g'tate (Jfnllege of Agricultuw 
 
 3tt|aca. ^. |. 
 
 Iiibcary 
 
DATE DUE 
 
 NTCO kN U S > 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 
 TS 837.W3 
 
 Seasoning of wood :a treatise on the nat 
 
 3 1924 003 595 794 
 
SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003595794 
 
SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE NATURAL AND ARTIFI- 
 CIAL PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN THE PREP- 
 ARATION OF LUMBER FOR MANUFACTURE, 
 WITH DETAILED EXPLANATIONS OF ITS 
 USES, CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH B. WAGNER 
 
 AUTHOR OP "cooperage'' 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 25 PARK PLACE 
 
 1917 
 

 \.\o.\ 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 19 17, BY 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 THE ■ PLIMPTON ■ PRESS 
 NOEWOOD-MASS-U-S-A 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The seasoning and kiln-drying of wood is such an im- 
 portant process in the manufacture of woods that a need 
 for fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific 
 study of the behavior of various species at different me- 
 chanical temperatures, and under different drying proc- 
 esses, is keenly felt. Everyone connected with the wood- 
 working industry, or its use in manufactured products, 
 is well aware of the difficulties encountered in properly 
 seasoning or removing the moisture content without injury 
 to the timber, and of its susceptibility to atmospheric con- 
 ditions after it has been thoroughly seasoned. There is 
 perhaps no material or substance that gives up its moisture 
 with more resistance than wood does. It vigorously defies 
 the efforts of human ingenuity to take away from it, without 
 injury or destruction, that with which nature has so 
 generously supplied it. 
 
 In the past but little has been known of this matter 
 further than the fact that wood contained moisture which 
 had to be removed before the wood could be made use of 
 for commercial purposes. Within recent years, however, 
 considerable interest has been awakened among wood- 
 users in the operation of kiln-drying. The losses occa. 
 sioned in air-drying and improper kiln-drying, and the 
 necessity for getting the material dry as quickly as pos^ 
 sible after it has come from the saw, in order to prepare 
 it for manufacturing purpose^, are bringing about a realiza- 
 tion of the importance of a technical knowledge of the 
 subject. 
 
 The author desires to express his acknowledgement to the 
 various Government reports indicated below, from all of 
 which he has made liberal extracts : 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 "The Kiln-diyinn; of Gum," hy J;im;'s E. Imre, The United States 
 Dept. of Agricuhure, Division of Forestry. 
 
 "The Structure of the Common Woods," by Reuben P. Priehard. 
 The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of For- 
 estry, Bulletin No. 3. 
 
 "Timber," by Filbert Roth, The United States Dept. of Agri- 
 culture, Division of Foi'estry, Bulletin No. 10. 
 
 "Th' Effects of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of 
 Wood," by H. D. Tieman, The United States Dept. of 
 Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 "Principles of Kiln-drying Lumber," by H. D. Tieman, The 
 United States Dept. of Agricultiu-e, Division of Forestry. 
 
 "The Theory of Drying and its Application, etc.," l)j' H. D. 
 Tieman, The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division 
 of Forestry, Bulletin No. 509. 
 
 "Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States," The United 
 States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry. 
 
 Bulletin No. 37, The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division 
 of Forestry. 
 
 "Seasoning of Timbers," by Herman Von Schrenk, The United 
 vStates Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin 
 No. 41. 
 
 Throughout the book the aim has been to give facts, and 
 wherever a machine or appliance has been ihustrated or 
 commented upon, or the name of the makers mentioned, 
 it has not been with the intention either of recommending 
 or disparaging his or their work, but was used merely as an 
 aid in ilhistrating the text. 
 
 Readers who desire a more extended treatise on the 
 
 subject will find Dr. Tiemann's "Kihi Drying of Lumber" 
 
 an invalual:)le aid. 
 
 J. B. WAGNER 
 
 YONKERS, N. Y. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Section I 
 
 TIMBER P^OEg 
 
 Characteristics and Properties of Same — Structure of Wood — Prop- 
 erties of Wood — Classes of Trees 1-7 
 
 Section II 
 
 CONIFEROUS TREES 
 
 Wood of Coniferous Trees — Bark and Pith — Sapwood and Heart- 
 wood — The Annual or Yearly Ring — Spring- and Summer- Wood 
 
 — Anatomical Structure — List of Important Coniferous Trees . 8-30 
 
 Section III 
 
 BROAD-LEAVED TREES 
 
 Wood of Broad-leaved Trees — Minute Structure — List of Most Im- 
 portant Broad-leaved Trees — Red Gum — Range of Red Gum. 
 
 — Form of Red Cum — Tolerance of Red Gimi — Its Demands 
 upon Sod and Moisture — Reproduction of Red Gmn — Second- 
 growth Red Gum — Tupelo Gum — Uses of Tupelo Gmn — Range 
 
 of Tupelo Gum 31-85 
 
 Section IV 
 GRAIN, COLOR, ODOR, WEIGHT, AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 Different Grains of Wood — Color and Odor of Wood — Weight of Wood 
 
 — Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species — Figure in 
 Wood 86-97 
 
 Section V 
 
 ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 General Remarks — Ambrosia or Timl^er Beetles — • Round-headed 
 Borers — Flat-headed Borers — Timber Worms — Powder Post 
 Borers — Conditions Favorable for Insect Injury — Crude Products 
 
 — Round Timber with Bark on — How to Prevent Injuiy — 
 Saplings — Stave, Heading, and Shingle Bolts — Unseasoned 
 Products in the Rough — Seasoned Products in the Rough — Dry 
 Cooperage Stock and Wooden Truss Hoops — Staves and Heads 
 
 of Barrels Containing Alcohohc Liquids 98-113 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 SECTIO^f VI 
 
 WATER IN WOOD pages 
 
 Distriliution of Water in Wood — Seasonal Distribution of Water in 
 Wood — Composition of Sap — Effects of Moisture on Wood — 
 Tlie Fibre-Saturation Point in Wood 114-llS 
 
 Section VII 
 
 WHAT SEASONING IS 
 
 What Seasoning Is — Difference Between Seasoned and Unseasoned 
 Wood — Manner of Evaporation of Water — Alisorption of Water 
 by Dry Wood — Rapidity of Evaporation — Physical Properties 
 that Influence Dr3ang 119-127 
 
 Section VIII 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF SEASONING 
 
 Advantages of Seasoning — Prevention of Checking and Splitting — 
 Shrinkage of Wood — Expansion of Wood — Elimination of 
 Stain and Mildew 128-137 
 
 Section IX 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 
 
 Difficulties of Drying Wood — Changes Rendering Drying Difficult — ■ 
 Losses Due to Improper Kiln-drying — Properties of Wood that 
 Effect Drying — Unsolved Problems in Kiln-drying 138-144 
 
 Section X 
 HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 
 
 Methods of Drying — Drying at Atmospheric Pressure — Drying Under 
 Pressure and Vacuum — Impregnation Methods — Preliminary 
 Treatments — ■ Out-of-door Seasoning 145-155 
 
 Section XI 
 
 KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 
 
 Advantages of Kiln-drying over Air Drying — Physical Conditions 
 Governing the Drying of Wood — Theory of Iviln-drying — Re- 
 quirements in a Satisfactory Dry Kiln — Kiln-drying — Remarks 
 — Underljring Principles — Ol^jects of Kiln-drying — Conditions 
 of Success — Different Treatments According to Kind — Tempera- 
 ture Depends — Air Circulation — Humidity — Kiln-drying — 
 Pounds of Water Lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood in the 
 Kiln — Kiln-drying Cium — Preliminary Steaming — Final Steam- 
 ing — Kiln-drying of Green Red Gum 156-184 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 Section XII 
 
 TYPES OF DRY KILNS p^^qes 
 
 Different types of Dry Kilns — The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Dry 
 Kiln — Operating the "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Dry Kiln — The 
 "Pipe" or "Moist-Air" Dry Kiln — Operating the "Pipe" or 
 "Moist-Air" Dry Kiln — Choice of Drying Method — Kilns of 
 Different Types — The "Progressive" Dry Kiln — The "Apart- 
 ment" Dry Kiln — The "Pocket" Dry KUn — The "Tower" 
 Dry Ivihi — The "Box" Dry KUn 185-205 
 
 Section XIII 
 
 DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 KUn Cars and Method of Loadiag Same — The "Cross-wise" Pihng 
 Method — The "End- wise" Piling Method — The "Edge- wise" 
 Piling Method — The Automatic Lumber Stacker — The Un- 
 stacker Car — Stave Piling — Shingle Piling — Stave Bolt Trucks 
 — Different Tjrpes of Kiln Cars — Different Tjqies of Transfer 
 Cars — Dry Kiln Doors — Different Types of Iviln Door Carriers 206-236 
 
 Section XIV 
 
 HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN DRYING 
 
 The Humidity Diagram — Examples of L^se — The Hygrodeik — The 
 Recording Hygrometer — The Registering Hygrometer — The 
 Recording Thermometer — The Registering Thermometer — 
 The Recording Steam Gauge — The Troemroid Scalometer — Test 
 Samples — Weighing — Examples of Use — Records of Moisture 
 Content — Saw Mills — Factories — The Electric Heater . . . 237-250 
 
 Section XV 
 
 Bibliography — Glossary — Index of Latin Names — Index of Common 
 
 Names 251-257 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Board of pine 13 
 
 2. Wood of spruce 14 
 
 3. Group of fibres from pine wood 15 
 
 4. Block of oak 31 
 
 5. Board of oak 32 
 
 6. Cross-section of oak highly magnified 32 
 
 7. Highly magnified fibres of wood 33 
 
 8. Isolated fibres and cells of wood 34 
 
 9. Cross-section of basswood 35 
 
 10. A large red gimi 52 
 
 11. A tupelo gum slough 53 
 
 12. Second growth red gum 57 
 
 13. A cypress slough in dry season 58 
 
 14. A large Cottonwood 78 
 
 15. Spiral grain in wood 87 
 
 16. Alternating spiral grain in cypress 87 
 
 17. Wavy grain in beech 88 
 
 IS. Section of wood showing position of the grain at base of limb . . 89 
 
 19. Cross-section of a group of wood filires 91 
 
 20. Isolated fibres of wood 91 
 
 21. Orientation of wood samples 93 
 
 22. Work of ambrosia l^eetles in tulip or yellow poplar 100 
 
 23. Work of ambrosia beetles in oak 100 
 
 24. Work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine 102 
 
 25. Work of timber worms in oak 103 
 
 26. Work of powder post borers in hickory poles 104 
 
 27. Work of powder jjost borers in hickory poles 104 
 
 28. Work of powder post borers in hickory handles 105 
 
 29. Work of round-headed borers in wliite pine staves Ill 
 
 30. U. S. Forest Service humidity controlled dry kiln 161 
 
 31. Section through moist-air dry kiln 189 
 
 32. Live steam single pipe heating apparatus 190 
 
 33. Live steam double pipe heating apparatus 191 
 
 34. Vertical pipe heating apparatus 193 
 
 35. Progressive dry kilns 197 
 
 36. Apartment dry kilns 199 
 
 37. Pocket dry kilns 201 
 
 38. Tower dry kiln 203 
 
 39. Box dry kiln 205 
 
 40. Edge-wise method of piling 206 
 
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 41. Eflsc-wise method nf iiilins 207 
 
 42. Automatic lumber stacker 208 
 
 43. Automatic lumber stacker 208 
 
 44. Battery of three automatic lumber stackers 209 
 
 45. Battery of three automatic lumber stackers 209 
 
 46. Lumber loaded edge-wise on kiln truck 210 
 
 47. The lumber unstaeker 211 
 
 48. The hmiber unstaeker car 211 
 
 49. Method of piling veneer on edge 212 
 
 50. Kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln 213 
 
 51. Kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln 214 
 
 52. Kiln truck loaded end-wise of kiln 214 
 
 53. Kiln trui^k loaded end-wise of kiln 215 
 
 54. Method of piling staves on kiln truck 216 
 
 55. Method of piUng staves on kiln truck 216 
 
 56. Method of pilmg tub or pail staves on kihi truck 217 
 
 57. Method of piling bundled staves on kiln truck 217 
 
 58. Method of piling shingles on kiln truck 218 
 
 59. Method of piling shingles on kiln truck 218 
 
 60. Method of piling shingles on kiln truck 219 
 
 61. Kiln truck designed for loose pail staves . ,. 219 
 
 62. Kiln truck designed for handling short stock 221 
 
 63. Stave bolt truck 221 
 
 64. Stave bolt truck 222 
 
 65. Stave bolt truck 222 
 
 66. Stave bolt truck 223 
 
 67. Stave bolt truck 223 
 
 68. Stave bolt truck 224 
 
 69. Regular 3-rail transfer car 224 
 
 70. Regular 3-rail transfer car 225 
 
 71. Special 4-rail transfer car 225 
 
 72. Regular 2-raiI transfer car 225 
 
 73. Regular 2-rail transfer car 226 
 
 74. Underslung type 3-rail transfer car 226 
 
 75. Underslung type 2-rail transfer car 226 
 
 76. Flexible type 2-rail transfer car 227 
 
 77. Regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks 228 
 
 78. Regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks 228 
 
 79. Special transfer car for stave bolt trucks 228 
 
 80. Regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling 229 
 
 81. Regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling 229 
 
 82. Regular channel iron kiln truck for end-wise piling 230 
 
 83. Special channel iron kiln truck for end-wise Jjiling 230 
 
 84. Regular dolly kiln truck for end-wise piling 230 
 
 85. Asbestos-lined kiln door 231 
 
 86. Twin door carrier with door loaded 232 
 
 87. Twin door carrier for doors 18 to 35 feet wide 232 
 
 88. Kiln door carrier 233 
 
 89. Kiln door construction 234 
 
 90. Kiln door construction 235 
 
 91. Kiln door coiLstruction 235 
 
 02. Kiln door construction 236 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 
 
 93. The Humidity diagram facing 2:37 
 
 94. The hygrodcik 242 
 
 95. The recording hygrometer 243 
 
 96. The registering hygrometer 244 
 
 97. The recording thermometer 24.5 
 
 98. The registering thermometer 246 
 
 99. The recording steam gauge 246 
 
 100. The troemroid scalometer 247 
 
 101. The electric heater 250 
 
SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 SECTION I 
 
 TIMBEE 
 
 Characteristics and Properties 
 
 Timber was probably one of the earliest, if not the 
 earliest, of materials used by man for constructional pur- 
 poses. With it he built for himself a shelter from the 
 elements; it provided him with fuel and ofttimes food, 
 and the tree cut down and let across a stream formed the 
 first bridge. From it, too, he made his "dug-out" to 
 travel along and across the rivers of the district in which 
 he dwelt; so on down through the ages, for shipbuilding 
 and constructive purposes, timber has continued to our 
 own time to be one of the most largely used of nature's 
 products. 
 
 Although wood has been in use so long and so universally, 
 there still exists a remarkable lack of knowledge regard- 
 ing its nature, not only among ordinary workmen, but 
 among those who might be expected to know its proper- 
 ties. Consequently it is often used in a faulty and waste- 
 ful manner. Experience has been almost the only teacher, 
 and theories — sometimes right, sometimes wrong — 
 rather than well substantiated facts, lead the workman. 
 
 One reason for this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact 
 that wood is not a homogeneous material, but a compli- 
 cated structure, and so variable that one piece will behave 
 very differently from another, although cut from the same 
 tree. Not only does the wood of one species differ from 
 that of another, but the butt cut differs from that of the 
 top log, the heartwood from the sapwood; the wood of 
 the quickly-grown sapling of the abandoned field, from 
 
2 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 that of the slowly-grown, old monarch of the forest. Even 
 the manner in which the tree was cut and kept influences 
 its behavior and quality. It is therefore extremely dif- 
 ficult to study the material for the purpose of establish- 
 ing general laws. 
 
 The experienced woodsman will look for straight- 
 grained, long-fibred woods, with the absence of disturb- 
 ing resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc., and will 
 quickly distinguish the more jDorous red or black oaks from 
 the less porous white species, Quercus alba. That the 
 inspection should have regard to defects and unhealthy 
 conditions (often indicated by color) goes without saying, 
 and such inspection is usually practised. That knots, 
 even the smallest, are defects, which for some uses con- 
 demn the material entirely, need hardly be mentioned. 
 But that "season-checks," even those that have closed 
 by subsequent shrinkage, remain elements of weakness 
 is not so readily appreciated; yet there cannot be any 
 doubt of this, since these, the intimate connections of 
 the wood fibres, when once interrupted are never re- 
 established. 
 
 Careful woods-foremen and manufacturers, therefore, 
 are concerned as to the manner in which their timber is 
 treated after the felling, for, according to the more or less 
 careful seasoning of it, the season checks — not altogether 
 avoidable — are more or less abundant. 
 
 There is no country where wood is more lavishly used 
 or criminally neglected than in the United States, and 
 none in which nature has more bountifully provided for 
 all reasonable requirements. 
 
 In the absence of proper efforts to secure reproduction, 
 the most valuable kinds are rapidly being decimated, and 
 the necessity of a more rational and careful use of what 
 remains is clearly apparent. By greater care in selection, 
 however, not only will the duration of the supply be ex- 
 tended, but more satisfactory results will accrue from its 
 practice. 
 
 There are few more extensive and wide-reaching sub- 
 jects on which to treat than timber, which in this book 
 refers to dead timber — the timber of commerce — as 
 
TIMBER 3 
 
 distinct from the living tree. Such a great number of 
 different Ivinds of wood are now being brought from various 
 parts of the world, so many new kinds are continually 
 being added, and the subject is more difficult to explain 
 because timber of practically the same character which 
 comes from different localities goes under different names, 
 that if one were always to adhere to the botanical name 
 there would be less confusion, although even botanists 
 differ in some cases as to names. Except in the cases of 
 the older and better known timbers, one rarely takes up 
 two books dealing with timber and finds the botanical 
 names the same; moreover, trees of the same species may 
 produce a much poorer quality of timber when obtained 
 from different localities in the same country, so that botani- 
 cal knowledge will not always allow us to dispense with 
 other tests. 
 
 The structure of wood affords the only reliable means 
 of distinguishing the different kinds. Color, weight, smell, 
 and other appearances, which are often direct or indirect 
 results of structure, may be helpful in this distinction, 
 but cannot be relied upon entirely. Furthermore, struc- 
 ture underlies nearly all the technical properties of this 
 important product, and furnishes an explanation why one 
 piece differs in these properties from another. Structure 
 explains why oak is heavier, stronger, and tougher than 
 pine; why it is harder to saw and plane, and why it is so 
 much more difficult to season without injury. From its 
 less porous structure alone it is evident that a piece of 
 young and thrifty oak is stronger than the porous wood 
 of an old or stunted tree, or that a Georgia or long-leaf 
 pine excels white pine in weight and strength. 
 
 Keeping especially in mind the arrangement and direc- 
 tion of the fibres of wood, it is clear at once why knots and 
 "cross-grain" interfere with the strength of timber. It 
 is due to the structural peculiarities that "honey-combing" 
 occurs in rapid seasoning, that checks or cracks extend 
 radially and follow pith rays, that tangent or "bastard" 
 cut stock shrinks and warps more than that which is 
 quarter-sawn. These same peculiarities enable oak to 
 take a better finish than basswood or coarse-grained pine. 
 
4 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Structure of Wood 
 
 The softwoods are made up chiefly of tracheids, or 
 vertical cells closed at the ends, and of the relatively short 
 parenchyma cells of the medullary rays which extend 
 radially from the heart of the tree. The course of the 
 tracheids and the rays are at right angles to each other. 
 Although the tracheids have their permeable portions or 
 pits in their walls, liquids cannot pass through them with 
 the greatest ease. The softwoods do not contain "pores" 
 or vessels and are therefore called "non-porous" woods. 
 
 The hardwoods are not so simple in structure as soft- 
 woods. They contain not only rays, and in many cases 
 tracheids, but also thick-walled cells called fibres and wood 
 parenchyma for the storage of such foods as starches and 
 sugars. The principal structural features of the hard- 
 woods are the pores or vessels. These are long tubes, the 
 segments of which are made up of cells which have lost 
 their end walls and joined end to end, forming continuous 
 "pipe lines" from the roots to the leaves in the tree. Since 
 they possess pores or vessels, the hardwoods are called 
 "porous" woods. 
 
 Red oak is an excellent example of a porous wood. In 
 white oak the vessels of the heartwood especially are 
 closed, very generally by ingrowths called tyloses. I'his 
 probably explains why red oak dries more easily and 
 rapidly than white oak. 
 
 The red and black gums are perhaps the simplest of the 
 hardwoods in structure. They are termed "diffuse po- 
 rous" woods because of the numerous scattered pores 
 they contain. Thej^ have only vessels, wood fibres, and 
 a few parenchjmia cells. The medullary rays, although 
 present, are scarcely visible in most instances. The 
 vessels are in many cases open, and might be expected to 
 offer relatively little resistance to drying. 
 
 Properties of Wood 
 
 Certain general properties of wood may be discussed 
 briefly. We know that wood substance has the property 
 of taking in moisture from the air until some balance is 
 
TIMBER 5 
 
 reached between the humidity of the air and the moisture 
 in the wood. This moisture which goes into the cell walls 
 is hygroscopic moisture, and the property which the wood 
 substance has of taking on hygroscopic moisture is termed 
 hygroscopicity. Usually wood contains not only hy- 
 groscopic moisture but also more or less free water in the 
 cell cavities. Especially is this true of sapwood. The 
 free water usually dries out quite rapidly with little or no 
 shrinkage or other physical change. 
 
 In certain woods — for example, Eucalyptus globulus and 
 possibly some oaks — shrinkage begins almost at once, thus 
 introducing a factor at the very start of the seasoning proc- 
 ess which makes these woods very refractory. 
 
 The cell walls of some species, including the two already 
 mentioned, such as Western red cedar and redwood, be- 
 come soft and plastic when hot and moist. If the fibres 
 are hot enough and very wet, they are not strong enough 
 to withstand the resulting force of the atmospheric pres- 
 sure and the tensile force exerted by the dej^arting free 
 water, and the result is that the cells actually collapse. 
 
 In general, however, the hj^groscopic moisture neces- 
 sary to saturate the cell walls is termed the "fibre satura- 
 tion point." This amount has been found to be from 
 25 to 30 per cent of the dry wood weight. Unlike Eu- 
 calyptus globulus and certain oaks, the gums do not begin 
 to shrink until the moisture content has been reduced to 
 about 30 per cent of the dry wood weight. These woods 
 are not subject to collapse, although their fibres become 
 very plastic while hot and moist. 
 
 Upon the peculiar properties of each wood depends the 
 difficulty or ease of the seasoning process. 
 
 Classes of Trees 
 
 The timber of the United States is furnished by three 
 well-defined classes of trees: (1) The needle-leaved, naked- 
 seeded conifers, such as pine, cedar, etc., (2) the broad- 
 leaved trees, such as oak, poplar, etc., and (3) to an 
 inferior extent by the (one-seed leaf) palms, yuccas, 
 and their allies, which are confined to the most southern 
 parts of the country. 
 
6 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Broad-leaved trees are also known as deciduous trees, 
 although, especially in warm countries, many of them are 
 evergreen, while the needle-leaved trees (conifers) are 
 commonly termed "evergreens," although the larch, bald 
 cj'press, and others shed their leaves every fall, and even 
 the names "broad-leaved" and "coniferous," though per- 
 haps the most satisfactory, are not at all exact, for the 
 conifer "ginkgo" has broad leaves and bears no cones. 
 
 Among the woodsmen, the woods of broad-leaved trees 
 are known as "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as 
 pine, and the "coniferous woods" are known as "soft- 
 woods," notwithstanding the fact that yew ranks high in 
 hardness even when compared with "hardwoods." 
 
 Both in the number of different kinds of trees or species 
 and still more in the importance of their product, the coni- 
 fers and broad-leaved trees far excel the palms and their 
 relatives. 
 
 In the manner of their growth both the conifers and 
 broad-leaved trees behave alike, adding each year a new 
 layer of wood, which covers the old wood in all parts of 
 the stem and limbs. Thus the trunk continues to grow 
 in thickness throughout the life of the tree by additions 
 (annual rings), which in temperate climates are, barring 
 accidents, accurate records of the tree. With the palms 
 and their relatives the stem remains generally of the same 
 diameter, the tree of a hundred years old being as thick 
 as it was at ten years, the growth of these being only at 
 the top. Even where a peripheral increase takes place, 
 as in the yuccas, the wood is not laid on in well-defined 
 layers for the structure remains irregular throughout. 
 Though alike in the manner of their growth, and therefore 
 similar in their general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved 
 trees differ markedly in the details of their structure and 
 the character of their wood. 
 
 The wood of all conifers is very simple in its structure, 
 the fibres composing the main part of the wood all being 
 alike and their arrangement regular. The wood of the 
 broad-leaved trees is complex in structure; it is made up 
 of different kinds of cells and fibres and lacks the regu- 
 larity of arrangement so noticeable in the conifers. This 
 
TIMBER 7 
 
 difference is so great that in a study of wood structure it 
 is best to consider the two kinds separately. 
 
 In this country the great variety of woods, and especially 
 of useful woods, often makes the mere distinction of the 
 kind or species of tree most difficult. Thus there are at 
 least eight pines of the thirty-five native ones in the mar- 
 ket, some of which so closely resemble each other in their 
 minute structure that one can hardly tell them apart, and 
 yet they differ in quality and are often mixed or con- 
 founded in the trade. Of the thirty-six oaks, of which 
 probably not less than six or eight are marketed, we can 
 readily recognize by means of their minute anatomy at 
 least two tribes — the white and black oaks. The same 
 is true of the eleven kinds of hickory, the six kinds of ash, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 The list of names of all trees indigenous to the United 
 States, as enumerated by the United States Forest Service, 
 is 495 in number, the designation of "tree" being ap- 
 plied to all woody plants which produce naturally in their 
 native habitat one main, erect stem, bearing a definite 
 crown, no matter what size they attain. 
 
 Timber is produced only by the Spermatophyta, or 
 seed-bearing plants, which are subdivided into the Gjaii- 
 nosperms ' (conifers), and Angiosperms (broad-leaved). 
 The conifer or cone-bearing tree, to which belong the pines, 
 larches, and firs, is one of the three natural orders of Gym- 
 nosperms. These are generally classed as "softwoods," 
 and are more extensively scattered and more generally 
 used than any other class of timber, and are . simi^le and 
 regular in structure. The so-called "hardwoods" are 
 "Dicotyledons" or broad-leaved trees, a subdivision of 
 the Angiosperms. They are generally of slower growth, 
 and produce harder timber than the conifers, but not 
 necessarily so. Basswood, poplar, sycamore, and some 
 of the gums, though classed with the hardwoods, are not 
 nearly as hard as some of the pines. 
 
SECTION II 
 
 C0XIFEJJ0U8 TEEES 
 
 WOOD OF THE CONIFEROUS TREES 
 
 Examining a smooth cross-section or end face of a well- 
 grown log of Georgia pine, we distinguish an envelope of 
 reddish, scaly bark, a small, whitish pith at the center, 
 and between these the wood in a great number of con- 
 centric rings. 
 
 Bark and Pith 
 
 The bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near 
 the base, decreases rapidly in thickness from one to one- 
 half inches at the stump to one-tenth inch near the top 
 of the tree, and forms in general about ten to fifteen per 
 cent of the entire trunk. The pith is quite thick, usually 
 one-eighth to one-fifth inch in southern species, though 
 much less so in white pine, and is very thin, one-fifteenth 
 to one twenty-fifth inch in cjqiress, cedar, and larch. 
 
 In woods with a thick pith, the pith is finest at the 
 stump, grows rapidly thicker toward the top, and be- 
 comes thinner again in the crown and limits, the first one 
 to five rings adjoining it behaving siiuilarly. 
 
 What is called the pith was once the seedhng tree, and 
 in many of the pines and firs, especially after they have 
 been seasoning for a good while, this is distiiictly notice- 
 ah\e in the center of the log, and detaches itself from the 
 sm'rounding wood. 
 
