I ! ! !■ 
 
 E AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 SARGENT 
 
 :lDI!ijiis!iiiiiiii;iiiijiii!lhir 
 
New York 
 
 State College of Agriculture 
 
 At Cornell University 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 Library 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 N 350.S24 
 
 Fine and industrial arts in elementary s 
 
 3 1924 014 090 694 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014090694 
 
FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER SARGENT 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ESTHETIC AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOX 
 THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YOKK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY WALTER SARGENT 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 212.8 
 
 tCjie gtjienamn Brest 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
 PRIETORS • BOSTON -U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 During the past few years the amount of new subject 
 matter relating to the fine and industrial arts in elementary 
 schools has rapidly increased. The organization of this 
 material into a form involving definite progression and 
 reasonable standards of attainment at various stages has 
 not wholly kept pace with its introduction. 
 
 The considerations here presented regarding a scheme for 
 such organization have taken shape in the course of numerous 
 conferences with those interested in the subject, and as a result 
 of investigations which were suggested by these discussions. 
 
 I wish to make acknowledgment of my immediate indebt- 
 edness in this endeavor to Professor Charles Hubbard Judd 
 of The University of Chicago, who urged the importance 
 of some attempt to present a survey of the subject. 
 
 I am under obligation also to Professor Frank M. Leavitt 
 of The University of Chicago, Mr. James Hall, formerly of 
 the Ethical Culture School of New York City, Mr. Charles 
 F. Whitney of the Normal School of Salem, Massachusetts, 
 Mr. Fred H. Daniels of Newton, Massachusetts, and Mr. John 
 C. Brodhead of Boston, for valuable suggestions ; and to 
 Miss Helen E. Cleaves, Miss Lucy D. Taylor, and Miss 
 Amy Rachel Whittier for their help in carrying on obser- 
 vations for two years in the public schools of Boston. 
 
 I also take this occasion to recognize a debt of long 
 standing to Mr. Henry Turner Bailey, editor of the School 
 Arts Book, who first directed my attention to the educa- 
 tional importance of the arts. 
 
 ^ W. S. 
 
 Chicago, Ii^linois 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTBB PAGE 
 
 I. Educational and Practical Values of the Fine 
 
 AND Industrial Arts .... 1 
 
 II. A Survey of the Progression of Work through 
 
 THE Grades . 17 
 
 III. Grade I 32 
 
 IV. Grades II and III 47 
 
 V. Grades IV and V 62 
 
 VI. Grade VI 79 
 
 VII. Grades VII and VIII 98 
 
 INDEX 131 
 
FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 m ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES OF THE 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Since 1870 drawing, constructive work, and design as 
 common-school studies have been subjects of general discus- 
 sion. The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 
 exerted a strong influence in favor of public education in 
 the industrial and fine arts. The educational exhibitions 
 were a revelation to the American people of the possibil- 
 ities along these lines, and of their own shortcomings. 
 Since then drawing, constructive work, and design have 
 received steadily increasing recognition in elementary edu- 
 cation so far as provision for instruction and equipment 
 has been concerned. 
 
 Until recently, however, these subjects have been left 
 largely in the hands of specialists. Boards of education, 
 superintendents, and principals have often hesitated to 
 make suggestions because they felt that they had not re- 
 ceived the sort of training which would fit them to judge 
 methods and results in these subjects. This feeling has 
 been reenforced by the influence of the tradition that even 
 
 1 
 
2 FINE AXD INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 oi-dinary ability in the arts comes more as the result of 
 intuitive appreciation than of well-directed effort. 
 
 The present wide acceptance of the manual arts as an 
 important part of general education is rapidly removing 
 them from the class of special subjects, and both educators 
 and the general public are now taking an active interest in 
 them. The educator recognizes that the manual arts con- 
 stitute a unique type of analysis of the objective world. 
 Each science deals with material from a particular stand- 
 point, and each different kind of analysis adds greater sig- 
 nificance and wider range to experience. The contribution 
 which the manual arts make toward a more comprehensive 
 basis for mental activity is to a great degree inaccessible 
 by other methods of approach. He finds in the manual arts 
 a line of activity the results of which are concrete and fur- 
 nish a visible record of good or poor work, which the child 
 intei'prets into rational terms of cause and effect more easily 
 than is possible in the case of subjects which deal mainly 
 with language. He sees in them an opportunity for obtain- 
 ing experience with concrete material and with some of the 
 processes by which it is shaped to human needs. He uses 
 the arts as a method of developing and mastermg certain 
 ideas by working them out in visible products, so tliat 
 materials become a means of expressing and of stimulating 
 thought. He finds also that these arts sometimes furnish 
 a point of contact with the interests of many children who 
 apparently are not reached by more formal studies, and that 
 these interests when once awakened are likely to extend to 
 other lines of school work. 
 
 The general public more frequently expresses its convic- 
 tions in terms of the advantages resulting in later life from 
 the training in manual ai'ts which was received m school. 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 3 
 
 or the disadvantages experienced from the lack of such 
 training. The attainments commonly described as most 
 useful and desirable by these people who view the subject 
 from the standpoint of industrial and professional occupa- 
 tions may be generalized as follows : 
 
 Ability to sketch with pencil or brush so as to show how 
 an object appears or how it is constructed, or to illustrate 
 one's ideas or record one's observations. 
 
 Skill in the use of common tools and materials, and 
 ability to plan and work out problems involving ordinary 
 constructive processes — such knowledge and ability as 
 every householder needs. 
 
 An appreciation of what is in good taste aesthetically, 
 especially as regards the things which constitute one's 
 immediate environment, and sufficient knowledge of such 
 matters to justify one's taste. 
 
 Some acquaintance with excellent examples of art in 
 architecture, painting, sculpture, and the crafts, and a dis- 
 criminating capacity for enjoyment of beauty of form and 
 color in nature and art. 
 
 These advantages thus stated by people outside the 
 schools, in terms of definite attainment which results in in- 
 creased efficiency and enjoyment, do not conflict with the 
 idea of the educator. If accepted, these standards constitute 
 a basis for estimating the success of manual arts in school 
 courses. "When children leave the high school their abilities in 
 this field may be measured about as definitely as in any other. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to present some considera- 
 tions on the following questions, which arise from the 
 present situation : 
 
 What are the distinctive functions of the various sub- 
 jects taught under the head of manual arts in elementary 
 
4 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 education? How shall instruction be organized so that 
 progress in attainment shall be evident from year to year ? 
 What are reasonable standards of attainment at any given 
 stage? 
 
 The general statements that learning to draw is learning 
 to see, that drawing is a valuable language, that constructive 
 work produces accuracy and efficiency in dealing with raw 
 materials, that design develops taste and awakens appre- 
 ciation of beauty, are not now considered as final or as 
 sufficiently definite to justify the community in leaving the 
 matter wholly with the specialist. Further questions arise, 
 such as : How does the seeing which results from drawing 
 differ from that which exists where drawing is not taught ? 
 Are children who complete the elementary-school courses 
 able to use this language of drawing freely as a common, 
 convenient means of expression ? Does constructive work 
 as taught produce accuracy, efficiency, the pleasure of in- 
 telligent mastery of material, and an appreciation of things 
 in terms of the skill and effort required to produce them ? 
 Does it arouse industrial interests and a desire to be of 
 sen^ice in the world ? "What definite signs of better taste 
 are evident in children who complete an elementaiy-school 
 course which includes design, when compared with children 
 who have had no training in that line ? Are there objects 
 of fine art which awaken more enjoyment, and phases of 
 beauty in nature which give more pleasure on account of 
 the instruction which has been given ? "What steps have 
 led to this appreciation ? There is need of detailed testing 
 of methods and examination of results in terms of such 
 questions as these. 
 
 In elementary schools only rudiments of the arts can.be 
 taught, such as the beginnings of free-hand drawing ; simple 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 5 
 
 forms of constructive work and problems in design, espe- 
 cially as related to common things ; and an awakening of 
 some response to beauty in nature and art. Work in these 
 lines, however, has proved to be of genuine value, even when 
 instruction ends in the elementary schools. It deals with fac- 
 tors which have a close, permanent relationship to the life 
 and work of people at large, and presents a type of training 
 which the child has a right to expect from the community. 
 
 The various phases of manual expression are not marked 
 off by sharply defined limits. It is impossible to construct 
 an object well without exercising some judgment in design, 
 or to design an object satisfactorily without some knowledge 
 of construction and some ability in representation. The 
 school activities continually call for simultaneous work along 
 all three of these lines. They differ sufficiently, however, 
 to allow of separate discussion. The following paragraphs 
 consider more in detail the values attributed by both edu- 
 cators and the general public to these three lines of study 
 in the public school. 
 
 Representation. Drawing is a language, a mode of repro- 
 ducing ideas, and as such is a means of forming and devel- 
 oping these ideas. A child who draws does not set forth 
 ideas already perfectly formed, but perfects them in part by 
 the very act of setting them forth. Drawing thus becomes 
 a tool with which to think. 
 
 Little children draw almost wholly from imagination, 
 and find in drawing a means of exercising their mental 
 imagery by putting it into some sort of visible form. This 
 process appears to stimulate mental activity, and at first 
 produces a degree of satisfaction, however crude the results 
 may be, because the child recognizes his ideas in the draw- 
 ings, although the marks may be unintelligible to others. 
 
6 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Later comes a desire that drawing shall be more than a 
 motor outlet for imagination, and that the result shall repre- 
 sent the idea well enough not only to recall the thought to 
 the one who made it, but also to express that thought intel- 
 ligibly to others. Thus begins an appreciation of the impor- 
 tance of art as a means of social communication. This leads 
 to a more careful contemplation of objects for the sake of 
 obtaining data for more satisfactory representation, and a 
 corresponding increase in knowledge of form and in trust- 
 worthiness of the testimony of the senses is developed. 
 
 Children trained to express themselves by drawing learn 
 to analyze and to mterpret their visual impressions. Draw- 
 ing from objects requires a selection of the characteristic 
 features. After the early period of satisfaction with crude 
 symbols has passed, and children reach the stage when they 
 desire to represent appearances truthfully, they must learn 
 to recognize, among the bewildering complexity of details 
 which nature presents, those which are significant — which, 
 if reproduced, will represent the object. Hand, eyes, and 
 mind are busy trying to interpret what is seen into terms 
 of lines or shapes. Drawing thus develops a specific kind of 
 analysis wliich is impossible when the terms employed are 
 the more general and less objective verbal descriptions. 
 
 Drawing partakes more of the nature of a convention 
 than is generally supposed. An oriental or an occidental 
 draws each in the way he regai-ds as best, yet the results 
 differ remarkably. Each is expressing himself in his own 
 graphic dialect. For example, western art makes general use 
 of effects of illumination, shade, and shadow as prominent 
 pictorial features, while in oriental pictures such effects 
 are largely ignored. The objects depicted seldom cast 
 shades or shadows, and variations of light and dark are 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 7 
 
 usually due to actual differences in local color. In these 
 pictures, however, elements appear, the beauty and effec- 
 tiveness of which many western artists never appreciated 
 till they studied oriental art. The appreciation of another 
 people's method of drawing is akin to an appreciation of 
 another language, in the revelations it gives of different 
 ways of seeing and thinking. 
 
 Drawing, as it exists at present, is the result of an 
 evolution. Its vocabulary has been added to by each gen- 
 eration, and embodies the accumulated results of human 
 observations. One imagines that he is expressing himself 
 in terms suggested directly by the object, but this is only 
 partly true. Drawing an object means translating one's 
 perceptions into terms which have been evolved by the race, 
 and which demand careful selection. It means organizing 
 one's sensations so as to determine what produces the 
 impression, and the modes in which that impression can be 
 interpreted. To draw an object requires a mental activity 
 comparable to that which occurs when a thought is trans- 
 lated from one language into another. 
 
 In addition to these general educational values, elemen- 
 tary representation is of direct industrial, scientific, and 
 aesthetic importance. 
 
 To the man engaged in constructive work, drawing of- 
 fers a means of endless experimentation. Workers in metal 
 or wood, when discussing a mechanical or constructive 
 problem, often can present its different possibilities and 
 define the results almost as well by the use of the pencil 
 as by manipulating the actual material. Constructive 
 sketching is also a great stimulus to invention. Tlie more 
 finished working drawings afford a means of recording all 
 necessary data regarding form and construction. 
 
8 FIXE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 A manufacturer with unusually wide experience thus 
 refei-s to the value of ability to sketch and draw : 
 
 I wish to emphasize the importance of industrial drawing for 
 the mass of trade workers in those lines of manufacturing where 
 the artistic or sesthetic sense is not supposed to hold a prominent 
 place. For example, in the line of machine building the art of 
 drawing has a very important relation to our industrial future. 
 To this particular class of mechanics drawing has a broad field of 
 usefulness : first, because it is a valuable means of expression, since 
 the mechanic who is able to express himself by a rapidly made draw- 
 ing is inspired thereby to more and better thought ; second, because 
 it opens up for him especially a broad field for experimentation 
 and choice. 
 
 "When by a sketch the manufacturer or mechanic can place before 
 himself and others many ways of doing a thing, he at once makes 
 comparisons, and immediately chooses what he deems the best, the 
 fittest, or the most beautiful. He hits the mark after such a com- 
 parison, because with his sketches he has tried many schemes and 
 compared them. 
 
 Experimentation, comparison, and choice mark the way of ad- 
 vancement. But life is too short to try many experiments, unless 
 the methods of trying them are very simple. To build things of 
 wood and stone and metal in order to test them and to prove 
 which one is best and fittest requires too much waste of time and 
 material. But the realm of experimentation that is possible with a 
 pencil is wonderful and fascinating; it is almost as unlimited as 
 thought itself. 
 
 I have asked myself from whence comes this fascination as we 
 find it in the shops ; and I think it is because through the art of 
 drawing, by delineating and by designing, the mechanic himself 
 becomes the creator of things. He not only learns to see clearly 
 things emanating from others, but, behold, he finds he can express 
 his own ideas to himself and to others, and above all he recognizes 
 that they are his own evolution. 
 
 For mechanics of all grades and ranks the habit of sketching and 
 drawing becomes a great developing force. For a mechanic drawing 
 becomes the avenue out of himself into the universe. He is not only 
 learning about other people and other things, as we do in the study 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 9 
 
 of history and geography, but he is revealing himself to himself and 
 to others; and the things revealed are new — new to him and new 
 to the world. This to him is the inspiring quality of his work.' 
 
 In scientific studies, drawing focuses attention upon, 
 and quickens observation of, facts of forms and structure, 
 rendering the senses more accurate in their testimony 
 and furnisliing a means of making definite records. 
 
 Representation is also the language of the fine arts of 
 painting and sculpture. The regular work in drawing in 
 elementary schools, involving, as it does, continued use of 
 lines, light and dark, and of color, is giving children constant 
 practice in expressing their ideas and observations by means 
 of the same vocabulary which the artist himself employs. 
 These attempts to use, even though crudely, the terms by 
 which art is expressed are necessary to that kind of artistic 
 appreciation which yields the fullest pleasure. The relation 
 of drawing to art resembles that of language to literature. 
 
 Instructors in drawing should regard the elementary 
 phases of the subject as a science and not as something 
 acquired by intuition. They must choose between a course 
 planned for the few in every school who have what is com- 
 monly called " talent," and a course planned for the major- 
 ity of the children and within easy reach of those of no 
 special ability. While any public-school system should take 
 account of special talent and encourage and conserve it, 
 yet in the elementary grades such work should be planned 
 as will justify itself on general grounds and be valuable 
 for all, whatever their future occupations are to be. The 
 work outlined should be such as can be taught in large 
 
 1 From an address by Mr. Milton P. Higgins, president of the Norton 
 Emery Wheel Co., Worcester, Massachusetts, printed in the sixty-eighth 
 Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, 1904. 
 
10 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 part by the regular grade teacher and be well done by as 
 large a proportion of the children as can accomplish the 
 work given in other subjects. 
 
 In order to carry out such a plan it is necessary to teach 
 drawing in the most direct and simple way possible, testing 
 methods by the resulting increase in ability to draw on the 
 part of the majority of the children. A lack of such im- 
 provement in the many should be interpreted as a fault of 
 the method rather than of the children. Results have already 
 shown that the majority of children can learn to draw suf- 
 ficiently well for purposes of ordinary practical expression 
 with pencil or brush, and can be led to appreciate what is 
 in good taste, as readily and generally as they can progress 
 in other studies of the school curriculum. Special talent is 
 a factor to be reckoned with in elementary drawing on the 
 same basis as in elementary language or mathematics. 
 
 Construction. Constructive work provides an objective, 
 permanent type of expression which appears to command 
 the keen interest of all children. It brings experience in 
 shaping raw material till that material embodies the worker's 
 ideas in concrete form. The worker is thus brought into 
 experimental contact with the great range of constructive 
 activities which constitute a world never fully opened up 
 by words. His own experience is illuminated by a sort of 
 appreciation otherwise inaccessible. All this results in 
 building up a type of thinking and planning which should 
 accompany other forms of education and make its contribu- 
 tion before habits of thinking and planning have become 
 iixed along more abstract lines. 
 
 Constructive work gives practical familiarity with com- 
 mon tools, processes, and materials, and develops a compre- 
 hension of problems of ordinary construction which every 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 11 
 
 one should possess. It brings the invigoration of dealing 
 with the unvarying, impartial laws of matter, and of being 
 compelled to face the obvious fitness or unfitness of visible 
 results. It awakens pleasure in shaping material to a pre- 
 determined form by patience, foresight, and skill. It brings 
 a healthy realization of the. gap which exists between an 
 idea and its finished embodiment in concrete form, and of 
 the persistence necessary when one deals with the slowly 
 yielding conditions of stubborn material. This realization 
 develops a seriousness in undertaking problems, because of 
 the knowledge gained by experience as to the amount of 
 time and effort involved in carrying them to completion, 
 but it is accompanied by the pleasure of a consciousness 
 of skill and of increasing mastery over raw material. 
 
 School authorities sometimes discuss the question as to 
 whether any time in the burdened school program can be 
 spared for occupations involving muscular activity', and 
 presume to settle the matter by official action. The nature 
 of children has already settled that question in the affirma- 
 tive. Motor activity will be an important part of any school 
 program. Probably the only jurisdiction which the author- 
 ities actually exercise in the matter is in deciding whether 
 these activities shall hmder or help school work ; whether 
 they shall appear as mischief-making or as manual arts. 
 
 Constructive work is not only an essential element in 
 general education, valuable alike to the scholar and the 
 artisan ; it is also a factor in awakening vocational interests 
 and promoting vocational efficiency. The fact that a large 
 proportion of the school population, variously estimated 
 from one half to two thirds, drops out during or at the 
 end of the elementary-school course to go to work, should 
 be considered in its full significance by educators. These 
 
12 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 children never enter a high school. They are too young to 
 go into skilled industries. A few rise through any circum- 
 stances, but the majority drift from one to another unskilled 
 occupation, taking whatever pays best. They spend two 
 important years in employments which present no industrial 
 interest and offer no vocational outlook. Such work is 
 usually monotonous drudgery, which develops an unfortu- 
 nate attitude of mind toward work and compels the child 
 to seek all his pleasure outside of his occupation. 
 
 It has been shown that certain kinds of industrial educa- 
 tion can come into elementary schools without interfering 
 with the quality of the academic work, and that such edu- 
 cation serves to keep children in school and to awaken 
 occupational interests which serve as a reenforcement of 
 general educational interests. 
 
 Certain dangers attending the introduction of industrial 
 education into elementary schools readily suggest them- 
 selves, but they can scarcely exceed the dangers arising 
 from a lack of any suitable provision for properly satisfying 
 the desire which manifests itself at about the sixth year of 
 school, namely to come into touch with the activities of the 
 world and to join with others in making a contribution to 
 the general welfare. Schools should be equipped to offer 
 such training as will promote the ultimate interests of the 
 children, and, on the other hand, to combat effectively any 
 attempt to exploit the children commercially by fitting 
 them in school to perform particular, unskilled processes 
 to be immediately utilized in local industries. 
 
 From an educational standpoint the value of a vocational 
 interest is not primarily economic, but relates to the fact 
 that when such an interest is awakened it is likely soon 
 to become dominant and form a center around which other 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 
 
 13 
 
 interests cluster. A dominating interest tends to collect 
 and organize varying and many-sided interests. The dif- 
 ferent studies of the school curriculum offer a large body 
 
 
 
 
 
 GlIADKS 
 
 
 
 
 
 High School 
 
 
 100 
 00 
 80 
 70 
 60 
 50 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 Gram- I H HI IV 
 
 mar 
 
 
 " 
 
 ~*^" 
 
 ""-> 
 
 N, 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "*, 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 N. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v; 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Last 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 T Gram- I II III IV 
 
 mar 
 
 Fig. 1. Diagram showing grades at which oliildren leave school. Results 
 
 presented by Dr. Thorndike are indicated by dotted line; those by 
 
 Dr. Ayers, by solid line 
 
 From Dr. Leonard P. Ayers's "Laggards in Our Schools," p. 71 
 
 of information and many divergent interests. These are 
 important to education but are not its end. The ultimate 
 purpose of education is the development of an individual 
 whose mental interests, although varied, are well organized. 
 The chief factor in mental organization is a strong, central 
 
14 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 selective interest which brmgs scattered things into place. 
 The occupational interest appears to be the natural center 
 toward which others readily converge. 
 
