Br C.OU S95 VM'I^ :r:f^:^^s^^,^ c o !i^ m "K i!'' •>* r^ 4: 1911 1^^ ■^%- CforttcU lllmttgrattg ffiihrarg Stijaca, Nein Inrk Cornell University Library BF285 .S95 1921 olin The original of tiiis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029087033 An Experimental Study of itinaesthetic Imagery BY Alice Helen Sullivan Thesis jpre^Bteii to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell tJniversity in partial fulfilment of the require- ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Reprinted from The American Journal of Psychology January, 1921, Vol. XXXII, pp. 54-80 An Experimental Study of Kinaesthetic Imagery BY Alice Helen Sullivan Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in partial fulfilment of the require- ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Reprinted from The American JoinsNAL of Psychouwy January, 1921, Vol. XXXII, pp. 54-80 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY^ By AucE Helen Sullivan Page Introduction 54 I. Kinaesthetic Sensation and Kinaesthetic Image Compared 55 Experiment I. Preliminary 55 Experiment II 56 (1) Quality 58 "" Intensity 60 Extent 61 Duration 62 Vividness , . 62 (6) Locality 63 (7) Pattern 65 (8) Temporal Course 66 (9) " Body " or Collocation of Attributes 66 Summary 67 II. Resident and Projected Kinaesthetic Imagery 68 Experiment III. Preliminary 69 Experiment IV 69 A. Resident and Projected Kinaesthetic Imagery Compared 72 (1) Quality 72 (2) Intensity 73 (3) Extent 74 (4) Duration 74 (5) Vividness 75 (6) Locality 76 (7) Pattern 77 (8) Temporal Course 77 Summary 78 B. Some Conditions of Resident and Projected Kinaesthetic Imagery 78 Conclusion 80 Introduction In the first part of this paper we seek to determine the dif- ferences between sensory and imaginal kinaesthesis. It is often said that the kinaesthetic sensation and the kinaesthetic image are difficult or impossible to distinguish. We have attacked the problem by way of simple kinaesthetic complexes, experienced in their sensory reality and reproduced in imaginal terms. The results of this comparative study, attributive (sensational) and perceptive, are set forth on p. 67. iProm the Psychological Laboratory of Cornell University. 54 55 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY In the second part of the paper we have compared resident kinaesthesis with the projected kinaesthesis of the empathic experience. The results appear on page 78. I. KiNAESTHETIC SENSATION AND KiNAESTHETIC ImAGE Compared We wished to obtain, for the purpose of comparison, a psy- chological picture of sensory and imaginal kinaesthesis, first in attributive and then in perceptive terms. We made out 50 short commands to be read to the O's. We paired these commands for sensation and image thus : ( 1 ) " Think of : nodding your head once." (2) " Nod your head once." (3) "Raise your index finger once." (4) "Think of: raising your index finger once." In order that the should not know when to expect a sensory or an imaginal stimulus, we arranged the experiments by this schema: IS IS IS SI SI II SS IS IS IS." O sat in a dark room, facing a black wall, E sat at a table a few feet behind 0, and near a window through which a streak of light, just sufficient for his needs, was allowed to shine.^ After O had read the instructions, E asked him to close his eyes. After a few minutes of rest, to free the eyes of from possible images, E said "Ready," waited an instant, and read the stimulus-sentence. As he spoke the last word of the sentence, which was always " once," E started a stop- watch. When O said "Yes," indicating that the command had been obeyed, the watch was stopped.* Then the complete report of was taken down. An interval of IS sec. then elapsed before the giving of the next stimulus-sentence. We began the experiments in May, 1919, and carried them on during the following months of June (with the exception of a two weeks' vacation), July, August, and October. There were seven O's: Dr. L. B. Hoisington, instructor in psychology; Drs. H. G. Bishop and M. J. Zigler, assistants in psychology; Mr. P. J. Cavanaugh, Misses C. Comstock, R. Stutsman, and A. H. Sullivan, all graduate students in psychology.^ Experiment I. We performed preliminary experiments, in order to try out our 50 paired commands, and to give our O's practice in des- cribing their processes. We noticed very soon that, in the * I = Image ; S = Sensation. ' A small shaded light was used for evening experimentation. ■*We have not included the times in the following results, because we found no typical times for sensation and image, the time for the carrying out of the sensory and imaginal commands being approxi- mately the same. " St observed only during the summer term and did not complete the perceptive experiments. When the writer (Su) acted as observer, the experimenter (Ca, and later Miss M. F. Martin) made out new sets of stimulus-sentences. SULLIVAN 56 pairs designated in the schema as SI, all O's showed a tendency to be influenced in the imaginal part of the experi- ment by the report made upon the preceding sensory complex. The finding of attributive characters in the sensory complex suggested that the same attributes would appear in the image. An effort on O's part not to be thus biassed resulted often in a complete inhibition of imagery. Experiment II In the light of these preliminary experiments, we settled upon the 15 paired commands which seemed simplest and yet were adequate for our needs. We also separated and distributed the sensory and imaginal members of the pairs, so that the schema SI SI SI etc. still held good, except that the imaginal member of a given pair preceded the sensory by a number of sentences. The instructions read : " You are to follow the instructions which I shall give you and to report the experiences thus set up with especial reference to kinaesthesis. " Every kinaesthetic experience may show perceptive characters (local- ity, pattern, etc.) and attributive characters (quality, intensity, etc.). In the present series I wish you to report the experience in terms of quality, intensity, and extent. "You may neglect every other character of the kinaesthetic experi- ence, and you may neglect all non-kinaesthetic experiences aroused by the presented stimuli. " If, however, you find yourself noting any further feature of the experimental consciousness, I shall be glad if you will report it." It was necessary to fractionate the experiences for report. In Group I we asked for quality, intensity, and extent; in Group II, for intensity, extent and duration; in Group III, for extent, duration, and vividness ; in Group IV, for duration, vividness, and locality ; in Group V, for vividness, locality, and temporal course; in Group VI, for locality, pattern, and course; in Group VII, for quality, pattern, and course. In this way we covered the attributive and perceptive characters a number of times, using always the same 30 stimulus- sentences. We took one practice-series with every new group, in order that our O's might attain a fair degree of stability of attitude. Stability of attitude was not attained at once. All O's with the exception of Su were more familiar with visual imagery than with kinaesthetic. Visual images came constantly at first, and acted as a distraction. After training in the observation of kinaesthetic processes, much of the visual imagery dropped into the background, and the kinaesthetic processes were sufficient to carry the whole meaning of an imagined movement. Then the O's showed more certainty about their kinaesthetic imagery. After training, the O's were able also to describe more accurately the kinaesthetic sensory processes. Sources of error due to wrong attitudes had also to be discovered and eliminated. Some O's fell into the habit of holding or building 57 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY up the image, instead of letting it run its course naturally, as they did in the case of sensations. We had to make it clear to them that such "holding" was possible only by a shift of attitude. Another source of error was that of using a different scale for sensa- tion and image in reports upon the intensive attributes. We explained that the intensive characters mean distances from zero, and that the same scale could therefore be used in both cases. Results We found that, whereas the actual perception of move- ment aroused by our stimuli was very complex, having a num- ber of different sensations whose attributes had to be reported upon separately, the image of the movement was in some cases for all O's, and in most cases for a few O's, actually a single image-process of one quality, intensity, etc., which carried the whole meaning of movement. An actual nod, e.g., aroused several sensations ; the thought of nodding aroused, in many instances, one simple image. In' other cases, the attributive reports seemed to indicate a single