n'hVi bf^% S^ a%:bl: •p LB mi R96 »><:/ (Qarnell Unitieraitg ICibcatg ...L/..S±o...^.fA..£.X, ine aate snows when this volume was taken To renew this book copy the call No. and give to the ^librarian. ;.;.)\.....7..-../^**i- HOME USE RULES ■tr All Books subject to recall All borrowers must regis- ter in the library to bor- row booka for home use. • All books must be re- turned at end of college year for, ii^pection and repairs. Limited ~kDoks must be returned within the four ' week limit and ilot renewed. Students must return all booka before leaving t This was the direct inspiration and forerunner of the reading circle movement for the improvement of the teacher while in service. The purpose of these reading circles was to stimulate teachers to a professional point of view in their reading, and to help them to become better teachers by providing stimulating professional books in the subjects of their interests.' That this is an effective agency in the improvement of teachers is suggested by the fact that many states have made the reading circle work a prerequisite to certification in higher schedules and to re-certifica- tion.' In order to stimulate the work that teachers may do in reading the United States Commissioner of Education issues a diploma to members of the National Rxiral School Teachers' Circle in recognition of the successful completion of certain reading circle courses.' A second factor of interest was the development under Dr. WiUiam R. Harper, in the year 1883, of the correspondence instruc- tion. This type of instruction was given for several years by the Chautauqua, until it was assumed by "two or three leading Uni- versities."' The Chautauqua itself, though it draws many teachers every year, either in the parent organization at Chautauqua, N. Y., or La the nearly six himdred similar organizations or "circuits" through- out the country, has to-day little influence upon the teacher from a professional point of view. The service that it has rendered, however, should not be minimized. It has been a powerful factor, first, in developing the ideal of using the summer vacation for pur- poses of study; secondly in paving the way for reading circles and correspondence instruction; and thirdly in helping inform public opinion with regard to schools and the quality of teachers in them. The genesis of a third large development in the existing agen- cies for the improvement of teachers may also be recognized in the ^Vincent, G. E., Chautauqua Movement, Cyclop, of Ed., Vol. I., p. 581. ^See Ruediger, W. C, Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service, Bulletin, V. S. Bureau of Ed., No. 3, No. 449, 1911. ^Rept. ofComm. of Ed. of V. S., 1919, p. 103. 6 Improvement oj Teachers in Service first quarter of the last century and is to be noted in the develop- ment and increasing definition of the responsibilities of the public in the conduct of education. Certain phases of this movement led, in 1837, to the appointment of the first city school superintendent, (in Buffalo, N. Y.), and in the gradual delegation of school authority by the controlling lay board to this new officer. The primary function of the original lay board, or school committee, was to see whether the school itself was doing the work that was expected of it.' The development of the superintendency and the school principalship followed, to do for the schools what it was becoming manifestly impossible for a group of laymen to do; namely — over- see the work of the school, plan for its extension, and maintain its standards. The development was very slow imtil after the Civil War. Cubberley writes: It was not, however, until about 1850 or 1860, and one might almost say until after about 1870, that the special problems of city school organization and administration began to attract serious attention. In the first place, there were but few cities at an earlier date, and these were relatively small in size. Their school systems, too, were of relatively simple type, and their boards of school trustees, with the people of the districts, exercised a most complete control. But a few cities had as yet created the office of superinten- dent of schools, and the few which had assigned clerical rather than executive functions to the new official. As late as 1870 there were but twenty-seven city superintendents of schools employed in the entire United States, and with but thirteen of the thirty-seven states represented. As late as 1860, also, but sixty-nine of our present cities are regarded as having by that time organized a clearly defined high school course of instruction. Since 1870 the growth of the city school systems has been very rapid, and with this growth many new problems of school organization and adminis- tration have been pushed to the front. The number of city school systems has been multiplied rapidly since 1870 and the size of many then in existence has trebled or quadrupled. In 1870, too, there were but fourteen cities having 100,000 inhabitants, and in 1910 there were fifty such cities, and these fifty cities contained 22.1 per cent of the total population of the United States.'' The increased need for better administration, the growing complexity of the school organization, and the demand for a better standardization of the work that the teachers were doing, meant that the critical and constructive activities of the principals and 'See Suzzallo, H., Rise o! Local School Supvsn in Mass., T. C. Cont. to Eden., No. 3, N. Y., 1906, and Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration, Houghton Mifflin Co., Cambridge, Mass., Chaps. 8 and 10. 'Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration, Houghton Mifilin Co., Cambridge, Mass., 1916, pp. 57-60. Historical Development 7 superintendents became more and more subordinated to executive and clerical routine. Less and less of their time could be given to their original duty, the inspection of schools. The part of the inspectional scheme that had originally been delegated to the superintendent of schools, and through him to the principals, eventually was assigned to a third group of officers whose main task was the inspection of schools and the standardiza- tion of the work throughout the school system. This inspection was an impersonal connection as it related to the teacher. Its chief purpose was a diagnosis of the school situation with the view of making changes either within the school to bring it up to standard in certain directions, or in the administrative regulations that would work toward the same end. This type of inspection was found to be inadequate because the key to the situation, the teacher, had been neglected. The change that came about served to shift the emphasis from the school system as the end to the child, with the improvement and acceleration of the education of the child as the chief objective. In view of this shift of emphasis the part played by the supervisor became inspectional only to the degree that the inspection was necessary in the location of difficulties that prevented the teacher from achieving the ends for which he was striving. This view of supervision is essentially, then, one which con- templates the improvement of the teacher during his period of service. Out of it has come the use of the teachers' meetings of various kinds within the school system for the purpose of improving the equipment of the teacher in knowledge and technique. While the part that supervision, in its most sympathetic and personal aspects, can play in this improvement is large, there is much in the improvement of the teacher that is not within the real province of the supervisor. Because of the close official relation of the super- visor to the administration of the school system, it is very difficult for the supervisor or for supervision to do for the teacher all that may be included in the term improvement. The official relation- ship becomes in many cases a repressive factor. There are other agencies the freer character of which makes them more welcome to the teacher. As a consequence agencies -which cannot be classed as supervisory are now contributing much to the teacher's improve- ment. 8 Improvement of Teachers in Service In its most recent development supervision has recognized both the inspectional and the improvement phases. This is illus- trated by the trend in Detroit, where the supervisors are in reality- experimental investigators. Their chief purposes are, first, to locate the difficulties in teaching, and secondly, to devise ways and means for helping the teachers to correct them. The early phases of this service are inspectional in character, while the later phases are supervisory in the narrower sense. For the Detroit teachers, too, elements of improvement also come in other ways than through supervision.' The fourth som-ce from which present-day agencies for the improvement of teachers have evolved is a more recent develop- ment than the others — namely, the extension movement. The character of university extension, as it first developed, is very well described in the German translation of the term, Volkshochschulen — "higher schools for the people." It is interesting to note, how- ever, that the earliest form of extension, in 1867 in England, was in connection with the improvement of teachers. Mr. James Stuart, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was invited "by an associa- tion of ladies, mostly school teachers, to lecture to them in the north of England on the art of teaching."^ The movement, by which the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford [several years later] were able to extend the opportunities of higher education to those unable to attend the sessions of the Uni- versity itself, began rapidly at first; then later, as certain problems of finance became intrusive, it remained nearly stationary for a decade or more; then, as the problems were solved, interest again increased. The extent of the movement in England by 1892-93, is shown by the following data: for the session 1892-93 in the four centers in England, Oxford, Cambridge, London and Victoria, 245 short courses were given, 362 courses of ten or more lectures and a total of 669 courses of all kinds. There were in addition 57,149 attend- ing individuals, out of whom 7,509 workers submitted weekly papers and of whom 4,256 passed the final examination.' 'Notably in opportunities tor part-time University and College work during the school year as well as in the summer. ^Russell, J. E., Extension of TJniteraity Teaching in England and America, Ext. Bui. of Dniv. of State ot N. Y., No. 10, Oct., 1895., p. 162. 'Russell, J. E., op. cit., condensation of tables, p. 221. Historical Development 9 In the United States the "English scheme of university exten- sion" was laid before "the American Library Association in session at the Thousand Islands in 1887"' and the first course was given in Buffalo in the winter of 1887-88. The Chautauqua speakers of 1888 advocated it and recommended its adoption in this country. In three centers in the United States— Philadelphia, New York, and Chicago — 229 short courses were given in 1892-93; 35 courses were of ten or more lectures; and the total offering amounted to 264 courses of all kinds. The attendance aggregated 47,311 people, of whom 1,377 prepared papers weekly, and out of whom 1,016 passed the final examination.^ The work done in these years and later, established the princi- ples of extension work as they now apply to teachers: first, the feasiblity of individuals taking work of collegiate grade in centers away from institutions of higher learning; secondly, the feasibility of voluntary attendance and support ; and thirdly, the demonstrated value of professional study on a part-time basis. There have been many modifications, so that there are now both intramural and extramural extension through regular classes and correspondence extension modeled after the early efforts of the Chautauqua move- ment. The idea has spread to the normal schools, colleges, and even to the encouragement of the work by boards of education sponsored in many cases by these other institutions. Growing out of the demonstrated demand that was evidenced by the popularity of the Chautauqua movement, stimulated di- rectly by many of the specific activities of the Chautauqua meetings, and partaking of the collegiate character of the university extension movement, the summer session has become an estabhshed part of the work of higher educational institutions. While these sessions have offered a great variety of courses calculated to attract and cater to a wide range of people, the summer session from the first has been regarded by teachers as a medium of education peculiarly adapted to their needs and conditions. The extent to which to-day the teacher of this country is avail- ing himself of these various summer sessions is tremendous. There were 410 institutions which reported having summer sessions in 1921, with a total of 253,111 students, a gain of 62,105 students, or about 32 'Russell, J. E., ibid., p. 176. 'Ibid, p. 221. 10 Improvement of Teachers in Service per cent over 1920. Of these institutions 241 were universities and degree granting colleges. Their 1921, summer enrollment was 143,154, as compared with 111,617 in 1920. The gain of 31,537 is 28 per cent. This 28 per cent gain is the more striking when compared with the 3 per cent loss in the enroll- ment of full time regular students in 1920-21 as compared with 1919-20 in the 30 American Universities annually considered in School and Society, the en- rollments of these 30 being 135,895 for 1919-20 and 132,091 for 1920-21.' Several factors working together in harmony have resulted in this remarkable attendance on the part of teachers in the various summer sessions of the nation. The two chief factors on the material side are, first, that the regular year of the teachers in which they must be present and active in their teaching positions corre- sponds very generally with the working year of the colleges and universities. This correspondence means that the teachers are professionally employed during the same period that the colleges, universities, and teachers' colleges are employed ia serving their primary pre-professional and academic ends; while the traditional vacation period of the teachers coincides very closely with the traditional vacation periods of the institutions. The second chief factor is that during the traditional vacation periods prior to the era of the summer session all of the institutional plants were idle. From the economic standpoint this had been a great waste. When, therefore, the greater utilization of the institutional plants on the one hand and the more continuous ser\'ice of the faculties on the other were possible through summer courses offered by colleges and universities, both were very desirable innovations from the institutional point of view. It was entirely logical that these summer sessions should serve in a large measure the elementary and high school teachers, because the teaching profession as a body was the only large professional group of individuals that was free at that time to avail itself of the summer session opportunities. A further factor needs to be mentioned, for without it the present high attendance at summer sessions would be practically impos- sible — namely, the increasing ability of the teachers from a financial standpoint to pursue the work. A further development of the university extension movement, and one that traces its beginnings as well to the normal school de- velopment, is the establishment, in our larger cities, of colleges of 'Walters, Raymond, Journal of the National Education Association, Waehington, D. C, Vol XI, No. 1, Jan. 1922, p. 12. Historiizal Development 11 education, either in conneejltion with the local tax-supported univer- sities or growing out o/the activities of the local city training school for teachers, which offer to teachers while in service educa- tional opportunities for ,unprovement in their work during the period when the schools are iii session. The factors that have led to this development are first', the-short school day, and second, the short school week. Classes at the local institutions are given in the late afternoons, in the eyenings, and on Saturday mornings, when teach- ers are free to ta^e them. St. Louis established, in 1904, the Harris Teachers^CoUege. In connection with its municipal uni- versity, in 1903^ Cincinnati estabUshed a College of Education which serve^e needs of the teachers of that city. The College of Edyeation of the University of the City of Toledo, another "' 'Tocatly tax-supported institution, was estabhshed in 1916, and a recent addition was the extension of the Detroit Training School for Teachers into a four-year teachers' college, in 1920. Another phase of this same development is the work offered by local institutions, not municipally controlled or supported, and not directly under the control of the board of education.^ They offer both academic and professional work for the teachers of the local district in their colleges or departments of education. The teachers in Buffalo are enabled to take professional work in the University of Buffalo or in Canisius College,' and there has just recently been developed a plan for cooperative effort between the Board of Education of Cleveland and Western Reserve University.^ In the chapter which immediately follows, a very chaotic condition in the present character of the work offered to teachers while in service may be noted. Many different agencies have developed to do the same sort of work for teachers. Certain agencies attempt to do a great many different things. Improve- ment is recognized in many different ways, and takes many different forms. Agencies under the same title have developed in different localities in very different ways. In some cases the use of the same agency is voluntary and in others compulsory. In spite of these incongruities it is evident that the improvement of teachers while in service is one of the very active interests of our present-day 'See page 80. ^The Professional Education of Teachers in Cleveland, Western Reterce Umvertity Bullain, West. Reserve Univ., Cleveland, Ohio, Vol. XXV, No. 3, March, 1922. 12 Improvement of TeacK&rs in Service education. The multiplicity of agencies, and the demands of teachers, require that if the efforts that are being made shall result in definite progress, the fundamentals of the improvement of teachers should be recognized, and definite ^teps taken to provide for teachers the systematic and progressiva satisfaction of their needs. Economically the progressive and orderly improvement of our teachers is of the highest importance. The problems of the retarded children of our elementary schools, of the children who should be accelerated and are not, the means of (developing higher teaching efficiency in yoimg teachers, and of maintaping that high eflficiency in older teachers, are all definitely correlated with the problems of teacher improvement. The cost of the re-eSttSation^ of children who have been badly taught, and of the needless efforts spent on children who should be advanced more rapidly, might well be diverted to the improvement of teachers. With teachers better qualified for their work — better able to teach their children — many of these difficulties would probably be eliminated, and from such a situation would result untold cmnulative benefits to the nation in the development of a more intelligent, better educated, more highly qualified generation of citizens. The purpose of this study is, first, to discover the agencies which are concerned with the improvement of the elementary school teacher of our city public schools and are at work at the present time, secondly, to develop the fundamentals of improve- ment of teachers while in service, by which the value of these agencies may be judged, and thirdly, to build up, in the light of these fundamentals, a constructive scheme of improvement for the elementary school teachers in service in a city. CHAPTER II THE CHARACTER OF PRESENT-DAY AGENCIES The data contained m this chapter have been obtained mainlj'' from the reports of superintendents of the schools, for the years 1911-1920, in cities which in the 1920 Census of the United States were reported as having populations of 20,000 inhabitants or more. Reports from other years earlier or later than these were consulted in many cases. In a few cases some of these data are included. Seven hundred seventy-eight reports from one hundred ninety- seven different cities were carefully read for evidence as to the work done by or for teachers in service. Data were obtained from one hundred nineteen of these cities. Other authorities have been consulted, including educational journals, reports of colleges and universities, and normal schools, and in a few cases certain cities were visited in order to become more familiar with the prevailing conditions. The data thus obtained were classified according to the type of agencies operating, and the following organization has been adopted to show in a qualitative form the character of the agencies found to be at work. It was found that all of the agencies could be conveniently included under the five headings given; (1) Ex- tension Activities; (2) Teachers' Meetings; (3) Devices; (4) Pro- fessional Supervision; and (5) Work with New Teachers. The following pages do not contain all the data that were obtained, nor do they presume to contain all of the agencies at work in this country. They do contain a qualitative characterization, however, of all the agencies contained in the original data. The places and examples given are cited as illustrative merely of the character of agency in question and do not pretend to include all of the cities which have similar agencies at work. The headings and sub-headings of the outline serve to explain the method of organization. 14 Improvement of Teachers in Service I. EXTENSION ACTIVITIES (I) UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE EXTENSION 1. At the Institution In most cases where the reports of superintendents mentioned the teacher as taking work at institutions the work mentioned was of professional rather than academic character. As will be seen in a few cases given below, however, even those institutions cited which offer professional study may offer a certain amount of academic study at the same time and on an equal footing with the professional study which they offer. (1) ACADEMIC TYPE OF WORK. As an example of this type of work Cedar Rapids reports the maintenance of, relations with Coe College [an academic institution] by which the teachers have received the benefits of courses of lectures given by men of promi- nence in the work of education. (Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1913-14, p. 39).' (2) PROFESSIONAL TYPE OF WORK. There are several outstanding plans in various cities, which illustrate this especially well. The four plans citied as examples illustrate four different plans of organization and administration of the work and four different types of control. St. Louis Plan. Through the medium of a State Teachers' College located in the city and closely connected administratively with the city school system, which it is primarily designed to serve, the teachers of St. Louis are enabled to pursue courses during the winter months, as well as in the summer, toward a degree. One of the most inspiring chapters in St. Louis educational history con- cerns itself with the enthusiasm with which teachers have availed themselves of these courses, and now that a plan has been outlined whereby tangible means of progress are evident both in the opportunity for wider service in the schools and in the direction of a degree, this has been one of the strongest factors in inducing teachers to plan their work, to work consistently for credit, and to persist in the classes to the end. Credits earned at other colleges and at uni- 'See Bibliography of City Reports, p. 135. Present-Day Agencies 15 versities may be entered upon the college records, and be counted toward a degree. This makes it possible for more teachers to have additional training and to enjoy the inspiring and rejuvenating efifect of working out common problems with fellow workers.' The courses that are taken may be grouped in the following way. Teachers who desire to do so may pursue courses leading to the A. B. Degree in Education with special emphasis upon any of the following subjects : (1) the teaching and the supervision of such special subjects as drawing, music, physical education, household arts, etc., in the elementary and high schools; (2) the teaching and supervision of the primary grades; (3) the teaching of elementary and secondary mathematical, physical, biological, and general sciences; (4) the teaching of history and of English in the elementary and high schools; (5) elementary school supervision and administration; (6) departmen- tal teaching in the upper grades; (7) the teaching in ungraded rooms and in special schools for feeble-minded, anaemic, pre-tubercular, deaf, speech- defective, and backward children; (8) psychology and the social sciences.' A unique device mentioned in the first of these citations has developed in St. Louis and is known as the "six-year plan." A his- tory of the development of this plan is given as follows. The work of the William Torrey Harris Teachers' College, for teachers al- ready in service, has had a most significant development. In 1908 summer extension courses had been estabUshed and over 300 principals and teachers were enrolled. This important work has been continued. The greatest ex- pansion however has been in the winter extension courses. These had been inaugurated during Dr. Soldan's administration and were enrolling approxi- mately 500 teachers when Mr. Blewett came into the superintendency. The number enrolled increased, however, until in the year 1916-17, 1,018 individ- uals were taking one or more courses. With this increased attendance came greater differentiation and increased numbers of courses. The history of the enrollment in these various courses provided for organizing them into a scheme involving ofiferings of com-ses for a period of six years in 1916-17. By this means teachers have been enabled to lay out a complete course for the A. B. Degree. As a result the extension work of the College has grown not only in nimibers enrolled but in a continuity and purpose which have made the extension work an integral part of the ser- vice of the College to the schools of the city. (St. Louis, Mo., (1.) 1916-17, p. 67.) The character of this plan is described in the same report. The purpose of the six-year plan indicated in the Public School Messenger of October, 1916, is intended to encourage all teachers by indicating a number ^Public School Messenger, St. Louis, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, January 1920, p. 17. 'Ibid., p. 18. 16 Improvement of Teachers in Service of years in advance the number and character of courses that will be given and thus make it possible for a teacher to plan her work some years in advance with the hope of being able to realize her plan without losing her salary or her position. (St. Louis, Mo., (3) 1916-17, p. 149.) As two extreme examples of a large number of courses that were offered to the St. Louis teachers in 1920, the following are cited. Philosophy of Bergson. Questions such as the following will be discussed: How does the philoso- phy of Bergson differ from both Realism and Idealism? What is its practical contribution? Why have workers in such separate fields as science and religion found great inspiration in it? The readings are in "Matter and Memory" and "Creative Evolution." ' The Motivation of Geography Through Materials of St. Louis Area. There is practically no topic in physical or economic geography that is not represented in whole or in part in the St. Louis area, and good teaching re- quires an acquaintance with this material. The course includes field trips in physical and economic geography, supplemented with library readings. A detailed study of type industries is made from the standpoint of motivation material involved. ^ The Cincinnati Plan. In Cinciimati, Ohio, work for teachers in service is offered by a College for Teachers closely affiliated with the public school system and an integral part of the municipal University of Cincin- nati. The character of the agency is described as follows: The College for Teachers . . also aids systematically in the im- portant work of improving teachers already in service by offering annually in late afternoon and Saturday hours collegiate courses and seminars in educa- tion ; for example in 1912 twelve such courses were offered. Many other courses especially for teachers are offered by members of the departments in the College of Liberal Arts; by the instructors in the Cincinnati Kindergarten Training School, which is organically affiliated with the University; by in- structors in the Art Academy of Cincinnati, and by special supervisors of the Cincinnati Public Schools. (Cincinnati, Ohio, (1) 1914, p. 106.) The way in which work is carried out is described by Dean W. P. Burris as follows: This phase of the work of the college [the improvement of the teachers in service] received added attention the past year and you have already taken ^Public School Messenger, St. Louie, p. .57. 'Ibid. p. 40. Present-Day Agencies 17 steps which will insure a higher standard in much of the work done by teachers and offered for "professional credit." In accordance with such steps all courses offered for such credit will hereafter be subject to the scrutiny and recommendation of a committee consisting of the professors of education in the college and the assistant superintendents of schools, the Dean of the college acting as chairman. At the beginning of the school year I prepared an announcement of all courses given at the University and elsewhere in the city in the late afternoons, evenings and on Saturdays, which are open to teachers. This aimouncement was published in the School Index with an introduction by you stating the con- ditions under which credit would be allowed. These conditions were also embodied in circulars sent out from my office to all persons conducting such courses, and reports from them were collected by me upon blanks provided for that purpose and forwarded to you after a careful checking of the same. Ac- companying these reports was a tabulated exhibit showing the subjects of the various courses taken, the time given to each, by whom conducted, and the enrollment. (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1916, pp. 112-113.) The Detroit Plan. The development of the Detroit Teachers College is described in a recent number of the Detroit Educational Bulletin. Detroit Teachers' College is an integral part of the city school system, operating under the direct control of the superintendent and in closest co- operation with other educational divisions. It was estabUshed in September, 1920, and replaced the normal school which had been operated by the city for many years. The special function of Teachers' College is teacher training, broadly conceived. The continued training of teachers in service, the supervision and training of probationary teachers, and the making of new teachers are the three major divisions of its teacher training activities, while the fact that the Dean of Teachers' College is also the Director of Instruction, Teacher Training and Research shows how closely the work of the college is related to supervision and the direction of teaching on the one hand and to the measurement and re- search activities on the other. The training of teachers in service is achieved mainly through afternoon, evening and Saturday classes, and by personal conference between faculty members and members of the teaching corps working upon special problems. During the winter of 1920-21, 2,500 teachers from the public, private and parochial schools of the city were enrolled in such classes, while during the six weeks' summer session in 1921, 1,200 were in attendance. The interest and enthusiasm which prompt such study and experimentation play a vital part in making possible the Detroit program of progress. Accordingly the college considers this division of its work of major importance. ' ^Detroit Educational Bulletin, Detroit, Mich., Vol. 5, Special No. 2, October 1921, p. 3 18 Improvement of Teachers in Service The work offered by the Detroit Teachers' College is a four- year curriculum. The first two years qualify the student to receive a Michigan State Life Certificate to teach in the elementary grades; the second two years prepare for the teaching of special subjects in the elementary or intermediate schools.' To be accepted as a candidate for a degree, a student (1) must be in good physical health, (2) must have a score in a standard intelligence test exceeding that of the lower 25% of second year students, exception will be made in favor of those of lower score when their marks in all the courses that have been taken are uniformly of average grade or better, and (3) must choose a field of major interest about which to organize his work. This election may be any one of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Physical Education Kindergarten and Primary Grades English Mathematics 8. 9. 10. 11. Music Art Nature Study Auditorium 5. 6. 7. Language History Geography 12. 13. 14. Special Education Library Administration There are five main lines of development represented in the standard curriculum, the personal, the cultural, the professional, the technical, and the practical. . . Personal Development. [Note. The discussions under these heads are very interesting. For the details the reader is referred to the original.] Under this head are Hsted the possibilities of a teacher's develop- ment and in this field there are given in parentheses the catalogue numbers of the com-ses that are offered which meet the require- ments. Some of the needs are "personal standards of health and efficiency," ability to "speak and write correct English," how to "spend, save, and invest his salary," and how to apply "the essen- tial laws of nutrition" and "exercise." (p. 3) Cultural Development. The needs here are in few cases "a good general knowledge of the principles of music and art," to be "thoroughly scientific in . attitudes and modes of thinking," and a "study of the struc- ture and functions of society." ' ReguirementB j or a Bachelor' t Deffree, Bd. of Ed., Detroit, Mich., October, 1921, p. 1. PresentrDay Agencies 19 Professional Training. A teacher must have something more than a narrow vocational training. Even professional skill must rest upon a broad foundation of general or theoret- ical work. For instance, a teacher needs to study the nature of a teacher's work . . , to know the structure and functions of a school system as a whole . . . , and to master the general content and organization of the curriculum. . . He needs also to know the story of the evolution of present day institu- tions and practices . . . and the significance of education as a social activity. . . . Finally, he should know the history and organization of his special department . . . , its special content . . , and its special methods. . . . Technical Training. What is here advocated is "actual practice in measuring chil- dren physically, mentally, and educationally," "training in experi- mental methods," specific review of " the methods of work in the primary grades . . . , and the subject matter of the two import- ant subjects of the elementary grades, arithmetic .... and geography . . . ." Practice Courses. In the case of this teachers' college the courses given in the "even- ing sessions" parallel in large measure the courses in the "standard curriculum" and in the above bulletin two pages are given to listing the numbers of the evening session courses and the "Nearest Standard Course."' The Toledo Plan. Toledo, Ohio, maintains a municipal University, one of the colleges of which is a College of Education. The University, at the present writing, has no affliation with the public schools of the city. There are, however, offered at the University, in the late afternoons and on Saturday mornings, as well as in the summer sessions, courses designed especially for the teachers of the city and the surroimding districts. Many teachers take advantage of the opportunities thus offered and register not only for these courses, but also for courses offered in the other colleges, es- pecially those in the College of Arts and Sciences. The Uni- versity allows credit, the amount varying with the individual and based on the character of his preparation for teaching, for 'Ibid., pp. 3-7 inc. 20 Improvement of Teachers in Service the Normal School training of the teachers, and upon the sat- isfactory completion of its standard requirements grants a degree of Bachelor of Science of Elementary Education. 2. Courses Outside op Institution. (x) by collegiate instructors. (o) Academic Type. The Extension courses given to teachers in Atlantic City illustrate this type of course. many [teachers] expressed a desire to do professional work during the present school year, and accordingly, classes were organized as follows : Course No. I — Fifteen lectures. "The Economic History of the United States."— Prof. T. W. Van Metre. [Outline of the course follows.] Twenty- five teachers took this course. Course No. II — Twelve lectures. "The History of English Literature." — Prof. Wm. P. Harbison. [Outline of the course follows.] Twenty-six teachers took this course. (Atlantic City, N. J., 1916, p. 20.) A second type is illustrated in Jersey City. Last year, through the interest of Dr. James E. Egbert, Director of the Extension Department of Columbia University, and formerly a member of the Board of Education of this city, a number of University courses were given under the auspices of Columbia University in the Wm. L. Dickenson High School. Those [teachers] who took these courses, not only found it easy to engage in personal study but if they desired received appropriate credit toward academic degrees. (Jersey City, N. J., 1913-14, p. 74.) An elaboration of this is reported from Indianapolis. During the year of 1915-16, 327 teachers [out of a total of elementary and high school teachers of 1197 (See p. 26 ibid) ] were enrolled, chiefly in courses given by Butler College and Indiana University. Classes were organized in the following subjects: English Novel, Nature Study, Social Ethics, Industrial Relations, Current Political and Social Problems, Civic Study and Discussion, the Voice in Education and English Poetry. For the years 1916-17 some additions have been made, particularly in Educa- tional Measurements, Preventive Medicine, Oral English, United States History, Latin-American History and Social Service in Europe since 1643. (Indianapolis, Ind., 1916, p. 33.) Presenlr-Day Agencies 21 (&) Professional Type. Teachers College, Columbia University reports as follows: Duiing the first semester of 1921-1922, nineteen extramural classes were conducted by members of the staff of Teachers College. Thirteen different subjects were included, and twenty-six instructors took part, all but two of whom are on regular assignment in Teachers College and seventeen of whom are of professorial rank. The titles of the courses were as follows : Elements of Psychology for Teachers' Organization and Methods of Teach- ing in Lower Primary The Teaching of English in the Grammar Grades Geography for Teachers Industrial Arts for the Elementary Grades The Principles and Practice of Teaching in the Elementary School The Principles of Teaching The Supervision of Teaching The Project Method applied to Education A Historical Study of Problems of Teaching Method The Psychology and Treatment of Exceptional Children Problems of the Curriculum Measurement and Experimentation in Elementary Education The total enrollment of students was 1,680. The classes were conducted in the following cities : Yonkers, N. Y. ; Ha ckensack, Perth Amboy, Bernards- ville and Trenton, N. J. ; Philadelphia, Scranton and East Stroudsburg, Pa. ; Washington, D. C; Bridgeport, Stratford, Danbury and Meriden, Conn.; Brockton, Haverhill and Quincy, Mass. The number of classes in progress during the second semester will be somewhat smaller than that during the first semester, but even so, the resources of the College will be taxed to accommodate them. According to the rule under which extramural courses are being conducted, no instructor giving full time to classes in Teachers College may conduct more than one extramural course in any given year. As will be seen from the above list of courses, those dealing with methods of teaching are at present most popular. One of the most successful classes,, however, during the first semester pursued a three-point course in Measure- ment and Experimentation in Elementary Education. A class of more than one hundred principals in Philadelphia is pursuing the subject of Supervision, of Teaching throughout the entire school year.' (2) BY LOCAL INSTRUCTORS. (a) Professional. In Trenton, N. J., . Dr. J. M. McCaUie, Principal of the Franklin School and Super- visor of Special Classes, gave a thirty-hour course in Educational Measurement ^Teachers College Record, New York, Vol, XXIII, No. 2, March 1922, p. 187. 