 Sap and Heartwood 
 
 Wood is composed of duramen or heartwood, and al- 
 burnum or sapwood, and when dry consists approximately 
 of 49 per cent by weight of carbon, 6 per cent of hydrogen, 
 44 per cent of oxygen, and 1 per cent of ash, which is fairly 
 uniform for all species. The sapwood is the external and 
 
CONIFEROUS TREES 9 
 
 youngest portion of the tree, and often constitutes a very 
 considerable proportion of it. It lies next the bark, and 
 after a course of years, sometimes many, as in the case of 
 oaks, sometimes few, as in the case of firs, it becomes 
 hardened and ultimately forms the duramen or heartwood. 
 Sapwood is generally of a white or light color, almost in- 
 variably lighter in color than the heartwood, and is very 
 conspicuous in the darker-colored woods, as for instance 
 the yellow sapwood of mahogany and similiar colored 
 woods, and the reddish brown heartwood; or the yellow 
 sapwood of Lignum-vitae and the dark green heartwood. 
 Sapwood forms a much larger proportion of some trees 
 than others, but being on the outer circumference it always 
 forms a large proportion of the timber, and even in sound, 
 hard pine will be from 40 per cent to 60 per cent of the 
 tree, and in some cases much more. It is really imperfect 
 wood, while the duramen or heartwood is the perfect wood; 
 the heartwood of the mature tree was the sapwood of its 
 earlier years. Young trees when cut down are almost 
 all sapwood, and practically useless as good, sound timber; 
 it is, however, through the sapwood that the life-giving 
 juices which sustain the tree arise from the soil, and if the 
 sapwood be cut through, as is done when "girdhng," the 
 tree quickly dies, as it can derive no further nourishment 
 from the soil. Although absolutely necessary to the grow- 
 ing tree, sapwood is often objectionable to the user, as it 
 is the first part to decay. In this sapwood many cells are 
 active, store up starch, and otherwise assist in the life 
 processes of the tree, although only the last or outer layer 
 of cells forms the growing part, and the true life of the tree. 
 The duramen or heartwood is the inner, darker part of 
 the log. In the heartwood all the cells are lifeless cases, 
 and serve only the mechanical function of keeping the 
 tree from breaking under its own great weight or from 
 being laid low by the winds. The darker color of the 
 heartwood is due to infiltration of chemical substances 
 into the cell walls, but the cavities of the cells in pine are 
 not filled up, as is sometimes believed, nor do their walls 
 grow thicker, nor are the walls any more liquified than in 
 the sapwood. 
 
10 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Sapwood varies in width and in the number of rings 
 which it contains even in different parts of the same tree. 
 The same j-ear's growth which is sapwood in one part of 
 a disk may be heartwood in another. Sapwood is widest 
 in the main part of the stem and often varies within con- 
 siderable limits and without apparent regularity. Gen- 
 erally, it becomes narrower toward the top and in the 
 limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and being 
 the least in a given chsk on the side which has the shortest 
 rachus. Sapwood of old and stunted pines is composed 
 of more rings than that of young and thrifty specimens. 
 Thus in a pine two hundred and fifty years old a laj'er of 
 wood or an annual ring does not change from sapwood to 
 heartwood until seventy or eighty years after it is formed, 
 while in a tree one hundred years old or less it remains 
 sapwood only from thirty to sixty years. 
 
 The width of the sapwood varies considerably for dif- 
 ferent kinds of pine. It is small for long-leaf and white 
 pine and great for loblolly and Norway pines. Occupy- 
 ing the peripheral part of the trunk, the proportion which 
 it forms of the entire nrass of the stem is always great. 
 Thus even in old long-leaf pines, the sapwood forms 40 
 per cent of the merchantable log, while in the loblolly 
 and in all young trees the sapwood forms the bulk of the 
 wood. 
 
 The Annual or Yearly Rings 
 
 The concentric annual or yearly rings which appear on 
 the end face of a log are cross-sections of so many thin 
 layers of wood. Each such laj^er forms an enveloj^e around 
 its inner neighbor, and is in turn covered by the adjoin- 
 ing layer without, so that the whole stem is built up of 
 a series of thin, hollow cylinders, or rather cones. 
 
 A new layer of wood is formed each season, covering 
 the entire stem, as well as all the living branches. The 
 thickness of this layer or the width of the yearly ring 
 varies greatly in chfferent trees, and also in different parts 
 of the same tree. 
 
 In a normally-grown, thrifty pine log the rings are widest 
 near the pith, growing more and more narrow toward 
 
CONIFEROUS TREES 11 
 
 the bark. Thus the central twenty rings in a disk of an 
 old long-leaf pine may each be one-eighth to one-sixth 
 inch wide, while the twenty rings next to the bark may 
 average only one-thirtieth inch. 
 
 In our forest trees, rings of one-half inch in width occur 
 only near the center in disks of very thrifty trees, of both 
 conifers and hardwoods. One-twelfth inch represents good, 
 thrifty growth, and the minimum width of one two hun- 
 dred inch is often seen in stunted spruce and pine. The 
 average width of rings in well-grown, old white pine will 
 vary from one-twelfth to one-eighteenth inch, while in the 
 slower growing long-leaf pine it may be one twenty-fifth 
 to one-thirtieth of an inch. The same layer of wood 
 is widest near the stump in very thrifty young trees, 
 especially if grown in the open park; but in old forest 
 trees the same year's growth is wider at the upper part 
 of the tree, being narrowest near the stump, and often 
 also near the very tij) of the stem. Generally the rings 
 are widest near the center, growing narrower toward the 
 bark. 
 
 In logs from stunted trees the order is often reversed, 
 the interior rings being tliin and the outer rings widest. 
 Frequently, too, zones or bands of very narrow rings, 
 representing unfavorable periods of growth, disturb the 
 general regularity. 
 
 Few trees, even among pines, furnish a log with truly 
 circular cross-section. Usually it is an oval, and at the 
 stump commonly quite an irregular figure. Moreover, 
 even in very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in 
 the center, and frequently one radius is conspicuously 
 longer than its opposite, the width of some rings, if not 
 aU, being greater on one side than on the other. This is 
 nearly always so in the limbs, the lower radius exceeding 
 the upper. In extreme cases, especially in the limbs, a 
 ring is frequently conspicuous on one side, and almost 
 or entirely lost to view on the other. Where the rings 
 are extremely narrow, the dark portion of the ring is often 
 wanting, the color being quite uniform and hght. The 
 greater regularity or irregularity of the annual rings has 
 much to do with the technical qualities of the timber. 
 
12 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Spring- and Summer-Wood 
 
 Examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that 
 each ring is made up of an inner, softer, light-colored and 
 an outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored portion. 
 Being formed in the forepart of the season, the inner, 
 light-colored part is termed spring-wood, the outer, darker- 
 portioned being the summer-wood of the ring. Since the 
 latter is \'ery heavy and firm it determines to a very large 
 extent the weight and strength of the wood, and as its 
 darker color influences the shade of color of the entire 
 piece of wood, this color effect becomes a valuable aid in 
 distinguishing heavy and strong from light and soft pine 
 wood. 
 
 In most hard pines, like the long-leaf, the dark summer- 
 wood appears as a distinct band, so that the yearly ring 
 is composed of two sharply defined bands — an inner, 
 the spring-wood, and an outer, the summer-wood. But 
 in some cases, even in hard pines, and normally in the 
 woods of white pines, the spring-wood passes gradually 
 into the darker summer-wood, so that a darkly defined 
 line occurs only where the spring-wood of one ring abuts 
 against the summer-wood of its neighbor. It is this clearly 
 defined line which enables the eye to distinguish even the 
 very narrow lines in old pines and spruces. 
 
 In some cases, especially in the trunks of Southern pines, 
 and normally on the lower side of pine limbs, there occur 
 dark bands of wood in the spring-wood portion of the ring, 
 giving rise to false rings, which mislead in a superficial 
 counting of rings. In the disks cut from limbs these 
 dark bands often occupy the greater part of the ring, and 
 appear as "lunes," or sickle-shaped figures. The wood of 
 these dark bands is similar to that of the true summer- 
 wood. The cells have thick walls, but usually the com- 
 pressed or flattened form. Normally, the summer-wood 
 forms a greater proportion of the rings in the part of the 
 tree formed during the period of thriftiest growth. In 
 an old tree this proportion is very small in the first two 
 to five rings about the pith, and also in the part next to 
 the bark, the intermediate part showing a greater pro- 
 
CONIFEROUS TREES 
 
 13 
 
 portion of summer-wood. It is also greatest in a disk 
 taken from near the stumji, and decreases upward in the 
 stem, thus fully accounting for the difference in weight 
 and firmness of the wood of these different parts. 
 
 In the long-leaf pine the summer-wood often forms 
 scarcely ten per cent of the wood in the central five rings; 
 forty to hfty per cent of the next one hundred rings, about 
 thirty per cent of the next fifty, and only about twenty 
 per cent in the fifty 
 rings next to the 
 bark. It averages 
 forty-five per cent of 
 the wood of the 
 stump and only 
 twenty-four per cent 
 of that of the top. 
 
 Sawing the log into 
 boards, the yearly 
 rings are represented 
 on the board faces 
 of the middle board 
 (radial sections) by 
 narrow parallel strips 
 (see Fig. 1), an in- 
 ner, lighter stripe 
 and its outer, darker 
 neighbor always cor- 
 responding to one 
 annual ring. 
 
 On the faces of the 
 boards nearest the slab (tangential or bastard boards) the 
 several years' growth should also appear as parallel, but 
 much broader stripes. This they do if the log is short 
 and very perfect. Usually a variety of pleasing patterns 
 is displayed on the boards, depending on the position of 
 the saw cut and on the regularity of growth of the log 
 (see Fig. 1). Where the cut passes through a prominence 
 (bump or crook) of the log, irregular, concentric circlets 
 and ovals are produced, and on almost all tangent boards 
 arrow or V-shaped forms occur. 
 
 li<r Vj)(^ 
 
 Fig. 1. Board of Pine. CS, cross-section; RS, 
 radial section; TS, tangential section; 
 sw, summer-wood; sjnv, spring-wood. 
 
14 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Anatomical Structure 
 
 Holding a well-smootlied disk or cross-section one- 
 eightli inch thick toward the hght, it is readily seen that 
 pine wood is a very porous structure. If viewed with a 
 strong magnifier, the little tubes, especially in the spring- 
 wood of the rings, are easily distinguished, and their ar- 
 rangement in regular, straight, radial rows is apparent. 
 Scattered through the summer-wood portion of the 
 rings, numerous irregular grayish dots (the resin ducts) 
 
 disturb the uniform- 
 ity and regularity of 
 the structure. Mag- 
 nified one hundred 
 times, a piece of 
 spruce, which is sim- 
 ilar to pine, presents 
 a picture like that 
 shown in Fig. 2. 
 Only short pieces of 
 the tubes or cells of 
 which the wood is 
 composed are repre- 
 sented in the picture. 
 The total length of 
 these fibres is from 
 one-twentieth to one- 
 fifth inch, being the 
 smallest near the 
 pith, and is fifty to 
 one hundred times 
 as great as their 
 width (see Fig. 3). 
 They are tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal or 
 rounded and thin-walled, with large cavity, lumen or in- 
 ternal space in the spring-wood, and thick-walled and 
 flattened radially, with the internal space or lumen much 
 reduced in the summer-wood fsee right-hand portion 
 of Fig. 2). This flattening, together with the thicker walls 
 of the cells, which reduces the lumen, causes the greater 
 
 Fig. 2. Wood of Spruce. 1, natural size; 2, 
 small part of one ring magnified 100 
 times. The vertical tubes are wood 
 fil:)res, in this case all "traeheids." »/, 
 medullary or pith ray; n, transverse 
 traeheids of ray; a, h, and c, bordered 
 pits of the traeheids, more enlarged. 
 
CONIFEROUS TREES 
 
 15 
 
 firmness and darker color of the summer-wood. There 
 is more material in the same volume. As shown in the 
 figure, the tubes, cells or "tracheids" are decorated on 
 their walls by circlet-hke structures, the "bordered pits," 
 sections of which are seen more magnified as a, b, and c, 
 Fig. 2. These pits are in the nature of pores, covered 
 by very thin membranes, and serve as water- rawmma 
 ways between the cells or tracheids. The dark ffil'wl'l 
 lines on the side of the smaller piece (1, Fig. 2) 
 appear when magnified (in 2, Fig. 2) as tiers 
 of eight to ten rows of cefis, which run radially 
 (parallel to the rows of tubes or tracheids), 
 and are seen as bands on the radial face and 
 as rows of pores on the tangential face. These 
 bands or tiers of cell rows are the medullary 
 rays or pith rays, and are common to all our 
 lumber woods. 
 
 In the pines and other conifers they are quite 
 small, but they can readily be seen even with- 
 out a magnifier. If a radial surface of spfit- 
 wood (not smoothed) is examined, the entire 
 radial face will be seen almost covered with 
 these tiny structures, which appear as fine but 
 conspicuous cross-lines. As shown in Fig. 2, the 
 cells of the medullary or pith are smaller and 
 very much shorter than the wood fibre or 
 tracheids, and their long axis is at right angles 
 to that of the fiber. 
 
 In pines and spruces the cells of the upper 
 and lower rows of each tier or pith ray have 
 "bordered" pits, like those of the wood fibre 
 or tracheids proper, but the cells of the inter- 
 mediate rows in the rays of cedars, etc., have 
 only "simple" pits, i.e., pits devoid of the 
 saucer-like "border" or rim. In pine, many 
 of the pith rays are larger than the majority, 
 
 Fig. 3. Group of Fibres from Pine Wood. Partly schematic. The little 
 circles are "border pits" (see Fig. 2, a-c). The transverse rows of 
 square pits indicate the places of contact of these fibres and the cells 
 of the neighboring pith rays. Magnified about 25 times. 
 
16 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 each containing a whitish line, the horizontal resin duct, 
 wliich, though nuich smaller, resembles the vertical ducts 
 on the cross-section. The larger vertical resin ducts are 
 best observed on removal of the bark from a fresh piece 
 of white pine cut in the winter where they appear as con- 
 spicuous white lines, extending often for many inches up 
 and down the stem. Neither the horizontal nor the verti- 
 cal resin ducts are vessels or cells, but are openings between 
 cells, i.e., intercellular spaces, in which the resin accumu- 
 lates, freely oozing out when the ducts of a fresh piece of 
 sapwood are cut. They are present only in our coniferous 
 woods, and even here they are restricted to pine, spruce, 
 and larch, and are normallj^ absent in fir, cedar, cypress, 
 and yew. Altogether, the structure of coniferous woods 
 is very simple and regular, the bulk being made up of the 
 small fibres called tracheids, the disturbing elements of 
 pith rays and resin ducts being insignificant, and hence 
 the great uniformity and great technical value of conifer- 
 ous woods. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 
 
 CEDAR 
 
 Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture. Sap- and 
 heartwood distinct, the former fighter, the latter a dull 
 grayish brown or red. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks 
 and checks but little, and is very durable in contact with 
 the soil. Used like soft pine, but owing to its great dura- 
 bility preferred for shingles, etc. Cedars usually occur 
 scattered, but they form in certain localities forests of 
 considerable extent. 
 
 (a) White Cedars 
 
 1. White Cedar {Thuya occidentalis) (Arborvita;, Tree of 
 
 life). Heartwood light yellowish brown, sap wood 
 nearly white. Wood light, soft, not strong, of fine 
 texture, very durable in contact with the soil, very 
 fragrant. Scattered along streams and lakes, fre- 
 quently covering extensive swamps; rarely large 
 enough for lumber, but commonly used for fence 
 posts, rails, railway ties, and shingles. This species 
 has been extensively cultivated as an ornamental tree 
 for at least a century. Maine to Minnesota and 
 northward. 
 
 2. Canoe Cedar (Thuya gigantea) (Red Cedar of the West). 
 
 In Oregon and Washington a very large tree, cover- 
 ing extensi\'e swamps ; in the mountains much smaller, 
 skirting the water courses. An important lumber 
 tree. The wood takes a fine polish; suitable for 
 interior finishing, as there is much variety of shading 
 in the color. Washington to northern California 
 and eastward to Montana. 
 
 3. White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides). Medium-sized 
 
 tree. Heartwood fight brown with rose tinge, sap- 
 
IS SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 wood paler. Wood light, soft, not strong, close- 
 grained, easil}^ worked, very durable in contact with 
 the soil and very fragrant. Used in boatbuilding, 
 cooperage, interior finish, fence posts, railway ties, 
 etc. illong the coast from Maine to Mississippi. 
 
 4. White Cedar (ChamcEcy parts Lawsoniana) (Port Or- 
 
 ford Cedar, Oregan Cedar, Lawson's Cypress, Ginger 
 Pine). A ^•ery large tree. A fine, close-grained, 
 yellowish-white, durable timber, elastic, easily worked, 
 free of knots, and fragrant. Extensively cut for 
 lumber; heavier and stronger than any of the pre- 
 ceding. Along the coast line of Oregon. 
 
 5. White Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) (Incense Cedar). 
 
 A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine and 
 fir. Wood fine-grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains of Oregon and California. 
 
 6. Yellow Cedar (Cupressus nootkatensis) (Alaska Cedar, 
 
 Alaska Cypress). A very large tree, much used for 
 panelling and furniture. A fine, close-grained, yel- 
 lowish white, durable timber, easily worked. Along 
 the coast line of Oregon north. 
 
 (b) Red Cedars 
 
 7. Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) (Savin Juniper, 
 
 Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper Bush, Pencil Cedar). 
 Heartwood dull red color, thin sapwood nearly white. 
 Close even grain, compact structure. Wood light, 
 soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable in contact 
 with the soil, and fragrant. Used for ties, posts, 
 interior finish, pencil cases, cigar boxes, silos, tanks, 
 and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose 
 alone several million feet are cut each year. A small 
 to medium-sized tree scattered through the forests, 
 or in the West sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar 
 brakes) . The red cedar is the most widely distributed 
 conifer of the United States, occurring from the At- 
 lantic to the Pacific, and from Florida to Minnesota. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 19 
 
 Attains a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, 
 and more especially the Gulf States. 
 
 8. Red Cedar {Juniperus co7mnunis) (Ground Cedar). 
 
 Small-sized tree, its maximum height being about 
 25 feet. It is found widely distributed throughout 
 the Northern hemisphere. Wood in its quality similar 
 to the preceding. The fruit of this species is gathered 
 in large quantities and used in the manufacture of 
 gin; whose peculiar flavor and medicinal properties 
 are due to the oil of Juniper berries, which is secured 
 by adding the crushed fruit to undistilled grain spirit, 
 or by allowing the vapor to pass over it before con- 
 densation. Used locally for construction purposes, 
 fence posts, etc. Ranges from Cxreenland to Alaska, 
 in the East, southward to Pennsylvania and northern 
 Nebraska; in the Rocky Mountains to Texas, Mexico, 
 and Arizona. 
 
 9. Redwood {Sequoia sempervirens) (Sequoia, California 
 
 Redwood, Coast Redwood). Wood in its quality 
 and uses like white cedar. Thick, red heartwood, 
 changing to reddish brown when seasoned. Thin 
 sapwood, nearly white, coarse, straight grain, com- 
 pact structure. Light, not strong, soft, very durable in 
 contact with the soil, not resinous, easily worked, 
 does not burn easily, receives high polish. Used for 
 timber, shingles, flumes, fence posts, coffins, railway ties, 
 water pipes, interior decorations, and cabinetmaking. 
 A very large tree, limited to the coast ranges of Cali- 
 fornia, and forming considerable forests, which are 
 rapidly being converted into lumber. 
 
 CYPRESS 
 
 10. Cypress (Taxodium distinchu7?i) (Bald Cypress, Black, 
 White, and Red Cypress, Pecky Cypress). Wood in 
 its appearance, quahty, and uses similar to white 
 cedar. "Black" and "White Cypress" are heavy 
 and fight forms of the same species. Heartwood 
 brownish; sapwood nearly white. Wood close, 
 
20 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 straight-grain, frequently full of small holes caused by 
 disease known as "pecky cypress." Greasy ap- 
 pearance and feehng. Wood hght, soft, not strong, 
 durable in contact with the soil, takes a fine polish. 
 Green wood often very heavy. Used for carpentry, 
 building construction, shingles, cooperage, railway 
 ties, silos, tanks, vehicles, and washing machines. 
 The cypress is a large, deciduous tree, inhabiting 
 swampy lands, and along rivers and coasts of the 
 Southern parts of the United States. Grows to a 
 height of 150 feet and 12 feet in diameter. 
 
 FIR 
 
 This name is frequently applied to wood and to trees 
 which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, but also, 
 especially in English markets, to pine. It resembles 
 spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, as well as from 
 pine and larch, by the absence of resin ducts. Quality, 
 uses, and habits similar to spruce. 
 
 11. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) (Balsam, Fir Tree, Balm 
 of Gilead Fir). Heartwood white to brownish; sap- 
 wood lighter color; coarse-grained, compact structure, 
 satiny. Wood light, not durable or strong, resinous, 
 easily split. Used for boxes, crates, doors, millwork, 
 cheap lumber, paper pulp. Inferior to white pine 
 or spruce, yet often mixed and sold with these species 
 in the lumber market. A medium-sized tree scattered 
 throughout the northern pineries, and cut in lumber 
 operations whenever of sufficient size. Minnesota 
 to Maine and northward. 
 
 12. White Fir (Abies grandis and Abies concolor). Medium- 
 to very large-sized tree, forming an important part of 
 most of the Western mountain forests, and furnishes 
 much of the lumber of the respective regions. The 
 former occurs from Vancouver to California, and the 
 latter from Oregon to Arizona and eastward to Colo- 
 rado and Mexico. The wood is soft and light, coarse- 
 grained, not unlike the "Swiss pine" of Europe, but 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 21 
 
 darker and firmer, and is not suitable for any purpose 
 requiring strength. It is used for boxes, barrels, and 
 to a small extent for wood pulp. 
 
 13. White Fir (Abies amabalis). Good-sized tree, often 
 forming extensive mountain forests. Wood similar 
 in quality and uses to Abies grandis. Cascade Moun- 
 tains of Washington and Oregon. 
 
 14. Red Fir (Abies nobilis) (Noble Fir) (not to be con- 
 founded with Douglas spruce. See No. 40). Large 
 to very large-sized tree, forming extensive forests on 
 the slope of the mountains between 3,000 and 4,000 
 feet elevation. Cascade Mountains of Oregon. 
 
 15. Red Fir (Abies magnijlca). Very large-sized tree, 
 forming forests about the base of Mount Shasta. 
 Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, from Mount 
 Shasta southward. 
 
 HEMLOCK 
 
 Light to medium weight, soft, stiff, but brittle, commonly 
 cross-grained, rough and splintery. Sapwood and heart- 
 wood not well defined. The wood of a light reddish-gray 
 color, free from resin ducts, moderately durable, shrinks 
 and warps considerably in drying, wears rough, retains 
 nails firmly. Used principally for dimension stuff and 
 timbers. Hemlocks are medium- to large-sized trees, 
 commonly scattered among broad-leaved trees and coni- 
 fers, but often forming forests of almost pure growth. 
 
 16. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) (Hemlock Spruce, 
 Peruche). Medium-sized tree, furnishes almost all 
 the hemlock of the Eastern market. Maine to Wis- 
 consin, also following the Alleghanies southward to 
 Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 17. Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) . Large-sized tree, 
 wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the 
 Eastern species and of superior quality. LTsed for 
 pulp wood, floors, panels, and newels. It is not 
 
22 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 suitable for heavy construction, especially where ex- 
 posed to the weather, it is straight in grain and will 
 take a good pohsh. Not adapted for use partly in 
 and partly out of the ground; in fresh water as piles 
 will last about ten years, but as it is softer than fir 
 it is less able to stand driving successfully. Wash- 
 ington to California and eastward to Montana. 
 
 LARCH or TAMARACK 
 
 Wood like the best of hard pine both in appearance, 
 quality, and uses, and owing to its great durability some- 
 what preferred in shipbuilding, for telegraph poles, and 
 railway ties. In its structure it resembles spruce. The 
 larches are deciduous trees, occasionally covering con- 
 siderable areas, but usually scattered among other conifers. 
 
 18. Tamarack {Larix laricina var. Americana) (Larch, 
 Black Larch, American Larch, Hacmatac). Heart- 
 wood light brown in color, sapwood nearly white, 
 coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual 
 rings pronounced. Wood heavy, hard, very strong, 
 durable in contact with the soil. Used for railway 
 ties, fence posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, 
 flagstaffs. Medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, 
 in which case it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine 
 to Minnesota, and southward to Pennsylvania. 
 
 19. Tamarack (Larix occidentalis) (Western Larch, Larch). 
 Large-sized trees, scattered, locally abundant. Is 
 little inferior to oak in strength and durability. 
 Heartwood of a light brown color with hghter sap- 
 wood, has a fine, slightly satiny grain, and is 
 fairly free from knots; the annual rings are distant. 
 Used for railway ties and shipbuilding. Washington 
 and Oregon to Montana. 
 
 PINE 
 
 Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" pine, such 
 as white pine; of medium weight to heavy and quite 
 hard in "hard" pine, of which the long-leaf or Georgia 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 23 
 
 pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, 
 of even texture, and more or less resinous. The sapwood 
 is yellowish white; the heartwood orange brown. Pine 
 shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without much 
 injury; it works easily, is never too hard to nail (unlike 
 oak or hickory) ; it is mostly quite durable when in con- 
 tact with the soil, and if well seasoned is not subject to 
 the attacks of boring insects. The heavier the wood, the 
 darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks 
 and checks when seasoning. Pine is used more exten- 
 sively than any other wood. It is the principal wood in 
 carpentry, as well as in all heavy construction, bridges, 
 trestles, etc. It is also used in almost every other wood 
 industry; for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in ship- 
 building, in car and wagon construction, in cooperage and 
 woodenware; for crates and boxes, in furniture work, for 
 toys and patterns, water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are 
 usually large-sized trees with few branches, the straight, 
 cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part 
 of the tree. They occur gregariously, forming vast forests, 
 a fact which greatly facilitates their exploitation. Of the 
 many special terms applied to pine as lumber, denoting 
 sometimes differences in quality, the following deserve 
 attention: "White pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine," 
 in the Eastern markets refer to the wood of the white 
 pine (Pinus strohus), and on the Pacific Coast to that of 
 the sugar pine (Pinus lambertina) . "Yellow pine" is 
 applied in the trade to all the Southern lumber pines; in 
 the Northwest it is also applied to the pitch pine {Pinus 
 regida) ; in the West it refers mostly to the bull pine {Pinus 
 ponderosa). "Yellow long-leaf pine" (Georgia pine), 
 chiefly used in advertisements, refers to the long-leaf 
 pine {Pinus palustris). 
 
 (a) Soft Pines 
 
 20. White Pine {Pinus strohus) (Soft Pine, Pumpkin Pine, 
 Weymouth Pine, Yellow Deal). Large to very large- 
 sized tree, reaching a height of 80 to 100 feet or more, 
 and in some instances 7 or 8 feet in diameter. For 
 the last fifty years the most important timber tree 
 
24 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 of the United States, furnishing the best quality of 
 soft pine. Heartwood cream wliite; sapwood nearly 
 white. Close straight grain, compact structure; com- 
 parativelj' free from knots and resin. Soft, uniform; 
 seasons well; easy to work; nails without splitting; 
 fairly durable in contact with the soil; and shrinks 
 less than other species of pine. Paints well. Used 
 for carpentry, construction, building, spars, masts, 
 matches, boxes, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 21. Sugar Pine (Pinus lamhertiana) (White Pine, Pump- 
 kin Pine, Soft Pine). A very large tree, forming ex- 
 tensive forests in the Rocky Mountains and furnishing 
 most of the timber of the western United States. It 
 is confined to Oregon and California, and grows at 
 from 1,500 to 8,000 feet above sea level. Has an 
 average height of 150 to 175 feet and a diameter of 
 4 to 5 feet, with a maximum height of 2.35 feet and 12 
 feet in diameter. The wood is soft, durable, straight- 
 grained, easily worked, very resinous, and has a 
 satiny luster which makes it appreciated for interior 
 work. It is extensively used for doors, blinds, sashes, 
 and interior finish, also for druggists' drawers, owing 
 to its freedom from odor, for oars, mouldings, ship- 
 building, cooperage, shingles, and fruit boxes. Oregon 
 and California. 
 
 22. White Pine (Pinus vionticolo). A large tree, at home 
 in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States. Most 
 common and locally used in northern Idaho. 
 