image-process, but the perceptive reports which came later showed that the appar- ently simple process was in reality an imaginal complex, with a pattern and temporal course, which the attributive Aufgabe did not always bring to light. We have tabulated our results in parallel columns for sen- sation and image. * There was no mention of the terms image and sensation in the instructions; and yet our stimuli were cut closely enough so that all O's reported, with as much assurance as they would show in reporting upon visual sensa- tions and images, " I observed a kinaesthetic image," or " I experienced kinaesthetic sensations." If the O's indicated any doubt whether a slight movement had been made in the carrying out of an imaginal command, we threw out the results. The columns for sensation, then, represent reports of the experiences aroused by our sensory commands, but at the same time they represent the experiences which were introspectively recognized as sensory; while the columns for image represent reports of the experiences aroused by our imaginal commands, but only those experiences which were recognized introspectively as imaginal, « In the tables, the figures within the columns show the frequencies of report for the rubrics which head the horizontal columns. If, e.g., the number after O's initial is 3, this means that the 30 stimulus-sen- tences were repeated 3 times for report upon the character in question ; 45 experiments for sensation and 45 for image were performed. SULLIVAN 58 (1) QuaUty TABLE I Quality B (3) Ca(3) CoC3) H (3) Std) Su(3) Z (3) Total S I S I S I S I S I S I S I S I Du. P 49 10 28 15 12 40 3 5 26 23 28 9 11 29 3 29 18 19 35 5 6 33 2 13 17 35 6 34 38 11 9 47 19 16 9 11 9 17 31 20 9 20 9 38 53 6 2 24 31 1 17 34 8 199 41 8 157 189 50 75 l'i7 Br. P Drag Sm. P ?•> Strain Ache Lt. P }m Total 114 48 97 62 83 48 150 47 44 20 97 47 134 42 719 SI 4 Du. P. = Dull Pressure; Br. P. = Bright Pressure; Sm. P. = Smooth Pressure; Lt. P. = Light Pressure (or Neutral Pressure.) Ca reported also strain in the image once in the early part of the experiment. Z re- ported 3 cases of strain and 3 of bright pressure in the images. The following were also reported in early observations: sharp pressure, Z, for image 2, for sensation 4; granular pressure, Z, lor image 1, for sensation 1; coolness, Co, for sensation 2; St, for image 1; dizziness (which later was found to be nothing but dull pressure), for sensation, Ca 5; St, 1; Su, 3; for image Su, 2. We see that the characteristic qualities in kinaesthetic sensations are dull pressure, light pressure, smooth pressure, strain, and ache. These were reported by all O's except St, who reported no light pres- sure. Dull pressure averages the highest frequency, although the indi- vidual reports show that Ca, Co, and H reported the greatest number under strain, and Su the greatest number under smooth pressure. H and Z reported also bright pressure and drag. Bright pressure is experienced only when the O is in very good physical condition. Drag is very like dull pressure, and may have been considered quali- tatively the same by the other five O's. The table shows very strikingly the fact that the image is less varied in quality than the corresponding sensations. The headings for quality run thus: Observer B Ca Co H St Su Z Sensation S 5 5 7 3 S 7 Image 3 3 3 1 2 2 3 In every case a greater number of qualities belongs to sensation. Table I shows also the complexity of a perception of movement as compared with the imaginal reproduction of that movement. All the O's except St performed 45 sensory experiments and 45 imaginal ex- periments on quality. The numbers in the total at the bottom of the table show that the different O's reported from 83 to ISO separate qualities in the 45 sensory experiments, while they reported from 42 59 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY to 62 separate qualities in the 45 imasginal experiments. When we re- member that 45 is the lowest number possible if we have one image for every experiment, it becomes evident that in most cases one image carried the whole meaning of the movement, provided that we take one quality to mean a simple process.'' TABLE II Intensity B (2) Ca(4) Co (4) H (2) St (2) Su(3) Z (3) Total S I S X S I S I S I S I S I S I Strong 20 22 11 8 13 7 16 14 16 5 63 48 3 40 45 6 16 3 58 33 3 27 23 22 7 17 22 5 25 10 16 5 24 6 31 1 11 3 4 12 18 15 28 39 10 3 21 11 17 21 20 14 6 7 18 16 2 3 115 74 233 28 175 S M. St 7 Mod infi M. Wk 4'; Weak 133 V. Wk 'fiS Total 74 37 135 91 113 72 76 31 76 34 82 45 78 46 634 4?fi M. St. = Moderately Strong; Mod. = Moderate; M. Wk. = Moderately Weak V. Wk. = Very Weak. The following were reported in the early part of the experiments, and were not re- ported in later observations: kinaesthetic image, strong in intensity, Ca, 1; Co, 7; Z, 2; moderately strong, St, 1; moderate, H, 1; kinaesthetic sensation, very weak in intensity, H, 2; Su, 1; Z, 1. All the O's but H reported dull pressure for the image; all but St and Z, light pressure; all but H and Su, smooth pressure. The smooth pressure has so low a frequency as compared with the other two quali- ties that we must doubt its validity as a separate quality for the image (cf. p. 73). We may be fairly certain, then, that the characteristic qualities in kinaesthetic imagery are dull pressure and light pressure ; we may say without any doubt that all qualities in the image are "pressury" (a term used by O's in describing the quality of images). ' For some observers (H and generally Z) one quality was to all intents and purposes a simple process, but for others it was not. We must not be misled by quality, for even though there is but one quality present, we have no guarantee that the image is not complex. There are still possible variations of intensity and yividness, as well as changes in temporal course. We found, indeed, that quality often- times played a surprisingly minor role in kinaesthetic experiences. Quality is usually regarded as the individualizing attribute; but our O's were often able to describe the intensive attributes of a sensation or image when they could not describe its quality. Furthermore, the quality of the kinaesthetic images was monotonous in its sameness, and yet the image was varied and interesting because of slight shadings of intensity, or slight changes during its brief temporal course. The table shows only 42 imaginal qualities reported by Z in 45 ex- periments. In reality he reported 51 qualities, but the other 9 are in- cluded in a footnote to the table, because they are -not qualities reported by other O's and were reported by Z only in early experiments. SULLIVAN 60 There is neither strain nor ache in the image, though the kinaesthetic image may mean a movement that would be strainful or achy in sensation. There were indications that there is a difference in brightness in the qualities of sensation and image. All qualities in the sensations seem to have a certain " liveness " or brightness which the qualities in the images lack. H stated the difference thus : " The quality of the image is dead and static, while the quality of the sensation 'wells up,' has brightness or liveness or sparkle, and is dynamic." There is, of course, always the possibility that an obscure perceptual motive has colored the sensations. (2) Intensity We find that the intensity of kinaesthetic sensations ranges from strong to weak. The whole intensive scale is represented in all the reports, save that three O's report a few sensations of very weak intensity, while four report none below weak. The highest frequency of report for B and Z occurred under the rubric "moderately strong;" for Co, Ca, and St under "moderate;" and for H and Su under " weak." Thus, the middle portion of the scale was most favored. The kinaesthetic image has less range over the intensive scale than the sensation, going only from " moderate " to " very weak." There is one exception to this statement : Z reported 7 images as " mod- erately strong." Z showed a tendency to estimate all the intensive attributes high. This may have been due to the fact that he " held " his images at first; for the tendency disappeared in the later experi- ments. The highest frequency for B's images was in the " moderately weak " group; the highest frequency for Ca's, H's, and Su's images was in the " weak " group ; the highest frequency for Go's and Z's was in the " moderate " group. For all observers except Z more than half of all the images reported belong to the lower half of the scale. If we consider the totals at the left of the table, we see that the highest frequency for sensation fell under the " moderate " group, and for image, under the " weak " group. ^ We may not say, then, that kinaesthetic images are weaker in intensity than kinaesthetic sensations, for some kinaesthetic sensations are weak ; but we may say that kinaesthetic images are never strong in intensity, as kinaesthetic sensations often are.' ' We cannot expect the individual reports to agree absolutely, for our O's were using subjective scales. The small divergences from the average for the group show, however, that these scales must have been very much alike in all cases. In general, it is not the absolute estimate that we care for, but the relative judgments which show the difference between sensation and image. We do not have agreement of numbers in the grand totals in the different tables. The characters for report were fractionated, and were repeated a different number of times. ' The O's, with further training, confined their reports on intensity of images more and more to the lower part of the intensive scale (cf. p. 73). 