 Design. The study of design in elementary schools fur- 
 nishes a means of exercising and thus developing good 
 taste in connection with the thmgs which make up the 
 environment of everyday life, and of awakening apprecia- 
 tion of beauty in nature and in art. Good taste implies 
 more than information regarding what is good. It means 
 that the right sort of things awaken pleasure, and that a 
 desire is aroused which demands excellence for its satisfac- 
 tion. ' The power to discern between the merely pretty, with 
 attractiveness which is superficial and transitory, and that 
 which is permanently and universally beautiful, gives capac- 
 ity for an enjoyment the possibilities of which are unlimited. 
 
 Adequate appreciation of beauty seldom comes without 
 definite training. It depends largely upon established habits 
 of seeing. As one finds the objective world assuming a cer- 
 tain order pleasing to his intellect after he knows the scien- 
 tific categories and can rearrange facts in terms of them, so 
 he finds that after he knows the best types of artistic inter- 
 pretation, which have selected from the mass those elements 
 which are aesthetically pleasing and have portrayed them, 
 he tends to recast his own perceptions in those terms. 
 
 The study of design in public schools should contribute 
 directly to an appreciation of the beauty of the landscape 
 and of plant and animal forms, and also of the artistic pos- 
 sibilities of the community in its natural and architectural 
 features and in its local industries. 
 
 Unless the problems of design relate to famihar sur- 
 roundings, pupils are likely to consider the term " artistic " 
 as one which applies only to unusual things; whereas it 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUES 15 
 
 does not describe the class to which an object belongs, but 
 means that the object, because of its adequacy, and the 
 refinement of its essential parts and proportions, and the 
 grace and fitness of its decoration, if it possesses any, is 
 unusually excellent of its kind. A kitchen chair or utensil 
 may be artistic and thus in its sphere prove a source of con- 
 tinual pleasure as truly as may a vase or a picture. The 
 general appearance of written school work, arrangement of 
 plants and flowers, framing and hanging of pictures, choice 
 of wall papers, rugs, furniture, etc., are among the oppor- 
 tunities of exercising that appreciation of order and fitness 
 wliich is an important part of artistic taste. 
 
 By collections of photographs or other representations, 
 children may become acquainted with the best designs for 
 bridges, water fronts, public buildings and private houses of 
 all classes, park furnishings, sculpture, fountains, and other 
 things which may contribute to beauty in modern com- 
 munities, and thus become interested in the ways in which 
 towns and cities are solving the problems of civic beauty. 
 
 Schools should give pupils some acquamtance with good 
 examples of drawing, painting, and sculpture. Even where 
 collections of originals are not available, abundant material 
 is at hand in the shape of photographs, illustrations, and 
 the best of modern color prints. 
 
 Pictures which appear in schools may be divided into two 
 general classes : those which are of use mainly as sources 
 of information — historical, geographical, scientific, etc. ; 
 and those which are for the purpose of awakening eesthetic 
 enjoyment. The former should usually be regarded as a 
 portfolio collection, to be brought out and used when occa- 
 sion demands and then put away. The latter justify a more 
 permanent place upon the walls. 
 
16 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 The main question is not how many pictures can be 
 brought within the child's range of vision, but on how many 
 can his imagination be awakened to lay hold. In the days 
 when pictures were fewer, a child would often pore for a 
 long time over some poor print till his imagination wan- 
 dered far into its perspective and lived with its characters. 
 Such a print sometimes grew to be so full of suggestion 
 that in later years the grown man hesitated to throw it away 
 even after he had come to see its artistic worthlessness. 
 Even the wayward cracks in the walls of old bare school- 
 rooms became interesting to the imaginations of children 
 who pictured scenes among them, as one sees constella- 
 tions in the stars. When imagination can be set at play 
 under the stimulus and direction of a good picture, feelings 
 may be awakened that later will develop into sesthetic 
 enjoyment. 
 
 Many small pictures distract the attention of the pupils. 
 A few excellent pictures in a classroom, appropriately chosen 
 and carefully hung, usually have a finer influence and give 
 more enduring memories than a large number scattered 
 about the walls. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 A SURVEY OF THE PROGRESSION OF WORK THROUGH 
 THE GRADES 
 
 The following survey of the progression of work in the 
 arts through the elementary grades forms the basis for the 
 suggestions offered in more detailed form in the following 
 chapters regarding work particularly appropriate for various 
 stages of maturity. The material was obtained in part by 
 presenting similar topics to pupils of different ages in many 
 schools, to discover where the subjects were assimilated most 
 readily and processes mastered with greatest ease. 
 
 Teachers of the manual arts will recognize the fact that 
 types of interest and ability here recommended to special 
 consideration in certain grades usually manifest themselves 
 to a greater or less degree throughout all grades. For 
 instance, children in Grades I and II are often interested 
 in representing proportions and shapes truthfully, and in 
 handling such advanced implements as woodworking tools, 
 while in these pages emphasis upon those phases of drawing 
 and construction is deferred until a more mature age. This 
 survey of work is not meant to imply that capabilities do 
 not appear earlier than here recognized, or cannot be inci- 
 dentally encouraged to a considerable extent with advan- 
 tage. It seeks merely to suggest the periods when results 
 seem to indicate that particular phases can be most readily 
 assimilated and certain processes be mastered with greatest 
 economy of time and effort and become a trustworthy basis 
 
 17 
 
18 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 for later work. Children often spend much time in primary 
 grades over what could be grasped with far less effort a 
 few years later; and continue in grammar grades to be 
 handicapped by lack of knowledge and skill which might 
 have been gained easily in lower grades by special empha- 
 sis and drill at the right time. 
 
 Representation. General use of drawing as a common 
 means of expression and description is of first importance 
 throughout all the grades. The results of this practical use 
 of drawing should be studied at each stage, and the evident 
 deficiencies in knowledge and skill should be remedied by 
 intensive study. Under the present arrangement of the 
 school program the best opportunity for offering this in- 
 tensive study appears to occur during the time devoted to 
 special lessons in drawing. 
 
 There are, then, two phases of the work: namely, the 
 general practical use of drawing, and the continuous contri- 
 bution of knowledge and skill gained by concentrating for 
 a time upon intensive study of particular aspects of the 
 subject. In order to plan this intensive study most econom- 
 ically it becomes necessary to find out what phases should 
 receive emphasis in different grades, and for what defi- 
 ciencies in skill immediate instruction is the best remedy, 
 and what may be left to disappear naturally as maturity 
 increases. 
 
 The first stages in representation appear to be dominated 
 by an interest in narrative, with a readiness to use drawing 
 rather than writing as a means of expressing ideas. Small 
 children abstract from the object or situation only those 
 characteristic features which will serve them as symbols. 
 These symbols appear to be satisfactory to the children. if 
 they support the thought of the story. 
 
PROGRESSION TIIROUGH THE GRADES 19 
 
 At first children willingly use drawing for general ex- 
 pression of ideas. Later, when their acquaintance with 
 written language becomes better developed, drawing is 
 used more specifically for such descriptions and illustrations 
 as cannot be so well expressed by language. These specific 
 uses require differentiation in style. Thus the drawing may 
 be for diagrams, for detailed record of facts of structure, for 
 illustration of general characteristics, for pictorial effects, 
 etc., as the purpose in hand may demand. 
 
 In Grades I, II, and III there appears to be little justifi- 
 cation for making much differentiation between the general 
 and the special work. Technical deficiencies and lack of 
 knowledge are evident, but a purpose other than the correc- 
 tion of these is more important during these years, namely, 
 to develop a readiness to illustrate ideas, however crudely, 
 and a habit of using drawing commonly as a language. At 
 this time objects placed before the children serve as a 
 means of suggesting ideas, rather than as forms which are 
 to be correctly delineated. 
 
 Toward the end of this period some emphasis may profit- 
 ably be laid upon a more detailed study, by frequent draw- 
 ing, modeling, observation of pictures, etc., of a few objects 
 selected with a view to increasing the graphic vocabulary of 
 the children, so that there may be some well-understood 
 material for use in illustrative sketching. 
 
 Children in Grade III appreciate and may easily be taught 
 to use the simple geometric relations of vertical, horizontal, 
 and parallel, when these are involved in drawings ; for ex- 
 ample, in pictvTring houses as standing vertically, etc. 
 
 In Grades III, IV, and V children show a definite desire 
 to know how to represent objects more truthfully and to 
 picture different effects; as, for example, of things lyiiig flat 
 
20 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 or placed one beyond another. They ask to be shown how 
 to produce these effects, and readily learn from seeing some 
 one else represent them, and from pictures. They gradually 
 become able to interpret effects from their own observations. 
 During the fourth and fifth years it appears to be of especial 
 importance that children be trained to judge general propor- 
 tions by visual impressions, as to whether the drawing is 
 too long or too short, too wide or too narrow, in order that 
 they may represent the general proportions truthfully by 
 the judgment of the eye as to the effect of the whole, and 
 not by devices for measurmg. In addition to objects, such 
 arbitrary forms as maps and diagrams offer excellent mate- 
 rial for some formal drill in relative proportions. 
 
 In Grades VI, VII, and VIII the following are promi- 
 nent among the lines of definite study which profitably 
 supplement a general practical use of drawing: 
 
 1. Representation of objects by means of rapid sketches, 
 made as simply as possible, and yet showing the general 
 characteristics, proportions, and position. 
 
 2. Careful drawings to represent details of form and 
 structure with some degree of accuracy and to convey 
 correct information. 
 
 3. Representation of solid objects so that they appear to 
 exist in three dimensions and in given positions. This latter 
 appears to be accomplished most surely and rapidly not 
 by a study of formal perspective but by supplementing the 
 drawing from actual objects, with much experimentation 
 in building up solid shapes pictorially, changing their form 
 and working out various problems of structure and posi- 
 tion till objects based on the ordinary types of solidity — 
 rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, etc. — can be sketched 
 m any position, added to, or cut mto any desired form, from 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH TPIE GRADES 21 
 
 imagination. These are problems which can be mastered 
 only by persistent and systematic application. Without 
 such mastery no great practical ability in drawing can be 
 developed. 
 
 4. Sufficient acquaintance with water colors to use them 
 with some freedom, to lay flat washes, and to match the 
 colors of nature. 
 
 Construction. In constructive work the first activities 
 appear to arise from a desire to play with constructive 
 material. Small children seem to have no clearly defined 
 ends in view, but work chiefly for the sake of having a 
 concrete accompaniment for their thought, and for the 
 pleasure of being the cause of changes and modifications 
 in materials. From this stage, progress in constructive work 
 should be along the line of developing the child's ability to 
 work with increasing manual skill, toward definite ends, 
 and to define those ends and the processes necessary for 
 reaching them, by plans which forecast results more and 
 more completely. 
 
 At first he can gain some familiarity with simple means 
 of predetermining results accurately, for example, by meas- 
 urements and patterns. Later can be developed increasing 
 ability to perform preliminary thinking by means of plans, 
 and to realize these plans through mastery of implements, 
 processes, and materials. Ultimately the growing ability to 
 deal with materials should be so directed as to awaken a 
 desire to produce results which contribute to social welfare. 
 
 In Grades I and II the most valuable constructive work 
 appears to consist in the free use of material so easily ma- 
 nipulated that it gives immediate results without demand- 
 ing elaborate tools or technical skill. Sand, clay, building 
 blocks, etc., fulfill the important function of furnishing 
 
22 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 mediums through which a child's constructive imagination, 
 which at this age is satisfied with results which serve to 
 suggest the original ideas, can express itself in concrete 
 form. At the same time children gain some realization of 
 the inert qualities of matter and of the necessity of effort 
 to shape it into desired form, and their thinking is modi- 
 fied thereby. However, such mediums as are here suggested 
 are so easily handled that they do not compel the imagina- 
 tion to wait upon the slow processes by which more stubborn 
 material is shaped, nor to have its own creative vitality 
 interfered with by elaborate perfection of detail. 
 
 The question is sometimes raised as to whether the 
 interest of the children will be increased and the things 
 which they construct will be given broader significance 
 and become a means of wider interpretation of the activi- 
 ties of life, if they are given all materials and processes 
 relating to the idea which they are working out; for 
 example, if children in the lowest grades cook the food 
 they serve, and use woodworking tools to make the furni- 
 ture of the doll house, etc. One who watches the results 
 of such experiments is impressed by the eager interest of 
 the children. The question arises, however, as to whether 
 children associate these diverse processes as an adult does. 
 For instance, if a child in Grade I, in modeling a river on 
 the sand table, finds need of a bridge, he may be given 
 strips of wood, hammer, and nails with, which to construct 
 a bridge, or he may simply lay a strip of wood across, 
 adding building blocks if he wishes a more ornate struc- 
 ture. Observation of small children under these circum- 
 stances leads to the inference that the use ot saw and 
 hammer and nails distracts the constructive imagination 
 which was directing the molding of the river. Again, if 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH THE GRADES 23 
 
 cooking is introduced to give more meaning to tlie play of 
 housekeeping, it is a question whetlier at this age an occu- 
 pation which must be closely supervised by adults does 
 not dissociate rather than aid in organizing the mental 
 processes. To the adult mind these activities are in closely 
 related sequence. To the child it is probable that they are 
 kaleidoscopic and distracting. The material becomes too 
 definitive in its character and forces him to think along 
 prescribed lines in a field where he cannot be allowed free 
 scope to experiment by himself outside of school hours in 
 a way that is at all helpful socially. The child who makes 
 believe can serve any food he chooses. The imagination 
 receives hints and intimations and follows their lead. 
 
 If the appropriate time educationally for introducing 
 given activities may be judged by their social helpfulness, 
 they are appropriate when the use of the knowledge gained 
 would be at all helpful in a household where each mem- 
 ber was given a share in the home activities at as early a 
 date as he could contribute helpfully, or when it can be 
 used in play which does not require close supervision. This 
 relation to the social scheme appears to offer a reasonable 
 criterion for determining the place of most manual activities 
 in schools. 
 
 In later years, when the mind demands for its satisfac- 
 tion that the product of its activity attain some degree of 
 perfection and serve an objective purpose, struggle with 
 the difficulties of tools and processes necessary to shape 
 wood and metal into predetermined form becomes a factor 
 in developing intelligent consideration of conditions and 
 encouraging persistent effort with confidence in the out- 
 come. On the other hand, at that early age when the mind 
 is busied chiefly with its own activities and investigations. 
 
24 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 and when it can regard materials as invested with qualities 
 largely of its own creation, so that they serve perfectly well 
 to support and stimulate the current of thought even when 
 they embody none of its terms, as when chairs serve as a 
 train of cars, elaborate processes and paraphernalia appear 
 to interrupt what continuity such thinking might develop 
 and rob it of much of its vitality. Too early access to 
 abundant paraphernalia limits the scope of imagination and 
 lessens ability to receive satisfactory pleasure from moder- 
 ate stimulation. To a degree, limitation of material appears 
 to increase the activity of the imagination. 
 
 In Grades III, IV, and V children show a desire to be 
 able so to handle material that it shall not only furnish a 
 concrete accompaniment to the activities of their thought, 
 but shall be, itself shaped to express that thought with in- 
 creasing completeness. This appears to be the appropriate 
 time for beginning a definite study of technical processes 
 and of the use of simple instruments of precision, such as 
 the rule and later the compass, to shape material accord- 
 ing to a predetermined form. This stage is significant in 
 that it marks the first steps toward reluaquishment of the 
 primitive method of arriving at results by mere experimen- 
 tal handling of material, and the beginnuig of mastery of 
 matter by mathematics and in terms of patterns and plans 
 which constitute a language of construction. 
 
 Grades VI, VII, and VIII appear to be the most appro- 
 priate period for undertaking projects involving more 
 complicated processes with tools and materials, which re- 
 quire some maturity of judgment and satisfy the desire 
 which generally appears at this age to undertake some- 
 thing evidently related to the industrial activities of the 
 home and the community. Among the projects suitable to 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH THE GRADES 25 
 
 this age are those necessitating construction in wood and 
 the handling of materials used in domestic science and 
 domestic art. All these demand careful planning and the 
 exercise of skill and good taste acquired under careful 
 instruction. 
 
 These materials, because of their nature, make it neces- 
 sary that a large part of the preliminary planning and 
 experimentation be done in terms of sketches and patterns 
 and other forms of description. One of the important atti- 
 tudes toward work which these undertakings should 
 develop in the minds of the children is that it is possible 
 and wholly desirable that processes and results shall be 
 pretty definitely considered and determined in graphic or 
 verbal terms before any direct attack is made upon difficult 
 or valuable material. 
 
 Design. The progression along the line of aesthetic ap- 
 preciation to be gained from the study of design appears 
 to have the following general tendency : namely, from 
 juvenile pleasure in obvious repetitions of commonplace 
 relations of measures, to a response to the, beauty of con- 
 sistent but subtle interrelations ■ of fine proportions and of 
 beautiful outlines ; and from the temporary stimulation of 
 the senses by gaudy enrichment and by mere collections 
 of material regardless of any worthy principles of selection, 
 to a response to the appeal of things which are excellent 
 and which give lasting satisfaction. 
 
 Two aspects of design become evident in any detailed 
 study of the subject — the element of utility and that of 
 formal beauty. 
 
 When one attempts to design a wall paper or book cover 
 or utensil, there are conditions to be observed peculiar to 
 each subject. The wall paper should have the qualities of 
 
26 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 a background, and its pattern should be adapted to a flat, 
 vertical surface ; the book cover should display its title 
 clearly, and its color and ornamentation should be in har- 
 mony with its content ; the utensil must possess the prac- 
 tical elements which make it serve its purpose. Broadly 
 speaking, anything which is to serve a purpose is not good 
 in design unless it is well fitted in every possible way to 
 serve that purpose, and any ornament which obscures or 
 hinders that purpose is in bad taste, however perfect it may 
 be technically. The values of fitness to purpose and of 
 structural integrity are obvious from the point of view of 
 utility, but they must also receive consideration from the 
 aesthetic standpoint. The satisfaction which arises from 
 contemplating a well-constructed object which perfectly 
 fulfills its purpose is largely an aesthetic one. 
 
 The value of utilitarian considerations is readily per- 
 ceived. On the other hand, the student of design is soon 
 made aware that in dealing with constructed objects, 
 human demands other than those of utility become imme- 
 diately evident. He finds inherent in human nature certain 
 elemental principles of choice in matters of form and color 
 which appear to be based on consistencies of proportional 
 relations in areas, curvatures, or tones. These demands 
 seem to appear as early in human history and to be as 
 insistent as those of utility. 
 
 The wall paper may be perfectly suited in color and 
 pattern to its position as a vertical background, but the 
 interrelation of those colors and the final distribution of 
 pattern are matters of aesthetic preference rather than of 
 utilitarian necessity. The title may be equally plain in 
 any one of a number of positions on the cover, but equally 
 pleasing in only a few. It is usually possible to modify 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH THE GRADES 27 
 
 the proportions and outlines of the utensil or of any other 
 constructed object so that a slight variation of the rela- 
 tions, or a modification of structural elements, makes of 
 its design a harmonious and satisfying whole instead of a 
 commonplace collection of parts. 
 
 These illustrations suggest two lines of procedure in a 
 course in design. The first is largely one of training the 
 pupil to reason out the most adequate fulfillment of con- 
 ditions; the second is to develop his elemental aesthetic 
 preferences, refining them by exercise and by the mfluence 
 of excellent examples till they become definite and discrim- 
 inatmg in their choices, and intelligent regarding the possible 
 sources of satisfaction. These two lines are evident in all 
 stages of progress, with the minimum of emphasis at the 
 beginning upon that requiring judgment of conditions. 
 
 Throughout the grades the instructor should see that 
 there is continual exercise of taste in matters of school and 
 home work and general surroundings. The special time 
 devoted to design should aim at a development which will 
 tend ultimately to correct whatever bad taste is noticeable 
 in actual choices which the children make. The problem 
 is necessarily slow of accomplishment, for it consists in 
 producing changes of mental attitudes, not in obedience to 
 statements of opinion by the teacher, but as a result of 
 the development of right choices on grounds of genuine 
 preference. Esthetic appreciation is a slowly acquired 
 type of mental behavior. The outcome, however, is not 
 a matter of theory, for actual experience has shown that 
 where the instructor understands the conditions, the begin- 
 nings of good taste in matters of design and of apprecia- 
 tion of beautiful things may be very definitely developed in 
 elementary schools. 
 
