^^mt^M^^M lished his fame in England, and he ' passed the remainder of his life in London, filling a number of important musical positions, and also occupied as organist, conductor, and composer. Of many important compositions we notice his anthems and cantatas, especially the "Prodigal Son" Theme from Arthur Sullivan's overture "In Memoriam.' I I ■ ^li^i^ii^^^lgi^ mi rE=t ppppii^g^^^ipp t ^ &c. and the "Golden Legend"; his oratorio, "The Light of the World"; orchestral music incidental to several of Shakes- peare's plays; and his popular comic operas, which began OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 235 with "Cox and Box," and embraced his great successes writ- ten with the collaboration of W. S. Gilbert in mock heroic vein. The bright, healthful, and humorous orchestration of these operettas shows his mastery over instrumental com- binations and form, while their diversity and aptness of rhythm and melody are conspicuous. A grand opera, "Ivan- hoe," displays musicianly work, but did not add materially to his fame. Section 4 PIANISTS AND VIOLINISTS 230. Anton Rubinstein (1830-1894). Rubinstein ranks with Liszt as one of the greatest piano virtuosi of the nine- teenth century. He was born in Russia, and was recognized as a prodigy while a boy at Moscow. At ten he went upon a concert tour, which was interrupted for a course of study in Germany, ren- dered somewhat difficult by his lack of pecuniary resources. In 1854 he set out upon the remarkable series of concert tours which extended over a number of years, and during which he electrified audiences everywhere by his wonderfully Rubinstein emotional style of playing. These tours were interrupted by the task which he undertook of founding the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1862, for which he obtained the money by private solicitation and concert giving. His directorship of the conservatory paved the way for brilliant musical work and a large coterie of distinguished pupils. His final pianis- tic accomplishment was the playing of seven historical pro- grammes, which required tremendous musical and technical ability. These he successfully performed in all the chief cities of Europe. Rubinstein is considered by his countrymen more German 236 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY than Russian as a composer. In this capacity he produced many works with interesting and original ideas, but lack of concentration and polish. These include symphonies, of Theme from Rubinstein's Third Piano Concerto. Andante. ^^^^wmi^^ ^^m m^^^^^^ t ^ i i-^S^ 4.jj:l H^,-| i:i i3 ^^ 4-^ ^^^fc^p- =^=z5zJJ^^ -M=»- =t=^p-^— 7^3^ J w4 ■ - 1 -=5 >^= which the " Ocean Symphony " is the chief of his orchestaral vporks, but is seldom performed on account of its great length ; chamber music, including many characteristic piano pieces; and a number of operas and oratorios which did not attain success. OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 237 231. Other Pianists. Ignaz Moscheles (1794-1870), the friend and teacher of Mendelssohn, became very popular as a teacher at the Leipsic Conservatory, where many con- sidered him Mendelssohn's superior. Of his many composi- tions few now survive, save his collection of musical etudes, opus 70. Sigismund Thalherg (1812-1871) was the greatest pianist before Liszt, whom he rivalled in Paris. He exploited every known eifect of virtuosity, excelling in left-hand technique, octave playing, and singing tone. Ferdinand Hiller (1811-1885) was born at Frivukfort of a Jewish family. A man of culture, he imbibed a classic taste as a pupil of Hummel, and afterward became a follower of Mendelssohn. Distinguished as a pianist, he was for many years chapelmaster at the Cologne Conservatory, and was a prolific composer in all forms, writing elegant and flowing melody. Adolf von Henselt (1814-1889), another Hummel pupil, was a native of Bavaria who spent most of his life as court pianist at St. Petersburg. In his piano compositions, which include Etudes and a concerto, he expresses his poetic tem- perament by full sonorous harmonies. These are produced by long finger stretches which exhibit technical requirements that make him a connecting link with Liszt. Stephen Seller (1815-1888) was born at Pesth, but spent most of his life at Paris, where he was celebrated as a teacher, and writer of graceful, refined piano works. Joseph Joachim Raff (1822-1882), born in Switzerland, was a musician of learning who began his career as a school- master. A friend of Mendelssohn, and later of Liszt, he wrote works covering a wide range, from the classic to the ultra-modern, and including many piano pieces, chamber music, and ten sjonphonies in sonata form but programme style. Of these " Im Walde " and " Lenore " are best known. They are of unequal merit, though effectively orchestrated. Hans von Biilow (1830-1894) accomplished much in the 238 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY advancement of the educational side of music by his work as pianist, conductor, and critic, in the course of which he brought much neglected music and many unknown aspirants into notice. His tremendous technique and objective style of playing were displayed in many concert tours. A friend and pupil of Liszt, he at first espoused the cause of Wagner, but afterwards joined the Brahms party. 