61 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY (3) Extent TABLE HI Extent B (2) Ca(5) Co (4) H(2) St (2) Su(5) Z (6) Total S I S I S I S I S I S I S I S I V. Ex 12 14 10 6 8 6 2 4 7 9 13 2 40 19 8 35 13 11 5 31 2 8 40 34 6 1 15 8 36 5 13 18 7 6 5 2 19 12 10 11 9 1 5 6 2 10 14 5 4 41 29 17 37 3 22 37 15 74 15 54 1 35 6 12 4 36 2 33 15 39 237 91 103 44 121 18 Ejct 25 M. Ex 19 Mod 68 M. Lm 46 179 V. Lm 67 Total 56 35 104 62 89 64 49 33 42 31 128 77 185 102 653 404 V. Ex. = Very Extended; Ext. = Extended; M. Ex. = Moderately Extended; Mod . = Moderate; M. Lm. = Moderately Limited; Lim. = Limited; V. Lm. = Very Lim- ited. The following were also reported; kinaesthetic image, very extended, Ca, 2; Co, 1; extended, Co, 2; St, 1; kinaesthetic sensation, very limited in extent, Ca, 2. AH of these reports occurred in the early part of the experiments. The extent of kinaesthetic sensations ranges from very extended to very limited. All O's but one favored the rubric " extended " the ex- ception being St who favored " moderately extended." Twice as many sensations are found in the upper portion of the scale as in the lower. The extent of the kinaesthetic image varies within smaller range than that of kinaesthetic sensations. To be sure, the table shows that two O's reported a number of their images as " extended." It was in this group of experiments, however, that we discovered the same O's " holding " their images. After we had instructed them that there must be no voluntary holding or building up of the image, the reports of " extended " dropped out almost entirely. In spite of this source of error, we see that by far the greatest number of images fall in the lower part of the extensive scale, and that no images reach the maxi- mum of extent attained by some sensations. Most of the images reported by B were " very limited ;" most of those reported by Ca, Co, H, St, and Su were "limited;" while most of those reported by Z were "moderate." When all the sensations reported by all the O's are totalled, the highest frequency falls under the rubric " extended ; " when all the images reported are totalled, the highest frequency falls under the rubric " limited." We may say, then, that kinaesthetic sensations tend to be extended, while kinaesthetic images tend to be rather limited. We may say also that whereas kinaesthetic sensations are sometimes limited in extent, kinaesthetic images are never maximally extended.^" '" The O's, with further training, agree more and more in their reports upon the extent of the image (cf. p. 74). SULLIVAN 62 (4) Duration TABLE IV Duration B (2) Ca(5) Co (5) H(3) St (2) Su(5) Z (5) Total S I S I S I S I S I S I S I S I Long 15 H 12 14 4 10 6 15 25 39 58 4 35 27 8 28 2 30 71 6 5 20 19 26 9 32 12 2 2 12 2 2 34 8 15 4 15 7 3 6 3 6 11 31 47 17 34 3 13 46 13 74 8 24 16 16 5 14 5 12 27 15 222 192 53 113 78 12 44 M. Le . 47 Mod ?,f< M. Sh 63 Short 182 V. Sh 58 Total 56 31 126 100 112 74 60 46 44 26 129 75 143 73 670 429 M. Lg. = Moderately Long; Mod. ^ Moderate; M. Sh. = Moderately Short; V. Sh. = Very Short. The following reports occurred in the earlier experiments, and dropped out entirely in later experiments: kinaesthetic image, long in duration, Co, 2; H, 1; St, 2; moderately long, H, 1; Z, 1. The duration of kinaesthetic sensation may be longi medium, or short. The sensations, however, tend to group themselves about the upper half of the scale, more than SO per cent of all the sensations reported being above moderate. The highest frequency fell under the heading " long " for B, H, and Z ; under " moderately long " for Co and Su. The kinaesthetic image, according to the table, may be anywhere from " moderately long " to " very short " in duration. This state- ment excludes the reports of Ca and Z, who in the first 3 repetitions of this group of experiments, " held " their images. After the instruc- tion to let the image run its course naturally, the reports of " long " dropped out. For all O's but Ca, more tlian half of all the images reported are in the lower part of the scale.^^ As to highest frequencies, we find the greatest frequency occurring under the rubric " short " for all O's except Ca. In the totals, the highest frequency is under " long " for sensation, and under " short " for image. (5) Vividness TABLE V Vividness B (2) Ca(3) Co (3) H (3) Std) Su(3) Z (3) Total S I S I S I S I S I S I S I S I V. H 29 13 9 14 13 10 16 15 2 2 8 17 12 23 25 IS 10 18 4 5 5 18 12 21 14 6 23 1 5 10 2 43 6 5 9 21 3 35 1 3 4 24 3 6 3 10 9 5 3 2 16 13 17 2 21 9 24 6 5 27 12 29 24 15 24 16 8 3 4 9 165 76 99 72 112 1R High 141 M. H 59 Mod S9 M. Low « 28 Total 78 45 85 52 70 45 86 46 36 27 71 44 107 55 533 315 V. H. = Very High; M. H. = Moderately High; Mod. = Moderate; M. Low = Moderately Low. In an early experiment, Su reported one case in which an image was of a low degree of vividness. 11 With further training the O's confined their reports entirely to the lower part of the durative scale (cf. p. 75). 63 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY We find that the vividness of kinaesthetic sensations ranges from high to low. The sensations generally share their vividness with other members of the sensory complex, and are, therefore, not of the highest degree of vividness. The sensations in a perception of movement reach the highest degree of vividness only when they demand attention because of their quality (ache or strain), or their high intensity. Most of the sensations reported by B, H, and St were "high" in vividness ; most of those reported by Co and Z were " moderate ;" and most of those reported by Ca and Su were " low." For Ca, Co, Su, and Z there is a pretty even distribution between the three rubrics of " high," " moderate," and " low." The kinaesthetic image makes up in vividness what it lacks in the other attributes. Comparatively few images were reported " low '' in vividness. In nearly all these cases, the lack of vividness was due to the occurrence of a visual image along with the kinaesthetic image. Co had more images of a low degree of vividness than any other O ; she always reported, in such instances, " The kinaesthetic image was complicated by a visual image." Ca and B had also visual accompani- ments to their kinaesthetic imagery, in which cases the vividness of the kinaesthesis varied from " moderate " to " low."^^ The highest frequency occurred under the heading " high " for Co, H, St, Z, and Su; under "moderately high" for B; under "mod- erate " for Ca. When all the sensations reported are totalled, the highest frequency comes under the rubric "high," just as the total for all images shows as highest frequency the rubric " high." The kinaesthetic image, then, is of a high degree of vividness. It has the advantage over sensation in its simplicity and uniformity; it has a chance to stand alone in consciousness for a brief time. While kinaesthetic sensations may be as often low in vividness as high, kin- aesthetic images, unmixed with imagery from other sense departments, are never low. ^g^ ^^^^^.