28 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 In Grades I, II, and III children have a feeling for 
 rhythmic arrangement in repeating single forms indefinitely, 
 as in borders and surface patterns, and show considerable 
 ingenuity in making new combinations of given elements. 
 During the latter part of this period, and especially in 
 Grades IV and V, some appreciation of more complicated 
 relations of spaces than those involved in mere repetition 
 is evident ; for example, the pleasing arrangement of ele- 
 ments within a given area, such as the placing of a title, 
 decoration, and monogram in consistent relations on the 
 same page, or in the choosing of border spaces. This last 
 problem involves such designs as stripes in weaving, mar- 
 gins in written or printed pages, widths of frames or mats 
 for pictures, etc. It offers opportunity for endless invention 
 in relating single and multiple stripes of varying widths 
 and spacings, and in introducing modifications, accents, and 
 interfacings at corners and elsewhere. It presents priiiciples 
 which may be developed and applied indefinitely. 
 
 Children in these grades also appreciate the various 
 effects of bilateral symmetry, which owe their interest to 
 the duplication of given elements in reverse form. 
 
 In Grades VI, VII, and VIII the scope for general 
 exercise of taste is much greater than in the grades which 
 precede, and includes, in addition to general school work, 
 constructive problems, the fields of the domestic arts and 
 social and industrial community interests. Because of the 
 increased maturity of the children and the previous prac- 
 tice, a far more definite appeal can appropriately be made 
 to individual judgment in matters of design which demand 
 consideration of purpose and specific conditions, and also 
 in those which involve the more formal problems of fine 
 spacing and beautiful outlme. 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH THE GRADES 29 
 
 Appreciation seems to be better developed and originality 
 enabled the sooner to exercise itself if children are ac- 
 quainted with good types from the first. These types are 
 the result of long experimentation by skilled designers. 
 In actual practice the greatest stimulus to originality 
 appears to be present not when a mind is left to work 
 alone but when it is brought into contact with the best 
 which other minds have produced. 
 
 With the advancing maturity of pupils increasing atten- 
 tion should be paid to choosing the best things from 
 available sources, which usually present both good and bad 
 examples. Even though one may have designed a good vase 
 or wall paper, certain different kinds of mental behavior 
 are called forth when instead of beginning with raw ma- 
 terials he must choose from a multitude of finished prod- 
 ucts. In the first case there is a slow working toward 
 the realization of an idea with materials which are under 
 one's control. In the second there is more or less rapid 
 choice among different ideas as expressed by others, and 
 definite comparison of these with one's own ideals. Original 
 designing is an excellent experience and should certainly 
 form part of the training of every pupil, but it is only one 
 of the factors which go to form good taste. Thoughtful 
 selection from available material and familiarity with ex- 
 cellent examples are also effective influences. In actual 
 life, for every designer there are a thousand people who 
 will only select designs. 
 
 Color. The study of color is associated with both repre- 
 sentation and design, and the progress in color work 
 through the grades is closely related to the progress in 
 these two lines of work. A child's first use of color appears 
 to be somewhat arbitrary. He is interested in making 
 
30 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 patches of different tones for the puipose of making shapes 
 more distinct, and for the sake of the resulting color sen- 
 sations. The ultimate aims held in view by the instructor 
 are generally the ability to use color truthfully when em- 
 ployed in scientific and other informational drawing, to use 
 it with good taste in matters relating to the arts, and to 
 appreciate good color effects in nature and in art. Color 
 appreciation develops rapidly under wise direction in choos- 
 ing and combining tones and in actual manipulation of pig- 
 ments. Progress is usually from general consciousness of 
 color sensations, pleasurable or otherwise, to keen dis- 
 crimination of fine color qualities, as, for example, when 
 certain tones of a color give greater satisfaction than other 
 tones of the same color, which would not have appealed 
 as essentially different if no special study had been given 
 them ; to pleasure in harmoniously related tones and ability 
 to harmonize given colors ; and also to the enjoyment of 
 beautiful color effects in nature and art, not simply in the 
 first impressions of strong coloring, as in brilliant sunsets or 
 autumn hues, but in those qualities which constitute beauty 
 of color, whether the tones are intense or subdued. 
 
 In Grades I, II, and III the children readily gain ac- 
 quaintance with the more prominent color tones, as red, 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. They are interested 
 in collecting samples or in separating into color groups 
 samples already gathered, they learn to compare samples 
 so as to match colors as nearly as possible, and later can 
 sort out material with considerable discrimmation ; for 
 example, in placing two given colors, as yellow and green 
 or green and blue, at a little distance apart and arranging 
 samples so as to form a graded series of intermediate tones 
 between the two, or in making series of lighter and darker 
 
PROGRESSION THROUGH THE GRADES 31 
 
 tones of single colors by means of samples. A limited use 
 of color in drawing is also of value. 
 
 In Grades IV, V, and VI one of the most valuable 
 factors in developing knowledge and appreciation of color 
 is the use of water colors in representation, with special 
 practice in carefully matching different colors of objects. 
 Experimentation with pigments, in producing tones of 
 colors that shall differ from given colors in being more or 
 less intense or in being lighter and darker, or in forming 
 a series between one color and another, as was suggested 
 with samples, also develops discrimination. / 
 
 In Grades VII and VIII the use of color in description \ 
 and truthful representation is increasingly valuable. The 
 children are readily interested in learning something of suit- 
 able and harmonious relations of colors as used in industries / 
 and in home surroundings. They should be helped in / 
 making collections of good examples of color in textiles, \ 
 color prints such as occur in magazines, miscellaneous color I 
 designs, etc. They should be interested in the color effects \ 
 in nature, in landscape and in plant and animal forms, and 
 should be given some practice in making good color com- | 
 binations for use. At this age elaborate verbal discussions 
 of color theories seem to be of little value to the children. / 
 
CHAPTER III 
 GRADE I 
 
 The most valuable outcome of the work of the first year 
 in school appears to be the formation of a habit of draw- 
 ing things uppermost in the interests of the children, and 
 of shaping easily handled material till manual expression 
 becomes a matter of course. 
 
 This is accomplished most satisfactorily when there is 
 little criticism of results and when teclmical instruction 
 is only incidental. The greatest progress appears to come 
 when the instructor works at times with and for the chil- 
 dren, in order that they may see better ways of obtaining 
 results. 
 
 The function of manual work at this time is to furnish 
 the children with a means of expressing their constructive 
 and imitative tendencies in concrete form. When children 
 shape clay or mold sand or draw, they find their ideas are 
 assuming visible shape. This discovery stimulates still 
 further the mental imagery and the desire to express it. 
 Little technical skill is acquired, but a coordination is 
 developed between ideas and muscular reactions and the 
 children become aware of certain inherent qualities and 
 laws of inert material. 
 
 The following paragraphs present more detailed consid- 
 erations regarding those phases of representation, construc- 
 tion, and design which seem to be of greatest value during 
 the first year in school. 
 
 32 
 
GRADE I 33 
 
 Representation. This should consist in general pictorial 
 expression of things of interest to the children, with much 
 encouragement and little criticism from the teacher. Their 
 other lessons, their toys and games, incidents of their expe- 
 rience, — in fact, all those things which are most vividly in 
 mind and which form the topics of their conversation, — are 
 appropriate subjects for drawing. Their pictorial expression 
 is so symbolic and arbitrary in its shorthand conventions 
 that it lends itself to free, rapid expression as later and 
 more elaborated drawing cannot. 
 
 The first interest children show in using a pencil seems 
 to be awakened by the pleasure of making marks with it, 
 regardless of any significance in the marks themselves. 
 They will cover one sheet of paper after another with 
 meaningless scrawls and be delighted apparently by the 
 fact that movements of the pencil over the paper leave 
 visible marks in their path. This period has been termed 
 the " scribble stage." 
 
 By degrees the marks take on significance. Interest in 
 representing thmgs is added to the interest in mere scrib- 
 bling. When children enter school they are usually just 
 emerging from the scribbling stage and are beginning the 
 use of forms, somewhat as hieroglyphics in a sort of picture 
 writing. Fig. 2 shows early interpretations of the human 
 figure, a house, a tree, and an animal. 
 
 At this time children show little interest in representing 
 accurately a particular object placed before them. Passy 
 thus describes the attitude of a primary child toward a 
 model given him to draw: 
 
 He does not hesitate, but seizes his pencil and draws rapidly in an 
 automatic manner. It is impossible to make him look at this model 
 with any attention. If any one commands him to look at it, he 
 
34 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 hurriedly casts upon it a distracted and disdainful glance and con- 
 tinues without concerning himself with that which he sees. The 
 moment he has finished he shows it to you with a triumphant air,i 
 
 Fig. 2. Early drawings by children 
 
 During this period when the children are interested in 
 representing by crude pictographs the ideas which things 
 suggest, rather than the correct appearance of the things 
 themselves, almost any result satisfies them. The drawing, 
 
 1 Quoted by Trederick Burk in " The Genetic vs. the Logical Order in 
 Drawing," Pedagogical Seminary (1902), p. 296. 
 
GRADE I 
 
 35 
 
 although it may be meaningless to others, is for the child 
 who made it a sufficient suggestion of the idea that inspired 
 it. He has a reason for every mark. 
 
 These symbols once used are likely to be repeated un- 
 modified by reference to the object. For example, Fig. 3 
 shows symbols which different children drew to represent 
 
 ttfe^^Jitt 
 
 Fig. 3. Symbols used by different children to represent the human figure 
 
 the human figure. In each the particular sort of line chosen 
 by each child to represent arms and legs is repeated in 
 all the figures by that child. The same recurrence of the 
 symbol first used is to be seen in drawings of most other 
 objects, as trees, houses, etc. These symbols are often 
 strikingly similar to those used by ancient and primitive 
 peoples whose drawings are highly conventionalized. 
 
36 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Young children draw what they know about the objects, 
 rather than what theu' eyes see at any given moment. For 
 example, they will show both ends of a house in the same 
 drawing, and will sketch not only the exterior, but, if 
 allowed time, will add the furniture and people inside, as 
 if the walls were transparent (Fig. 4). The attitude of mind 
 which leads the children to do this is not a fault to be over- 
 come by instruction, but a stage to be lived through and 
 
 EiG. i. Children's attempts to show what they know rather than what 
 they can see at the time tlie drawing is made 
 
 one which contributes directly to further development. The 
 fact that children often make little progress at first toward 
 what adults consider to be good drawing, and that they 
 frequently revert to scribbling, should not be a cause for 
 discouragement on the part of the teacher in these grades. 
 After children have obtained a little familiarity with the 
 pencil their drawings frequently become surprisingly ex- 
 pressive of character, as, for example, the group of sketches 
 shown in Fig. 5. 
 
GRADE I 
 
 37 
 
 Incidentally, with this general use of illustrative drawing 
 a definite beginning may be made in developing ability to 
 draw more truthfully by devoting a number of lessons to 
 the same subject, with new suggestions regarding it at each 
 lesson. For example, in Fig. 6 the child who has made 
 crude representations of houses, as in A, tries in another 
 lesson to draw a house and fence which shall stand upright. 
 
 Fig. 5. Illustrative sketches by children 
 
 with the result shown in B; and later draws C and D, 
 which, while far from perfect, indicate a distinct advance 
 in ability to represent structure. Fig. 7 shows sketches 
 involving a snow shovel. 
 
 The results of careful and repeated study of a few 
 topics will be discussed in fuller detail in Chapter II, 
 p. 49. In general, however, it may be said that ability to 
 record observations correctly can be developed when the 
 children are older, with much less expenditure of time and 
 
^^ 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 w 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 gj 
 
 '}-*- 
 
 p 
 
 m 
 1 " 
 
 '>-^^.a^ . 
 
 -:i^.-,. 
 
 t 
 
 A 
 
 -L-Li \\. 
 
 
 Fig. 6. Sketches showing children's progress in drawing houses 
 
 Fig. 7. Sketches involving a study of the shape of a snow shovel 
 
 38 
 
GRADE I 39 
 
 effort ; but facility of graphic expression comes most readily 
 during these early years and is difficult to obtain later. 
 During the first year or two of school life, the technical 
 acquisition in drawing which is of greatest advantage to the 
 next stage of the work is this facility which a child gains 
 by drawing m his own way, with the aid of encouragement 
 and good example. He needs continual use of this primitive 
 picture language in describing things associated with home, 
 out-of-door, and school life. Thus the children become ac- 
 customed to express their ideas by drawing before the age 
 of self-consciousness and hesitation is reached. 
 
 Perhaps the best service a teacher of drawing can render 
 in Grade I is to draw a great deal for the children on the 
 board or elsewhere, not for the sake of setting them a copy, 
 but of furnishing to them the unequaled stimulus of seeing 
 some one do easily and well what they are attempting. 
 Elaborate systems and courses can accomplish little without 
 the encouragement and suggestions of example. Instruction 
 in the language of drawing, as in the German or French 
 language, should make use of the conversational method. 
 At this age the tendency to imitate is an important factor 
 in development in all lines, including the arts. In fact, the 
 matter of drawing in early grades might almost be summed 
 up as follows: Children who are with an instructor who 
 draws well and uses his drawing as a common means of 
 expression will learn to draw. Any other circumstances 
 are less promising. 
 
 Construction. The value of constructive work in this 
 grade consists mainly in the fact that it furnishes another 
 medium for expressing ideas in visible form. As in drawing, 
 the material serves to support and reflect the train of ideas, 
 and this mental activity is in great danger of being checked 
 
40 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 if any emphasis is placed at first upon technical accuracy 
 in processes. The problems therefore should, not entail 
 complicated planning nor prolonged processes, and the 
 material should not be too definitive, but be adapted to 
 general expression and invite the children to endless ampli- 
 fication of their ideas. The construction in this grade might 
 be termed free representation in three dimensions. 
 
 The sand table offers a wide range of possibilities for 
 such work. The sand is readily shaped to represent various 
 configurations of land, and on these, with supplementary 
 material, different localities may be represented and scenes 
 enacted. 
 
 Modeling in clay or other plastic material is a means 
 . of expression which awakens strong and long-sustained in- 
 terest. In using sand or clay both hands are required to 
 shape the responsive material into the desired form, and 
 every touch makes an evident modification. Modeling has 
 not been so universally adopted as its value would seem 
 to justify, largely on account of the difficulty in caring for 
 the materials. It is, however, one of the important modes 
 of manual expression in primary grades. 
 
 Cutting given pictures and other shapes from paper 
 gives valuable training in gaining control over a tool as a 
 means of shaping material to a predetermined form, and 
 is an important form of manual work in primary grades. 
 Practice in paper cutting of given forms results in marked 
 progress in ability to control the hand so as to follow an 
 outlure. In addition to the technical control, children gain 
 new suggestions of form from the pictures they cut out, 
 and these are likely to appear in later drawings. Free-hand 
 paper cutting is also of great use as a means of interpreting 
 objects in terms of silhouette (Fig. 8). 
 
GRADE I 
 
 41 
 
 Accuracy in measurement should not be expected from 
 small children, but first steps in handling a rule may be 
 taken by using it as a means of drawing straight lines 
 
 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 Fig. 8. Free-hand paper cutting 
 
 between given points. Toward the end of the year some 
 simple measurements which do not involve fractions of 
 inches may be undertaken with profit. 
 
 Building with blocks is a type of constructive work . 
 which is of importance for small children. By matching 
 
42 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 the blocks together and selecting those which fit they learn 
 to estimate form with some degree of precision. By placing 
 one block upon another so that the structure stands firmly 
 they gain a sense of horizontal and vertical relations. 
 
 Objects so shaped as to offer hints to the imagination 
 without embodying more than a suggestion often invite 
 mental activity when more definitely elaborated forms fail. 
 For example, children who have learned the names of chess- 
 men will often carry on lengthy plays full of incident and 
 dialogue, using the pieces as actors. The children appear to 
 clothe the king and queen with more personality than would 
 be the case if the pieces were realistic in appearance ; and 
 the knights seem to awaken greater interest than a complete 
 representation of a horse. Experimentation with suggestive 
 toys and figures promises to yield some answer to the ques- 
 tion as to whether within reasonable limits, the sustained 
 vigor of constructive imagination is not in inverse ratio to 
 the specific elaboration of the material furnished. 
 
 Design and color. Small children appear to have little 
 judgment regarding fitness of designs for any given pur- 
 pose. They are not mature enough to undertake, unaided, 
 problems which require tasteful distribution of different 
 elements within a given area. In designs involving such 
 arrangements, as, for example. Thanksgiving souvenirs, 
 Christmas cards, valentines, etc., progress in genuine appre- 
 ciation seems most certain when the teacher works out 
 with the children designs which are simple and yet excel' 
 lent, and thus accustoms them to examples of good 
 arrangement which will influence their choices when later 
 they plan their own scheme of spacing. 
 
 To recommend, as the writer unhesitatingly does, that 
 these first arrangements should be made under the more or 
 
GRADE I 43 
 
 less immediate influence of excellent examples, is to pre- 
 cipitate at once the general discussion of the place of 
 originality in design. In recognition of the importance of 
 this question, but without entering upon any full discussion, 
 it may be suggested that good design is not the chance 
 output of an uninformed mind. A young child may produce 
 something original in the sense that it is a fortuitous ar- 
 rangement of shapes that never existed before. Such a result, 
 however, is not necessarily a design because it is original ; 
 nor is there any value merely in the fact that it did not 
 exist before, if it is not good enough to be in itself a 
 reason why it should exist at all, or if the experience 
 involved leads to no better production in the future. It is 
 probable that children who at this age, with no example or 
 suggestion, have made an original arrangement, generally 
 like it because it is their own production. Unless there is 
 opportunity to compare it with something better, a common- 
 place arrangement becomes fixed in mind and its influence 
 persists and is evident in subsequent efforts. 
 
 On the other hand, children at this age readily develop 
 considerable proficiency m producing the simpler forms of 
 decorative arrangement, which consist in the repetition of 
 a single shape to form a border or surface pattern. Such 
 patterns occur automatically in certain forms of weaving, 
 and children often show much ingenuity in working out 
 the possible variations. 
 
 A sense of rhythmic arrangement can be directly devel- 
 oped by repeating a simple unit, with pencil or brush, 
 free-hand, so as to form a border or a surface pattern. The 
 feeling of rhythm appears to be increased when this repeti- 
 tion is done in part to a time count, which at first is led 
 by the teacher. This count may be vocal or indicated 
 
44 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 upon the piano. This practice in repeating a series of 
 forms to a corresponding movement of time gives a sense 
 of rhythm which is not developed by drawing borders in 
 which the spacing of the units is indicated either by dicta- 
 ted points or with the aid of measurements before the 
 units are drawn (Fig. 9). 
 
 Exercises with these simple borders are the first steps 
 toward more complicated problems in upper grades, such 
 as surface designs, bilateral forms, and balanced designs of 
 abstract shapes, or conventionalized flower forms produced 
 with a few pencil or brush strokes. In this practice, as in 
 penmanship, beautiful form and style are gained, not by 
 pausing over one unit to perfect it, but by repeating the 
 shape till the hand has mastered it and can use it with 
 facility. 
 
 During the first year in. school children should become 
 familiar with the colors most easily recognized, such as red, 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. This may be done 
 by placing before the children a fairly large sample of one 
 after another of these colors and having them collect objects 
 of a similar color. In bits of cloth and paper, and in flowers 
 and leaves, the color under consideration will be discovered 
 and its sensation perceived more clearly than by chance 
 observation. The use of colored crayons for drawing is also 
 an important means of training recognition and discrimina- 
 tion of color. 
 
 A reasonable standard of accomplishment has been 
 reached if, at the end of the first year in school, the children 
 have developed a habit of expressing their ideas with pencil 
 so that drawing seems to them a matter of course ; if they 
 have gained ability to handle simple material such as paper, 
 clay, sand, and blocks, so that such materials assume desired 
 
^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 JcA 
 
 s 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 \- 
 
 -TT 
 
 K" 
 
 r 
 
 /^ 
 
 4n.^^ 
 
 Fig. 9. Borders drawn free-hand 
 
 45 
 
46 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 shapes ; and if they have gained some ideas of good spacing 
 and arrangement under guidance of the teacher, and have 
 begun to enjoy the rhythmic spacing of forms and to discover 
 the general distinctions of color. 
 
 That their graphic expressions during this first year are 
 crude and their constructions inaccurate when judged by 
 adult ideas, and that their standards of good design are 
 gained from their instructors, are not causes for apprehension. 
 Detailed instruction as to methods of holding pencils, or the 
 quality of line to be obtained, or attempts to teach such 
 items of the technical grammar of drawing as foreshorten- 
 ing or convergence almost invariably do much harm and no 
 good at this age. 
 
 The primary instructor who draws with and for the chil- 
 dren, and who constructs objects with them, is furnishing the 
 most potent stimulus and inspiration for progress toward in- 
 dividual ability. Compared with the effect of this, methods 
 and courses without such example are of secondary value. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 GRADES 11 AND III 
 
 Children who attend schools where instructors encourage 
 drawing and constructive work as an everyday means of 
 expression usually gain remarkable facility during the first 
 year in setting forth their ideas by these means. Through 
 their own invention and the suggestions of the teacher and 
 of their fellow pupils they gain command of a wide variety 
 of graphic symbols and simple constructive processes. 
 Expression by means of illustration and construction, al- 
 though crude and archaic, becomes a matter of course and 
 is carried on with apparent pleasure and satisfaction. 
 