22 Improvement of Teachers in Service under the auspices of New York University, which was pursued by about twen- ty Trenton teachers. (Trenton, N. J., 1918, p. 39.) In Scranton, Pa., the report stated that, . . . the Superintendent is conducting a semi-monthly course with the principals of the elementary schools. Several colleges and universities have offered to give college or university credit for the successful completion of this course. (Scranton, Pa., 1915, p. 10.) (II) NORMAL SCHOOL EXTENSION. In addition to the normal school extension of the type previously cited in St. Louis, which was there cited because of the closeness of the character of the work with that of other institutions located in cities, the two following cases are illustrative: ProAridence, R. I., reports: The Normal School and Brown University not only offer the advantages of a general education, but both institutions devote special attention to the principles and methods employed in teaching. [This with reference to courses given for the improvement of teachers in service.] (Providence, R. I., 1915-16, p. 58.) The extension courses of the Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michigan, are open to, a. High School graduates with six or more years of successful teaching experience who wish to secure Extension Life Certificates. h. High School graduates, with or without experience, who wish to earn credits to apply on other kinds of life certificates or on the degree. c. High School graduates who wish to take work purely for personal pleasure and profit with or without credit. d. Mature persons who wish to pursue work for pleasure and profit with or without credit. ' All instruction in Extension courses is given by members of the regular faculty of Western State Normal School. The work takes two forms : a. Class work at a strategic center within range of the school which the instructor visits at frequent intervals (usually every other week). Most classes meet on Saturday. &. Carefully organized correspondence courses. Students who elect this type of work are directed in their study through outlines and personal letters from members of the faculty. All subjects offered students in extension work both in class work and by correspondence are almost identically equivalent to corresponding subjects 'I7(i Annual Year Bool:, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich., 1921, p. 58. Present-Day Agencies 23 in residence. Each subject is planned to cover eighteen weeks of time; is presented to students in nine definite assignments, and counts 12 weeks' credit toward a life certificate. Certain courses count toward the degree of A. B.' (III) BOARD OF EDUCATION EXTENSION. This type partakes closely of the character of the other types of extension that have been described. The defining character- istics are mainly that it is sponsored by, arranged for, and may be supported wholly or in part, by the board of education of a city. Two types are here presented. Superintendent Dyer, of Boston, Mass., reports: The various educational institutions in and around Boston have offered and are continuing to offer opportunities for individual students, but in the last six years the necessity has been felt of development of opportunities for teachers to take improvement and cultural courses in easily accessible school buildings, either after school hours or on Saturday mornings. To provide for these courses we have secured the cooperation of the Lowell Institute Fund in offering courses in school buildings by professors of Harvard and Wellesley, and we have also drawn upon our own staff and other institutions in the vicinity for instructors in many departments. Most of these courses are absolutely free to teachers and others have a fee that is merely nominal. The School Committee provides quarters and the Board of Superintendents recognizes the courses for promotional credit. [Follows a list of 28 courses for 1917-18.] The courses are all well attended. In many cases the attendance is from fifty to one hundred. Several of the courses are under the direction of the Boston Teachers' Club. Three are state aided, three are provided by the Lowell Institute Fund, one by the special class teachers, and one by the teachers of children of defective speech. (Boston, Mass., 1917, p. 15.) Another form of this extension is illustrated in the work done in Lakewood, Ohio. For several years past we have been most fortunate in the series of ad- dresses to teachers, distributed through the year, as provided by state law, as an option instead of the week's Institute in the fall. The past year the high standard was maintained in having Professor Henry Turner Bailey deliver a series of five addresses on Art. These addresses were so practical in their character that they were most helpful and inspiring to all teachers in their work. (Lakewood, Ohio, 1918-19, p. 38.) (IV) STATE EXTENSION. A form of extension work, sponsored by the state is found in Massachusetts. Two illustrations will serve to characterize it. The first is from Everett. ■/Md, p. 58. 24 Improvement of Teachers in Service Each year a considerable number of our teachers attend educational classes in greater Boston conducted by private enterprises. This year the State has offered special opportunities. Eighteen attended lectures on teach- ing English to adult foreigners, and ninety-eight have joined the three classes that will be conducted in Everett by the Department of University Extension. Each gives ten lessons on the topic "How to Study and Teaching How to Study." (Everett, Mass., 1918, p. 22.) The second illustration comes from Worcester. The University Extension Classes under the jurisdiction of the State Board of Education have continued along the same lines as those for last year. At present there are two classes in College English, and three classes in Con- versational French. Arrangements are completed for a class in Italian and a class in Spanish. The University Extension Classes are taken by teachers who are anxious to improve themselves and due credit is given for all work completed. (Worcester, Mass., 1919, p. 706, (34.) ) (V) SUMMER SCHOOLS. 1. Kinds op Institutions. The following are illustrative of the reports that are made relative to the character of institutions which teachers are attend- ing. They are important in view if the almost universal emphasis which is placed on the value of the work to the teacher, or upon recognition of the personal sacrifice which the teachers have made to take the work. (l) UNIVEESITY. The following is from Raleigh, N. C. : The following attended the summer session at Columbia. [Follows seven names.) Miss . . . and Miss . attended Chicago University. Quite a number attended summer schools in this state and in other states. Most of these teachers have incurred this expense at a great personal sacrifice. (Ra- leigh, N. C, 1916-16, p. 10.) Cleveland reports as follows: The first term of the Cleveland School of Education which was conducted last summer by the Board of Education and Western Reserve University at the Normal School and the University, was so successful that there is no hesi- tancy on the part of anyone concerned to predict a larger school and better session next year. More than ten per cent of the elementary teachers of Cleveland attended. Among these were many principals. It is doubtful if any other large city in the country equals this attendance of its teachers at summer school. Nor is this all. Many other Cleveland teachers attended PresenirDay Agencies 25 aummer sessions in more distant institutions. Thirty-seven attended Colum- bia University alone. (Cleveland, Ohio, 1915-16, p. 50) The following is reported from Salt Lake City: Not a few teachers use their long vacation to take courses in the summe'' schools of the various universities of the nation. (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1916; p. 139.) (2) COLLEGES. Brockton, Mass., reports: It is with pride we state that in a teaching force of approximately 350 last year 179, or more than 50%, took courses to improve themselves professionally Fifty-nine teachers pursued summer courses at college sand normal schools at considerable expense to themselves. (Brockton, Mass., 1919, p. 23.) The following is from Trenton, N. J. : A large number of teachers also attended Summer Schools at Ocean Cityi Rutgers College, University of Pennsylvania, and Columbia University. The enthusiasm shown by the teachers in continuing their professional training is most commendable. (Trenton, N. J., 1915, p. 35.) (3) NOHMAL SCHOOLS. Detroit reports as follows: Teachers in service need training no less than beginners, and through evening classes for teachers, summer session connections with state normal schools and with the University, the work of the Normal School has been broadened and widened until a Teachers' College was established by the Board of Education this spring. (Detroit, Mich., 1920, p. 42.) Memphis reports as follows : September, 1912, the West Tennessee State Normal, located at Memphis' opened very auspiciously. . . . Fifty Memphis teachers and aids are already availing themselves of the summer term of the Normal. (Memphis, Tenn., 1912-13, p. 74.) (4) CITY OR COT7NTT TRAINING SCHOOLS. Kansas City, Mo., reports as follows: A second important function of the City Training School should be that of providing a direct means for the professional improvement of teachers in service. Such work was started during the year 1916-17 in the provision of a six weeks summer school which was held from June 12th to July 21st. In all there were enrolled for this work three hundred white teachers and fifty 26 Improvement of Teachers in Service colored teachers, with an average daily attendance above three hundred and forty. Twenty-three courses were offered. (Kansas City, Mo., 1917, p. 70.) The following comes from Richmond, Va. : A summer school for teachers was also conducted in this city. This was the fourth session of the Richmond City Normal School summer session. The total number of teachers registered was 243 of whom 77 were from Richmond. (Richmond, Va., (1) 1917, p. 17.) 2. Recognition of Summeb School Work. (1) BONUS. The bonus is a sum of money given to a teacher for having attended a summer school. It is given for the year only in which the work is taken, and after the work has been satisfactorily com- pleted. The two types of bonus in AubTirn, N. Y., and Rochester, N. Y., are illustrative. Auburn, N. Y., reports: The provision in the rules adopted by the Board in March, 1918, granting a bonus of $50 to every teacher who should pursue a course of professional study satisfactory to the Superintendent, is beginning to bear abundant fmit. During the summer of 1918 only one teacher availed herself of the opportunity offered. During the summer of 1919, however, twenty-six teachers attended summer schools . . . (Auburn, N. Y., 1918-19, p. 23.) The rules in Rochester are as follows : Upon the recommendation of the Superintendent and the approval of the Board of Education, the following recognition is given to all regularly ap- pointed teachers, principals, and supervisors who pursue courses in summer schools. First. For the single year following such work the sum of 850 is added to the salary of any teacher, principal or supervisor who pursues courses in insti- tutions outside of the City of Rochester. Second. For the single year following such work a sum equal to the tuition IJut in [no] case to exceed $25 is added to the salary of any teacher, principal or supervisor who pursues coxu-ses in an institution within the city. The institution and the courses therein are to be approved by the Super- intendent of Schools. Adopted June 30, 1913.' (2) SCHOLARSHIP OB SUBSIDY. These are sums of money given to teachers under varying conditions to enable them to take work in summer sessions. ^Bulletin of General Irrformation, Rochester, N. Y., November 1915, p. 36. PresenirDay Agencies 27 (a) The Indianapolis Plan. The public-school system of Indianapolis has a scholarship fund, whose income is devoted to advanced professional training of a limited number of teachers each year. The conditions under which the scholarships are con- ferred are as follows: Only teachers who have had at least three years of successful experience in the public schools of Indianapolis are entitled to such scholarships, and no person is entitled to more than one in any one year nor more than two in suc- cessive years. Teachers who receive and accept the Gregg Scholarships enter into a con- tract provided by the Board of School Commissioners in order that Indianap- olis public schools may receive the benefit of the special training given. Beneficiaries must return to Indianapolis and teach in the public schools for a specified number of years agreed upon (from one to five years in proportion to the size of the scholarship). They are not entitled to any advantage as to position or salary, but are in aU things subject to the rules of the board for their appointments and salaries when they return. The first scholarships were granted in 1894. Since that time about 200 have been given. The sums have varied from $25 to §1,000. They range from a three or six weeks' summer term in a university or school of education to five months during the regular school year. Three teachers have each been given a year's scholarship . The Gregg Fund is the outcome of Iowa lands bequeathed to the school city of Indianapolis by a pioneer teacher, Mr. Thomas D. Gregg, who died in 1876. The net returns of this bequest were $12,850 . The plan has worked admirably and great good has come to the schools by virtue of this modest bequest which has now accumulated to a sum of $37,500. Eight or ten teachers are annually benefited by the interest from this fund. ' (6) The Toledo Plan. A number of scholarships given by a private donor and known as the Libby Scholarships are awarded yearly in Toledo, Ohio, to fifteen teachers in the city schools for the purpose of summer study at colleges or universities. The amount of each scholarship is $150. (c) The Pittsburgh Plan. Pittsburgh has a fund of $250,000, donated by Henry Clay Frick, the income from which is used for the improvement of the work of the teachers in the public schools of Pittsburgh. The yearly income amounts to $12,500. ^Blaich. L. R., The Gregg Scholarships of the Indianapolis Public Schools, The Elementary Sctiool Teacher, Vol. 12, 1912, pp. 460-462. 28 Improvement of Teachers in Service This has been expended by the Commission, [appointed to handle the fund] in the purchase of summer school scholarships in the leading colleges and uni- versities of the country. In June of each year, it has been the custom of the Commission to award these scholarships to the teachers elected to receive them. Each scholarship has carried with it an amount sufficient to pay the tuition of the teacher, and at the same time, to meet, in whole or in part, all the expenses connected with her summer school attendance. (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1916, p. 23.) (3) CREDIT TOWARD SALARY INCREASE. Wichita, Kansas, reports: . . the Board of Education in May offered to raise five dollars per month the salary of every teacher who would accomplish three semester hours of work in an accredited summer school. As a result of this resolution and the general desire for professional improvement there are now in scattered summer schools about seventy-five or eighty teachers — over one-fourth of the teaching force. (Wichita, Kan., 1912-13, p. 23.) In this connection see also, in a later section (pp. 50-53) the salary schedules of Beverly, Mass., and Cincinnati, Ohio. The Elementary School Journal reports a recent study in this connection as follows: The Grade Teachers' Association of Minneapolis has published a pamphlet written by Miss Clara Langwick and entitled "The Growth of Teachers in Service." This pamphlet publishes the results of an inquiry addressed to the State Department of Education and to three hundred city-school systems. The questions asked are as follows : Does your city pay expenses of teachers while attending summer school? What amount is allowed each? Is it given as a bonus? As a raise in salary? How much do you allow for travel? How many teachers attended school during the summer of 1918, 1919, 1920? How many teachers do you employ? Do you provide a sabbatical vacation for your teachers on full pay? Half? Part? There were eight states which made an aflfirmative report. The details of their statements are as follows: Delaware — 1100 is granted as a bonus. Maryland — $25 is granted as a bonus. New Mexico — Cost of transportation to the school and return is paid. Connecticut — Books, supplies and instruction are provided free of cost. Present-Day Agencies 29 Rhode Island — The state conducts a summer school and offers free tuition. MUeage is paid for normal school students in regular courses. Maine — ^Expenses are paid in the case of one group for special teacher- training work. North Carolina — If credits are earned, the teachers receive a raise in salary. Montana — Each county pays the tuition. State refunds to the county all above $50 per teacher. In Colorado, Baca Coimty pays its teachers a bonus for attendance at the normal institute. Of the 300 school systems addressed, 203 replied. In 131 no rewards are offered to teachers. From 72 an aifirmative reply was received. . . . The author's general conclusion is as follows: "From the above facts it is reasonably fair to assume that approxi- mately one-third of the cities in the United States offer some reward to teachers who are willing to make a real effort to enlarge their professional equipment by study or travel or the equivalent of these. The cities that are doing something in this line belong to no particular population group and to no one part of the country, all parts of the country and cities of aU sizes being represented. . . "In most cases the reward is in addition to aU other remuneration, though in some cases it is only the normal salary increase and refused to all who do not meet certain conditions. In other words, the plan seems to be to penalize those who do not show progress rather than to reward those who do show progress."' (VI) TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION EXTENSION. Stamford, Connecticut reports as follows: The Stamford Teachers' Association Extension Courses for Teachers. The Stamford Teachers' Association continued its custom of providing for extension courses, and the following were given here last winter. [Follows a list of the coiu-ses.] (Stamford, Conn., 1917, p. 16.) Brookline, Massachusetts reports as follows: Early in the year the Teachers' Club engaged Dr. S. S. Colvin to deUver a series of lectures on Group Intelligence Tests. (Brooldine, Mass., 1920, p. 390.) (VII) CORRESPONDENCE EXTENSION. In addition to the mention of correspondence courses in con- nection with the Western State Normal School at Kalamazoo, Mich., the following reference is illustrative. It is highly probable that correspondence extension is far more important with teachers ^ The Elementary SchoolJonrnal, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., Vol. XXII, No. 7, March, 1922, pp. 483-485. 30 Improvement of Teachers in Service outside of these larger cities consulted, than it is here reported in them. The following is typical of the casual form of report. For several years many of our teachers, even without prospects of im- mediate financial return, have been taking extension courses, both in residence and by correspondence. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1920, p. 19.) (VIII) STUDY GROUPS. Wheeling, West Virginia, reports that some of its teachers are enrolled in private classes which have set for themselves the study of some special subject in language, literature or art. (Wheeling, W. Va., 1908, pp. 28-29.) (IX) SPECIAL SUBJECT INSTRUCTION. 1. New York City Plan. Superintendent Maxwell proposed in 1914, that a few teachers each term be selected in these special subjects, [singing, drawing, sewing, physical training, etc.] relieved from teaching one day a week, and sent on that day to the training schools, where they may receive special instruction in the depiartment of theory and special practice m the model school. During their absence from their own schools their places may be taken for the day by pupil teachers assigned to practice work by the train- ing schools, so that no appropriation will be required to pay substitutes while they are away. Already a beginning has been made by assigning ten teachers in drawing and ten teachers in physical training to each of the three training schools. As these teachers receive their modicum of training they will go back to their schools able to do departmental work in their specialties. In such schools the services of the special supervisory teachers will no longer be needed and they may be gradually assigned to departmental work in the large schools. In this way, I believe, our training schools will add very largely to the efficiency of the teaching force, and will at the same time, materially reduce the expense of administering the schools. (New York City, N. Y., (2) 1914, p. 132.) The success of this plan is reported the following year: The Training Schools for Teachers continue to render the excellent service they have always rendered. Last year they made a long stride in this work by giving a special training to class teachers in music, drawing, and physical training. This work was commenced some years ago by the Brooklyn Training School in giving special training to groups of teachers of mentally deficient children. This work proved so satisfactory that it has since been extended to class teachers in the subjects mentioned above. The Training School for Teachers may easily be made our most efficient means of improving the work of the regularly appointed teachers. (New York City, N. Y., 1915, p. 100.) Present-Day Agencies 31 2. Raleigh, N. C, Plan. This plan of improvement has a commercial aspect. I am glad to commend the spirit of the teachers in the Raleigh Schools. Thirty-seven of them have obtained a special certificate of penmanship from the A. N. Palmer Company. To merit this certificate requires one year of practice in the various drills in the method which we teach to the children. At the close of the present year, we hope to be able to report that practically all of the teachers are proficient in penmanship. (Raleigh, N. C, 1915-16, p. 10.) 3. Columbia, S. C, Plan. Vocal music has been taught in the schools for many years, and although one teacher of music has done all the work in this department, with the ex- ception of some assistance from a few teachers, the singing of the children under her direct instruction in the class-room and in choruses trained by her for special occasions, shows that they have received careful instruction. Their singing is pleasing and inspiring. Doubtless one teacher could have continued to give perscmal instruction to all the pupils in the schools for some years to come and could have secured good results, but the annexation of adjoining territory so largely increased the work of this department as to make it impossible for one person to teach each class-room with sufficient frequency to insure satisfactory progress on the part of the pupils. In order to relieve the situation, the School Board provided afternoon music classes for the teachers, which were taught by the regular music teacher. The teachers below the High School were divided into two groups, one com- posed of teachers of the Primary grades and the other of teachers of the Inter- mediate grades. Each group met twice a month and was in session for one hour. Attendance was optional but I am glad to report that, with a few ex- ceptions, all the teachers joined these classes and made much progress with their music. Within a few years, under the present plan, th^e seems to be no good reaacm why all the teachers below the High School should not be capable of teaching music to pupils. Aa ability to teach vocal music is now required of all teachers in the Elementary schools, a teacher who does not attend these classes, unless excused for sufficient reason is losing an oppor- tunity to comply with the requirements of the School Board. (Columbia, S. C, 1913-14, p. 32.) CX) CHAUTAUQUA. Beyond casual mention in a few cases, that a teacher or two was attending or had attended a Chautauqua meeting, this agency does not seem to play any important part among preseiit-day agencies. 32 Improvement of Teachers in Service (XI) VACATION SCHOOL. Memphis, Tennessee, mentions a "vacation school" as a re- quirement that ought to be made for weaker teachers in an effort to bring them up to standard. (Memphis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 44.) II. TEACHERS' MEETINGS. (I) GENERAL PURPOSES. 1. To develop teachers to greater eflSciency. (Moline, III., 1916, p .29.) 2. To help each teacher to render the highest type of teaching service of which she is capable. (Duluth, Minn., 1918, p. 3.) 3. To help her [the teacher] succeed. (Ehnira, N. Y., 1915-16, p. 20.) 4. To keep instruction efficient. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1917, p. 12.) 5. To facilitate the basic adjustment to each other of the entire teaching corps and the supervisory staff. (Topeka, Kan., 1914-15, p. 11.) 6. . . . inspirational to the teachers as well as helpful to the school system in bringing together the various elements of the organization for a better acquaintance and understanding of their relations to one another. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 19.) (II) TYPES OF MEETINGS. 1 . General Professional Meetings of Teachers. These are meetings in which all of the teachers within a school system are called to meet together for some specific purposes. (l) TYPES. (a) Attendance may be compulsory, as in Canton, Ohio. They [the teachers] shall attend all regular and special meetings called by the Superintendent of Instruction, the Principals or Supervisors, and no excuse for absence shall be allowed other than such as would justify absence from a regular session of their schools. (Canton, O., (2) 1911-12, p. 61.) (6) Attendance may be voluntary as follows: Attendance was not compulsory, but was rarely less than one hundred per cent of the teachers employed. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 19.) (c) The meetings may be regular as im- plied above, in Canton, Ohio, or as follows: During the year general teachers' meetings were held at the Powhatan School on the third Thursday in each month. (Richmond, Va., 1915, p. 77.) Present-Day Agencies 33 {d) The meetings may be special, as reported in Chester, Pa. Special meetings of the teachers for consultation or instruction may be called by the Superintendent at any time. (Chester, Pa., 1910-11, p. 36.) (2) THESE GENERAL MEETINGS MAT BE IN CHARGE OF VARIOUS INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS. The f oUowmg are illustrative : (a) Superintendent or Supervisors. The presentation of lessons planned under the direction of the superin- tendent and the discussion of the principles involved, and the methods em- ployed have proved a most valuable and interesting feature of the meetings. (Bethlehem, Pa., 1915-16, p. 22.) (6) Special Committees of Teachers. The following is reported from La Crosse, Wisconsin: The plan for general teachers' meetings for the year was somewhat changed. General teachers' meetings may be of two kinds: first, those in which details of administration and general policies of the school system are to be presented to teachers; and, second, those which are entirely of an educa- tional nature. Believing again that the best results would be obtained from a democratic plan of organization, the superintendent appointed a committee of about five principals and teachers to plan the program for each meeting throughout the year. Each committee accepted its responsibility, and the result was a series of A No. 1 meetings with sufficient variety to interest the most fastidious. We hope to enlarge upon the plan the coming year. (La Crosse, Wis., 1918, p. 23.) The following report from Sheboygan is illuminating in this connection: The purpose of putting committees in charge of these programs is not to relieve the superintendent of work and responsibility but to give a wider scope and a broader viewpoint to the subjects taken for discussion. The committees may practice the usual latitude in selecting subjects. (Sheboygan, Wis., 1913-14, pp. 15-16.) (3) ACTIVITIES OF THESE MEETINGS. (o) Discussion of school subjects. There were two general meetings of all white teachers, in two separate divisions, dur- ing the year for the discussion of arithmetic, geography and reading. (Mem- phis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 36.) 34 Improvement of Teachers in Service (b) Special and general topics. The basis for study and discussions in the general meetings was Gilbert's "The School and its Life." Outlines of the portions of the text assigned for each meeting, giving special and general topics for discussion, were prepared by the Superintendent and handed out in advance to the teachers. This assured a systematic and careful consideration of the points under discussion and re- sulted in much thoughtful investigation. General subjects of local interest were also included in the programs. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 19.) (c) Outside Speakers. At the general meetings of the teachers of the city, addresses were given as follows: "The Newer Idea of Culture," by the Superintendent. "The Junior High School," Dr. Thomas H. Briggs. "The Complete School," Dr. H. H. Home. "The Use of the Examination," Mr. H. H. Horner. "The Work of the Year," by the Superintendent. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1916, p. 18.) (d) Local Speakers. "Virginia's Attitude Towards Slavery and Secession,'' one of the books of the reading course for Virginia teachers, was presented in a series of lectures by Mr. J. T. Walker, Principal of Buchanan School. Miss Sarah C. Brooks lectured on "Language Teaching in the Grades." Spelling, seat work sugges- tions foi' the 3A — 7B grades, inclusive, teaching current events, phonics, lan- guage and reading were discussed. Group teaching and instruction received ample share of these deliberations. Mimeographed suggestions were given the teachers and a summary of the work of each meeting was put into their hands in this form. (Richmond, Va., 1915, p. 77.) (e) Book Study. The following is illustrative from Manchester, N. H.: In our teachers' meetings we have endeavored to consider such books as would help us to bring into practice the more recent notions of school room procedure. (Manchester, N. H., 1919-20, p. 13.) Cranston, R. I., reports the following: At the general meetings, Dr. Frank M. McMurry's book on "Elementary School Standards," was the basis of our discussions. (Cranston, R. I 1914 p. 9.) 2. Grade Meetings. These consist of meetings of the teachers within a city in groups, according to the grades which they teach. These meetings, Present-Day Agencies 35 like those above, may be either regular or special, are usually held by the supervisors, and no mention is made as to whether or not they are compulsory. (l) ACTIVITIES OF THESE MEETINGS. (a) Plans for Future Work. The two following citations are illustrative of this; Frequent grade meetings were also held by the superintendent and super- visors. Specific plans for special work were considered at these meetings. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 19 ff.) Grade meetings are held once each month for consultation and for map- ping and planning the work for the next month. (Austin, Tex., 1907, p. 36.) (6) Oviside Speakers. During the year the different grade organizations held bi-monthly meetings. In addition to discussions by the teachers of matters pertaining to the regular work of the grades, at several of the meetings addresses and talks were given by speakers from outside the school system. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1916, p. 18.) (c) Discussions of Methods. There were five meetings this year. Two of these reviewed the past year's meetings and there were three on the "Teaching of Reading in the Primary Grades." (Waterbury, Conn., 1918, p. 45.) At these meetings, instruction has been given in methods and discipb'nei in matters relating to the course of study, in standard test work, and in all the important phases of the work of teaching. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1920, p. 26.) Monthly grade meetings are held for the presentation and discussion of devices and methods. (Reading, Pa., 1910-11, p. 22.) Last year, as in previous years, I met the teachers each month and either discussed problems with them or gave demonstration lessons according to their wishes. These grade meetings have proven to be the most effective means of im- proving the teachers in the force. Through them, common purposes and ideals are set up, different aspects of the course of study are considered, and a definite method of teaching demonstrated. The teachers enter heartily into the meet- ings, taking part in the discussions, asking pointed questions, taking notes and experimenting, at some later time, in their own class-rooms. Often, the teacher who acts as hostess teaches the lesson. Thus, the meetings contrib- ute to the development of the teachers' individuality, by stimulating them to think and by giving them confidence in their teaching ability. During the year, the first grade teachers considered the following topics: (1) Nature Study; (2) Beginning Number; (3) Industrial Ekiucation; (4) Phonies; (5) Language; and (6) Number. The second grade teachers con- 36 Improvement of Teachers in Service sidered the following topics: (1) Nature Study; (2) Industrial Education; (3) Language; (4) Phonics. (Richmond, Va., (2) 1917, p. 95.) (d) Demonstration Lessons. In addition to the mention of demonstration lessons made above a further type is illustrated in Cleveland. . . here and there was found a teacher who was doing such splendid work that it was arranged to have what were called demonstration lessons. All the teachers of a particular grade would come together and witness lessons that would illustrate how our standards for class-room work were being carried out. (Cleveland, Ohio, (2) 1914-15, p. 21.) (e) Special Type. An interesting variation is reported from Wichita, Kan. : In addition to college and normal school courses the local teachers' asso- ciation has provided a round-table for the teachers of each grade in the ele- mentary school. These teachers have their meetings immediately after their regular grade meetings with the superintendent. Vital points in the course of study are discussed and plans are suggested for getting the best results in the class-room. Such meetings have proved of great value to all. (Wichita, Kan., 1913-14, p. 26.) 3. Building Meetings. These are usually held regularly by the principal of a school building for his own teachers. There are two aspects; first, the consideration of building routine; and, secondly, the discussion of professional subjects. (1) BUILDING ROUTINE. The principals of the different buildings have frequent conferences with teachers to discuss matters of importance to their own schools. (Austin, Tex., 1907, p. 36.) The principals of the various buildings held almost weekly meetings of their teachers at which the special problems of administration and discipline affecting the respective buildings were considered. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910- 11, p. 20.) (2) PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES. (a) Discussion. Trenton, N. J., reports: All of the schools maintain teachers' meetings; one meeting a month is the usual practice, but several schools have held two meetings a month during the past year. In schools having many part time classes, meetings had to be PresenUDay Agencies 37 held for the second group of teachers. In about two-thirds of the schools the meetings were occupied with the discussion of matters pertaining to the re- spective schools, but the remaining schools report very interesting and profit- able programs used in round-table discussions. (Trenton, N. J., 1916, p. 16.) (6) Professional Reading. The character of the reading done is somewhat illustrated in the citations given below, although in just what the reading con- sisted has not been given. AU the teachers in the service are now pursuing systematically some course in professional study and reading, from the high schools down through the kindergarten. The meetings in the two high schools and in the elementary schools are conducted in each case by the principals, and in the kindergarten by the Supervisor of Kindergartens. (Scranton, Pa., 1915, p. 10.) Another type is illustrated in Harrisbvirg, Pa. : In this connection it should be stated that practically all teachers in the elementary grades who did not identify themselves with the lecture course, held meetings in their respective buildings and engaged in some kind of pro- fessional reading and study. Twenty-eight meetings were held in the Foose Building, eighteen in Willard, seven in Harris, six in MacLay, and weekly classes were scheduled in Boas and Fager. Reports from these schools indi- cate regularity of attendance and commendable interest on the part of the teachers concerned. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1916, p. 17.) (c) Special Topics. The following report from Denver, Colo., contains many of the features given above, and in addition discusses at some length, which is only partially quoted here, the advantages which the meetings bring. There were meetings diu-ing the entire year in the Columbian School. Twelve to fourteen concerned building routine, and about twenty discussed the following: 1. Class-room Management. 2. Physical Examinations. 3. Program Making. 4. Marking Systems. 5. Art of Questioning. 6. Parallel Classes vs. the Coaching System. 7. Socialized Recitation. 8. Problem and Project Methods. 9. Supervised Study. 10. Educational Measurements. 38 Improvement of Teachers in Service 11. Language Games and Oral Engliah. 12. Professional Ethics. 13. Influence of War on Education. The good results were tabulated as follows : 1. The sagacious and more experienced teachers explained their methods that the young, cranky and unwise ones might be benefited. 2. Visitors came to meetings and gavie exchange of ideas. 3. Specialists became interested in all the work of the school. 4. Professional ideals were stimulated. 5. Teachers' outlook was enlarged. 6. Meetings placed a premium on initiative and originality. (Denver, Colo., (1) 1918-19, p. 124 ff.) 4. Departmental ok Group Meetings. These are held as a rule by the supervisors or by the superin- tendent for the discussion of subjects touching the interests of several grades. The following citations serve to characterize them : Our grade meetings, departmental meetings, special meetings in such subjects as music, penmanship and drawing are held each month and are of marked value in the supervision of schools and particularly in the training of the younger teachers. (Houston, Tex., 1915-16, pp. 29-30.) On Thiu'sday afternoon, December 8, the teachers of grades 1, 2 and 3 were addressed by Miss Bessie Coleman of New York City, an expert in the teaching of reading. (Central Falls, R. I., 1921, p. 36.) Departmental meetings in which special subjects touching the work in several grades were selected and discussed and numerous conferences in the office of the Superintendent with individuals and groups of teachers were held. (Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 20.) 5. Principals' Meetings. These are meetings of the principals of a city, either at regular intervals or at special times, as a rule with the superintendent. They may be either for the discussion of routine matters or for pur- poses of improvement. The following citations are illustrative : Topeka, Kansas, reports; There are two kinds : (1) Routine Matters. (2) A few meetings were held each year for the specific purpose of promoting advanced professional study. (Topeka, Kan., 1914-15, p. 11.) Present-Day Agencies 39 Utica, New York, uses the meetings for special subject in- struction. One year ago, beside the regular monthly meetings of Principals with the Superintendent, we held several extra meetings on the subject of Reading. These were such a marked success, that the past year we have had a series of meetings on English. The Superintendent appointed Principals F. W. Triable, Mary L. McKeman and Julia J. Winchenbach as a committee in charge. (Utica, N. Y., 1914-15, p. 31.) In Harrisburg, Pa., the supervisors cooperate with the super- intendent. Principals' meetings have been held twice a month, the Superintendent and the Supervisor of Advanced Grades alternating in directing these meetings. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1920, p. 26.) In Dallas, Texas, the meetings are used for special study. Each principal has purchased and read with the Superintendent in special mid-monthly meetings Holmes' "Study of School Organization and the Indi- vidual Child." These studies of the principals of schools on school efficiency have exercised a wide felt influence on school room work throughout the schools. (Dallas, Tex., 1915, p. 13.) 6. Teachers' Associations. Of the so-called "Teachers' Associations" there are at least two sorts ; (1) Legislative or deliberative State, Territorial, or City Associations; and (2) Local groupings of teachers for specific mut- ual purposes. (l) STATE, TERRrrOKIAL, OR CITY. (tTPE I.) (a) State. In November about two hundred of our two hundred sixty-four teachers attended the State Teachers' Association in Topeka. (Wichita, Kan., 1912-13, p. 22.) (fe) Territorial. The most important educational gathering of the northwest during the past year was that of the Inland Empire Teachers' Association which met in the Lewis and Clark High School, April 4th, 5th and 6th, 1912. Through this meeting, not only the teachers of the Inland Empire but also the citizens of Spokane were permitted to hear President G. Stanley Hall of Clark University, Dr. A. E. Winship of Boston, and many other leaders of educational thought. This meeting «yas attended by upwards of two thousand teachers and others, holding paid memberships in the organization. (Spokane, Wash., 1911-12, p. 39.) 40 Improvement of Teachers in Service (c) City or Local. During the school year 1916-17 the teachers of Jamestown formed an or- ganization to be known as the Jamestown New York Teachers' Association. Its objects as set forth in the constitution are: (a) The promotion among the teachers of the city of a broader and deeper knowledge concerning educational theories and current educational problems by such means as lectures and discussions and the establishment of proper relations with other educational bodies as the County and State Teach- ers' Associations. (6) A study of economic and social conditions as related to the teaching profession in order to produce a greater efficiency, a closer acquaintance and a stronger bond of sympathy among the teachers of the city. (c) The advancement of the cause of education in this community through the efforts of the teachers of Jamestown united in an association and zealous for promoting progressive educational sentiment and favorable conditions for the work of the schools. (Jamestown, N. Y., 1916-18, p. 29.) A second type may be seen in the following: One hundred per cent of the Springfield teachers belong to the Central Ohio Teachers' Association and the last meeting was held in Columbus the first Friday and Saturday in November. The Springfield teachers were most interested in the reorganization of the State Association on the delegate basis, and to amend the constitution of the Association. (Springfield, Ohio, 1921, p. 72.) (2) LOCAL GEOUPINGS. (tYPE II.) (a) Activities. (i) Study Courses. About one hundred seventy-five of the grade teachers studied Dr. Mc- Murry's "How to Study and Teaching How to Study". (Wichita, Kan., 1912-13, p. 22.) Portland teachers are a hardworking conscientious force. They are eager to do their work in the best manner and are anxious to improve. This was plainly proven during the past season when the Association arranged for various study clubs. The teachers flocked into these clubs and carried their work through. The Educational Psychology Club alone enrolled one hundred and one [out of] 348. (Portland, Me., 1919, p. 9.) (11) Lecture Courses. Isolated Professional Lectures. The fourth season of pubhc lectures and meetings of the East Providence Teachers' Association was conducted according to the plan of preceding years. The Superintendent of Schools, as President of the Association, with the Present-Day Agencies 41 Executive Committee, plaimed the following series of meetings, lectures and concerts, which were received with favor and liberally patronized by the teachers and general public. [See later section for non-professional meetings here referred to.] May 26. Teachers' Conference at the High School. Addresses by Valen- tine Almy, Assistant Commissioner of Public Schools of the State of Rhode Island, on "The Teacher of Tomorrow," and by Principal John L. Alger of the Rhode Island State Normal School on the subject, "The Teaching of Arithmetic." (East Providence, R. I., 1915, p. 36.) As a fvirther contribution to the growth of the teachers in service, we have been greatly honored in having addresses from Dr. Calvin N. Kendall, Com- missioner of Education for the State of New Jersey, on the topics, "Modem Purposes of Education" and "Realizing the Purposes of Education." We were also delighted to welcome Dr. J. A. H. Keith, the new principal of the Indiana Normal School, who gave a very pleasing address; Professor C. P. Zaner of Columbus, Ohio, on Penmanship, and Mrs. Maude Brown Curtis on the sub- jects of "Reading" and "Language." The superintendent also had the pleasure of speaking to the teachers on the subject of "Reading" just before the close of the school year. (Altoona, Pa., 1918, pp. 8-9.) Isolated Non-Professional Lectures. November 16. Lecture on "Modem Miracles," by Reno B. Welbome, Scientist. December 14. Reading by Miss Adelaide Patterson, "Disraeli." January 11. Illustrated lecture, "South America of Today . and Tomorrow," by Albert Leonard Squier. February 10. Lecture, "What Life Means to Me," by Gertrude Breslaw Fuller. March 10. Lecture by Irving BacheUor, Author, "The Cheerful Yankee" (East Providence, R. I., 1915, p. 36.) Non-Professional Series of Lectures or Courses. During the year a very successful lecture course of twelve numbers was conducted by the teachers in the High School Auditorium. Ten of the lec- tures were on Cvurent Events; one was an illustrated lecture, and one was an interpretation of the opera Madams BiUierfly. (WiUiamsport, Pa., 1918-19, p. 12.) The Springfield Teachers' Association again maintained a lecture course. The lecturer was Dr. WiUiam E. Smyzer, Dean of Ohio Wesleyan University. He took for his general theme, "Present-Day Tendencies in Literature," and presented six lectures as follows: First, "A Survey of Current Literature" second, "Bernard Shaw and the Shavian Philosophy" ; third, "Arnold Bennett and the Triology" ; fourth, "Rudyard Kipling, Teller of Tales" ; fifth, "Present- Day Poetry"; and sixth, "Alfred Tennyson and ffis Pre-RaphaeUte Illus- trators." (Springfield, Ohio, 1916-17, p. 60.) 42 Improvement of Teachers in Service Professional Series or Courses. Two courses of lectures were given during the year, one by Dr. Bagley of Columbia University, who gave four lectures on professional subjects, and the other under the leadership of the director and faculty of the Bristol County Agricultural School. (New Bedford, Mass., 1919, p. 32.) Another illustration of the professional series is given below: Addresses or series of addresses have been recently given under the aus- pices of the teachers by Judge Ben B. Lindsey, Dr. Frank McMurry, Dr. Earl Barnes, and Henry Turner Bailey, and one by Miss Lucy Wheelock under the joint auspices of the Teachers' and Mothers' Clubs. (Jamestown, N. Y., 1909-1912, p. 20.) (b) Support. The various means of support that are employed are of in- terest, because where other than teachers are concerned in that support non-professional influences enter to color the offerings. Private. A few hundred dollars spent on means of improving teachers would make the thousands spent for their services more effective in results. That is why private citizens who are providing the means to bring to the teachers the ablest speakers and the finest concerts, are performing for Fitchburg a great public service. (Fitchburg, Mass., 1914, p. 24.) Private and Teachers. The expense for these lectures amounted to $120. Of this Chas. T. Jeffery paid S83 and the teachers $37. (Kenosha, Wis., 1915, p. 84.) Teachers and Board op Education. The board also assisted the teachers in maintaining a general course of lectures, giving them free use of the high school auditorium for the purpose. (Springfield, Ohio, 1913, p. 53.) Board of Education. The board wisely continued the policy of making an appropriation for public lectures, under the direction of the superintendent. While the lectiu-es are intended primarily for the teachers, a vigorous effort was made to extend their scope and interest as to make them appeal strongly to the general public. (Ehnira, N. Y., 1912-13, p. 29.) Teachers and Public. There are several forms which such support takes, three of which are cited below as illustrative. PreseninDay Agencies 43 The teachers alone coxild not have supported the enterprise. The general pubh'e recognized the merit of the various programs presented, and together with the teachers furnished audiences which taxed the capacity of the high school auditorium. (Pittsfield, Mass., 1916, p. 25.) A self-imposed tax, a small percentage of each salary, is the annual custom. This 3nelds a sum which is used under the direction of a committee for various common purposes, but chiefly to secure educational lectures. These are usual- ly of a strictly professional nature, but occasionally a lecture is given of such a character as to warrant an invitation to the general public and in case of an unusual expense the pubhc is permitted to share the burden. (Jamestown, N.Y., 1909-12, p. 20.) The course was well supported by the people of the city, and a balance of $195 remains in the treasury as a nucleus for next year's course. (Williams- port, Pa., 1918-19, p. 12.) 7. Principals' Associations. Important educational books are reviewed and current educational prob- lems are discussed at monthly meetings. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1917, p. 11.) The reason for making a distinction between the above and the Principals' Meetings, previously discussed, is that the above seems to be entirely a voluntary group and one not in any way under the jurisdiction of the school system. The same report from which the above quotation is cited also contained a reference to principals' meetings similar to those previously mentioned. 8. Special Clubs or Associations. These are in the main merely groups of Hke-minded teachers, meeting for the discussion of mutually interesting subjects. The illustrations cited below are characteristic of the groups. The Trenton Kindergarten Association had five meetings dur- ing the year and instructive talks were given by Mrs. McLean of Teachers College on "Games," Miss WeUs of the Normal School on "Industrial Arts in the Grades," and Miss Gambrill of the Normal School on "The Psychology of Play." Physical Education Club. There were demonstrations of games and dances, book reviews and discussions. (Trenton, N. J., 1918, p. 39.) The kindergarten teachers are organized into a club which meets once a month, and new methods of teaching are considered. The attendance is good and a fine spirit of progression is shown. (Manchester, N. H., 1919-20, p. 12.) 9. Institutes. Institutes may be held at various times during the year. The distinguishing characteristic of the meeting is that it is for the 44 Improvement of Teachers in Service consideration of professional subjects by the teachers. The pur- poses are nearly as diverse in character as the methods of holding the meetings. (l) TIME OF HOLDING MEETINGS. (a) Yearly. The thirty-third annual session of the Altoona District Teachers' Insti- tute was held August 25-29, 1919. (Altoona, Pa., 1919-20, p. 5.) Poughkeepsie, New York, held its Institute in the winter. One of the recognized institutions in connection with our public schools is the annual teachers' institute. The one which we held last February sur- passed in excellence any that we had previously held. (Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1915, p. 18.) (6) Twice Yearly. Instead of four or five successive days of institute work, the session has been divided into two parts, each lastwig two days, with five periods in each day. The first part occurs during the Tuesday and Wednesday following Labor Day, school opening on Thursd •'v . The second part occurs on the last Thursday and Friday of the fall semester, promotions having been made on the preceding Wednesday, and the spring semester opening on the following Monday. (Spokane, Wash., 1911-12, p. 40.) (c) Three Times Yearly. Teachers' Institute will be held on October 23 and 24, November 21, 1914, and February 12 and 13, 1915. (Chester, Pa., 1914-15, p.35.) The first session was held October 10 and 11, the second, October 17 and 18, and the third, October 31 and November 1, 1919. (Bethlehem, Pa., 1918- 20, p. 12.) id) Four Times Yearly. From having a session of five days' duration we have come to holding a two days' session just before the opening, and a single day's session in October, January and March, in order to obviate too frequent.meetings of teachers with supervisors. (Seattle, Wash., 1910, p. 31.) (e) Monthly. Under the rules of the Board, teachers are required to meet at least once a month for professional study. This is under the caption "Teachers' In- stitutes." (Austin, Tex., 1907, p. 35.) Presentr-Day Agencies 45 (/) Frequently. For the teachers in service, one-day institutes are held at intervals during the. school year. These have taken the place of the traditional "weekly" institutes. (Reading, Pa., 1910-11, p. 22.) (2) PURPOSES. (a) Inspiration, Information and Direc- tion. The purpose is to keep constantly before oxu: teachers the need for pro- fessional advancement, to give them as much inspiration as it is possible to give in such limited time, and to give such information and direction as may aid them in placing their work on a higher plane. (Kansas City, Mo., 1916, p. 24.) The purpose of the Institute was more for the consideration of the pro- fessional side of the teacher's work than for a review of the branches of in- struction required for a teacher's certificate. It was sought to improve the quality of the teacher's service by the creation and strengthening of ideals, by the fostering of faith in educational work, and by inspiration to larger and better things in the work of teaching. (Muskogee, Okla., 1911-12, pp. 27-28.) (6) Inspiration. Teachers need the stimulus and the inspiration of such a gathering as this, and I hope the time will never come when we shall be deprived of this privilege. (Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1915, p. 18.) The institute was a great benefit to the teachers and inspired them to do better work for the year. (Bethlehem, Pa., 1918-20, p. 12.) (c) Inspiration and Information. The institute for teachers, the purpose of which is to improve the quality of service by the creation and strengthening of ideals by fostering of faith in educational work, and by adding to the fund of the teacher's knowledge of subject matter and of educational practice . (Seattle, Wash., 1910, pp.30-31.) (d) Information and Direction. The work of the Institute resulted in some very definite plans which hav been put in operation in the schools and which have worked out successfully this past year. (Altoona, Pa., 1918-19, p. 24.) The past two years the textbook used in institute work was Monroe's History of Education, admittedly the strongest single text written on this subject. (Austin, Tex., 1907, p. 35.) Once each month a teacher's institute is held, the special study of which is the broad underlying principles of education which are common to all forms of educational work. (Houston, Tex., 1916-17, p. 20.) The Institute serves in a general way the purpose of reawakening one's interest in the special questions of pedagogy. (Wheeling, W. Va., 1906, p. 31 .) 46 Improvement of Teachers in Service (3) DISADVANTAGES. Some disadvantages of the Institute are expressed in the following citations: This new plan has resulted in more specific work, not to speak of the elim- ination of the physical exhaustion following a week of lectures. (Reading, Pa., 1910-11, p. 22.) the efforts at professional growth during the institute immediately preceding the opening of school was not so generally popular. Many of the teachers felt that they were unnecessarily and unjustly being deprived of part of their vacation. This feeling among some of the teachers, in a measure, prevented us from securing the highest results. Earnest appeals by speakers to prepare for the best possible service in the greatest of callings fell upon the ears of many who could not divest themselves of the conviction that they were being deprived of rest and comfort during one of the hottest September weeks that Memphis has experienced. (Memphis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 37.) Formerly dependence for effects was placed upon lectures of a general educational character, most of the work being done by lecturers and instructors having no connection with the local schools and little acquaintance with the local course of study and work. Work of this character was felt to be bene- ficial and helpful, but it lacked the element of definiteness and had too Uttle reference to details of work immediately confronting the teachers. (Seattle, Wash., 1910, p. 31.) (4) ACTIVITIES. (a) Lectures by Professional Speakers. The thirty-second annual session of the Altoona District Teachers' In- stitute was held August 26-30, with the following as instructors: Dr. Reuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky., Dr. J. A. H. Keith, Principal of Indiana Normal School, Indiana, Pa.; Dr. C. B. Robertson, University of Pittsburg, Pittsburg, Pa. ; and Miss Emily Barry, Middletown, Ohio. (Altoona, Pa., 1918-19, p. 24.) The lecturers were Dr. A. E. Winship of Boston, Dr. Myron T. Scudder of New York City, Dr. A. R. Bennett and Dr. John C. Bliss of the New Paltz Normal School. (Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1915, p. 18.) (6) Section Meetings. There are two hours of time given to each of these institutes. During the first hour, the teachers meet in groups or study circles, each under the leader- ship of some competent instructor, each group making a study of some good textbook on education, or some special educational problem. It is required that each teacher shall have made a study of some good book on each of the following subjects: (1) School Management; (2) Psychology; (3) History of Education; (4) Principles of Education. After the teacher has made a study of four such books, the rest of the course becomes largely optional, a wide range of subjects being offered. Present-Day Agencies 47 The second hour of the institute is given to an address on educational sub- jects, delivered to the entire teaching body, generally by some educational speaker from outside the school system. (Houston, Tex., 1916-17, p. 20.) A different use is described in Spokane, Wash. At these institutes, in addition to two general lectures each day, section meetings are held in which the teachers are grouped by grades or departments for round-table discussions, the supervisors meet the teachers by grades to outhne the work in special subjects for the semester to foUow, and every branch of the work is organized so that there is no delay in getting down to solid work as soon as the school room doors have swung open for the reception of pupils. (Spokane, Wash., 1910-12, p. 40.) A third form of these section meetings in described as follows : In September, 1914, a change was made in the organization of the monthly work of the teachers' institute. In addition to the usual announcements, addresses and professional talks incident to such meetings, all the white teachers of the city were divided into fourteen groups under fourteen strong leaders, and each group has made a study during the year of one of the following eight books : A Guide to Pictures, Caffin; Teaching the Common Branches, Charters; What We Hear in Music, Faulkner; Civics and Health, Allen; The American Secondary School, Sachs; New Demands in Education, Munro; The Normal Child and Primary Education, Gesell; School Organization and the Individual Child, Holmes. Nearly one-third of the teachers chose the book entitled. Teaching the Common Branches, there being five study groups in this book. The colored teachers in their institute have studied in a single group this same book, the Superintendent of Schools conducting the class in person. Each one of these books studied touches directly in some way the work of the class- room and each one of the books represents a distinct recent American contri- bution to the literature of teaching. (Dallas, Tex., 1915, p. 13.) III. DEVICES. (I) INCENTIVES AND INDUCEMENTS OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 1. Salary Schedule. (l) MANDATOET STUDY. Two forms of mandatory regulations concerm'ng advanced professional study are given below. The first is negative, as it concerns the salary schedule, merely implying a relation. Over a year ago the School Board passed a regulation that each teacher should earn a university credit, or its equivalent, during the school year. A "university credit" was defined as meaning approximately twenty hom:s of 48 Improvement of Teachers in Service recitation in some regular study course. A thousand of the teachers responded to this regulation; sixty, including those on leaves of absence, were excused for good reasons; while about one hundred have not reported as yet. (Portland, Ore., 1918, p. 20.) The second is a positive form detailing relations to salary increases. In detailing a number of the features of the salary schedule to one of the educational journals the following were pointed out: 1. "Elimination of the conventional basis of teachers' salary schedules such as grade school, junior high school, and high school salary schedules. Under the schedule adopted the college graduate teaching in the grades is regarded just as valuable as if she were teaching in the High School. A normal graduate teaching in the Junior High School is no better paid than as if she were teaching in the grades. In other words, no department suffers by com- parison with any other department on basis of salaries. This principle will prevent the massing of the best teaching talent in any particular department. 2. "Recognition of the principle that teaching is a profession that re- quires acquaintance with the best and latest thought to remain permanently in the profession, just as in medicine or dentistry, is involved in these rules. Professional advancement is made mandatory. Every teacher must, within every four year period, get off thirty hours credit of university or normal school work in professional advancement or self-improvement courses. Pro- fessional advancement is made the sine qua non for all teachers who expect to remain in the profession. In future revisions we shall undoubtedly shorten the period within which professional advancement must take place and shall also give credit for work done beyond the minimum requirements. 3. "The Board of Education, instead of subsidizing ambition by extend- ing bonuses which a limited number might attain through summer school courses, has subsidized universal professional training. Under these rules the Board of Education pays all expenses and half the fees of local University Extension Courses. The welfare of the schools is too important to permit any laggards in the teaching ranks. This provision, we feel, wiU awaken in many a teacher a fresh desire for higher education and will induce many to take residence courses in colleges and universities. It is, also, emphasizing the fact that education is life and is co-equal with life. We hope also that out of the University Extension Courses which we shall establish here that they may come to represent the center of learning and culture to which aU citizens of our city may come to satisfy their cravings for a clearer and more ample revelation of those meanings of life that the university has in its power to give. 4. "To keep alive the fire of professional interest after the teacher has reached the end of the period of increased earnings, the rules provide extra maximum increments covering a period of sixteen years beyond the maximum. Every four years a teacher may obtain a fifty dollar increase to her salary pro- vided she has done a stipulated amount of work in University Extension Courses. We want our teachers to feel that a time never comes when the Present-Day Agencies 49 Board of Education fails to take notice of sustained professional interest." (Johnstown, Pa., 1920, pp. 50-51.) The Rules governing teachers and salaries in the same city are as follows: Basis op Salakt Schedules. Teachers' salaries shall be based upon preparation, experience, profes- sional advancement and a recommendation of "Satisfactory" on the part of the Supervisory force. No Depaktmental Differential. No differential in salary shall be recognized for service in any department of the school system except as may be construed under rule one. Professional Advancement. Professional advancement shall be defined as consisting of resident or extension courses in education or self-improvement courses in academic or practical subjects or skills, as they may be successfully pursued imder the jur- isdiction of any college, university, normal or trade school. The Superin- tendent of Schools shall construe the term professional advancement, and its evaluation in credit hours, in any instance not covered by this definition. All elections of extension or resident courses to comply with the requirements of these rules shall be subject to approval by the Superintendent of Schools. He shall also determine whether the character of the individual work done merits accrediting. Fourth Annual Increment. Each member of the department of instruction in the system shall be not entitled to a fourth annual increment until he or she shall have completed subsequent to the adoption of these rules, at least 30 hours of work toward pro- fessional advancement. University Extension Courses. The Board of Education shall provide quarters and half the fees and ex- penses of all local University Extension Courses for professional advancement, that they agree to authorize. ExTSA-MAXIMtTM INCREMENTS. Teachers who have reached the maximum of Schedule A or B and who, at the end of each or any successive four year period after reaching such maximum, shall have completed 30 hours work toward professional advancement shall receive thereafter an additional $50 annual increment to their salaries. The sum total of such increments shall not exceed S200. Such increments shall be given at the end of the sixteenth, twentieth, twenty-fourth and twenty- eighth years of experience. All teachers now in the employ of the district at the maximum shall be eligible to earn, in successive four year periods, the extra- 50 Improvement of Teachers in Service maximum increments. The sum total years of experience of all teachers now at the maximum or who shall be elected at the maximum, shall, as far as the schedule herein adopted are concerned, be reckoned as twelve years of ex- perience. (Johnstown, Pa., 1920, pp. 51 ff.) (2) VOLUNTARY STUDY. The following citations are illustrative of simple or non- elaborate provisions: When the maximum of salary is received a teacher may further increase her salary by taking prescribed courses of study, and after a term of service of four years at this increased salary a teacher may apply for the privilege of studying still further and may obtain an additional increase. (Columbus, Ga., 1916, pp. 18-19.) After appointment, for which a large amount of professional preparation is prerequisite, teachers in service are credited for work in professional im- provement by a system of credits which determine salary increases. The maximum salary for elementary teachers is $950 and an additional advance of $50, to a maximum of $1000, is granted to all teachers who have pursued after appointment professional work aggregating a total of at least eight credits. This work may be done during the school year, afternoons, evenings, or Saturdays, at the University of Cincinnati, at the Art Academy and at various other educational institutions, or in school houses under in- structors approved by the Superintendent of Schools. It may also take the form of summer work or the completing of a year's course in the State Reading Circle. (Cincinnati, O., (1) 1914, pp. 53-54.) The School Committee may increase the salary of any teacher at its dis- cretion in excess of advances provided by regular schedules, in recognition of approved professional study or courses taken during employment and for marked superiority of service, upon special recommendation by the superin- tendent and principal. (Haverhill, Mass., 1919, p. 7.) Under a "Premium Plan" a grade teacher would receive $5 additional salary per year for each ad- ditional two points of extension work. (Stamford, Conn., 1921, p. 11.) Teachers of the district, holding State Certificates . . who have taught one year at the regular maximum salary of their class, shall receive an addi- tional annual increase of $25 for every 72 hours of college credits obtained in not more than two professional and academic branches, such as Education, English Literature, History, Modern Language, Science, etc., until the amount of $1,050 a year is reached by the teachers of the first six grades, $1,250 by the teachers of the Junior High School and seventh and eighth grades, and $1,600 by teachers of the High School. Provided, however, that for teachers of the elementary grades and the Junior High School, such special increase shall not exceed $60 in one year, and for teachers of the High School, shall not exceed $100 in one year. Present-Day Agencies 51 Teachers who have taught at the highest special increase in their class for one year, and have obtained the master's degree, earned by University work, shall receive an additional increase of one hundred (SlOO) dollars. ' The salary schedule has an added attractiveness in the liberal provisions it makes for teachers who are desirous of self-improvement. An immediate in- crease of $50 in salary is granted and a like svmi added to the maximum of the schedule, to a limit of $300 for each eight semester units of college credit received. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1920, p. 19.) Two detailed and elaborate citations should be made. These are from Beverly, Massachusetts, and La Crosse, Wisconsin. At a meeting of the School Board on February 25, 1918 it was voted that a special committee be appointed to study the salary situation in Beverly and suggest a plan for rewarding meritorious service. (Beverly, Mass., 1918-19, p. 5.) The Board . adopted the following recommendations of this special committee for the encouragement of professional study: "Encouragement of Professional Growth with Length of Tenure." (A) The term "Teacher," as used in this section, shall include all persons in teaching or supervisory positions in the public schools. (B) Eligibility. Any teacher who has taught not less than 12 years the last five of which shall have been continuous service in Beverly and who meets the conditions referred to in Section C, shall be eligible to a special salary in- crease of $50. Kve years after receiving a special increase a teacher shall again become eligible to a similar increase for work done since the previous in- crease was granted. Time spent on leave of absence for professional study shall count as part of the continuous service, and in the discretion of the Board leave of absence not exceeding one year for other purposes may count toward the required five years or be deemed not to break the continuity of service. (C) Procedure. Teachers are invited to file with the Superintendent of Schools before October 1 of any school year, on a form provided for this purpose, a statement of such special work as they have done for which in their judgment the school committee may desire to grant credit towards this special salary increase. An outline of the work which the committee approves may be obtained through the Superintendent of Schools. The Instruction Committee, after consultation with the Superintendent of Schools, shall make recommendations for salary increases under this section not later than December 1st of each year. (D) Time. This section shall take effect on October 29, 1918. Outline of Requirements for Special Salary Increases and Opportunities for Professional Growth Which the Committee Deems Worthy of Special Recognition. Details relating to Chap. II, Sec. 8, Paragraph C of Rules. ^Salary Schedule, AUentown, Pa., 1918-1919, pp. 26-27. 52 Improvement of Teachers in Service (A) Teaching efficiency as shown by results which in the opinion of the Principal and the Superintendent of Schools indicates that the teacher meets the conditions outlined in Chapter III, Section 5, Paragraph 2 of the Rules shall be considered the first requirement. (B) The second requirement shall be that professional work by the teacher be deemed by the Instruction Committee and Superintendent of Schools worthy of six credits in one or more of the following: (a) Resident study at an institution of recognized standing taken while the teacher is on leave of absence : 1 credit for each half course. (6) University Extension Courses conducted by the Massachusetts Board of Education ; 1 credit per 16 class hours. (c) Normal School or College Correspondence Courses of standard grade: 2 credits for 16 or more lessons. (d) University Extension Courses offered by the Committee on Extension Courses: 1 credit for each half course. (e) Attendance at Normal or College summer schools: 3 credits for 30 or more program hours. (/) Reading Courses, four or more books : 1 credit. The teacher shall prepare an abstract of each book read and after reasonable notification shall be prepared to take an examination upon any one of these books which the Instruction Committee and Superintendent of Schools may select. Two of the books must relate directly to the class-room work of the teacher. Not more than 2 credits may be awarded for reading courses. (g) A thesis on some topic related to school work and based upon current educational literature and personal class-room experience : 1 credit. (h) Accomplishments through miscellaneous activities such as travel, music, lecture courses, etc., which have been of such character as to relate to school work and which the teacher feels confident have contributed to in- creased success in the school-room: Maximum of two of the necessary 6 credits. Study courses for which credit is given must relate to the work or pro- fession of the teacher. Not more than three credits may be awarded for study courses taken during any one school year, nor more than 5 credits for those of any twelve month period, except in case of study at an institution of recognized standing while teacher is on leave of absence. Class-room Work. Provided approval of the general plan has been granted in advance by the Instruction Committee and Superintendent of Schools, a teacher may use her class-room as a laboratory for the study of educational problems involving observation, study and report. The satisfactory completion of the study of an important problem requiring investigation and study for not less than. two years may be awarded a maximum of five credits. A problem requiring not less than one year may receive a maximum of 3 credits. Present-Day Agencies 53 Professional Service. From 1 to 4 credits may be recommended by the Instruction Committee and Superintendent of Schools for exceptional service to the school system which is readily recognized as surpassing the requirements of Chap; III, Section 5, Paragraph 2. (Beverly, Mass., 1918-19, pp. 6-8.) The second citation is from La Crosse, Wisconsin : While the regular increment is $50, the more ambitious and efficient teacher may secure a larger increase each year until she reaches the maximum. . For unusually good work accompanied by study, a teacher may, upon recommendation of the principal, approved by the superintendent, be granted a double promotion in salary. (Study in the above instance shall be understood to mean :) (a) Approved extension professional course credits (at least two courses) or (6) An unusual work of investigation of which the results are approved as contributing to the efficiency of the school system, or (c) Approved professional night school courses (at least two courses) or (d) Satisfactory proof of the reading of at least eight professional books on an approved list furnished by the Superintendent, or (e) Extensive travel approved by the superintendent as contributing to professional improvement. (J) For imusual leadership in student activities or in an administrative capacity, a teacher may, upon recommendation of the principal, approved by the superintendent, be awarded an additional increment in salary. In cases 1, 2 and 3 detailed written recommendations must be filed in the office of the superintendent. For credits, at least three semester hours in courses which may be helpful to the teacher in her work, earned at a college or university summer school approved by the superintendent, she may be granted a double promo- tion in salary. Any class Al teacher (any teacher receiving the above maximum) who complies with Paragraph 4 [above] shall be entitled to $50 additional salary for a period not in excess of three years following such compliance. (La Crosse, Wis., 1920, pp. 28-29.) 