 23. White Pine {Pinus flexilis). A small-sized tree, 
 forming mountain forests of considerable extent and 
 locally used. Eastern Rocky Mountain slopes, Mon- 
 tana to New Mexico. 
 
 ih) Hard Pines 
 
 24. Long-Leaf Pine (Pinus palustris) (Georgia Pine, 
 Southern Pine, Yellow Pine, Southern Hard Pine, 
 Long-straw Pine, etc.). Large-sized tree. This 
 species furnishes the hardest and most durable as 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 25 
 
 well as one of the strongest pine timbers in the market. 
 Heartwood orange, sapwood hghter color, the annual 
 rings are strongly marked, and it is full of resinous 
 matter, making it very durable, but difficult to work. 
 It is hard, dense, and strong, fairly free from knots, 
 straight-grained, and one of the best timbers for 
 heavy engineering work where great strength, long 
 span, and durability are required. Used for heavy 
 construction, shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, 
 flooring, and interior decoration. Coast region from 
 North Carolina to Texas. 
 
 25. Bull Pine (Pinus ponder osa) (Yellow Pine, Western 
 Yellow Pine, Western Pine, Western White Pine, 
 Cahfornia White Pine). Medium- to very large- 
 sized tree, forming extensive forests in the Pacific and 
 Rocky Mountain regions. Heartwood reddish brown, 
 sapwood yellowish white, and there is often a good 
 deal of it. The resinous smell of the wood is very 
 remarkable. It is extensively used for beams, floor- 
 ing, ceilings, and building work generally. 
 
 26. Bull Pine (Pinus Jeffreyi) (Black Pine). Large- 
 sized tree, wood resembles Pinus ponderosa and re- 
 placing same at high altitudes. Used locally in 
 California. 
 
 27. Loblolly Pine (Pinus tceda) (Slash Pine, Old Field 
 Pine, Rosemary Pine, Sap Pine, Short-straw Pine). 
 A large-sized tree, forms extensive forests. Wider- 
 ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood 
 than the long-leaf pine, but the two are often con- 
 founded in the market. The more Northern tree 
 produces lumber which is weak, brittle, coarse-grained, 
 and not durable, the Southern tree produces a better 
 quality wood. Both are very resinous. This is the 
 common lumber pine from Virginia to South Caro- 
 lina, and is found extensively in Arkansas and Texas. 
 Southern States, Virginia to Texas and Arkansas. 
 
 28. Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa) (American Red Pine, 
 Canadian Pine). Large-sized tree, never forming 
 
26 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 forests, usually scattered or in small groves, together 
 with white pine. Largely sapwood and hence not 
 durable. Heartwood reddish white, with fine, clear 
 grain, fairly tough and elastic, not liable to warp and 
 split. Used for building construction, bridges, piles, 
 masts, and spars. Minnesota to Michigan; also in 
 New England to Pennsylvania. 
 
 29. Short-Leaf Pine (Pinus echinata) (Slash Pine, Spruce 
 Pine, Carolina Pine, Yellow Pine, Old Field Pine, 
 Hard Pine). A medium- to large-sized tree, resem- 
 bling loblolly pine, often approaches in its wood the 
 Norway pine. Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter; 
 compact structure, apt to be variable in appearance 
 in cross-section. Wood usually hard, tough, strong, 
 durable, resinous. A valuable timber tree, sometimes 
 worked for turpentine. Used for heavy construction, 
 shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, and 
 house trim. Pinus echinata, palustris, and tceda are 
 very similar in character, of thin wood and very dif- 
 ficult to distinguish one from another. As a rule, how- 
 ever, palustris (Long-leaf Pine) has the smallest and 
 most uniform growth rings, and Pinus tceda (Loblolly 
 Pine) has the largest. All are apt to be bunched 
 together in the lumber market as Southern Hard 
 Pine. All are used for the same purposes. Short- 
 leaf is the common lumber pine of Missouri and 
 Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and Missouri. 
 
 30. Cuban Pine (Pinus cubensis) (Slash Pine, Swamp 
 Pine, Bastard Pine, Meadow Pine). Resembles long- 
 leaf pine, but commonly has a wider sapwood and 
 coarser grain. Does not enter the markets to any 
 extent. Along the coast from South Carolina to 
 Louisiana. 
 
 31. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) (Torch Pine). A small to 
 medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown or red, 
 sapwood yellowish white. Wood light, soft, not 
 strong, coarse-grained, durable, very resinous. Used 
 locally for lumber, fuel, and charcoal. Coast regions 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 27 
 
 from New York to Georgia, and along the mountains 
 to Kentucky. 
 
 32. Black Pine (Pinus murryana) (Lodge-pole Pine, 
 Tamarack). Small-sized tree. Rocky Mountains 
 and Pacific regions. 
 
 33. Jersey Pine (Pinus inops var. Virginiana) (Scrub 
 Pine). Small-sized tree. Along the coast from New 
 York to Georgia and along the mountains to Kentucky. 
 
 34. Gray Pine (Pinus divaricata var. hanksiana) (Scrub 
 Pine, Jack Pine). Medium- to large-sized tree. 
 Heartwood pale brown, rarely yellow; sap wood nearly 
 white. Wood hght, soft, not strong, close-grained. 
 Used for fuel, railway ties, and fence posts. In days 
 gone by the Indians preferred this species for frames 
 of canoes. Maine, Vermont, and Michigian to ^lin- 
 nesota. 
 
 REDWOOD (See Cedar) 
 
 SPRUCE 
 
 Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, moderately 
 strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinct heartwood, 
 and is of whitish color. Used like soft pine, but also em- 
 ployed as resonance wood in musical instruments and 
 preferred for paper pulp. Spruces, like pines, form ex- 
 tensive forests. They are more frugal, thrive on thinner 
 soils, and bear more shade, but usuallj^ require a more 
 humid climate. "Black" and "White" spruce as ai^plied 
 by lumbermen usually refer to narrow and wide-ringed 
 forms of black siaruce (Picea nigra). 
 
 35. Black Spruce (Picea nigra var. mariana). Medium- 
 sized tree, forms extensive forests in northwestern 
 LTnited States and in British America; occurs scat- 
 tered or in groves, especially in low lands throughout 
 the northern pineries. Important lumber tree in 
 eastern United States. Heartwood pale, often with 
 reddish tinge; sapwood pure white. Wood light, 
 
28 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 soft, not strong. Chiefly used for manufacture of 
 paper pulp, and great quantities of this as well as 
 Picca alba are used for this purpose. Used also for 
 sounding boards for pianos, violins, etc. Maine to 
 ]\Iinnesota, British America, and in the Alleghanies 
 to North Carolina. 
 
 36. White Spruce (Picea canadensis var. alba). Medium- 
 to large-sized tree. Heartwood light yellow; sap- 
 wood nearly' white. Generallj' associated with the 
 preceding. INIost abundant along streams and lakes, 
 grows largest in ^Montana and forms the most im- 
 portant tree of the sub-arctic forest of British America. 
 Used largely for floors, joists, doors, sashes, mouldings, 
 and panel work, rapidly superceding Pinus strobus 
 for building purposes. It is very similar to Norway 
 pine, excels it in toughness, is rather less durable and 
 dense, and more liable to warp in seasoning. Northern 
 United States from Maine to Minnesota, also from 
 Montana to Pacific, British America. 
 
 37. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni) . Medium- to large- 
 sized tree, forming extensive forests at elevations 
 from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level; resembles 
 the preceding, but occupies a different station. A 
 very important timber tree in the central and southern 
 parts of the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains 
 from Mexico to Montana. 
 
 38. Tide -Land Spruce (Picea sitchensis) (Sitka Spruce). 
 A large-sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt 
 forest. Used extensively for all classes of cooperage 
 and woodenware on the Pacific Coast. Along the 
 sea-coast from Alaska to central California. 
 
 39. Red Spruce (Picea rubens). Medium-sized tree, gen- 
 erally associated with Picea nigra and occurs scattered 
 throughout the northern pineries. Heartwood red- 
 dish; sapwood lighter color, straight-grained, com- 
 pact structure. Wood light, soft, not strong, elastic, 
 resonant, not durable when exposed. Used for floor- 
 ing, carpentry, shipbuilding, piles, posts, railway 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 29 
 
 ties, paddles, oars, sounding boards, paper pulp, and 
 musical instruments. Montana to Pacific, British 
 America. 
 
 BASTARD SPRUCE 
 
 Spruce or fir in name, but resembling hard pine or larch 
 in appearance, quality and uses of its wood. 
 
 40. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga douglasii) (Yellow Fir, 
 Red Fir, Oregon Pine). One of the most important 
 trees of the western United States; grows very large 
 in the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of the 
 mountains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet above 
 sea level; forms extensive forests, often of pure 
 growth, it is really neither a pine nor a fir. Wood 
 very variable, usually coarse-grained and heavy, 
 with very pronounced summer-wood. Hard and 
 strong ("red" fir), but often fine-grained and hght 
 ("yellow" fir). It is the chief tree of Washington 
 and Oregon, and most abundant and most valuable 
 in British Columbia, where it attains its greatest 
 size. From the plains to the Pacific Ocean, and from 
 Mexico to British Columbia. 
 
 41. Red Fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia) (Oregon Pine, Puget 
 Sound Pine, Yellow Fir, Douglas Spruce, Red Pine). 
 Heartwood light red or yellow in color, sapwood nar- 
 row, nearly white, comparatively free from resins, vari- 
 able annual rings. Wood usually hard, strong, difficult 
 to work, durable, splinters easily. Used for heavy 
 construction, dimension timber, railway ties, doors, 
 blinds, interior finish, piles, etc. One of the most 
 important of Western trees. From the plains to 
 the Pacific Ocean, and from Mexico to British America. 
 
 TAMARACK (See Larch) 
 
 YEW 
 
 Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, of fine 
 texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an orange-red 
 heartwood; seasons well and is quite durable. Exten- 
 
30 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 sively used for archery bows, turner's ware, etc. The 
 yews form no forests, but occur scattered with other 
 conifers. 
 
 42. Yew (Taxus brcvifoUa). A small to medium-sized 
 tree of the Pacific region. 
 
SECTION III 
 
 BKOAD-LEAYED TEEES 
 
 WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 
 
 On a cross-section of oak, the same arrangement of pith 
 and bark, of sapwood and heartwood, and the same dis- 
 position of the wood in weU-defined concentric or annual 
 rings occur, but the rings are marked by hnes or rows of 
 conspicuous pores or openings, which occupy the greater 
 part of the spring- wood for each ring (see Fig. 4, also 6), 
 and are, in fact the hollows of vessels 
 through which the cut has been 
 made. On the radial section or 
 quarter-sawn board the several 
 layers appear as so many stripes 
 (see Fig. 5) ; on the tangential sec- 
 tion or "bastard" face patterns 
 similar to those mentioned for pine 
 wood are observed. But while the 
 patterns in hard pine are marked 
 by the darker summer-wood, and 
 
 are composed of plain, alternating ^'^^ ^- ^^"'^ °f 0^^- ^S, 
 „ T , 1 i- 1 1 cross-section; RS, 
 
 stripes 01 darker and lighter wood, 
 
 the figures in oak (and other broad- 
 leaved woods) are due chiefly to 
 the vessels, those of the spring- 
 wood in oak being the most 
 conspicuous (see Fig. 5). So that in an oak table, the 
 darker, shaded parts are the spring-wood, the hghter 
 unicolored parts the summer-wood. On closer examina- 
 tion of the smooth cross-section of oak, the spring-wood 
 part of the ring is found to be formed in great part 
 of pores; large, round, or oval openings made by the cut 
 through long vessels. These are separated by a grayish 
 
 radial section; TS, tan- 
 gential section; mr, 
 medullary or pith raj'; 
 a, height; b, width; and 
 e, length of pith ray. 
 
32 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 
 
 III (P i 1^ 
 
 IL 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 irH'.ii 
 
 isfiwi ftfc 
 
 mwM 
 
 Wd 
 
 to 
 
 Fig. 5. Board of Oak. CS, cross-section; R8, radial section; TS, tangential 
 section; v, vessels or pores, cut through; A, slight curve in log which 
 appears in section as an islet. 
 
 Fig. G. Cross-section of Oak (Magnified aljout .5 times). 
 
BROAD-LEAVED TREES 
 
 33 
 
 and quite porous tissue (see Fig. 6, A), which continues 
 here and there in the form of radial, often branched, 
 patches (not the pith rays) into and through the summer- 
 wood to the spring-wood of the next ring. The large 
 vessels of the spring-wood, occupying six to ten per cent 
 of the volume of a log in very good oak, and twenty-five 
 per cent or more in inferior and narrow-ringed timber, 
 are a very important feature, since it is evident that the 
 greater their share in the volume, the lighter and weaker 
 the wood. They are smallest near the pith, and grow 
 wider outward. They are wider in the stem than limb, 
 and seem to be of indefinite length, forming open channels, 
 in some cases probably as long 
 as the tree itself. Scattered 
 through the radiating gray 
 patches of porous wood are 
 vessels similar to those of the 
 spring-wood, but decidedly 
 smaller. These vessels are 
 usually fewer and larger near 
 the outer portions of the ring. 
 Their number and size can be 
 
 utilized to distinguish the oaks 
 classed as white oaks from 
 those classed as black and 
 red oaks. They are fewer and 
 larger in red oaks, smaller but 
 much more numerous in white 
 oaks. The summer-wood, 
 except for these radial, grayish patches, is dark colored and 
 firm. This firm portion, divided into bodies or strands by 
 these patches of porous wood, and also by fine, wavy, concen- 
 tric lines of short, thin-walled cells (see Fig. G, A), consists 
 of thin-walled fibres (see Fig. 7, B), and is the chief ele- 
 ment of strength in oak wood. In good white oak it forms 
 one-half or more of the wood, if it cuts like horn, and the 
 cut surface is shiny, and of a deep chocolate brown color. 
 In very narrow-ringed wood and in inferior red oak it is 
 usually much reduced in quantity as well as quality. The 
 pith rays of the oak, unlike those of the coniferous woods, 
 
 Fig. 7. Portion of the Firm Bodies 
 of Fibres with Two Cells of a 
 Small Pith Ray mr (Highly 
 Magnified) . 
 
34 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 are at least in part very large and conspicuous. (See Fig. 
 4; their height indicated by the letter a, and their width 
 by the letter h.) The large medullary rays of oak are 
 often twenty and more cells wide, and several hundred 
 
 cell rows in height, which amount 
 commonlj^ to one or more inches. 
 These large rays are conspicuous 
 on all sections. They appear as 
 long, sharp, grayish lines on the 
 cross-sections; as short, thick lines, 
 tapering at each end, on the tan- 
 gential or "bastard" face, and as 
 broad, shiny bands, "the mirrors," 
 on the radial section. In addition 
 to these coarse rays, there is also 
 a large number of small pith rays, 
 which can be seen only when mag- 
 nified. On the whole, the pith 
 rays form a much larger part of 
 the wood than might be supposed. 
 In specimens of good white oak it 
 has been found that they form 
 about sixteen to twenty-five per 
 cent of the wood. 
 
 Minute Structure 
 
 If a well-smoothed thin disk or 
 cross-section of oak (say one-six- 
 ^ teenth inch thick) is held up to 
 Fig. s. Isolated Fibres and the light, it looks very much Hke 
 
 Cells, a, four cells of • ,i , 
 
 wood, parenchyma; h, ^ ^^^ve, the pores or vessels ap- 
 two cells from a pith ray; pearing as clean-cut holes. The 
 c, a single joint or cell of spring-wood and gray patches are 
 
 a vessel, the openings .r i i, -x i j_ xi 
 
 leadmg mto its upper ^^en to be qmte porous, but the 
 
 and lower neighbors; d, firm bodies of fibres between them 
 
 tracheid; e, wood fibre are dense and opaque. Examined 
 
 ''™'^*''^' with a magnifier it will be noticed 
 
 that there is no such regularity of arrangement in straight 
 
 rows as is conspicuous in pine. On the contrary, great 
 
 irregularity prevails. At the same time, while the pores 
 
BROAD-LEAVED TREES 35 
 
 are as large as pin holes, the cells of the denser wood, 
 unlike those of pine wood, are too small to be distin- 
 guished. Studied with the microscope, each vessel is 
 found to be a vertical row of a great number of short, 
 wide tubes, joined end to end (see Fig. 8, c). The 
 porous spring-wood and radial gray tracts are partly 
 composed of smaller vessels, but chiefly of tracheids, like 
 those of pine, and of shorter cells, the "wood parenchyma," 
 resembling the cells of the medullary rays. These latter, 
 
 Fig. 9. Cross-section of Basswood (Magnified), v, vessels; mr, pith rays. 
 
 as well as the fine concentric lines mentioned as occurring 
 in the summer-wood, are composed entirely of short tube- 
 like parenchyma cells, with square or oblique ends (see 
 Fig. 8, a and b). The wood fibres proper, which form the 
 dark, firm bodies referred to, are very fine, thread-like 
 cells, one twenty-fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall 
 commonly so thick that scarcely any empty internal space 
 or lumen remains (see Figs. 8, e, and 7, B). If, in- 
 stead of oak, a piece of poplar or basswood (see Fig. 9) 
 had been used in this study, the structure would have 
 been found to be quite different. The same kinds of cell- 
 elements, vessels, etc., are, to be sure, present, but their 
 combination and arrangement are different, and thus 
 from the great variety of possible combinations results 
 the great variety of structure and, in consequence, of 
 the quaUties which distinguish the wood of broad-leaved 
 trees. The sharp distinction of sapwood and heartwood 
 is wanting; the rings are not so clearly defined; the vessels 
 
36 SEASONING OF A¥OOD 
 
 of the wood are small, very numerous, and rather evenly 
 scattered through the wood of the annual rings, so that 
 the distinction of the ring almost vanishes and the medul- 
 lary or pith rays in poplar can be seen, without being 
 magnified, only on the radial section. 
 
LIST OF MOST IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED 
 TREES (HARDWOODS) 
 
 Woods of complex and very variable structure, and 
 therefore differing widely in quality, behavior, and con- 
 sequently in applicability to the arts. 
 
 AILANTHUS 
 
 1. Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa). Medium to large- 
 
 sized tree. Wood pale yellow, hard, fine-grained, and 
 satiny. This species originally came from China, 
 where it is known as the Tree of "Heaven," was in- 
 troduced into the United States and planted near 
 Philadelphia during the 18th century, and is more 
 ornamental than useful. It is used to some extent 
 in cabinet work. Western Pennsylvania and Long 
 Island, New York. 
 
 ASH 
 
 Wood heavy, hard, stiff, quite tough, not durable in 
 contact with the soil, straight-grained, rough on the split 
 surfaces and coarse in texture. The wood shrinks moder- 
 ately, seasons with little injury, stands well, and takes a 
 good polish. In carpentry, ash is used for stairways, 
 panels, etc. It is used in shipbuilding, in the construction 
 of cars, wagons, etc., in the manufacture of all kinds of 
 farm implements, machinerj^, and especially of all kinds 
 of furniture; for cooperage, baskets, oars, tool handles, 
 hoops, etc., etc. The trees of the several species of ash 
 are rapid growers, of small to medium height with stout 
 trunks. They form no forests, but occur scattered in 
 almost all our broad-leaved forests. 
 
 2. White Ash (Fraxinus Aviericana). Medium-, some- 
 
 times large-sized tree. Heartwood reddish brown, 
 usually mottled; sap wood hghter color, nearly white. 
 Wood heavy, hard, tough, elastic, coarse-grained, 
 
38 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 compact structure. Annual rings clearly marked by 
 large open pores, not durable in contact with the 
 soil, is straight-grained, and the best material for oars, 
 etc. Used for agricultural implements, tool handles, 
 automobile (rim boards), vehicle bodies and parts, 
 baseball bats, interior finish, cabinet work, etc., etc. 
 Basin of the Ohio, but found from Maine to Min- 
 nesota and Texas. 
 
 3. Red Ash (Fraximis pubescens var. Pennsylxanica). 
 
 INIedium- sized tree, a timber very similar to, but 
 smaller than Fraxinus Americana. Heartwood light 
 brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, 
 strong, and coarse-grained. Ranges from New 
 Brunswick to Florida, and westward to Dakota, 
 Nebraska, and Kansas. 
 
 4. Black Ash {Fraxinus nigra var. savibucifolia) (Hoop 
 
 Ash, Ciround Ash). Medium-sized tree, very common, 
 is more widely distributed than the Fraxinus Ameri- 
 cana; the wood is not so hard, but is well suited for 
 hoops and basketwork. Heartwood dark brown, 
 sapwood light brown or white. Wood heavy, rather 
 soft, tough and coarse-grained. Used for barrel 
 hoops, basketwork, cabinetwork and interior of 
 houses. Maine to Minnesota and southward to 
 Alabama. 
 
 5. Blue Ash {Fraxinus quadrangulata) . Small to medium- 
 
 sized tree. Heartwood yellow, streaked with brown, 
 sapwood a lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, and 
 coarse-grained. Not common. Indiana and lUinois; 
 occurs from Michigan to Minnesota and southward 
 to Alabama. 
 
 6. Green Ash {Fraxinus viridis). Small-sized tree. Oc- 
 
 curs from New York to the Rocky Mountains, and 
 southward to Florida and Arizona. 
 
 7. Oregon Ash {Fraximis Oregana). Small to medium- 
 
 sized tree. Occurs from western Washington to 
 California. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 39 
 
 8. Carolina Ash {Fraxinus Caroliniana). Medium-sized 
 
 tree. Occurs in the Carolinas and the coast regions 
 southward. 
 
 ASPEN (See Poplar) 
 
 BASSWOOD 
 
 9. Basswood (Tilia Americana) (Linden, Lime Tree, 
 
 American Linden, Lin, Bee Treej. Medium- to large- 
 sized tree. Wood Ught, soft, stiff, but not strong, 
 of fine texture, straight and close-grained, and white 
 to light brown color, but not durable in contact with 
 the soil. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, 
 works well and stands well in interior work. It is 
 used for cooperage, in carpentry, in the manufacture 
 of furniture and woodenware (both turned and carved), 
 for toys, also for panelling of car and carriage bodies, 
 for agricultural implements, automobiles, sides and 
 backs of drawers, cigar boxes, excelsior, refrigerators, 
 trunks, and paper pulp. It is also largely cut for 
 veneer and used as "three-ply" for boxes and chair 
 seats. It is used for sounding boards in pianos and 
 organs. If well seasoned and painted it stands fairly 
 well for outside work. Common in all northern 
 broad-leaved forests. Found throughout the eastern 
 United States, but reaches its greatest size in the 
 Valley of the Ohio, becoming often 130 feet in height, 
 but its usual height is about 70 feet. 
 
 10. White Basswood (Tilia heterophylla) (Whitewood) . 
 A small-sized tree. Wood in its equality and uses 
 similar to the preceding, only it is lighter in color. 
 Most abundant in the Alleghany region. 
 
 11. White Basswood (Tilia pubescens) (Downy Linden, 
 Small-leaved Basswood). Small-sized tree. Wood 
 in its quality and uses similar to Tilia Americana. 
 This is a Southern species which makes it way as far 
 north as Long Island. Is found at its best in South 
 Carolina. 
 
40 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 BEECH 
 
 12. Beech {Fagus Jerruginea) (Red Beech, White Beech). 
 ]Medium-sized tree, common, sometimes forming 
 forests of pure growth. Wood lieavy, hard, stiff, 
 strong, of ratlier coarse texture, wliite to hglit brown 
 color, not durable in contact with the soil, and sub- 
 ject to the inroads of boring insects. Rather close- 
 grained, conspicuous medullary rays, and when 
 quarter-sawn and well smoothed is very beautiful. 
 The wood shrinks and checks considerably in drying, 
 works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. 
 Beech is comparativelj^ free from objectionable taste, 
 and finds a place in the manufacture of commodities 
 which come in contact with foodstuffs, such as lard 
 tubs, butter boxes and pails, and the beaters of ice 
 cream freezers; for the latter the persistent hardness 
 of the wood when subjected to attrition and abrasion 
 while wet gives it peculiar fitness. It is an excellent 
 material for churns. Sugar hogsheads are made of 
 beech, partly because it is a tasteless wood and partly 
 because it has great strength. A large class of wooden- 
 ware, including veneer plates, dishes, boxes, jjaddles, 
 scoops, spoons, and beaters, which belong to the 
 kitchen and pantry, are made of this species of wood. 
 Beech picnic plates are made by the million, a single 
 machine turning out 7.5,000 a day. The wood has 
 a long list of nriscellaneous uses and enters into 
 a great variety of commodities. In every region 
 where it grows in commercial quantities it is made 
 into boxes, baskets, and crating. Beech baskets are 
 chiefly employed in shipping fruit, berries, and vege- 
 tables. In Maine thin veneer of beech is made 
 specially for the Sicily orange and lemon trade. This 
 is shipped in bulk and the boxes are made abroad. 
 Beech is also an important handle wood, although 
 not in the same class with hickory. It is not selected 
 because of toughness and resiliency, as hickory is, 
 and generally goes into plane, handsaw, pail, chisel, 
 
LIST OF lAIPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 41 
 
 and flatiron handles. Recent statistics show that 
 in the production of slack cooperage staves, only 
 two woods, red gum and pine, stood above beech in 
 quantity, while for heading, pine alone exceeded it. 
 It is also used in turner}', for shoe lasts, butcher 
 blocks, ladder rounds, etc. Abroad it is very ex- 
 tensively used by the carpenter, millwright, and wagon 
 maker, in turnery and wood carving. Most abundant 
 in the Ohio and Mississippi basin, but found from 
 Maine to Wisconsin and southward to Florida. 
 
 BIRCH 
 
 13. Cherry Birch (Betula lenta) (Black Birch, Sweet Birch, 
 Mahogany Birch, Wintergreen Birch). Medium- 
 sized tree, very common. Wood of beautiful redchsh 
 or yellowish brown, and much of it nicely figured, 
 of compact structure, is straight in grain, heavy, 
 hard, strong, takes a fine polish, and considerably used 
 as imitation of mahogany. The wood shrinks con- 
 siderably in drying, works well and stands well, but 
 is not durable in contact with the soil. The medul- 
 lary rays in birch are very fine and close and not 
 easily seen. The sweet birch is very handsome, with 
 satiny luster, equalling cherry, and is too costly a 
 wood to be profitably used for ordinary purposes, 
 but there are both high and low grades of birch, the 
 latter consisting chiefly of sapwood and pieces too 
 knotty for first class commodities. This cheap ma- 
 terial swells the supply of box lumber, and a little of 
 it is found wherever birch passes through sawmills. 
 The frequent objections against sweet birch as box 
 lumber and crating material are that it is hard to 
 nail and is inclined to split. It is also used for veneer 
 picnic plates and butter dishes, although it is not 
 as popular for this class of commodity as are yellow 
 and paper birch, maple and beech. The best grades 
 are largely used for furniture and cabinet work, and 
 also for interior finish. Maine to Michigan and to 
 Tennessee. 
 
42 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 14. "White Birch (Betula populifolia) (Gray Birch, Old 
 Field Birch, Aspen-leaved Birch). Small to medium- 
 sized tree, least common of all the birches. Short- 
 lived, twentj^ to thirty feet high, grows very rapidlj^ 
 Heartwood hght brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood 
 Hght, soft, close-grained, not strong, checks badly 
 in drj'ing, decays quickly, not durable in contact 
 with the soil, takes a good polish. Used for spools, 
 shoepegs, wood pulp, and barrel hoops. Fuel value 
 not high, but burns with bright flame. Ranges from 
 Nova Scotia and lower St. Lawrence River, south- 
 ward, mostly in the coast region to Delaware, and 
 westward through northern New England and New 
 York to southern shore of Lake Ontario. 
 