 A change in attitude toward the results is apparent, 
 however, as the children grow older. They soon cease to be 
 wholly satisfied with manual expression as a mere activity 
 without regard to the quality of the product. When during 
 the first year in school the child's impulse to produce some- 
 thing had found an outlet in lines or shapes, the crudity of 
 the result seldom interfered with his exultation as he dis- 
 played his production, or caused him to pause for improve- 
 ments or corrections before he proceeded to his next attempt. 
 In Grades II and III the product as a product seems to make 
 an impression on the children and gain importance in their 
 estimation. They show indications of caring for the truth 
 of the representation and the quality of the construction, 
 and wish greater knowledge and more adequate means for 
 carrying out their ideas. This newly awakened desire is 
 
 47 
 
48 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 illustrated by such an instance as the announcement of a 
 child attempting to represent a ship at sea, that he was 
 going to find some pictures of ships in order that he might 
 know more definitely how the prow of a ship was shaped 
 so he could draw his as it should be. Children who were 
 making nature drawings inquired how to make the bulbs 
 " look round," how to make some leaves look as if they 
 were behind others, how to paint a white narcissus on 
 white paper, etc. 
 
 This realization of the need of data in order to represent 
 adequately, and of knowledge as to how to put material 
 together if the product is to be satisfactory, offers oppor- 
 tunity to give instruction which the children can put to 
 immediate use, and which at the same time enriches their 
 ideas and extends their knowledge of shapes, materials, 
 and processes. 
 
 Based largely on this fact, work of the following general 
 character along the lines of representation, construction, and 
 design is recommended as appropriate for children during 
 the second and third years in school. 
 
 Representation. General use of drawing and modeling 
 as means of expression and description should continue 
 through these grades. The freedom and facility gained 
 during the first year enable the children to represent the 
 salient features of scenes and incidents with considerable 
 effect (Fig.' 10). 
 
 The growing interest of the children in the quality of 
 results makes worth while a more careful and detailed study 
 of objects than was advisable during the first year ; and the 
 chief additional contribution in the way of special technical 
 instruction which these grades can make, appears to be a 
 somewhat intensive study of a few typical things conducted 
 
GRADES II AND III 
 
 49 
 
 by devoting a series of lessons to each, for the purpose of 
 enabling the children to draw these particular things well. 
 Such study frees the drawing from some of its crudity and 
 directs the beginnings of the kind of observation which 
 should result later in correct impressions and the ability to 
 record them with some degree of accuracy. Children of this 
 age progress rapidly when they work for several consecutive 
 
 I ^. 
 
 Fig. 10. Illustrative sketches 
 
 lessons upon the same topic, expressing it each time in a 
 different way. 
 
 For example, if the subject under consideration is a 
 house, after the children have done their best in repre- 
 senting it, attention may be called to particular and sig- 
 nificant points ; for instance, the desirability that the sides 
 of a house stand vertically. They should examine the 
 houses they are drawing to see if any of them lean. They 
 readily become interested in this geometric relation, and 
 for a time will work earnestly over houses on paper and 
 
50 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 blackboard, in the endeavor to make the sides, doors, win- 
 dows, and chimneys exactly vertical. They are then eager 
 to draw villages in which every house stands upright and 
 where fences, poles, etc., are in proper position. 
 
 Later they may add to their fund of definite knowledge 
 by a study of houses and pictures of houses, to see how 
 gables are shaped, how doors and windows are placed, how 
 chimneys join roofs, etc. They may cut pictures of houses 
 from paper or trace them, and by actual muscular move- 
 ments over the shapes gain a clearer perception of them. 
 They may make patterns for the construction of houses in 
 paper or cardboard and build houses in the sandbox, which 
 shall embody the ideas thus far gained. 
 
 If the material out of which the house is constructed is 
 of particular interest, as in the case of a log house, the 
 problem of learning how to represent this becomes a topic 
 for study. Fig. 11 shows studies of houses by children in 
 these grades. The result of practice in vertical and hori- 
 zontal relations is observalsle in the sketch of the fire, 
 where, notwithstanding the interest in depicting exciting 
 details, the geometric relations of the structural lines have 
 been fairly well represented. 
 
 Again, if the subject for illustration is a bird, the first 
 drawing may be followed by a study of the shape of the 
 bird's head, the way his feet are placed upon the ground, 
 the angle at which he stands. The bird may be drawn on 
 paper, modeled in clay, cut from paper, painted or drawn 
 in color. Pictures may be collected illustrating the bird in 
 various positions and activities, and some of these may be 
 traced and cut out. After a child has gained what he can 
 from observation, and his progress in representing a given 
 object seems to have reached its limit for the time, his powers 
 
GRADES II AND III 
 
 51 
 
 of expression receive a fresh impulse if he can see some 
 one draw skillfully the things he is trying to represent. To 
 furnish such an impulse by drawing with facility before the 
 children is one of the most valuable contributions a special 
 teacher of drawing can make during these two years. 
 
 After a few lessons the children master the general shape 
 and characteristics of the bird so that they can illustrate 
 
 -^e^ 
 
 ^mi 
 
 Hi 
 
 ~'|H 
 
 rn 
 
 s 
 
 r;7 
 
 
 i '^"i 
 
 is J 
 
 
 
 Fig. 11. Drawings of houses 
 
 any story which admits of interpretation in terms of that 
 bird and its activities, and the drawings are informed with 
 all the details and data gained in the several steps. 
 
 The interest of the children increases with successive 
 lessons if each presents some new phase. There is a familiar 
 background to which to refer new elements. At first the 
 children are likely to make their drawings much alike. 
 After absorbing items of detail from pictures and objects, 
 their productions show great variety and a marked advance 
 
62 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 in defiiiiteness of shape, correctness of general proportions, 
 and expressiveness of character. 
 
 The important advantage of the cumulative effect of a 
 number of carefully planned consecutive lessons on the 
 same topic is often overlooked, and as a result drawing 
 frequently fails to show definite progress, and either ceases 
 to interest or becomes so much a matter of superficial 
 facility that children miss the stimulation that comes with 
 a measurably thorough mastery of a subject. Advancement 
 in ability to draw seems to become evident, not at first in 
 gradual increase of power to draw anything that may be 
 presented, but in learning how to draw one thing after 
 another and thus accumulating a graphic vocabulary. The 
 facts that children have to be taught how to draw each 
 new object, and that the true scope for originality at this 
 age is not so much in attempting to learn by unaided efforts 
 how to draw an object as in using it expressively after it 
 is learned, should be taken into account in planning work 
 for primary children. 
 
 The interest that is evident when a group of children 
 work together on a single topic, developing the description 
 as they proceed, is a factor that may be utilized. For 
 example, when the beginning of an illustration of some 
 topic in which the children are interested is made on the 
 board, all are generally enthusiastic in contributing a share 
 to the result. Topics suggested by the school work or out- 
 side interests, such, for example, as a farm, a city street, a 
 wharf, a market, a harvest field, etc., are excellent. The 
 children show great resourcefulness in composing the 
 scene and offering additional material, and after the first 
 rapid sketching is done they are ready to collect data for 
 coiTection and improvement of the results. Fig. 12 shows 
 
GRADES II AND III 
 
 53 
 
 an arrangement of paper cuttings by a class which was 
 making a study of frogs. 
 
 The results of the special instruction should continually 
 be absorbed into the general descriptive drawing and be- 
 come apparent there. Otherwise little improvement will be 
 evident in the general drawing, and not much that is of 
 permanent value will come from the technical instruction. 
 
 Fig. 12. Paper cuttings made by a primary class after studying frogs 
 
 Constructive work. Part of the constructive work may 
 with advantage parallel the work in drawing, so that the 
 same things which are being represented in two dimensions 
 may also be constructed in three. That such a relation 
 enriches the value of both means of expression is shown by 
 the increased understanding of form reflected by the draw- 
 ings, when the same objects are being constructed, and by 
 the amount of data and suggestion which is secured first 
 
54 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 by drawing and then embodied in the construction. Such 
 problems as houses, furniture, and the various articles 
 related to studies, games, and occupations, are continually- 
 presenting themselves and offer an abundant list of topics. 
 In most primary manual problems drawing and construc- 
 tion are both involved in the final result. 
 
 In addition to free, illustrative construction, these grades 
 should also present the first steps in well-planned work 
 which requires careful measurements and exact delinea- 
 tion of patterns. This means the beginning of working 
 drawings. During the first year most of the paper cut- 
 ting that necessitated following a predetermined shape was 
 based upon outlines furnished to the children, such as pic- 
 tures and patterns. In addition to this the children should 
 now begin to make their own patterns, and should come to 
 appreciate the value of the rule as an instrument for deter- 
 mining measurements and straight lines with precision. It 
 is not difficult to awaken and maintain interest in the 
 accurate use of the rule, if the problems presented involve 
 at first only a few lines and measurements of even inches 
 and later half and quarter inches. The rule used by the 
 children for constructive work during these years should 
 not contain smaller divisions than quarter inches. The 
 children should be shown how to manipulate it, and should 
 be interested in maintaining a relatively high standard 
 of accuracy whenever the work departs from free-hand 
 expression and requires an instrument of accuracy. The 
 rules provided for children are often confusing because of 
 the method used in many cases for indicating dimensions. 
 The figures are frequently placed beside instead of over 
 the line. So many mistakes in measurements made by 
 young children are directly traceable to this cause that it 
 
GRADES II AND III 55 
 
 seems worth while to select a rule which, as in Fig. 13, 
 eliminates this confusion. 
 
 Bookmarks, tags, weather signals, flags, pin wheels, val- 
 entines, covers, envelopes and folders for school work, illus- 
 trative diagrams such as plans for school gardens and other 
 projects of this sort will give opportunity for planning 
 objects by simple patterns in the flat. 
 
 It is important that during these two years a few funda- 
 mental geometric relations should be thoroughly appre- 
 hended by repeated use. The relations of vertical, horizontal, 
 
 ;^,,K«"l>h,PlflSl.lV^SCHCB 
 
 Fig. 13. Foot rules properly marked for primary children 
 
 and parallel occur in such drawing and construction as are 
 called for by the house already suggested. 
 
 In addition to the subjects involving these relations some 
 drill work repeated at frequent intervals is necessary to in- 
 sure the complete mastery of such relations, and ease and 
 confidence in usmg them. In the third grade this drill may be 
 undertaken with good results. For example, when lines are 
 drawn on the board at various angles children are interested 
 in trying to draw other lines parallel to the given ones and 
 testing their equidistance. They also like to accompany 
 their free-hand drawing and construction with occasional 
 drawings of vertical lines on the board, holding the chalk at 
 arm's length and producing the line slowly and steadily to a 
 
56 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 length of two or three feet and then testing it with a plumb 
 line. Horizontal lines and lines to represent given slants 
 should also receive attention. It is of great importance that 
 these geometric relations should be thoroughly mastered so 
 that they may be used with facility. The mind has then 
 a developed appreciation of fundamental relations, and a 
 standard for estimating and comparing variations from these. 
 
 Fig. 14. Designs for bookmarks and valentine 
 
 Design. The general lines of work suggested for Grade I 
 continue through Grades II and III with higher stand- 
 ards of accomplishment. The problems involve plannmg 
 simple forms to be constructed and decorating them with 
 suitable ornamentation — such objects as holiday greetings 
 and souvenirs, bookmarks, valentines, covers for school 
 papers, etc. Fig. 14 shows bookmarks and a valentine. 
 The decorations may consist of units and borders, which 
 the children readily invent by placing pegs and lentils. 
 
GRADES II AND ITT 
 
 67 
 
 ! ' ' 
 
 i •»• ■>•• 
 
 1. . ■> 
 
 »o- 
 
 ■?" 
 
 . 1 
 
 III 
 
 B 
 
 ■?■ 
 
 ■ o- 
 
 "™°T -^^ 
 
 -6- 
 
 ■?■ 
 
 .0- 
 
 ■ l-^' 
 
 ■0- 
 
 .Q. 
 
 •?• 
 
 •«♦ ■•■ > 
 
 
 • 0. 
 
 » 4 « « «> tt< 
 » # # ^ 9 .> 
 »-&'$> * « « 
 
 '■'3'; 
 
 -,^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 m J^'. 
 
 K 
 
 » 
 
 K 
 
 §f 
 
 
 „*.iit , 
 
 -4,4^ 
 
 J »*» > t>* »* 
 
 
 i • • • 
 
 Fig. 15. Surface patterns made of different arrangements of spots 
 
 afterwards selecting and drawing the best of these arrange- 
 ments (Fig. 15). The invention of the children at this age 
 can very easily be directed along the lines of good types of 
 
58 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 design by the example of the teacher. Leadership which, 
 by example, directs inventive activities along right lines 
 at first, obviates the necessity of much of that correction 
 and verbal instruction which are sometimes necessary when 
 poor arrangements have become fixed in the mind. 
 
 The children should continue the rhythmic drawing of 
 borders by repeating units to a time count corresponding 
 somewhat to that of music. After the experience of the 
 first year they are usually able to use more difiicult units, 
 to draw them with excellent spacing, and to apply them 
 in making decorative borders and simple surface patterns 
 upon the forms they have constructed, employing no other 
 measurements than those rapidly estimated by the eye as 
 the drawing proceeds. Fig. 16 shows the bowls of the 
 Three Bears, a parrot which had been a subject for form 
 study, and a flower, used as units. 
 
 During the second year the children learn readily to 
 discriminate hues of color more exactly than in the first 
 year, and to bring in samples or to pick out objects, the 
 colors of which are like the samples shown by the teacher. 
 In the third year they may with advantage learn to dis- 
 tinguish several steps in the different values of a given 
 color. The word " value " is used here to denote the rela- 
 tion of a color to light and dark. In this significance of the 
 term the value of a color changes as the color grows lighter 
 or darker. For example, if white is mixed with green the 
 resulting lighter green is higher in value. If black instead 
 of white is mixed with it, the resulting darker color is 
 lower in value than the original green. Children may col- 
 lect or be furnished with an abundance of color samples, 
 and after selecting those of one color hue, — for example, 
 blue, — arrange these so as to form a series of different 
 
GRADES 11 AND III 
 
 59 
 
 values, ranging from light blues which are almost white to 
 those which approach black. In a similar manner they may 
 arrange value scales of other colors. Any great degree of 
 accuracy in these arrangements should not be demanded, 
 nor should the number of steps between the lightest 
 and darkest be so many that the children cannot readily 
 
 Fig. 16. Borders of vinits suggested by topics in different scliool studies 
 
 perceive the change from one step to another. Five steps 
 between lightest and darkest are sufficient to illustrate well 
 the effects of various values, while seven are as many as 
 can be appreciated by most children in these grades. 
 
 Many of the designs made by children call for color 
 combinations and give opportunity to use the effects of 
 different steps of value in pleasing combinations. 
 
60 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Young children can use water color to excellent advan- 
 tage for the occasional experience of color effects, but they 
 are too young for any very intelligent handling of a medium 
 so capricious. During the first three years about all the 
 color expression that is valuable can be secured by collec- 
 tions of samples and by the use of colored crayons. The 
 disadvantages of postponing the regular use of water color 
 till the fourth year are probably more than compensated 
 for by the fresh stimulation from the introduction of a 
 new medium at that time, and by the fact that the results 
 obtained by primary children in water color, which are 
 admired by adults, are almost always chance effects caused 
 by the fluid character of the medium and were unforeseen 
 by the child. Experimentation with accidental color effects 
 has a definite value, but this value is perhaps greater when 
 the experimenter is somewhat more mature and less likely 
 to gain the idea that careless ventures which may turn out 
 to be pleasing are more worth while and likely to receive 
 greater recognition than purposeful effort. 
 
 A reasonable standard of accomplishment has been 
 reached if, at the end of the third year in school, the chil- 
 dren, in addition to increased facility in drawing, have also 
 added to their resources of expression a somewhat definite 
 knowledge of a few typical objects, gained by successive 
 lessons on the same topic, and have fixed in mind certain 
 fundamental geometric relations, such as vertical, perpen- 
 dicular, horizontal, and parallel, not as definitions but as 
 means of comprehending and expressing form ; if they have 
 developed their ability to embody ideas in materials, not 
 only as a result of increased skill of hand but also because 
 of the added power given by some command over such an 
 aid to accuracy, foresight, and economy as a foot rule ; if 
 
GRADES II AND III 61 
 
 they have better ideas of good spacing and proportions, and 
 an increased pleasure in abihty to distribute forms over a 
 surface in consistently related measures, and to discrimi- 
 nate qualities of color. 
 
 The stimulation of leadership and example of the teacher 
 continues to be a factor of the first importance in securing 
 these results. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 GRADES IV AND V 
 
 When children reach the fourth year in school the period 
 of satisfaction in the mere spontaneous play with drawing 
 and with constructive materials regardless of the quality 
 of the product is usually over. Ability in spoken and 
 written language has grown, and expression by drawing 
 and construction is resorted to less frequently except in 
 cases where language is not adequate. Children who at 
 an earlier period have been delighted in shaping lines and 
 forms which were a running accompaniment of their trains 
 of ideas now see things more objectively and are con- 
 scious of the teclmical shortcomings of their work to a 
 degree that robs it of its spontaneity. 
 
 The visitor to exhibitions of public-school work in man- 
 ual arts is usually impressed by the vigor and expres- 
 siveness of the productions of small children, and often 
 looks in vain in the work of upper grades for any adequate 
 fulfillment of the early promise. Indeed it is doubtful if 
 drawing and construction as means of general narrative 
 expression will ever again be of as great value as in pri- 
 mary grades. The function of manual arts becomes increas- 
 ingly specific as the school age advances and language 
 assumes its proper place as the most appropriate medium 
 of general expression. 
 
 Manual arts in these grades should awaken a pleasure 
 in the sort of work which requires sustained effort directed 
 
 62 
 
GRADES IV AND V 63 
 
 toward a definite end. A well-organized course presents 
 problems to the children which are as specific as those in 
 mathematics. The solution of each of these problems means 
 a step toward some mastery of materials or methods, and 
 this mastery should be insured by work involving repeated 
 concentration upon the same problem in various forms till 
 the fundamental processes become matters of habit. 
 
 Interest in new projects is easily awakened, but that 
 interest which is aroused by carrying a project through 
 to completion after the first enthusiasm has passed is of 
 much slower growth, but is more trustworthy, and when 
 systematically developed becomes a motive that can be 
 relied upon. The attitude of mind towards the arts which 
 is awakened in the children in these grades seems largely 
 to determine the development of ability during the remain- 
 der of the school course. 
 
 The following suggestions for work in representation, 
 construction, and design emphasize the points in technical 
 development which the abilities of children seem to indi- 
 cate as particularly appropriate to these grades, and which 
 are factors necessary to freedom of expression. 
 
 Representation. One of the most important technical 
 contributions which Grades IV and V can make to a child's 
 skill in drawing appears to be ability to represent general 
 proportions correctly. This more than anything else helps 
 him to realize his wish at this age, to make things "look 
 right." Children readily discern whether a drawing is 
 " too tall " or " too short " as compared with the object, and 
 they develop ability to estimate relative lengths of parts 
 with some degree of precision. 
 
 One of the most common methods of obtaining correct 
 proportions is to hold the pencil at arm's length so that it 
 
64 FIKE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 appears to cover lines of the object to be drawn. Thus 
 one is enabled to use it as a measure of relative dimen- 
 sions. Aside from the fact that it is practically impossible 
 to teach young children to use this method w^ith any 
 trustworthy results, the assistance obtained by such meas- 
 urements, even when they are skillfully taken, is of 
 extremely doubtful value. Progress in ability to draw cor- 
 rectly depends largely upon the power to compare visual 
 images and discern their likenesses and differences. Pencil 
 
 a 6 c 
 
 Fig. 17. Relative proportions of width and height 
 
 measurements substitute a mathematical computation for 
 this visual perception. 
 
 For example, in Fig. 17 the pupil can measure and 
 ascertain that the width of the top of the tumbler is two 
 thirds of the apparent height, and with this information 
 can plan his drawing correctly. On the other hand, if he 
 will indicate the top and bottom of his tumbler by lines of 
 indeterminate length, and place two splints to represent 
 the sides, moving them until the included shape satisfies 
 his eye, he will discover that he can thus determine the 
 proportions with great accuracy. If one looks at a, which 
 
GRADES IV AND V 65 
 
 is the shape to be represented, and then at b, he sees imme- 
 diately that h is too narrow, while the image of a fits that 
 of c, and the similarity of proportions satisfies the eye. 
 The source of this satisfaction is not due to any confirma- 
 tion from a mathematical estimation that the proportions 
 of width and height are related as 2 to 3, but to an imme- 
 diate perception of correspondence of images. Discrimi- 
 nation along this Ime develops rapidly with exercise. In 
 Grades IV and V much should be done toward training 
 the eye to swift and unerring perception of the agreement 
 or disagreement of the shape of the drawing with that of 
 the object. Unless this is done, drawing will be as halt- 
 ing and uncertain as are mathematical processes when the 
 worker is not sure of the multiplication table. 
 