^^ TABLE VI Locality B (2) Ca (.3) Co (3) H (3) Su(4) Z (4) Total S I S I s I S I S I S I S I Deep 25 7 12 16 10 5 3 14 50 18 8 6 7 10 10 28 9 57 16 3 12 2 29 56 21 46 5 45 II 9 30 30 2 4 2 83 41 2 55 18 33 1 25 300 155 77 128 68 M Deep fi' ?0 Sup l-l? Total 60 23 11 22 32 16 4 18 82 41 22 15 55 34 10 4 82 10 43 28 46 29 10 8 128 13 42 47 45 35 8 127 54 18 45 38 13 12 13 181 61 53 66 77 8 35 32 660 202 189 223 ?q? Def ns M. Def 79 Indef Ti Total 56 38 78 48 81 47 102 43 117 38 180 75 614 VB9 M. Deep ^ Moderately Deep; M. Sup. = Moderately Superficial; Sup. = Superfi- cial; Def. ^ Definite; M. Def. = Moderately Definite; Indef. = Indefinite. B re- ported 9 images wiiich were localised " outside;" Su reported 19 images as " not local- ised/^ 12 Where the visual image acted as a distraction, it perhaps would have been better to count the experiment unsuccessful. We have not done this, for the disturbance seemed to affect only the reports on vividness. We have, therefore, included everything reported by all our O's. SULLIVAN 64 The depth of kinaesthetic sensation seems to be correlated with its quality. Dull pressure is deep or moderately deep ; smooth pressure is deep or moderately deep ; strain is more superficial ; light pressure is superficial. The highest frequency of report for all O's except Co was "deep ;" the highest frequency for Co was " moderately deep." The superficially localised sensations are, as a rule, definite in localisation ; the deep sensations are sometimes quite definite, at other times indefinite. The highest frequency of report fell under the heading " definite " for B, Ca, and Su ; under the heading " moderately defi- nite " for Co ; and under " indefinite " for H and Z : yet the highest frequency for depth, it will be remembered, came under' " deep " or " moderately deep " for all these O's, a fact which shows the difficulty of trying to correlate depth and definiteness. If we consider our total numbers, however, we find the highest frequencies coming under the rubrics " deep " and " indefinite." The reports upon depth of the kinaesthetic image do not agree among the O's. The highest frequency for B, Ca, Co, and H was " superficial ;" for Z, " moderately deep ;" for Su, " deep." Here no part of our scale for depth is favored by all O's. B perceived some images as being outside the body, either just touching the skin or entirely separate from the body. Su reported 19 images which were so indefinite that she called them cases of " non-localization." They were unequivocal in reference ; they mecmi that she was making the movement in imaginal terms, but they did not seem to be localized in the body .13 The images were most often definite in localization for Ca, Co, and H ; indefinite for B ; and moderately definite for Z. In the totals, we have our highest frequencies under " superficial "i* and " definite." Our study of locality reveals a greater diversity among O's than we found in our study of the attributive characters. This is to be expected, for here we are dealing with perception. The image, per- haps because it was a surface-like feel, was perceived by most O's as being at or near the surface. Yet the highest frequency of report for quality came under the heading of dull pressure for B, Ca, and Co, three of the four O's whose highest frequency of report upon locality was " superficial." Again, Su's highest frequency for quality came under the heading of light pressure, while the locality of her images was most often deep. Again, we might be tempted to suppose that the image was localized at or near the surface because it was perceived, generally speaking, as flat and thin, like the cutaneous qualities. And yet Su and Z reported a great many images which were perceived as " flat," but were localized as deep or moderately deep. We can only say, then, that although quality and bidimensionality are probably conditions of the perception of depth in the kinaesthetic image, there are other important conditions which our reports did not reveal. 1' There is an analogy to this indefiniteness of localization in the visual field. D. Katz characterizes the film-color as " indefinite '' in localization ; " Die Erscheinungsweisen der Farben und ihre Beeinflus- sung durch die individuelle Erfahrung," 1911, 73 flf. 1* Superficial does not always mean " on the surface ;'' it may mean "skin-deep" or "just underneath the skin," 65 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY (7) Pattern TABLE VII Pattern B (2) Ca(2) Co (3) H(3) Su(3) Z(3) Total S I S I S I S I S I S I S I 8 12 2 3 5 15 3 8 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 2 5 1 3 21 2 !i 2 3 19 4 10 11 8 29 14 6 6 12 4 4 6 23 4 5 2 3 18 7 ., 7 2 2 7 19 28 38 58 22 13 10 18 S s 66 1 61 Qual. diff's Int. and viv. shadings 23 Total 30 26 ,13 12 32 38 19 29 52 32 41 26 187 161 Irreg. = Irregular; Qual. diff's = Qualitative differences; Int. & viv. shading = In- tensive and vividness shading. Su and Z reported also spots which Isecame " rayed " on all sides, live times and once respectively; H reported a sharp, re^lar outline for the image 16 times; Z reported a " mosaic of spots " 7 times for sensation and twice for image (he could not decide whether it was qualititive or intensive.) The totals in this table do not equal those in the former tables, because often there was no observable pattern in the kinaesthetic experience. Kinaesthetic sensory complexes show great diversity of pattern. There were reported, by all observers but H, " masses " vyhich ran out to points in pyramidal fashion; there were indefinitely outlined "patches," sometimes " bulky," sometimes " flat," and usually " longer than broad ;" there were " spots or lumps " which stretched out to " bands " during their course ; there were small spots which remained unchanged during their course, for all but B and Ca. Dimensionality did not come into all reports, but where it appeared, the kinaesthetic sensations are mostly tridimensional. The O's who did not report upon it were questioned at the end of the experiment, and stated that so far as they could remember most of their kinaesthetic sensations had been in three dimensions. The qualities showed characteristic patterns. Strain was perceived as " stringy " or pointed ; dull pressure as " massive " and " bulky," and often " elongated ; " light pressure as " patchy," " sheet-like," or "flat." The patterns themselves had attributive differences within them : " nuclei " of dull pressure, strain, or smooth pressure, with "fringes" of light or bright pressure (for H and Z) ; "bands" of dull pressure with pointed ends of strain (for Ca, Co, and Su). In- tensive and vivid variation, such as more intense or vivid center, point, or end, or " strips " or " cores " or " mosaics " of greater intensity or vividness, were reported by all. The kinaesthetic images show more uniformity in pattern than the kinaesthetic sensations. Their pattern consisted almost entirely of small spots, which sometimes remained unchanged during their brief temporal course, and at other times ran out temporally to small streaks. Images, too, were bidimensional, or of very slight thickness. For all O's the qualitative patterning of the images was uniform. For some O's (Ca and H) the images were uniform in all the attri- butes ; for others there were at times intensive and vivid variations within the pattern: a less intense border which was perceived as SULLIVAN 66 "fringed " if the quality was dull pressure ; as " fuzzy," " feathery," or " like a bit of down, only smoother," if the quality was light pressure ; a greater intensity or vividness at one end or side; or a wave of vividness which travelled over the image (for Ca and Su). (8) Temporal Course TABLE VIII Temporal Course B(4) Ca(2) Co (3) H(4) S I Su(3) S I Z(3) S I Total S I Increase in intensity. . . Increase in extent Increase in vividness , . Decrease in intensity . . Decrease in extent Decrease in vividness . Addition of quality. . . Subtraction of quality No change Total 40 223 168 55 71 16 46 214 104 45 72 28 21 2 2 144 196 75 88 41 96 47 255 52 146 45 314 Kinaesthetic sensory complexes undergo attributive as well as pro- cessual changes in temporal course. All the O's reported increases in intensity, extent, and vividness, while some reported decreases in intensity, extent, and vividness. Processual changes were reported by all. A perception of movement might begin, e.g., with dull pressure, to which would be added strain, and perhaps ache. The ache might be very brief, leaving the strain and dull pressure. Then the strain would drop out, perhaps, leaving the dull pressure. Addition of quality was more frequent than subtraction of quality for all O's except Ca. Kinaesthetic images or iraaginal complexes undergo very little at- tributive change and no processual change during their course. Often- times the image remained absolutely unchanged (for all O's but Co). Increase in some one of the intensive attributes was common with B, Ca, Co, and Su ; most often in intensity for B and Ca, most often in extent for Co and Su. All of H's images were without pattern or temporal course; only S of Z's images had temporal course. De- creases in the intensive attributes were rarely reported by anyone but B. No processual changes were reported. An image never adds to itself a new process. It simply flashes in and out, with now and then a second image following it, but entirely separate from it. (9) ' Body ' or Collocation of Attributes Kinaesthetic sensations have more " body " than images. The in- tensive attributes in the sensory integrations are of varying degree. If a sensation is of very weak intensity, and of very limited extent, it will be, in all probability, somewhat long in duration. A haphazard search through reports on sensation shows the following combinations : weak very extended long strong mod. limited long weak mod. limited mod. long mod. strong extended short weak extended mod. short weak mod. limited long weak mod. extended mod. short moderate extended long 67 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY Observer Intensity Extent Duration Co H Su The majority of reports on image for these 4 observers show in- tegrations of this sort: Intensity Extent Duration weak limited short mod. weak very limited very short very weak very limited very short Although there were reports of sensations which were weak, limited, and short, there were never reports of sensations as very weak, very limited, very short. Yet all O's gave many reports of images which were very weak, very limited, and very short.