 15. Yellow Eirch (Betula lutea) (Gray Birch, Silver Birch). 
 Medium- to large-sized tree, very common. Heart- 
 wood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, 
 close-grained, compact structure, with a satiny luster. 
 Wood heavy, very strong, hard, tough, susceptible 
 of high polish, not durable when exposed. Is similar 
 to Betula lenta, and finds a place in practically all 
 kinds of woodenware. A large percentage of broom 
 handles on the market are nmde of this species of 
 wood, though nearly every other birch contributes 
 something. It is used for veneer plates and dishes 
 made for pies, butter, lard, and many other com- 
 modities. Tubs and i^ails are sometimes made of 
 yellow birch provided weight is not objectionable. 
 The wood is twice as heavy as some of the pines and 
 cedars. ]\Iany small handles for such articles as 
 flatirons, gimlets, augers, screw drivers, chisels, var- 
 nish and paint brushes, l^utcher and carving knives, 
 etc. It is also widely used for shipping boxes, baskets, 
 and crates, and it is one of the stiffest, strongest 
 woods procurable, but on account of its excessive 
 weight it is sometimes discriminated against. It 
 is excellent for veneer boxes, and that is probably 
 one of the most important places it fills. Citrus 
 fruit from northern Africa and the islands and coun- 
 tries of the Mediterranean is often shipped to market 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 43 
 
 in boxes made of yellow birch from veneer cut in 
 New England. The better grades are also used for 
 furniture and cabinet work, and the "burls" found 
 on this species are highly valued for making fancy 
 articles, gavels, etc. It is extensively used for turnery, 
 buttons, spools, bobbins, wheel hubs, etc. Maine 
 to Minnesota and southward to Tennessee. 
 
 16. Red Birch (Betula rubra var. nigra) (River Birch). 
 Small to medium-sized tree, very common. Lighter 
 and less valuable than the preceding. Heartwood 
 light brown, sapwood pale. Wood light, fairly strong 
 and close-grained. Red birch is best developed in 
 the middle South, and usually grows near the banks 
 of rivers. Its bark hangs in tatters, even worse than 
 that of paper birch, but it is darker. In Tennessee 
 the slack coopers have found that red birch makes 
 excellent barrel heads and it is sometimes emploj^ed 
 in preference to other woods. In eastern Maryland 
 the manufacturers of peach baskets draw their sup- 
 plies from this wood, and substitute it for white elm 
 in making the hoops or bands which stiffen the top 
 of the basket, and provide a fastening for the veneer 
 which forms the sides. Red birch bends in a very 
 satisfactory manner, which is an important point. 
 This wood enters pretty generally into the manu- 
 facture of woodenware within its range, but statistics 
 do not mention it by name. It is also used in the 
 manufacture of veneer picnic plates, pie plates, butter 
 dishes, washboards, small handles, kitchen and pantry 
 utensils, and ironing boards. New England to Texas 
 and Missouri. 
 
 17. Canoe Birch (Betula paprifera) (White Birch, Paper 
 Birch). Small to medium-sized tree, sometimes form- 
 ing forests, very common. Heartwood light brown 
 tinged with red, sapwood lighter color. Wood of 
 good cjuality, but light, fairly hard and strong, tough, 
 close-grained. Sap flows freely in spring and by 
 boiling can be made into syrup. Not as valuable as 
 any of the preceding. Canoe birch is a northern 
 
44 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 tree, easily identified by its white trunk and its ragged 
 bark. Large numbers of small wooden boxes are 
 made by boring out blocks of this wood, shaping 
 them in lathes, and fitting lids on them. Canoe 
 birch is one of the best woods for this class of com- 
 modities, because it can be worked very thin, does 
 not split readily, and is of pleasing color. Such boxes, 
 or two-piece diminutive kegs, are used as containers 
 for articles shipped and sold in small bulk, such as 
 tacks, small nails, and brads. Such containers are 
 generally cylindrical and of considerably greater depth 
 than diameter. Many others of nearly similar form 
 are made to contain ink bottles, bottles of perfumery, 
 drugs, liquids, salves, lotions, and powders of many 
 kinds. Many boxes of this pattern are used by 
 manufacturers of pencils and crayons for joacking 
 and shipping their wares. Such boxes are made in 
 numerous numbers by automatic machinery. A 
 single machine of the most improved pattern will 
 turn out 1,400 boxes an hour. After the boring and 
 turning are done, they are smoothed by placing them 
 into a tumbling barrel with soapstone. It is also 
 used for one-piece shallow trays or boxes, without 
 lids, and used as card receivers, pin receptacles, 
 butter boxes, fruit platters, and contribution plates 
 in churches. It is also the principal wood used for 
 spools, bobbins, bowls, shoe lasts, pegs, and turnery, 
 and is also much used in the furniture trade. All 
 along the northern boundary of the United States 
 and northward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
 BLACK WALNUT (See Walnut) 
 
 BLUE BEECH 
 
 18. Blue Beech (Carpinus Caroliniana) (Hornbeam, Water 
 Beech, Ironwood). Small-sized tree. Heartwood 
 light brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood very hard, 
 heavy, strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture, not 
 durable in contact with the soil, shrinks and checks 
 considerably in drying, but works well and stands 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 45 
 
 well, and takes a fine polish. Used chiefly in turnery, 
 for tool handles, etc. Abroad much used by mill- 
 and wheelwrights. A small tree, largest in the South- 
 west, but found in nearly all parts of the eastern 
 United States. 
 
 BOIS D'ARC (See Osage Orange) . 
 
 BUCKEYE 
 
 Wood light, soft, not strong, often quite tough, of fine, 
 uniform texture and creamy white color. It shrinks con- 
 siderably in drying, but works well and stands well. Used 
 for woodenware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and locally 
 also for building construction. 
 
 19. Ohio Buckeye {JEsculus glabra) (Horse Chestnut, 
 Fetid Buckeye). Small-sized tree, scattered, never 
 forming forests. Heartwood white, sapwood pale 
 brown. Wood light, soft, not strong, often quite 
 tough and close-grained. Alleghanies, Pennsylvania 
 to Oklahoma. 
 
 20. Sweet Buckeye {Msculus odandra var. flava) (Horse 
 Chestnut). Small-sized tree, scattered, never form- 
 ing forests. Wood in its quality and uses similar to 
 the preceding. Alleghanies, Pennsylvania to Texas. 
 
 BUCKTHORNS 
 
 21. Buckthorne (Rhanmus Carolmia^ia) (Indian Cherry). 
 Small-sized tree. Heartwood hght brown, sapwood 
 almost white. Wood light, hard, close-grained. Does 
 not enter the markets to any great extent. Found 
 along the borders of streams in rich bottom lands. 
 Its northern limits is Long Island, where it is only 
 a shrub; it becomes a tree only in southern Arkansas 
 and adjoining regions. 
 
 BUTTERNUT 
 
 22. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) (White Walnut, White 
 Mahogany, Walnut). Medium-sized tree, scattered, 
 
46 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 never forming forests. Wood very similar to black 
 walnut, but light, quite soft, and not strong. Heart- 
 wood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; 
 sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained, compact struc- 
 ture, easily worked, and susceptible to high polish. 
 Has similar grain to black walnut and when stained 
 is a very good imitation. Is much used for inside 
 work, and very durable. Used chiefly for finishing 
 lumber, cabinet work, boat finish and fixtures, and 
 for furniture. Butternut furniture is often sold as 
 Circassian walnut. Largest and most common in the 
 Ohio basin. Maine to JNIinnesota and southward 
 to Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 CATALPA 
 
 The catalpa is a tree which was planted about 25 years 
 ago as a commercial speculation in Iowa, Kansas, and 
 Nebraska. Its native habitat was along the rivers Ohio 
 and lower Wal^ash, and a century ago it gained a repu- 
 tation for rapid growth and durability, but did not grow 
 in large quantities. As a railway tie, experiments have 
 left no doubt as to its resistence to decay; it stands ab- 
 rasion as well as the white oak (Quercus alha), and is 
 superior to it in longevity. Catalpa is a tree singularly 
 free from destructive diseases. Wood cut from the living 
 tree is one of the most durable timbers known. In spite 
 of its light porous structure it resists the weathering in- 
 fluences and the attacks of wood-destroying fungi to a 
 remarkable degree. No fungvis has yet been found which 
 will grow in the dead timber, and for fence posts this wood 
 has no equal, lasting longer than almost any other species 
 of timber. The wood is rather soft and coarse in texture, 
 the tree is of slow growth, and the brown colored heartwood, 
 even of very young trees, forms nearly three-quarters of 
 their volume. There is only about one-quarter inch of 
 sapwood in a 9-inch tree. 
 
 23. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa var. hignonioides) (Indian 
 Bean). Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, 
 sapwood nearly white. Wood light, soft, not strong, 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 47 
 
 brittle, very durable in contact with the soil, of coarse 
 texture. Used chiefly for railway ties, telegraph poles, 
 and fence posts, but well suited for a great variety of 
 uses. Lower basin of the Ohio River, locally com- 
 mon. Extensively planted, and therefore promising 
 to become of some importance. 
 
 CHERRY 
 
 24. Cherry (Prunus serotina) (Wild Cherry, Black Cherry, 
 Rum Cherry). Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine 
 texture. Sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish 
 to brown. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, 
 works well and stands well, has a fine satin-like luster, 
 and takes a fine polish which somewhat resembles 
 mahogany, and is much esteemed for its beauty. 
 Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative interior finish- 
 ing lumber, for buildings, cars and boats, also for 
 furniture and in turnery, for musical instruments, 
 walking sticks, last blocks, and woodenware. It is 
 becoming too costly for many purposes for which it 
 is naturally well suited. The lumber-furnishing 
 cherry of the United States, the wild black cherry, 
 is a small to medium-sized tree, scattered through 
 many of the broad-leaved trees of the western slope 
 of the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to 
 Florida, and west to Texas. Other species of this 
 genus, as well as the hawthornes (Prunus Crataegus) 
 and wild apple (Pyrus), are not commonly offered in 
 the markets. Their wood is of the same character 
 as cherry, often finer, but in smaller dimensions. 
 
 25. Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) (Wild Red Cherry, 
 Bird Cherry). Small-sized tree. Heartwood light 
 brown, sapwood pale yellow. Wood light, soft, and 
 close-grained. Uses similiar to the preceding, com- 
 mon throughout the Northern States, reaching its 
 greatest size on the mountains of Tennessee. 
 
48 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 CHESTNUT 
 
 The chestnut is a long-hved tree, attaining an age of 
 from 400 to 600 years, but trees over 100 years are usuaUy 
 hollow. It grows quickly, and sprouts from a chestnut 
 stump (Coppice Chestnut) often attain a height of 8 feet 
 in the first year. It has a fairly cylindrical stem, and 
 often grows to a height of 100 feet and over. Coppice 
 chestnut, that is, chestnut grown on an old stump, furnishes 
 better timber for working than chestnut grown from the 
 nut, it is heavier, less spongy, straighter in grain, easier 
 to split, and stands exposure longer. 
 
 26. Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris var. Americana). Me- 
 dium- to large-sized tree, never forming forests. Wood 
 is light, moderately hard, stiff, elastic, not strong, 
 but very durable when in contact with the soil, of 
 coarse texture. Sapwood light, heartwood darker 
 brown, and is readily distinguishable from the sap- 
 wood, which very early turns into heartwood. It 
 shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works 
 easily, stands well. The annual rings are very dis- 
 tinct, medullary rays very minute and not visible to 
 the naked eye. Used in cooperage, for cabinetwork, 
 agricultural implements, railway ties, telegraph poles, 
 fence posts, sills, boxes, crates, cofhns, furniture, 
 fixtures, foundation for veneer, and locally in heavy 
 construction. Very common in the Alleghanies. Oc- 
 curs from jNIaine to INIichigan and southward to 
 Alabama. 
 
 27. Chestnut (Castanea dentata var. vesca). Medium- 
 sized tree, never forming forests, not common. 
 Heart-wood brown color, sapwood lighter shade, 
 coarse-grained. Wood and uses similar to the preced- 
 ing. Occurs scattered along the St. Lawrence River, 
 and even there is met with only in small quantities. 
 
 28. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila). Medium- to small- 
 sized tree, with wood shghtly heavier, but otherwise 
 similiar to the preceding. Most common in Arkansas, 
 but with nearly the same range as Castanea vulgaris. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 49 
 
 29. Chinquapin {Castanea chrysophylla). A medium-sized 
 tree of the western ranges of California and Oregon. 
 
 COFFEE TREE 
 
 30. Coffee Tree {Gymnodadus dioicus) (Coffee Nut, 
 Stump Tree). A mecUum- to large-sized tree, not 
 common. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of 
 coarse texture, and durable. Sapwood yellow, heart- 
 wood reddish brown, shrinks and checks considerably 
 in drying, works well and stands well, and takes a 
 fine polish. It is used to a limited extent in cabinet- 
 work and interior finish. Pennsylvania to Min- 
 nesota and Arkansas. 
 
 COTTONWOOD (See Poplar) 
 
 CRAB APPLE 
 
 31. Crab Apple (Pyrus coronaria) (Wild Apple, Fragrant 
 Crab). Small-sized tree. Heartwood reddish brown, 
 sapwood yellow. Wood heavy, hard, not strong, 
 close-grained. Used principally for tool handles and 
 small domestic articles. Most abundant in the middle 
 and western states, reaches its greatest size in the 
 valleys of the lower Ohio basin. 
 
 CUCUMBER TREE (See Magnolia) 
 
 DOGWOOD 
 
 32. Dogwood iCornus florida) (American Box). Small to 
 medium-sized tree. Attains a height of about 30 
 feet and about 12 inches in diameter. The heart- 
 wood is a red or pinkish color, the sapwood, which is 
 considerable, is a creamy white. The wood has a 
 dull surface and very fine grain. It is valuable for 
 turnery, tool handles, and mallets, and being so free 
 from silex, watchmakers use small splinters of it for 
 cleaning out the pivot holes of watches, and opticians 
 for removing dust from deep-seated lenses. It is 
 
50 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 also used for butchers' skewers, and shuttle blocks 
 and wheel stock, and is suitable for turnery and inlaid 
 work. Occurs scattered in all the broad-leaved forests 
 of our country; very common. 
 
 ELM 
 
 Wood heavy, hard, strong, elastic, very tough, moder- 
 ately durable in contact with the soil, commonly cross- 
 grained, difficult to split and shape, warps and checks 
 considerably in drjdng, but stands well if properly seasoned. 
 The broad sapwood whitish, heartwood light brown, both 
 with shades of gray and red. On split surfaces rough, 
 texture coarse to fine, capable of high polish. Elm for 
 years has been the principal wood used in slack cooperage 
 for barrel staves, also in the construction of cars, wagons, 
 etc., in boat building, agricultural implements and ma- 
 chinery, in saddlery and harness work, and particu- 
 larly in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where 
 the beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential or 
 bastard section, are just beginning to be appreciated. 
 The elms are medium- to large-sized trees, of fairly rapid 
 growth, with stout trunks; they form no forests of pure 
 growth, but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved 
 woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable 
 portion of the arborescent growth. 
 
 33. White Elm (Ulmus Aviericana) (American Elm, Water 
 Elm). Medium- to large-sized tree. Wood in its 
 quality and uses as stated above. Common. Maine 
 to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 
 
 34. Rock Elm (Ulmus racemosa) (Cork Elm, Hickory Elm, 
 White Elm, Cliff Elm). Medium- to large-sized tree 
 of rapid growth. Heartwood light brown, often 
 tinged with red, sapwood yellowish or greenish white, 
 compact structure, fibres interlaced. Wood heavy, 
 hard, very tough, strong, elastic, difhcult to split, 
 takes a fine pohsh. Used for agricultural imple- 
 ments, automobiles, crating, boxes, cooperage, tool 
 handles, wheel stock, bridge timbers, sills, interior 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 51 
 
 finish, and maul heads. Fairly free from knots and 
 has only a small quantity of sapwood. Michigan, 
 Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, and southward to 
 Kentucky. 
 
 35. Red Elm (Ulmus fulva var. pubescens) (Slippery Elm, 
 Moose Elm). The red or slippery elm is not as large 
 a tree as the white elm ( Ulmus Americana), though 
 it occasionally attains a height of 135 feet and a di- 
 ameter of 4 feet. It grows tall and straight, and 
 thrives in river valleys. The wood is heavy, hard, 
 strong, tough, elastic, commonly cross-grained, mod- 
 erately durable in contact with the soil, splits easily 
 when green, works fairly well, and stands well if 
 properly handled. Careful seasoning and handling 
 are essential for the best results. Trees can be 
 utilized for posts when very small. When green the 
 wood rots very quickly in contact with the soil. 
 Poles for posts should be cut in summer and peeled 
 and dried before setting. The wood becomes very 
 tough and pliable when steamed, and is of value for 
 sleigh runners and for ribs of canoes and skiffs. To- 
 gether with white elm ( Ulmus Americana) it is ex- 
 tensively used for barrel staves in slack cooperage 
 and also for furniture. The thick, viscous inner 
 bark, which gives the tree its descriptive name, is 
 quite palatable, slightly nutritious, and has a medi- 
 cinal value. Found chiefly along water courses. 
 New York to Minnesota, and southward to Florida 
 and Texas. 
 
 36. Cedar Elm (Ulmus crassifolia). Medium- to small- 
 sized tree, locally quite common. Arkansas and 
 Texas. 
 
 37. Winged Elm (Ulmus alata) (Wahoo). Small-sized 
 tree, locally quite common. Heartwood light brown, 
 sapwood yellowish white. Wood heavy, hard, tough, 
 strong, and close-grained. Arkansas, Missouri, and 
 eastern Virginia. 
 
52 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 GUM 
 
 This general term applies to three important species 
 of gum in the South, the principal one usually being dis- 
 tinguished as "red" or "sweet" gum (see Fig. 10). 
 The next in importance being the "tupelo" or "bay pop- 
 lar," and the least of the trio is designated as "black" or 
 "sour" gum (see Fig. 11). Up to the year 1900 httle 
 was known of gum as a wood for cooperage purijoses, but 
 
 Fig. 10. A Large Red Gum. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 53 
 
 by the continued advance in price of the woods used, a 
 few of the most progressive manufacturers, loolcing into 
 the future, saw that the supply of the various woods in 
 use was limited, that new woods would have to be sought, 
 and gum was looked upon as a possible substitute, owing 
 to its cheapness and abvmdant supply. No doubt in the 
 future this wood will be used to a considerable extent in 
 the manufacture of both "tight" and "slack" cooperage. 
 
 Fig. 11. A Tupelo Gum Slough. 
 
54 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In ':he manufacture of the gum, unless the knives and 
 saws are kept very sharp, the wood has a tendency to 
 break out, the corners sphtting off; and also, much dif- 
 ficulty has been experienced in seasoning and kiln-drying. 
 In the past, gum, having no marketable value, has been 
 left standing after logging operations, or, where the land 
 has been cleared for farming, the trees have been "girdled" 
 and allowed to rot, and then felled and burned as trash. 
 Now, however, that there is a market for this species of 
 timber, it will be profitable to cut the gum with the other 
 hardwoods, and this species of wood will come in for a 
 greater share of attention than ever before. 
 
 38. Red Gum {Liqiddamber stijraciflua) (Sweet Gum, 
 Hazel Pine, Satin Walnut, Liquidamber, Bilsted). 
 The wood is about as stiff and as strong as chestnut, 
 rather heavy, it splits easily and is quite brash, com- 
 monly cross-grained, of fine texture, and has a large 
 proportion of whitish sapwood, which decays rapidly 
 when exposed to the weather; but the reddish brown 
 heartwood is quite durable, even in the ground. The 
 external appearance of the wood is of fine grain and 
 smooth, close texture, but when broken the lines of 
 fracture do not run with apparent direction of the 
 growth; possibly it is this unevenness of grain which 
 renders the wood so difficult to dry without twisting 
 and warping. It has little resiliency; can be easily 
 bent when steamed, and when properly dried will 
 hold its shape. The annual rings are not distinctly 
 marked, medullary rays fine and numerous. The 
 green wood contains much water, and consequently is 
 heavy and difficult to float, but when dry it is as hght 
 as basswood. The great amount of water in the 
 green wood, particularly in the sap, makes it difficult 
 to season by ordinary methods without warping and 
 twisting. It does not check badly, is tasteless and 
 odorless, and when once seasoned, swells and shrinks 
 but little unless exposed to the weather. Used for 
 boat finish, veneers, cabinet work, furniture, fixtures, 
 interior decoration, shingles, paving blocks, wooden- 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 55 
 
 ware, cooperage, machinery frames, refrigerators, and 
 trunk slats. 
 
 Range of Red Gum 
 
 Red gum is distributed from Fairfield County, Conn., 
 to soutiieastern Missouri, through Arkansas and Okla- 
 homa to the valley of the Trinity River in Texas, 
 and eastward to the Atlantic coast. Its commer- 
 cial range is restricted, however, to the moist lands of 
 the lower Ohio and Mississippi basins and of the South- 
 eastern coast. It is one of the commonest timber trees 
 in the hardwood bottoms and drier swamps of the South. 
 It grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak (see 
 Fig. 12). It is also found to a considerable extent on 
 the lower ridges and slopes of the southern Appalachians, 
 but there it does not reach merchantable value and is of 
 little importance. Considerable difference is found be- 
 tween the growth in the upper Mississippi bottoms and 
 that along the rivers on the Atlantic coast and on the 
 Gulf. In the latter regions the bottoms are lower, and 
 consequently more subject to floods and to continued 
 overflows (see Fig. 11). The alluvial deposit is also greater, 
 and the trees grow considerably faster. Trees of the same 
 diameter show a larger percentage of sapwood there than 
 in the upper portions of the Mississippi Valley. The 
 Mississippi Valley hardwood trees are for the most part 
 considerably older, and reach larger dimensions than the 
 timber along the coast. 
 
 Form of the Red Gum 
 
 In the best situations red gum reaches a height of 150 
 feet, and a diameter of 5 feet. These dimensions, how- 
 ever, are unusual. The stem is straight and cjdindrical, 
 with dark, deeply-furrowed bark, and branches often 
 winged with corky ridges. In youth, while growing vigor- 
 ously under normal conditions, it assumes a long, regular, 
 conical crown, much resembling the form of a conifer 
 (see Fig. 12). After the tree has attained its height 
 growth, however, the crown becomes rounded, spreading 
 and rather ovate in shape. When growing in the forest 
 
56 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 the tree prunes itself readily at an early period, and forms 
 a good length of clear stem, but it branches strongly after 
 making most of its height growth. The mature tree is 
 usually forked, and the place where the forking commences 
 determines the numl^er of logs in the tree or its merchant- 
 able length, by preventing cutting to a small diameter in 
 the top. On large trees the stem is often not less than 
 eighteen inches in diameter where the branching begins. 
 The over-mature tree is usually broken and dry topped, 
 with a very spreading crown, in consequence of new 
 branches being sent out. 
 
 Tolerance of Red Gum 
 
 Throughout its entire life red gum is intolerant in shade, 
 there are practically no red seedlings under the dense 
 forest cover of the bottom land, and while a good many 
 may come up under the pine forest on the drier uplands, 
 they seldom develop into large trees. As a rule seedhngs 
 appear only in clearings or in open spots in the forest. It 
 is seldom that an over-topped tree is found, for the gum 
 dies quickly if suppressed, and is consecjuently nearly 
 always a dominant or intermediate tree. In a hardwood 
 bottom forest the timber trees are all of nearly the same 
 age over considerable areas, and there is little young 
 growth to be found in the older stands. The reason for 
 this is the intolerance of most of the swamp species. A 
 scale of intolerance containing the important species, and 
 beginning with the most light-demanding, would run as 
 follows: Cottonwood, sycamore, red gum, white elm, 
 white ash, and red maple. 
 
 Demands upon Soil and Moisture 
 
 While the red gum grows in various situations, it pre- 
 fers the deep, rich soil of the hardwood bottoms, and there 
 reaches its best development (see Fig. 10). It re- 
 quires considerable soil moisture, though it does not grow 
 in the wetter swamps, and does not thrive on dry pine land. 
 Seedlings, however, are often found in large numbers on 
 the edges of the uplands and even on the sandy pine land, 
 but they seldom live beyond the pole stage. When they 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 57 
 
 do, they form small, scrubby trees that are of little value. 
 Where the soil is dry the tree has a long tap root. In the 
 swamps, where the roots can obtain water easily, the de- 
 velopment of the tap root is poor, and it is only moderate 
 on the glade bottom lands, where there is considerable 
 moisture throughout the year, but no standing water in 
 the summer months. 
 
 Reproduction of Red Gum 
 
 Red gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts 
 (see Fig. 12). It produces seed fairly abundantly every 
 year, but about once in three years there is an extremely 
 
 Fig. 12. Second Growth Red Gum, Ash, Cottonwood, and Sycamore. 
 
 heavy production. The tree begins to bear seed when 
 twenty-five to thirty years old, and seeds vigorously up 
 to an age of one hundred and fifty years, when its pro- 
 ductive power begins to diminish. A great part of the 
 seed, however, is abortive. Red gum is not fastidious in 
 regard to its germinating bed; it comes up readily on sod 
 
58 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 in old fields and meadows, on decomposing homus in the 
 forest, or on bare clay-loam or loamy sand soil. It re- 
 quires a considerable degree of light, however, and prefers 
 a moist seed bed. The natural distribution of the seed 
 takes place for several hundred feet from the seed trees, 
 the dissemination depending almost entirely on the wind. 
 A great part of the seed falls on the hardwood bottom when 
 the land is flooded, and is either washed away or, if already 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 59 
 
 in the ground and germinating, is destroyed by the long- 
 continued overflow. After germinating, the red gum 
 seedhng demands, above everything else, abundant light 
 for its survival and development. It is for this reason 
 that there is very little growth of red gum, either in the 
 unculled forest or on culled land, where, as is usually the 
 case, a dense undergrowth of cane, briers, and rattan is 
 present. Under the dense underbrush of cane and briers 
 throughout much of the virgin forest, reproduction of any 
 of the merchantable species is of course impossible. And 
 even where the land has been logged over, the forest is 
 seldom open enough to allow reproduction of cottonwood 
 and red gum. Where, however, seed trees are contiguous 
 to pastures or cleared land, scattered seedlings are found 
 springing up in the open, and where openings occur in the 
 forest, there are often large numbers of red gum seedlings, 
 the reproduction generally occuring in groups. But over 
 the greater part of the Southern hardwood bottom land 
 forest reproduction is very poor. The growth of red gum 
 during the early part of its life, and up to the time it 
 reaches a diameter of eight inches breast-high, is extremely 
 rapid, and, like most of the intolerant species, it attains 
 its height growth at an early period. Gum sprouts readily 
 from the stump, and the sprouts surpass the seedlings in 
 rate of height growth for the first few years, but they sel- 
 dom form large timber trees. Those over fifty years of 
 age seldom sprout. For this reason sprout reproduction 
 is of little importance in the forest. The principal re- 
 quirements of red gum, then, are a moist, fairlj^ rich soil 
 and good exposure to light. Without these it will not 
 reach its best development. 
 
 Second-Growth Red Gum 
 
 Second-growth red gum occurs to any considerable ex- 
 tent only on land which has been thoroughly cleared. 
 Throughout the South there is a great deal of land which 
 was in cultivation before the Civil War, but which during 
 the subsequent period of industrial depression was aban- 
 doned and allowed to revert to forest. These old fields 
 are now mostly covered with second-growth forest, of 
 
60 SEASONING OF AVOOD 
 
 Avhich red gum forms an important part (see Fig. 12). 
 Frequently over fiftj' per cent of the stand consists of this 
 species, but more often, and espeeiallj'- on the Atlantic 
 coast, the greater part is of cottonwood or ash. These 
 stands are very dense, and the growth is extremely rapid. 
 Small stands of young growth are also often found along 
 the edges of cultivated fields. In the Mississippi Valley 
 the abandoned fields on which young stands have sprung 
 up are for the most part being rapidly cleared again. The 
 second growth here is considered of little value in com- 
 parison with the value of the land for agricultural purposes. 
 In many cases, however, the farm value of the land is not 
 at present sufficient to make it profitable to clear it, unless 
 the timber cut will at least pay for the operation. There 
 is considerable land upon which the second growth will 
 become valuable timber within a few years. Such land 
 should not be cleared until it is possible to utilize the 
 timber. 
 