 Pencil measurements might be recommended as a final 
 verification, except for the fact that they are seldom so 
 reliable, even when carefully taken, as the visual percep- 
 tion which has received an amount of training equal to that 
 required in lower elementary grades for the mere process 
 of learning to take pencil measurements. 
 
 Occasional representation of objects by splints gives 
 excellent practice in judging proportions. A movement of 
 the spluits gives opportunity to experiment with appear- 
 ances without the necessity of erasing lines. Such repre- 
 sentation is often a helpful introduction to drawing the 
 object with pencil. 
 
 In the drawing of a toy boat (Fig. 18), a child can be 
 led to take great interest in representing the hull in proper 
 proportions, and in moving the pencil along the drawing 
 till it reaches the exact position where the mast should be 
 placed and then in showing how tall it should be to look 
 •like the model. He is thus led to think where his Ime 
 
66 
 
 fixp: and industrial arts 
 
 thoukl go before he draws it, and the cultivation of this 
 habit of procedure contributes largely to correct drawing. 
 A large part of the poor drawing found in schools is directly 
 
 Fig. 18. Child's drawing of a toy boat in correct proportions 
 
 traceable to a reversal of this method, namely, to drawing 
 a line thoughtlessly and then looking to see if it is right. 
 Children at this age seldom develop a habit of blocking in 
 the whole shape at first, especially in a group of objects. 
 
GRADES IV AND V 67 
 
 That appears to be a method of analysis and synthesis 
 demanding more intellectual maturity than they possess. 
 They add^part to part and so build up the result. 
 
 Perception of proportions often may be stimulated by 
 having pupils exchange drawings and indicate to each 
 other, by sketches or otherwise, how they think improve- 
 ments may be made. The child who habitually makes his 
 drawings too broad and heavy may with profit exchange 
 drawings and suggestions with the child who goes to the 
 opposite extreme. The instructor too often monopolizes this 
 valuable experience of correcting the drawings of others. 
 
 Constructed objects such as toys or implements offer 
 excellent opportunity for practice in representing correct 
 proportions. Nature drawings with pencil or with water 
 color or brush and ink call for careful representation of 
 shapes and of character of growth. Mechanical slowness 
 may be avoided by alternating rapid sketches which express 
 as much as possible by a few Imes and brush strokes, with 
 drawings carried to completion by being worked over till 
 they are as correct as the -pupil can make them. 
 
 A second appropriate topic for these grades is the study 
 of a few simple problems of appearance of objects in dif- 
 ferent positions, for example, one object beyond another, 
 or the same object turned at different angles. The solution 
 should constitute a definite piece of work for the pupil, and 
 should be sought, by observation, by experimental sketches, 
 and by the collection and study of pictures which represent 
 such effects. 
 
 A more or less intensive study of a few topics in each 
 grade is necessary to progress in free use of drawing. 
 Abundance of knowledge regarding an object or a pictorial 
 effect tends to produce a willingness to express what is 
 
68 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 known. The use of sketchbooks devoted to particular 
 subjects in their various aspects and details is an important 
 method of gaining pictorial data. The knowledge accumu- 
 lated by intensive study of a topic persists for a long time. 
 
 Construction. The most important advance in construc- 
 tive work which Grades IV and V can make, appears to 
 be along the line of ability and willingness to undertake 
 more careful preparation in the way of plans and patterns 
 before shaping the material for final construction. In addi- 
 tion an increase of skill in handling new implements and 
 more refractory materials, and a greater satisfaction in good 
 workmanship, should be evident. 
 
 Problems will vary with the conditions of given locali- 
 ties. Some instructors prefer to use constructive work as 
 a center for other subjects. Others plan a course to de- 
 velop appreciation of industries and occupations, and still 
 others choose as a basis for problems the immediate needs 
 and interests of school and home. Whichever line is em- 
 phasized, much of what is valuable in the rest may be 
 included, and in any case opportunity will be offered for 
 experimentation with plans and designs and for increased 
 mastery of tools and materials. 
 
 Some of the most valuable projects for these grades are 
 those involving patterns to be cut, folded, and pasted. 
 Continued use of the rule, with the addition of compasses 
 and 45° triangles, and more complete control of scissors 
 give the necessary mechanical ability. The children should 
 be enabled to plan and make picture mounts, lesson covers, 
 envelopes for various specified purposes, etc. With vellum, 
 binding papers, tape, paste, sewing linen, and a punch 
 cardboard work may be extended to include simple forms 
 of bookbinding, such as portfolios, sketchbooks, pocket 
 
GRADES IV AND V 
 
 69 
 
 memorandum pads, notebooks, needlecases, book covers, 
 clipping files, etc. (Fig. 19). 
 
 Weaving is an occupation of universal interest during 
 these grades. It develops some acquaintance with textiles 
 and calls for knowledge of design and color. The looms 
 for small articles may be of the simplest construction, such 
 
 Tig. 19. Objects involving simple bookbinding processes, made by children 
 in Grades IV and V. The table was made by a pupil in Grade VIII 
 
 as can be made by the pupils themselves. Clay work in 
 tiles and simple pottery shapes is another valuable medium 
 of expression of form. 
 
 The sort of working drawing required in making patterns 
 acquaints children with this means of predetermining the 
 shape material shall take, and is the best sort of preparation 
 for later working drawings which represent three dimensions. 
 Some of the patterns should involve drawing to scale. 
 
70 FINE AND INDUSTKIAL ARTS 
 
 The great value of a relatively thorough mastery of the 
 type of pattern and construction involved in a given problem 
 should be recognized. For example, to make one or two 
 envelopes is a somewhat formal proceeding and arouses only 
 a passmg interest. To understand the constructive problems 
 involved, so one can plan workable patterns and properly 
 construct envelopes to serve various purposes, from those 
 suited to hold street-car tickets to portfolio envelopes for 
 school work, implies much practice. To do this a child 
 must gain ability to see the finished result m terms of pat- 
 terns, and to know readily whether the pattern will work 
 or not. Incidentally he will have taken to pieces a number 
 of envelopes of different types to see how they are made, 
 and often will have exercised his ingenuity in modifying 
 types to suit his purposes. Familiarity with processes will 
 have done away with distractive technical hindrances, and 
 opened the way for a child's powers of invention to have 
 free play under the infltience of the stimulating realization 
 that he has skill to put his inventions into concrete form. 
 This result seldom comes when ideas are partially assimi- 
 lated and processes are uncertainly performed. 
 
 Simple forms of woodwork which can be done mostly with 
 the knife are well adapted to these grades, and give some 
 familiarity with the material, which is useful as an intro- 
 duction to bench work in upper grades. For most of this 
 work, thin wood which can easily be prepared in the rough 
 and does not require bench tools, is sufficient. 
 
 Among the projects most frequently suggested by the 
 children are pencil sharpeners, pen and pencil boxes, paper 
 cutters, brush and water-cup holders, string and fishing-line 
 winders, windmills, weather vanes, water wheels, games, 
 models for bridges, derricks, etc., toy carts, sleds, boats of 
 
GRADES IV AND V 71 
 
 various kinds, kites, flying machines, tops, pin-hole cameras, 
 toy houses and furnishings, bird houses, etc. 
 
 Design. As a contribution toward progress in the two 
 phases of design before described, — first, free practice in 
 decorative arrangements for the sake of appreciation of 
 such elements of formal beauty as pleasingly related spaces 
 and harmonious forms, and secondly, designs for specific 
 purposes involving utilitarian as well as aesthetic considera- 
 tions, — Grades IV and V can easily develop skill in the 
 following lines. 
 
 1. Modification of natural forms for purposes of design. 
 If a child selects a form which he has already learned to 
 represent and draws it rapidly and repeatedly from memory, 
 he will soon reduce it to a symbol by elimination of all but 
 a few selected lines. This symbol will tend to become fixed 
 by repetition and will gain a certain individuality of style 
 as handwriting does. When this form is learned so that it 
 can be drawn easily from memory it can be used as a unit 
 for repetition in borders and also over a surface, as, for 
 example, a wall paper for a doll's house, a book cover, end 
 papers for books, etc. Modification of forms for decorative 
 treatment may also be obtained by repeating them under 
 the limitations imposed by certain materials, for example, 
 by squared paper, the weaves of basketry and fabrics, cross- 
 stitch, etc. (Fig. 20). 
 
 2. Planning designs for specific purposes. The most 
 important question in design is not how much can be in- 
 cluded in the space but what is the best distribution of 
 appropriate material. This can be emphasized at first by 
 furnishing the elements and leaving to the children only 
 the problem of the disposition of these given elements, which 
 at this age is quite sufficient. 
 
72 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 For example, if the object to be ornamented is a rug, a 
 folder, or a box cover, the elements of decoration may well 
 be limited at first to a plain band for a border. The pupils 
 
 ■H 
 
 Fig. 20. Bird forms adapted to cross-stitch and to basketry 
 
 can experiment by means of splints or other material which 
 will represent bands and can easily be moved to give the 
 effects of different widths of margins and of border lines. 
 
GRADES IV AND V 
 
 73 
 
 They can thus determine the spacing which produces the 
 most pleasing effect. 
 
 Suppose the problem is to choose the spacing for two 
 strips across a rug which is to be woven. If the chil- 
 dren cut patterns of the rug and place two splints or 
 pencils or strips of paper across to represent the stripes, 
 and move these back and forth to see the effect of differ- 
 ent spacings, experiments have shown that they will gener- 
 ally select as the final choice an arrangement not greatly 
 
 Fig. 21. Border designs for rugs made by different arrangements of lines 
 
 different from the proportions shown in Fig. 21, which 
 are pleasing. 
 
 After children can space a simple border well, the com- 
 binations may be made more varied by a study of the best 
 effects of borders composed of two or three lines of varying 
 widths. Later the children should experiment with the 
 possibilities of modifications of the borders to form decora- 
 tive corners or accents (Fig. 22). 
 
 The simple decoration of constructed forms and the spac- 
 ing of printing on covers for school work, the planning of 
 margins, titles, etc., so that language, spelling, and arithme- 
 tic papers may present a good appearance, furnish appro- 
 priate problems. In all these cases the results depend for 
 
THE tlECOLE BOOK 
 
 P q 
 
 b d 
 
 V <i0 
 
 gj a 
 
 THE K.EV RACK. 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 I o o o o o I 
 
 ■ 
 
 c 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 3 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 c 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 ] I 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 c 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 1 I 
 
 I o o o o 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 22. Border designs with simple modifications for corners 
 
 Reproduced by permission of the School Arts Book 
 
 74 
 
GKADES IV AND V 
 
 75 
 
 their effect upon well-related spaces. Fig. 23 shows a design 
 for a match scratcher, involving well-chosen proportions. 
 
 By limiting the elements which children are allowed to 
 use, attention is concentrated upon an attempt to make 
 
 the best possible ar- ■ j 
 
 rangement of what j 
 
 is given. The abil- 
 ity, which is apparent 
 at about this age, to 
 appreciate good spac- 
 ing should be devel- 
 oped from year to 
 year tiU it becomes 
 unerringly discrimi- 
 nating. Thoughtful 
 experimentation with 
 a few elements is 
 an effective method 
 of developing this 
 ability. 
 
 Children are read- 
 ily interested in the 
 collecting of designs 
 similar to thosewhich 
 they themselves are 
 making. These col- 
 lections are always 
 valuable in widening the acquaintance of the children with 
 the general use of design and in presenting suggestions for 
 new decorative combinations. Fig. 24 shows a collection of 
 corner modifications of borders, gathered from magazines, 
 advertisements, etc. 
 
 Fig. 23. Design for a match scratcher, in- 
 volving well-chosen proportions of margins 
 
76 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 In the fourth year in school, children can use water 
 color intelligently for matching the hues of objects, for 
 learning what effects the diflferent pigments produce when 
 mixed, and for representing simple color effects. They 
 should also learn how to make even flat washes of color 
 over given areas. In addition to matching colors, special 
 
 Fig. 24. Border and corner designs ooUeeted from magazines and 
 advertisements 
 
 training in discriminating color tones may be given by hav- 
 ing pupils make, in water color, samples showing several 
 definite steps in values of each color and in hues intermedi- 
 ate between two given colors. For example, by painting 
 a patch of pure blue, and then other patches of blue increas- 
 ingly diluted, and still others where more and more black 
 is mixed with blue, a number of tones will be obtained 
 showing the range of values of blue from pure blue to 
 
GRADES IV AND V 77 
 
 white and also to black through successive gradations. By- 
 placing on these patches a small circular or oblong pattern 
 about one and a half inches or two inches across, and trac- 
 ing around it and cutting out the shapes, a number of col- 
 ored samples uniform in size will be secured, from which 
 children can select a few, perhaps five, which make equal 
 intervals of value from the lightest to the darkest. These 
 mounted in a row form a scale of values of the given color. 
 Graded steps of hue between any two given colors, for 
 example, yellow and blue, may be made by painting first a 
 patch of pure yellow and then others, each with more blue 
 and. less yellow, till pure blue is reached. By such practice 
 children become acquainted with the behavior of colors as 
 they ascend toward white or descend toward black or be- 
 come modified by other colors. They also develop a dis- 
 crimination of intervals of color and of light and dark 
 which is of great importance in problems of representation 
 and of design. 
 
 A reasonable standard of accomplishment has been reached 
 at the end of the fifth year in school, when to the increased 
 facility in graphic expression, which comes from continued 
 general practice and from intensive study of a few forms, 
 has been added definite training in quick perception of 
 proportions of shapes and slants of lines, so that the mind 
 is able to retain the image of the object and compare it with 
 that of the representation and to discern the correspondences 
 and differences ; when children bring to their constructive 
 expression such acquaintance with new tools as gives them 
 new mastery of material, and such knowledge of patterns 
 as enables them to think out processes and forecast results 
 more definitely and intelligently; and when they find iq- 
 creased pleasure in well-related spaces, in the best solution 
 
78 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 of simple problems in design, and in the greater familiarity 
 with color that comes from continued study, aided by the 
 addition of a new medium of expression in the form of 
 water color. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 GRADE VI 
 
 Children in Grade VI have generally reached a stage of 
 maturity where they are able to enjoy working with sus- 
 tained purpose for a result that requires a considerable 
 length of time for its realization and that demands thought- 
 ful and somewhat complicated planning. They take pride 
 in attaining a good standard of workmanship in what they 
 produce, and find satisfaction in its usefulness, even though 
 that usefulness is for the benefit of society at large and 
 not directly for themselves. An appreciation of the beauty 
 of well-related proportions is increasingly apparent. Chil- 
 dren at this age will occupy themselves industriously with 
 problems of design that demand, as a book cover does, the 
 experimental arranging of title, ornament, and other ele- 
 ments until the space relations are most pleasing. In 
 representation the children desire a knowledge of how to 
 picture objects so that they will appear to be real and con- 
 vincing, or, in the case of diagrams or drawings relating to 
 the sciences, to make such records as will convey trust- 
 worthy information. 
 
 All these attitudes toward the manual arts are often 
 evident earlier than the sixth year in school, but at this 
 time they furnish sufficiently strong motives to lead the 
 children to sustained effort for the sake of solving a problem 
 in representation or of mastering tools and processes as a 
 means of freedom and sureness in execution. 
 
 79 
 
80 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Perhaps the most significant attitude of mind character- 
 istic of cluldren in Grade VI is the awakening of the desire 
 to be connected with the activities of the outside world 
 and to do something worth while. Life in the country 
 offers abundant occasions for such occupations. Each child 
 as he comes to suitable age can assume some responsibility, 
 the meeting of which contributes directly to the welfare 
 of the family. The garden, the woodpile, the poultry yard, 
 the kitchen, give concrete opportunities in which the rela- 
 tions to family welfare are immediate and evident. 
 
 In large towns and cities outlets for activities which make 
 the boy or girl a responsible contributing factor in the social 
 system are not so obvious. Products are bought ready-made. 
 Children come to regard things as the equivalents of money, 
 rather than of labor and skill. Moreover, the providing of 
 all school supplies by the town or city often presents, with 
 its evident advantages, the disadvantage of leading children 
 to feel that the municipality is an impersonal, inexhaustible 
 source of supply. In Grade VI appear also symptoms of 
 that deflection of children from schools into industries which 
 reaches its height at the end of Grade VIII (see Fig. 1, 
 p. 13). The fact confronts us that about two thirds of all 
 children leave school by the end of the eighth grade and go 
 to work. As has been already pointed out, the seriousness 
 of this situation is found in the fact that these children are 
 too young to enter vocations which call for skill or offer 
 opportunity for development. Such occupations as those 
 of errand boys and cash girls are typical of what is open 
 to children in the cities. The majority appear to drift 
 about Avith no industrial interests or vocational outlook 
 and take whatever pays best. They spend important form- 
 ative years in employment which offers slight prospects of 
 
GRADE VI 81 
 
 advancement. This experience tends to produce an unfor- 
 tunate attitude toward work as something which contains 
 within itself no interest nor scope for reahzing ambitions. 
 A small proportion of the children will rise in spite of these 
 conditions, but not the majority, unless vocational interests 
 and right attitudes toward work are awakened before they 
 leave school. 
 
 The educational system, with its high schools and its 
 growing number of technical schools, offers increasingly ex- 
 cellent opportunities for those who will remain. The appal- 
 lingly large proportion who do not remain makes pertinent 
 the question as to whether schools completely fulfill their 
 function by providing advanced opportunity for those who 
 will take it ; or whether, in addition, elementary schools 
 ought not to give a training planned definitely to awaken 
 industrial interests and to promote industrial efficiency and 
 thus satisfy the desire to begin to do something worth while 
 and to have a part in the world's activities. The final form 
 which this training will take must be determined by wide 
 experimentation ; but the evident need that children should 
 have a part in some work which develops a realization of 
 the interdependence of individuals in modern civilization 
 and of the responsibility of each, of the fact that what 
 the municipality furnishes is produced or supplied by its 
 individual inhabitants, and of the meaning of industrial 
 life, gives some hints of the lines along which experiments 
 should be tried. 
 
 One promising suggestion proposed to meet this problem 
 is that the time allotted to handwork in Grades VI, VII, and 
 VIII should be increased to at least five hours a week, the 
 extra time being taken from the special time given to draw- 
 ing and arithmetic, these activities being embodied in the 
 
82 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 constructive work, and that a part of this time be devoted 
 to making material which the city or town uses in its school- 
 supply department. In this way a utilitarian standard of 
 technical excellence would be furnished and at the same 
 time financial complications would be avoided. Since the 
 city can buy these materials in the market at any time, the 
 projects may be changed frequently enough to escape a 
 too mechanical routme. Such work would frankly under- 
 take the production of articles in quantity, and by such 
 industrial methods as division of labor and organization 
 of a system by which poor work might be traced to its 
 producer. 
 
 While such work should never interfere with domestic 
 science and household art for girls, and may not soon super- 
 sede what is now known as manual training for boys, it may 
 at least share the time with the latter, and it possesses certain 
 important educational advantages. For example, supposing 
 the project to be the supplying of classes with portfolios or 
 sketchbooks; if each boy in the class completes one, and 
 then the class is divided into groups and each group per- 
 forms a single operation, the great economy in time and 
 material and the consequent increase in producing power 
 are at once evident. These are important items in indus- 
 trial education. Moreover, the repetition of a process, if not 
 too long continued, instead of dulling the mind, awakens it 
 to invent devices for performing these processes more rap- 
 idly and accurately. All danger of automatic routine may 
 be avoided by the use of good judgment as to when the 
 process shall be changed. 
 
 The interest shown by such a class when the school- 
 supply team calls to take the product has proved that the 
 motive of personal ownership is not necessary at this age as 
 
GRADE VI 83 
 
 an inducement to do good work.i These contributions made 
 by the pupils to the system which is giving so much to them 
 readily awaken a new appreciation of school material in gen- 
 eral and of all public property and its relation to individuals. 
 Work such as this may be an important factor in civic edu- 
 cation for all, while to the boy who goes early into indus- 
 trial employment it gives a realization that any process to 
 which he is assigned is part of a whole. This realization is 
 likely to awaken a demand on his part to know and master 
 the whole. It is not unreasonable to hope that such " work 
 teaching," which awakens interest in effective ways of doing 
 things, may bring discontent with unskilled occupations and 
 a desire for more thorough industrial and technical training. 
 
 It is not unlikely that future experiments will prove that 
 where a suitable amount of time in elementary schools is 
 devoted to gaining experience with industrial methods 
 applied to appropriate problems which contribute to the 
 good of the commonwealth, the results, in terms of appre- 
 ciation of the relation of material products to human skill 
 and effort, will not only be of practical value to a part of 
 the population but will be also an element of broad culture 
 for all, whatever their vocations may be. 
 
 In connection with the regular school program the follow- 
 ing suggestions for work in representation, construction, 
 and design emphasize the phases which the abilities of the 
 children seem to indicate as particularly appropriate to 
 Grade VI. 
 
 Representation. The use of drawing as a means of plain 
 description should continue in connection with other school 
 
 i These considerations are based largely on the results of experiments 
 tried in Boston by Professor Frank M. Leavitt and described in detail by 
 him in the Manual Training Magazine for June, 1908. 
 