2. Bonus. See the reports from Auburn, New York and from Rochester, New York, p. 26. 3. Reward foe Exceptional Service. See the report from Beverly, Mass., p. 53. 4. Scholarship. See the reports of Pittsburgh, Pa., Toledo, Ohio, and Indianap- ohs, Ind., pp. 27-28. 54 Improvement of Teachers in Service 5. Leave of Absence. (1) WITHOUT PAY. That the professional spirit is growing and that many of our teachers are preparing to extend their education along both academic and professional lines, is evidenced by the fact that an increasing number this year have asked and obtained leave of absence for the purpose of attending some university, college or normal school. (Kansas City, Mo., 1916, p. 26.) (2) WITHOUT PAY BUT WITH SALARY INCREASE. A furthef training of teachers in service was stimulated by a change in the Board's Regulations giving to teachers absent on leave for study at higher institutions the benefit of the automatic increase in their salaries the same as if they had been in active service in the schools. (St. Louis, Mo., (3) 1916-17, p. 68.) The Superintendent may grant leave of absence, without pay, for pro- fessional study. On filing with the Superintendent satisfactory evidence as to the character and extent of such study, the time devoted by the teacher to this study, may, with the approval of the Superintendent, be credited to the teacher as experience for the purpose of determining the teacher's salary ad- vancement under the schedule applying.' In this connection see also the salary schedule of Beverly, Mass., p. 51. (3) WITH PAY. Leave of absence with pay, or with part pay, is an accepted principle among higher institutions in this country. An early ex- tension of the principle to the elementary school teachers of a city, which if not the earliest is at least classic, is given below. Extract from the Rules of the School Committee, Newton Public Schools. Chapter IV, Section 4. Any teacher who has served continuously in the Newton Schools for a period of not less than seven years may, on the recommendation of the super- intendent, be granted leave of absence not exceeding one year. During such absence the teacher shall continue in the employment of the school department, and shall receive a monthly salary equal to one-half his or her monthly salary of the preceding year. A teacher's leave of absence shall be spent largely or wholly in study, such study to be undertaken with the advice of the superin- tendent and carried on in such institutions or in such places and under such teachers as the Superintendent may approve. As a condition of receiving such leave of absence, the teacher shall enter into a contract to continue in the service of the school department for a period ^Salary Schedule of Cleveland Schools, Adopted May 24, 1920, Cleveland, Ohio, p. 4. Present-Day Agencies 55 of at least three years after the expiration of the leave of absence; failing so to continue in the service of the school department the teacher shall repay to said department a sum bearing the same ratio to the amount of salary re- ceived while on leave of absence that the unfulfilled portion of the three subsequent years' service bears to the full three years. Provided, however, that the teacher shall be released from such payment if her failure to serve the three years as stipulated be due to her illness, or if she be discharged or voluntarily released from her position by the school department.' In 1908 the Board of Education ruled that any teacher or principal who shall have served the City of Rochester for seven years, may on the recommen- dation of the superintendent and with the approval of the Board of Education be granted leave of absence for travel or study. The essential conditions for such privilege are that definite reports shall be made to the Superintendent during the absence and that applicants shall file with the Board a written agree- ment to remain in the service of the Board for three years, after the leave of absence, or refund such part of the salary paid during the leave of absence as the unexpired portion bears to the three year period. Such leave may not be taken oftener than once in eight consecutive years. The salary paid during such leave shall in no case exceed S1,000. The number allowed such leave during any school year shall not exceed fifteen. From the candidates who apply selection is made according to length of service, distribution according to schools, and kinds of service. ^ (4) SPECIAL NEGATIVE CASES. These negative cases are here included in that they show two aspects of the feeling concerning the granting of leaves of absence. On May 8, 1913, the Board of Education adopted a rule for granting leaves of absence "only for the purpose of study or foreign travel" to teachers who had "completed seven years of service in the Public Schools of Detroit" "not to exceed one year in any eight consecutive years" and to " receive during such leave of ab- sence in lieu of his regular salary $50 per school month." A further provision was an agreement to teach for three years thereafter or to refimd proportionally for the unexpired portion of the t'me. "Acting under the authority of the rule thirteen teachers were granted leaves of absence for the year 1913-14." On August 22, 1913, the corporation counsel of the city gave his opinion that such monies could not legally be paid to these 'Spalding, F. E., Salaries, Efficiency and Itnprovement of Teachers, Newton Public Schools, Newton, Mass., Jan., 190S, pp. 29-31. ^Bulletin of General Information, Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 1915., p. 36. 56 Improvement of Teachers in Service teachers "because the teachers are not required to render the service before the money is paid." On September 25th the Board voted to grant to these teachers on leave an increase for the "succeding year [only] a salary of $500 in excess of that which would otherwise be paid them." Inasmuch however as there seems to be some question as to the de- sirability of continuing sabbatical leaves under such uncertain conditions . . the operation of the rule . . is practically suspended. (Detroit, Mich., 1913-14, p. 85 ff.) Woonsocket, R. I., reports as follows: In view of the increasing number of requests from teachers for extended leave of absence, the granting of which has a more or less detrimental effect upon the schools, the School Committee, at its meeting September 13, 1918, voted that "It is the sense of the Board that no further leave for extended absence of teachers shall be granted unless for poor health or for service for the Government of the United States or any of its aUies." (Woonsocket, R. I., July, 1919, p. 10.) 6. Board of Education Diploma. The following is from Cambridge, Mass. : The successful teacher to-day must be a student as well as a teacher and must take active part in the world's work for which she is striving to prepare her pupils.. Recommended: (a) That the superintendent of schools be authorized to complete his plans whereby the Cambridge teachers shall be able to take the University Extension and College Courses to be arranged for teachers and offered to them the coming year. (6) That teachers successfully completing one or more of such courses shall receive a diploma or certificate to state that it is given in recognition of the teacher's voluntary study in preparation of her work, to name the course or courses taken, and to bear the signature of the chairman of the School Com- mittee, of the Superintendent of Schools and of the college oflBcial or officials under whose authority the course or courses were given. The courses taken must be approved by the Superintendent of Schools. (Cambridge, Mass., 1920, p. 18.) 7. Travel. Teachers are expected to purchase magazines, school journals, books in their respective subjects, attend summer school occasionally and do some traveling. (Fargo, N. D., 1917-19, p. 27.) The teachers have shown a greater interest in the professional work as is indicated by their reading, travel, attendance at educational meetings, visiting Present-Day Agencies 57 other schools, attending summer schools and in various other ways keeping abreast of the best educational thought. (Canton, Ohio, (1) 1911-12, p. 13.) Last year we were honored by having the National CommLssioner of Edu- cation select two of our teachers to be in the small group of teachers, who went to Germany to study, under the direction of the Department, the conditions in the German Schools, especially in the continuation schools of Munich and Dusseldorf . Miss Alice Joyce and Mr. Julius Kline were the two selected and they came back enthusiastic about the continuation schools. (Portland, Ore., 1915, p. 28.) (II) BOARD OF EDUCATION REQUIREMENTS. 1. License Plan. The plan of licensing teachers in the Indianapolis Schools through exami- nations conducted under the authority of the Board of School Commissioners provides a progressive schedule of professional training of all teachers in the elementary schools. There are seven grades of license or certificates: 1st Temporary, 2nd District School, 3rd Assistant, 4th Principal, 5th High School, 6th Special License for Manual Instruction, 7th German. District School Certificates are given without examination to graduates of the State Normal School, City Normal School and all other normal schools of equal rank with these, such rank to be determined by the Superintendent of Schools. A system of grades for special study prevails and constitutes a re- quirement for higher grades of Ucense. It is the custom of the Superintendent and Board of School Commis- sioners of Indianapolis to accept credits for work satisfactorily done in ex- tension courses in lieu of certain examinations for the assistants and prin- cipals certificates. (Indianapolis, Ind., 1916, p. 31.) 2. Requirements foe Professional Stttdy. After reaching the maximum salary, teachers are required to take at least one professional com'se every other year. (Cincinnati, O., (1) 1914, p. 54.) Another rule of the Board requires every teacher to attend faithfully at least every third year during the summer months, some professional or normal school. (Austin, Tex., 1907, p. 36.) In this connection see also Portland, Oregon, (p. 47.) and Johnstown, Pa. (p. 48.) previously quoted. (III) EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE. 1. Teachers' Professional Library. (i) in individual schools. (a) By Board of Education. In order to further increase the facilities for self-improvement we were able to supply to the libraries of the different schools a Une of professional books. 68 Improvement of Teachers in Service more or less directly connected with the subjects to be taught. These were placed in the hands of the principal to be used by the teachers in the building. Their use in many cases furnished the subject matter and material for the teachers' meetings that were held by the principals in their respective buildings. (Kansas City, Mo., 1916, p. 24.) (6) By Public Library. The Harrisburg Public Library has thus far established eleven branch li- braries in the schools. This institution is co-operating in many ways in aiding both teachers and pupils in their work, and, in classifying important factors having to do with the improvement of teaching, it should not be omitted. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1919, p. 26-27.) (2) IN PUBLIC LIBRARY. The Teachers' Consulting Library was organized in 1888, before the present Public Library was built. It had, according to its last report, a total of 3,600 volumes, amongst which was a superior collection of books on teaching. The Public Library is rendering increasingly valuable service to the public schools. Its present staff, upon its own initiative, is endeavoring to establish closer cooperation with teachers, and has conducted conferences with the teachers of the different grades in ways of making the library useful to the schools and for informing the teachers concerning the resources of the library, and has sent desirable collections of books to the different schools and in a variety of other ways is rendering very practical help to the teachers and to the pupils. In fact because of the competency and willingness of the Public Library Staff, there is reason to think that the Teachers' Consulting Library itself wiU be of greater use to the teachers than it was when it was in possession of the school and had not even one person as a competent Ubrarian in charge. (Trenton, N. J., 1917, p. 24.) (3) IN SPECIAL teachers' LIBRARY. Another effort along these lines is the establishment in the municipal building for the use of supervisors, principals and teachers of a professional library and reading room. Books on psychology, history of education and other kindred subjects, may be obtained from the library; also advice as to courses of reading. (Rochester, N. Y., (1) 1911-13, p. 25.) A Teachers' Club Room, where exhibits of school work, professional magazines, libraries of textbooks and professional literatm-e are maintained, is open afternoons, Tuesday evenings and Saturday mornings to the teachers and general public. (Dayton, Ohio, 1913-14, pp. 95-96.) (4) IN connection with institute. The hbrary connected with the Institute is open at each of the monthly meetings, and the Ubrarian will be present to exchange books for the teachers. The books are allowed to remain out one month. Present-Day Agencies 59 For the greater convenience of the teachers, through the courtesy of the Trustees of the Chester Free Library, the books of the Institute Library most in demand have been deposited La a special case in the Free Library Building, which is open daily between the hours of 9 A. M. and 9 P. M. A reading table has also been set aside for teachers and furnished by the Institute with educa-r tional periodicals. These periodicals, other than the current numbers, may be taken from the library subject to the same rules as the books. (Chester, Pa., 1910-11, p. 35.) (S) DEPARTMENT OF STJPEEINTENDENCE. The Pedagogical Library connected with the Department of Superin- tendence now contains over fourteen thousand bound volumes, besides current copies of a large number of educational periodicals and pamphlets. These are freely used by the teachers as well as by the students in the teacher-training schools. The library places at the disposal of the teachers of the city practically all of the more important publications on educational topics as they appear from time to time, as well as many of the more valuable publications on closely allied subjects. The extent to which the library is used is an additional evi- dence of the progressive spirit of many of the Philadelphia teachers and is an ample justification of the comparatively small amount spent from year to year for renewals and additions to this library. (Philadelphia, Pa., 1915, p. 52.) 2. Professional Reading Courses. (1) IN SCHOOLS. Every building has its professional reading club in which all the teachers devote some time each week to professional reading of the latest and best books on education and of the diurent school journals. (Cambridge, Mass., 1916, p. 10.) The teachers in each building meet from time to time to read and discuss a portion of some previously selected professional text. (North Adams, Mass., 1920, p. 14.) (2) REQUIRED. (o) By Superintendent. In order to make sure that teachers studied I have asked that some book be read during the year and reviewed, the review to be sent to me at the end of the year. During the school year, 1910-11 two books were assigned for review. The past year only one, namely, Colgrove's "Teacher and School." (Duluth, Minn., 1912, no paging.) (6) By Board of Education. Teachers in every grade must do a reasonable amount of professional reading and study in order that their schools may be kept in touch with modern 60 Improvement of Teachers in Service educational thought and up to the progress of the times. (Canton, Ohio, (2) 1911-12, p. 61.) Our teachers are expected to read annually a professional course as out- lined either by the State or city school authorities. (Dayton, Ohio, 1913-14, p. 95.) (3) SEMI-EEQUIHED. The teachers of the Jamestown schools e\dnce their interest in professional advancement by pursuing each year some definite line of individual or group reading. To this end the superintendent recommends a book, or several books, from which a selection may be made, and the teacher is expected to indicate at the first of the year what professional work she plans to undertake and later a report of the work accomplished is required. While no penalties are attached to failing and no reward follows compliance with this quasi reg- ulation there is always a gratifying response to this suggested course of reading. (Jamestown, N. Y., 1909-12, p. 20.) (4) VOLUNTARY. (a) With Superintendent. The Superintendent met a group of teachers bi-weekly from November to April for the study and discussion of some of the fundamental principles under- l3ring all good teaching. Each teacher in the group provided herself with the following books: Dewey's "Interest and Effort," Dewey's "Principles of Moral Education," Dewey's "How We Think,"and Thorndike's "Psychology." (Auburn, N. Y., 1918-19, p. 23.) The past year we have been making a careful study of Dr. Frank Mc- Murry's book, "How to Study." (Olean, N. Y., 1907-1911, p. 26.) (&) With Public Library. The increasing interest of the teachers of Dallas in professional reading is evidenced by the statement that the circulation of books from the pedagogical section of the Dallas Public Library has more than trebled, almost quadrupled, during the past year. (Dallas, Tex., 1915, p. 14.) (5) BEADING CIRCLE. To give opportimity for a further study of the professional side of teaching, preparation has been made for the ensuing year for Reading Circle Work. (Wheeling, W. Va., 1908, p. 29.) 3. Collections of Materials, Class Labora- tory AND Experimentation, and Thesis. The meana of knowledge extension that are of interest here are recognized in the salary schedule of the Beverly, Mass., teachers, (see p. 52.) Present-Day Agencies 61 In addition the superintendent reports that Thirty-seven teachers made special collections and outlines of school subjects as aids to more effective teaching [and that] forty-one tried experi- ments or new methods. (Beverly, Mass., 1917, p. 12.) 4. Visiting Days. Kingston, New York, lists 20 cities visited and 57 teachers who went to see work done by other teachers. (Kingston, N. Y., 1911- 12, p. 27.) The Superintendent of Schools of Raleigh, N. C, reports: How to develop skill in the teaching corps is quite a problem. The visit of forty-three of our teachers to the schools of Cincinnati two years ago en- thused our teachers in a way that nothing else has done since my connection with the Raleigh Schools. In Cincinnati they saw some of the best equipped school rooms in the country and likewise they witnessed teaching imder almost ideal conditions. (Raleigh, N. C, 1913-14, p. 17.) The following is reported from New York City: A most important part of the training of teachers is that received after appointment. We have definitely recognized as an essential part of such training visitation by teachers and principals of schools and classes other than their own. It does not appear that the whole system is benefiting directly from these visits, although the individual principals and teachers may profit from these observations. I recommend that the Board of Superintendents be requested to outline a plan by which the reports of such visits may be ana- lyzed, so that from time to time, through a published statement, the knowl- edge resulting from these visits — new devices, methods of teaching, and ad- ministration — may be used to help the entire system. It is worth considering whether it be desirable that teachers and principals be accompanied by local board members or by members of this Board, in these visits, to see the best examples of methods of instruction and administration. (New York City, N. Y., (1) 1914, p. 14 ff.) Canton, Ohio, reports the following plan: Teachers shall be allowed one day or more at the discretion of the Superin- tendent of Instruction in each school year to visit other schools in the city in order to observe the methods of instruction and discipline therein pursued. On permission of the Superintendent of Instruction this privilege shall extend to other school systems than our own. Application for visiting days shall be made to the Superintendent of Instruction. Reports of such visits shall be made to the Superintendent. (Canton, Ohio, (2) 1911-12, p. 61.) 62 Improvement of Teachers in Service A further plan is reported in Dayton, Ohio: Leaves of absence without loss of pay are generously granted by our Board of Education for visiting other schools or for educational trips, notably to at- tend the Department of Superintendence Meetings at Mobile and Philadelphia. (Dayton, Ohio, 1913-14, p. 95.) 5. Magazines. The magazines supplied by the Board have been in use among the teachers, and the supply of pedagogical books secured as the nucleus of a teachers' library has given a decided impetus to professional reading aiid study. (Beth- lehem, Pa., 1916-16, p. 3.) Dallas, Texas, reports an interesting variation: . in many of the schools groups of teachers have organized clubs for subscriptions to current educational literature, taking several educational mag- azines which they circulate among the members of the club. (Dallas, Tex., 1915, p. 13.) (IV) MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES. 1. Self-Rating Cards or Devices. In Meriden, Conn., the superintendent outlined his ideas of (1) how the principals might aid in improving teachers in service, (2) how the superintendent himself might aid, and (3) how the teachers might aid themselves. In March, 1915 the outline was sent to teachers and principals with the request that each check off the items indicated and note wherein further prog- ress might be made for the good of the schools. (Meriden, Conn., 1916, p. 21.) To meet the need for a clear understanding of the essential characteristics of the good teacher the Superintendent outlined his ideas on the subject in tabular form. [Who is the Good Teacher"! Issued by the School Department of Fall River, Mass., 1918.] JPupils and teachers have been advised to use this pamphlet as a stock inventory sheet. At least twice each year, when school opens, and again in the middle of the year, every teacher can profit from a careful self-examination in which comparison is made of realities as against possibilities. (Fall River, Mass., 1918, p. 30) Elmira, N. Y., reports as follows: An important step forward was taken during the year when a system of rating teachers was adopted. A card was prepared for the purpose. The card rates the teachers by the principals on sub-headings of "Physical Efficiency," "Mental Efficiency," "Moral Efficiency," PresentnDay Agencies 63 "Teaching Efficiency," "Managing Efficiency," and "General Efficiency," on a system of "E-Excellent, G-Good, F-Fair, P-Poor, -f indicates improving, — indicates losing ground" and "no entry indicates satisfactory." Efficiency records are intended to help poor teachers become good teach- ers, good teachers, better teachers, and the better teachers, best teachers. (Elmira, N. Y., 1915-16, p. 21.) 2. Exchange of Teachees. Two fairly refient experiences in administering this device are given below, one as illustrative of administrative difficulties, and the other as illustrative of successful operation. At a meeting of the Committee on Instruction held on Wednesday evening, April 27, 1921, the pohcy of the Superintendent on the exchange of teachers, as presented in the following recommendation, was concurred in: The Superintendent has recently received several requests from ele- mentary teachers in California for exchange with teachers in the Newark School System. Several reasons are given for making the problem "vexatious" such as the "matter of certification, payment of salaries, differences of salaries and the effect of a year's absence on the granting of the state pension for teachers." It was a legal opinion that there could be no credit given toward increase of salary for such teachers who went away, etc. In view of the above, the Superintendent is of the opinion that it is not advisable for the Board to arrange for the formal exchange of teachers in the elementary grades. ' Last year we tried the experiment of exchange of teachers. Miss Wake- man of the Washington High School was exchanged with Miss Messer of Springfield, Massachusetts. Miss Wakeman greatly enjoyed the experience and came back to us with many suggestions. Miss Messer, I understand, also found the plan satisfactory, and thought she gained something for her home schools. This year we have extended the idea, and have endeavored to ex- change a number of teachers with far eastern cities. Those selected to go are Miss HaUie Thomas of Kenton School, Miss Rozene Epple of Eliot School, Miss Nora B. Green of Ladd School, and Miss Maybelle E. Ross of Hohnan School. We hope that this plan will stimulate an interest on the part of all teachers to be eligible for exchange, and that it will bring to us the best ideas from the cities where our people teach. (Portland, Ore., 1915, p. 28.) ' Newark School BvUdin Newark, N. J., Vol. I, No. 9, May, 1921, p. 144., 64 Improvement of Teachers in Service 3. Improving the Course of Study. The work done by the principals and experienced teachers last summer in revising the course of study, in the demands it made upon those who took part, and benefits to the schools, was fully equal to two weeks of half day institute. Comparatively few of the whole teaching force took part in this revision of the course of study, most of them only for a few days. However, the principals worked for a longer time, and especially those who remained in the city, and assisted me to put the course in final shape for the printer. (Mem- phis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 36.) This year we undertook to revise the course in certain subjects, with the result that at the present moment we have tentative courses in citizenship, English, and arithmetic for all classes. Believing in the principle of democ- racy, and taking into consideration the talent that we have in our various grades, the superintendent appointed a committee of three from among the principals to have general charge of each course. Sub-committees of three teachers from each grade in each subject were appointed to prepare the pre- liminary outlines, the idea being to assemble the reports and suggestions filed by each committee, and to have the general committee edit the whole outline. (La Crosse, Wis., 1918, p. 21.) One very imporjiant work begun during the year was the simplification and revision of the course of study. A committee of teachers was appointed in each grade/ The* committees were to make suggestions for the revision of the work, of their respective grades. Frequent conferences were held with the superintendentr The members of the committees have displayed a very commendable spirit in this work. The preliminary reports were handed in at the close of school. The changes suggested were not as numerous as one might expect. These reports on the whole show quite a general satisfaction with the course of study as it now stands, although some very valuable sug- gestions have been offered. The tendency toward elimination and simplifi- cation was slight. That feature will doubtless be given greater emphasis in subsequent reports. (Superior, Wis., 1912-13, p. 27.) 4. School Exhibits. Topeka, Kansas, reports: Not only do the improvements in the course of study afford tangible evidence of the progressive work done by the teaching staff, but the annual school exhibits evidence the same. In May, 1914 these exhibits were held in each building. . . In May, 1915 corresponding exhibits were held in the various buildings, and f ollowiag this a central exhibit of the best work from all the schools was held. . . . There were two phases: First, the usual static exhibit of school work in language, history, geogra- phy, sewing, cooking, manual training, drawing, writing, and other forms of work which lend themselves to this type of exhibition. Present-Day Agencies 65 A second feature was a living exhibit, consisting of music, dramatization, and physical education exercises. (Topeka, Kan., 1914-15, p. 23 ff.) A second form of the school exhibit is reported from Trenton, New Jersey. The New Jersey State Library Commission placed an exhibition of chil- dren's books, pictures, and reading lists in the Carroll Robbins School for ten days, which was most interesting and instructive to the children and to teachers and was examined by many visiting teachers and members of the city library staff, as well as by the pupils of the training school and the Normal School. (Trenton, N. J., 1916, p. 30.) 5. Tests and Measurements. . . . it is the judgment of the superintendent that in the hands of a teacher of good judgment they can be used to great advantage to clear up questions, which no doubt exist in the minds of thoughtful instructors, and I sincerely hope to see them used more frequently during the coming year. (La Crosse, Wis., 1918, p. 23.) The use of tests and measurements in Detroit is of peculiar interest here. It is described in connection with the data concern- ing professional supervision, (see p. 70.) 6. Proposal for Twelve Months' Salary. I am more particularly favorable to placing all salaries on a twelve months' basis so that a teacher may not feel compelled to work in her vacation on any subject except those relating to her profession. If the schools were organized on the basis of four terms of twelve weeks each, each teacher could be engaged by the year and be required to teach three out of four terms. Her fourth term or vacation, could be used for recreation, travel and study. (Richmond, Va., 1914, p. 16.) IV. PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. (I) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS. These are mentioned by several superintendents as being valuable for several reasons. They may be used to develop each and every teacher to her greatest efficiency. (Moline, 111., 1916, p. 29.) Conferences were held weekly with each individual teacher in order that she might receive as much help as possible with her particular problem. (Fall River, Mass., 1917, p-. 65.) 66 Improvement of Teachers in Service The practice in Bethlehem, Pa., is described as follows: Special attention and persistent effort have been devoted to the improve- ment of class-roont instruction. The work of teachers was observed as fre- quently as possible, suggestions and directions were given, and many formal conferences with individual teachers and small groups of teachers were held to discuss conditions and devise plans and methods for the solution of par- ticular problems. (Bethlehem, Pa., 1915-16, p. 22.) Elmira, N. Y., mentions personal interviews as follows: After a teacher is in the system every effort should be made to help her succeed. There are a number of ways of doing this. Teachers' meetings, visits, directed reading, and personal interviews should be employed for the purpose. (Ehnka, N. Y., 1915-16, p. 20.) In Schenectady, N. Y., supervisors have announced office hours, at least once a week for one and one quarter hours, for con- sultation and interviews with teachers.' (II) PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. As such several places report special efforts to make their super- vision effective and not merely inspectorial. While this may be a general and almost universal purpose, at the present time few superintendents specifically mention this as an important phase in the improvement of their teachers in service. Some of the more definite reports are given below. Nothing is more vital to the welfare of the school than the constant im- provement of the teachers in service. To secure this improvement is the endeavor of the supervisory officers. This is done through personal help, through conferences with small groups, and through special meetings for the discussion of important educational problems. (Indianapolis, Ind., 1916,p.34.) Teachers generally are learning to appreciate the importance of profes- sional improvement. The fine spirit with which so many of our teachers call upon the supervisors for help is one evidence of growing interest. (Fall River, Mass., 1918, p. 30.) Brief mention has just been made of the fact that a supervisor of primary methods is now employed for the purpose of enabling the teachers of the first three grades to get the greatest possible returns from their efforts. I would suggest and recommend that, with the opening of new buildings now under construction, a second supervisor of methods be engaged to work with the teachers above the third grade. No expenditure of the city would bring better and more prompt returns. (Quincy, Mass., 1916, p. 14.) 'Supt. Kept, in Kept. Dept. of Public Inat., Vol. I, No. 4, October, 1913, Schenectady, N. Y., p. 7. PresentrDuy Agencies 6? Supervision Reports. Each Principal, the Supervisor of Instructipn, and the Superintendent makes a brief written report of each class-room visit of fifteen minutes or more in length. These reports are used to help improve the quahty of the teaching in the schools. The reports are often discussed with the teachers. Supervision Standards . . "Standards and Ideals" [used in] judging the quality of the teaching service . are the result of cooperative study by Principals, Supervisor and Superintendent. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1917, p. 11.) A report frora Cleveland, Ohio, is of interest here with respect to the method of supervision: During the past three years I have striven to set up among teachers and principals some definite standards for judging and directing class-room work. These are commonly known among educators as the McMurry Standards, and are as follows : School and class-room work are to be judged: 1. By the extent to which they are connected with Ufe. (Life Problems.) 2. By the extent to which they provide for initiative on the part of the pupils. (Individuality.) 3. By the extent to which they provide for organization of the sub- ject matter on the part of the pupils. 4. By the extent to which they provide the opportunity for judging relative values. 5. By the extent to which they afford the opportunity for using content learned. Early in September, 1912, I called a meeting of my principals and super- visors, at which each was given a typewritten copy of these standards. We proceeded to discuss the same and to point out some definite directions as to ways and means of applying these principles to the class-room instruction. The particular subject selected to which to apply these standards was reading in the first grade. Reading was chosen because most of our primary teachers were starting to use a new method reader, and it seemed an opportune time to introduce some new standards by which to judge their work. (Cleve- land, Ohio, 1914-15, p. 20.) In a mimeographed set of sheets from the Department of In- struction, Teacher Training and Research, to the District Principal of the Detroit Schools, dated December, 13 1921, the following quotations are of interest as showing the trend which supervision is taking in that city. Attached hereto is a copy of the "Tentative Formulation of the Ultimate Duties of General Supervisors of Instruction in a [n] Ideal School System, and of their Relation to Adnunistrative Officers" as stated last year. Each prin- cipal and supervisor should re-read this statement of general plan. From the 68 Improvement of Teachers in Service discussion with district principals, Mr. Courtis and supervisors, there seems to be no disposition to question the general policy, but rather to ask for informa- tion concerning the program or steps by which the general plan is to be put into effect. The transition to the present policy should be a gradual one rather than an abrupt break with the past. From time to time additional subjects should be formally transferred from the older method of supervision to the present plan. Such a transfer should come only when the supervisor concerned is able to furnish the principal with adequate standards for the judging of in- struction in that particular subject. Up to date a formal transfer from the older method has taken place in one subject — ^handwriting. The supervisor of handwriting and the principals should now adhere to the present policy of supervision in this subject. A similar transfer will take place in the near future in the case of spelling and of arithmetic in certain grades. Other subjects will follow. In general where no formal transfer has taken place the former method of supervision will prevail. However, aside from the above statement of program the acceptance of the present poUcy necessitates certain changes which affect aU supervision; announcements, calls for teachers' meetings, instructional materials, etc., are no longer sent directly to teachers but transmitted through the regular ad- ministrative channel; superintendent to district principal; district principal to principal, and principal to teacher. Although principals are not directly responsible for the instructional outcome of such materials as are sent out in subjects in which there has been no formal transfer to the present policy, they should do everything within their power to transmit and interpret to the best of their ability such materials and instructions. Supervisors will to an increasing degree keep principals informed of their supervisory activities and as far as possible work through the principal instead of directly with the teacher until it has been demonstrated in what subjects and in what detail supervision by the principal is practical. The means of teacher-training are: (a) Courses of study and curricula. (6) Special bulletins of instructions, type lessons, exhibitions, etc. (c) Meetings with groups of teachers for demonstration lessons, instruction, etc. (d) Personal visits to teachers for diagnosis, instruction, demon- stration, etc. (e) Personal conferences with teachers to give assistance. A supervisor should feel responsible for knowing the general condition of instruction throughout the city and for locating the precise causes of success or failure, but has no responsibility whatsoever for the success or failure of a particular teacher. His teacher-training work with groups or with individuals, should always be of the nature of rendering a service. It should be under- taken only on the request of administrative officers approved by the general instructional officer in charge. Presen^Day Agencies 69 By inspection is meant the survey of society, the school system, the equip- ment, the means of instruction, the service, the personnel, the pupils, or any other items or details to ascertain how efficiently instruction is being given. Such inspection, when initiated by a supervisor, shall have for its purpose the benefit of the supervisor and not the person or condition inspected. On a visit of inspection a supervisor shall make no critical comment except on the specific request of the principal or teacher, and shall give teacher-training as- sistance only when specifically asked to do so, and then only in the achieve- ment of objectives oflBciaUy approved by the administration. In other words, the idea in the minds of many teachers that they are re- sponsible to supervisors should have no foundation in the comments or other behavior of supervisors. For methods, content, ground covered, and all other details of instruction teachers are responsible to their administrative super- visors only, and only for such plans and standards of instruction as have been officially adopted. Both principals and supervisors should not judge teachers except in terms of adopted standards. If a supervisor observes a departure from the established procedure which seems to him either desirable or un- desirable he should report it to the Director of Instruction as a fact but the supervisor has no authority to order its correction and nothing should be said or done by the supervisor to make the teacher feel that the supervisor either approves or disapproves, or that his approval or disapproval would have any influence in determining the standing of the teacher. It cannot be too much emphasized that the supervisor's own visits to schools are for his own education and benefit. He must be familiar with the workings of the system by personal observation. He must serve to cumulate and integrate the best work and thought of the system. He can draw upon the assistance and guidance of the administrative machinery, but he must not exercise executive control in any way. A TENTATIVE FORMULATION OF THE ULTIMATE DUTIES OF GENERAL SUPERVISORS OF INSTRUCTION IN AN IDEAL SCHOOL SYSTEM, AND OF THEIR RELATIONS TO ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Definition. A general supervisor of instruction is an individual who possesses expert knowledge of the subject matter and methods of teaching of one or more re- lated divisions of school room activities, and who has been given general oversight of the instruction within the field of his expert knowledge. Duties. In general the function of a supervisor of instruction is to do whatever creative, constructive thinking within his field is essential to the vitality and progress of the school system as a whole. In other words, his chief duty is to be, and to remain expert in his particular line. He should know more about the general conditions of instruction within his special field than any one else in the system, and be more capable of solving problems peculiar to his field. 