232. Violinists. Many of these united virtuosity to ability as composers, thus practically demonstrating their develop- ment of the technical resources of their instrument. A con- necting link between the old and new schools was Giovanni Battista Viotti (1753-1824), who was born in Italy, but spent much time in Paris and in London, where he died. Viotti played with a singing style which he inherited from the old Italian violinists, and was the first to adopt the perfected Tourte bow. He left twenty-nine concertos, of which the twenty-second is the most popular. All of them were written in an extended sonata form. Of Viotti's many pupils the most noted were Pierre Rode (1774-1830), who wrote ten concertos and twenty- four standard Etudes ; and Pierre Baillot (1771-1842), noted as a teacher and writer of the treatise " L'Art du violon." Baillot's pupil Rabeneck became a renowned teacher, count- ing among his pupils Alard, teacher of Sarasate, and Leon- ard, teacher of Marsick. The most renowned virtuoso of the century, however, was Niccolo Paganini (1782-1840), who for many years was the reigning sensation throughout the civilized world on account of his extra- ordinary feats of dexterity, his novel and original violin effects, and his singu- lar and magnetic personality. Born at Genoa, he lived through a succession of amazing triumphs, developing such char Paganini OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 239 acteristics in violin virtuosity as Liszt was afterwards in- spired to attempt for the piano. The French school, founded by Viotti, was carried on by the Belgians De Beriot (1802-1870) and Henri Vieuxtemps (1820-1881). The former's "Airs varies" and concertos, though melodious, have a pronounced Italian tendency toward triviality ; while the latter, though inclining toward bombast in his works, was superior as a performer and composer. De Beriot had many distinguished pupils at the Brussels Conservatory. The Norwegian Ole Bull (1810-1880) was a self-taught violinist who did much through his popularity as a player to further the cause of his country's music. In Leipsic Ferdinand David, the pupil of Spohr, founded a school based on French technique joined to careful musical judgment. His principles were perpetuated by the school founded at Vienna by Joseph Boehm (1795-1876), the teacher of Ernst (1814-1865) and of Joseph Joachim (1831-1907). The last two have written compositions of a Hungarian flavor ; and Joachim especially did much to emphasize the serious musical side of playing as opposed to mere virtuosity. Summary In Germany, Johannes Brahms, adopted as the champion of " absolute " music, wrote in a profound style which united the polj^hony of Bach with the harmonic structure of Bee- thoven, and enriched classic forms with new features of rhythm, melody, and model treatment. Many other Ger- mans, who carried out Teutonic ideals in their works, wrote in the larger forms ; while a group of song writers, including Brahms, Franz, and others, increased the power of intimate emotional expression by unifying accompaniment, melody, and words. Other nations, hitherto unknown in the higher musical forms, now began to form national schools under competent leaders, such as Smetana and Dvorak in Bohemia, Gade 240 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY and Kjerulf in Scandinavia, and Glinka, Rubinstein, and Tchaikovsky in Russia. In France, composers devoted their work mainly to the opera, except in the case of C^sar Franck, whose composi- tions are characterized by a mystic chromatic style, and whose influence as a teacher was far-reaching. English church composers wrote music of solid merit, but, especially in the first half of the century, it was inclined toward pedantry. The spontaneity of Arthur Sullivan's mu- sic, particularly displayed in his comic operas, is an instance of the growth in originality among the later composers. Many pianists and violinists developed virtuosity to an amazing extent, leaving the results of their work in nu- merous compositions, of which their Etudes have chiefly survived. READING LIST Articles in "Famous Composers and their Works" cover much of the music of this period. See also Pratt's History, Part VIII. Section 1 Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, articles on Brahms and Dvorak. Parry, Art of Music, chap. 13. FiNCK, Songs and Song Writers. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 39, 42. Baltzell's History, lessons 47, 49, 55. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music ; articles on Brahms and Dvordk. HuNEKER : Mezzotints; The Music of the Future. Arthur Elson, Modern Composers of Europe, chap. 4 (DvoTdk). Streatfeild, Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 17 (Brahms). Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 2, 10. Section 2 Baltzell, History, lesson 51. Dickinson, Study of Music History, chap. 42. Newmarch, Borodin and Liszt. Newmarch, Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works. Biography of Tchaikovsky by his brother Modeste, translated by Newmarch, OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 241 HuNEKER, Mezzotints (Tchaikovsky). Streatfeild, Modern Music and Musicians, chap. 18 (Tchaikovsky). Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 7, 9, 11. Section 3 Dickinson, Study of Music History, chaps. 40, 43. Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, article on Cesar Franck. Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. J. F. Maitland, English Music in the Nineteenth Century. Willeby, Masters of English Music. Henderson, Modern Musical Drift. Elson, Music Club Programs, chaps. 3, 5. Section 4 Baltzell, History, lessons 47, 48. Histories of Piano Playing and Piano Music by Bie, Weitzipann, and Fillmore. Ferris, Violinists and Pianists. Stoeving, Story of the Violin. Ehrlich, Celebrated Violinists. Hart, The Violin and its Music. CHAPTER XI Recent and Contemporaby Composers 233. Existing Conditions. We have now to consider those composers whose work either is now in progress or has ex- tended into the twentieth century. The lack of necessary time-perspective makes a final critique of their achievements impossible, and we can therefore only sum up their surround- ings and aims, leaving to future generations the final verdict as to their position in musical annals. Never were radical tendencies so pronounced or so tolerated as at present; con- sequently the members of the ultra-modern or impressionist wing swerve at no scruples in their defiance of convention- ality. The exotic forms of music referred to in the last chapter are multiplying, while Cesar Franck's unique doctrines have resulted in France in a school composed of his friends and disciples. Thus Wagner's music, once regarded as the ultima Thule of radicalism, now appears mild compared with the ventures of exuberant present-day fancy, — ventures, more- over, against which the conservative elements are compelled by pubhc opinion to wage a losing fight. Section 1 MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 234. Richard Strauss (1864-). Strauss, whose position at the head of the radical forces has made him the central figure for musical controversy, is a native of Munich, where his father was a horn player in the orchestra of the Bavarian court. With the precocity of genius, he played the piano at OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 243 Strauss the age of four, and after many attempts at composition began the study of theory in 1875, under the court chapelmaster Meyer. The result was a number of early works written be- fore 1884, which include, among other ambitious attempts, a symphony in F mi- nor. All these show the influence of his classic models, — Haydn, Mozart, Bach and Beethoven. Attracting the notice of von Biilow, he played Mozart's C minor concerto under his leadership, and succeeded him for a short time as con- ductor at Meiningen. A journey to Italy in 1886 inspired him to write his first distinctive work, an orchestral fantasy entitled "Aus Italien." Then, openly an adherent of the "programme" school, he served three years as a conductor at the Munich opera, and these were followed by five years of similar employment at Weimar. During the years 1888-90 he produced three important symphonic poems, — "Macbeth," "Don Juan" and "Tod und Verklarung." An extended southern journey, taken for his health in 1892, resulted in the opera "Guntram," which was given without great suc- cess at Weimar in 1894, and a short time afterwards occurred his marriage to the prima donna, Pauline de Ahna. During the years 1894-8 he acted as court chapelmaster at Munich, also conducting many concerts in other cities thoughout Europe. In 1898 he settled in Berlin as conductor of the Royal Opera, a po- sition which he still holds. Since then he has made several tours as conductor, notably in England and in the United States which he visited in 1904. Much of his composition is done at his country home at Garmisch, in the Bavarian Oberland. 235. Strauss as Man and Artist. As a man, Strauss is of modest demeanor, and fond of domestic life. Before the orchestra hovever, his personality is electrifying, especially in the elucidation of his own works. In these compositions 244 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY he shows a genius for wielding the immense material of which he avails himself that is little short of Titanic. Employing an exceptionally large orchestra, which is made to include any instrument that his subject seems to demand, he writes in a manner that shows his mastery of the technical resoiurces of the instriunents, using them in new combinations, part-divi- sions, and in frequent solo effects. In his search after realistic expression he does not hesitate to represent the ugly as well as the beautiful; and in his polj'phonic complexities he defies all rules by introducing harsh and cacophonous dissonances that paralyze criticism. The themes, too, which range from the suave and enticing to the intentionally repellant, are woven into the texture with marvellous dexterity. 