84 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 subjects. On the merely teclinical side the work of Grades 
 IV and V should have developed a habit of keen observa- 
 tion and correct representation of relative proportions and 
 slants of lines in the objects drawn. That of Grade VI 
 should continue definitely along these lines by develop- 
 ing a habit of thinking out the directions and limits of 
 lines before they are drawn, by carrying the brush or 
 pencil over the paper experimentally in the path the line 
 is to take. 
 
 In this grade a greater differentiation in styles of draw- 
 ing is called for to meet different needs. Each subject will 
 readily suggest the methods of drawing which are most 
 appropriate. For example, maps and routes call for plain 
 explanatory drawing in which correct proportions are a 
 necessary framework with which no freedom can be taken. 
 Children readily appreciate this fact and are interested to 
 draw routes which a stranger might depend upon in finding 
 his way about town. The following quotation from a school 
 paper describes a method of interpreting relative proportions 
 in terms of a diagram (Fig. 25). 
 
 We hope you will be pleased with our plans of Historical Rox- 
 bury. We have had great fun making them. We walked to the places 
 and counted our steps and wrote down on a piece of paper how many 
 
 steps it was to each place. Then Miss helped us plan it out on 
 
 a scale of 270 steps to an inch. All the places are within ten minutes' 
 walk of the school. 
 
 Accurate representation of a different sort is called for 
 when drawing is used in connection with nature study. 
 In this case another element enters in, because plant forms 
 involve proportions and shapes which present not only 
 facts of structure but also elements of beauty in the shapes 
 which the structure assumes. Exquisite representations of 
 
GRADE VI 
 
 HISTO'RICAL ROXBLRY, 
 
 rY FRANH BENSON. 
 
 j site of old f ort 
 : Ga'RriSon housf 
 
 3 F E H/^LE hC VSE 
 
 -7 sire OF Di.irir> house 
 
 5' £LIOT ^a. CHURCH 10 Mi^VROE HOUSF. 
 
 85 
 
 1 
 
 Pig. 25. A child's original map 
 
 plant shapes appear when the plant is held in the sun- 
 light so as tp throw its shadow on a piece of paper and 
 the child stands where he can see only the shadow. He 
 finds the structure of stems, the shapes of large masses, 
 the foreshortening of leaves and flowers, and the delicacy of 
 
86 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 grasses and thistledown translated into terms of black and 
 white. Equally perfect records may be made by placing 
 plant forms upon blue-print paper and exposing them in 
 a printing frame to the sun. The plant prints its shape 
 upon the paper in a few minutes and the image may be 
 
 Fig. 26. Prints from plant forms 
 
 made permanent by washing in water (Fig. 26). These 
 interpretations are often a greater incentive to representa- 
 tion of beautiful details than the best verbal instruction. 
 Brush and ink give results that look like shadows, and the 
 child is stimulated by this evident similarity in effect to 
 try to equal the perfection of the actual shadow or print 
 of the plant he is studying (Fig. 27). 
 
GRADE VI 
 
 87 
 
 With water color the children can learn to match the 
 colors of objects and discriminate between tones of color, 
 as, for example, the greens of the upper and the under 
 side of leaves. 
 
 Another subject appropriate to Grade VI is the study of 
 a few simple objects to show how each appears in several 
 positions ; for example, a leaf or flower held at various an- 
 gles (Fig. 28), or a toy or implement turned successively 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 27. Brush drawings of plants 
 
 in a number of directions. A topic such as this presents a 
 definite problem for solution. 
 
 Children of this age usually make small drawings when 
 following their own inclinations, while much time is spent 
 by instructors in the attempt to lead them to draw large. 
 Before regarding as wholly a fault the natural tendency to 
 make somewhat contracted drawings, it is well to consider 
 the small size of a great proportion of the trial sketches by 
 men who drew with much expression, as did J. F. Millet, 
 John La Farge, and many of the early Italian masters. In 
 many cases the final pictures appear to have been enlarged 
 from the first small sketches. 
 
88 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Fig. 28. Drawings of leaves at different angles 
 
 The need of mathematical comparison of proportions is 
 greatly increased with the increased size of the drawing. 
 When the drawing is small the eye sees it as a whole and 
 makes comparisons readily. The eye seems to translate 
 
GBADE VI 89 
 
 shapes iiiost easily and directly when the size of the draw- 
 ing approaches that M'hich would result if a transparent 
 plane were held between the eye and the object, at the 
 same distance from the eye as was the paper when the draw- 
 ing was made, and the object traced upon the plane. Under 
 these circumstances it is not necessary to change the scale 
 of the visual impression. 
 
 Much earnest mental effort as well as manual practice is 
 necessary if children learn to draw with any degree of cor- 
 rectness. Careless drawing is easy, but serves no valuable 
 utilitarian or aesthetic end, and, if allowed, begets a certain 
 contempt for the subject. Correct drawing is difficult of 
 attainment and the effort is more than play, but if the work 
 is well organized and undertaken in earnest, truthful de- 
 lineation grows to be a habit. This habit should be estab- 
 lished early. Children who learn to represent things as 
 they are, gain a knowledge of form which enables them to 
 justify their courage when they venture to alter the actual 
 to conform to their ideal. Attempts at poetic expression 
 in half -mastered terms are beset with difficulties. 
 
 Construction. A desire to produce things which have a 
 definite use, and a willingness to spend time mastering new 
 tools so that they may be utilized as an added means of 
 dealing with material, are characteristic of this grade. The 
 making of simple mechanical apparatus, such as is involved 
 in the manufacture of certain toys, and the production of 
 things that are of evident use in the school and home are 
 especially appropriate to this grade. 
 
 In planning courses in woodworking, Grade VI, in most 
 localities, seems to be the suitable place for introducing 
 children to bench work. This involves the use of tools 
 which demand strength and skill, and should come at a 
 
90 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 time when the stimulus of new material and of the means 
 of handling it is especially effective. 
 
 Two ways of organizing woodwork have been evident 
 during the history of manual training. One prescribes a 
 series of forms involving constructive elements and proc- 
 esses so arranged that there is a graded progression in 
 difficulty and complexity. In some cases the problems are 
 isolated parts of construction, given for the purpose of de- 
 veloping technicjue without regard to any use to which the 
 result shall be put, as in the Russian system. In other 
 cases the results are objects which willbe of use, but are 
 so chosen as to insure a logical progress in the order of 
 tools and processes involved. 
 
 The other method of organizing woodwork is based on the 
 theory that a constructive problem in its entirety involves 
 three steps. First, a choice is made of an object suggested 
 by a need for it, so definite in character that the conditions 
 furnish the worker with a means of reasoning out just 
 what the size, form, and construction of the object should 
 be in order best to fulfill the needs of the case. For ex- 
 ample, if the object is a bird house, its shape, the size of 
 the door, and other details will be determined definitely 
 by knowing the habits and size of the bird for which it 
 is to be built and the locality in which it is to be placed. 
 Secondly, after ideas of the object in its completed form 
 are clearly defined, the most fitting method of construc- 
 tion is reasoned out and patterns or working drawings 
 are made which show the number of parts needed and 
 their exact shape and size. In this way the greater part of 
 the constructive thinking is done beforehand in terms of 
 drawings and patterns, so that work in material may be 
 predetermined and not experimental. Thirdly, the tools 
 
GRADE VI 91 
 
 needed and the knowledge of how to use them should be 
 provided as necessity arises. 
 
 Woodwork with bench tools is in itself so interesting, 
 and at the same time so suggestive of world activities, that 
 however it may be presented, there is seldom any lack of 
 enthusiasm on the part of the children. In fact, every 
 system of woodwork cites as testimony to its suitability 
 the great interest it arouses in the children. 
 
 Children trained by the first method are likely to develop 
 a definite consciousness of ability to deal with material and 
 a pride in excellent construction, but tend to be somewhat 
 lacking in power to plan and to design. Generally the ma- 
 jority of a given class produce good work. Those trained 
 by the second method have excellent opportunity to develop 
 judgment and ability to plan how conditions may be met, 
 but often the majority of a given class fail in the technical 
 skill required to put their ideas into creditable material form. 
 In actual experience elementary-school pupils can seldom 
 plan perfectly beforehand, and need some experimentation 
 with material, which often modifies the first plans. Usually 
 only a few produce good results. 
 
 In practice a combination of the two methods is gen- 
 erally followed. The children begin with given models by 
 means of which the class can be taught as a whole, and 
 attain a degree of mastery of certain tools. After a year 
 or two those who show sufficient skill to justify undertak- 
 ing individual projects are allowed to do so. Frequently 
 the technical ability developed, leads the children to under- 
 take projects of their own outside of school hours. By 
 means of class lessons a standard of workmanship is main- 
 tained, and the desire to produce an independent piece 
 of work acts as a strong stimulus. A class model, while 
 
92 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 requiring the same processes of all pupils, need not result in 
 mechanical uniformity. Fig. 29 shows the variety of design 
 available in so common a stock model as the pen tray. 
 
 With the introduction of bench tools it is important to 
 realize that a somewhat complete mastery of one implement 
 and process after another is ultimately necessary to any 
 
 Pig. 29. A set of designs for pen trays 
 
 freedom of expression. In his consideration of the interest 
 of children in the practical outcome of their individual 
 projects, the instructor should not forget that other interest 
 which discovers itself to the person who finds his hand ad- 
 justing itself to a tool which is becoming increasingly obe- 
 dient. This new sensation often leads a boy to continue 
 planing a piece of wood till he has forgotten its use and 
 has gone past the line, in the pleasure of feeling the blade 
 
GRADE VI 93 
 
 cut with perfect evenness. The contribution to enjoyment 
 and efficiency made by this satisfaction in complete mastery 
 of a process should not be underestimated. 
 
 In this grade girls should gain some systematic acquaint- 
 ance with one or both of the characteristic activities of 
 American households, cooking and sewing. The children 
 are old enough to understand and feel that they ar^ genu- 
 inely helpful in some of the simpler forms of cooking, such 
 as the preparation of cereals and certain vegetables, etc. ; 
 and in the related household activities, such as the use of 
 the kitchen equipment, the proper setting and clearing of 
 the table, the washing of dishes, and the care of rooms. In 
 sewing they may be taught simple stitches, useful and or- 
 namental, the method of holding the cloth, and the use of 
 measurements, simple patterns, and sketches. Doll's clothes 
 and the simpler processes in garments will offer opportunity 
 to use this knowledge. The constructive work for both 
 boys and girls should bring them into sympathetic contact 
 with industries in the home and neighborhood. 
 
 Design. The two phases of design before described, namely, 
 that of free practice with decorative forms and that of plan- 
 ning objects to meet given conditions, should continue. 
 One of the important contributions which free practice 
 may make is the interpretation of forms into arrangements 
 of bilateral symmetry. This is one of the simplest types of 
 balance and one which children readily appreciate. 
 
 Children at this age easily develop considerable facility 
 in drawing simple units at the board with both hands at 
 the same time. After a little practice both hands move 
 apparently to one impulse, though the action of the left 
 hand is the reverse of that of the right. When a form 
 has been learned it can be drawn readily in this way, and 
 
94 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 occasional practice of this sort gives the children a feeling 
 of bilateral balance more vivid than can be obtained when 
 the drawing of both sides is made with one hand. The 
 possibilities of mechanical duplication in reverse are many. 
 Some of them, if used with a realization of their limitations, 
 serve to stimulate experimentation and to suggest new 
 ideas. For example, the decorative effect of duplicating 
 forms in reverse, even those that are less often studied for 
 decorative possibilities, as handwriting, may be seen by 
 making the form with a soft pencil and then folding the 
 paper over the form and rubbing it. The image will be 
 transferred faintly and needs only the strengthening of the 
 lines to complete the balance. Folding paper over a blot 
 of ink and pressing it will often produce interesting bilat- 
 eral forms, the suggestions of which may be developed 
 and perfected. In general these fortuitous productions are 
 valuable only as occasional stimulations. 
 
 In the second field of design the most valuable opportu- 
 nities are generally found in connection with the projects 
 of constructive work and of the household arts. As in 
 Grade V, the best results in decoration are usually obtained 
 by limiting a problem to the most pleasing disposition of a 
 few elements. At this age an appeal may be made directly 
 to a feeling of aesthetic pleasure. The question, " Which 
 looks best ? " generally calls forth thoughtful replies. Good 
 judgment in the matter of areas and relative proportions 
 appears to be developed most rapidly by much experimen- 
 tation in placing the elements of design to determine what 
 arrangement produces the greatest satisfaction. For exam- 
 ple, in planning the printing on a book cover, such steps as 
 the following make it certain that the child thinks out the 
 problem first in terms of spatial relations. 
 
GRADE VI 96 
 
 Place the ruler or pencil across the sheet of paper which 
 is to be the cover and move it up and down to determine 
 where the title will look best (Fig. 30, A). Mark the posi- 
 tion chosen and place two pencils across this area. Move 
 them toward and away from the center till the inclosed 
 space seems the best length for the title (Fig. 30, if). 
 Modify the space so that the letters will be of a suitable 
 height, and print the title to fill the rectangle exactly.^ 
 
 A .3 
 
 Fig. 30. Method of choosing the most pleasing position for a cover title 
 
 Where the design embodies two elements, as a title and 
 monogram, or adds a third, as a border, the experiments 
 may be carried on easily by means of splints and shapes 
 of paper. 
 
 The cause of pleasure in those dispositions of the ele- 
 ments which trained judgment calls good appears to lie in 
 the consistent relation of measures. Combinations which 
 are entirely satisfactory can be . approximately calculated 
 
 1 For suggestions as to printing within a given space, see Fig. 40, p. 123. 
 
96 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 mathematically. The method of calculation, although of 
 much interest to the scientist, appears to be of no value in 
 developing gesthetic appreciation in children. On the other 
 hand, the method which consists in the comparison and con- 
 templation of tentative arrangements usually results in a 
 ready response in terms of pleasure when a fine adjustment 
 of spaces is obtained. The aptitude of the majority of chil- 
 dren for immediate perception, of pleasing arrangements, 
 when the terms of the problem are wisely selected and 
 defined, is an encouragement to the teacher who seeks to 
 develop good taste in matters of design. 
 
 Continued use of water color should develop ability to 
 discriminate colors more accurately. The children should 
 learn to mix paints so as to match any given sample or 
 produce any desired color. In addition to matching colors, 
 a special study of color intensities will aid discrimination. 
 This may be carried on by having the children select some 
 color, for example, blue, and paint a spot of as intense a 
 blue as the paints will produce, and another spot of gray 
 which is the same value as the blue, that is, neither lighter 
 nor darker, but such a gray as would be obtained by pho- 
 tographing the blue with a plate that rendered the colors 
 in their true relative values. They may then paint other 
 spots, each time mixing an increasing amount of gray with 
 the blue, so that tlie spots approach gray without becom- 
 ing lighter or darker. From these spots three may be 
 selected, which, with the blue and gray, form a series of 
 five equally graded steps of intensity. In a similar manner 
 charts of different intensities of other spectrum colors may 
 be made. These charts will aid in discriminating the rela- 
 tive intensity of colors in nature which the children are 
 attempting to match. 
 
GRADE VI 97 
 
 A reasonable standard of accomplishment has been 
 reached at the end of the sixth year, if drawing has grown 
 to be more correct and expressive because each line is 
 thoughtfully drawn and form is better understood ; if rep- 
 resentations of objects show more adequately the charac- 
 teristics, proportions, and positions of these objects; and 
 if the children have become familiar with the use of the 
 more common industrial tools and have begun to make 
 things which appeal to them as worth while as a contribu- 
 tion to general or individual needs. In design an important 
 end has been achieved if they are able to plan simple con- 
 structive problems so that the results are not only adequate 
 to the purpose but pleasing in general proportions, if they 
 have gained an acquaintance with some of the decorative 
 possibilities of bilaterally symmetrical arrangements, and 
 also if ability to match colors and to discriminate between 
 different tones is increased. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 GRADES VII AND VIII 
 
 Instructors in manual arts during the earlier school years 
 should make certain that the children who reach Grades 
 VII and VIII have already mastered certain fundamental 
 processes and have overcome elementary technical difficul- 
 ties. The children will then have confidence and skill to 
 undertake projects appropriate to their widening interests, 
 and will possess a. stimulating sense of ability to think out 
 the solutions and use materials and implements to work 
 out the results. 
 
 In these grades children show an interest in concentrating 
 whatever knowledge they can gather and all the skill they 
 can command upon increasingly specific problems. This 
 leads to a close study of conditions and often to observation 
 of the ways employed by skilled workers, and it results in 
 careful selection from among many possible methods and 
 materials, of those most suitable to the particular end in 
 view. For example, in constructive or diagrammatic draw- 
 ing, children who have previously learned to sketch pat- 
 terns and draw to scale are now interested in seeing how 
 such drawings are used in actual industrial processes, and 
 what are the devices and conventions employed to illus- 
 trate particular details and characteristics. In representa- 
 tion children are interested in working out the best means 
 for portraying particular effects and in trying the results 
 of different sorts of technique. TJiey will experiment with 
 
 98 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 99 
 
 a particular topic, for example, rectangular solidity, and 
 learn how to represent rectangular forms in any position 
 and to draw them from imagination so that they appear 
 well constructed. In woodwork, agriculture, sewing, cook- 
 ing, etc., these pupils show a similar readiness to under- 
 take individual projects which necessitate knowledge, skill, 
 and persistency, and they display enthusiasm in seeking 
 data regarding the work and in perfecting their skill in its 
 processes. 
 
 The technical elements of the work in these grades as 
 well as its prevocational aspect render instruction by special 
 teachers more necessary than in previous years. 
 
 The following suggestions relate to phases which seem 
 especially worth emphasizing. 
 
 Representation. The most valuable work in these grades 
 appears to be a continuation of the common use of draw- 
 ing as a means of explanation and description, and also 
 a somewhat thorough training in representing the geo- 
 metric solidity of rectangular and curvilinear objects of 
 three dimensions and the beauty of structure and shape 
 of natural forms. 
 
 The descriptive drawing will show the extent to which 
 drawing has become a practical means of expression. Skill 
 in this conversational use of drawing does not come from 
 slowly and carefully finished work. It is gained only by 
 practice in rapid sketching. On the other hand, rapid 
 descriptive drawing tends to become superficial unless 
 supplemented by some serious and painstaking representa- 
 tion. Memory and imaginative drawing should receive 
 consideration, as ability in this line is necessary to ready 
 expression of ideas. In the case of some children, imagina- 
 tive drawing readily takes the form of pictorial compositions. 
 
100 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 while with others it consists in the representation of things 
 they propose to construct. 
 
 Children in these grades should have opportunity for 
 much use of these three modes of representation, especially 
 in connection with subjects which call definitely for one 
 or another of these means of interpretation. For example, 
 incidental blackboard descriptions or sketch notes in con- 
 nection with arithmetic, geography, or history are often of 
 little value unless they can be made quickly and with a 
 few strokes. Children frequently lack power to make such 
 sketches because it is sometimes mistakenly supposed that 
 practice in slowly finished work will give this ability. Facil- 
 ity with this sort of graphic expression should not be left 
 to chaaace, but should constitute a definite aim. Nature 
 study, physics, and constructive work, on the other hand, 
 demand a closer adherence to certain facts of form, a clear 
 understanding of details of structure, and accurate records 
 of observation which cannot be hastily sketched or ade- 
 quately shown by a few strokes of the pencil. The children 
 appreciate the needs of the case in hand and can be led 
 readily to adopt the style of drawing which suits the occa- 
 sion. Rapid sketching is learned only by sketching rapidly; 
 ability in exact delineation comes only by making exact rep- 
 resentations ; and facility in expressing ideas is developed 
 only through drawing from memory and imagination. The 
 sort of undifferentiated drawing from objects, which so often 
 constitutes the larger part of the special work in drawing, 
 will not produce that facility in all three lines which is so 
 valuable an asset. 
 
 When interest in any topic is awakened, the appro- 
 priate method of drawing is brought into use naturally. 
 The children make rapid notes for general suggestions 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 101 
 
 and careful studies for data. The habit of using sketch- 
 books should be definitely established. Such books become 
 valued possessions, full of material which contributes to 
 the subject in hand. Usually the children can be led to 
 add to their own sketches a collection of pictures from 
 magazines, papers, and other sources, related to the subject. 
 Fig. 31 shows cover and pages from a boy's sketchbook. 
 