^" Summary Kinaesthetic sensation and kinaesthetic image compare thus : ( 1 ) The qualities in kinaesthetic sensation are dull pressure, light pressure, bright pressure, smooth pressure, strain, and ache. The qualities in kinaesthetic image are all ' pressury,' dull pressure, light pressure, and possibly smooth pressure (cf. p. 73). (2) The intensity of kinaesthetic sensation may be anywhere on the intensive scale from strong to weak. The intensity of the kinaesthetic image is always comparatively weak. (3) Kinaesthetic sensations range all over the extensive scale from near zero to maximum, with a tendency however to group themselves about the upper part of the scale. The extent of the kinaesthetic image is for the most part limited, and it never reaches the maximum of extent attained by some sensations. (4) The duration of kinaesthetic sensation is, in most cases, relatively long. The duration of the kinaesthetic image is 1' Cf J. Lindworsky, " Wahrnehmung und Vorstellung," Zeits. f. Psych., LXXX, 1918, 215 fi. ; C. Stumpf, " Empfindung und Vorstellung Abh. d. kgl. preus. Akad. d. Wiss., 1918. These articles reached us, unfortunately, too late for more than a mention at this place. See also E. B. Titchener, Thought-Processes, 1909, 20 f., 214; and for evidence of ' holding ' in the sphere of sensation, R. T. Holland, Joum. Exp. Psych., iii., 1920, 312 flf. SULLIVAN 68 relatively short; it never reaches the highest part of the durative scale. (5) The vividness of kinaesthetic sensations ranges from high to low. The vividness of the kinaesthetic image, on the other hand, is always high, unless the image is accom- panied by imagery from other sense-departments. (6) The locality of kinaesthetic sensations ranges from deep and indefinite to superficial and definite, with a tendency to be deep and indefinite. Dull pressure and smooth pressure are deep ; strain and ache, more superficial ; and light pressure, superficial. Kinaesthetic images are localized definitely by most O's on or near the surface. They show no correlation between quality and depth or definiteness. (7) Kinaesthetic sensory complexes show various types of pattern : ' pointed ' or ' stringy ' for strain ; ' bulky ' and ' roundish ' or ' elongated ' for dull pressure ; and ' flat ' and ' patchy ' for light pressure. There are qualitative differences and intensive and vivid shadings within the sensory pattern. The sensations are for the most part tridimensional. Kin- aesthetic imagery shows always the same pattern, a small spot, which sometimes increases temporally to a streak. It is uni- form in all attributes for some O's; it has intensive shadings for others. The images are most often bidimensional. (8) The kinaesthetic sensory complexes show attributive as well as processual changes in temporal course, increasing and decreasing in all the intensive attributes, and changing in quality by addition and subtraction. Kinaesthetic imagery has very little, if any, temporal course, being generally too brief for change. Cases in which the image undergoes a slight increase in extent or intensity are the only exceptions to this statement. (9) Kinaesthetic sensations have more ' body ' than kin- aesthetic images. What the sensation lacks in any one inten- sive attribute it makes up for in some other intensive attri- bute; the image may be poor in all the intensive attributes save vividness. II. Resident and Projected Kinaesthetic Imagery We have now compared kinaesthetic memory-image with simple kinaesthetic perception, and have been able in this way to compare kinaesthetic sensation with the kinaesthetic simple image aroused under certain (i.e., memory) conditions. We have, however, no reason to suppose that we have exhaus- tively described ' the ' kinaesthetic simple image. Under other conditions of arousal, the image may show in other 69 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY phenomenal modes. In particular, there may (we thought) be various attributive differences between the resident kin- aesthetic image of memory and the projected kinaesthetic image of empathy, if indeed we have any psychological right to speak of a ' projection ' of kinaesthesis at all. This, then, is the point upon which our further experimentation is directed. We made out a new list of paired commands for the arousal of kinaesthetic imagery, half of them representing situations which called for usual, ordinary, familiar move- ments, similar to those of the preceding experiments, the other half representing situations in which there were unusual movements. The experimental procedure was the same as before. The instruc- tions, too, were the same. The work began at the end of October, and continued throughout the next four months. Two of our O's, Ca and St, left the university; the remaining five served in this second period of our work. Experiment III . We performed about SO preliminary experiments, in order that our O's might attain a fair degree of stability of attitude. We found that now, when the situations were more complex, the visually minded O's realized the situations for the most part in visual terms, in spite of the instructions. We decided, therefore, to change the wording of our commands, making them read, " Feel : Tantalus standing in water, trying in vain to drink," instead of " Think of : Tantalus standing in water, etc." We explained that by " feel " we meant " realize kinaesthetically." This slight change in the stimuli eflfected wonders in the results. Visual imagery became unimportant, while the kin- sesthetic imagery, in many cases, carried the whole meaning of the situation. Experiment IV We were now ready to begin the main part of the experi- ment. We made out fifteen paired commands, one member of every pair referring to a usual situation, the other member referring to an unusual situation.^^ Again we fractionated the characters to be reported upon, asking in Group I for quality, intensity, and extent; in Group II. for duration, vivid- ness, and locality; in Group III. for pattern and temporal course. We repeated every group, so that we had 60 experi- ments for every group. 1' Examples of the stimuli are : " Feel : yourself running down- stairs." " Feel : an acrobat walking a tight rope." " Feel : Laocoon struggling in the coils of the serpent." " Feel : yourself stooping to pick up a pencil." The colon after the word " feel " indicates that a short pause was made after this word in reading the stimuli. SULLIVAN 70 Results We found that the kinaesthetic images aroused by our stimuli may be classified under two main headings: (1) resident kinaesthesis, which is like that studied in the first part of the paper, the kinaesthetic imagery which ordinarily is referred to oneself ; and (2) projected kinaesthesis, the kinaesthetic imagery which is projected outward, and is referred ordinarily to someone else or something else. The O's came upon the projection gradually. H, e. g., said: "That kinaesthesis was not in me ; it belonged to the visual image." " The kinaesthesis did not relate to myself ; it related to someone else." And later (of an image aroused by the stimulus, "Feel: a farmerette pitching hay"), "The kinaesthetic image belongs to the farmerette, it is a kind of empathy." Z, after reporting for some time the fact that some of his kin- aesthetic images did not belong to himself, but to the person referred to in the stimulus, said: "It is a kind of projection." Su reported at first thus : " The kinaesthetic image belonged to myself; then it was projected into an imaginary figure." And for another situation, relating to Tantalus trying in vain to drink : " The imagery was in me and then in Tantalus, but somehow it was trans- ferred from the right side of my neck to the left side of Tantalus, who was out in front and facing me." Later, Su reported : " It seems as if the kinaesthesis is lifted bodily out of me and put into someone else ; then it changes attributively. Sometimes, it sinks back into me at the end of the report." Still later Su reported projection without having first noted the beginning in resident kinaesthesis. Co reported for the stimuli referring to the self : " The kinaesthetic image was in me," but for the stimuli referring to someone else : " The kinaesthetic image was not in me, but went with the visual image to make up the situation."