236. Strauss's Orchestral Works. The "programme" style asserted in the above-mentioned works becomes more definite in later compositions, although Strauss's description of these is generally confined to the acceptance, tacit or real, of the Theme from "Heldenleben." Opening theme. Tn stirring motion. programmes ascribed to them by others. The "Aus Italien" symphonic fantasy is composed of four tone pictures, emo- tionally depicting Italian scenes. In the three sjTnphonic poems written at Munich, however, Strauss abandoned all pre- tence of symphonic form, evolving an immense emotional cli- max in "Macbeth," a picture of pessimism in "Don Juan," and describing a sick man's fevered dreams, his death, and triumphal apotheosis, in the powerful "Tod und Verklarung." OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 245 In his next work, "Till Eulenspiegel," Strauss takes on a humorous vein, portraying the pranks of a madcap rogue by a labyrinth of novel and startling orchestral effects. Next he dives into the depths of Nietzsche's philosophy with a sublime and weird attempt to depict life from the cradle to the grave, in his "Also sprach Zarathustra." "Don Quixote" pictures the well-known knight in a series of exceedingly free variations, each representing an adventure. Strauss even at- tempts autobiography in his "Heldenleben," or "Struggles of a Hero's Life," in which his own experiences are referred to by themes from previous works, and in his "Symphonia Domestica," a description of his family life from afternoon to the dawn of the next day, including themes suggesting the father, mother, and child. 237. Strauss's Other Works. After "Guntram," his next opera was the vivacious "Feuersnoth," given at Dresden in Character themes from "Enoch Ardkn." Annie Lee. Allegretto. Copyright, 1898, by Rob. Forbery 246 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 1901. "Salome" (1905), with its barbarous and repellant plot, was nevertheless surpassed in the savage realism of its music by "Electra," given in 1909. Since then Strauss has adopted a lighter vein in his Mozartian "Der Rosenkavalier" (1911), and his "Ariadne aufNaxos" (1912), in which an orchestra of but thirty-six players, with piano and solo violin, is employed. Strauss's many songs, some of them with orchestral accom- paniment, are in contrast to much of his purely .orchestral music on account of their unfailing melodic beauty. Unusual keys, harmonies and modulations, surging arpeggios, intense coloring, and sometimes weirdness of effect, are used to illum- inate the text, each word of which is musically expressed. The piano music to Tennyson's "Enoch Arden" is particularly suggestive and beautiful. Choruses and chamber works have also come from his pen. 238. Instrumental Composers. The following are among those who have excelled in instrumental fields : , Max Bruch, born at Cologne in 1838, is the composer of three symphonies and broad, musical works for the violin, of Theme from Bruch Vioun Uonckrto in G Minor. Adagio. which his three concertos and a serenade are especially note- worthy. Several operas are unimportant; but his epic choral works, such as "Fair Ellen," "Odysseus," "Lied von der OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY Glocke," "Moses" and the oratorio "Arminius, 247 Mahler are tune- ful, dignified and popular. He has also written fine male choruses. Gustav Mahler, bom at Kalischt, Bohemia, in 1860, of Jewish parents, made a brilliant record as student at the Vienna Conservatory, where he was especially influenced by Bruckner. He then quickly won laurels as conductor. After several years at Hamburg and ten years as director of the Vienna Coiirt Theatre, he came to New York as first conductor at the Metropol- itan Opera House, in 1907, two years later exchanging this post for the con- ductorship of the New York Philhar- monic Society. Physically exhausted, he returned to Vienna, where he died in 1911. Mahler's chief claim to fame rests in his symphonies, of which there are nine complete and a tenth incomplete, sev- eral of them involving voices, and all showing contrapuntal expertness and brilliant orchestration in the treatment of their melodic thematic material. An example of their large- ness of scope is found in the eighth, which demands 1,000 per- formers for its rendition. Paul Felix Weingartner (1863-), a native of Dalmatia, studied philosophy and music at Leipsic. A successful career as conductor led him to Berlin, in 1891, as court chapelmaster,^ a position which he resigned in 1907 to succeed Mahler at the Court Opera in Vienna. He has conducted in various cities as "guest," visiting the United States several times in that capacity. His large works, which include operas and symphonies, show Wagnerian affinities. He has also written important books on orchestral subjects. Siegmund von Hausegger, bom at Graz in 1872, who has also won laurels as conductor and composer, is a follower of Wagner. His symphonic poems "Dionyssche Fantasie," "Barbarossa" 248 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY and "Wieland der Schmied" are characterized by rare beauty and mastery of orchestration. He has also written operas. Among the important composers should be mentioned Carl Reinecke (1824-1910), born at Altona, long a professor at the Leipsic Conservatory, and