 39. Tupelo Gum (Nyssa aquatica) (Bay Poplar, Swamp 
 Poplar, Cotton Gum, Hazel Pine, Circassian Walnut, 
 Pepperidge, Nyssa). The close similarity which ex- 
 ists between red and tupelo gum, together with the 
 fact that tupelo is often cut along with red gum, and 
 marketed with the sapwood of the latter, makes it 
 not out of place to give consideration to this timber. 
 The wood has a fine, uniform texture, is moderately 
 hard and strong, is stiff, not elastic, very tough and 
 hard to split, but easy to work with tools. Tupelo 
 takes glue, paint, or varnish well, and absorbs very 
 little of the material. In this respect it is equal to 
 yellow poplar and superior to cottonwood. The 
 wood is not durable in contact with ground, and re- 
 quires much care in seasoning. The distinction be- 
 tween the heartwood and sapwood of this species is 
 marked. The former varies in color from a dull gray 
 to a dull brown; the latter is whitish or light yellow 
 hke that of poplar. The wood is of medium weight, 
 about thirty-two pounds per cubic foot when dry, or 
 nearly that of red gum and loblolly pine. After 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 61 
 
 seasoning it is difficult to distinguish the better grades 
 of sapwood from poplar. Owing to the prejudice 
 against tupelo gum, it was until recently marketed 
 under such names as bay poplar, swamp poplar, nyssa, 
 cotton gum, Circassian walnut, and hazel pine. Since 
 it has become evident that the properties of the wood 
 fit it for many uses, the demand for tupelo has largely 
 increased, and it is now taking rank with other stand- 
 ard woods under its rightful name. Heretofore the 
 quality and usefulness of this wood were greatly 
 underestimated, and the difficulty of handling it was 
 magnified. Poor success in seasoning and kiln-dry- 
 ing was laid to defects of the wood itself, when, as a 
 matter of fact, the failures were largely due to the 
 absence of proper methods in handling. The passing 
 of this prejudice against tupelo is due to a better 
 understanding of the characteristics and uses of the 
 wood. Handled in the way in which its particular 
 character demands, tupelo is a wood of much value. 
 
 Uses of Tupelo Gum 
 
 Tupelo gum is now used in slack cooperage, principally 
 for heading. It is used extensively for house flooring and 
 inside finishing, such as mouldings, door jambs, and casings. 
 A great deal is now shipped to European countries, where 
 it is highly valued for different classes of manufacture. 
 Much of the wood is used in the manufacture of boxes, since 
 it works well upon rotary veneer machines. There is also 
 an increasing demand for tupelo for laths, wooden pumps, 
 violin and organ sounding boards, coffins, mantelwork, 
 conduits and novelties. It is also used in the furniture 
 trade for backing, drawers, and panels. 
 
 Range of Tupelo Gum 
 
 Tupelo occurs throughout the coastal region of the At- 
 lantic States, from southern Virginia to northern Florida, 
 through the Gulf States to the valley of the Nueces River 
 in Texas, through Arkansas and southern Missouri to 
 western Kentucky and Tennessee, and to the valley of 
 
62 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 the lower Wabash River. Tupelo is being extensively 
 milled at present only in the region adjacent to Mobile, 
 Ala., and in southern and central Louisiana, where it 
 occurs in large merchantable quantities, attaining its 
 best development in the former locality. The country 
 in this locality is very swampy (see Fig. 11), and within 
 a radius of one hundred miles tupelo gum is one of the 
 principal timber trees. It grows only in the swamps and 
 wetter situations (see Fig. 11), often in mixture with 
 cypress, and in the rainy season it stands in from two to 
 twenty feet of water. 
 
 40. Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) (Sour Gum). Black 
 gum is not cut to much extent, owing to its less abun- 
 dant supply and poorer quality, but is used for repair 
 work on wagons, for boxes, crates, wagon hubs, 
 rollers, bowls, woodenware, and for cattle yokes and 
 other purposes which require a strong, non-splitting 
 wood. Heartwood is light brown in color, often 
 nearly white; sapwood hardly distinguishable, fine 
 grain, fibres interwoven. Wood is heavy, not hard, 
 difficult to work, strong, very tough, checks and 
 warps considerably in drying, not durable. It is 
 distributed from Maine to southern Ontario, through 
 central Michigan to southeastern Missouri, south- 
 ward to the valley of the Brazos River in Texas, and 
 eastward to the Kissimmee River and Tampa Bay 
 in Florida. It is found in the swamps and hardwood 
 bottoms, but is more abundant and of better size on the 
 slightly higher ridges and hummocks in these swamps, 
 and on the mountain slopes in the southern Alleghany 
 region. Though its range is greater than that of 
 either red or tupelo gum, it nowhere forms- an im- 
 portant part of the forest. 
 
 HACKBERRY 
 
 41. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) (Sugar Berry, Nettle 
 Tree). The wood is handsome, heavy, hard, strong, 
 quite tough, of moderately fine texture, and greenish 
 or yellowish color, shrinks moderately, works well 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 63 
 
 and stands well, and takes a good polish. Used to 
 some extent in cooperage, and in the manufacture of 
 cheap furniture. Medium- to large-sized tree, locally 
 quite common, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. 
 Occurs in nearly all parts of the eastern United States. 
 
 HICKORY 
 
 The hickories of commerce are exclusively North Ameri- 
 can, and some of them are large and beautiful trees of 
 60 to 70 feet or more in height. They are closely allied 
 to the walnut, and the wood is very like walnut in grain 
 and color, though of a somewhat darker brown. It is one 
 of the finest of American hardwoods in point of strength; 
 in toughness it is superior to ash, rather coarse in texture, 
 smooth and of straight grain, very heavy and strong as 
 well as elastic and tenacious, but decays rapidly, especially 
 the sapwood when exposed to damp and moisture, and 
 is very liable to attack from worms and boring insects. 
 The cross-section of hickory is peculiar, the annual rings 
 appear like fine lines instead of like the usual pores, and 
 the medullary rays, which are also very fine but distinct, 
 in crossing these form a peculiar web-like pattern which 
 is one of the characteristic differences between hickory 
 and ash. Hickory is rarely subjected to artificial treat- 
 ment, but there is this curious fact in connection with the 
 wood, that, contrary to most other woods, creosote is 
 only with difficulty injected into the sap, although there 
 is no difficulty in getting it into the heartwood. It dries 
 slowly, shrinks and checks considerably in seasoning; is not 
 durable in contact with the soil or if exposed. Hickory 
 excels as wagon and carriage stock, for hoops in cooperage, 
 and is extensively used in the manufacture of imple- 
 ments and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, 
 harness work, dowel pins, golf clubs, and fishing rods. 
 The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never form- 
 ing forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur 
 scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable locali- 
 ties. The following species all contribute more or less 
 to the hickory of the markets: 
 
64 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 42. Shagbark Hickory {Hicoria ovata) (Shellbark Hick- 
 oiy, Scalj'bark Hickory). A medium- to large-sized 
 tree, quite common ; the favorite among the hickories. 
 Heartwood hght brown, sapwood ivory or cream- 
 colored. Wood close-grained, compact structure, 
 annual rings clearly marked. Very hard, heavy, 
 strong, tough, and flexible, but not durable in con- 
 tact with the soil or when exposed. Used for agri- 
 cultural implements, wheel runners, tool handles, 
 vehicle parts, baskets, dowel pins, harness work, golf 
 clubs, fishing rods, etc. Best developed in the Ohio 
 and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas, 
 Minnesota to Florida. 
 
 43. Mockernut Hickory (Hicoria alba) (Black Nut Hick- 
 ory, Black Hickory, Bull Nut Hickory, Big Bud 
 Hickory, White Heart Hickory). A medium- to large- 
 sized tree. Wood in its cjuality and uses similar to 
 the preceding. Its range is the same as that of 
 Hicoria ovata. Common, especially in the South. 
 
 44. Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra) (Brown Hickory, 
 Black Hickory, Switchbud Hickory). A medium- to 
 large-sized tree. Heavier and stronger than any 
 of the preceding. Heartwood light to dark brown, 
 sapwood nearly white. Abundant, all eastern United 
 States. 
 
 45. Bitternut Hickory (Hicoria minima) (Swamp Hick- 
 ory). A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities. 
 Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood 
 in its quahty and uses not so valuable as Hicoria 
 ovata, but is used for the same purposes. Abundant, 
 all eastern United States. 
 
 46. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) (Illinois Nut). A large tree, 
 very common in the fertile bottoms of the western 
 streams. Indiana to Nebraska and southward to 
 Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 HOLLY 
 
 47. Holly (Hex opaca). Small to medium-sized tree. 
 Wood of medium weight, hard, strong, tough, of 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 65 
 
 exceedingly fine grain, closer in texture than most 
 woods, of white color, sometimes almost as white as 
 ivory; requires great care in its treatment to pre- 
 serve the whiteness of the wood. It does not readily 
 absorb foreign matter. Much used by turners and 
 for all parts of musical instruments, for handles on 
 whips and fancy articles, draught-boards, engraving 
 blocks, cabinet work, etc. The wood is often dyed 
 black and sold as ebony; works well and stands well. 
 Most abundant in the lower Mississippi Valley and 
 Gulf States, but occuring eastward to Massachusetts 
 and north to Indiana. 
 
 48. Holly (Ilex monticolo) (Mountain Holly). Small- 
 sized tree. Wood in its quality and uses similar to 
 the preceding, but is not very generally known. It 
 is found in the Catskill Mountains and extends south- 
 ward along the Alleghanies as far as Alabama. 
 
 HORSE CHESTNUT (See Buckeye) 
 
 IRONWOOD 
 
 49. Ironwood (Ostrya Virginiana) (Hop Hornbeam, Lever 
 Wood). Small-sized tree, common. Heartwood light 
 brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. Wood 
 heavy, tough, exceedingly close-grained, very strong 
 and hard, durable in contact with the soil, and will 
 take a fine polish. Used for small articles like levers, 
 handles of tools, mallets, etc. Ranges throughout 
 the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 LAUREL 
 
 50. Laurel ( Umbellularia Calif ornica) (Myrtle). A West- 
 ern tree, produces timber of light brown color of great 
 size and beauty, and is very valuable for cabinet and 
 inside work, as it takes a fine polish. California and 
 Oregon, coast range of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 
 
66 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 LOCUST 
 
 51. Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) (Locust, Yellow 
 Locust, Acacia). Small to medium-sized tree. Wood 
 very heavy, hard, strong, and tough, rivalhng some 
 of the best oak in this latter quality. The wood has 
 great torsional strength, excelling most of the soft 
 woods in this respect, of coarse texture, close-grained 
 and compact structure, takes a fine polish. Annual 
 rings clearly marked, very durable in contact with 
 the soil, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, 
 the very narrow sapwood greenish yellow, the heart- 
 wood brown, with shades of red and green. Used 
 for wagon hubs, trenails or pins, but expecially for 
 railway ties, fence posts, and door sills. Also used 
 for boat parts, turnery, ornamentations, and locally 
 for construction. Abroad it is much used for furni- 
 ture and farming implements and also in turnery. At 
 home in the Alleghany Mountains, extensively planted, 
 especially in the West. 
 
 52. Honey Locust {Gleditschia triacanthos) (Honey Shucks, 
 Locust, Black Locust, Brown Locust, Sweet Locust, 
 False Acacia, Three-Thorned Acacia). A medium- 
 sized tree. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, durable 
 in contact with the soil, of coarse texture, suscepti- 
 ble to a good polish. The narrow sapwood yellow, 
 the heartwood brownish red. So far, but little ap- 
 preciated except for fences and fuel. Used to some 
 extent for wheel hubs, and locally in rough con- 
 struction. Found from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, 
 and southward to Florida and Texas; locally quite 
 abundant. 
 
 53. Locust (Robinia viscosa) (Clammy Locust). Usually 
 a shrub five or six feet high, but known to reach a 
 height of 40 feet in the mountains of North Carohna, 
 with the habit of a tree. Wood hght brown, heavy, 
 hard, and close-grained. Not used to much extent 
 in manufacture. Range same as the preceding. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 67 
 
 MAGNOLIA 
 
 54. Magnolia (Magnolia glauca) (Swamp Magnolia, Small 
 Magnolia, Sweet Bay, Beaver Wood). Small-sized 
 tree. Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood cream 
 white. Sparingly used in manufacture. Ranges from 
 Essex County, Mass., to Long Island, N.Y., from 
 New Jersey to Florida, and west in the Gulf region 
 to Texas. 
 
 55. Magnolia {Magnolia tri-petala) (Umbrella Tree). A 
 small-sized tree. Wood in its quahty similiar to the 
 preceding. It may be easily recognized by its great 
 leaves, twelve to eighteen inches long, and five to 
 eight inches broad. This species as well as the pre- 
 ceding is an ornamental tree. Ranges from Pennsyl- 
 vania southward to the Gulf. 
 
 56. Cucumber Tree {Magnolia accuminata) (Tulip-wood, 
 Poplar). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood 
 yellowish brown, sapwood almost white. Wood hght, 
 soft, satiny, close-grained, durable in contact with 
 the soil, resembling and sometimes confounded with 
 tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) in the markets. 
 The wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without 
 much injury, and works and stands well. It bends 
 readily when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. 
 Used in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finish- 
 ing lumber in house, car and shipbuilding, etc., also 
 in the manufacture of toys, culinary woodenware, and 
 backing for drawers. Most common in the southern 
 Alleghanies, but distributed from western New York 
 to southern Illinois, south through central Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee to Alabama, and throughout 
 Arkansas. 
 
 MAPLE 
 
 Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine 
 texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to 
 "curly" and "blister" figures which are much admired. 
 Not durable in the ground, or when exposed. Maple 
 
68 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the heart- 
 wood, slirinks moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, 
 wears smoothly, and takes a fine pohsh. The wood is 
 used in cooperage, and for ceiling, flooring, panelling, 
 stairway, and other finishing lumber in house, ship, and 
 car construction. It is used for the keels of boats and ships, 
 in the manufactvu-e of implements and machinery, but 
 especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of 
 maple vixal those of oak. Maple is also used for shoe 
 lasts and other form blocks; for shoe pegs; for piano 
 actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill 
 printing, tool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and 
 scroll work, in fact it is one of our most useful woods. 
 The maples are nredium-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, 
 sometimes form forests, and frequently constitute a large 
 proportion of the arborescent growth. They grow freely 
 in parts of the Northern Hemisphere, and are particularly 
 luxuriant in Canada and the northern portions of the 
 United States. 
 
 57. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) (Hard Maple, Rock 
 Maple). Medium- to large-sized tree, very common, 
 forms considerable forests, and is esiJecially esteemed. 
 The wood is close-grained, heavy, fairly hard and 
 strong, of compact structure. Heartwood brownish, 
 sapwood lighter color; it can be worked to a satin- 
 like surface and take a fine polish, it is not durable 
 if exposed, and requires a good deal of seasoning. 
 Medullary rays small but distinct. The "curly" 
 or "wavy" varieties furnish wood of much beauty, 
 the peculiar contortions of the grain called "bird's 
 eye" being much sought after, and used as veneer for 
 panelling, etc. It is used in all good grades of furni- 
 ture, cabinetmaking, panelling, interior finish, and 
 turnery; it is not liable to warp and twist. It is also 
 largely used for flooring, for rollers for wringers and 
 mangling machines, for which there is a large and 
 increasing demand. The peculiarity known as "bird's 
 eye," and which causes a difficulty in working the 
 wood smooth, owing to the httle pieces like knots 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 69 
 
 lifting up, is supposed to be due to the action of boring 
 insects. Its resistence to compression across the 
 grain is higher than that of most other woods. Ranges 
 from Maine to Minnesota, abundant, with birch, in 
 the region of the Great Lalces. 
 
 58. Red Maple (Acer ruhrum) (Swamp Maple, Soft 
 Maple, Water Maple). Medium-sized tree. Like 
 the preceding but not so valuable. Scattered along 
 water-courses and other moist localities. Abundant. 
 Maine to Minnesota, southward to northern Florida. 
 
 59. Silver Maple {Acer sacchariiium) (Soft Maple, White 
 Maple, Silver-Leaved Maple). Medium- to large- 
 sized tree, common. Wood lighter, softer, and in- 
 ferior to Acer saccharum, and usually offered in small 
 quantities and held separate in the markets. Heart- 
 wood reddish brown, sapwood ivory white, fine- 
 grained, compact structure. Fibres sometimes 
 twisted, weaved, or curly. Not durable. Used in 
 cooperage for woodenware, turnery articles, interior 
 decorations and flooring. Valley of the Ohio, but 
 occurs from Maine to Dakota and southward to 
 Florida. 
 
 60. Broad-Leaved Maple (Acer macrophyllum) (Oregon 
 Maple). Medium-sized tree, forms considerable 
 forests, and, like the preceding has a lighter, softer, 
 and less valuable wood than Acer saccharum. Pacific 
 Coast regions. 
 
 61. Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum). Small-sized tree. 
 Heartwood pale reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. 
 Wood light, soft, close-grained, and susceptible of 
 high polish. Ranges from lower St. Lawrence River 
 to northern Minnesota and regions of the Saskatch- 
 ewan River; south through the Northern States and 
 along the Appalachian Mountains to Georgia. 
 
 62. Ash -Leaved Maple (Acer negunclo) (Box Elder). 
 Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood creamy 
 white, sapwood nearly white. Wood hght, soft, close- 
 
70 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 grained, not strong. Used for woodenware and paper 
 pulp. Distributed across the continent, abundant 
 ttiroughout tlie JNIississippi Valley along banks of 
 streams and borders of swamps. 
 
 63. Striped Maple {Acer Pennsylmnicum) (Moose-wood). 
 Small-sized tree. Produces a very white wood much 
 sought after for inlaid and for cabinet work. Wood 
 is light, soft, close-grained, and takes a fine polish. 
 Not common. Occurs from Pennsylvania to Min- 
 nesota. 
 
 MULBERRY 
 
 64. Red Mulberry (Morus rubra). A small-sized tree. 
 Wood moderately heavy, fairly hard and strong, 
 rather tough, of coarse texture, very durable in con- 
 tact with the soil. The sapwood whitish, heartwood 
 yellow to orange brown, shrinks and checks consider- 
 ably in drying, works well and stands well. Used 
 in cooperage and locally in construction, and in the 
 manufacture of farm implements. Common in the 
 Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, but widely distributed 
 in the eastern United States. 
 
 MYRTLE (See Laurel) 
 
 OAK 
 
 Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very 
 strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture. The 
 sapwood whitish, the heartwood "oak" to reddish brown. 
 It shrinks and checks badly, giving trouble in seasoning, 
 but stands well, is durable, and little subject to the at- 
 tacks of boring insects. Oak is used for many purposes, 
 and is the chief wood used for tight cooperage; it is used 
 in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in carpentry, in 
 furniture, car and wagon work, turnery, and even in wood- 
 carving. It is also used in all kinds of farm implements, 
 mill machinery, for piles and wharves, railway ties, etc., 
 etc. The oaks are medium- to large-sized trees, forming 
 the predominant part of a large proportion of our broad- 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 71 
 
 leaved forests, so that these are generally termed "oak 
 forests," though they always contain considerable pro- 
 portion of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds 
 — white, red, and live oak — are distinguished and kept 
 separate in the markets. Of the two principal kinds 
 "white oak" is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and 
 more durable. "Red oak" is usually of coarser texture, 
 more porous, often brittle, less durable, and even more 
 troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry 
 and furniture work red oak brings the same price at present 
 as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accompany the 
 white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented 
 by several species in any given locality. "Live oak," 
 once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the 
 good qualities, except that of size, of white oak, even to 
 a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest, tough- 
 est, and most durable woods of this country. In structure 
 it resembles the red oak, but is less porous. 
 
 65. White Oak (Quercus alba) (American Oak). Medium- 
 to large-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, 
 sapwood lighter color. Annual rings well marked, 
 medullary rays broad and prominent. Wood tough, 
 strong, heavy, hard, liable to check in seasoning, 
 durable in contact with the soil, takes a high polish, 
 very elastic, does not shrink much, and can be bent 
 to any form when steamed. Used for agricultural 
 implements, tool handles, furniture, fixtures, in- 
 terior finish, car and wagon construction, beams, 
 cabinet work, tight cooperage, railway ties, etc., etc. 
 Because of the broad medullary rays, it is generally 
 "quarter-sawn" for cabinet work and furniture. 
 Common in the Eastern States, Ohio and Mississippi 
 Valleys. Occurs throughout the eastern United 
 States. 
 
 66. White Oak (Quercus durandii). Medium- to small- 
 sized tree. Wood in its quality and uses simihar to 
 the preceding. Texas, eastward to Alabama. 
 
 67. White Oak {Quercus garryana) (Western White Oak). 
 Medium- to large-sized tree. Stronger, more durable, 
 
72 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 and wood more compact than Quercus alba. Wash- 
 ington to CaUfornia. 
 
 68. White Oak {Quercus lobata). Medium- to large-sized 
 tree. Largest oak on the Pacific Coast. Wood in 
 its quality and uses similar to Quercus alba, only it 
 is finer-grained. California. 
 
 69. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) (Mossy-Cup Oak, 
 Over-Cup Oak). Large-sized tree. Heartwood "oak" 
 brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, strong, 
 close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. 
 Used in ship- and boatbuilding, all sorts of con- 
 struction, interior finish of houses, cabinet work, 
 tight cooperage, carriage and wagon work, agricultural 
 implements, railway ties, etc., etc. One of the most 
 valuable and most widely distributed of American 
 oaks, 60 to 80 feet in height, and, unlike most of the 
 other oaks, adapts itself to varying climatic condi- 
 tions. It is one of the most durable woods when in 
 contact with the soil. Common, locally abundant. 
 Ranges from Manitoba to Texas, and from the foot 
 hills of the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Coast. 
 It is the most abundant oak of Kansas and Nebraska, 
 and forms the scattered forests known as "The oak 
 openings" of Minnesota. 
 
 70. Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) (Peach oak). Small 
 to medium-sized tree. Heartwood pale reddish brown, 
 sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, 
 coarse-grained. Occasionally used in construction. 
 New York to Texas, and northward to Kentucky. 
 
 71. Swamp White Oak (Quercus bicolor var. platanoides). 
 I^arge-sized tree. Heartwood pale brown, sapwood 
 the same color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, 
 coarse-grained, checks considerably in seasoning. 
 I^sed in construction, interior finish of houses, carriage- 
 and boatbuilding, agricultural implements, in cooper- 
 age, railway ties, fencing, etc., etc. Ranges from 
 Quebec to Georgia and westward to Arkansas. Never 
 abundant. Most abundant in the Lake States. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 73 
 
 72. Over-Cup Oak (Quercus lyrata) (Swamp White Oak, 
 Swamp Post Oak). Medium to large-sized tree, 
 rather restricted, as it grows in the swampy cUstricts 
 of Carohiia and Georgia. Is a larger tree than most 
 of the other oaks, and produces an excellent timber, 
 but grows in districts difficult of access, and is not 
 much used. Lower Mississippi and eastward to 
 Delaware. 
 
 73. Pin Oak (Quercus palustiHs) (Swamp Spanish Oak, 
 Water Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heart- 
 wood pale brown with dark-colored sapwood. Wood 
 heavy, strong, and coarse-grained. Common along 
 the borders of streams and swamps, attains its greatest 
 size in the valley of the Ohio. Arkansas to Wiscon- 
 sin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 
 
 74. Water Oak (Quercus aquatica) (Duck Oak, Possum 
 Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree, of extremely 
 rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward to 
 Delaware and northward to Missouri and Kentucky. 
 
 75. Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus) (Yellow Oak, Rock 
 Oak, Rock Chestnut Oak). Heartwood dark brown, 
 sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, 
 tough, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. 
 Used for railway ties, fencing, fuel, and locally for 
 
 ■ construction. Ranges from Maine to Georgia and 
 Alabama, westward through Ohio, and southward 
 to Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 76. Yellow Oak (Quercus acuminata) (Chestnut Oak, 
 Chinquapin Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. 
 Heartwood dark brown, sapwood pale brown. Wood 
 heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, durable in con- 
 tact with the soil. Used in the manufacture of wheel 
 stock, in cooperage, for railway ties, fencing, etc., 
 etc. Ranges from New York to Nebraska and east- 
 ern Kansas, southward in the Atlantic region to the 
 District of Columbia, and west of the Alleghanies 
 southward to the Gulf States. 
 
74 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 77. Chinquapin Oak {Quercus prinoides) (Dwarf Chin- 
 quapin Oak, Scrub Chestnut Oak). Small-sized tree. 
 Heartwood light brown, sapwood darker color. Does 
 not enter the markets to any great extent. Ranges 
 from Massachusetts to North Carolina, westward to 
 Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, and eastern Texas. 
 Reaches its best form in Missouri and Kansas. 
 
 78. Basket Oak (Quercus michauxii) (Cow Oak). Large- 
 sized tree. Locally abundant. Lower Mississippi 
 and eastward to Delaware. 
 
 79. Scrub Oak (Quercus ilicijolia var. ■pumila) (Bear Oak). 
 Small-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, sapwood 
 darker color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, and coarse- 
 grained. Found in New England and along the 
 Alleghanies. 
 
 80. Post Oak (Quercus obtusiloda var. minor) (Iron Oak). 
 Medium- to large-sized tree, gives timber of great 
 strength. The color is of a brownish yellow hue, 
 close-grained, and often superior to the white oak 
 {Quercus alba) in strength and durabilitj^ It is used 
 for posts and fencing, and locally for construction. 
 Ai'kansas to Texas, eastward to New England and 
 northward to Michigan. 
 
 81. Red Oak (Quercus rubra) (Black Oak). Medium- to 
 large-sized tree. Heartwood light brown to red, sap- 
 wood lighter color. Wood coarse-grained, well-marked 
 annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. Wood 
 heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in seasoning. 
 It is found over the same range as white oak, and 
 is more plentiful. Wood is spongy in grain, moder- 
 ately durable, but unfit for work requiring strength. 
 Used for agricultural implements, furniture, bob 
 sleds, Ai-ehicle parts, boxes, cooperage, woodenware, 
 fixtures, interior finish, railway ties, etc., etc. Com- 
 mon in all parts of its range. Maine to Minnesota, 
 and southward to the Gulf. 
 
 82. Black Oak (Quercus tincloria var. velutina) (Yellow 
 Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 75 
 
 bright brown tinged with red, sapwood hghter color. 
 Wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, checks 
 considerably in seasoning. Very common in the 
 Southern States, but occurring North as far as Min- 
 nesota, and eastward to Maine. 
 
 83. Barren Oak (Quercus nigra var. marilandica) (Black 
 Jack, Jack Oak). Small-sized tree. Heartwood 
 dark brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, 
 hard, strong, coarse-grained, not valuable. Used 
 in the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel. New 
 York to Kansas and Nebraska, and southward to 
 Florida. Rare in the North, but abundant in the 
 South. 
 
 84. Shingle Oak {Quercus vmbricaria) (Laurel Oak). Small 
 to medium-sized tree. Heartwood pale reddish 
 brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, 
 strong, coarse-grained, checks considerably in dry- 
 ing. Used for shingles and locally for construction. 
 Rare in the east, most abundant in the lower Ohio 
 Valley. From New York to Illinois and southward. 
 Reaches its greatest size in southern Illinois and 
 Indiana. 
 
 85. Spanish Oak (Quercus digitata var. falcata) (Red Oak) . 
 Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light reddish brown, 
 sapwood much lighter. Wood heavy, hard, strong, 
 coarse-grained, and checks considerably in -seasoning. 
 Used locally for construction, and has high fuel value. 
 Common in south Atlantic and Gulf region, but found 
 from Texas to New York, and northward to Mis- 
 souri and Kentucky. 
 
 86. Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea). Medium- to large- 
 sized tree. Heartwood Ught reddish-brown, sap- 
 wood darker color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, and 
 coarse-grained. Best developed in the lower basin 
 of the Ohio, but found from Minnesota to Florida. 
 
 87. Live Oak (Quercus virens) (Maul Oak). Medium- to 
 large-sized tree. Grows from Maryland to the Gulf 
 
 &) 
 
76 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 of Mexico, and often attains a height of 60 feet and 
 4 feet in diameter. The wood is hard, strong, and 
 dural^le, but of ratlier rapid growth, therefore not 
 as good quality as Quercus alba. Tlie Hve oalc of 
 Florida is now reserved by the United States Govern- 
 ment for Naval purposes. Used for mauls and mal- 
 lets, tool handles, etc., and locally for construction. 
 Scattered along the coast from Maryland to Texas. 
 
 88. Live Oak {Quercus chrysolepis) (Maul Oak, Valparaiso 
 Oak). Medium- to small-sized tree. California. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE 
 
 89. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) (Bois d'Arc). 
 A small-sized tree of fairly rapid growth. Wood 
 ^'ery heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, of 
 moderately coarse texture, and very durable and 
 elastic. Sapwood yellow, heartwood brown on the 
 end face, yellow on the longitudinal faces, soon 
 turning grayish brown if exposed. It shrinks con- 
 siderably in drying, but once dry it stands unusually 
 well. Much used for wheel stock, and wagon framing; 
 it is easily split, so is unfit for wheel hubs, but is very 
 suitable for wheel spokes. It is considered one of 
 the timbers likely to supply the place of black locust 
 for insulator pins on telegraph poles. Seems too 
 little appreciated; it is well suited for turned ware 
 and especially for woodcarving. Used for spokes, 
 insulator pins, posts, railway ties, wagon framing, 
 turnery, and woodcarving. Scattered through the 
 rich bottoms of Arkansas and Texas. 
 