^'' Finally, B said of a projected kinaesthetic image: "It is as if it were fully formed out in space, and happened to catch my attention." And again: "It is fully forrned like an object out there to be looked at." Thus, all the O's came, rather slowly but certainly, to a realization that some of their images were resident, while others were projected out into a foreign object. We found, however, that before the resident and projected kin- aesthesis could be differentiated clearly, we had to break up an atti- tude which some of the O's had carried over from the work on sensation and image. There, it will be remembered, because of the mistakes of several O's who " held " or " built up " their images, we had warned all the O's against a shift from the passive or receptive attitude towards sensation to an active or constructive attitude toward their imagery. When their attention was thus called to the change, they realized that the images which were taken passively, as the sen- sations were, did not persist, but were sudden and brief. It was then natural to keep the passive attitude, and to be content to report upon the brief " flash " of kinaesthesis as it came and passed. " Two of the O's always had visual accompaniments to their pro- jected kinaesthesis; three had nothing but 'kinaesthetic imagery, the whole imaginal figure and the meaning of the situation being carried in terms of dull pressures, light pressures, bright pressures, strains and aches. 71 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY But here where we are working upon a differentiation within the realm of imagery itself, the O's must be able to shift attitudes. The projected kinaesthesis begins as a brief flash of resident kinaesthesis, which is then projected out into a foreign object, and becomes stabilized as the attitude shifts from passive to active. After an O has become habituated to the active attitude of projected kinaesthesis, the begin- ning bit of resident kinaesthesis may fail to be observed. Before such habituation, however, the resident kinaesthesis and the projected kin- aesthesis may alternate, making the experience mixed. If, now, the O is accustomed to the passive attitude, he will seize upon the fleet- ing resident image, and will begin his report immediately after this ' flash ' of experience, instead of waiting for ' stabilization.' He will thus report upon resident kinaesthesis partially changed, perhaps, by admixture of a bit of projected kinaesthesis.^^ As soon as the O's became familiar with the two attitudes, we asked them to alternate the two. When we instructed them to take an active attitude toward the stimuli which normally gave resident kinaesthesis, they reported that the image could not be made to per- sist, but slipped away, repeated itself, and produced a quick succession of images of like patterns. This shows that true ' stabilization ' was not possible. When we instructed the O's to take a passive attitude toward the stimuli which normally gave projected kinaesthesis, they reported different patterns with each succeeding ' flash ' of experi- ence, until in the end all the separate patterns returned, became stabil- ized, and persisted as a complete situational image. This shows that stability was necessary here for a complete realization of the experi- ence. In these cases, neither the ' flash ' nor the ' stabilization ' was quite natural : the ' flash ' was not the totally involuntary thing that normally occurs in resident kinaesthesis, and was longer in time; and the 'stabilization' was not complete as in projected kinaesthesis; there were gaps in time, in which there was no process. The O's thus dis- covered that, although either attitude is possible with any stimulus, the active attitude is natural for projected kinaesthesis, as the passive atti- tude is natural for resident kinaesthesis. They reported also that the active attitude seems to grow naturally out of the passive, as stability grows naturally out of a beginning ' flash.'i^ From the statements of the O's in characterizing the two attitudes, we have gleaned the following diflterences between the two. The atti- tude in projected kinaesthesis is the perceptive attitude; the situation is objectified, and the O contemplates it as he would a landscape; the report upon the imagery is more like an Aussage-report than a scien- tific description; the attitude is correlated with imagery which is so full that it is not all clear at once, imagery which is persistent and unchanging as the different parts become vivid in turn for report; the attitude is active, exploratory, detached. The attitude in resident kinaesthesis is the sensory attitude, the same as that of the earlier part of our work; the O experiences the imagery as he would a sensation or an after-image; the report is the ordinary laboratory 1* The two terms ' flash ' and 'stabilization ' were used by an O in distinguishing the experiences under the two attitudes. 1" It may be that some of Perky's critics have been misled by failure to recognize the different attitudes. Their O's may not have waited for stability, but may have reported upon the first brief ' flash ' of experience ; and may then have called this an ' image of imagination,' when in reality it was a ' memory image ' from which an ' image of imagination ' might (with shift of attitude) have developed. SULLIVAN 72 description; the attitude is correlated with imagery which is all clear at once, and is fleeting and changing; the attitude is passive, receptive, realizing. A. Resident and Projected Kinesthetic Imagery Com- pared The following tables, arranged upon the same plan as those for the comparison of sensation and image, show the differ- ence in the psychological pictures of resident (R) and pro- jected (P) kinaesthesis. ( 1 ) Quality table IX Quality B(2) Co (2) H(2) SuC2) Z (2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R Du P .... 30 11 2 1 1 29 26 30 16 4 4 26 7 85 34 2 13 45 21 16 1 43 22 18 5 3 2 32 9 32 41 1 2 1 10 6 26 18 11 208 64 4 19 76 34 66 83 Brt. P Drag Sm P Ache Lt. P 119 Total 45 55 54 33 216 44 82 41 87 29 471 202 P ^ projected kinaesthetic imagery; R = resident kinaesthetic imagery. Du. P. = Dull Pressure; Brt. P. = Bright Pressure; Sm. P. = Smooth Pressure;. Lt. P. = Light Pressure (or Neutral Pressure.) Projected kinaesthetic imagery is qualitatively very much like sen- sory kinaesthesis. Dull pressure, strain, ache, and light pressure are common. Bright pressure occurs much more often in the projected imagery than in the sensory complexes ; only one O failed to report it here, while only two O's found it in actual sensations. ^o The exist- tence of smooth pressure in projected kinaesthesis is doubtful; only three O's reported it, and that in a comparatively small number of cases. Drag is not common in projected kinaesthesis. From 4 to 7 different qualities were reported in projected kinaes- thetic imagery. Dull pressure has the highest frequency in the aver- age, and for the individual O's with the exception of Su. Resident kinaesthetic imagery has but two qualities, dull pressure and light pressure. In the preceding part of our work we were in doubt whether to include smooth pressure in the list of qualities for 2» A ' textural ' difference is reported between the bright pressure of sensation and the bright pressure of projected kinaesthesis. In sensation, it is ' sparkling ' like a liquid upon which a light is shining ; in projected imagery, it is misty, like a halo or a sun-lighted cloud 73 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY imagery. Since none of the O's, after further training, reported it, we may conclude that it is not characteristic of resident kinaesthetic imagery (cf. p. 59). Light pressure has the highest frequency in the average, although individual O's gave the highest frequency to dull pressure. Here, where our situations are more complex, a single image-process did not always stand for the whole situation. Often the reports showed an imaginal complex made up of a number of simple pro- cesses following one another in quick succession, and differing from one another very slightly. There were never two such processes pres- ent at once, as there were in the projected kinaesthesis and in sensory kinaesthesis. (2) Intensity TABLE X Intensity B (2) co:(2)' H(2) Su(2) Z (2) Total P R p R P R P R P R P R 14 5 5 10 8 19 7 16 13 17 25 S 4 12 17 4 33 23 33 5 26 14 2 29 10 8 5 21 11 27 14 3 12 11 14 5 32 37 17 5 16 15 3 72 33 116 58 88 45 M. St Mod M. Wk 50 36 Weak 76 V. Wk 41 Total 42 55 54 33 134 41 86 40 96 44 412 203 M. St. = Moderately Strong; V. Wk. = Very Weak. Mod. = Moderate: M. Wk. = Moderately Weak' The intensity of projected kinaesthetic imagery ranges from strong to weak, with the highest frequency of the average coming under ' moderate ' as in the sensory complexes. The highest frequency for B falls under the rubric ' strong ; ' for Co, under ' moderate ; ' for Su, under ' moderately weak.' The intensity of resident kinaesthetic imagery ranges from moderate to very weak, with the highest frequency averaging ' weak.' The highest frequency for B and Z occurs under ' moderate ; ' for Co and H, under ' weak ; ' for Su, under ' very weak.'