composer in all forms; Friedrich Gernsheim (1839-), born at Worms, and writer of sym- phonies and choral works; the Scharwenka brothers, Philipp (184 7-) and Xaver (1850-), natives of Posen, pianists, teachers and writers of piano music as well as in larger forms; Jean Louis Nicode, born at Posen in 1853, writer of poetic and highly colored orchestral music; Hugo Kaun, born at Berlin in 1863 and for some time resident of Milwaukee, composer of large works, including the symphonic poems "Minnehaha" and "Hiawatha;" and Georg Alfred Schumann, born at Konigstein on EIIdc in 1866, conservative in his com- positions, which are in all large forms except that of opera. Of the younger men we first mention Max Reger bom in Bavaria in 1873. After preliminary work as a teacher he settled in Munich in 1901. In 1908 he became professor of theory and conduc- tor at Leipsic. He is a prolific composer, chiefly on instrumental lines, display- ing enormous contrapuntal skill in deal- ing with chromatic and recondite har- monies. A coterie of younger composers at Vienna are following in Mahler's foot- steps, among them Karl Bittner, Robert Konta, Bruno Walter, the song writer Theodore Streicher, Karl Weigl and Franz Schrecker. In contrast to these men, who still cling to classic traditions, is Arnold Schonberg, born at Vienna in 1874, a leader in the use of startling harmonic effects. After acting as professor of composition at the Stern Conservatory, Berlin, he returned to Vienna in 1904, again settling in Berlin in 1911. His works, replete with cataclysmic dissonances paralyzing even to Reger OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 249 modern ears, include orchestral and chamber music, piano pieces and songs. He has also written a treatise on harmony. Though they are not natives of the countries under consid- eration, we may include in this list the Swiss Hans Ruber (1852-), whose works in large forms comprise a "Tell Sym- phony" and several operas; and the Roumanian Georges Enesco (Enescou), born in 1881 and a prize winner at the Vienna and Paris Conservatories, who has written instru- mental music, including a symphony and suite for orchestra, two sonatas for violin and piano, etc. While adhering to academic forms, he uses modern harmonies freely. 239. Opera Composers. A succession of music dramas has followed Wagner's epoch, which for the most part are slavish imitations of his style. A number of composers, however, are seeking new paths, and have in a few instances attained their object. Karl Goldmark (1830-1915), born in Hungary, gained his education in Vienna, becoming a skilful violinist, pianist, and composer in large forms. His orchestral nmsic includes the popular overture "Sakuntala" and the "Rustic Wedding" Thkmes from last movement op Goldmakk's "Rustic Wed- ding " Symphony. Allegro molto. r — ^f — ^^= rT-=rT 250 OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY symphony, the latter a series of tone pictures. Of a number of operas, his "Queen of Sheba" is best known, replete with novel and gorgeous orchestral effects. Goldmark's themes are vivid and sensuous, while his orchestration is smooth and refined. Engelbert Humperdinck, born in 1854 at Siegburg in the Rhine Provinces, studied at Cologne and Munich, afterwards becoming closely connected with Wagner's work. He taught in Spain and in Germany, where he was made head of the Hoch- schule for Composition in 1900. Orchestral and choral works were followed by his opera "Hansel und Gretel," given at Weimar in 1893, which immediately sprang into popularity. His incidential music to "Die Konigskinder," produced in 1896, he expanded into a complete opera which had its pre- miere in New York in 1910, achieving undoubted success. Humperdinck shows a complete mastery of technique, using the leitmotiv combined with a folk-song style. His harmonies are wholesome and his tunes attractive. Other adherents of Wagner are August Bungert (1846-), whose ambitious attempt to compose a Hexalogy on the Homeric poems analogous to Wagner's Trilogy has met with some success in the case of several parts already given; Ignaz Brull (1846-1907), a piano teacher in Vienna whose "Das goldene Kreuz" is the best known of his ten operas; Cyrill Kistler (1848- 1907), writer of several operas begin- ning with the music drama "Kunihild" (1884); Wilhelm Kienzl (1857-), a Liszt pupil, of whose operas "Der Kuhreigen" was given in this country in 1913; Hugo Wolf (1860-1903), whose life was a struggle with poverty and whose passionate and original songs are better known than his opera, "Der Corregidor," written in a sprightly comic vein; Eugen d' Albe7't (1864-), the piano virtuoso, Scotch by birth but German in sympathies. Wolf OUTLINES OF MUSIC HISTORY 251 renowned as Liszt's pupil and writer of chamber music in all forms as well as several operas, composed in a romantic though sane style; Max Schillings (1868-), whose composi- tions in large forms include the Viking opera "Ingwelde" (1894) and two other operas, written with much harmonic sliill and personal feeling; Siegfried Wagner (1869-), son of the great musician, whose operas show tal» 11 JLrfrtVVi-J ■■■-' "■■■ ■ ■ ■ ^■■K.v>;''^o'3si!M?*;*^