 STRLET 
 
 SCENES 
 
 Oan-,,(c' CcViC i\ 
 
 .^_i,„.... „__. ..:: .._.. 1 
 
 ll 
 
 
 ■r 
 
 ^^/J: 
 
 
 
 z;'^/' 
 
 y],,^_^]r-il' 
 
 
 _ f/_n -ni-. ■.'■- :, 
 
 --* , 
 
 - . . -_ .^,r'' ... ;.; 
 
 ' '■■'-■--■ 
 
 ') ' ~~: : -wi-i ; '' 
 
 " ,'-■"' 
 
 ; . . --.,■-"! : 
 
 ', r ■^" , .- ,.„.:J-;;^'- 
 
 
 
 
 
 jf^^;-=-- 
 
 
 
 'n ' ■ i 
 
 --^^-==^: 
 
 : CAN 
 
 'f)y n 2T i|i,> 
 
 ^Ku^'" ■■ ■■■ ^ ■ 
 
 i .- - 
 
 ■L ' 
 
 "-■--■ vi~^! : -'- 
 
 i 
 
 . :sr:r~rrr^ 
 
 - . ti '— • :, r- 
 
 ::^:i:^.-_ _ 
 
 ^i-^^kt-^rr 
 
 zj-s,-. : ' -<.«i.;i- r- ,- 
 
 .-.^■—^...- 
 
 Fig. 31. Pages from a boy's sketchbook 
 
 The cumulative results of a series of efforts to under- 
 stand and represent a simple object or effect will be evident 
 after a succession of lessons where attention at each step 
 is concentrated upon a single definite aspect of the thmg 
 under consideration. The problems of each lesson are thus 
 made clear for both instructor and pupil and furnish, what 
 is greatly needed in courses in drawing, a well-understood 
 goal of effort and standard of accomplishment. 
 
102 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 For example, in nature drawing the following steps 
 illustrate successive phases which might be considered ia 
 different lessons. 
 
 1. Free drawings with brush and ink to represent with 
 a few strokes the growth and general character. Here the 
 whole attention is focused upon salient characteristics 
 (Fig. 32, J). 
 
 2. Representation of a flower and a leaf turned at different 
 angles (Fig. 32, i?). 
 
 3. Careful drawings of details of structure, such as the 
 exact shape of a petal, the construction and outline of a 
 flower or leaf, and the fine curvature of a stem. These 
 should be drawn with a pencil which is hard and sharp 
 enough to record facts. The purpose here is not a pictur- 
 esque result but an accurate record of such facts as would 
 be used for a science notebook or for material for design 
 (Fig. 32, C). 
 
 4. Matching in color the exact hue of petals, stem, upper 
 and under sides of leaves, etc. 
 
 5. Use of the forms as elements in design, as in a border 
 for embroidery or a unit for decoration of a cover for nature- 
 study papers, etc. 
 
 A similar opportunity for concentration upon a single topic 
 for a considerable period of time is found in landscape draw- 
 ing in connection with geography. Suppose the country un- 
 der consideration is Holland. A large drawing may be begun 
 upon the board and this may be modified or added to from 
 time to time as the children obtain additional data or more 
 definite knowledge of the subject matter. Meanwhile each 
 child may start a drawing of his own on a sheet of paper. 
 At first perhaps the results may be meager and include 
 only a few suggestions of the country, such as a horizontal 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 
 
 103 
 
 line to represent its level character and crude suggestions 
 of canals and windmills. Collections of pictures and the 
 hmts gathered from descriptions will immediately furnish 
 new material. One group of pupils may be assigned to 
 gather pictures of canals and learn how to represent them 
 so they appear to stretch away into the distance. Another 
 group may collect data regarding the appearance of wind- 
 mills, and still others may study canal boats, houses, and 
 other items relating to Holland. Day by day the picture on 
 
 
 ■"\ , nf\ 
 
 ml 
 
 i!'- 
 
 vy' 
 
 
 A\ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 Fig. 32. Different kinds of plant drawing 
 
 the board will evolve and old drawings be replaced by new 
 ones which are more adequate. The individual sketches 
 will give opportunity for original compositions. Children 
 will be encouraged to practice on particular effects till they 
 have mastered them. 
 
 Moods of nature furnish equally interesting subjects; for 
 example, autumn, twilight, storm, sunshine, etc. In the case 
 of poetical effects such as these, the children should sup- 
 plement their own attempts with collections of illustrations 
 of the topic in hand, made from all available sources, and 
 
104 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 they should at the same time become acquainted with some 
 related literary descriptions. JSsthetic appreciation is more 
 likely to be developed by interpreting familiar subjects than 
 by searching for the traditionally picturesque. 
 
 The representation of geometric solidity is of especial 
 importance to the student of constructive work, and is one 
 which appeals to children at an early age. One favorite juve- 
 nile method is to draw two rectangles which partly overlap 
 and connect the corners. The result appears- like a trans- 
 parent solid (Fig. 33, A). Children soon discover what lines 
 to erase in such a figure so that one appears to be looking 
 down upon it or up at it (Fig. 33, £'). They readily learn 
 that three lines furnish a key to the structure and position 
 of the box and that the other lines follow respectively the 
 general directions of these (Fig. 33, C). Their first attempts 
 at completing the box are frequently like Fig. 33, D, but 
 practice in treating this figure as a problem in construction, 
 by trimming down the top and sides till these .are satisfactory 
 representations of rectangular faces, soon results in a con- 
 vincing picture of a rectangular solid. The children are then 
 ready to experiment with different slants of the first three 
 key lines to see the effect in changing the apparent position 
 of the solid ( Fig. 33, ^ and F). Nothing seems so readily 
 to develop ability to represent rectangular solidity and to 
 draw from actual objects as progressive work in this con- 
 structive drawing from imagination. Any elaborate study 
 of the principles of formal perspective, such as the conver- 
 gence of retreating lines or the relation of the object to the 
 level of the eye, does not seem to be necessary or helpful 
 at this time. 
 
 The children learn later to discover in more complex 
 constructed objects the few lines which show the position 
 
"h n — ^ 
 
 '^;=:y 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 33. Studies in the representation of rectangular solidity 
 105 
 
106 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 and structure, and by means of these to determine the 
 directions of others, and thus find the solution of somewhat 
 comphcated problems of representation. They proceed with 
 their drawing of objects as if they were actually construct- 
 ing them. For example, in drawing a chair, the same series 
 of structural lines suggested in the drawing of a box gives a 
 means of reducing to system the more numerous lines of the 
 chair, which if unrelated would prove confusing., In Fig. 34 
 
 Fig. 34. The relation of the lines of rectangular objects to three key lines 
 
 the lines marked 1, 2, and 3 furnish the key to the direction 
 of most of the others. If these are determined in the right 
 proportion and at the right angles, the general structure 
 may easily be completed. All slants extending upward to 
 the left are determined by 1, and all to the right by 2. 
 
 The closed book in Fig. 34 represents a distorted outline 
 frequently drawn by children, and within this outline the 
 correct appearance arrived at by drawing lines to correspond 
 with the key lines, 1, 2, and 3. 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 107 
 
 This does not mean that all the slants are parallel to 1 
 or 2. In fact the lines appear to converge as they extend 
 away from the observer, but when some facility in repre- 
 senting rectangular objects in different positions has been 
 gained and the eye grows accustomed to interpreting draw- 
 ings, it will be found that the attempt to make the shapes 
 look right results in an approximation to the proper con- 
 vergence. This method of approach to perspective differs 
 from that which begins with discussions of the relations of 
 the object to data external to itself, such as the level of the 
 eye and the vanishing points of retreating lines, in that it 
 aims to develop the trustworthmess of the testimony of the 
 eye concerning actual appearances before attempting to 
 make deductions regarding these appearances from a theory 
 based upon external and usually invisible data. The mak- 
 ing of such deductions is valuable as a means of checking 
 up results after the visual perceptions can be depended 
 upon, but it is doubtful if these conditions can be fully 
 attained before children arrive at the high-school age. 
 
 The same general principles hold regarding the repre- 
 sentation of curvilinear objects, such as a glass or a bowl. 
 The question most full of descriptive suggestion is not, 
 " How far below the level of the eye is this glass ? " 
 but " How far can one see into it ? " The line answering 
 this question establishes the curve which determines all 
 related circles (Fig. 35, A and £}. 
 
 By means of sketches each child should construct such 
 forms on paper with the pencil, comparing and modifying 
 them until their appearance satisfies his eye. He should do 
 this till he forgets that he is working in two dimensions 
 and feels instead that he is shaping these forms in all three. 
 He should not think of his foreshortened circle as an ellipse, 
 
IP 
 
 Fig. 35, A 
 108 
 
■--q, 
 
 /'^'^^ 
 
 / X. 
 
 ^^^3„ ^^^ 
 
 FK-...35, B 
 109 
 
110 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 but as a circle which extends back into the picture, and 
 which he shapes until it is a satisfactory picture of a 
 circle lying flat. He should build up representations of 
 solids from imagination till his eye can detect any false 
 construction or any shape that does not carry the impres- 
 sion of curvilinear or of rectangular solidity. He should 
 play with these figures till he can place them in what- 
 ever position he chooses, and build on additions, or modify 
 by cutting into different shapes. He will thus develop 
 definite concepts of types of solidity. The fact is some- 
 times overlooked that one can seldom draw an object well, 
 the general type of which he has not mastered and made 
 his own so that he can draw it readily from imagination 
 (Fig. 36, A and B). 
 
 Interest in searching for pictorial expression for one's 
 ideas helps to develop artistic appreciation. When pupils 
 have become interested in trying to interpret into lines and 
 colors their impressions of a scene, for example, of autumn, 
 and have selected from among autumn pictures those which 
 are most in harmony with their own feelings, they are gain- 
 ing experience which will help them enter into the spirit 
 of a work of art which is an artist's interpretation of this 
 topic, with much more sympathy and responsiveness than 
 if they had made no effort to express it or to select good 
 interpretations of it. The search among many sources in 
 nature, literature, and art, for the embodiment of a partic- 
 ular idea or the expression of a mood should be an impor- 
 tant element in all picture study. 
 
 In each grade the pictures studied should be such as 
 embody objects and interests which touch somewhere the 
 experiences of the children. The first pleasure, which later 
 may develop into aesthetic appreciation, may be awakened 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 111 
 
 by well-drawn, vigorously colored pictures designed for 
 children, as well as by famous masterpieces. 
 
 The following description of an experiment in picture 
 study in upper grades is reprinted by courtesy of The 
 School Arts Book.^ 
 
 The topic, " Picture Study," which occurs in most courses in draw- 
 ing, deserves all the prominence that is now given to it. The major- 
 ity of people want to be able to appreciate and enjoy works of art. 
 Intelligent enjoyment of art is seldom gained except through special 
 study definitely planned to accomplish that end. To determine what 
 lines that study should follow has been the purpose of much discus- 
 sion and experimentation. 
 
 One method, perhaps the method of least value in elementary 
 schools, is to analyze pictures in order to discover centers of interest, 
 balance of masses, leading lines, etc. This is helpful to adults as a 
 study of one phase of the painter's way of doing things, but unless 
 presented with clear understanding of its relative value it is likely 
 to fail to develop a sincere enjoyment of pictures. 
 
 Another method is to show pictures to the children and encourage 
 them to talk about What they see and enjoy. Incidentally, stories of 
 the artist, the times in which he lived, and the things he chose 
 to paint are presented to add historical interests and associations to 
 the pictures. This gives a pleasant acquaintance with works of art 
 and awakens oftentimes a sincere liking for them. 
 
 If one allowed his judgment to be based upon the written papers 
 which are sometimes asked for after lessons in picture study, he 
 might be led to doubt some aspects of this method; but perhaps the 
 fault is not in the method, but in asking too soon that children make a 
 statement, in definite terms of language, regarding matters of feeling. 
 
 Instructors who wish to awaken in their pupils true enjoyment 
 of pictures, an enjoyment that is not a passing preference but an 
 abiding pleasure, might find helpful suggestions from considering 
 carefully the familiar statement that one gets from a picture only 
 what he brings to it. It follows that preparation for seeing a pic- 
 ture should be made before the picture is presented, in order that 
 
 1 "An Experiment in Picture Study," The School Arts Book, October, 
 1909. 
 
--,,'^i 
 
 -(-/.--e 
 
 r 
 
 j-^SJ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 "iff) 
 
 # 
 
 a: 
 
 -L_i:>^ 
 
 
 
 Fig. 36, A 
 
 112 
 

 rm 
 
 "^. 
 
 /2 
 
 Ak 
 
 ^/;?^>S( 
 
 C7 
 
 yi/. Ilum E. O'Brien 
 
 Fig. 36, B' 
 
 113 
 
114 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 the children may have some directly related experiences to bring to 
 it, and that the teacher's explanations may be unnecessary at the 
 time. It is probable that such enjoyment of art as we wish our pupils 
 to possess can come only when they have been previously interested 
 by observations of their own in the subject which the artist portrays, 
 so when they come to it they come to something which they them- 
 selves have tried to express, even though crudely, and which they 
 rejoice to see set forth skillfully. 
 
 The following experiment was tried with a large number of 
 children in Boston in the sixth, seventh, and eighth years of school, in 
 order to observe the results of giving the children experiences which 
 should prepare them to see the pictures which were to be studied. 
 
 Twilight was selected as a topic for special observation. The chil- 
 dren were encouraged to gather pictures of twilight from magazine 
 illustrations, photographs, and other sources. They were led to ob- 
 serve twilight effects out of doors. The results of these observations 
 were rendered definite by means of notes made with water color. 
 The colors of the sky, clouds, trees, and buildings on different even- 
 ings were recorded. The children noted whether the buildings seen 
 against the sunset sky appeared in their local color, or were flooded 
 with the golden glow, or contrasted with it by appearing to be com- 
 plementary in hue. Many children were enthusiastic in their de- 
 scriptions of twilight effects and made sketches, some of which were 
 crude in color while others were soft and delicate. 
 
 The next steps in the experiment, were made possible by the cor- 
 dial cooperation of the Museum of Fine Arts, which reproduced in 
 half tone several of its pictures representing twilight, and made 
 these reproductions available for the schools at cost. About sixteen 
 hundred of these were bought by the teachers and distributed to the 
 pupils. Each child made two or three simple copies in pencil of the 
 Museum picture given him, reproducing the effect as well as possible 
 by this means. He then experimented by painting over these pencil 
 sketches with water color the different schemes of twilight color 
 which he had recorded. He thus gained intimate acquaintance with 
 an excellent black-and-white composition, and added to this the 
 color, an element which was, the result of his own observation. 
 
 After this many of the children wished to visit the Museum in 
 order that they might see the original picture. Those who had op- 
 portunity to do so, when they saw for the first time the painting 
 with the composition of which they were already familiar, viewed it 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 115 
 
 with particular attention to see what colors had been used by the 
 artist and how his scheme compared with their own. Usually an 
 art museum appears to a child somewhat like a panorama. The 
 previous study of a particular topic, however, served to isolate a few 
 pictures from the mass and make them objects of special attraction. 
 The children felt a fellowship of interest and effort between them- 
 selves and the artist. 
 
 Even those who did not visit the Museum gained much enjoyment 
 of twilight effects in nature and of descriptions of them in literature. 
 
 One principal wrote as follows : 
 
 " You will be as pleased as I was myself when I tell you that two 
 of my boys, evidently inspired by our collection of twilight pictures 
 and without any suggestion on my part, brought me two poems 
 bearing upon the theme we were studying in our drawing. One 
 brought in a clipping from a newspaper, which told of the ending of 
 the day with the fading of the sunset colors, the night, and the 
 dawning of another day, making application to the closing of a 
 human life in this world and its subsequent awakening in eternity. 
 The other, with the air of a discoverer, laid upon my desk Tenny- 
 son's ' Sweet and Low, Wind of the Western .Sea.' 
 
 " I read these to the class with simply an acknowledgment of the 
 sources from which I had obtained them. I was not surprised when 
 boy No. 3 laid Gray's " Elegy ' before me a day later. I plan to have 
 the class learn this while the strong side light of their picture study 
 is still shining upon it, and I see the possibility of other work with- 
 in the outline for reading, in correlation with drawing." 
 
 The possibility of developing other topics in a similar 
 manner is evident. To each great artist some phase of 
 the world has made a particular appeal and it becomes his 
 field for study and interpretation. The best way to develop 
 the fullest enjoyment and appreciation of his work appears 
 to lie in awakening interests similar to those which inspired 
 his art, and in encouraging efforts at expression, however 
 crude, of the same thing. Artistic pictorial material of fine 
 quality is now everywhere available. An instructor who 
 culls from the best of the monthly magazines can soon form 
 a collection of pictures excellent not only in composition 
 
116 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 but in color. Public-spirited citizens are always ready- 
 to contribute magazines a month old, and thus interpre- 
 tations of the different subjects of study can gradually 
 be collected. 
 
 Construction. In these grades the problems dealing with 
 concrete materials have a wide range of application, for 
 example, in agriculture, woodworking, household science, 
 household art, and various prevocational activities. These 
 are influenced strongly by local conditions. The work is 
 also largely in the. hands of special teachers, and the oppor- 
 tunities for excellent training for such teachers are continu- 
 ally improving. The suggestions here given are therefore 
 general. 
 
 The character of the work should be such as to satisfy 
 the rapidly awakening economic instinct, and to develop 
 a technique sufficiently excellent to command respect. It 
 should be noted, however, that skill of hand, although 
 necessary, is not the only important outcome of construc- 
 tive work in these grades. 
 
 A fault of former education was that it furnished little 
 opportunity for anything but specified lines of intellectual 
 activity. Constructive work in modern education may err 
 in failing to associate itself as definitely as it might with 
 intellectual activity. Each line of work should involve, in 
 connection with its immediate technical processes, its wider 
 social, aesthetic, and industrial relations. In addition the 
 instructor should never lose sight of the importance of 
 steadily increasing a student's ability to forecast processes 
 and results, as far as possible, in definite terms. 
 
 Oftentimes the constructive enthusiasm is so great, and 
 the realization of the value of preliminary planning so 
 slight, that a child needs the experience of discovering in a 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 117 
 
 practical way the waste of time and energy resulting from 
 a direct, thoughtless attack upon material. However, after 
 the first practical acquaintance with the tools and processes 
 of a problem has been gained, the handling or cutting of 
 material should be made to wait till the results have been 
 thought out and, as far as possible, foretold in terms of 
 verbal descriptions, sketches, plans, estimates, and meas- 
 urements. Mere technical excellence can carry one but a 
 short way in larger constructive problems. 
 
 During these grades a recognition of social relations 
 becomes evident, and the desire to contribute something 
 to the world's work usually grows keen. Nature study 
 appropriately takes the form of agriculture. Children are 
 interested in attempting to raise the best products and to 
 try for prizes for the best ear of corn,. etc. They like to be 
 able to modify natural conditions for the sake of better 
 results, as by grafting trees or making hotbeds. 
 
 In woodworking, if the training in previous grades has 
 been thorough and progressive, pupils can undertake indi- 
 vidual projects of some importance, such as chairs, desks, 
 tables, cabinets, bookracks, etc., which can be put to 
 actual use in the school or at home, and they enjoy the 
 effort and exercise of skill required to carry them to com- 
 pletion. Under special conditions skill may be acquired 
 by means of individual projects from the first, but the 
 practical outcome of an attempt to do this with wood- 
 working classes of reasonable size is that the instructor is 
 unable to give the attention to each pupil which is neces- 
 sary to the formation of desirable habits of work. A small 
 proportion of the whole number produce excellent results, 
 but the majority make relatively little progress and do not 
 acquire freedom from technical difficulties soon enough to 
 
118 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 enjoy the results of skill. Figs. 37 and 38 show samples of 
 woodwork by boys of Grade VIII in a public school. 
 
 Industrial work which contributes to some actual needs 
 of the school system is an important factor. There is 
 opportunity for many activities, such as making furniture, 
 
 Fig. 37. Woodwork by boys in Grade VIII 
 
 picture frames, window boxes, sketchbooks, card-catalogue 
 boxes, portfolios, apparatus, printing and binding, etc. 
 
 Household science and household art may be so presented 
 as to awaken a sense of the dignity of the housekeeping 
 problem and of the possibilities of accomplishment that 
 result from intelligent skill. The children should learn 
 to handle materials economically, according to plans held 
 clearly in mind. In household science suitable problems are 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 
 
 119 
 
 abundant. Among these are the care of rooms, the serving 
 of meals, the preparation of vegetables, meats, breads, and 
 puddings, the care of foods, simple problems in marketing 
 and in keeping accounts. In household arts, mending and 
 darning, basting and sewing, simple sewing by machine, the 
 
 Tig. 38. Woodwork by boys in Grade VIII 
 
 making of underwear and of simple dresses, and some ideas 
 relating to the care of fabrics and the hygiene of clothes 
 are within the scope of elementary-school work. Experience 
 in classification of textiles and knowledge of methods of 
 manufacture and of costs and uses should develop practi- 
 cal judgment of quality and of appropriate price. 
 
 Design. In Grades VII and VIII those phases of design 
 which call for judgment regarding the fitness of things. 
 
120 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 the beauty of proportions and of outlines, and the suitability 
 of ornament and harmony of color are of inereasmg impor- 
 tance. The pupils are sufficiently mature to appreciate to 
 some extent fine forms and harmonious colors ; to realize 
 the difference between excellence of design which renders an 
 object beautiful and permanently satisfactory, and that sen- 
 sational or commonplace modification of form and addition 
 of unrelated ornament which contribute nothing toward the 
 graceful setting forth of the idea involved in the object. 
 
 Free decorative practice may be gained in large part in 
 connection with the experimental sketches for designs. 
 Children in these grades who are making a design for a 
 constructive shape which mvolves beauty of outline, or for 
 an interlacing of lines as in a monogram or in patterns of 
 embroidery, develop a feeling for fine curves by gradually 
 modifying the shapes till the lines flow pleasingly and 
 consistently. 
 