70 Improvement of Teachers in Service The specific functions of a supervisor of instruction are three : research, teacher-training and inspection. Of these research is the basic function. The other two are made necessary by the nature of research work and the purposes from which it is undertaken. By research is meant the discovery and active experimental solution of current problems in subj6ct-matter aiid instruction, or in their admiiustration in the class-room. That is, from the point of view of its effect upon the school system as a whole, supervision is the agency charged with (1) the maintenance of the existing level of instruction, (2) the conservation of advances made by iiidividual teachers or other agents, and (3) the organization of systematic attempts to ilhprove the efficiency of instruction. The phases of research are: (o) The discovery of existing defects. (Possible items of improve- ment.) (6) The search for suggestions of improved methods in the work of agents in our own or in other systems. (c) The formulation of a working plan for improvement. (d) The trial of the plan under experimental conditions with se- lection of the successful solution on the basis of measured results. (e) The formulation of specific plans for putting the new method into operation and of standards, tests, etc., for measuring its effects. At each stage of the research work, the plans of a supervisor are to be submitted through regular channels to administrative officers for approval and assistance. With the sale of the final plan and standards to the proper administrative oflScer, the responsibility of the supervisor ends. He has no responsibihty for putting the plan into operation, except to analyze and report upon the results of such tests as may be given to check how well the work is being done. By teacher-training is meant rendering assistance to administrative ofiicers who attempt to carry out the plans adopted by the administration but fail to achieve the proper standards. ' (III) HELPING' TEACHER. The plan used in Maine is reported in the following: The difficulties of program making, combination of classes, adaptation of the course of study to the condition of the school, physical education, methods of instruction, sanitation, and social work are her specialties. [The Helping Teacher.] She works six days a week. Her school is closed on Monday and open on Saturday. On the first of these days she visits and assists the other rural teachers in their work, on the second of these days the other rural teachers visit her school to learn by observation the best methods of procedure. (Lewis- ton, Me., 1919-20, p. 12.) ^Detroit, Mich., Communication to District PrincipaU, by the Department of Instruction, Teacher Training and Research. Dated, December, 13, 1921. Present-Day Agencies 71 (IV) DEMONSTRATION LESSONS. Demonstration lessons conducted by able teachers in the system or by the supervisor followed by criticism and the application of the principles of the technique of teaching [are held for the purpose of helping] each teacher to render the highest tjrpe of teaching service of which she is capable. (Duluth, Minn., 1918, p. 3.) Once or twice each year the teachers of each of the several grades spend the last hour of the afternoon session for several successive days observing class demonstrations by fellow teachers of the same grade who have done superior work in the subject demonstrated. (Mt. Vernon, N. Y., 1917, p. 12.) Meetings of our primary teachers were held frequently throughout the year. Standards and principles were discussed. At most of these meetings some teacher with her class was present to illustrate how those standards and principles were applied. This proved to be most helpful. (Cleveland, Ohio, (2) 1914-15, p. 22.) V. WORK WITH NEW TEACHERS. In this section it is attempted to give a characterization of the work that is being done with new teachers. Some of it is out of date in the particular locality from which it is reported. Pai-t of it, as here reported, may not do some particular place the justice it deserves. It has nevertheless been deemed wise to report the sources of each type illustrated. (I) TYPES. 1. Assisting Teachers. The following, from Lynn, Massachusetts, is a true type of work of in-service character, assuming that some pre-service train- ing is the prerequisite for that kind of work: In May, 1916, the superintendent and assistant superintendent of schools shall select not more than six Lynn girls, members of the graduating classes in the Normal Schools of the state, or the kindergarten training schools, who shall be offered positions as assistants in the Lynn schools, and no other inexperienced teachers shall be appointed. The salary of such assistants shall be S25 a month; they shall serve as far as practicable as substitutes for regular teachers absent because of illness or to visit and study other schools. When not thus employed they shall assist regular teachers in the class- rooms to which they may be assigned by the superintendent, doing a desig- nated amount of class teaching under the supervision and criticism of the teacher. After a year of such service those assistants who have established their fitness shall constitute a preferred list from which regular appointments for teaching positions may be made. (Lynn, Mass., 1915, pp. 16-17.) 72 Improvement of Teachers in Service The two following plans, while technically training teachers in service are really pre-service extensions: The assistant teachers have for the most part been greatly interested in the work, and the training they have received will be beneficial not only to them but to the schools. Almost all of the assistant teachers were given regu- lar positions before the year closed. These took the place of the regular teachers who resigned or were given charge of the additional rooms opened during the year. The fact that these had training relieved the situation con- siderably as it is difl&cult to secure good teachers during the school year from other cities. The plan adopted in June of paying the assistants one dollar per day will make it necessary to appoint them to rooms in which the number of pupils is above the average. However this will not prohibit the placing of young teachers who desire to learn the work and who show exceptional ability. (Can- ton, Ohio, (1) 1911-12, pp. 12-13.) The Cincinnati plan follows : Briefly the plan [for the fourth and fifth years of teacher-training] purposes to have the fourth and fifth year University students who are enrolled in the College for Teachers give half time to actual teaching, under the carefiJ super- vision of supervising (cooperating) teachers, selected because of their demon- strated success as teachers and of their ability to inspire and direct the work of young teachers in training. Each cooperating teacher has two classes of the same grade to which are assigned four student-teachers. Two teach in charge of the respective classes during the morning and return to the University for work in the afternoon; two who have been attending the University during the forenoon take charge of the same classes during the afternoon. If they are fourth-year undergraduate students, they teach without pay as an essential part of their training. If they are fourth-year students who have received the A. B. or B. S. degree, and are taking the fifth year largely in the College for Teachers, they are to receive one-half the annual salary of a beginning teach- er and upon the first year of full appointment will receive the second year's salary. This arrangement was made to encourage as many teachers as possible to take five years of preparation for the work of teaching, a full coUege course with the required professional training for teaching in addition, though it would be desirable that the professional work should not all be left for the fifth year. (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1917, p. 39 £f.) 2. BtriLDiNG Assistants. The period immediately following professional preparation and preceding permanent appointment is a critical period in the Ufe of the inexperienced teacher. It is here that she begins her independent work, the responsibihty for the outcome of which she must now assume. It is essential, therefore, that the conditions under which she works should be such as to give a fair test of her powers. It is furthermore essential that they should have wise and sym- Present-Day Agencies 73 pathetic counsel. The provision adopted by the Board shortly after the opening of school last September by which one of these inexperienced teachers is placed in each grammar school so far as possible, is designed to meet these two conditions. The stay in one school during this trial period enables such a teacher to work in an environment with which she can become reasonably familiar. At least one-half of her time must be spent in independent teaching, and the remainder may be spent in such administrative duties as the principal may assign. Thus every act becomes for her educative, since even her admin- istrative and clerical duties embrace precisely those which she will have to meet as an independent grade teacher. She is also working under such close direction of the principal that counsel and guidance can easily and naturally be given. As a teacher-training provision this promises to be extremely helpful. (Rochester, N. Y., (2) 1911-13, p. 122 ff.) The following is a form of the same character, but is, however, of the pre-service type : Our system of introducing new teachers as assistants to the principals, while faulty in some respects, has nevertheless much to commend it. What- ever may be said of its shortcomings, it affords a most excellent traiuing for the new teachers for the schools, and by the time they become regular grade teachers, they are usually very successful from the start. (Savannah, Ga., 1911, p. 17.) 3. Apprentice Teachers. SomerviUe graduates of state normal schools or of college courses in edu- cation are given an opportunity to get one year's training as an apprentice teacher, after graduation, in order to qualify for a permanent position. At the end of this period they are eligible for consideration with all others for ap- pointment to any existing vacancy. (SomerviUe, Mass., 1918-19, p. 7.) A pre-service type of the apprentice teacher system is reported from Memphis, Tennessee: The dozen high school graduates who constituted the training class during regular school hours did good work; but they were impatient to begin drawing a salary as an aid. As high school graduates have in the past been elected to the position of aid without being required to make a study of the course of study with a view of teaching it, it will take considerable time to reconcile them to this very necessary preparation. During the year just closed the members of the traim'ng class did not receive, on an average, more than two months professional training before being called upon to serve as aids. This, however, is an encouraging beginning. (Memphis, Term., 1911-12, pp. 38-40.) 74 Improvement of Teachers in Service 4. Cadet Teachers. The New Bedford plan, here presented, is an illustration of in-service improvement : The present plan of admitting New Bedford young ladies to the teaching corps following one year of teaching experience after gra4uation from Normal School is not satisfactory. Upon their graduation from normal school all seem to aim to get positions in the country schools nearby in orde? that they may live near home. This plan serves our neighbors admirably but deprives us of the ricl^ experience which comes from close supervision in a graded school system, "^he young teacher needs guidance and help, and plenty of it, and in order to gain this end I present the following plan for your consideration. New Bedford students who graduate from a recognized normal school and who have maintained an average B record diu-ing their course may be appointed as cadet teachers for one term at a salary at the rate of seven hun- dred and fifty dollars per annum. If their work warrants it they may be elected for an additional term at the same rate of pay. The cadet teachers shall work under the direction of a helping teacher who shall receive in addition to her regular stipend salary at the rate of two hundred dollars per annum, each of said teachers to have charge of two cadets and be responsible for the discipline and instruction of the rooms in which the cadets are placed. I believe that the plan outlined above will give us better teachers than the present plan, and our new teachers will go to their first assignments with a much broader training and better understanding of what is expected of them in New Bedford. (New Bedford, Mass., 1920, p. 40.) A survey of Chicago schools "by members of the teaching force under the direction of Superintendent Young and her staff" as reported in the Report of the Board of Education of Chicago, III., for 1914, is commented on as follows by Principal Owen of the Normal School, in the report of the following year. The report discusses the period of cadetship. [See pp. 210, 211, 212. Report of 1914.] Theoretically a graduate of the Chicago Normal School is assigned on graduation to an elementary school to serve a period of four months as a cadet without pay. For years on account of a shortage of teachers the cadets have been called upon to serve as substitutes for a large part of this period of cadetship. The survey committee gathered the opinions of the prinr cipals and a selected number of graduates as to the effects of this practice. A majority of the principals believe that it is not fair to mark a substitute ca- det on the basis of a minimum of two days' service, that service as a substitute tends to disintegrate the young teacher's training, and that it would be better to assign the graduate at once to a school for four months' continuous service. A majority of the graduates report that more than half their time as cadets was given to service as substitutes, that they could utilize the normal school training in the service of substituting, that substituting is harder than reg- Present-Day Agencies 75 ular teaching, and that they would prefer to be assigned as regular teachers at the outset. (Chicago, 111., 1916, p. 56ff.) The following illustration is a pre-service form : Another important addition to the curriculum has been added in the es- tablishment of a teachers' training department. The plan provides for an annual selection of not more than seven graduates of the High School to be known as cadet teachers. The cadet teachers will be required to remain two weeks at a time in rooms designated by the Superintendent, observing and assisting with the work of teaching. They will be given a course in pedagogy, and will make weekly recitations and reports of their work. It is the intention that every opportunity will be given cadet teachers to get the practical knowl- edge of teaching, as well as a theoretical basis for good teaching. They will also be given the privilege of doing the supply work in the city system for which they will be paid two dollars a day. (Muskogee, Okla., 1912-13, p. 14.) 5. Substitutes. The following is a discussion of substitute teachers from Washington, D. C. : Our list of substitutes is made up of normal school graduates who have not secured regular appointments, and who have not had training or real experience fitting them for work in the higher grades, of candidates for appointment now on the eUgible list, and of ex-teachers and others with or without professional training. It is my thought that aU supervisory officers should give special attention to the supervision of the substitute service. High and normal school principals should supervise closely the substitutes employed in their buildings and should report monthly on their efficiency to the superintendent. The supervising principals, or certain ones designated, and the directors of special work should systematically supervise and report of the efficiency of the substitutes in their fields. The supervision should be definitely constructive, involving criticisms, suggestions for improvement, advice as to classes to visit for observation, etc. (Washington, D. C, 1916, pp. 34-35.) The two following illustrations are of the pre-service type: Whereas, heretofore, teachers of no training and without experience were able to enter our teaching corps, now, through the wise action of the Board, no teacher can enter the corps unless of fobr years' high school education and two years' service as a substitute teacher. These substitutes, besides following a course in professional reading and study, will spend ten days each month in the schools observing and assisting. (Allentown, Pa., 1917-18, p. 38.) Small cities like Spartanburg cannot afford a normal school. But the school system of the town may represent a training school, of which the un- 76 Improvement of Teachers in Service trained teachers and the substitutes are the students and the Superintendent and the trained teachers are the instructors. Some of the regular teachers are selected, whom the pupil-teachers are sent to observe. The teacher explains the purpose of her work. The pupil-teacher is expected to take notes and to ask questions. After a while, when she begins to become familiar with the methods of teaching, the substitute is required to teach the class herself, under the supervision of the regular teacher, who is expected to hand the Superin- tendent a written criticism of the work. The criticism often bring about a conference of the Superintendent, the teacher and the substitute. In this way, the substitute learns how to plan lessons, to call the classes to order and to dismiss them, besides having the opportunity of the advice of friendly critics. When the time for the annual election of teachers comes, the Board of Trustees will feel under no obligation to appoint applicants from home, except those who have done satisfactory work in the training class. The Board is generally relieved to have the number of home applicants reduced in this way. Young ladies who wish to be employed as substitutes should report to the Superintendent not later than October 1st. None but full college gradu- ates need apply. (Spartanbia-g, S. C, 1918-19, p. 23.) (II) OTHER METHODS. 1. Training Class. The Training Class was organized under the leadership of a committee of three * * * for the purpose of giving practical training to supply teachers and newly appointed teachers. [The class met once a week, each Thursday, in the East Denver High School.] (Denver, Colo., (2) 1918-19, p. 24.) 2. Model Teachers. This method, as used in Washington, D. C, was evidently appUcable to experienced teachers as well as to the younger teachers, but it is included here because it represents a special type of work for the younger teachers. At present the model teacher conducts her own class as an observation class. On the half of each day when she is not teaching she visits a certain group of grade teachers assigned to her and supervises their work. The Superintendent criticises this procedure on the following grounds: 1. The use of model teachers as supervisors, and 2. The wisdom of having young teachers observe and model themselves after a single individual. It is my intention to direct that during the coming year [1916] first and second grade teachers shall visit at least once per term each model teacher of the same grade. Present-Day Agencies 77 I believe that we should not make our appointments to model teacherships permanent. (Washington, D. C, 1915, pp. 24-25.) 3. Training School Supervision. The form reported in Augusta, Ga., is as follows: Another improvement has been the appointment of an assistant teacher in the training school, thus enabling the training school teachers to see the work of the newly elected teachers and to help them as much as possible. (Augusta, Ga., 1913, p. 40.) Another form of this in the report from Providence, R. I., which follows: In addition, the practical side of teaching is fostered through the state and city training schools. This provision makes it possible for the young teacher to have a year's actual experience in charge of a class-ioom,and during that period to benefit by the constant advice and help of the critic teacher. (Providence, R. I., 1915-16, p. 58.) A third form is from Cleveland : When the young graduates have been long enough in the work of teaching to know definitely some of the problems which, alone in a school room they must struggle with, their teacher friends of the Normal School are often able to render valuable assistance by virtue of visiting them at their work. On the other hand, some of the training teachers see reflected in their former students their own mannerisms and peculiarities. Thus these visits result in benefit to those supervising as well as to those supervised. (Cleveland, Ohio, (1) 1914-15, pp. 48-50.) 4. Special Supervision of Young Teachers. There has also been much supervision of inexperienced teachers during their first year of service. (Cincinnati, Ohio, (2) 1914, p. 132.) The following is from Fall River, Massachusetts: The younger teachers for the most part have been closely supervised. They have been given advice and direction so that they will live up to the ideals and standards set before them in the Normal Schools, that they make as few mistakes as possible and waste the least amount of time in finding their way into skilled methods of teaching. Working under this direction many of the young teachers have gained rapidly in ability to take charge of a room and have been saved from the discouragement due to misdirected effort. It is evident that yoimg teachers should not be allowed to form habits, which, at a later time, will have to be laboriously corrected. It is very gratifying to say 78 Improvement of Teachers in Service that almost without exception the young teachers have taken advice freely, have acted upon it, and to the best of their ability have tried to improve their work. It is the duty of the supervisor first of all to encourage and stimulate young teachers, exercising at the same time a frank criticism of faults and errors. Criticism, however, must be wisely given for it should never leave a feeling of discouragement. The supervisor and the young teacher must get into such close relationship that the teacher embodies the spirit of the supervisor without having her own freedom and independence warped. She should feel that the supervisor is her friend and that she is ready at any time to talk over the points in teaching that are most difficult to handle. (Fall River, Mass., 1917, pp. 63-64.) The following is illustrative from Moline, 111. : As a further effort towards improvement in service the principals and supervisors were asked to make use of a so-called Efficiency Card in rating the work of the teachers who were in their first year of service. A composite card, the results of the combined opinions of all the supervisors, the principal and the superintendent, indicated the points of strength and weakness, and in many instances served as a great help in locating deficiencies and in suggesting remedies. (Moline, 111., 1916, p. 29.) 5. Reserve Teacher. The illustration below is an instance of efforts toward the im- provement of all teachers, but the special applicabihty of the scheme to the helping of the young teacher makes it pertinent here. In the fall of 1914 the Board of Education selected four teachers of broad experience and proven skill to be reserve teachers, with salaries ranging above 11,000. Their duties are indicated by their title. They were not only active as supply teachers in case of sickness, or absence of the regular teacher but they were frequently sent to make a study of unusual or annoying school-room con- ditions and to render assistance therein. (Dallas, Tex., 1915, p. 18.) 6. Special Meetings of Young Teachers. During October, 1912, four Saturday forenoon meetings were held to improve the members of the training class, aids and those teachers who most needed help in drawing, music, physical education and penmanship. The instruction was given by the respective supervisors of these subjects. In order that the principals and the assistant superintendent might be in close touch with the requirements of the supervisors, they were all required to attend these meetings. The superintendent was in attendance upon all of them. The teachers who attended these meetings received much help from them. (Memphis, Tenn., 1912-13, p. 61.) PresentrDay Agencies 79 7. Visits and Obsehvation. During the past two years twenty-one teachers selected from the unassigned list were trained in first grade work. At different times in the past we have had difficulty in securing well qualified new teachers to take charge of the first grade rooms. Many young women who are capable in other grades preferred not to teach in the first grade feeling that they were unfitted for that particular branch of the work. Realizing how very necessary it is that the first grade teacher should be particularly adapted for her work, and also happy in it, a plan was devised by which selected young teachers were trained in first grade work. A number of the regular first grade teachers were enlisted to help in the training. Each young teacher had a program of visiting planned for her. She was given opportunity to visit first grade rooms in the various parts of the city where conditions vary much. After each visiting day, the teachers in training met to discuss what they had observed in the different classes and then had the different phases of first grade work explained to them. As a result of this training there has been for a year and a half a sufficient number of teachers who could take charge of first grade rooms whenever vacancies occurred. (Fall River, Mass., 1911, pp. 64-65.) 8. Teaching-Centeb Plan. (Buffalo, N. Y.) In brief, the principal featiires of this plan are as follows : By agreement with the University of Bxiffalo and Canisius College, aU graduates of the Buffalo State Normal School are given credit for two fuU years of collegiate work. Upon passing the city competitive examination they receive the usual probationary contract terminable at any time within two years upon the suc- cessful completion of which their tenure becomes permanent. They are as- signed to one of six schools designated as "Teacher-centers," given a regular class, and receive the full pay provided by the salary-schedule for the beginniag teacher. The considerations governing the selection of these teacher- centers were threefold. First, a principal who had demonstrated unusual ability as a teacher-builder; second, a school which had established high ideals of achieve- ment for the various grades; third, accessibility to the normal school and the university where the probationary teacher takes her extra work. For every four or five probationary teachers, each center has one super- visory teacher, who, by reason of her high ideals, strong personaUty, capacity for growth, and unusual instructional skUI, has shown special aptitude for this work. She helps the probationary teacher plan her lessons; sympathetically evaluates her performance; takes her classes for demonstration purposes; aids her in her disciplinary troubles; keeps her in touch with the most helpful literature of her subjects; encourages, stimulates, and assists her in all her difficulties; in short, acts as a "big-sister" or official adviser. For the work at the teacher-centers, if successful, the probationer is given two college credits for each semester on the ground that this constitutes her laboratory work. This teaching credit may be continued for three years, making it possible for her to secure twelve credits for successful teaching. College credit for successful teaching is somewhat of a novelty and was not 80 Improvement of Teachers in Service gained without considerable effort. The necessary credit was, however, finally granted and as a result, for the first time, so far as I know, in the history of education, successful teaching under the most careful supervision is placed on a footing of collegiate equality with such sacred operations as changing chemical compounds and carving crayfish. In addition to the arduous work involved in the intensive training of the teacher-center, each probationer is required to take a two-hoiu: course in what we term, for want of a better name, "college civics." We are passing through a period of general unrest and vague dissatisfaction with all existing institutions. Every man who finds his abilities inadequate for making a success of his own affairs feels a strong call to the less arduous and much more soul-satisfying task of reforming the world. That the carrying out of his particular scheme of reform may involve the tearing down of all that the race has so laboriously built up in the slow and painful progress of civilization seems to him a mere detail. We may deport the most dangerous of these radicals but we cannot deport the dangerous idea. For that, the sole remedy is education. The ob- ject of this course in college civics is to orient the probationary teacher in the social order of which she forms a part and to give her a few sound notions of the fundamental principles of economics and sociology. This course pursued throughout the year carries four college credits. At the end of her year at the teacher-center the probationer has acquired sixty-four credits for her normal-school work, four for college civics, and, an- ticipating the next two years, twelve for successful teaching, making a total of eighty college credits. As one himdred and twenty-eight credits are required for graduation, she has forty-eight still to secure. She is then assigned to one of the regular schools of the city, making way for a new group of incoming teachers at the teacher-centers. If she wishes to work for a degree, she must now decide on her future line of work as a teacher of upper or lower elementary grades, or of some special subject in the intermediate schools or senior high school. For each of these fields a course of required subjects, together with sufficient electives to complete the remaining forty-eight credits required for graduation, is laid down by the university. This work has been so arranged that it can all be taken after school hours and on Saturday forenoons. The teacher may progress rapidly or slowly according to her abili- ties and inclinations and upon completion of this work, together with the submission of a satisfactory thesis, she is granted the regular Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Buffalo. Similar arrangements have been made with Canisius College." "PillBbury, W. H., EUmeniary School Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 8, April, 1921, The BiifEalo Plan of Teacher Training, pp. 599-601. Present-Day Agencies 81 The following outline is inserted as an aid to a better un- derstanding of the continuity of this chapter. I. EXTENSION ACTIVITIES. (I) UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE EXTENSION. 1. At the Institution. (1) academic type of "work. (2) professional type of work. 2. Courses Outside of Institution. (1) BY collegiate INSTRUCTORS. (a) Academic Type. (b) Professional Type. (2) BY LOCAL INSTRUCTORS. (a) Professional. (II) NORMAL SCHOOL EXTENSION. (III) BOARD OF EDUCATION EXTENSION. (IV) STATE EXTENSION. (V) SUMMER SCHOOLS. 1. Kinds of institutions. (1) university. (2) colleges. (3 ) normal schools or normal colleges. (4) city or county training schools. 2. Recognition of Summer School Work. (i) bonus. (2) scholarship or subsidy. (3) credit toward salary increase. (VI) TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION EXTENSION. (VII) CORRESPONDENCE EXTENSION. (VIII) STUDY GROUPS. (LX) SPECIAL SUBJECT INSTRUCTION. (X) CHAUTAUQUA. (XI) VACATION SCHOOL. II. TEACHERS' MEETINGS. (I) GENERAL PURPOSES. (II) TYPES OF MEETINGS. 1. General Professional Meetings of Teachers. (l) TYPES. (a) Compulsory. 82 Improvement of Teachers in Service (b) Voluntary. (c) Regular. (d) Special. (2) MEETINGS IN CHARGE OF (a) Superintendent or Supervisors. (6) Special Committees of Teachers. (3) ACTIVITIES OF THESE MEETINGS. (a) Discussion of School Subjects. (&) Special and General Topics. (c) Outside Speakers. (d) Local Speakers. (e) Book Study. 2. Grade Meetings. (i) activities. (a) Plans for Future Work. (b) Outside Speakers. (c) Discussions of Methods. (d) Demonstration Lessons. (e) Special Types. 3. Building Meetings. (l) BUILDING ROUTINE. (2) PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES. (a) Discussion. (b) Professional Reading. (c) Special Topics. 4. Departmental or Group Meetings. 5. Principals' Meetings. 6. Teachers' Associations. (1) TYPE I, legislative AND DELIBERATIVE (a) State. (b) Territorial. (c) City or Local. (2) TYPE II, local groupings. (a) Activities. (i) Study Courses. (ii) Lecture Courses. [i] Isolated Professional Lectures. [ ii ] Isolated Non-Professional Lectures. PresenUDay Agencies 83 [ iii ] Non-Professional Series of Lectures or Courses. I iv ] Professional Series or Courses. (6) Support. (i) PsrvATE. (ii) Privatb and Teachers. (iii) Teachers and Board op Education. (iv) Board of Education. (v) Teachers and Public. 7. Principals' Associations. 8. Special Clubs or Associations. 9. Institutes. (i) time of holding meetings. (2) purposes. (3) disadvantages. (4) activities. (a) Lectures by Professional Speakers. (6) Section Meetings. III. DEVICES. (I) INCENTIVES AND INDUCEMENTS OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 1. Salary Schedule. (1) MANDATORY STUDY. (2) voluntary study. 2. Bonus. 3. Reward for Exceptional Service. 4. Scholarship. 5. Leave op Absence. (i) without pay. (2) without pay but with salary increase . (3) with pay. (4) special negative cases. 6. Board of Education Diploma. 7. Travel. (II) BOARD OF EDUCATION REQUIREMENTS. 1. License Plan. 2. Requirements for Professional Study. 84 Improvement of Teachers in Service (III) EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE. 1. Teachebs' Professional Libhahy. (1) in individual schools. (o) By Board of Education. (Jb) By Public Ldbrary. (2) IN PUBLIC LIBRABY. (3) IN SPECIAL teachers' LIBRARY. (4) in connection with institute. (5) department of superintendence. 2. Professional Reading Courses. (1) IN SCHOOLS. (2) REQUIRED. (a) By Superintendent. (6) By Board of Education. (3) SEMI-REQUIRED. (4) VOLUNTARY. (a) With Superintendent (6) With Public Library. (s) reading circle. 3. Collections of Materials, Class Laboratory AND Experimentation, and Thesis. 4. Visiting Days. 5. Magazines and Periodicals. (IV) MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES. 1. Self-Rating Cards or Devices. 2. Exchange of Teachers. 3. Improving Course of Study. 4. School Exhibits. 5. Tests and Measurements. 6. Proposal for Twelve Months' Salary. IV. PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. (I) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS. (II) PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. (III) HELPING TEACHER. (IV) DEMONSTRATION LESSONS. PresenUDay Agencies 85 V. WORK WITH NEW TEACHERS. (I) TYPES. 1. Assisting Teacheks. 2. Building Assistants. 3. Apprentice Teachees. 4. Cadet Teachers. 5. Substitutes. (II) OTHER METHODS. 1. Training Class. 2. Model Teachers. 3. Training School Supervision. 4. Special Supervision of Young Teachers. 5. Reserve Teacher. 6. Special Meetings of Young Teachers. 7. Visits and Observation. 