^^ 21 We see that the O's have ceased to report any resident kinaes- thetic images in the upper half of the intensive scale (cf. p. 60). Training undoubtedly had an effect here ; but there is a more important factor to be considered, namely, the fact that the O's had no absolute criterion. It was natural, then, that the resident imagery should be comparatively weaker when compared with projected kinaesthesis, which represented large and complicated movements, than it was when compared with simple sensory movements, such as we used for stimuli in the earlier experiments. SULLIVAN 74 (3) Extent TABLE XI Extent B(2) Co (2) H(2) Su(2) Z(2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R V. Ex 2 3 20 2 4 5 6 16 11 10 16 7 31 16 1 7 30 33 22 29 13 6 4 9 21 6 14 25 11 12 15 3 3 7 16 14 1 3 39 33 12 10 6 11 12 5 41 47 77 83 62 54 24 Ext.. .. M. Ex Mod 32 M. Lm 29 Lim ... 77 V. Lm 56 Total 42 53 55 37 107 30 86 40 98 34 388 194 V. Ex. = Very Extended; Ext. ^ Extended; M. Ex. = Moderately Extended; Mod. = Moderate; M. Lm. = Moderately Limited; Lim. ^ Limited; V. Lm. = Very Limited. Projected kinaesthesis, like sensory kinaesthesis, varies in extent from very extended to very limited. The highest frequency comes under the heading ' moderately extended ' for B and Su ; under the rubric ' moderate ' for Co and Z ; under the rubric ' very extended ' for H. According to the table, the resident kinaesthetic image never goes beyond the middle part of the extensive scale."" The highest frequency of report is ' limited ' for Co, Su, and Z ; and ' very limited ' for H. The highest frequency in the totals comes under the heading 'moderate' for projected kinaesthetic imagery; the highest frequency in the totals comes under the heading ' limited ' for resident kinaesthesis. Thus all the resident images are found in the lower half of the scale, while over 50 per cent of the projected images are found in the upper half of the scale of extent. (4) Duration TABLE XII Duration B(2) Co (2) H(2) Su(2) Z(2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R 32 13 6 17 48 1 4 24 9 175 1 49 92 8 11 14 117 6 5 19 420 M. Lg Mod 1 M. Sh 28 Short 42 V. Sh 99 Total 32 36 48 38 175 50 92 33 117 30 420 170 M. Lg. = Moderately Long; Mod. Sh. = Very Short. : Moderate; M. Sh. = Moderately Short; V 22 Training plus a larger relative scale for comparison has again levelled out the discrepancies which we found in the earlier reports (of. p. 61). 75 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY Projected kinaesthetic images are always long in duration. The whole image comes fully formed, and there is no addition or sub- traction of process. Resident kinaesthetic images are always short in duration. The highest frequency for all O's falls under the rubrics ' short ' and ' very short.' The highest frequency in the totals comes under the rubric 'very short.'''^ (5) Vividness TABLE XIII Vividness B(2) Co (2) H(2) Su(2) Z(2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R V. H 6 9 13 5 2 4 9 19 5 1 19 12 8 6 7 14 11 1 1 20 56 7 6 30 60 43 6 2 25 33 19 13 4 16 8 5 1 2 20 33 30 33 15 10 3 2 30 111 85 71 62 112 73 High 55 M. H Mod 13 M. Low.... 1 Total 35 37 46 34 179 49 92 33 119 30 471 183 V. H. = Very High; M. H. = Moderately High; Mod. = Moderate; M. Low = Moderately Low. The vividness of projected kinaesthesis is divided evenly between high and low. Not all of the projected experience can be in the focus of attention at one time. The highest frequency of report falls under the heading ' moderately high ' for B and Su ; under ' high ' for Co ; and under ' low ' for H. The vividness of resident kinaesthesis ranges from very high to moderate. Most of B's images were 'moderately high;' most of Go's and Su's were ' high ; ' most of H's and Z's were ' very high.' The greatest number of images in the total falls under the heading 'very high.' 2^ The table for duration shows markedly the relativity of the subjective scale. In the earlier experiments, most of the images were ' short ' in duration, but here by far the greatest number of images are 'Very short' in duration (of. p. 62). We can account for the change in report by the fact that the projected imagery is (objectively) very long in duration. SULLIVAN (6) Locality TABLE XIV Locality 76 B (2) Co (2) H(2) Su(2) Z(2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R M. Deep.... !!!?!! 17 8 3 7 10 9 3 8 13 31 1 2 15 19 85 53 38 5 44 21 16 21 32 8 4 6 5 37 56 18 9 1 3 10 16 173 164 81 50 19 16 M. Sup Sup 39 92 Total Def 35 8 10 15 30 23 8 1 3 47 9 21 18 34 29 4 1 176 65 41 23 49 49 46 6 90 23 24 4 39 23 5 7 11 120 3 41 38 38 30 19 9 1 1 468 108 137 65 159 166 122 M. Def 34 M. Ind 13 Indef 5 Total 33 35 48 34 178 52 90 23 120 30 469 174 M. Deep = Moderately Deep; M. Sup. ^ Moderately Superficial; Sup. = Super- ficial; Dei. ^ Definite; M. Def. = Moderately Definite; M. Indef. = Moderately Indefinite; Indef. = Indefinite. B reported 2 sensations and 5 images localised " outside;" Su reported 9 imases as not localised." Generally speaking, projected imaginal kinaesthesis, like sensory kinaesthesis, is localized as deep and indefinite. There is, however, much individual variation. As to depth, the highest frequency for B and H is under the rubric ' deep,' for Co and Z, under ' moderately deep ; ' for Su, under ' superficial.' As to definiteness, the highest fre- quency for B and Su comes under the rubric ' indefinite ; ' for Co and Z, under ' moderately definite ; ' for H, under ' definite.' Resident kinaesthetic images are most often localized as superficial and definite. Most of Co's, H's, and Z's images were ' superficial ' and ' definite ;' most of B's were ' deep ' and ' definite ;' most of Su's were ' deep ' and ' moderately indefinite.' We find very few images in resident kinaesthesis which are indefi- nite in locality, although earlier (p. 63) we had a fair proportion of images reported under this rubric. We know of no way to account for the change except by the effect of training. One O said of resi- dent kinaesthetic images : " They are so definitely localized that I could pin a ribbon on them." We find, as before, cases of non-localization of resident images. (7) Pattern The pattern of projected kinaesthesis is even more varied than that of sensory kinaesthesis. All O's reported ' long strips ' of bright pressure or dull pressure ; ' strings ' of strain ; masses, longer than broad, of dull pressure; irregular patches of light pressure or bright pressure; small spots of dull pressure or light pressure. The bright pressure was sometimes characterized as 'hollow,' like a short tube 77 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY TABLE XV Pattrrn B (2) Co (2) H(2) Su (2) Z (2) Total P R P R P R P R P R P R Strip 5 27 3 4 1 12 9 11 3 18 5 13 22 14 24 7 16 4 7 92 5 50 104 121 52 52 4 31 43 28 49 9 6 16 6 16 16 24 10 51 96 16 11 7 43 168 66 129 117 292 9 21 68 Longer than broad Irreg. Patch 6 Spot 9b Qual. diff's Int. and Viv. shadings . . bO 56 Indef. outline Total 40 32 75 51 379 104 170 54 181 34 845 275 Irreg. patch = Irregular patch; Qual. Dill's ^ Qualitative differences; Int. and Viv. shadings = Intensive and vivid shadings; Def. outline ^ Definite outline; Indef outline = Indefinite outline. The following were also reported: " hollow pattern " for Projected Kinaesthesis, 10 (Su) , 1 (B) ; " mosaic of spots for Projected Kinaesthesis, 20 (Z) . or ' band-box.' This is a pattern which did not occur in sensory kinaesthesis. As in sensory kinaesthesis, so in projected kinaesthesis there were qualitative differences within the patterns, as well as in- tensive and vivid shadings, characterized as ' striped,' ' mosaics,' 'wrinkled,' 'spotted,' or 'fringed.' The projected patterns were often very indefinite in outline. They were both tridimensional and bi- dimensional. It is noteworthy that the frequency of report unc'er every heading is much larger for the projected kinaesthesis than it was for the sensory kinaesthesis (p. 65). It is obvious that this dif- ference is to be explained by the fact that the patterns in projected kinaesthesis persist unchanged while the O explores them, whereas the patterns in sensory kinaesthesis are in constant flux, and must be caught ' on the wing ' for report. The resident kinaesthetic images, like the kinaesthetic images of the earlier experiments, are characterized generally as small spots, which somtimes remain unchanged and at other times run out tempo- rarily to streaks. Again we had no qualitative differences reported, but quite often intensive and vivid differences, such as " fringes " or "fuzzy" borders. As opposed to the projected