 PAPAW 
 
 90. Papaw (Asimina triloba) (Custard Apple). Small- 
 sized tree, often only a shrub, Heartwood pale, 
 yellowish green, sapwood lighter color. Wood light, 
 soft, coarse-grained, and spongy. Not used to any 
 extent in manufacture. Occurs in eastern and central 
 Pennsjdvania, west as far as Michigan and Kansas, 
 and south to Florida and Texas. Often forming 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD^LEAVED TREES 77 
 
 dense thickets in the lowlands bordering the Mis- 
 sissippi River. 
 
 PERSIMMON 
 
 91. Persimmon (Diospyros V irginiana) . Small to medium- 
 sized tree. Wood very heavy, and hard, strong and 
 tough; resembles hickory, but is of finer texture and 
 elastic, but hable to spht in working. The broad 
 sapwood cream color, the heartwood brown, some- 
 times almost black. The persimmon is the Virginia 
 date plum, a tree of 30 to 50 feet high, and 18 to 20 
 inches in diameter; it is noted chiefly for its fruit, 
 but it produces a wood of considerable value. Used 
 in turnery, for wood engraving, shuttles, bobbins, 
 plane stock, shoe lasts, and largely as a substitute 
 for box (Buxus se7npervirens) — especially the black 
 or Mexican variety, — also used for pocket rules and 
 drawing scales, for flutes and other wind instru- 
 ments. Common, and best developed in the lower 
 Ohio Valley, but occurs from New York to Texas 
 and Missouri. 
 
 POPLAR (See also Tulip Wood) 
 
 Wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture, and 
 whitish, grayish to yellowish color, usually with a satiny 
 luster. The wood shrinks moderately (some cross-grained 
 forms warp excessively), but checks very little in season- 
 ing; is easily worked, but is not durable. Used in cooper- 
 age, for building and furniture lumber, for crates and 
 boxes (especially cracker boxes), for woodenware, and 
 paper pulp. 
 
 92. Cottonwood (Populus monilifera, var. angulata) (Caro- 
 lina Poplar). Large-sized tree, forms considerable 
 forests along many of the Western streams, and 
 furnishes most of the cottonwood of the market. 
 Heartwood dark brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood 
 light, soft, not strong, and close-grained (see Fig. 
 14). Mississippi Valley and West. New England 
 ' to the Rocky Mountains. 
 
78 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 93. Cottonwood {Populus fremontii var. wislizeni). Me- 
 dium- to large-sized tree. Common. Wood in its 
 quality and uses similiar to the preceding, but not 
 so valuable. Texas to California. 
 
 94. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa var. hetero- 
 phylla) (Swamp Cottonwood, Downy Poplar). The 
 largest deciduous tree of Washington. Very common. 
 
 Fig. 14. A Large Cottonwood. One of the A,ssociates of Red Gu 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 79 
 
 Heartwood dull brown, sapwood lighter brown. Wood 
 soft, close-grained. Is now manufactured into lum- 
 ber in the West and South, and used in interior finish 
 of buildings. Northern Rocky Mountains and 
 Pacific region. 
 
 95. Poplar (Populus grandidentata) (Large-Toothed As- 
 pen). Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, 
 sapwood nearly white. Wood soft and close-grained, 
 neither strong nor durable. Chiefly used for wood 
 pulp. Maine to Minnesota and southward along 
 the Alleghanies. 
 
 96. White Poplar (Populus alba) ( Abele-Tree) . Small 
 to medium-sized tree. Wood in its quality and uses 
 similar to the preceding. Found principally along 
 banks of streams, never forming forests. Widely 
 distributed in the United States. 
 
 97. Lombardy Poplar (Populus nigra italica). Medium- 
 to large-sized tree. This species is the first orna- 
 mental tree introduced into the United States, and 
 originated in Afghanistan. Does not enter into the 
 markets. Widely planted in the United States. 
 
 98. Balsam (Populus balsamifera) (Balm of Gilead, Tacma- 
 hac). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood hght 
 brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood hght, soft, 
 not strong, close-grained. Used extensively in the 
 manufacture of paper pulp. Common all along the 
 northern boundary of the United States. 
 
 99. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) (Quaking Aspen). Small 
 to medium-sized tree, often forming extensive forests, 
 and covering burned areas. Heartwood Hght brown, 
 sapwood nearly white. Wood Ught, soft, close- 
 grained, neither strong nor durable. Chiefly used 
 for woodenware, cooperage, and paper pulp. Maine 
 to Washington and northward, and south in the 
 western mountains to Cahfornia and New Mexico. 
 
 RED GUM (See Gum) 
 
so SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 SASSAFRAS 
 
 100. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras). Medium-sized tree, 
 largest in tlie lower Mississippi Vallej^ Wood light, 
 soft, not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable 
 in contact with the soil. TJie sapwood yellow, the 
 heartwood orange brown. Used to some extent in 
 slack cooperage, for skiff- and boatbuilding, fencing, 
 posts, sills, etc. Occurs from New England to Texas 
 and from Michigan to Florida. 
 
 SOUR GUM (See Gum) 
 
 SOURWOOD 
 
 101. Sourwood {Oxijdcndrum arhoreum) (Sorrel-Tree). A 
 slender tree, reaching the maximum height of 60 feet. 
 Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. 
 Wood heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and takes 
 a fine polish. Ranges from Pennsylvania, along the 
 Alleghanies, to Florida and Alabama, westward through 
 Ohio to southern Indiana and southward through 
 Ai'kansas and Louisiana to the Coast. 
 
 SWEET GUM (See Gum) 
 
 SYCAMORE 
 
 102. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) fButtonwood, But- 
 ton-Ball Tree, Plane Tree, Water Beech) . A large-sized 
 tree, of rapid growth. One of the largest decidu- 
 ous trees of the United States, sometimes attaining a 
 height of 100 feet. It produces a timl^er that is mod- 
 erately hea^'y, quite hard, stiff, strong, and tough, 
 usually cross-grained; of coarse texture, difficult to 
 split and work, shrinks moderately, but warps and 
 checks considerably in seasoning, but stands well, 
 and is not considered durable for outside work, or in 
 contact with the soil. It has broad medullary rays, 
 and much of the timber has a beautiful figure. It 
 is used in slack cooperage, and ciuite extensively for 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 81 
 
 drawers, backs, and bottoms, etc., in furniture work. 
 It is also used for cabinet work, for tobacco boxes, 
 crates, desks, flooring, furniture, ox-yokes, butcher 
 blocks, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too 
 long been underrated. Common and largest in the 
 Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, at home in nearly all 
 parts of the eastern United States. 
 
 103. Sycamore (Plninnus racemom) . The California 
 species, resembling in its wood the Eastern form. 
 Not used to any great extent. 
 
 TULIP TREE 
 
 104. Tulip Tree (Liriodcudron tulipifera) (Yellow Poplar, 
 Tulip Wood, White Wood, Canary Wood, Poplar, 
 Blue Poplar, White Poplar, Hickorj^ Poplar). A 
 medium- to large-sized tree, does not form forests, 
 but is quite common, especially in the Ohio l^asin. 
 Wood usually light, but varies in weight, it is soft, 
 tough, but not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish 
 color. The wood shrinks considerably, but seasons 
 without much injury, and works and stands extremely 
 well. Heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, 
 the sapwood is thin, nearly white, and decays rapidly. 
 The heartwood is fairly durable when exposed to the 
 weather or in contact with the soil. It bends readily 
 when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. The 
 mature forest-grown tree has a long, straight, cylindri- 
 cal bole, clear of branches for at least two thirds of 
 its length, surmounted by a short, open, irregular 
 crown. When growing in the open, the tree main- 
 tains a straight stem, but the crown extends almost 
 to the ground, and is of conical shape. Yellow poplar, 
 or tulip wood, ordinarily grows to a height of from 
 100 to 12.5 feet, with a diameter of from 3 to feet, 
 and a clear length of about 70 feet. Trees have been 
 found 190 feet high and ten feet in diameter. Used 
 in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finishing 
 lumber in houses, car- and shipbuilding, for sideboards, 
 panels of wagons and carriages, for aeroplanes, 
 
82 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 for automobiles, also iu the manufacture of furniture, 
 farm implements, machinery, for pump logs, and 
 almost every kind of common woodenware, boxes, 
 shelving, drawers, etc., etc. Also in the manufacture 
 of toys, culinary woodenware, and backing for veneer. 
 It is in great demand throughout the vehicle and im- 
 plement trade, and also makes a fair grade of wood 
 pulp. In fact the tulip tree is one of the most use- 
 ful of woods thi'oughout the woodworking industry 
 of this country. Occurs from New England to Mis- 
 souri and southward to Florida. 
 
 TUPELO (See Gum) 
 
 WAAHOO 
 
 105. Waahoo (Evonymus atropurpureus) (Burning Bush, 
 Spindle Tree). A small-sized tree. Wood white, 
 tinged with orange; heavy, hard, tough, and close- 
 grained, works well and stands well. Used princi- 
 pally for arrows and spindles. Widely distributed. 
 Usually a shrub six to ten feet high, becoming a tree 
 only in southern Arkansas and Oklahoma. 
 
 WALNUT 
 
 106. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) (Walnut). A large, 
 beautiful, and quickly-growing tree, about 60 feet and 
 upwards in height. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of 
 coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil. 
 The narrow sapwood whitish, the heartwood dark, 
 rich, chocolate brown, sometimes almost black; aged 
 trees of fine quality bring fancy prices. The wood 
 shrinks moderately in seasoning, works well and stands 
 well, and takes a fine polish. It is quite handsome, 
 and has been for a long time the favorite wood for 
 cabinet and furniture making. It is used for gun- 
 stocks, fixtures, interior decoration, veneer, panelling, 
 stair newells, and all classes of work demanding 
 a high priced grade of wood. Black walnut is 
 a large tree with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 83 
 
 was formerly quite abundant throughout the Alle- 
 ghany region. Occurs from New England to Texas, 
 and from Michigan to Florida. Not common. 
 
 WHITE WALNUT (See Butternut) 
 WHITE WOOD (See Tulip and also Basswood) 
 
 WHITE WILLOW 
 
 107. White Willow {Salix alba var. vitellina) (Willow, 
 Yellow Willow, Blue Willow). The wood is very 
 soft, light, flexible, and fairly strong, is fairly durable 
 in contact with the soil, works well and stands well 
 when seasoned. Medium-sized tree, characterized 
 by a short, thick trunk, and a large, rather irregular 
 crown composed of many branches. The size of 
 the tree at maturity varies with the locality. In 
 the region where it occurs naturally, a height of 70 
 to 80 feet, and a chameter of three to four feet are 
 often attained. When planted in the Middle West, 
 a height of from 50 to 60 feet, and a diameter of one 
 and one-half to two feet are all that may be expected. 
 When closely planted on moist soil, the tree forms a 
 tall, slender stem, well cleared branches. Is widely 
 naturalized in the United States. It is used in cooper- 
 age, for woodenware, for cricket and baseball bats, 
 for basket work, etc. Charcoal made from the wood 
 is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. It has 
 been generally used for fence posts on the North- 
 western plains, because of scarcity of better material. 
 Well seasoned posts will last from four to seven 
 years. Widely distributed throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 108. Black Willow (Salix nigra). Small-sized tree. 
 Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly 
 white. Wood soft, light, not strong, close-grained, 
 and very flexible. Used in basket making, etc. 
 Ranges from New York to Rocky Mountains and 
 southward to Mexico. 
 
84 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 109. Shining "Willow {Salix lucida). A small-sized tree. 
 Wood in its quality and uses similiar to the preceding. 
 Ranges from Newfoundland to Rocky Mountains, 
 and southward to Pennsylvania and Nebraska. 
 
 110. Perch Willow {Salix amygdaloides) (Almond-leaf 
 ^^'illow). Small to medium-sized tree. Heartwood 
 light brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood hght, 
 soft, flexible, not strong, close-grained. Uses similiar 
 to the preceding. Follows the water courses and 
 ranges across the continent; less abundant in New 
 England than elsewhere. Common in the West. 
 
 111. Long-Leaf Willow {Salix fluviatilis) (Sand Bar Wil- 
 low). A small-sized tree. Ranges from the Arctic 
 Circle to Northern Mexico. 
 
 112. Bebb Willow {Salix bebhiana var. rostrata). A small- 
 sized tree. More abundant in British America than 
 in the United States, where it ranges southward to 
 Pennsylvania and westward to Minnesota. 
 
 113. Glaucous Willow {Salix discolor) (Pussy Willow). 
 A small-sized tree. Common along the banks of 
 streams, and ranges from Novia Scota to Manitoba, 
 and south to Delaware; west to Indiana and north- 
 western Missouri. 
 
 114. Crack Willow {Salix fragilis). A medium to large- 
 sized tree. Wood is very soft, light, very flexible 
 and fairly strong, is fairly durable in contact with 
 the soil, works well and stands well. Used princi- 
 pally for basket making, hoops, etc., and to pro- 
 duce charcoal for gunpowder. Very common, and 
 widely distributed in the United States. 
 
 115. Weeping Willow {Salix babylonica) . Medium- to 
 large-sized tree. Wood similiar to Salix nigra, but 
 not so valuable. Mostly an ornamental tree. Origi- 
 nally came from China. Widely planted in the 
 United States. 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED TREES 85 
 
 YELLOW WOOD 
 
 116. Yellow Wood (Cladrastis lutea) fVirgilia). A small 
 to medium-sized tree. Wood yellow to pale brown, 
 heavy, hard, close-grained and strong. Not used 
 to much extent in manufacturing. Not common. 
 Found principally on the limestone cliffs of Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, and North Carolina. 
 
SECTION IV 
 
 GKAIX, COLOR, ODOR, WEIGHT, 
 AND FIGURE IN" WOOD 
 
 DIFFERENT GRAINS OF WOOD 
 
 The terms "fine-grained," "coarse-grained," "straight- 
 grained," and "cross-grained" are frequently applied in 
 the trade. In common usage, wood is coarse-grained if 
 its annual rings are wide; fine-grained if they are narrow. 
 In the finer wood industries a fine-grained wood is capa- 
 ble of high polish, while a coarse-grained wood is not, so 
 that in this latter case the distinction depends chiefly on 
 hardness, and in the former on an accidental case of slow 
 or rapid growth. Generally if the direction of the wood 
 fibres is parallel to the axis of the stem or limb in which 
 they occur, the wood is straight-grained; but in many 
 cases the course of the fibres is spiral or twisted around 
 the tree (as shown in Fig. 15), and sometimes commonly 
 in the butts of gum and cypress, the fibres of several layers 
 are oblique in one direction, and those of the next series 
 of layers are oblique in the opposite direction. (As shown 
 in Fig. 16 the wood is cross or twisted grain.) Wavy- 
 grain in a tangential plane as seen on the radial section is 
 illustrated in Fig. 17, which represents an extreme case 
 observed in beech. This same form also occurs on the 
 radial plane, causing the tangential section to appear wavy 
 or in transverse folds. 
 
 When wavy grain is fine (i.e., the folds or ridges small 
 but numerous) it gives rise to the "curly" structure 
 frequently seen in maple. Ordinarily, neither wavy, 
 spiral, nor alternate grain is visable on the cross-section; 
 its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, longi- 
 tudinal faces in the sawed material, so that the only safe 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 87 
 
 guide to their discovery lies in splitting the wood in two, 
 in the two normal plains. 
 
 Generally the surface of the wood under the bark, and 
 therefore also that of any layer in the interior, is not uni- 
 
 bartc 
 
 Fig 15. 
 
 Fig. 15. Spiral Grain. Season checks, after removal of bark, indicate the 
 
 direction of the fibres or grain of the wood. 
 Fig. 16. Alternating Spiral Grain in Cypress. Side and end view of same 
 
 piece. When the bark was at o, the grain of this piece was straight. 
 
 From that time, each year it grew more oblique in one direction, 
 
 reaching a climax at a, and then turned back in the opposite direction. 
 
 These alternations were repeated periodically, the bark sharing in 
 
 these changes. 
 
 form and smooth, but is channelled and pitted by numer- 
 ous depressions, which differ greatly in size and form. 
 Usually, any one depression or elevation is restricted to 
 one or few annual layers {i.e., seen only in one or few rings) 
 and is then lost, being compensated (the surface at the 
 particular spot evened up) by growth. In some woods, 
 however, any depression or elevation once attained grows 
 from year to year and reaches a maximum size, which is 
 maintained for many years, sometimes throughout life. 
 In maple, where this tendency to preserve any particular 
 contour is very great, the depressions and elevations are 
 
88 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 usually small (commonly less than one-eighth inch) but 
 very numerous. 
 
 On tangent boards of such wood, the sections, pits, and 
 prominences appear as circlets, and give rise to the beauti- 
 ful "bird's eye" or "landscape" structure. Similiar struct- 
 
 i;ff. 
 
 1,£t. 
 
 P'ig. 17. Wavy Grain in Beech (o/fer Nordlingcr). 
 
 ures in the burls of black ash, maple, etc., are frequently 
 due to the presence of dormant buds, which cause the 
 surface of all the layers through which they pass to be 
 covered by small conical elevations, whose cross-sections 
 on the sawed board appear as irregular circlets or islets, 
 each with a dark speck, the section of the pith or "trace" 
 of the dormant bud in the center. 
 
 In the wood of many broad-leaved trees the wood fibres 
 are much longer when full grown than when they are first 
 formed in the cambium or growing zone. This causes 
 the tips of each fibre to crowd in between the fibres above 
 and below, and leads to an irregular interlacement of these 
 fibres, which adds to the toughness, but reduces the cleava- 
 bility of the wood. At the juncture of the limb and stem 
 the fibres on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 89 
 
 differently. On the lower side they run from the 
 into the limb, forming an uninterrupted strand or 
 and a perfect union. On the upper side the fibres 
 aside, are not continuous into the 
 limb, and hence the connection is 
 not perfect (see Fig. 18). Owing 
 to this arrangement of the fibres, 
 the cleft made in splitting never 
 runs into the knot if started on 
 the side above the limb, but is 
 apt to enter the knot if started 
 below, a fact well understood in 
 woodcraft. When limbs die, decay, 
 and break off, the remaining stubs 
 are surrounded, and may finally 
 be covered by the growth of the 
 trunk and thus give rise to the an- 
 noying "dead" or "loose" knots. 
 
 COLOR AND ODOR 
 OF WOOD 
 
 stem 
 
 tissue 
 
 bend 
 
 Color, like structure, lends 
 beauty to the wood, aids in its 
 identification, and is of great value 
 in the determination of its quality. 
 If we consider only the heartwood, 
 the black color of the persimmon, 
 the dark brown of the walnut, the 
 light brown of the white oaks, the 
 reddish brown of the red oaks, 
 the yellowish white of the tulip 
 and poplars, the brownish red of 
 the redwood and cedars, the yellow 
 of the papaw and sumac, are all re- 
 liable marks of distinction and color. 
 
 Fig. IS. Section of Wood 
 showing Position of the 
 Grain at Base of a Limb. 
 P, pith of both stem and 
 hmb; 1-7, seven yearly 
 layers of wood; a, h, knot 
 or basal part of a limh 
 which lived for four years, 
 then died and broke off 
 near the stem, leaving the 
 part to the left of a, b, a 
 "sound" knot, the part 
 to the right a "dead" 
 knot, which would soon 
 be entirely covered by 
 the growing stem. 
 
 Together with luster and weight, 
 they are only too often the only features depended upon 
 in practice. NeAvly formed wood, like that of the outer few 
 rings, has but little color. The sapwood generally is light. 
 
90 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 and the wood of trees which form no heartwood changes 
 but httle, except when stained by forerunners of disease. 
 
 The different tints of colors, whether the brown of oak, 
 the orange brown of pine, the blackish tint of walnut, or 
 the reddish cast of cedar, are due to pigments, while the 
 deeper shade of the summer-wood bands in pine, cedar, 
 oak, or walnut is due to the fact that the wood being 
 denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs on a 
 given space, i.e., there is more colored matter per square 
 inch. Wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine permitting 
 light to pass through quite freely. This translucency 
 affects the luster and brightness of lumber. 
 
 When lumber is attacked by fungi, it becomes more 
 opaque, loses its brightness, and in practice is designated 
 "dead," in distinction to "live" or bright timber. Ex- 
 posure to air darkens all wood; direct sunlight and oc- 
 casional moistening hasten this change, and cause it to 
 penetrate deeper. Prolonged immersion has the same 
 effect, pine wood becoming a dark gray, while oak changes 
 to a blackish brown. 
 
 Odor, like color, depends on chemical compounds, 
 forming no part of the wood substance itself. Ex- 
 posure to weather reduces and often changes the odor, 
 but a iDiece of long-leaf pine, cedar, or camphor wood ex- 
 hales apparently as much odor as ever when a new surface 
 is exposed. Heartwood is more odoriferous than sapwood. 
 Many kinds of wood are distinguished by strong and 
 peculiar odors. This is especially the case with camphor, 
 cedar, pine, oak, and mahogany, and the list would com- 
 prise every kind of wood in use were our sense of smell 
 developed in keeping with its importance. 
 
 Decomposition is usually accompanied by pronounced 
 odors. Decaying poplar emits a disagreeable odor, while 
 red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell resembling that 
 of hehotrope. 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 91 
 
 WEIGHT OF WOOD 
 
 A small cross-section of wood (as in Fig. 19) dropped 
 into water sinks, showing that the substance of which 
 wood fibre or wood is built up is heavier than water. By 
 immersing the wood successively in 
 heavier liquids, until we find a liquid 
 in which it does not sink, and compar- 
 ing the weight of the same with water, 
 we find that wood substance is about 
 1.6 times as heavy as water, and that 
 this is as true of poplar as of oak or 
 pine. 
 
 Separating a single cell (as shown in Fig. 19. Cross-section 
 Fig. 20, a) , drying and then dropping of a Group of Wood 
 it into water, it floats. The air-filled Fibres (Highly 
 cell cavity or interior reduces its weight, '^^^ '^ '' 
 and, like an empty corked bottle, it weighs less than the 
 water. Soon, however, water soaks into the cell, when it 
 fills up and sinks. Many such cells grown to- 
 gether, as in a block of wood, when all or most 
 of them are filled with water, will float as long 
 as the majority of them are empty or only 
 partially filled. This is why a green, sappy pine 
 pole soon sinks in "driving" (floating down 
 stream). Its cells are largely filled before it is 
 thrown in, and but little additional water suffices 
 to make its weight greater than that of the 
 water. In a good-sized white pine log, composed 
 chiefly of empty cells (heartwood), the water 
 requires a very long time to fill up the cells (five 
 years would not suffice to fill them all), and 
 therefore the log may float for many months. 
 When the wall of the wood fibre is very thick 
 (five eighths or more of the volume, as in Fig. 
 20, b), the fibre sinks whether empty or filled. 
 This applies to most of the fibres of the dark 
 summer-wood bands in pines, and to the compact fibres 
 of oak or hickory, and many, especially tropical woods, 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Isolated 
 
 Fibres of 
 
 Wood. 
 
92 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 have such thick-walled cells and so little empty or air space 
 that they never float. 
 
 Here, then, are the two main factors of weight in wood; 
 the amount of cell wall or wood substance constant for 
 any given piece, and the amount of water contained in 
 the wood, variable even in the standing tree, and only in 
 part eliminated in drying. 
 
 The weight of the green wood of any species varies 
 chiefly as a second factor, and is entirely misleading, if 
 the relative weight of different kintls is sought. Thus 
 some green sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress and 
 gum sink more readily than fresh oak. 
 
 The weight of sapwood or the sappy, peripheral part 
 of our common luml^er woods is always great, whether 
 cut in winter or summer. It rarely falls much below 
 forty-five pounds, and commonly exceeds fifty-five pounds 
 to the cubic foot, even in our lighter wooded species. It 
 follows that the green wood of a sapling is heavier than 
 that of an old tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the upper 
 part of a tree is often heavier than that of the lower jaart, 
 and the wood near the bark heaA'ier than that nearer the 
 pith; and also that the advantage of drying the wood 
 before shipping is most important in sappy and light 
 kinds. 
 
 When kiln-dried, the misleading moisture factor of 
 weight is uniformly reduced, and a fair comparison pos- 
 sible. For the sake of convenience in comparison, the 
 weight of wood is expressed either as the weight per cubic 
 foot, or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight 
 or density. If an old long-leaf pine is cut up (as shown 
 in Fig. 21) the wood of disk No. 1 is heavier than that of 
 disk No. 2, the latter heavier than that of disk No. 3, and 
 the wood of the top disk is found to be only about three 
 fourths as heavy as that of disk No. 1. Similiarly, if disk 
 No. 2 is cut up, as in the figure, the specific weight of the 
 different parts is: 
 
 a, about 0.52 
 
 5, about 0.64 
 
 c, about 0.67 
 
 d, e, f, about 0.65 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 93 
 
 showing that in this disk at least the wood formed during 
 the many years' growth, represented in piece a, is much 
 hghter than that of former years. It also shows that the 
 best wood is the middle part, with its large proportion of 
 dark summer bands. 
 
 Cutting up all disks in the same way, it will be found 
 that the piece a of the first disk is heavier than the piece 
 a of the fifth, and that piece c of the first disk excels the 
 
 disci 
 
 disc.S 
 
 disc.Z 
 
 disci 
 
 Fig. 21, Orientation of Wood Samples. 
 
 piece c of all the other disks. This shows that the wood 
 grown during the same number of years is lighter in the 
 upper parts of the stem; and if the disks are smoothed on 
 the radial surfaces and set up one on top of the other in 
 their regular order, for the sake of comparison, this de- 
 crease in weight will be seen to be accompanied by a de- 
 crease in the amount of summer-wood. The color effect 
 of the upper disks is conspicuously lighter. If our old 
 pine had been cut one hundred and fifty years ago, 
 before the outer, lighter wood was laid on, it is evident 
 that the weight of the wood of any one disk would have 
 been found to increase from the center outward, and no 
 subsequent decrease could have been observed. 
 
94 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In a thrifty j'oung pine, then, tlie wood is heavier from 
 the center ontward, and lighter from below upward; only 
 the wood laid on in old age falls in weight below the average. 
 The number of brownish bands of summer-wood are a 
 direct indication of these differences. If an old oak is 
 cut up in the same manner, the butt cut is also found 
 heaviest and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, 
 the disk of oak has its firmest wood at the center, and each 
 successive piece from the center outward is lighter than 
 its neighbor. 
 
 Examining the pieces, this difference is not as readily 
 explained by the appearance of each piece as in the case 
 of pine wood. Nevertheless, one conspicuous point ap- 
 pears at once. The pores, so very distinct in oak, are 
 very minute in the wood near the center, and thus the 
 wood is far less porous. 
 
 Studying different trees, it is found that in the loines, 
 wood with narrow rings is j ust as heavy as and often heavier 
 than the wood with wider rings; but if the rings are un- 
 usually narrow in any part of the disk, the wood has a 
 lighter color; that is, there is less summer-wood and there- 
 fore less weight. 
 
 In oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty growth, the rings, 
 fairly wide (not less than one- twelfth inch), always form 
 the heaviest wood, while any piece with very narrow rings 
 is light. On the other hand, the weight of a piece of hard 
 maple or birch is quite independent of the width of its 
 rings. 
 
 The bases of limbs (knots) are usually heavy, very 
 heavy in conifers, and also the wood which surrounds 
 them, but generally the wood of the limbs is lighter than 
 that of the stem, and the wood of the roots is the 
 lightest. 
 
 In general, it may be said that none of the native woods 
 in common use in this country are when dry as heavy as 
 water, i.e., sixty-two pounds to the cubic foot. Few ex- 
 ceed fifty pounds, while most of them fall below forty 
 pounds, and much of the pine and other coniferous wood 
 weigh less than thirty pounds per cubic foot. The weight 
 of the wood is in itself an important equality. Weight 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 
 
 95 
 
 assists in distinguishing maple from poplar. Lightness 
 coupled with great strength and stiffness recommends 
 wood for a thousand different uses. To a large extent 
 weight predicates the strength of the wood, at least in the 
 same species, so that a heavy piece of oak will exceed in 
 strength a light piece of the same species, and in pine it 
 appears probable that, weight for weight, the strength of 
 the wood of various pines is nearly equal. 
 