8. Teaching-Center Plan. CHAPTER III THE FUNDAMENTALS OF IMPROVEMENT THE SOURCES OF IMPROVEMENT There are two ways in which the teaching body may be im- proved. The first of these is by the elimination from that body of those teachers who are below the average of the teachers in the school system. This elimination may come in a variety of ways, either before teachers enter the system, after they have been in it for many years, or at any time during their service. Thus, when more or better preparation than has been the previous rule is required, the quality of the teaching body as a whole is increased by just as much as the new teachers of the system are better pre- pared for or have had more valuable experience in teaching than the teachers whom they replace. A supervisor therefore suggests that improvement may come by requiring of inexperienced candidates that they shall have attained a given per cent of excellence in their Normal School Course, thereby providing for a maximiun of security against failure. (New Britain, Conn., 1916, p. 16.) Teachers may also be eliminated who have served for many years in the school system. When these teachers are eliminated from the teaching body the quality of that body as a whole is im- proved by just as much as the difference between the quality of those discarded and the quality of those teachers who replace them. Superintendent Downes writes, A local teachers' retirement plan has been in operation since 1908. A total of forty teachers have been retired to date, either on the ground of age and service or because of physical disabiUty. . That the operation of such a plan has resulted in improved teaching there can be no doubt. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1919, p. 26.) Another plan is that in effect in many eastern cities which provides that teachers entering the service shall have had some experience in teaching. (See New Bedford Plan, p. 74.) Other Fundamentals of Improvement 87 plans, such as the removal of a teacher for cause, or for inefficiency, tend to have the same effect as these. The emphasis in this tj^ie of improvement of the teaching body is upon the improvement of the school system and not upon the improvement of the individual teacher. It is then, in a sense negative in character. Positive and genuine improvement comes in the second way. It consists in the improvement of the teachers during their period of service. It results in making the teachers, individually as well as collectively, better teachers. It is in this improvement that is found the greatest hope for progress within the system. THE KINDS OF IMPROVEMENT In teaching there is an important trinity that in some degree must be present in every teacher. These are the mechanics of teaching, the knowledge that constitutes the teacher's "stock-in- trade," and, probably most important of all, something that may be called the "power" that is behind both. In these three ways a teacher may improve. They do not come singly perhaps, but it is certain that the improvement in one does not necessarily mean an equal improvement in the others. The teacher of broad knowledge and consummate skill in teaching may not have the requisite idealism to make his teaching successful. The teacher of high idealism without the skills and knowledge to back it up cannot be the best teacher. The teacher with broad knowledge and high ideals can do little without the necessary skills. The harmonious development of all three types of improvement constitutes the problem of the improvement of the teacher in service. The mechanics of teaching consists in the skills that a teacher possesses. Improvement may come through the achievement of greater skill in presenting subject matter, or it may come in the development of those relations with children which are so impor- tant in giving to the work an effective appeal. Improvement may also come through becoming better adapted to the requirements of the school system, through increased abihty to do well the routine tasks involved in "school housekeeping," through increased ability to cooperate with supervisors and fellow-teachers, and through increased ability to deal thoughtfully with parents and 88 Improvement of Teachers in Service with the pubHc; in short, through becoming better able to assume the responsibiUties that come to every teacher. These all mean improvement primarily in the skills of teaching, and growth in any of them makes a better teacher. The knowledge that a teacher has is a large element of his "stock-in-trade". A wider understanding of the subject-matter which he teaches, a broader point of view with respect to it, a clearer understanding of its implications and connections, and a keener respect for it gained through a knowledge of its historical or technical derivations, wUl undoubtedly tend to make the teacher a better teacher. Fresh knowledge, it is generally agreed, adds to the teacher's zest and interest in teaching, and therefore helps to improve that teaching. What for want of a better term has been referred to as "power" is the motive or "drive" that actuates the teacher's work, and determines largely his attitude toward it. It may take the form of greater inspiration in the development of the work that he is doing, or it may be new perspectives or a more satisfying apprecia- tion of his efforts by others. It may be that a greater sympathy, or a new attitude may make his work more valuable. It is clearly predictable that fresh idealism, or an enhanced conception of parts of his work will release new energy. All these are forms of power and their improvement or their acquisition makes a teacher a better teacher. THE PERIODS OF IMPROVEMENT There are differences among teachers in the kinds of improve- ment they need, just as there are differing kinds of improvement. The chief difference between the young and the experienced teacher lies in the emphasis which is placed on the type of improve- ment which the two teachers require, whether it be skill, knowledge, or idealism. The requirement may be a matter of greater need at a particular time for one type than for another. It is probable that the inexperienced teacher, already having had a grounding in the subject matter with which he has to deal, should attain a mastery of the technique in its presentation and teaching before he should attempt to widen the horizon of his knowledge, or attempt to improve the quality of the ideals which he professes. On the other hand, for the teacher who has well mastered the teaching of Fundamentals of Improvement 89 the subject matter that he knows the greater need may be the ex- tension of his knowledge or the inspiration of new ideals, or both. While it is recognized as probable that if all teachers could be accurately measured in these attributes and classified it would be found that they wotdd be distributed in somewhat the same fashion that they would be distributed if measured in certain concrete physical attributes, — that is in a regular progression, — it is con- venient here to consider three general classes of teachers that may be found in every good-sized school system in this country. The first of these is the novice teacher. Granted that he has had the usual professional two years' preparation for teaching the new teacher enters upon his teaching experience in a new environ- ment, facing the necessity of using tools relatively unfamiliar, and materials the characteristics of which are but b'ttle known. He has a knowledge of the content of the curriculum which he is ex- pected to teach, but has not gained a mastery of the technique of its presentation nor has he learned how to adjust himself to his pupils. The second may be called the more experienced teacher. This teacher is one who has formed the habits of adjusting himself to the school situation and these make it possible for his work to proceed smoothly. He has enlarged his outlook but little and broadened his knowledge only sUghtly since entering the profession. He is therefore in danger of becoming habituated to a routine de- velopment of his class-room instruction. Stagnation or arrest of growth is the great danger at this stage. The third is the master teacher. Of the master teachers there may be several kinds, according to the particular phase of teaching mastery which the teacher has achieved, or according to the special ability which the teacher has demonstrated. The qualifications and needs of these teachers are more full}' discussed in a later section, (see pp. 130 ff.) THE PROBLEM OF THE ACQUISITION OF TECHNIQUE IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM The problem of the acquisition of technique is very largely the problem of habit formation. The right response must be learned and wrong responses inhibited. Then the right responses must be repeated and repeated until they become habitual. The 90 Improvement oj Teachers in Service wrong response is just as easy to habituate as the right response, providing the result is, to the person himself, just as satisfactory, or provided that an unsatisfactory result is not associated with the response. In professions the acquisition of technique takes two forms with respect to the period in which the learner makes the acquisi- tion. On the one hand are those professions where it is expected that the greater part of the technique that is necessary to the practice of the profession will be gained after the learner has finished the accepted pre-service training. In medicine the yoimg graduate may enter a hospital as an interne, where every act and every attempt at practice are closely watched, supervised, and corrected when necessary at the time the act is made. In law the young law graduate may spend an apprenticeship in the office of an experienced lawyer, where, too, every act may be watched and if needs be corrected at the time that correction is most necessary to prevent wrong habit formation, — that is at the time immediately after the wrong act is made. The essential characteristic of these two professions, in this respect, is that the young probationer is not expected to find in his professional preparation all the skills that are required for the successful practice of his profession. On the other hand there are professions which must take into account the fact that on completing his pre-service training the young practitioner must in many respects succeed while standing on his own feet, or fail for lack of skill. In journalism and in agriculture the truth of this is illustrated. In journalism the cub-reporter must be able practically from the start of his career to turn in a creditable news story, and his success depends to a large extent upon that ability. In agriculture the young graduate, despite plenty of so-called "book-knowledge," who cannot actually do the job to be done and do it in a fairly skillful manner, is likely to fail. At the present time, in most small communities and even in many cities the profession of teaching is recognized as belonging to the latter of these two professional classes. It is assimied that the pre-service training has so prepared the prospective teacher that he is capable of assuming full responsibihty. On this basis the new teacher is so placed in the school system that such respon- sibility must be either assumed by him or neglected. In spite of Fundamentals of Improvement 91 this assumption, however, it is recognized that the new teacher is not adequately prepared to take up the full burden of teaching even though the present standard of two years of normal-school training may have been met. Such recognition is clearly evidenced whenever provision is made for the special assistance of new teach- ers. As a matter of fact, therefore, with our pre-service training what it is, in spite of the fact that in many places the young teacher is expected to assume full responsibility from the start, the profession of teaching really belongs in the group with medicine and law. In other words there should follow a period of supervised apprenticeship after graduation from the professional school. Few would say that a teacher is properly equipped independ- ently to assume full responsibility for teaching from the start of his teaching career when two years or less of training, no experience in the system, and very little practice in his work constitute the main elements of his professional equipment. Edith A. Scott writes. Because real teaching is such a skillful art and demands a &st-hand ex- perience with children, educators are coining to feel that it is quite out of the question to expect that a High-School graduate with but two years of normal training can, without further guidance, teach with the same facility as an experienced teacher. (Rochester, N. Y., (3) 1911-13, p. 256.) If without further help the young teacher does carry the load creditably he gains the necessary skill in the practice in the school- room. His native fertility in debasing schemes to meet the new situations and his native resourcefulness in meeting his problems play a large part in his success. The method is largely one of trial and error, supplemented probably in rare instances by the deliberate application of the general principles that he has learned in the professional school. Such a method fixes habits of skill just as surely as any other method, and the habits thus fixed are just as strong. If the habits that eventually resulted from this procedure were always good habits practically the only arguments that could be urged against the practice would be the waste of time and the harm which would result to the children because of the uncontrolled experimentation. Far from being good habits the testimony of supervisors indicates that they are far more Ukely to be bad, wasteful and wrong habits, formed originally in the 92 Improvement of Teachers in Service desperation of trying to solve problems of discipline, method or social contact. (See Fall River, Mass., 1917, p. 63 quoted pp.77-78) The chief reason that these habits are formed is that the adjustments involved have not been found not to work. Because they have seemed to solve the immediate problem they have given satisfaction and have been repeated. They remain thus bad, because the young teacher, by reason of his inexperience, his inadequate skill, his narrow background and the difficulty of analyzing a relatively new and extremely complex situation, apparently cannot usually or often distinguish between the good and the bad. The problem of technique with the young teacher, then, is primarily the problem of fixing right habits, of correcting wrong habits, and of never allowing mistakes to remain long uncorrected. As has been suggested the gaining of technique by teachers probably differs in degree with the amount of previous experience, and with the quality of that previous experience which a teacher has undergone. The consideration here will be for two main types, the teacher with very httle or no teaching experience, and the teacher who already has a large number of fixed, but frequently inadequate habits. The period of a teacher's career which follows his first appoint- ment is generally recognized as a very critical period in the teacher's life. One superintendent expresses it as such in the previous chapter. (See Rochester, N. Y., (2) 1911-13, quoted p. 72) Another attacks the problem from the economic standpoint. If the city spends the money to keep a student in the Normal School for two years from an economic standpoint it would seem wise to watch over her when she becomes a teacher until she is svire of herself. (Cleveland, Ohio, (1) 1914-15, p. 48.) Two handicaps of the novice teacher on entering a new school system and beginning a new type of work are his unfamiliarity with the standards and traditions of the system and his inability to assume quickly the responsibilities which are necessary. The one means an absence of the desirable background, and the other a difficulty in acquiring it. From the point of view of the school system it is very important that the young teacher's increasing acquaintance with the system shall be a healthy and unprejudiced Fundamentals of Improvement 93 one. For the young teacher to gain the right point of view, for him to gain that knowledge of and sensitiveness to the standards which make for the best type of teaching, — for him to know those things which will allow him to make the right choices of action and to know that they are the right choices, — makes the develop- ing teacher an asset to a system rather than a liability. It insures that satisfaction in teaching will come to the young teacher only through the achievement of the right things. From the point of view of the teacher it would seem important that he be gradually and systematically inducted into the responsi- bilities of the attainment of these standards and ideals of the system. It is certainly a poor way of learning that allows the wrong thing to be done at all, unless, through striking contrast, the wrong thing naay lead to the right one. It is absurd to believe that the young inexperienced teacher, if called upon to assume all of the teacher's responsibiUties at once, can actually carry them all with equal success. It is more probable that some of them will be slighted, and in the slighting will bring contempt as a logical result. A contempt for a responsibility, once engendered is hard to eradi- cate and for the good of the teacher as well as the system great care should be taken to prevent such an eventuality. A gradual induction into the responsibilities which he is to assmne allows each new responsibihty to be gained in a healthy way. The associa- tion of the novice teacher with experienced teachers, teachers who have gained their mastery over these problems and have in the trial and error process lost some of their earlier idealism, while being sane in their own judgments, may give the younger teachers perspectives which, lacking the background of the older teachers, are inimical to success. Thus the practice of placing teachers in an environment of more experienced teachers as a method of help- ing them to learn more easily their necessary skills has possibilities full of danger that it is well to avoid. For this reason the first requisite would seem to consist in separating the no\ace from the other teachers in the system, and giving him not only a specialized opportunity to acquire the tech- nique but an opportunity to acquire it separated from the more experienced teachers in the system. The scheme of segregation that has been worked out in Buffalo (see pp. 79-80) seems therefore to be a step in the right direction, because, during the time that 94 Improvement of Teachers in Service the novice is gaining the skill that will enable him to stand alone, he is separated from the other teachers in status as well as in salary. He is distinctly and unequivocally an apprentice. A second reason for segregation lies in the fact that the prob- lems that the young teachers have to work out for themselves have more in common with those of other young teachers like themselves than they have in common with the problems of the more experienced teachers. For this reason, again, the practice with respect to placing inexperienced teachers with experienced teachers seems to be imsound. The diffidence that the novices might feel in contact with the more experienced teachers they would not feel for others like themselves. Problems that older and more experienced teachers would pass by, or not understand as problems, would be threshed out under especially competent and sympathetic leadership by a group of young teachers who were all facing the same problem, — an advantage that would be missed if the novice were in a different sort of group. The con- tacts, social and educational, that the young teacher would make with others like himself would seem to make the period of segrega- tion intensely valuable to the novice in the acquisition of his teach- ing skill. To the school system as well this exchange of ideas and development of problems that would otherwise remain unsolved by groups would obviously be of great value. In consideration of the laws of habit formation the second requisite is a master teacher to watch closely the efforts of the novice. This contact must be constant, sympathetic, cordial, and above all, discerning. It is this ability that makes the master training teacher. Mr. Pillsbury writes: Compare the experience of a teacher under these conditions [unsegregated, without the master teacher, and partially supervised] with that of the proba- tioner at a teacher-center. Here she is associated with a group which is on an equal footing with herself. She feels perfectly free to discuss her difficulties because she knows that all the other teachers are going through exactly the same experiences, and she has in the supervisory teacher a woman of strong personality, high ideals, big sjrmpathies, wide experience, uniisual skill in teaching. Her ambitions are fostered, her ideas sympathetically considered, her difficulties removed. She has a friend, an advisor to whom she can go Fundamentals of Improvement 95 with all her troubles, who is, in fact, there for precisely that piirpose. Under these conditions, she cannot help but grow.' The presence of the master teacher is for the piirpose of con- stant supervision and help. It is clearly consistent with recognized pedagogical principles that problems be solved when they are brought up in order that solutions of direct import may be evolved. The period of practice teaching in the normal school is a necessary adjvmct to the normal-school training, as it gives a first hand knowledge of some of the major problems that the yoimg teacher will have to face in his independent work with the teaching of children. It cannot replace, however, the actual ex- perience and contacts which a teacher makes in actual teaching. Therefore this period of segregation must not be like that of the practice school, with short periods of teaching, with groups of children not primarily responsible to the student teacher in matters of discipline and correction, with isolated units of subject-matter to be taught, and with little responsibility on the part of the novice for the results that his teaching obtains. The period of segrega- tion must be one in which are maintained actual school-room conditions, not merely somewhat like, but identical in every essential respect with, those that the teacher wQl surely experience in that system. The novice must assume an increasing responsib- ihty for the class instruction, for discipline in the class-room, for the attainment of school standards, for participation in the affairs in the school, for the relationships with parents and with the pubhc, and for all the details of school work and school records for which the regular teacher in any of the other schools in the system is normally held responsible. The master teacher is present, as frequently as may be necessary, to prevent mistakes which might be costly from the standpoint either of their effect on the novice or of their effect on the pupils, and he is there to promote and not to prevent growth. A further necessity in the development of skUl in teaching for the novice is the observation of the best teaching that the system can boast. To see truly artistic teaching is the rightful privilege of every yoimg teacher, and the third requisite in the acquisition of teaching skills. It has long been recognized that observation 'Pillsbury, W. Howard, The Buffalo Plan of Teacher Training, Elementary School Journal Vol. XXI, No. 8, April, 1921, p. 602. 96 Improvement of Teachers in Service of a perfunctory type or merely for the purpose of social visiting does not accomplish the desired results. The novice must know, first, what he is to see taught, and knowing that, must plan how he would teach it. A prime purpose of the observation may well be to show the yoimg teacher the differences in the way he had planned to teach and the way that the unit of work is actually taught by an artist teacher, The novice must analyze these differences and definitely see in what way the work observed is better than his own plans would have achieved. This gives a grounding for conscious imitation on the part of the young teacher, and a basis for a change in action.' It is this final result, a change in action on the part of the young teacher, that is the ultimate goal. When observation is made with definite purpose, when it is made under actual conditions, when there is definite analysis of what has been observed, and conscious imitation that its virtues may be reproduced there will clearly be in observation that which will tend to complement the actual experience of the novice in his efforts to acquire teaching skills and teaching technique. These, then, are considered necessary to the proper acquisi- tion of teaching skills by the young teacher in the school system: (a) the separation from the other more experienced teachers in the school system; (b) the observation, under natural conditions, of the most artistic teachers that the system can produce; (c) the assumption of all the responsibility that the young teachers are able to carry just as soon as they are able to carry it; (d) the con- stant supervision and help of master teachers; (e) the teaching of children imder conditions identical with those that prevail in the school system; and (f) the association of novices chiefly with novices during the segregation period. The problem of the gaining of skill by the experienced teacher is the same as with the younger teacher, the forming of the right habits of action. It differs in that it is more difficult to discover just what is the right action, and because of the fixed but inadequate habits which the experienced teacher has. When an action be- comes habitual it becomes unconscious. The real problem is therefore to make the teacher, first, self-critical or self-conscious 'See Thomdike, E. 1,., Educational Psychology, Vol. II, The Psychology of Learning. "Learning by Analysis and Selection." pp. 35-46. Fundamentals of Improvemeni 97 of his bad habits, then, secondly, desirous of making the new habit, and thirdly, capable of making the change. In order to achieve these ends the prime necessity is that the school system shall reserve to itself the right so to model itself, and to make such modifications as seem wise and proper. This right impUes certain responsibiUties, namely: (a) to fix the stand- ards of educational content within the city system; (b) to require the attainment of these minimal standards ; and (c) to provide the necessary machinery to insure their attainment. Boards of Educa- tion exercise this right when they provide for the inspection of schools and when they provide for the supervision of the teachers in the schools. Supervisory control, [says Dr. E. C. Elliott,] is concerned with what j should be taught; to whom, by whom, how, and to what purpose. It is profes- / sional and technical. It aims to establish and to maintain for the individual ! teacher and the individual pupil standards of worth and attainment. It is j concerned, primarily not with the machinery of education, but with the character and worth of its products. It centers its effort upon individuals. It is emphatically constructive, rather than merely executive. For its best results it demands the completest cooperation between the members of the teaching and supervisory staffs. For the proper exercise of this form of con- trol superintendents, directors, and principals should be held directly re- sponsible and should be given entire freedom of action. Supervisory control does not lie within the legitimate province of the Board of Education or of other municipal boards and officers. Inspectorial Control is similar in nature to supervisory control, yet to be distinguished from it. It is, also, special in character, and is based upon expert knowledge of the conditions and technique of successful and efficient instruction. It differs from the supervisory activity in that its primary purpose is not personal, constructive service. Its aim is toward an impersonal, objec- tive measurement of the results and worth of the school. It serves to appraise the products of the administrative organization and supervisory direction, and on the basis of this appraisal to propose new standards and new methods. Thus, narrowly interpreted, an inspector's special function is to pass upon worth and efficiency. A supervisor must do this and more; he must raise the worth and increase the efficiency.' Except within wide limits, or in a very few specific cases not representative of school work as a whole, it would seem that the system cannot helpfully fix how any particular imit of the content of its curriculum shaU be taught. This is the clear province of the individual teacher, — the vital privilege that marks the difference 'Elliott, E. C, Citji School Supenision, Yonkera, World Book Company, 1914, p. 12. 98 Improvement of Teachers in Service between an artisan and an artist. The limit of compulsion in this respect should have been reached when the course of study has been made both objective and suggestive, and has fixed within certain limits the standards of educational content. The school system, in determining standards, however, should go the necessary step further and require of all teachers, as a part of the service for which they are employed by the public, the- attainment of these minimal standards, at least until such time as it can confidently rely on the teacher in full. A discussion of this follows in a later section. To do this, makes necessary a judgment as to the degree to which the standards set up have been attained — a judgment that will be satisfactory to the teacher if possible, entirely imper- sonal, objective in every sense, uniform for all teachers, dependable in high degree, and capable of adjustment as the need arises. This judgment must be satisfactory to the teacher in the sense that the teacher must recognize it as eminently fair and just. It must be impersonal in the sense that the personal bias of any individual cannot enter into that judgment and that it would be exactly the same for any other teacher in a like situation. It must be objective so that all teachers may be able to interpret it in the same way and not according to individual imderstanding or individual interpretations of certain abstract qualities. It must be uniform for all teachers to the end that all teachers may accept it. It must be dependable, so that all teachers may trust it. It must be capable of adjustment so that there may be a way open for progress in the system, growth in the teachers, and adaptability to greater knowledge or more recent needs. The hmitations of this judgment are: (a) that it cannot be entirely a rating scale for the analysis of a teacher's personaUty, because it measures only one desirable attribute of teaching abihty; and (b) it should not be used as the sole measure of fitness for promotion within the school system since it involves only some of the elements that should be recognized for such promotion. It is merely an inspectorial judgment, but as such it is of the highest importance in the development of skiU in the teacher. Of the standards there are at least two types that may be fixed for the teacher to achieve. The first is that of content. The school is boimd by time limits set by the school day, the school year, and the elementary school period. It is entirely necessary Fundamentals of Improvement 99 and universally recognized as necessary, that the materials of the elementary school education be apportioned carefully. From this results the standards that the school system can set up with ref- erence to the content of the course of study, and the placing of the various units of this course of study in their proper relation- ships within the curriculum. The second type of standard is that of rate. This is less imiformly recognized, but equally important. The rate at which the several units of the school curriculum shall be covered as a standard for the gtiidance and attainment of the teacher has a definite and important bearing on his improvement in skills, as it is through comparison with this standard that the judgment above discussed becomes of greatest value. The necessary machinery for the attainment of the standards consists, first, of provision for the measurement of the results of teaching. This becomes the objective and acceptable judgment that is desired. It involves, secondly, provision for the interpreta- tion of these results. Thirdly, it means provision for the diagnosis of the reasons which have been found to make the standards not attained, and fourthly, provision for the correction of the diagnosed difficulties. Dr. McCall cites the following as his conception of the fundamental assumptions underlying a scientific procedure for rating and promoting teachers and supervisors. . 1. The pupil is the center of gravity or the sun of the educational sys- tem. Teachers are satellites of this sun and supervisors are moons of the satellites. 2. All the paraphernalia of education exist for just one purpose, to make desirable changes in pupils. 3. The worth of these paraphernaha can be measured in just one way, by determining how many desirable changes they make in pupils. 4. Hence the only just basis for selecting and promoting teachers is the changes made in the pupils. 5. Teachers are at present selected and promoted primarily on the basis of their attributes, such as intelligence, personality, physical appearance, voice, ability in penmanship and the like. 6. No one has demonstrated just what causal relationship, if any, exists between possession of these various attributes and desirable changes in pupils. The relation between possession of certain attributes and the degree of favor of a teacher in the inspector's eyes is more evident. 7. Scientific measurement itself is fair only when we measure the amount of desirable change produced in pupils by a given teacher. The measurement of change requires both initial and final tests. 100 Improvement of Teachers in Service 8. Scientific measurement is fair only when we measure amount of change produced in a standard time. This requirement can be satisfied. 9. Scientific measurement is fair only when we measure the amount of change in standard pupils. The AccompUshment Quotient ... is a device for converting pupils, no matter what their intelligence, into standard pupils. 10. Scientific measurement is fair only when the measurement is com- plete. Absolute completeness would require a measurement of the amount of changes made in children's purposes as well as their abilities. Absolute completeness is of course impossible and is in fact not necessary; partly be- cause a chance sampling of the changes made will be thorough enough, and partly because teachers' skill in making desirable cnanges in, say, reading, is probably positively correlated with their skill in making desirable changes in, say, arithmetic' Provision for the measurement of the results of teaching involves the testing of the children at the beginning of a certain period, the period in which the efficiency of the teacher is to be measured. This gives a beginning point from which to compare and also gives the teacher a definite knowledge of what is expected from him, starting at that point thus found. It later involves the testing of the children again at the end of the period in question. This gives an end point. The difference in the achievement of the children, balanced against the requirements of the system, with due regard for the ability of the pupils involved, gives an objective measurement of the degree of success of the work of the teacher. It shows the absolute achievement of the children, and gives the data that are necessary in planning the future work of those children; it gives the relative achievement of the children, which is a measure of the success of the teacher in reaching the require- ments of the school system; and it shows where the teacher has exceeded those requirements, as well as where he has not reached them. The greater accuracy of the standard school tests as they have been developed within the past few years makes the use of them in this connection, even though an indirect judgment, a far more accurate one than has ever been possible before. McCall writes : The purpose of certain methods and materials is to help the pupil grow toward a certain goal. Do the methods employed accomplish their purpose? We cannot tell without employing measurement. For aught we know, the 'McCall, W. A., How to Measure in Education, MacMillan Co., New York, 1922, pp. 150-151. Fundamentals of Improvement 101 methods may be actually vicious. They may be forming habits which not only do not lead toward the goal, but which may be building up difficulties for another method by a subsequent teacher. It is equally true that the com- parative worth of different methods and materials is unknown until their effect upon the pupil is measureable. This means that measurement is indis- pensable to the experimental selection of the most economical educational conditions.' McCall cites two methods of measurement of education. One of them is the measurement of the causal relations between the educational surroundings of the pupil and the desired changes in him, and the other the direct measurement of the changes in the pupil. He makes the analogy with the levers, fulcra, etc., used in the lifting of the physical weight in the one case and the determination as to whether or not the weight has been actually lifted in the second case. He continues: We certainly cannot claim to know the exact causal relation between defined changes in pupils, and most of the paraphernalia with which the pupil is now surrounded. In spite of our ignorance of these causal relations, the chief method of supervision at present is to attempt to judge the presence or absence or amount of presence of these levers and fulcra.^ Again he says: There seems to be a feeling that tests favor the so-called mechanical or conservative rather than radical methods in education. When properly used, they favor neither one. Ultimately tests will be the judge to give an impartial decision as to which method is the more effective. Until scientific measure- ment is extended, however, no decision between the two methods can be reached, because present tests cannot measvire some of the most important aims of both educational conservatives and radicals. Suffice it to state here that present standard tests when improperly used may easily cause a greater mechanization of education, but when properly used they may easily be the salvation of education from too great a mechanization.' Even in their present state their use under right conditions, plus the guarding that is necessary to prevent mechanization, forms perhaps the best impersonal, objective judgment or measiu'e- ment of a teacher's success in our present state of knowledge. Provision for the interpretation of the results of the measure- ment is merely provision for the analysis and tabulation of the 'McCall, W. A., op. dt, p. 11-12. 'Ibid., p. 13. 'Ibid., p. 17. 