kinaesthesis, the resi- dent kinaesthesis is definitely outlined and, for the most part, bi- dimensional. (8) Temporal Course Projected kinaesthetic imagery shows no change in time. The imag- ined situation, made up entirely of kinaesthetic imagery, or supple- mented by visual imagery, remains fully formed out in space, like an object at which we are looking, so that the O reports from the actual (imaginal) perception. Resident kinaesthetic imagery comes more suddenly than projected imagery, and remains only a brief time, a time too brief to allow of any change for some O's, but long enough for others to permit a slight increase in intensity or extent. The resident kinaesthetic images pass so quickly that the O must report them from memory. SULLIVAN 78 Summary Projected and resident kinaesthetic imagery compare thus: (1) The qualities in projected kinaesthesis are dull pressure, light pressure, bright pressure, strain, and ache. The qualities in resident kinaesthetic imagery are dull pressure and light pressure. (2) The intensity of projected kinaesthesis ranges from strong to weak. The intensity of resident kinaesthesis ranges from moderate to weak. (3) The extent of projected kinaesthesis ranges from maximum to near zero. The extent of resident kinaesthesis ranges from moderate to near zero. . (4) The duration of projected kinaesthesis is always long. The duration of resident kinaesthesis is always short. (5) The vividness of projected kinaesthesis ranges from high to low. The vividness of resident kinaesthesis ranges from very high to moderate. (6) The locality of projected kinaesthesis varies from deep and indefinite to superficial and definite, with a tendency toward depth and indefiniteness. The locality of resident kinaesthesis tends to be superficial and definite. (7) Projected kinaesthesis shows various types of pattern: ■ strips/ ' masses,' ' patches ' and ' spots.' These patterns have qualitative differences and shadings of intensity and vividness. Both two and three dimensions are common. The resident kinaesthesis is unvaried in pattern, being ordinarily a spot which may run out temporally to a streak. It some- times has slight shadings of intensity or vividness. It is most often bidimensional. (8) Projected kinaesthesis shows no change throughout its long temporal course. Resident kinaesthesis may show slight attributive changes during its brief temporal course; it never shows processual changes.^* B. Some Conditions of Resident and Projected Kinaesthetic Imagery In the foregoing experiment, we obtained resident kinaesthetic imagery when the stimuli represented ordinary situations, such as stooping to pick up a pencil. But these stimuli always referred to the self : " Feel : yourself stooping to pick up a pencil." Further, we obtained projected kinaesthetic imagery when the stimuli represented unusual situations and movements not likely to have been made by the O's, such as walking a tight rope. But these stimuli referred always to someone else: "Feel: an acrobat walking a tight rope." 2* Cutaneous projections, which are usually referred to association, as when we say a thing looks cold or hard, may very well be, in the light of these results, projections at the level of perception. But we know hardly anything of cutaneous imagery. 79 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY We asked ourselves, then, which is the stronger influence upon resident and projected kinaesthesis, the influence of the usual and unusual, or the influence of the self and another? The natural thing to do was to reverse the situations, so that the usual should refer to another person, the unusual to oneself. We made out new paired commands which fulfilled this requirement. We found that one of three things happened. (1) As a rule, the O's reported resident kinaesthesis with the stimuli referring to the self, and projected kinaesthesis with the stimuli referring to the other person, in spite of the usualness or unusualness of the situation. (2) Sometimes the report was mixed, resident kinaesthetic imagery oc- curring for part and projected for part of the same situation. This mixture occurred with stimuli referring to the self making some strange movement. The thought of the movement would begin in resident kinaesthetic imagery, but the imagery would quite suddenly project itself without changing the meaning in any way except to make the self-reference uncertain. The O would say : " I think that was myself in the projected imagery, but I am not at all sure; it was a detached self." Every O who experienced this projected kinaesthesis in the midst of resident said: "I wonder if the projection happened there because I have never performed such a movement." Thvis H, under the instruction " Feel : yourself making a hundred yard leap on a pair of skis," experienced the beginning of the leap in resident kinaesthesis, the movement through the air in projected kinaesthesis, and the landing in resident imagery. He said : " I have never leaped on a pair of skis, but I have made leaps, and that may be the reason that I had resident for the beginning and end of the leap." (3) Some- times pure projected kinaesthesis resulted when the stimulus referred to the self performing a very strange feat. We now had the reversal from resident to projected kinaesthesis for certain situations referring to the self in a strange situation ; but we had not the corresponding reversal from projected to resident for usual situations referring to someone else. We thought that the fail- ure to obtain the second reversal might be due to the fact that our stimuli for these experiments did not equal in familiarity the strange- ness of the stimuli for the first reversal ; i. e., the O's were shocked into projection by the strangeness of the one, and they must be shocked into resident imagery by the familiarity of the other. We therefore changed our situations, making them refer to someone else figuring in situations in which we had seen our O's figure only a few days before. Immediately, and to the immense surprise of the O's themselves, who had come to expect projection for all situations referring to other persons, resident kinaesthesis resulted. We found, then, that the O's could be shocked into projection in spite of the self-determination, and could be shocked into resident kinaesthesis in spite of the other-determination. The conditions thus cut across each other; ordinary usualness-unusualness is less strong a determinant than selfness-otherness, but a salient familiarity-strange- ness, coming to the O with a shock of surprise, may reverse the normal conditioning of the two modes of imagery. It is plain that we are here upon the threshold of a highly complex problem, whose resolu- tion will require methods more refined than those which we had at our disposal in the present study. SULLIVAN 80 Conclusion (1) Kinaesthetic images of memory may be distinguished from kinaesthetic sensations by uniformity, simplicity, and lack of ' body.' Kinaesthetic memory-images are uniform : always tiny bits of pressure, absolutely lacking in brightness. They are simple : thej' approximate single processes, and take on few or no perceptive characters. They lack ' body :' they are low in all the intensive attributes save vividness. Kinaes- thetic sensations in a perception of movement are varied, com- plex, and have ' body ;' they are now of one quality, now of another; they are sometimes high in all intensive attributes, sometimes high in only one, but always have more ' body ' than the image ; they constitute a sensory complex rich in all the perceptive characters. (2) Kinaesthetic imagery may be classified under two main headings, resident and projected. The resident kinaesthetic images are referred ordinarily to oneself; the projected kin- aesthetic images are referred ordinarily to someone else or something else. Res^ident kinaesthetic images may approximate simple processes, co-ordinate with sensation; projected kin- aesthetic images constitute imaginal complexes, co-ordinate with perception. Resident kinaesthetic images show a psychological picture very different from the picture of kinaesthetic sensa- tions in sensory complexes; projected kinaesthetic images in an imaginal complex show a psychological picture very like the picture of kinaesthetic sensations in a sensory complex. Resi- dent kinaesthetic images are changing, fleeting, and involve an attitude which is passive, receptive, realizing; projected kin- aesthetic images are invariable and persistent, and involve an attitude which is active, exploratory, detached, scrutinising. (3) The difference between resident and projected kinaes- thesis does not reflect merely the functional distinction of self and other; it is correlated with a specific difference of attitude on the part of the observer. m^ u^'K] i^. m 'rM^ '^"^■'' "■'u4."'^' ■ "x^.m^-^^^-' '•^'■- j^^" .M^'S.. '^HT''. ; *>-^r4j