 Weight op Kiln-deied Wood of Different Species 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Species 
 
 
 Weight of 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 1 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 Cubic 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 Lumber 
 
 (o) Very Heavy Woods: 
 
 
 
 
 Hickory, Oak, Persimmon, Osage Orange, 
 
 
 
 
 Black Locust, Hackberry, Blue Beech, 
 
 
 
 
 best of Elm and Ash 
 
 0.70-0.80 
 
 42-48 
 
 3,700 
 
 (6) Heavy Woods: 
 
 
 
 
 Ash, Elm, Cherry, Birch, Maple, Beech, 
 
 
 
 
 Walnut, Sour Gum, Coffee Tree, Honey 
 
 
 
 
 Locust, best of Southern Pine and 
 
 
 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 0.60-0.70 
 
 36-42 
 
 3,200 
 
 (c) Woods of Medium Weight: 
 
 
 
 
 Southern Pine, Pitch Pine, Tamarack, 
 
 
 
 
 Douglas Spruce, Western Hemlock, 
 
 
 
 
 Sweet Gum, Soft Maple, Sycamore, Sas- 
 
 
 
 
 safras, Mulberry, light grades of Birch 
 
 
 
 
 and Cherry 
 
 0.50-0.60 
 
 30-36 
 
 2,700 
 
 (d) Light Woods: 
 
 
 
 
 Norway and Bull Pine, Red Cedar, 
 
 
 
 
 Cypress, Hemlock, the Heavier Spruces 
 
 
 
 
 and Firs, Redwood, Basswood, Chestnut, 
 
 
 
 
 Butternut, Tulip, Catalpa, Buckeye, 
 
 
 
 
 heavier grades of Poplar 
 
 0.40-0.50 
 
 24-30 
 
 2,200 
 
 (e) Very Light Woods: 
 
 
 
 
 White Pine, Spruce, Fir, White Cedar, 
 
 
 
 
 Poplar 
 
 0.30-0.40 
 
 18-24 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 
96 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 "FIGURE" IN WOOD 
 
 Many theories have been propounded as to the cause 
 of "figure" in timber; while it is true that all timber 
 possesses "figure" in some degree, which is more noticeable 
 if it be cut in certain ways, yet there are some woods in 
 which it is more conspicuous than in others, and which 
 for cabinet or furniture work are much appreciated, as 
 it adds to the value of the work produced. 
 
 The characteristic "figure" of oak is due to the broad 
 and deep medullary rays so conspicuous in this timber, 
 and the same applies to honeysuckle. Figure due to the 
 same cause is found in sycamore and beech, but is not so 
 pronounced. The beautiful figure in "bird's eye maple" 
 is supposed to be due to the boring action of insects in 
 the early growth of the tree, causing pits or grooves, which 
 in time become filled up by being overlain by fresh layers 
 of wood growth; these peculiar and unique markings 
 are found only in the older and inner portion of the tree. 
 
 Pitch pine has sometimes a very beautiful "figure," but 
 it generally does not go deep into the timber; walnut has 
 cpiite a variety of "figures," and so has the elm. It is in 
 mahogany, however, that we find the greatest variety of 
 "figure," and as this timber is only used for furniture and 
 fancy work, a good "figure" greatly enhances its value, 
 as firmly figured logs bring fancy prices. 
 
 Mahogany, unlike the oak, never draws its "figure" from 
 its small and almost unnoticeable medullary rays, but 
 from the twisted condition of its fibres; the natural growth 
 of mahogany produces a straight wood; what is called 
 "figured" is unnatural and exceptional, and thus adds 
 to its value as an ornamental wood. These peculiarities 
 are rarely found in the earlier portion of the tree that is 
 near the center, being in this respect quite different from 
 maple; they appear when the tree is more fully developed, 
 and consist of bundles of woody fibres which, instead of 
 being laid in straight lines, behave in an erratic manner 
 and are deposited in a twisted form; sometimes it may 
 be caused by the intersection of branches, or possibly by 
 the crackling of the bark pressing on the wood, and thus 
 
GRAIN AND FIGURE IN WOOD 97 
 
 moving it out of its natural straight course, causing a 
 wavy line which in time becomes accentuated. 
 
 It will have been observed by most people that the outer 
 portion of a tree is often indented by the bark, and the 
 outer rings often follow a sinuous course which corresponds 
 to this indention, but in most trees, after a few years, this 
 is evened up and the annual rings assume their nearly 
 circular form; it is supposed by some that in the case of 
 mahogany this is not the case, and that the indentations 
 are even accentuated. 
 
 The best figured logs of timber are secured from trees 
 which grow in firm rocky soil; those growing on low-lying 
 or swampy ground are seldom figured. To the practical 
 woodworker the figure in mahogany causes some difficulty 
 in planing the wood to a smooth surface; some portions 
 plane smooth, others are the "wrong way of the grain." 
 
 Figure in wood is effected by the way light is thrown 
 upon it, showing light if seen from one direction, and dark 
 if viewed from another, as may easily be observed by hold- 
 ing a piece of figured mahogany under artificial light and 
 looking at it from opposite directions. The character- 
 istic markings on mahogany are "mottle," which is also 
 found in sycamore, and is conspicuous on the backs of 
 fiddles and violins, and is not in itself valuable; it runs 
 the transverse way of the fibres and is probably the effect 
 of the wind upon the tree in its early stages of growth. 
 "Roe," which is said to be caused by the contortion of 
 the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them, 
 is also found in the hollow of bent stems and in the root 
 structure, and when combined with "mottle" is very 
 valuable. "Dapple" is an exaggerated form of mottle. 
 "Thunder shake," "wind shake," or "tornado shake" is 
 a rupture of the fibres across the grain, which in mahogany 
 does not always break them; the tree swaying in the wind 
 only strains its fibres, and thus produces mottle in the wood. 
 
SECTION V 
 
 ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 From the writer's personal investigations of this sub- 
 ject in different sections of the country, the damage to 
 forest products of various kinds from this cause seems 
 to be far more extensive than is generally recognized. 
 Allowing a loss of five per cent on the total value of the 
 forest products of the country, which the writer believes 
 to be a conservative estimate, it would amount to some- 
 thing over $30,000,000 annually. This loss differs from 
 that resulting from insect damage to natural forest re- 
 sources, in that it represents more directly a loss of money 
 invested in material and labor. In dealing with the in- 
 sects mentioned, as with forest insects in general, the 
 methods which yield the best results are those which relate 
 directly to preventing attack, as well as those which are 
 unattractive or unfavorable. The insects have two objects 
 in their attack: one is to obtain food, the other is to pre- 
 pare for the development of their broods. Different 
 species of insects have special periods during the season 
 of activity (March to November), when the adults are 
 on the wing in search of suitable material in which to 
 deposit their eggs. Some species, which fly in April, will 
 be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees or 
 to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous 
 winter. They are not attracted to any other kind of 
 timber, because they can live only in the bark or wood 
 of pine, and only in that which is in the proper condition 
 to favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal de- 
 velopment of their young. As they fly only in April, 
 they cannot injure the logs of trees felled during the re- 
 mainder of the year. 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 99 
 
 There are also oak insects, which attack nothing but 
 oak; hickory, cypress, and spruce insects, etc., which have 
 different habits and different periods of flight, and require 
 special conditions of the bark and wood for depositing 
 their eggs or for subsequent development of their broods. 
 Some of these insects have but one generation in a year, 
 others have two or more, while some require more than 
 one year for the complete development and transformation. 
 Some species deposit their eggs in the bark or wood of 
 trees soon after they are felled or before any perceptible 
 change from the normal living tissue has taken place; 
 other species are attracted only to dead bark and dead 
 wood of trees which have been felled or girdled for several 
 months; others are attracted to dry and seasoned wood; 
 while another class will attack nothing but very old, dry 
 bark or wood of special kinds and under special condi- 
 tions. Thus it will be seen how important it is for the 
 practical man to have knowledge of such of the foregoing 
 facts as apply to his immediate interest in the manufacture 
 or utilization of a given forest product, in order that he 
 may with the least trouble and expense adjust his busi- 
 ness methods to meet the requirements for preventing 
 losses. 
 
 The work of different kinds of insects, as represented 
 by special injuries to forest products, is the first thing to 
 attract attention, and the distinctive character of this 
 work is easily observed, while the insect responsible for 
 it is seldom seen, or it is so difficult to determine by the 
 general observer from descriptions or illustrations that 
 the species is rarely recognized. Fortunately, the character 
 of the work is often sufficient in itself to identify the cause 
 and suggest a remedy, and in this section primary con- 
 sideration is given to this phase of the subject. 
 
 Ambrosia or Timber Beetles 
 
 The characteristic work of this class of wood-boring 
 beetles is shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The injury consists 
 of pinhole and stained-wood defects in the sapwood and 
 heartwood of recently felled or girdled trees, sawlogs, 
 pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or unseasoned 
 
100 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 22. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Tulip or Yellow Poi^Iar Wood 
 a, work of XylchornH nffiniH and Xyleborus inermis; b, Xykborus obesus 
 and work; c, )>ark; d, sapwood; e, heartwood. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 !3 ^york of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak. a, Monarlhram mali and work; 
 6, Fhityin,, composilus and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heartwood- 
 y, character of work m wood fr(jm injured log. 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 101 
 
 lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alco- 
 holic liquids. The holes and galleries are made by the 
 adult parent beetles, to serve as entrances and temporary 
 houses or nurseries for the development of their broods 
 of young, which feed on a fungus growing on the walls of 
 the galleries. 
 
 The growth of this ambrosia-hke fungus is induced 
 and controlled by the parent beetles, and the young are 
 dependent upon it for food. The wood must be in ex- 
 actly the proper condition for the growth of the fungus 
 in order to attract the beetles and induce them to excavate 
 their galleries; it must have a certain degree of moisture 
 and other favorable qualities, which usually prevail during 
 the period involved in the change from living, or normal, 
 to dead or dry wood; such a condition is found in recently 
 felled trees, sawlogs, or like crude products. 
 
 There are two general types or classes of these galleries: 
 one in which the broods develop together in the main 
 burrows (see Fig. 22), the other in which the individuals 
 develop in short, separate side chambers, extending at 
 right angles from the primary galleries (see Fig. 23). The 
 galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a 
 distinct staining of the wood, while those of the former 
 are not. 
 
 The beetles responsible for this work are cylindrical in 
 form, apparently with a head (the prothorax) half as long 
 as the remainder of the body (see Figs. 22, a, and 23, a). 
 
 North American species vary in size from less than 
 one-tenth to slightly more than two-tenths of an inch, 
 while some of the subtropical and tropical species attain 
 a much larger size. The diameter of the holes made by 
 each species corresponds closely to that of the body, and 
 varies from about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an 
 inch for the tropical species. 
 
 Round-headed Borers 
 
 The character of the work of this class of wood- and bark- 
 boring grubs is shown in Fig. 24. The injuries consist 
 of irregular flattened or nearly round wormhole defects 
 in the wood, which sometimes result in the destruction 
 
102 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 of valuable parts of the wood or bark material. The sap- 
 wood and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, 
 poles, posts, mine props, pulpwood and cordwood, also 
 lumber or square timber, with bark on the edges, and 
 construction timber in new and old buildings, are injured 
 by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts of stored 
 oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are 
 converted into worm-dust. These injuries are caused 
 by the young or larvae of long-horned beetles. Those 
 which infest the wood hatch from eggs deposited in the 
 
 Fig. 24. \\'ork of Kountl-lieaded and Flat-headed Borers in Pine, a, work 
 of round-headed borer, "sawyer," Monohammus spiculatus, natural 
 size; h, Ergates sjriculntus; c, work of flat-headed borer, Buprestis, 
 larva and adult; d, bark; e, sap wood; /, heartwood. 
 
 outer bark of logs and like material, and the minute grubs 
 hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through 
 which they extend their irregular burrows, for the purpose 
 of obtaining food from the sap and other nutritive material 
 found in the plant tissue. They continue to extend and 
 enlarge their burrows as they increase in size, until they 
 are nearly or cfuite full grown. They then enter the wood 
 and continue their excavations deep into the sapwood or 
 heartwood until they attain their normal size. They 
 then excavate pupa cells in which to transform into adults, 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 103 
 
 which emerge from the wood through exit holes in the 
 surface. This class of borers is represented by a large 
 number of species. The adults, however, are seldom seen 
 by the general observer unless cut out of the wood before 
 they have energed. 
 
 Flat-headed Borers 
 
 The work of the flat-headed borers (Fig. 24) is only 
 distinguished from that of the preceding by the broad, 
 shallow burrows, and the much more oblong form of the 
 exit holes. In general, the injuries are similiar, and effect 
 the same class of products, but they are of much less im- 
 portance. The adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored 
 beetles, and represent many species, of various sizes. 
 
 Timber Worms 
 
 The character of the work done by this class is shown 
 in Fig. 25. The injury consists of pinhole defects in the 
 
 Fig. 2.5. Work of Timljer Worms in Oak. a, work of oak timber worm, 
 Eupsalis minula; b, Ijarked surface; c, bark; d, sapwood timber worm, 
 Hylocoetiis luguhris, and work; e, sapwood. 
 
 sapwood and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs and Hke 
 material which have been left in the woods or in piles in the 
 open for several months during the warmer seasons. Stave 
 
104 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 and shingle bolts and closely piled oak lumber and square 
 timbers also suffer from injury of this kind. These in- 
 juries are made lay elongate, slender worms or larvae, 
 which hatch from eggs deposited by the adult beetles in the 
 
 Fig. 2(j. A^'iirk of Powder Post Beetle, Siiioxylon hnsihire, in Hickory Poles, 
 showiiifi Trans\'erse Egg Galleries excavated by the Adult, a, entrance; 
 6, gallery; c, adult. 
 
 outer bark, or, where there is no bark, just beneath the 
 surface of the wood. At first the j''oung larvae bore 
 almost invisible holes for a long distance through the sap- 
 wood and heartwood, but as they increase in size the same 
 holes are enlarged and extended until the larvae have at- 
 tained their full growtli. They then transform to adults, 
 and emerge through the enlarged entrance burrows. The 
 
 Fig. 27. Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoxylon hnslliire, in Hickory Pole. 
 a, character of work by larvae; h, exit holes made Ijy emerging broods. 
 
 work of these timber worms is distinguished from that of 
 the timber beetles by the greater variation in the size of 
 holes in the same piece of wood, also by the fact that they 
 are not branched from a single entrance or gallery, as are 
 those made by the beetles. 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 105 
 
 class of insects is 
 injury consists of 
 
 Powder Post Borers 
 
 The character of the work of this 
 shown in Figs. 26, 27, and 28. The 
 closely placed burrows, packed 
 with borings, or a completely 
 destroyed or powdered condition 
 of the wood of seasoned prod- 
 ucts, such as lumber, crude and 
 finished handle and wagon stock, 
 cooperage and wooden truss 
 hoops, furniture, and inside finish 
 woodwork, in old buildings, as 
 well as in many other crude or 
 finished and utilized woods. 
 This is the work of both the 
 adults and young stages of some 
 species, or of the larval stage 
 alone of others. In the former, 
 the adult beetles deposit their 
 eggs in burrows or galleries ex- 
 cavated for the purpose, as in 
 Figs. 26 and 27, whiie in the 
 latter (Fig. 28) the eggs are on 
 or beneath the surface of the 
 wood. The grubs complete the 
 destruction by boring tln'ough 
 the solid wood in all directions 
 and packing their burrows with 
 the powdered wood. When they 
 are full grown they transform to 
 the adult, and emerge from the 
 injured material through holes in 
 the surface. Some of the species 
 continue to work in the same 
 wood until many generations 
 have developed and emerged, or 
 until every particle of wood 
 tissue has been destroyed and the available nutritive sub- 
 stance extracted. 
 
 luK. 2S. Work ot PoAvder Post 
 ]>(.'('tlo.s, Lycliis .slriiitiis, ill 
 Hickory Hundles and Spokes. 
 a, larva; /), pupa; c, adult; 
 d, exit holes; e, entrance of 
 larvae (vents for borings are 
 exits of parasites); /, work 
 of larvae; g, wood, com- 
 pletely destroyed; /(, sap- 
 wood; i, heartwood. 
 
106 SEASONING OF WOOD ■ 
 
 Conditions Favorable for Insect Injury — Crude Products 
 — Round Timber with Bark on 
 
 Newly felled trees, sawlogs, stave and heading bolts, 
 telegraph poles, posts, and the like material, cut in the 
 fall and winter, and left on the ground or in close piles 
 during a few weeks or months in the spring or summer, 
 causing them to heat and sweat, are especially liable to 
 injury by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 22 and 23), round and 
 flat-headed borers (Fig. 24), and timber worms (Fig. 25), 
 as are also trees felled in the warm season, and left for a 
 time before working up into lumber. 
 
 The proper degree of moisture found in freshly cut 
 living or dying wood, and the period when the insects are 
 flying, are the conditions most favorable for attack. This 
 period of danger varies with the time of the year the timber 
 is felled and with the different kinds of trees. Those 
 felled in late fall and winter will generally remain at- 
 tractive to ambrosia beetles, and to the adults of round- 
 and flat-headed borers during March, April, and May. 
 Those felled in April to September may be attacked in 
 a few days after they are felled, and the period of danger 
 may not extend over more than a few weeks. Certain 
 kinds of trees felled during certain months and seasons 
 are never attacked, because the danger period prevails 
 only when the insects are flying; on the other hand, if 
 the same kinds of trees are felled at a different time, the 
 conditions may he most attractive when the insects are 
 active, and they will be thickly infested and ruined. 
 
 The presence of bark is absolutley necessary for in- 
 festation by most of the wood-boring grubs, since the eggs 
 and young stages must occupy the outer and inner por- 
 tions before they can enter the wood. Some ambrosia 
 and timber worms will, however, attack barked logs, 
 especially those in close piles, and others shaded and 
 protected from rapid drying. 
 
 The sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress, and 
 the like softwoods is especially liable to injury by ambrosia 
 beetles, while the heartwood is sometimes ruined by a 
 class of round-headed borers, known as "sawj^ers." Yellow 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 107 
 
 poplar, oak, chestnut, gum, hickory, and most other 
 hardwoods are as a rule attacked by species of ambrosia 
 beetles, sawyers, and timber worms, different from those 
 infesting the pines, there being but very few species which 
 attack both. 
 
 Mahogany and other rare and valuable woods imported 
 from the tropics to this country in the form of round logs, 
 with or without bark on, are commonly damaged more 
 or less seriously by ambrosia beetles and timber worms. 
 
 It would appear from the writer's investigations of 
 logs received at the mills in this country, that the prin- 
 cipal damage is done during a limited period — from the 
 time the trees are felled until they are placed in fresh or 
 salt water for transportation to the shipping points. If, 
 however, the logs are loaded on a vessel direct from the 
 shore, or if not left in the water long enough to kill the 
 insects, the latter will continue their destructive work 
 during transportation to other countries and after they 
 arrive, and until cold weather ensues or the logs are con- 
 verted into lumber. 
 
 It was also found that a thorough soaking in sea-water, 
 while it usually killed the insects at the time, did not pre- 
 vent subsequent attacks by both foreign and native ambro- 
 sia beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from such 
 logs previous to immersion did not render them entirely 
 immune. Those with the bark off were attacked more 
 than those with it on, owing to a greater amount of saline 
 moisture retained by the bark. 
 
 How to Prevent Injury 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites 
 for preventing these insect injuries to round timber are: 
 
 1. To provide for as little delay as possible between 
 the felling of the tree and its manufacture into 
 rough products. This is especially necessary with 
 trees felled from April to September, in the region 
 north of the Gulf States, and from March to Novem- 
 ber in the latter, while the late fall and winter 
 cutting should all be worked up by March or April. 
 
108 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 2. If the round timber must be left in the woods or on 
 
 the skidways during the danger period, every pre- 
 caution sliould be taken to facihtate rapid drying 
 of tlie inner bark, by keeping the logs off the ground, 
 in the sun, or in loose piles; or else the opposite 
 extreme should be adopted and the logs kept in 
 water. 
 
 3. The immediate removal of all the bark from i^oles, 
 
 posts, and other material which will not be seri- 
 ously damaged bj^ checking or season checks. 
 
 4. To determine and utilize the j^roper months or sea- 
 
 sons to girdle or fell different kinds of trees: Bald 
 cypress in the swamps of the South are "girdled" 
 in order that they may die, and in a few weeks or 
 months dry out and become light enough to float. 
 This method has been extensively adoj^ted in sec- 
 tions where it is the only practicable one by which 
 the timber can be transported to the sawmills. 
 It is found, however, that some of these "girdled" 
 trees are especially attractive to several species of 
 ambrosia beetles (Figs. 22 and 23), round-headed 
 borers (Fig. 24) and timber worms (Fig. 25), which 
 cause serious injury to the sapwood or heartwood, 
 while other trees "girdled" at a different time or 
 season are not injured. This suggested to the 
 writer the importance of experiments to determine 
 the proper time to "girdle" trees to avoid losses, and 
 they are now being conducted on an extensive 
 scale by the United States Forest Service, in co- 
 operation with prominent cypress operators in 
 different sections of the cypress-growing region. 
 
 Saplings 
 
 Sai^lings, including hickory and other round hoop-poles 
 and similiar products, are subject to serious injuries and 
 destruction by round- and flat-headed borers (Fig. 24), 
 and certain species of powder post borers (Figs. 26 and 27) 
 before the bark and wood are dead or dry, and also by 
 other powder post borers (Fig. 28) after they are dried and 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 109 
 
 seasoned. The conditions favoring attack by tlie former 
 class are those resulting from leaving the poles in piles 
 or bundles in or near the forest for a few weeks during the 
 season of insect activity, and by the latter from leaving 
 them stored in one place for several months. 
 
 Stave, Heading and Shingle Bolts 
 
 These are attacked by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 22 and 
 23), and the oak timber worm (Fig. 25, a), which, as has 
 been freciuently reported, cause serious losses. The con- 
 ditions favoring attack by these insects are similiar to 
 those mentioned under "Round Timber." The insects 
 may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log 
 or afterward, especially if the bolts are left in moist, shady 
 places in the woods, in close piles during the danger period. 
 If cut during the warm season, the bark should be re- 
 moved and the bolts converted into the smallest practic- 
 able size and piled in such manner as to facilitate rapid 
 drying. 
 
 Unseasoned Products in the Rough 
 
 Freshly sawn hardwood, placed in close piles during 
 warm, damp weather in July and September, presents 
 especially favorable conditions for injury by ambrosia 
 beetles {Figs. 22, a, and 23, a). This is due to the con- 
 tinued moist condition of such material. 
 
 Heavy two-inch or three-inch stuff is also liable to at- 
 tack even in loose piles with lumber or cross sticks. An 
 example of the latter was found in a valuable lot of ma- 
 hogany lumber of first grade, the value of which was 
 reduced two thirds by injury from a native ambrosia 
 beetle. Numerous complaints have been received from 
 different sections of the country of this class of injury to 
 oak, poplar, gum, and other hardwoods. In all cases it 
 is the moist condition and retarded drying of the lumber 
 which induces attack; therefore, any method which will 
 provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or after 
 piling will tend to prevent losses. 
 
 It is important that heavy lumber should, as far as 
 possible, be cut in the winter months and piled so that it 
 
110 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 will be well dried out before the middle of March. Square 
 timber, stave and heading bolts, with the bark on, often 
 suffer from injuries by flat- or round-headed borers, hatch- 
 ing from eggs deposited in the bark of the logs before they 
 are sawed and piled. One example of serious damage 
 and loss was reported in which white pine staves for paint 
 buckets and other small wooden vessels, which had been 
 sawed from small logs, and the bark left on the edges, 
 were attacked by a round-headed borer, the adults having 
 deposited their eggs in the bark after the stock was sawn 
 and piled. The character of the injury is shown in Fig. 29. 
 Another example was reported from a manufacturer in 
 the South, where the pieces of lumber which has strips 
 of bark on one side were seriously damaged by the same 
 kind of borer, the eggs having been deposited in the logs 
 before sawing or in the bark after the lumber was piled. 
 If the eggs are deposited in the logs, and the borers have 
 entered the inner bark or the wood before sawing, they 
 may continue their work regardless of methods of piling, 
 but if such lumber is cut from new logs and placed in the 
 pile while green, with the bark surface up, it will be much 
 less liable to attack than if piled with the bark edges down. 
 This liability of lumber with bark edges or sides to be 
 attacked by insects suggests the importance of the re- 
 moval of the bark, to prevent damage, or, if this is not 
 practicable, the lumber with the bark on the sides should 
 be piled in open, loose piles with the bark up, while that 
 with the bark on the edges should be placed on the outer 
 edges of the piles, exposed to the light and air. 
 
 In the Southern States it is difficult to keep green timber 
 in the woods or in piles for any length of time, because of 
 the rapidity which wood-destroying fungi attack it. This 
 is particularly true daring the summer season, when the 
 humidity is greatest. There is really no easily-applied, 
 general specific for these summer troubles in the handling 
 of wood, but there are some suggestions that are worth 
 while that it may be well to mention. One of these, and 
 the most important, is to remove all the bark from the 
 timber that has been cut, just as soon as possible after 
 felling. And, in this, emphasis should be laid on the all, 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 
 
 111 
 
 as a piece of bark no larger than a man's little finger will 
 furnish an entering place for insects, and once they get in, 
 it is a difficult matter to get rid of them, for they seldom 
 stop boring until they ruin the stick. And again, after 
 
 Fig. 29. Work of Round-headed Borers, CalUdium antenmitum, in White 
 Pine Bucket Staves from New Hampshire, a, where egg was deposited 
 in l_>ark; h, larval mine; c, pupal cell; d, exit in bark; c, adult. 
 
 the timber has been felled and the bark removed, it is 
 well to get it to the mill pond or cut up into merchantable 
 sizes and on to the pile as soon as possible. What is 
 wanted is to get the timber up off the ground, to a 
 place where it can get plenty of air, to enable the sap 
 to dry up before it sours; and, besides, large units of 
 wood are more likely to crack open on the ends from the 
 
112 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 heat than thej^ would if cut up into the smaller units 
 for merchandizing. 
 
 A moist condition of lumber and square timber, such 
 as results from close or solid piles, with the bottom layers 
 on the ground or on foundations of old decaying logs or 
 near decajdng stumps and logs, offers especially favorable 
 conditions for the attack of white ants. 
 
 Seasoned Products in the Rough 
 
 Seasoned or dry timber in staclvs or storage is liable to 
 injury by powder post borers (Fig. 28). The condi- 
 tions favoring attack are: (1) The presence of a large 
 proportion of sapwood, as in hickory, ash, and similiar 
 woods; (2) material which is two or more years old, or 
 tliat which has been kept in one place for a long time; 
 (.3) access to old infested material. Therefore, such stock 
 should be frequently examined for evidence of tlie presence 
 of these insects. This is always indicated by fine, flour- 
 like powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise associated 
 witli such material. All infested material should be at 
 once removed and tlie infested parts destroyed by burning. 
 
 Dry Cooperage Stock and Wooden Truss Hoops 
 
 These are especially liable to attack and serious injury 
 by powder post borers (Fig. 28) , under the same or similiar 
 conditions as the preceding. 
 
 Staves and Heads of Barrels containing 
 Alcoholic Liquids 
 
 These are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 
 22, a, and 2.3, a), which are attracted by the moist con- 
 dition and possibly by the peculiar odor of the wood, re- 
 sembling that of dying sapwood of trees and logs, which 
 is their normal breeding place. 
 
 There are many examples on record of serious losses 
 of liquors from leakage caused by the beetles boring through 
 the staves and heads of the barrels and casks in cellars 
 and storerooms. 
 
 The condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, 
 which is favorable for the presence of the beetles, is prox- 
 
ENEMIES OF WOOD 113 
 
 imity to their breeding places, such as the trunks and 
 stumps of recently felled or dying oak, maple, and other 
 hardwood or deciduous trees; lumber j^ards, sawmills, 
 freshly-cut cordwood, from living or dead trees, and forests 
 of hardwood timber. Under such conditions the beetles 
 occur in great numbers, and if the storerooms and cellars 
 in which the barrels are kept stored are damp, poorly venti- 
 lated, and readily accessible to them, serious injury is 
 almost certain to follow. 
 