102 Improvement of Teachers in Service resulting data for the greater convenience of the teacher in self- criticism, and of the supervisory staff in diagnosis. Provision for the diagnosis of the results of the measurement takes the measurement at that point out of the purely inspectorial field and into the field of professional supervision. It is for the purpose of locating the points where the teacher needs to develop additional skills. It is a means of making a teacher conscious of his difficulties and self critical of his procedure. Diagnosis may reveal a very simple condition the correction of which is merely a matter of making the teacher conscious of the condition. It may be a very complicated condition the correction of which is difficult. It may be obvious or it may be intangible. Whatever it is, it can rarely be corrected until it is brought into the consciousness of the teacher and a method worked out by the teacher or by others in conjunction with him, which actually does correct the difficulty. There must, therefore, be provision for the correction of the difficulties that are revealed by the diagnosis of the measurements. At the present time, with the small knowledge of how they may best be corrected in individual cases, experimentation forms the chief source of power. The method of experimentation, the trying of various methods of attack under controlled conditions, is the solution to the problem that has been worked our successfully in the Detroit system. Taken by itself, without reference to anything else that the teacher may be doing, and continued by the school system after a teacher has approached a point of diminishing improvement in his skiUs, this plan would undoubtedly serve as a mechanizing instrument. After a certain time the criticism engendered by it would probably be captious and in the main destructive. The teacher might also be encouraged to attain merely the minimal standards laid down, thus effectually deadening the teaching in the class-room. The school system should appreciate this danger, at the same time recognizing the potential values inherent in the procedure, and it should take steps to offset the danger, and to realize the full values. Testing may be utilized in many different ways, of which the way here advocated is only one. It is assumed that after a teacher has appreciated the value of testing in other ways he will not only be willing but anxious to have tests used for the benefit of his children. This will of course improve the quality Fundamentals of Improvement 103 of his class instruction. Testing may be utilized to prevent over- mechanization of school work as well as promote it. Thus if the tests are used to indicate the maximum of skills desired ia children, rather than the minimum of these skills, tests may act to prevent undue emphasis on these phases. The purpose of this plan is constructive aid to the teacher in the perfection of desirable skills, not solely inspectorial criticism.- Therefore, when the teacher reaches a satisfactory stage in the development of his skills he should be relieved of involuntary adherence. This in itself would form a desirable incentive to the teacher to improve, and is one safeguard that the school system might employ. A second safeguard is proposed in a later section whereby this improvement in skills is supplemented, during the same period that it is taking place, by a voluntary improvement in further ways. THE PROBLEM OF THE INCREASE OF MASTERY OF SUB- JECT-MATTER WITH THE TEACHER IN SERVICE The problem of the increase of mastery of subject-matter by teachers has been an insistant one, and at least indirectly recog- nized for many years. Teachers and boards of education have felt it and the problem is intimately connected with the growth of the teachers' colleges, university departments of education, and other agencies. The indirect evidence of its insistence and its importance if reflected unmistakably in the data presented in this study. Even a casual analysis of the data reveals the almost overwhelming preponderance of recognition which is attached by various school systems in this country to this phase of the improvement of the teacher. In the development of study groups, of special classes for special instruction, of university-extension classes, of normal- school extension classes; in the growth of correspondence study courses, of state extension classes, and similar classes under boards of education; in the work of Chautauquas, in teachers' meetings, in institutes, and teachers' associations; in clubs of all sorts, specialized and departmental; in the inducements and incentives for study that are offered by boards of education; in the salary schedules and in individual study; in all these is evidenced not 104 Improvement of Teachers in Service only the need of teachers for further study in subject-matter fields, but also the remarkably varied measures that have been taken to provide for teachers the educational opportunities they want and need. There is also evidence, direct evidence, of the need, in the reports of superintendents of schools. One aspect is shown is the following quotations: A teacher's period of service may extend over many years. During that time radical changes in educational method and practice may take place. It is very desirable that all teachers should keep abreast of the times and maintain a high degree of efficiency. This can only be done through outside study, which demands both time and money. (Providence, R. I., 1915-16, p. 61.) A feature of the salary schedule in Johnstown, Pa., (1920, p. 50, see p. 48) expresses the same need. So also in Wheeling, W. Va. : A teacher's duty is unquestionably to keep abreast of the best thought and practice of the day in her line of work. If there is one thing evident above all others in the educational world it is that not only the form of the subject- matter of studies but the methods of teaching them have changed. And we must change with them. (1906, p. 31.) A different idea is contained in the following: To be strong stimulating teachers, it is not enough to have once known the subject-matter of the course of study. Teachers must continually renew their knowledge of the subject-matter they are teaching and of the subject- matter their pupils have been taught before coming to them, as well as the subject-matter they will be taught after promotion. Teachers must again and again re-study the subjects in the light of new knowledge and with a view of better adapting their teaching to their pupils. (Memphis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 34.) The same writer says later: . it is easier to reconcile teachers to being entertained by addresses by able speakers from the different walks of life, on general subjects or on novel educational subjects than to reconcile them to a critical study of the subject- matter and methods of the common branches. (Memphis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 38.) The study that teachers make in order to increase their knowledge of subject-matter seems to be profoundly influenced Fundamentals of Improvement 105 by several factors. The most obvious factor is the courses that are offered. Superintendent Downes reports that: Two hundred and fifty, or seventy-eight per cent, of the three hundred twenty-two teachers of the city, enrolled in the class in applied psychology conducted during the winter. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1916, p. 17.) It seems probable that if more courses were offered in this case fewer teachers would have taken this particular one. Super- intendent Boyer writes similarly. (Atlantic City, N. J., 1916, p. 20 quoted p. 20.) As elements of this factor the availability of agencies, such as schools, colleges and universities, which offer work for teachers, the availabiUty of instructors quahfied to give it, and the availa- biUty of books, magazines, and other materials, are important considerations in the determination of what is offered. A second factor of large influence is the inducements that are offered to teachers to do this type of work. The results of the bonus that was offered for summer session attendance at Auburn, N. Y., are especially instructive. (.Auburn, N. Y., 1918-19, p. 23 — quoted p. 23.) Credits that may be used toward the gaining of collegiate degrees play no small part as an element of this factor. Super- intendent Fitzgerald writes: The teacher . receives credit from the college for attending the lectures (which credit counts towards a degree from that college) . (Cambridge, Mass., 1920, p. 17.) Assistant Superintendent Gannon reports similarly. (Wor- cester, Mass., 1919, p. 706 (34), quoted p. 24.) A third element of this factor is the credit or allowance which certain Boards of Education make toward increases in salaries for satisfactorily completed study. (Beverly, Mass., 1918, p. 8 quoted p. 51.) A third factor consists in the requirements that are made relative to the advanced study. In some places professional im- provement is mandatory, as in Johnstown, Pa. and Portland, Ore. (See pp. 47 and 48.) In most cases, however the require- ment is less definite and is influenced largely by the judgment of 106 Improvement of Teachers in Service the superintendent of schools, or by the board of education. (See Bulletin oj General Injormation, Rochester, N. Y., quoted p. 55.) A fourth factor of influence is what or how much the teachers can afford. The evidence of this type is mainly negative and con- sists largely in the efforts that teachers make to bring speakers and lecturers to their cities, in the efforts to secure the cooperation of the public in these enterprises, and in the success of the libraries, clubs for the exchange of magazines and similar agencies. A fifth factor which influences the work that teachers actually do is their own interest or desire. This factor operates either only when all of the other factors are not present, or when the other factors, or some of them, are ignored. There is no direct proof of this, but if there are no local regulations as to the work which will result in promotion, or if the work that is given locally is not taken merely because it is offered, or if the work is not taken because it is required, or if the teacher can afford to go to the place where certain work is given, the work that is actually taken is in all probabihty the work that the teacher wants. The work that the teachers take reveals their actual needs in various ways, but chiefly through the continued existence of the various types of work. It also reveals the teachers' needs as lecturers conceive of them, or the needs that educational writers and publishers believe that teachers have; it reveals the needs of teachers as seen by boards of education or other controlhng agen- cies; and it reveals what colleges, universities and normal schools believe that teachers want. It is all merely a quahtative revela- tion, however. It is not quantitative in any degree. Until by actual trial and experimentation as to the relationship of these needs to the actual results of efforts to meet them as measm-ed by the improvement of class-room work, or until some device is avail- able for discovering the proportion of teachers that have different types of needs, there can be no absolute determination. AU that is possible at the present time is a relative determination, and this is in progress in a definite way in several cities in this country, notably in Cincinnati, Detroit, Cleveland and St. Louis. (See pp. 14 ff.) A provisional classification of the needs of the teachers as far as they may be identified in this study may be formulated as follows: Fundamentals of Improvement 107 Type 1. StrBjECT-MATTER Extension This means the enrichment of the subject-matter knowledge of a teacher with respect to content of the elementary-school curriculmn. A large part of the work that teachers take under the direction of boards of education is of this type. (See Water- bury, Coim., 1918, p. 45, quoted p. 35, and Muskogee, Okla., 1910-11, p. 20, quoted p. 38.) Type 2. The Technical Aspects of Subject-Mattee AND Subject-Matter Presentation and Instruction The field which this covers is relatively narrow at the present time but the field is constantly being added to with fresh accessions to our available knowledge. On the side of the technical aspects there is the psychology of the special subjects, such as the psy- chologies of reading, speUing and arithmetic, all of which are fairly well developed. Fiirther development in the psychology of such subjects as literature, geography, history, civics and the industrial arts may be expected in the near future. On the side of subject- matter presentation and instruction there is the already abundant and rapidly increasing mass of material dealing with tests and measurements and their relation to the method of teaching. There is further the special and general aspects of the field of method itself. It is this latter portion of the whole field that is best represented at the present time in the work that teachers now take. (See Olean, N. Y., 1907-11, p. 26, quoted p. 60; Trenton, N. J., 1918, p. 39, quoted p. 22.) Type 3. The Theory of Subject-Matter and the Theory of Education in General Reference is here made to courses in the philosophy of educa- tion, educational values, educational psychology in the broader sense, educational sociology and the hke. (See Portland, Me., 1919, p. 9, quoted p. 40 and Auburn, N. Y., 1918-19, p. 23, quoted p. 60.) Type 4. The Subject-Matter Already Standardized In Pre-Service Education In some cases the subject-matter courses that are given are of the same nature as pre-professional courses. They are given 108 Improvement of Teachers in Service for the purpose of giving the teacher an elementary type of train- ing that he has not had before, or in rare instances, to prepare him for a different position in the school system. While they constitute a certain type of improvement in service, and under certain condi- tions as will be later pointed out a worthy type, they do not rep- resent this so much as they represent the acquisition by the teach- er of elements that will qualify him for another sort of position. (See New York City, (2) 1914, p. 132, quoted p. 30) Type 5. Courses or Activities Not Directly Con- nected WITH THE Work of the Teacher Whether or not these courses contribute to the professional improvement of the teacher depends on the attitude of the teacher himself, but the three types of courses or activities which may be included in this group are only distantly related to the school work. The three types may be termed (a) academic courses, taken to satisfy the requirements for a degree, (b) general courses, taken for their intrinsic interest, and (c) those actiArities partaking of the qualities of entertainment. In many cases, obviously, the types overlap, but they evidence a possible need on the part of teachers, and as such find a place in this list. Of those courses of the academic type, the following have been cited: Indianapolis, Ind., 1916, p. 33., quoted p. 20: and Wor- cester, Mass., 1919, p. 706 (34) quoted p. 24. Of the courses or lectures of more general character, probably taken for their intrinsic interest the following have been cited: Springfield, Ohio, 1916-17, p. 60, — quoted p. 41 : East Providence, R. I., 1915, p. 36,— quoted p. 41 : and WilUamsport, Pa., 1918-19, p. 12 — quoted p. 41. The activities of the third type consist mainly of concerts, musicals, and the like, supported by the teachers and frequently by the general public as well. It seems evident that many teachers, in spite of little hope of recognition of their efforts, try to improve themselves and their work by further study. It is also evident that a little stimulation, or the pressure of the opinion of their associates, or the official recognition of such efforts, makes many more teachers anxious to enlarge their equipment, broaden their outlook, and improve Fundamentals of Improvement 109 their teaching. It is highly inefficient, and wasteful from the standpoint of the best interests of the public, for the school system not to recognize to the fullest possible extent its duty and its opportimity for stimulating in every possible way the growth of the teacher in service. The satisfaction of these needs by the greatest number of teachers in that proportion best suited to the greatest improvement in their teaching should be the aim. It is clear that this does not mean rapidity of attainment so much as continuity of attainment, and variety of attainment so proportioned that there accrues from it the greatest amount of improvement obtainable by each teacher. The school system is in a strategic position, because it has either direct or indirect control so far as its teachers are concerned over practically all of the factors which operate in determining what studies the teachers undertake. The control which it may exert has many phases. It may be mandatory. In itself mandatory control may be direct or indirect, but in the end both types amoimt to the same thing, — namely the forcing of the teacher to take a certain amount of work so that he may "improve." In direct control the teacher is required, in order to hold his position (theoret- ically) in the school system, to take a certain specified amount of work in a certain specified period. Such control is very infre- quently found and does not seem to be generally accepted as a desirable principle upon which to work. (See Portland, Ore., p. 47, Austin, Tex., p. 57, and Johnstown, Pa., p. 48.) A second type of mandatory control is somewhat indirect. It requires teachers to attend certain meetings the other purposes of which are legitim- ately mandatory, such as the discussion of the routine of the system, and then using the meetings in part for educational pur- poses. This, while in a sense less objectionable than the first tj^e, nevertheless has unfortimate features, that are easily recognized by the teachers. (See Memphis, Tenn., 1911-12, p. 37 quoted p. 46.) Anything that tends to minimize the interest or effort of the teacher tends to minimize the good that can result from the work that he does, and this good is too important to be prejudiced in this way. A second type of control may be financial. It recognizes that there are certain things which the teacher does not have to 110 Improvement of Teachers in Service do but which if they are done by him increase his value to the system, and are therefore worthy of some financial recognition. This type of control has been recognized to a limited extent, and reveals itself in various ways. The two means most generally used are (a) the salary schedule, in which attainment of this sort from a number of different sources is recognized as a basis for salary increases, and (b) the bonus which amounts practically to a repayment to the teacher of part or all of the expenses incurred in undertaking the work. (See pp. 47 and 26.) A third type of control may be distinguished, which partakes somewhat of the latter type, but is chiefly a type of stimulative control. This consists in offering some sort of subsidy or scholar- ship for the taking of the work, — i. e. support at and during the time the work is being taken as differentiated from the bonus which is a reward after the work is finished, — or it may take the form of offering leave of absence for the purpose of study or travel. (See pp. 26 ff. and pp. 54 ff.) A fourth type of control may be termed "professional", in that it involves the classification of teachers within a system according to their professional attainment, which in this case is measured by the efforts of the teacher to improve his professional equipment. It is generally recognized as a higher and more de- sirable form of control than the others outlined. (See p. 50.) In all of these types the control consists in the hind of study that is made mandatory, that is recognized financially, that it is attempted to stimulate, or that leads to professional recognition. While the amount of work is specifically stated, as so many credits or so many class hours, the standards by which the worth of the credits are judged are both variable and indefinite. (See p. 52 and p. 54.) The problem of mastery of subject-matter is for the most part the problem of the best use of this control by the school system, inasmuch as the control of the factors which contribute to it rest so largely in the school system. Mandatory control, in order to be legitimate, requires two things: (a) a definitely fixed and objective standard of efficiency or improvement, which teachers may be required to attain, and (6) adequate means for the measuring of all teachers so that the exact degree of attainment may be discovered for each one. The Fundamentals of Improvement 111 first is only partially available at this time, and even then through indirect means; the second cannot yet even be approached. If there are, therefore, at least for the great majority of teachers, means of achieving the desired ends that are not mandatory, as there are in this case, they should certainly be utilized wherever possible. Financial control has two aspects, recognitory and stimulative. It is in the power of the school system to recognize the increased worth of teachers by means of adequate salary increases, and at the same time by carefully planning the schedule of increase or the elements upon which it is based, to stimulate teachers to efforts to improvement. A basic requirement of the salary schedtde is that no distinction be made between the different divisions of teachers in the school system. One superintendent writes: A teacher may be very successful in one grade, but a promotion to a higher grade brings her in contact with older pupils and different subjects, and her work may become mediimi or poor. Such a change causes a reduction in efficiency and so becomes a loss to the school system. Some provision is needed whereby a teacher can receive adequate reward for improvement without a resort to the experiment of transferring her to a higher grade. (Providence, R. I., 1915-16, p. 60.) E. S. Evenden writes: Who can say whether any one of these divisions is more necessary or im- portant than another, and, consequently, why should the distinction be made either in amount of preparation considered necessary or in the salary paid?' Educationally this sititation constitutes at present perhaps the greatest single obstacle to progress. As long as the situation requires that a teacher rise by chang- ing his work instead oj by capitalizing his experience and improving his work, little genuine progress toward professional efficiency can be realized.' With the assurance that his efforts toward improvement would be adequately recognized, the teacher is reheved from ic- vidious comparisons, between grades, ranks, classes, or divisions of the service. A second basic requirement is a recognition of the increase in the value of the teacher to the school system because of the in- crease in skiUs. Dr. Evenden says: 'Evenden, E. S., Teachere' Salaries and Salary Schedules, Washington, Nat. Ed. Assn. Com- mission Series, No. 6, 1919, p. 146. ^Bulletin No. 14, The Professional Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York, 1920, p. 137. £>^' 112 Improvement of Teachers in Service The most acceptable plan for granting increases seems to be to grant the same increase for each year of successful experience until the maximum is attained for that particular kind of work. It would seem that for an adequate- ly prepared teacher, that is one who has had six or more years' preparation above the elementary school, no annual increase should be less than $100 or given for less than six or eight years.' A third basic requirement is the recognition of the increase in the value of the teacher to the school system because of his in- creased mastery over subject-matter. This is doubtless just as real a value to the system as that of the increased value due to experience, or increase in skills. It has been less generally recog- nized, however and has been put into effect only partially. The cities, (a) which grant salary increases for the accomplishment of certain amounts of work undertaken during service, or (b) which make distinctions in the salary schedule between teachers holding professional degrees, or (c) which make salary distinctions for differences in the excess of professional work which teachers have taken beyond the minimal requirements for appointment to a teaching position, recognize this principle. On the stimulative side, in addition to the stimulation which results from a schedule based on the principles outlined above, the granting of a bonus for certain amounts of work undertaken, for definite periods of time, or a limited number of bonuses may, while merely adding temporarily to the teacher's salary, be a great stimulation to effort, although it does not recognize the increase in value of a teacher merely because of the effort. In this con- nection Dr. Evenden says; This is merely helping the teacher, to the extent of the amount given, to pay the extra expenses caused by attending the summer school, and makes no allowance for the fact that the teacher is a stronger teacher. Better results would doubtless be obtained from the teachers and better re- turns of the investments for the district if this sum, for example $50, not only should be given for the year the teacher attends summer school, but should be a permanent increase to the salary that she is otherwise entitled to.'' Professional control, too, may be either recognitory or stimu- lative. It is closely allied to financial control, and becomes in- extricably a part of financial control, when professional attainment 'Evenden, E. S., op. at., p. 142. 'Evenden, E. S., iUd., p. 144. Fundamentals of Improvement 113 is included in the salary schedule. Professional control implies the division of teachers into classes in recognition of different degrees of professional attainment. It is different from financial control in view of the fact that salary differences need not be a necessary accompaniment. H. T. Manuel of the Colorado State Normal School proposes four general classes of teachers, "for illustration only" : (1) The master teacher, a person who has had at least four years of col- lege training beyond the high school, and either as a part of his college course, or in addition to it, the equivalent of one year of approved professional train- ing; and who has had at least three years of successful teaching experience subsequent to the completion of the educational requirements. (2) The registered teacher, a person who has had at least two years of professional training consisting of approved academic and professional courses beyond the high school, and who has had two years of successful teaching experience subsequent to the completion of his educational requirements, but who has not completed the requirements for a master's rating. (3) The apprentice teacher, a person who has less than the qualifications required for the rating of a registered teacher. (4) The specialist, a master teacher who has the additional training and experience to entitle him to classification as a specialist in specified forms of educational work.' Dr. Evenden, in his discussion of "The Element of FlexibiUty in Salary Schedules", says the following: For example, where it is desirable to increase a teacher's salary over what the regular schedule calls for, she may: (1) be changed to another position with a higher schedule; (2) be made demonstration teacher for her subject or grade; (3) be placed in charge of a special experiment; (4) be made responsible for some assistant supervision with younger teachers; (5) be made assistant principal of the building in which she works; (6) be made responsible for a certain form of community service; or (7) be put in general charge of some extra school activity of the children. Many such adjustments may be made and in most cases, they will mean merely an addition to the teacher's title, since if she is the kind of teacher who deserves the extra compensation, she will undoubtedly be doing several kinds of extra work for which she might be singled out and rewarded. The use, not to excess of this principle of flexi- bility enables a salary schedule to remove unnecessary worry from the teachers, and yet retain promise enough of reward to appeal to the most ambitious. Each teacher may then strive to acquire special skill in her work, and may know that hard conscientious work at all times will undoubtedly not go unrewarded.' 'Manuel, H. T., Training Teacliers in Service, School and Society, Vol. XIV, No. 336, December 1, 1921, p. 634. "Evenden, E. S., op. cit., p. 145. 114 Improvement of Teachers in Service These means of control depend for their effectiveness upon the requirements or limitations they place upon the work that they recognize or attempt to stimulate. As has been stated these limitations are extremely variable. At one extreme are the limi- tations merely of the accessibility of various types of work, while at the other extreme are the more elaborate schemes of granting credits such as those reported from Beverly, Mass., and La Crosse, Wisconsin. (See p. 51 and p. 53.) In most cases where specific limitation is mentioned in connection with the granting of leaves of absence or for the granting of a bonus, the matter of decision as to whether or not the work elected by the teacher is professional is left to the superintendent of schools or the board of education. The criterion for the determination of the recognitory value of any of the courses or studies in question is the improvement which they engender in the teacher's work and which makes the teacher a more valuable member of the teaching body. It would be difficult to say, impossible in our present state of knowledge, where the hne should be drawn between the studies that would result in an improvement in teaching, and those that would not so result. Probably few things that a teacher could do in the way of advanced study would fail to have some effect in making him a better teacher. Any extension of knowledge, however small, would doubtless have a positive influence upon the teacher's worth. The real question, however, is not what policy will lead to some improvement, but what pohcy will lead to a maximum of improvement. A final solution based upon careful measurements is obviously not possible here. All that can be hoped for is a provisional solution based upon the best evidence available, and guided by principles which will be generally accepted. Few people would question that the problem of the school system is to stimulate the teachers to the greatest possible growth. At the same time the school system must protect itself by circumscribing the work that will be recognized for advancement through salary, bonus, or professional position, to the end that real well-rounded improvement results. Before determining in just what way it may circumscribe the kinds and amounts of work or study to be stimulated and recog- nized, the school system must take account of two factors. These are, first, the purposes or sequence of purposes, which teachers Fundamentals of Improvement 115 have or might have in undertaking the work; and secondly certain factors operating in the case of the in-service work of teachers which would tend of themselves to limit the values of what the teacher might do. It is recognized that for various reasons some teachers will not be permanent in the service and that others will change their work within the service. Many of them will remain in the system only a short time. Some will move into other types of teaching positions within the system. Some will become administrators, or specialists, or supervisors. The studies that are recognized, nevertheless, must be of such a character that the work will be of value to the school system regardless whether the teacher re- mains permanently. Of course the longer a teacher remains the greater will be the returns which will accrue to the system, because such improvement is cumulative, but the first consideration is that the early study that is outHned should have the largest im- mediate values. This will insure a maximum of direct influence upon teaching among those who will soon leave the service, and may also serve to increase the probability of holding in the service or of increasing the tenure of some who might otherwise leave. For those who remain as teachers, or who remain within the system even in other capacities, there comes the increasing import- ance of the remote values, those values which become fuUy realized only if the teacher does remain in the system. They are the founda- tion elements upon which the teachers may build for the satisfac- tion of their ultimate purposes. These purposes the school system must recognize and prepare to meet. It must recognize that from the teaching staff, as school systems are at present organized, must come the larger number of those individuals who make up master teachers and the administra- tive and supervisory officers of the school system. While it has been stated as unsound to expect that a teacher, in order to gain a higher remuneration for his services, should be obliged to become a supervisory or administrative officer, it is clearly just as unsound not to allow those whose qualifications make them capable and desirous of assuming such positions, to prepare for them. The implication is that if, because of custom or otherwise, there is any salary differential between the supervisory positions and the teach- ing positions that require equal preparation and comparable 116 Improvement of Teachers in Service ability that differential should not be so large as to tempt teachers to become either supervisory or administrative officers unless qualified by preparation and ability to do so. In addition, because a large part, if not all, of the advanced study that a teacher may undertake is now felt to be worthy of credit toward a recognized professional degree, and because such professional recognition is highly valued by teachers, as is evidenced by the large number who undertake such work for degrees, the work that the school system recognizes should be of such a charac- ter that it will count toward a degree. In order to stimulate pro- fessional recognition, the school system should distinctly encour- age courses of collegiate grade, and should recognize such courses in terms of the accepted professional units, credits, semester hours, or their equivalents. Such a procedure would not only simplify the administration of recognition, but would add a very desirable stimulus. The limiting factors connected with the work that the teacher might do consist in the continuity, the sequence, and the distribu- tion of the study. These are mainly dependent upon the time which the teacher has available for such study. The main duty of the teacher is the work that he does for andintheclass-roomwith his pupils. Anything else that he does must not prejudice his work there. This must be recognized as the great differentiating principle that distinguishes pre-service and in-service study of the same character. There must be continuity in the work that is recognized. It is generally agreed that a policy which allows work to be taken irregularly, and in isolated and unrelated units is wasteful and ineffective. A true curriculum is more than a mere aggregation of courses, it is an or- ganization dominated by a unitary purpose. If this principle is to be worked out effectively, each instructor must necessarily be familiar with the work of the other instructors. The careful periodic adjustment of the various parts of the educational organism is just as necessary as the careful, periodic adjustment of a watch or of any other finely organized structure. It makes for a maximum of efficiency and a minimum of waste.' To be of greatest value the study of the teacher should be so planned that the growth is continuous. This is the problem of 'Bulletin No. 14, op. a(., p. 183. Fundamentals of Improvement 117 sequence as well as the problem of continuity. In addition the work must be so distributed that the teacher does not take the same type of study over a long period so that the interest which he may have in it is allowed to diminish. These three factors — continuity, sequence, and the distribution of the study — are the important factors in determining the curriculum for the teacher in service. The time that is necessary for the teacher through in- service courses to cover a certain amount of groimd is so much greater than if the same ground is covered in pre-service coiuses, that these factors become of tremendous importance. If an analogy may be justly drawn between the amount of training and education which a teacher needs in order to be an efficient practitioner and the amount of education and training that is considered wise and necessary in other professions it would seem that before specialization is encouraged a broad grounding in educational fact and theory should be guaranteed. The accepted minimtmi point for this is the gaining of the Bachelor's degree, or, in terms of professional units one hundred twenty or more semester hours of collegiate study. In other branches of teaching this amount of study is becom- ing more and more recognized as necessary for the teacher entering the profession. The generally accepted minimal requirement for a high school teacher, or for the jimior high school teacher, much of whose work was only recently on the elementary school level, is the Bachelor's degree. It does not seem that the subjects of the elementary school curriculum are any less easy to master, that their range is any less wide, or that the work that is done is any less important that the curriculxma or the range or the work in these other branches of education. There ought to be at least the same attitude toward the groundings necessary for the element- ary school preparation. Strayer and Engelhardt say, There is no greater fallacy than that involved in the supposition that those who work with young children need little education. The subject-matter of the primary grades of the elementary school is extensive if one is to com- mand it in such a way as to give the very best service in this part of the school system. . . The special knowledge of children and of the technique of teaching demanded of a lower grade teacher is as difficult of mastery as that which is required of those who teach older boys and girls.' 'strayer and Engelhardt, The Class-^oom Teacher, American Book Co., 1920, p. 388. 