 Development of appreciation of beauty of form may come 
 in part from the careful detailed drawing of fine forms in 
 nature, but such appreciation may be greatly reenforced by 
 practice in making many free sketches of plant forms with 
 a brush. The plant should be interpreted into as few lines 
 as possible and this convention repeated till, like penman- 
 ship, it gains a swing and flow of line that is not labored. 
 The best of these results may be worked over and perfected 
 by the use of tracing paper. 
 
 The children should be impressed by example as well as 
 precept, with the idea that the possibilities for beauty lie 
 mostly in the planning and proportioning of essential parts 
 of objects, and not in added ornament. The finest beauty 
 of a boat is its shape and not its decoration ; of a chair, its 
 proportions and not its ornamental carving. No element 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 121 
 
 can contribute more to the beauty of the outside appear 
 ance of a house than the fine proportioning and spacing of 
 doors and windows. Walter Crane states this prmciple 
 well when he says : 
 
 Nothing has degraded the form of common things so much as a 
 mistaken love of ornament. . . . Decoration or ornament we have 
 been too much accustomed to consider as an accidental and imre- 
 lated addition to an object, not as an essential expression and organic 
 part of it ; not as a beauty which may satisfy us in simple line, form, 
 or proportion combined with fitness to purpose, even without any 
 surface ornament at all.^ 
 
 Children are readily interested in making designs where 
 the solution lies in the best possible disposition of neces- 
 sary constructive elements with little or no ornamentation, 
 and soon appear to enjoy such a problem, partly because 
 of the definiteness produced by its limitations. The lesson 
 covers in Fig. 39 illustrate the different results obtained 
 when the possibilities for good design in fine arrangement 
 of parts are realized and when they are not. Fig. 39, A, 
 is typical of what a child is likely to produce when, without 
 any foundation of previous training, he is left free to make 
 his design as he pleases. He has not responded to the ver- 
 tical and horizontal suggestions of the inclosing space, but 
 has violated these with his diagonal printing. He finds no 
 pleasure in experimenting with the architectural effects of 
 fine spacing and well-arranged margins. His primary inter- 
 est is the barbaric one of collection and display, with only 
 secondary regard for arrangement. There is no lasting 
 satisfaction and no clearly defined goal for this interest. It 
 is a matter of mere sensation. It demands ever brighter 
 colors and more profuse ornamentation. 
 
 ^ Walter Crane, "The Bases of Design," p. 90. 
 
122 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Such a design as Fig. 39, B, results from long experience 
 in placing words where they divide the space most pleas- 
 ingly, and in spacing letters in the words till satisfaction 
 is awakened more by the harmonious distribution of the 
 words on the page and the letters within the words, than 
 by profuse ornamentation. 
 
 In such a design as this, the exact areas which the print- 
 ing is to occupy are first chosen by such experimentation 
 
 Pig. 39, A 
 
 Fig. 39, B 
 
 as is described on page 95, Fig. 30, and the letters made to 
 conform to these. Children show much interest in work- 
 ing out this problem. They like to experiment by print- 
 ing the same word in rectangles differing entirely as to 
 proportions, so that in each ease the word shall exactly 
 fill the given form (Fig. 40). Such printing should be 
 done free-hand and the spaces determined not by measure- 
 ment but by tentative mdications made at first by very 
 light lines and gradually defined as the letters become 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 123 
 
 equably distributed. Fig. 41 shows a page of carefully 
 planned covers. 
 
 Design which consists in the best possible arrangement 
 of given elements, so that they fulfill their purpose ade- 
 quately and gracefully without recourse to sensational or 
 incongruous interests, gives permanent satisfaction in a 
 definite end attained and a single idea perfectly realized. 
 
 The constructive work and household science and art 
 afford some of the most important opportunities for design 
 
 HENRY 
 HENRY 
 
 Fig, 40. Words fitted to different spaces 
 
 because they furnish a reason for shapes and materials and 
 an incentive tp experiment with them (Fig. 42). 
 
 Putting into book form the work upon other school topics 
 is a feature of design which is of increasing value each year. 
 It involves the cover design, the title-page, margins, ar- 
 rangement of text, illustrations, tailpieces, etc. It is not 
 necessary to artistic progress that the children make all 
 their illustrations. The search for and choice of pictures 
 which best embody the idea one wishes illustrated is an 
 excellent means of developing appreciation of art. 
 
 One of the most important purposes of design is to 
 develop good sesthetic judgment regarding the things 
 
124 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 with which one comes into daily contact. Such judgment 
 can be cultivated by choosing the best from among many 
 examples, good and bad, as well as by making original 
 
 mwimm 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 MARGUEraTtDcafy 
 
 i^IWlHOE 
 
 ; ■ SIRWALtERSCOH 
 
 Pig. 41. Covers for lesson papers 
 
 designs. For one who will design a vase or a wall paper, 
 many thousands will buy the article. It is therefore im- 
 portant to know how to choose well, and making designs 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 
 
 125 
 
 is not the only nor always the surest way of developing 
 discrimination in selection. 
 
 This choosing should be from collections similar to 
 those from which the pupil will be obliged to make his 
 choice when he comes to buy for himself, as well as from 
 examples which will always be beyond his reach. For 
 
 "^i—. 
 
 n^'^aMBji!<5'*^-'s<"^'*^''" 
 
 '» .?• . .^ - ^'.' 
 
 -.* ^ .-« 
 
 Up 
 
 , 'O* ^-, 'o'-^'O 'c-'"--,,, 
 
 
 |A .% '*^.'".% 'j*»' /^".s'»*>'«*»'Vs*.VWV."3 
 
 *t 
 
 n 
 
 Fig. 42, Designs for embroidered borders by girls in Grade VIII 
 
 instance, if one wishes to cultivate good taste regarding 
 vases, it is well worth while to study those in fine collec- 
 tions; but such study will lose nothing of practical value 
 if it is supplemented by a choice, from among the material 
 available in a local store, of the vase best suited to show 
 the beauty of a particular style of bouquet, such as a 
 few sprays of tall, slender flowers or a round bunch of 
 short-stemmed blossoms. 
 
126 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Practically all the objects of home furnishings are the 
 results of long evolution, and the different styles have 
 successively reached high levels of artistic excellence. 
 Furniture and lamps, for example, are interesting subjects 
 for study, historically and artistically, but added to knowl- 
 edge of and interest in the finest known examples should 
 be some exercise of judgment in choosing the best possible 
 from available sources, and this necessitates some concrete 
 acquaintance with these sources. The present generation 
 may thus be led to patronize the best at hand and to create 
 a demand for what is still better. 
 
 Children should also make or have access to collections 
 of pictures of well-designed dwellings of all classes, and 
 public buildings for towns similar in size and means to 
 their own locality, and be led to choose wisely among 
 these. They should be encouraged to report on the most 
 beautiful views in town. Where cameras are owned by 
 pupils a collection of local pictures should be made. A 
 study of one place under various aspects gives results full 
 of interest and artistic suggestion ; as, for example, a street 
 scene, or a landscape, at various hours of day and night, 
 and in different seasons. This encourages the sort of study 
 which the artist gives to his chosen subject. 
 
 Sometimes children may be led to think about the 
 aesthetic possibilities of their home surroundings by describ- 
 ing favorite places indoors and out, under such topics as 
 My Favorite View, The Room I like best, What a Window 
 adds to a House, etc. 
 
 An example of sensible teaching of design is that of a 
 country teacher who found her one-room schoolhouse 
 poorly furnished, with no pictures, an unpleasant wall color, 
 and with papers in the windows instead of curtains. She 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 127 
 
 undertook to change one item after another. The children 
 discussed the best color for the wall. A tone was decided 
 upon and presented to the committee, who agreed to retint 
 the room. Curtains were then considered. Samples were 
 obtained and the best color and material decided upon. 
 The children not only were allowed to have a part in the 
 selection but were represented at the purchasing. Chairs, 
 pictures, and frames were later discussed and choices made 
 with the aid of catalogues and visits to stores. The making 
 of the changes occupied two or three years, and the money 
 was obtained in part from entertainments given by the 
 children. The artistic training was such that it developed 
 much practical acquaintance with ways of selecting furnish- 
 ings, and incidentally the children developed a sense of 
 ownership in the school. They sometimes inquired of the 
 teacher, after a visitor had gone, whether any remarks had 
 been made regarding the excellent appearance of the room. 
 
 Progress in sesthetic appreciation is not by way of a 
 general advance in discrimination as a result of theoreti- 
 cal statements, but by definite study of individual things 
 which are beautiful. 
 
 Continued use of water color should develop ability to 
 match colors more exactly, to discriminate and record some- 
 what subtle distinctions in color tones, and to harmonize 
 colors. One can usually secure excellent color harmonies 
 by choosing with some care among color prints, fabrics, etc., 
 and from nature. The groups of colors occurring in flowers, 
 lichens, faded leaves, etc., furnish excellent material. By 
 matching these colors the children can secure beautiful 
 combinations for use in design. 
 
 Together with a growing acquaintance with good exam- 
 ples, simple experiments in harmonizing given colors may 
 
128 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 be tried, by introducing a common element into each of a 
 group of two or three colors to bring them into closer re- 
 lation. For example, two colors like red and blue, which 
 in full intensity are not usually pleasing, can be made 
 more agreeable in combination by mixing a little gray 
 with each. Mixing a little of each with the other or some 
 of a third color with each produces a similar result. The 
 red still counts as red and the blue as blue, unless too 
 much has been added in the mixing, but the common ele- 
 ment has made them less antagonistic. Children should 
 try such experiments with a number of colors and choose 
 for use in their designs the tones where the proportion of 
 mixture gives the best effect. 
 
 By the end of the eighth year children should have gained 
 ability to use drawing as a common means of expression, 
 and to make rapid descriptive sketches, careful, well- 
 constructed drawings, or truthful records of observations, 
 as occasion may require. They should be able to undertake 
 common constructive problems with knowledge of tools and 
 processes, and should have acquired some ability to convert 
 raw materials into a finished product accordmg to a prede- 
 termined plan. They should have the beginnings of good 
 taste in choosing what is excellent among things relating 
 to the home and community, and should enjoy beauty of 
 form and harmony of color in nature and in art. They 
 should have enough acquaintance with what artists have 
 produced to lead them to find some favorites among objects 
 of fine art, as they have among books, so that they will 
 desire to possess reproductions of these, and they should 
 have developed a general sympathetic attitude toward art. 
 They should also have gained an interest in productive 
 labor sufficient to interpret things in terms of the effort 
 
GRADES VII AND VIII 129 
 
 and skill required to produce them, and should have devel- 
 oped a healthful enjoyment in the exercise of their abilities 
 which will lead them to be dissatisfied with any occupation 
 which does not add to the well-being of the community. 
 
 Whether the aims and the methods considered in these 
 pages meet with general acceptance or not, the fact remains 
 that the formulation of some fairly definite standard of at- 
 tainment based on the relative value of the different activi- 
 ties involved and on the tested capacity of the children, 
 and some specific progression from grade to grade toward 
 this standard are necessary to the highest effectiveness of 
 work in manual arts in elementary schools. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Esthetic appreciation, 3, 14, 15 
 
 of proportions, 95, 96 
 
 progress in, 25, 104 
 
 relation to design, 26-29, 120-124 
 Agricultural education, 117 
 
 Blocks, 41, 42 
 
 Book covers, 122-124 
 
 Color, study of, 29, 30 
 progression of, through grades, 
 30, 31 
 Grade I, 44 
 
 Grades II and III, 58-60 
 Grades IV and V, 76, 77 
 Grade VI, 96 
 
 Grades VII and VIII, 127-128 
 Constructive vfork, awakened in- 
 terest in, 1-3 
 progression through grades, 21-25 
 Grade I, 39-41 
 Grades II and III, 53-55 
 Grades IV and V, 68, 69 
 Grade VI, 89-92 
 Grades VII and VIII, 116-119 
 relation to drawing, 7, 8 
 value of, 3, 10, 11, 32 
 
 Design, awakened interest in, 1, 3 
 educational value, 14, 15 
 progression through grades, 28, 
 29 
 Grade I, 42-44 
 Grades II and III, 56-59 
 
 Dpsign, progression through grades 
 Grades IV and V, 71-75 
 Grade VI, 93-96 
 Grades VII and VIII, 119-127 
 two aspects of, 25-27, 71, 93, 94 
 Domestic art, 93, 118, 126 
 Domestic science, 93, 118, 119 
 Drawing, awakened interest in, 1-3 
 courses in, 9 
 geometric, 55, 56 
 of maps, 84 
 mechanical, 7, 8, 25, 41, 54, 55, 
 
 68-70, 98, 116, 117 
 nature of, 6, 7, 9 
 of objects, curvilinear, 107, 110 
 of objects, rectilinear, 104-107, 
 
 112, 113 
 pictorial, 33-35, 39, 48-53, 102, 
 
 103, 110 
 of plants, 84-86, 102 
 progression throughgrades, 18-20 
 Grade I, 33-39 
 Grades II and III, 47-53 
 Grades IV and V, 63-67 
 Grade VI, 83-89 
 Grades VII and VIII, 99-110 
 values and aims of, sesthetic, 9 
 educational, 2, 3, 5, 6, 32 
 industrial, 7, 8 
 scientific, 9 
 
 Household art, 93, 118, 126 
 
 Industrial education, 12, 13, 80-83 
 
 131 
 
132 
 
 FINE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Manual training, see Constructive 
 
 work 
 Measuring, 41 
 Meolianical drawing, value of, 7, 8 
 
 Grade I, 41 
 
 Grades II and III, 54, 55 
 
 Grades IV and V, 68-70 
 
 Grade VI, 90 
 
 Grades VII and VIII, 25, 98, 
 116, 117 
 
 Object drawing, 104-107, 110, 112, 
 113 
 
 Paper cutting, 40 
 Perspective, 8-10, 20, 104-106 
 Pictures, study of, 15, 16, 110, 111, 
 
 114, 115 
 Progression of subjects through 
 grades, 17, 18 
 color, 29 
 Grades I, II, and III, 30, 44, 
 
 46, 58-60 
 Grades IV and V, 31, 62, 63 
 Grade VI, 31, 79, 80 
 Grades VII and VIII, 31, 
 98 
 constructive work, 21 
 Grades I, II, and III, 21-24, 
 
 39-41, 53-55 
 Grades IV and V, 24, 68, 69 
 Grades VI, VII, and VIII, 24, 
 25, 89-92, 116-119 
 design, 25 
 Grades I, II, and III, 28, 42-44, 
 
 56-59 
 Grades IV and V, 28, 71-75 
 Grades VI, VII, and VIII, 28, 
 119-127 
 
 Progression of subjects through 
 grades, drawing, 18 
 Grades I, II, and III, 19, 33-39, 
 
 47-53 
 Grades IV and V, 19, 20, 63- 
 
 67 
 Grades VI, VII, and VIII, 24, 
 25, 83-89, 99-110 
 Proportions, appreciation of, 95, 
 96, 121, 122 
 representation of, 63-67 
 
 Rapid sketching, 8, 67, 99, 100 
 Representation, see Drawing 
 
 Size of drawings, 87-89 
 Sketchbooks, 68, 101 
 Special teachers, 39, 51, 99 
 Standards of attainment, 10 
 
 Grade I, 45, 46 
 
 Grades II and III, 60-61 
 
 Grades IV and V, 77, 78 
 
 Grade VI, 97 
 
 Grades VII and VIII, 128, 129 
 
 Values, of constructive work, 3, 10, 
 11, 32 
 of design, 14, 15 
 of drawing, 2, 3, 5-9, 23, 32 
 of industrial and vocational edu- 
 cation, 12, 13, 80-83 
 Vocational education, see Indus- 
 trial education 
 
 Water color, 21, 60, 76, 87, 96 
 
 Weaving, 69 
 
 Woodwork, Grades IV and V, 70 
 
 Grade VI, 90-92 
 
 Grades VII and VIII, 117-119 
 
ANNOUNCEMENTS 
 
BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Allen: Civics and Health )fi-2S 
 
 Brigham : Geographic Influences in American History . . . . 1.25 
 Channing and Hart: Guide to the Study of American History . 2.00 
 Hall: Aspects of Child Life and Education . ... ... 1.50 
 
 Harrington: Live Issues in Classical Study . 75 
 
 Hodge: Nature Study and Life .1.50 
 
 Johnson : Education by Plays and Games . 90 
 
 Johnson: What to do at Recess . . . 25 
 
 Jones: Education as Growth . . ... . . 1.25 
 
 Kern: Among Country Schools .... ... 1.25 
 
 Mace: Method in History .... . i.oo 
 
 MacVicar : Principles of Education . . 60 
 
 Moral Training in the Public Schools ... 1.25 
 
 Prince: Courses of Studies and Methods of Teaching 75 
 
 Scott: Social Education .... ... 1.25 
 
 Smith: The Teaching of Geometry . . ... ... 1.25 
 
 Tompkins: Philosophy of School Management . ... .75 
 
 Tompkins: Philosophy of Teaching . .75 
 
 Wiltse : Place of the Story in Early Education, and Other Essays. 
 
 A Manual for Teachers 50 
 
 FOR CLASS RECORDS 
 
 Comings : Complete Record — Attendance and Scholarship 
 
 Graded-School Edition 30 
 
 High-School Edition 30 
 
 Comings: Semiannual Record for Graded Schools 15 
 
 Ginn and Company : Teacher's Class Books 
 
 No. I . . . . .... 30 
 
 No. II 40 
 
 Twenty Weeks' Class Book . . .30 
 
 196 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY Publishers 
 
COURSES OF STUDIES 
 AND METHODS OF TEACHING 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS 
 
 By JOHN T. PRINCE 
 
 I2mo, doth, 344 pages, 75 cents 
 
 THIS is a brief plan of studies for elementary schools, 
 and a simple and direct statement of good methods 
 of organization, teaching, and discipline. 
 
 Although the hints and suggestions are directed mainly 
 to untrained and inexperienced teachers, it is hoped that 
 they may commend themselves to the judgment of the 
 best teachers, as based upon correct principles of teaching. 
 The following outline of the contents indicates the 
 scope of the book. 
 
 I. Courses of Study 
 
 II. Methods of Teaching 
 
 Writing Observation Lessons 
 
 Spelling Information Lessons 
 
 Language Drawing 
 
 Grammar Singing 
 
 Arithmetic Memory Lessons 
 
 Geography Busy Work 
 
 History Physical Exercises 
 Physiology and Hygiene 
 
 III. Organization, Moral Training, and Government 
 
 GINN & COMPANY Publishers 
 
ASPECTS OF CHILD LIFE AND 
 EDUCATION 
 
 By G. STANLEY HALL, President of Clark University and Professor of 
 Psychology, and Some of His Pupils 
 
 12mo. Cloth, 326 pages 
 
 DURING the last twenty years one of the lines 
 of research carried on by President G. Stanley 
 Hall and students working under his direction, at 
 Clark University, has been the psychology of child- 
 hood and its applications to education. These 
 researches have been published in the University 
 periodicals, which are of necessity expensive and 
 limited in circulation, and have not, therefore, 
 hitherto been available to the general public. The 
 object of the present volume, which is to be the 
 first of a series, is to make accessible to parents 
 and teachers, in somewhat condensed form and 
 at moderate price, the results of these researches 
 which are now recognized as of fundamental 
 importance in all educational work. 
 
 198 
 GINN & COMPANY Publishers 
 
AN 
 INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 With Some Educational Applications 
 
 By Melbourne Stuart Read, Professor of Psychology and 
 Education in Colgate University 
 
 Ilmo, cloth, 309 pages, illustrated, ^jSl.oo 
 
 THE aim of the book is to present to the reader the main 
 truths of the science of psychology in a simple, direct, 
 and interesting fashion. It is the normal development and 
 workings of the reader's own mental experience which the book 
 attempts to help him understand, the mind being conceived 
 as a part of a psychophysical organism, adjusting itself to the 
 conditions of its life. 
 
 The main topics taken up are the following : The nature and 
 problems of psychology ; the general nature of consciousness ; 
 the nervous system ; the simple adaptive processes, — impulse, 
 instinct, and habit ; the simple and the complex processes of 
 sense stimulation, — sensation and perception ; attention and 
 interest ; association ; the simpler and the more complex affec- 
 tive processes, — affection, feeling, emotion, and sentiment; 
 the ideational processes, — memory, imagination, conception, 
 and thought; and the processes of complex conscious adapta- 
 tion, — the will. 
 
 Considerable space has been given to practical applications, 
 as they help decidedly in making clear and in fixing in mind 
 the principles involved. Applications of psychology are, of 
 course, especially useful to the teacher, and the learning and 
 teaching processes have received much attention. 
 
 As its title indicates, this is a first book in psychology. It 
 is especially designed for use as a text in normal schools, teach- 
 ers' training classes in high schools, and in elementary courses 
 in colleges. 
 
 192 a 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY Publishers 
 
iiiiiiii