118 Improvement of Teachers in Service Bulletin No. 14, previously cited, contains the following: A . suggestion frequently offered as a sufficient reason for the distinction in question is that the work of the four higher grades, commonly known collectively as the "high school," is "advanced" work and therefore requires the "advanced" preparation of a college course. And it is thereby implied that elementary instruction is "elementary" work and requires but "elementary" preparation or perhaps only "ordinary common sense." Historically there is much truth in this explanation. For a long period high school teaching could be prepared for only in college, while no college con- cerned itself seriously either with the studies or with the pupils of the ele- mentary school. As the normal schools gradually made good their function, the studies and pupils of the elementary school became the center of their attention. Partly for this reason and partly because the colossal size and strangeness of the new problem led many normal schools into obviously super- ficial and futile practices, the whole movement was ignored and often actively misunderstood by the colleges. The work of the normal schools, extended and systematized by university and college departments of education, has brought into being a type of prepara- tion fully as indispensable to the elementary teacher and to society as a col- lege course can possibly be to a high school instructor. The work of one has become as "advanced" as that df the other, tho it deals with different materials. Compared with the secondary teacher, whose field is narrowly limited, the competent lower grade instructor must possess a sure mastery in a relatively wide range of subjects — a mastery that the present brief training restricts almost to the bare material to be taught. The technical difficulties of teaching and of class management appreciably increase in passing from the higher to the middle levels of public school instruction; the equipment of the elementary teacher in skillful technique must therefore be correspondingly greater. In contrast with the strong natural sympathy existing between the well-chosen adult teacher and the mature or adolescent youth, a teacher of younger children finds a competent knowledge of his pupils and a permanent interest in them to be a more remote and more difficult acquisition that must be sustained, if at all, by motives implying a large social horizon and purpose. The lack of this ; due to insufficient education, is precisely the secret of the mechanical and commonplace older "grade" teacher, familiar to every observer. So far as the work itself is concerned, therefore, it must be con- tended that there is no longer any teaching position in the list for which "ad- vanced" preparation may justly and profitable be denied in favor of any other.' From another standpoint at least the equivalent of two years of this broad education beyond the present standard normal- school training seems necessary. The materials from which this further education may be drawn are in themselves so abundant and so rich, and their effect upon the work of the teacher is so 'Bulletin No. 14, op. dt., pp. 133-134. Fundamentals of Improvement 119 important in that they lift the teacher beyond the mere essentials of his teaching required for the satisfaction of minimal school standards, that for this desired improvement, as well as for the laying of the groundwork of all that may come later, their acquisi- tion becomes even more important. The curriculxim that is outUned, should, in the main, recognize the needs of the teachers, first, in the extension of the subject- matter of the elementary school subjects. The field is rich in possibiUties, is full of material of intrinsic interest, and the results, in immediate values, are great. It is perfectly possible to organize courses, that are worthy of collegiate recognition in arithmetic, in English, in history, in geography, in civics and in the industrial arts of the elementary school, beyond the limitations that time puts on the work of the two year normal school crn'riculum. These courses should correlate with and parallel the work that the teacher is doing in the class-room, and as such give that work new impetus and new meaning. Because of their large immediate values they should form the core of the earlier efforts of the teachers in the extension of their study toward the Bachelor's degree. Binding these courses together, and making them better under- stood, either as separate courses or as a part of the others in the form of the newer type of professionalized subject-matter courses, should be the study of the instructional technique and other technical aspects of this same subject-matter. The returns from this type of study are perhaps not so immediate and the values, in terms of their effect on the teacher's work in the class-room, are more remote, but their necessity is just as great. In addition to these, and in order that the teacher may have a broader imderstanding of his place in education, and the rela- tionship of his work to the purposes of education, there should be courses in the theoretical aspects or principles upon which educa- tion rests, courses in the philosophy of education, educational sociology, educational values, the psychology of learning, and the history of education. Assuming that part of this advanced study may be undertaken through extension courses, or their equivalents, during the period of the year that the schools are in session, the time that it would require for a teacher whose education has been two years in a standard normal school, would of course be variable. With con- 120 Improvement of Teachers in Service tinuous work on the part of the teacher it would probably take six or seven years. Some teachers might be able to do it in a briefer time at no detriment to their school work. During the year that the teacher is serving as a novice, the work and discussions in con- nection with that training should occupy his whole time. Starting then in the second year of service it would be possible to him to make progress toward a degree; this degree, if guarded as has been suggested, would guarantee the type of desired further education. At least sixty semester hours in addition to the two years of nor- mal-school work would be required for a degree. If the teacher should earn an average of ten semester hours credit a year, the degree could be achieved in six years. The possible combinations are many. With only one course, carrying two hours' credit a semester, the teacher could earn four credits during the school year. This is fewer than many teachers actually earn who are working for a degree while in service. If the teacher were to attend a summer school an additional six credits would not be unreasonable. Whatever the combinations are, and they must fit the individual needs and opportunities of the teachers, the fundamental require- ment throughout is that referred to, — namely, the laying down of definite recognitory requirements so that the teachers may know within what limits their work should he. The problem of the teacher desiring to enter the system, and already holding a Bachelor's degree, introduces a complication which must be met. The logical answer is simply that in so far as the work done in earning that degree parallels the work that the school system recognized in its schedule of professional ad- vancement, just so far the school system may recognize the work that such teachers have done. With the acquisition of the Bachelor's degree the teacher should not discontinue his advanced study nor should the effort of the school system to stimulate him to fm-ther growth cease. Here the school system faces a two-fold problem; on the one hand it must make further study necessary in order that the teacher may grow, and on the other hand, it must make the recognition of that further improvement worth while. As has been stated, it may be expected that the master teachers, the supervisors and the administrative officers of the system will be recruited in the main from the teaching force. It is from this group of broadly trained Fundamentals of Improvement 121 graduate teachers, who have wide knowledge, and sympathetic a,nd understanding insight, and who have grown continuously since entering the work, that those who fill these positions should come. These teachers should be beyond the necessity for supervision for the acquisition of skills, and because of that the school system should recognize them as worthy of a confidence in their powers which it has not previously accorded to them. Up to the time of their graduation they shovdd have received financial recognition of their increase in skills, but by that time they should have reached the maximum. After graduation they should be placed on another financial schedule designed to recognize their higher professional qualifications. This is the strategic time for the school system to place teach- ers on indefinite tenure. They have proved their willingness to grow and to become better teachers. Indefinite tenure is a recog- nition of the value of the teacher to the system, of the confidence that the system has in him, and it makes the place of the teacher in the system secure. This is also the strategic time for the school system to recognize that the teacher does not need the same sort of supervision as does the journeyman teacher, and that the grad- uate teachers in general shoxild be relieved of supervision save that which they themselves ask for; namely, help on particular prob- lems. These suggestions are not new. The discussion merely brings into one unified plan the details now found in several systems. From this time on, the teacher should be encouraged to capi- tahze his mastery, and to become a teacher on a higher professional level than the journeyman teacher. This can be done by the school system through adequate recognition of the teacher's efforts, and through giving these teachers the opportunity to make their teaching have a wider significance. Recognizing the superior attainment of the graduate teacher, he should be given a choice of the various possibihties that lie before him. In these possibilities there should be professional differentiation but not significant financial difference. (1) There is, first, the possibility that he may become a master teacher in the system. In this position he would be professionally recognized as a master teacher of children. Special opportvmities should be 122 Improvement of Teachers in Service given him to exercise his mastery in a wider field. One of these might be the use of his services with the journeyman teachers somewhat on the plan of the reserve teacher. (See p. 78.) (2) A second possibility is his development into a master training teacher whose business will be the oversight of the novice teachers. (3) A third possibility is his development into a siibject^natter specialist. In this case he might become an observation teacher, a demonstration teacher for the novice teachers in the teaching centers, as well as for the journeyman teachers. (4) As a fomih possibility he may become a special teacher — that is, a specialist in the teaching of variant types of children. (5) A fifth oppor- tunity is for his development into an experimental specialist — that is a specialist for the supervision and help of the journeyman teachers. (6) A sixth possibility is his development into an administrative officer of the school system — a school principal or an assistant principal. These are all wider fields than the graduate teacher can reach without additional training. They are dis- tinctly advances of a logical sort from the traditional status of the class-room teacher, and the requirements of any of the positions necessitates further study and preparation. Once he has made a decision as to his further development the teacher should be given a choice: (1) of taking a year's leave of absence, either with part or with full pay, so that he may go to some graduate school for the particular type of further training that he needs, or (2) of continuing his work in the school system and his study along with it. In the former case the necessary preparation would come in more compact form and its benefits would be more quickly available to the system. In the latter case the teacher would not need to absent himself from his work, but the time of preparation for the new position would be longer. With the attainment of this step in his development the teach- er should be placed on the schedule for the master teachers and further recognized by a significant title. Although the necessary stimulation for such a teacher would probably come from his work, there is still need for him to continue to study in order that he may keep up with the growing knowledge of his speciality and also that his teaching may have that superadded vitality and meaning which simultaneous growth alone can give. There seems to be no good reason why the school system should not make achievement Fundamentals of Improvement 123 so desirable that there would result a number of places in the system for persons with the highest type of professional recognition, the doctorate. THE PROBLEM OF THE INCREASE IN THE IDEALISM OF TEACHERS The motive or "drive" which carries teaching to a successful conclusion has both emotional and intellectual quahties. It serves to make the teaching process full of meaning and to point the work which the teacher does. This important characteristic of the make-up of a teacher has been variously styled, no one term, completely conveying the whole meaning of the concept. Here it has been called "power" or ideahsm. Others have referred to it under the terms "ethical attitude," "attitude," "inspiration," and "changes in purposes." A formulation in objective terms has not been satisfactorily accomplished at this time. Neverthe- less, it is recognized as being both a very real thing, or a number of things, and an element the possession of which makes for better teaching. Regardless of its non-objectivity, even of the sort which has been discussed under the headings of skUls and know- ledge, there can be no doubt that idealism, to give it a single term, plays a very large part in the success of the teaching process. Dealing as he must with individuals on a somewhat lower level than himself with respect to what is being consciously taught, the teacher who lacks the stimulus that comes from a personal recog- nition of the worth of his services tends to look upon his work as perfunctory and routine — an attitude that inevitably reduces the values, both immediate and ultimate, of what he does. The in- tegrating forces that fuse into a consistent unity his skills in teach- ing his mastery of knowledge, and all of the varied ends of educa- tion are his far-seeing ideals. These serve to give him new points of view or new perspectives. These in turn make his work more meaningful to himself as well as to those whom he teaches. They aid in giving him a wider sympathy with the efforts of his pupils, and a truer measure of their progress. They tend to create a more wholesome attitude on his part both toward his pupils and toward the diverse elements in the work that he does. A clearer under- standing of difficulties which have surrounded the development of our educational ideals, a broader and brighter vision with regard 124 Improvement of Teachers in Service to these ideals, a clearer translation of his daily tasks into these ideals, and a finer appreciation of the responsibilities which are involved in teaching all tend to release new energy. To increase this energy is clearly a form of real and vital improvement. In the final analysis the possession of these ideals, both in relation to past experience, to present necessities, and to ultimate educational ends makes the profession of teaching more desirable, more satis- fying, and infinitely more worthwhile. Teachers doubtless gain much from "inspirational" lecturers. There are among educators those who can transmit their enthus- iasm and ideals to others and who can in well chosen words bring teachers to see their work in new lights and in new perspectives. The good that such educators do on the whole is imquestionably of large value. On the intellectual side there are many ways in which teachers may be led to a higher idealism. One of these is through the read- ing of good books. In addition to any informational improvement which may result there may come a new reoi^anization of the teacher's purposes, a clearer understanding of the teacher's place in education, or a fresh stimulation toward the realization of better ends. A second way is similar to this — really an extension of it. It consists in the enlargement of the teacher's knowledge of the subject-matter that he teaches. This has certain cultural aspects as well as certain professional aspects. If it gives a wider appre- ciation and respect for the materials of the elementary school curri- culum, if it shows the way toward utilizing better the energy of pupils, and if it, too, stimulates the teacher toward ever better ends, it contributes much toward the improvement of the teacher. A third way is through a more intelligent and thoughtful improvement in the philosophy of the teacher. This may come in many ways, through contacts with pupils, and colleagues, through wide and understanding reading, through classes conducted by students of educational theory, and through the guidance of master teachers. Whatever may be the means, the ends are all one — namely a clearer vision of the varied and especially the more comprehensive aims of education; a better understanding of the capacities, needs, and possibilities of pupils; a greater appreciation of the social consequences of the teacher's work; and ever better, ever higher, and ever more valid ideals of democratic education. Fundamentals of Improvement 125 The real work of the master teacher of children, which is described in a later section consists in helping those teachers who need it, to translate into terms of practice in the school-room, in the school, and in the commimity, those educational ideals, attitudes, or pur- poses, that are known only in terms of theory, or philosophy, or sociology, and to which the quality of the educational achieve- ments of the future will be due. CHAPTER IV A SUGGESTED SCHEME OF IMPROVEMENT FOR A CITY I. THE NOVICE This is a teacher who has had no experience in teaching. He has had at least two years of standard pre-service education, and may have had more. The conditions of improvement with this teacher center about the character and activities of a period of supervised teaching in a segregated center for novices. The teaching-center consists of one of the regular schools of the city, the characteristics of which are the same as in any of the other schools. The school should be under the administration of a principal sympathetic with the needs and problems of beginning teachers, and should have in addition a staff of expert training teachers. This staff should be large enough to permit each novice to have personal contact with a master training teacher for a portion of each day. If the school day is one of five hours a ratio of one training teacher to five novices would allow each novice to have the personal help of a training teacher for an hour each day. The regular activities of the school should be identical with those which prevail in the system. Each novice should have charge of his own class-room and be primarily responsible for the instruction, the discipline, and the activities which occur in it. There should be graded responsibility, under the direction and oversight of the training teacher, so that the novice can be gradu- ally inducted into the duties which he must assume as a regular teacher in the school system. The special activities of the teaching-center may well consist of discussions on the part of the novices, led and directed by the master training teachers, with a view to solving some of the prob- lems which they find in their work. It would also be well to hold group classes for the purpose of refreshing and enlarging the know- ledge which the novices received in their normal-school training. A Plan of Improvement 127 This should bear directly on the work of the class-rooms. In addition there should be definite and planned observation by the novices of the master teaching in the school system. The charac- ter of this observation has been discussed in a previous chapter. The additional problem is that of so administering the observation that the novices may receive the greatest benefit from the work. The salary of the novice should be the minimum salary paid in the sjrstem. The tenure should be on a yearly basis, and a second appointment should depend on the combined judgments of the master training teachers in the teaching-centers. A year of this supervised teaching should fit the novice for independent work in the city system, away from the teaching-center, but for novices who have great difficulty in becoming adjusted, a second apprentice year might be needed. Novices who cannot become adjusted after a trial of two years should be advised to give up teaching as a profession. No novice should be allowed to do substitute teaching. On the satisfactory completion of the prescribed period in the teaching-center the novice should be advanced to the next grade in the classification. II. THE JOURNEYMAN TEACHER This teacher has completed the work of the teaching-center, and has been appointed as a regular teacher in the school system. He has had no preparation of collegiate grade beyond that with which he entered the system. The conditions of improvement with this teacher center about two phases, (a) that of improvement in skills, and (b) that of improvement in knowledge or mastery of subject-matter. The improvement in skills depends upon the discovery and correction of those difficulties which are evidenced in the management of his class-room, and in the deficiencies that may be discovered in his teaching through the measurement of the achievement of his pupils. There should be a staff of supervisors, expert in testing the results of teaching and in interpreting the results as a measure of a teacher's ability. This staff should measure periodically the work of the journeyman teachers, by means of the best tests and measurements available. This implies the use of tests that are standardized, and the furnishing of sufficient clerical help to 128 Improvement of Teachers in Service score and tabulate the results. In the light of the results thus found the supervisors should interpret the quality of the work of the teacher and should devise ways and means to help those teach- ers in need of aid. The activities of the journeyman teachers should consist of personal and group discussions with the supervisors, who should analyze the work of the teachers in the light of the measurements, and suggest to the teachers ways of improvement. In difficult cases, with both the teacher and the supervisor ignorant as to good ways to correct difficulties, controlled experimentation should be used in an endeavor to solve the problem. The improvement in the mastery of subject-matter should supplement the improvement of the teacher in skills, and wherever possible should parallel it. The effectiveness of the work hinges upon the encouragement which is given for the study that is desired. A new professional level, above that of the journeyman teacher must be provided for the teacher to work toward, and every possible worthy inducement ought to be given to the teacher to reach it. A course of study should be outlined, as prerequisite to this new professional level, whose content should be in accordance with the suggestions in a previous chapter. (See pp. 119 &.) Cer- tain limitations should be imposed as to the amoimt of work which a teacher may carry at any one time, in order to protect the work of the teacher in the class-room. With study of the character here proposed a teacher should be able successfully to carry no more than four, or in exceptional cases, six semester hours of work at any one time. Certain advanced study must be pro- vided for during the school year. This may take the form of ex- tramural extension courses of coUegiate grade given by collegiate instructors, or of equivalent courses given at a local institution if there is one. The work that is offered at this time should cor- relate with and wherever possible parallel the work which the teach- ers do in their class-rooms. This means a close relationship be- tween the agencies that give the work and the school authorities who sponsor it. The class-room teaching should be considered as the laboratory work of the courses that are given. These courses may be of Type 1, Subject-Matter Extension of the Elementary School Subjects, (see p. 107) or Type 2, The Technical Aspects of A Plan of Improvement 129 Subject-Matter and Subject-Matter Presentation and Instruction. (See p. 107.) The plan of St. Louis, (see p. 15), that of announc- ing courses to be given over a period of years, is valuable here, as it would allow teachers to plan systematically practically the whole of their work over a considerable period. In addition to this the teachers should be encouraged to take advanced studies in summer sessions at other institutions. This work may be of Type 2, or of Type 3, The Theory of Subject- Matter and the Theory of Education in General. (See p. 107.) It would be very difficult for teachers to get equivalent value in summer sessions in courses of Type 1., because of the necessity and desirability of the close relation of such courses to the actual work of each teacher in his class-room. The other two types might also be more valuable if given in the same connection, but the differ- ences in value are probably not so great. Inducements in the form of scholarships or bonuses that will help to pay or reimburse the teacher for the traveling expenses, tuition, or part of the living expenses incurred through attendance upon summer sessions, may well be offered. The number of these scholarships allowed to any one teacher should probably be limited to not more than four, or for an equivalent of no more than half of the work required. The reason for this is that, although it is desirable to encourage summer session study, it is not desirable to encourage it to the point of inducing the teacher to take all of his advanced work in that form. Study of the Types 4 and 5 should not be encouraged at this time and should not be allowed toward this degree, unless, as may be found desirable, a certain amount of elective study is in- cluded in the cm-riculum. Specialization, too, unless it is also allowed as above, should be discouraged imtil the teacher has achieved the broad grounding guaranteed by his Bachelor's degree. The tenure of the journeyman teacher should be on a yearly basis, and the salary should be increased year by year in recognition of his increase in skUls. A maximum might well be reached in six or seven years. There should be, during that period, no in- crease in salary because of increase in mastery of subject-matter unless the teacher receives a Bachelor's degree before he has reached the maximimi of the schedule for skills. Recognition of increase in mastery of subject-matter should be delayed until after 130 Improvement of Teachers in Service the granting of the degree. The reason for this is first, that the completion of all the work included in the requirements for the degree may be encouraged, and secondly, that any tendency to make the recognition merely automatic, or confused with the salary increases for improvement in skills, may be prevented. III. THE GRADUATE TEACHER This teacher has two primary qualifications. He has, first, reached the maximum of the journeyman salary scale for increase in improvement in skills, and he has, secondly, been granted a Bachelor's degree for advanced study recognized for professional advancement by his school system. He should be encouraged to continue his growth. This in- volves, on his part, a careful analysis of the development that is possible for him to make. The school system should define these possibilities and should also place them on a higher professional level toward which he may progress. After the analysis of the further possibihties the graduate teacher should be given an oppor- timity to choose the new type of work for which he wishes to pre- pare himself, and, after having declared his choice, he should be advised as to the curriculum of studies which will prepare him for it. Should he make no decision, or wish to delay doing so, the school system should acquiesce. A further step should be the offer by the school system of a choice of leave of absence, with part pay at least, for the purpose of making the fiu-ther preparation, if the teacher has chosen his further type of work, or of continuing his study for it without taking advantage of the leave, if he so wishes. The tenure of the graduate teacher should be made indefinite, as proposed in an earlier chapter, and at the same time he should be relieved of the supervision experienced as a journeyman teacher, although he should have access to it when desired by him. The salary of the graduate teacher should be that of the maximum of the journeyman teacher, plus a substantial addition in recognition of the superior professional attainment. IV. THE MASTER TEACHER These are the expert teachers of the school system, whose pro- fessional training and teaching experience has made them special- A Plan of Improvement 131 ists and whose work should have a wider significance and a broader meaning than that of the graduate teachers. In addition to being graduate teachers — that is having increased to a satisfactory maximum their improvement in teaching skills and in addition having received a Bachelor's degree — they have made more advanced study in the speciahties of their choice. The professional level of these teachers should be above that of the graduate teachers, and in recognition of their superior pro- fessional attainment they should receive a substantial increase in salary over that of the graudate teachers. The study that is outlined for each teacher, in order that he may become a master teacher, should be specifically directed to prepare him for the particular specialty he has chosen. The fol- lowing are some types of master teachers and some of the pro- fessional needs for their development. 1. The Master Teacher of Children This is a teacher who has unusual abihty in the teaching of children and in the solving of the problems that arise in the process. In addition to being able to teach children well he should be able to teU others or show others how he does it. He should be able to advise with the graduate and journeyman teachers, should be given the opportunity to visit schools and teachers where he may be of service, and he should have no administrative or rating authority. A special ability in the collection of materials which teachers might use, in devising schemes for making the materials of the elementary school instruction more easily understood by children, or more efficiently presented to them, or in organizing materials for the use of teachers, might be capitaHzed in this way. The real work of this master teacher is to assume in the school system the work of inspiring the journeyman and graduate teachers to higher ways of teaching, of helping them to translate into their practice the theories and philosophy which they hold, and of en- couraging them in their efforts to exceed the minimal standards of the system. The special training of such a teacher should consist of a special study of the problems of elementary school instruction and supervision, and of the sympathetic and scientific approach to the problems of teachers. 132 Improvement of Teachers in Service 2. The Master Training Teacher This teacher should have great tact in dealing with young teachers, a large amount of sympathy and understanding of their difficulties, and an ability to help them constructively in solving the problems that confront them. Such a teacher should know the pitfalls that beset the path of the novice, and have an ability to analyze their difficulties. The training of this teacher should consist in special study of the technical phases of supervision and instruction, the diagnosis of the needs of the novice and the problems of criticism and con- structive help. 3. The Subject-Matter Specialist This is a class-room teacher, especially expert in the teaching of some phase of subject-matter, who does so in connection with a class of his own, or else visits other teachers in a specialty which all teachers may not be expected to be able to teach, for example, music, art, industrial arts, and the like. A teacher may capital- ize this knowledge or special ability either through acting as an observation or demonstration teacher for the novices, for students- in-training, or for journeyman teachers, or else as a special sub- ject-matter supervisor or teacher. The further training of the graduate teacher for such a posi- tion should be in the increase in his knowledge of his specialty, and in the technical phases of its presentation. 4. The Special Teacher This is a teacher with special ability in the teaching of variant types of children. He must have a great liking for and sympathy with the type of child which he aspires to teach, in addition to special training for his position. This training should consist in a specific knowledge of these variant types, and the needs of such children, as well as the psychol- ogy which has developed concerning them. It must be borne in mind that variants may be children who move more slowly than the average, or more quickly, or children, with physical defects, such as the blind and the deaf, or children who have special diffi- culties with special subjects. All of these should be cared for in the A Plan of Improvement 133 school system, and each of them requires a teacher with a different kind of training. 5. The Experimental Specialist This speciahst and his duties have been elaborated in an earlier section. Such teachers need training in the use and interpretation of tests and measurements, in the psychologies of the subjects of the elementary school curriculum, as well, if teacher is a special- ist in one subject, as a wide knowledge of that subject-matter. A knowledge of the difficulties and dangers in the work of testing is as necessary as a knowledge and a facility in the technique of giving it. Such a teacher should not have administrative duties. 6. The Administrative Officer The duties of this teacher are both administrative and super- visory. He must be able to administer his building, anticipate the difficulties of his teachers, make the routine as imobtrusive as possible, and at the same time, by wise and sympathetic coimsel with his teachers help them to improve constantly in their work. His position is very important, and his trainiag should be such as to develop these qualities to a maximum. The diagram which follows is an attempt to chart the course of a teacher's improvement in the school system. The terminology is merely suggestive, and the fact is appreciated that it is not en- tirely satisfactory. The chief reason for not using some other tei-ms suggested both by analogy with other professions and by interested individuals, is that in most cases the terms, such as "apprentice," "cadet," and "supervisor," have definite meanings other than those that might apply to them here, and which make them imdesirable for that reason. In the diagram below there may be many combinations possible. The attempt has been to keep as closely as possible to the principles that have been laid down in this study, to separate as far as possible the professional and financial aspects iavolved in teacher improvement, to separate the iacongnious elements now found in much of "supervision," and to equate equivalent training and equivalent ability. 134 Improvement of Teachers in Service Time Scale of 1 year SkiUs. . . .THE NOVICE 5-8 years . . . .THE JOURNEYMAN 1-4 years THE GRADUATE t I THE MASTER TEACHERS i Professional . . Scale i i i i Master Training Subject Special Teacher Teacher Specialist Teacher Super- i Adminis- trator BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CITY REPORTS CITED IN THE TEXT Allentown, Pa., Altoona, Pa., Atlantic City, N. J., Auburn, N. Y., Augusta, Ga., Cambridge, Mass., 1917-18 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20 1916 1918-19 1913 Austin, Tex., 1907 Bethlehem, Pa., 1915-16 1918-20 Beverly, Mass., 1917 1918-19 Boston, Mass., 1917 Brockton, Mass., 1919 Brookline, Mass., 1920 1916 1920 Canton, Ohio, (1) 1911-12 (2) 1911-12 Cedar Rapids, la.. 1913-14 Central Falls, R. I., 1921 Supt. H. W. Dodd, in Annual Report of District Superintendent. Supt. S. H. Layton, Annual Report. Same. Same. Bulletin of Atlantic City Public Schools, March, 1916. Extracts from Report of Supt. C. B. Boyer. Supt. H. D. Hervey, Annual Report. Kate P. Boggs, Director of Training School for Teachers, in Report of Public Schools of Augusta and Richmond County. Supt. R. N. McCaUum, Annual Report. Supt. Wm. G. Cleaver, Annual Report. Supt. J. N. Muir, Biennial Report. Supt. S. H. Chace, Annual Report of Superintendent in Report of School Committee. Same. Supt. F. B. Dyer, in Annual Report School Committee. Supt. J. J. Scully, Annual Report. Supt. O. C. Gallagher, in Annual Report of School Committee in Town Report. Supt. M. E. Fitzgerald, Annual Report School Committee and Superintendent of Schools. Same. Supt. of Instruction J. K. Baxter, in An- nual Report of Public Schools. Rules of the Board, in Annual Report of Public Schools. Supt. J. J. McConnell, Annual Report. Supt. R. K. Bennett, in Annual School Report. 136 Improvement of Teachers in Service Chester, Pa., 1910-11 1914-15 Chicago, 111., 1915 Cincinnati, 0., (1) 1914 (2) 1914 1916 1917 Cleveland, 0., (1) 1914-15 (2) 1914-15 1915-16 Columbia, S. C, 1913-14 Columbus, Ga., 1916 Cranston, R. I. 1914 DaUas, Tex., 1915 Dayton, 0., 1913-14 Denver, Colo., (1) 1918-19 (2) 1918-19 Detroit, Mich., 1913-14 1920 Duluth, Minn., 1912 1918 East Providence, R. I., 1915 Elmira, N. Y., 1912-13 1915-16 Supt. Thos. S. Cole, in Manual of Public Schools of the School District of Ches- ter, Pa. Supt. J. L. Eisenburg, in Manual of Public Schools of the School District of Chester, Pa. Principal Owen, Normal Training School, in Annu/d Report of the Board of Education. Supt. R. J. Condon, 85th Annual Report of Superintendent. Dean W. P. Burris, 85th Annual Report of Superintendent. Dean W. P. Burris, 87th Annual Report of Superintendent. Supt. R. J. Condon, 87th Annual Report of Superintendent. Supt. J. M. H. Frederick, 79th Annual Report of Superintendent. Asst. Supt. E. A. Hotchkiss, in 79th Annual Report of Superintendent. Supt. J. M. H. Frederick, 80th Annual Report. Supt. E. S. Dreher, Annual Report. Supt. R. B. Danniel, Annual Report. Supt. W. C. Hobbs, in Annual Report School Committee. Supt. J. F. Kimball, Anniuil Report. Supt. E. J. Brown, Annual Report. Emma B. Brown, Principal Columbian School in 16th Annual Report of Superintendent. Supt. C. S. Cole, in 16th Annual Report of Superintendent. Supt. C. E. Chadsey, Annual Report. Annual Report of Board of Education. Supt. R. C. Denfeld, Annual Report. (Typewritten.) Ethel I. Saulsbury, Supervisor of Kinder- garten and Primary Department in Reports of Supervisors in Annua Report of Board of Education. Supt. J. R. D. Oldham, Annual Report. Supt. A. J. Jacoby, Annual Report. Same. Bibliography 137 Everett, Mass., Fall River, Mass., Fargo, N. D., Fitchburg, Mass., Harrisburg, Pa., Haverhill, Mass., Houston, Tex., Indianapolis, Ind., Jamestown, N. Y., Jersey City, N. J., Johnstown, Pa., Kansas City, Mo., Kenosha, Wis., Kingston, N. Y., La Crosse, Wis., Lakewood, O., Lewiston, Me., Ljom, Mass., Manchester, N. H., Memphis, Tenn., Moline, 111., Mt. Vemon, N. Y., Muskogee, Okla., New Bedford, Mass., 1918 Supt. F. Whitney, in Annual Report of School Commiitee. 1917 Margaret A. Lynch and Ruth Negus, Primary Supervisors, in Annual Report of Superintendent. 1918 Supt. H. L. Belisle, Annual School Report. 1917-19 Supt. A. Deemer, Biennial Report. 1914 Supt. J. ChalmeTa, in Annual School Report. 1916 Supt. F. E. Downes, Annual Report. 1919 Same. 1920 Same. 1919 Supt. C. H. Dempsey, Annual Report. 1915-16 Supt. P. W. Horn, Annual Report. 1916-17 Same. 1916 Supt. J. G. CoUicott, Annual Report. 1909-12 Supt. R. R. Rogers, Triennial Report Public Schools. 1915-18 Same. 1913-14 Supt. H. Snyder, 46■ vM.;.. \ \oi893. 'He received; his ea^ly; education at the Horace ,n-,:is Mann School, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, graduatitag from the High School of the siao'-^, same institution in 1^11. He attended Haverford ^'''^''^!" ■'^ College, Haverford, Pa.," from 1910 to 1912 and ^^^^^,^ !^acdonald College, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, from 1912 to 1915, from which University he \uo,'.-j>. Y received the degree of Bachelor of 'Science in Agri- '^^^ culture in 1915. He was a student in the Columbia ^University Rummer Session .'of ,191p,.. prior to his en- -. p . trance to Haverford College, and again in the summer r sessions of 1920 and 1921, and at Teachers College, *,i!. .1'. 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