SECTION VI 
 
 WATER IK WOOD 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN WOOD 
 
 Local Distribution of Water in Wood 
 
 As seasoning means essentially the more or less rapid 
 evaporation of water from wood, it will be necessary to 
 discuss at the very outset where water is found in wood, 
 and its local seasonal distribution in a tree. 
 
 Water may occur in wood in three conditions: (1) It 
 forms the greater part (over 90 per cent) of the proto- 
 plasmic contents of the living cells; (2) it saturates the 
 walls of all cells; and (3) it entirely or at least partly fills 
 the cavities of the lifeless cells, fibres, and vessels. 
 
 In the sapwood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in 
 the heartwood only in the second form, it merely saturates 
 the walls. 
 
 Of 100 pounds of water associated with 100 pounds of 
 dry wood substance taken from 200 joounds of fresh sap- 
 wood of white pine, about .3.5 pounds are needed to saturate 
 the coll walls, less than .5 ]iounds are contained in the 
 living cells, and the remaining 60 pounds partly fill the 
 cavities of the wood fibres. This latter forms the sap 
 as ordinarily understood. 
 
 The wood next to the bark contains the most water. 
 In the species which do not form heartwood, the decrease 
 toward the pith is gradual, l)ut where heartwood is formed 
 the change from a more moist to a drier condition is usually 
 quite abrupt at the sapwood limit. 
 
 In long-leaf pine, the wood of the outer one inch of a 
 disk may contain 50 per cent of water, that of the next, 
 or the second inch, only 35 per cent, and that of the heart- 
 
WATER IN WOOD 115 
 
 wood, only 20 per cent. In such a tree the amount of 
 water in any one section varies with the amount of sap- 
 wood, and is greater for the upper than the lower cuts, 
 greater for the hmbs than the stems, and greatest of all 
 in the roots. 
 
 Different trees, even of the same kind and from the 
 same place, differ as to the amount of water they contain. 
 A thrifty tree contains more water than a stunted one, 
 and a young tree more than on old one, while the wood 
 of all trees varies in its moisture relations with the season 
 of the year. 
 
 Seasonal Distribution of Water in Wood 
 
 It is generally supposed that trees contain less water 
 in winter than in summer. This is evidenced by the 
 popular saying that "the sap is down in the winter." This 
 is probably not always the case; some trees contain as 
 much water in winter as in summer, if not more. Trees 
 normally contain the greatest amount of water during 
 that period when the roots are active and the leaves are 
 not yet out. This activity commonly begins in January, 
 February, and March, the exact time varying with the 
 kind of timber and the local atmospheric conditions. And 
 it has been found that green wood becomes lighter or 
 contains less water in late spring or early summer, when 
 transpiration through the foliage is most rapid. The 
 amount of water at any one season, however, is doubtless 
 much influenced by the amount of moisture in the soil. 
 The fact that the bark peels easily in the spring depends 
 on the presence of incomplete, soft tissue found between 
 wood and bark during this season, and has little to do 
 with the total amount of water contained in the wood of 
 the stem. 
 
 Even in the living tree a flow of sap from a cut occurs 
 only in certain kinds of trees and under special circum- 
 stances. From boards, felled timber, etc., the water 
 does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but must be 
 evaporated. The seeming exceptions to this rule are 
 mostly referable to two causes; clefts or "shakes" will 
 
116 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 allow water contained in them to flow out, and water is 
 forced out of sound wood, if very sappy, whenever the 
 wood is warmed, just as water flows from green wood when 
 put in a stove. 
 
 Composition of Sap 
 
 The term "sap" is an ambiguous expression. The 
 sap in the tree descends through the bark, and except 
 in early spring is not present in the wood of the tree 
 except in the medullary rays and living tissues in the 
 "sapwood." 
 
 What flows through the "sapwood" is chiefly water 
 brought from the soil. It is not pure water, but contains 
 many substances in solution, such as mineral salts, and 
 in certain species — maple, birch, etc., it also contains 
 at certain times a small percentage of sugar and other 
 organic matter. 
 
 The water rises from the roots through the sapwood to 
 the leaves, where it is converted into true "sap" which 
 desceiids through the bark and feeds the living tissues 
 between the bark and the wood, which tissues make the 
 annual growth of the trunk. The wood itself contains 
 very little true sap and the heartwood none. 
 
 The wood contains, however, mineral substances, or- 
 ganic acids, volatile oils and gums, as resin, cedar oil, etc. 
 
 All the conifers — pines, cedars, junipers, cypresses, 
 sequoias, yews, and spruces — contain resin. The sap 
 of deciduous trees — those which shed their leaves at 
 stated seasons — is lacking in this element, and its con- 
 stituents vary greatly in the different species. But there 
 is one element common to all trees, and for that matter 
 to almost all j^lant growth, and that is albumen. 
 
 Both resin and albumen, as they exist in the sap of 
 woods, are soluble in water; and both harden with heat, 
 much the same as the white of an egg, which is almost 
 pure albumen. 
 
 These organic substances are the dissolved reserve food, 
 stored during the winter in the pith rays, etc., of the wood 
 and bark; generally but a mere trace of them is to be 
 found. From this it appears that the solids contained 
 
WATER IN WOOD 117 
 
 in the sap, such as albumen, gum, sugar, etc., cannot 
 exercise the influence on the strength of the wood wliich is 
 so commonly claimed for them. 
 
 Effects of Moisture on Wood 
 
 The question of the effect of moisture upon the strength 
 and stiffness of wood offers a wide scope for study, and 
 authorities consulted differ in conclusions. Two authori- 
 ties give the tensile strength in pounds per square inch 
 for white oak as 10,000 and 19,500, respectively; for 
 spruce, 8,000 to 19,500, and other species in similiar start- 
 ling contrasts. 
 
 Wood, we are told, is composed of organic products. 
 The chief material is cellulose, and this in its natural state 
 in the living plant or green wood contains from 25 to 35 
 per cent of its weight in moisture. The moisture renders 
 the cellulose substance pliable. What the physical action 
 of the water is upon the molecular structure of organic 
 material, to render it softer and more pliable, is largely 
 a matter of conjecture. 
 
 The strength of a timber depends not only upon its 
 relative freedom from imperfections, such as knots, crooked- 
 ness of grain, decay, wormholes or ring-shakes, but also 
 upon its density; upon the rate at which it grew, and 
 upon the arrangement of the various elements which 
 compose it. 
 
 The factors effecting the strength of wood are therefore 
 of two classes: (1) Those inherent in the wood itself and 
 which may cause differences to exist between two pieces 
 from the same species of wood or even between the two 
 ends of a piece, and (2) those which are foreign to the wood 
 itself, such as moisture, oils, and heat. 
 
 Though the effect of moisture is generally temporary, 
 it is far more important than is generally realized. So 
 great, indeed, is the effect of moisture that under some 
 conditions it outweighs all the other causes which effect 
 strength, with the exception, perhaps of decided imper- 
 fections in the wood itself. 
 
118 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 The Fibre Saturation Point in Wood 
 
 Water exists in green wood in two forms: (1) As liquid 
 water contained in tiie cavities of the cells or pores, and 
 (2) as "imbibed" water intimately absorbed in the sub- 
 stance of which the wood is composed. The removal of 
 the free water from tlie cells or pores will evidently have 
 no effect upon the physical properties or shrinkage of the 
 wood, but as soon as any of the "imbibed" moisture is 
 removed from the cell walls, shrinlcage begins to take place 
 and other changes occur. The strength also begins to 
 increase at this time. 
 
 The point where the cell walls or wood substance be- 
 comes saturated is called the "fibre saturation point," 
 and is a very significant point in the drying of wood. 
 
 It is easy to remove the free water from woods wliich 
 will stand a high temperature, as it is only necessary to 
 heat the wood sliglitly above the boiling point in a closed 
 vessel, which will allow the escape of the steam as it is 
 formed, but will not allow dry air to come in contact with 
 the wood, so that the surface will not become dried below 
 its saturation point. This can be accomplished with 
 most of the softwoods, but not as a rule with the hard- 
 woods, as they are injured by the temperature necessary. 
 
 The chief difficulties are encountered in evaporating 
 the "imbibed" moisture and also where the free water 
 has to be removed through its gradual transfusion instead 
 of boiling. As soon as the imbibed moisture begins to 
 be extracted from any portion, shi'inkage takes place and 
 stresses are set up in the wood which tend to cause checking. 
 
 The fibre saturation point lies between moisture con- 
 ditions of 25 and 30 per cent of the dry weight of the 
 wood, depending on the species. Certain species of eu- 
 calyptus, and probably other woods, however, appear to 
 be exceptional in this respect, in that shrinkage begins 
 to take place at a moisture condition of 80 to 90 per cent 
 of the dry weight. 
 
SECTION VII 
 
 WHAT SEASOXIXG 18 
 
 Seasoning is ordinarily understood to mean drying. 
 When exposed to the sun and air, the water in green wood 
 rapidly evaporates. The rate of evaporation will depend 
 on: (1) the kind of wood; (2) the shape and thickness of 
 the timber; and (3) the conditions under which the wood 
 is placed or piled. 
 
 Pieces of wood completely surrounded by air, exposed 
 to the wind and the sun, and protected by a roof from 
 rain and snow, will dry out very rapidly, while wood piled 
 or packed close together so as to exclude the air, or left 
 in the shade and exposed to rain and snow, will dry out 
 very slowly and will also be subject to mould and decay. 
 
 But seasoning implies other changes besides the evapora- 
 tion of water. Although we have as yet only a vague 
 conception as to the exact nature of the difference between 
 seasoned and unseasoned wood, it is very probable that 
 one of these consists in changes in the albuminous sub- 
 stances in the wood fibres, and possibly also in the tannins, 
 resins, and other incrusting substances. Whether the 
 change in these substances is merely a drying-out, or 
 whether it consists in a partial decomposition is at yet 
 undetermined. That the change during the seasoning 
 process is a profound one there can be no doubt, because 
 experience has shown again and again that seasoned wood 
 fibre is very much more permeable, both for liquids and 
 gases than the living, unseasoned fibre. 
 
 One can picture the albuminous substances as forming 
 a coating which dries out and possibly disintegrates when 
 the wood dries. The drying-out may result in consider- 
 able shrinkage, which may make the wood fibre more 
 porous. It is also possible that there are oxidizing in- 
 
120 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 fluences at work within these substances which result in 
 their disintegration. Whatever the exact nature of the 
 change may be, one can say without hesitation that ex- 
 posure to the wind and air brings about changes in the 
 wood, which are of such a nature that the wood becomes 
 drier and more permeable. 
 
 When seasoned by exposure to live steam, similiar 
 changes may take place; the water leaves the wood in the 
 form of steam, while the organic compounds in the walls 
 probably coagulate or disintegrate under the high tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The most effective seasoning is without doubt that 
 obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place 
 in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure 
 to the winds and the sun and under cover from the rain 
 and snow, and is what has been termed "air-seasoning." 
 By air-seasoning oak and similiar hardwoods, nature per- 
 forms certain functions that cannot be duplicated by any 
 artificial means. Because of this, woods of this class 
 cannot be successfully kiln-dried green from the saw. 
 
 In drying wood, the free water within the cells laasses 
 through the cell walls until the cells are emptj^, while the 
 cell walls remain saturated. When all the free water has 
 been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their mois- 
 ture. Heat raises the absorptive power of the fibres and 
 so aids the passage of water from the interior of the cells. 
 A confusion in the word "sap" is to be found in many 
 discussions of kiln-drying; in some instances it means 
 water, in other cases it is applied to the organic substances 
 held in a water solution in the cell cavities. The term is 
 best confined to the organic substances from the living 
 cell. These substances, for the most part of the nature 
 of sugar, have a strong attraction for water and water 
 vapor, and so retard drying and absorb moisture into 
 dried wood. High temperatures, especially those pro- 
 duced by live steam, appear to destroy these organic com- 
 pounds and therefore both to retard and to limit the 
 reabsorption of moisture when the wood is subsequently 
 exposed to the atmosphere. 
 
 Air-dried wood, under ordinary atmospheric tempera- 
 
WHAT SEASONING IS 121 
 
 tures, retains from 10 to 20 per cent of moisture, whereas 
 kiln-dried wood may have no more than 5 per cent as it 
 comes from the kiln. The exact figures for a given species 
 depend in the first case upon the weather conditions, and 
 in the second case upon the temperature in the kiln and 
 the time during which the wood is exposed to it. When 
 wood that has been kiln-dried is allowed to stand in the 
 open, it apparently ceases to reabsorb moisture from the 
 air before its moisture content equals that of wood which 
 has merely been air-dried in the same place, and under 
 the same conditions, in other words kiln-dried wood will 
 not absorb as much moisture as air-dried wood under the 
 same conditions. 
 
 Difference between Seasoned and Unseasoned Wood 
 
 Although it has been known for a long time that there 
 is a marked difference in the length of life of seasoned and 
 of unseasoned wood, the consumers of wood have shown 
 very little interest in its seasoning, except for the purpose 
 of doing away with the evils which result from checking, 
 warping, and shrinking. For this purpose both kiln- 
 drying and air-seasoning are largely in use. 
 
 The drying of material is a subject which is extremely 
 important to most industries, and in no industry is it of 
 more importance than in the lumber trade. Timber 
 drying means not only the extracting of so much water, 
 but goes very deeply into the quality of the wood, its 
 workability and its cell strength, etc. 
 
 Kiln-drying, which dries the wood at a uniformly rapid 
 rate by artificially heating it in inclosed rooms, has be- 
 come a part of almost every woodworking industry, as 
 without it the construction of the finished product would 
 often be impossible. Nevertheless much unseasoned or 
 imperfectly seasoned wood is used, as is evidenced by the 
 frequent shrinkage and warping of the finished articles. 
 This is explained to a certain extent by the fact that the 
 manufacturer is often so hard pressed for his product that 
 he is forced to send out an inferior article, which the con- 
 sumer is willing to accept in that condition rather than 
 
122 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 to wait several weeks or months for an article made up 
 of thorougUy seasoned material, and also that dry kilns 
 are at present constructed and operated largely without 
 thoroughgoing system. 
 
 Forms of kilns and mode of operation have commonly 
 been copied by one woodworking plant after the example of 
 some neighboring estabhshment. In this way it has been 
 brought about that the present practices have many short- 
 comings. The most progressive operators, however, have 
 experimented freely in the effort to secure special results 
 desirable for their pecuhar products. Despite the diversity 
 of practice, it is possible to find among the larger and more 
 enterprising operators a measure of agreement, as to both 
 methods and results, and from this to outline the essentials 
 of a correct theory. As a result, properly seasoned wood 
 commands a high price, and in some cases cannot be ob- 
 tained at all. 
 
 Wood seasoned out of doors, which by many is supposed 
 to be much superior to kiln-dried material, is becoming 
 very scarce, as the demand for any kind of wood is so great 
 that it is thought not to pay to hold it for the time nec- 
 essary to season it properly. How long this state of affairs 
 is going to last it is difficult to say, but it is believed that 
 a reaction wiU come when the consumer learns that in 
 the long run it does not pay to use poorly seasoned material. 
 Such a condition has now arisen in connection with another 
 phase of the seasoning of wood ; it is a commonly accepted 
 fact that dry wood will not decay nearly so fast as wet 
 or green wood; nevertheless, the immense suiDeriority of 
 seasoned over unseasoned wood for all purposes where 
 resistance to decay is necessary has not been sufficiently 
 recognized. In the times when wood of all kinds was 
 both plentiful and cheap, it mattered Httle in most eases 
 how long it lasted or resisted decay. Wood used for 
 furniture, flooring, car construction, cooperage, etc., usually 
 got some chance to dry out before or after it was placed 
 in use. The wood which was exposed to decaying in- 
 fluences was generally selected from those woods which, 
 whatever their other quahties might be, would resist de- 
 cay longest. 
 
WHAT SEASONING IS 123 
 
 To-day conditions have changed, so that wood can no 
 longer be used to the same extent as in former years. 
 Inferior woods with less lasting quahties have been pressed 
 into service. Although haphazard methods of cutting 
 and subsequent use are still much in vogue, there are 
 many signs that both lumbermen and consumers are 
 awakening to the fact that such carelessness and waste- 
 ful methods of handhng wood will no longer do, and must 
 give way to more exact and economical methods. The 
 reason why many manufacturers and consumers of wood 
 are still using the older methods is perhaps because of 
 long custom, and because they have not yet learned that, 
 though the saving to be obtained by the application of 
 good methods has at all times been appreciable, now, 
 when wood is more valuable, a much greater saving is 
 possible. The increased cost of applying economical 
 methods is really very slight, and is many times exceeded 
 by the value of the increased service which can be secured 
 through its use. 
 
 Manner of Evaporation of "Water 
 
 The evaporation of water from wood takes place largely 
 through the ends, i.e., in the direction of the longitudinal 
 axis of the wood fibres. The evaporation from the other 
 surfaces takes place very slowly out of doors, and with 
 greater rapidity in a dry kiln. The rate of evaporation 
 differs both with the kind of timber and its shape ; that is, 
 thin material will dry more rapidly than heavier stock. 
 Sapwood dries faster than heartwood, and pine more 
 rapidly than oak or other hardwoods. 
 
 Tests made show little difference in the rate of evapora- 
 tion in sawn and hewn stock, the results, however, not 
 being conclusive. Air-drying out of doors takes from 
 two months to a year, the time depending on the kind of 
 timber, its thickness, and the climatic conditions. After 
 wood has reached an air-dry condition it absorbs water 
 in small quantities after a rain or during damp weather, 
 much of which is immediately lost again when a few warm, 
 dry days follow. In this way wood exposed to the weather 
 
124 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 will continue to absorb water and lose it for indefinite 
 periods. 
 
 When soaked in water, seasoned woods absorb water 
 rapidly. This at first enters into the wood through the 
 cell walls; when these are soaked, the water will fill the 
 cell lumen, so that if constantly submerged the wood may 
 become completely filled with water. 
 
 The following figures show the gain in weight by ab- 
 sorption of several coniferous woods, air-dry at the start, 
 expressed in per cent of the kiln-dry weight : 
 
 Absorption of Water bt Drt W'ood 
 
 
 \\'hite Pine 
 
 Red Cedar 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 Air-clried . . 
 
 lOS 
 100 
 135 
 147 
 154 
 162 
 165 
 176 
 179 
 1S4 
 1S7 
 192 
 19S 
 207 
 
 109 
 100 
 120 
 126 
 132 
 137 
 140 
 143 
 147 
 149 
 150 
 152 
 155 
 158 
 
 111 
 100 
 133 
 144 
 149 
 154 
 15S 
 164 
 16S 
 173 
 176 
 176 
 ISO 
 186 
 
 108 
 
 
 100 
 
 In water 1 day 
 
 129 
 
 In water 2 days 
 
 136 
 142 
 
 In water 4 daj^s 
 
 In water 5 days 
 
 147 
 150 
 
 In water 7 days 
 
 In water 9 days 
 
 156 
 
 157 
 
 
 159 
 
 In water 14 davs 
 
 159 
 
 
 161 
 
 In water 25 days 
 
 161 
 166 
 
 
 
 Rapidity of Evaporation 
 
 The rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, 
 the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the 
 piece and on the structure of the wood. An inch board 
 dries more than four times as fast as a four-inch plank, and 
 more than twenty times as fast as a ten-inch timber. 
 White pine dries faster than oak. A very moist piece of 
 pine or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four times 
 as much water per scjuare inch from the cross-section, but 
 only one half as much from the tangential as from the radial 
 section. In a long timber, where the ends or cross-sec- 
 tions form but a small part of the drying surface, this dif- 
 
WHAT SEASONING IS 125 
 
 ference is not so evident. Nevertheless, the ends dry 
 and shrink first, and being opposed in this shrinkage by 
 the more moist adjoining parts, they check, the cracks 
 largely disappearing as seasoning progresses. 
 
 High temperatures are very effective in evaporating 
 the water from wood, no matter how humid the air, and 
 a fresh piece of sapwood may lose weight in boiling water, 
 and can be dried to quite an extent in hot steam. 
 
 In drying chemicals or fabrics, all that is required is to 
 provide heat enough to vaporize the moisture and circu- 
 lation enough to carry off the vapor thus secured, and the 
 quickest and most economical means to these ends may 
 be used. While on the other hand, in drying wood, whether 
 in the form of standard stock or the finished product, the 
 application of the requisite heat and circulation must be 
 carefully regulated throughout the entire process, or 
 warping and checking are almost certain to result. More- 
 over, wood of different shapes and thicknesses is very dif- 
 ferently effected by the same treatment. Finally, the 
 tissues composing the wood, which vary in form and physi- 
 cal properties, and which cross each other in regular direc- 
 tions, exert their own peculiar influences upon its behavior 
 during drying. With our native woods, for instance, 
 summer-wood and spring-wood show distinct tendencies 
 in drying, and the same is true in a less degree of heart- 
 wood, as contrasted with sapwood. Or, again, pronounced 
 medullary rays further complicate the drying problem. 
 
 Physical Properties that influence Drying 
 
 The principal properties which render the drying of 
 wood peculiarly difficult are: (1) The irregular shrinkage; 
 (2) the different ways in which water is contained ; (3) the 
 manner in which moisture transfuses through the wood 
 from the center to the surface; (4) the plasticity of the 
 wood substance while moist and hot; (5) the changes 
 which take place in the hygroscopic and chemical nature 
 of the surface ; and (6) the difference produced in the total 
 shrinkage by different rates of drying. 
 
 The shrinkage is unequal in different directions and 
 in different portions of the same piece. It is greatest in 
 
126 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 the circumferential direction of the tree, being generally 
 twice as great in this direction as in the radial direction. 
 In the longitudinal direction, for most woods, it is almost 
 negligible, being from 20 to over 100 times as great cir- 
 cumferentially as longitudinally. 
 
 There is a great variation in different species in this 
 respect. Consequently, it follows from necessity that 
 large internal strains are set up when the wood shrinks, 
 and were it not for its plasticity it would rupture. There 
 is an enormous difference in the total amount of shrinkage 
 of different species of wood, varying from a shrinkage of 
 only 7 per cent in volume, based on the green dimensions, 
 in the case of some of the cedars to nearly 50 per cent in 
 the case of some species of eucalyptus. 
 
 When the free water in the capillary spaces of the wood 
 fibre is evaporated it follows the laws of evaporation from 
 capillary spaces, except that the passages are not all free 
 passages, and much of the water has to pass out by a 
 process of transfusion through the moist cell walls. These 
 cell walls in the green wood completely surround the cell 
 cavities so that there are no openings large enough to offer 
 a passage to water or air. 
 
 The well-known "pits" in the cell walls extend through 
 the secondary thickening only, and not through the pri- 
 mary walls. This statement appUes to the tracheids and 
 parenchyma cells in the conifer (gymnosperms) , and to the 
 tracheids, parenchyma cells, and the wood fibres in the 
 broad-leaved trees (angiosperms) ; the vessels in the latter, 
 however, form open passages except when clogged by 
 ingrowth called tyloses, and the resin canals in the former 
 sometimes form occasional openings. 
 
 By heating the wood above the boiling point, correspond- 
 ing to the external pressure, the free water passes through 
 the cell walls more readily. 
 
 To remove the moisture from the wood substance re- 
 quires heat in addition to the latent heat of evaporation, 
 because the molecules of moisture are so intimately as- 
 sociated with the molecules, minute particles composing 
 the wood, that energy is required to separate them there- 
 from. 
 
WHAT SEASONING IS 127 
 
 Carefully conducted experiments show this to be from 
 16.6 to 19.6 calories per grain of dry wood in the case of 
 beech, long-leaf pine, and sugar maple. 
 
 The difficulty imposed in drying, however, is not so 
 much the additional heat required as it is in the rate at 
 which the water transfuses through the solid wood. 
 
SECTION VIII 
 
 ADYAKTAGES IX SEASOISTIXG 
 
 Three most important advantages of seasoning have 
 already been made apparent: 
 
 1. Seasoned timber lasts much longer than unseasoned. 
 
 Since the decay of timber is due to the attacks of 
 wood-destroying fungi, and since the most important 
 condition of the growth of these fungi is water, 
 anything which lessens the amount of water in 
 wood aids in its preservation. 
 
 2. In the case of treated timber, seasoning before treat- 
 
 ment greatly increases the effectiveness of the 
 ordinary methods of treatment, and seasoning after 
 treatment prevents the rapid leaching out of the 
 salts introduced to preserve the timber. 
 
 3. The saving in freight where timber is shipped from 
 
 one place to another. Few persons realize how 
 much water green wood contains, or how much it 
 will lose in a comparatively short time. Experi- 
 ments along this line with lodge-pole pine, white 
 oak, and chestnut gave results which were a surprise 
 to the companies owning the timber. 
 
 Freight charges vary considerably in different parts of 
 the country; but a decrease of 35 to 40 per cent in weight 
 is important enough to deserve everywhere serious con- 
 sideration from those in charge of timber operations. 
 
 When timber is shipped long distances over several 
 roads, as is coming to be more and more the case, the sav- 
 ing in freight will make a material difference in the cost 
 of lumber operations, irrespective of any other advantages 
 of seasoning. 
 
ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING 129 
 
 Prevention of Checking and Splitting 
 
 Under present methods much timber is rendered unfit 
 for use by improper seasoning. Green timber, particu- 
 larly when cut during January, February, and March, 
 when the roots are most active, contains a large amount 
 of water. When exposed to the sun and wind or to high 
 temperatures in a drying room, the water will evaporate 
 more rapidly from the outer than from the inner parts 
 of the piece, and more rapidly from the ends than from 
 the sides. As the water evaporates, the wood shrinks, 
 and when the shrinkage is not fairly uniform the wood 
 cracks and splits. 
 
 When wet wood is piled in the sun, evaporation goes 
 on with such unevenness that the timbers split and crack 
 in some cases so badly as to become useless for the purpose 
 for which it was intended. Such uneven drying can be 
 prevented by careful piling, keeping the logs immersed 
 in a log pond until wanted, or by piling or storing under 
 an open shed so that the sun cannot get at them. 
 
 Experiments have also demonstrated that injury to 
 stock in the way of checking and splitting always de- 
 velops immediately after the stock is taken into the dry 
 kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too low. 
 
 The receiving end of the kiln should always be kept 
 moist, where the stock has not been steamed before being 
 put into the kiln, as when the air is too dry it tends to 
 dry the outside of the stock first — which is termed "case- 
 hardening" — and in so doing shrinks and closes up the 
 pores. As the material is moved down the kiln (as 
 in the case of "progressive kilns"), it absorbs a 
 continually increasing amount of heat, which tends 
 to drive off the moisture still present in the center of 
 the piece, the pores on the outside having been closed 
 up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being 
 rapidly formed in the center of the piece. It must find 
 its way out in some manner, and in doing so sets up strains, 
 which result either in checking or splitting. If the hu- 
 midity had been kept higher, the outside of the piece would 
 not have dried so quickly, and the pores would have re- 
 
130 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 mained open for the exit of the moisture from the in- 
 terior of tlie piece, and this trouble would have been 
 avoided. (See also article following.) 
 
 Shrinkage of Wood 
 
 Since in all our woods, cells with thick walls and cells 
 with thin walls are more or less intermixed, and especially 
 as the spring-wood and summer-wood nearly always differ 
 from each other in this respect, strains and tendencies 
 to warp are always active when wood dries out, because 
 the summer-wood shrinks more than the spring-wood, 
 and heavier wood in general shrinks more than light wood 
 of the same kind. 
 
 If a thin piece of wood after drying is placed upon a 
 moist surface, the cells on the under side of the piece take 
 up moisture and swell before the upper cells receive any 
 moisture. This causes the under side of the piece to be- 
 come longer than the upper side, and as a consequence 
 warping occurs. Soon, however, the moisture penetrates 
 to all the cells and the piece straightens out. But while 
 a thin board of pine curves laterally it remains quite 
 straight lengthwise, since in this direction both shrinkage 
 and swelling are small. If one side of a green board is 
 exposed to the sun, warping is produced by the removal of 
 water and consequent shrinkage of the side exposed; this 
 may be eliminated by the frequent turning of the topmost 
 pieces of the piles in order that they may be dried evenly. 
 
 As already stated, wood loses water faster from the 
 ends than from the longitudinal faces. Hence the ends 
 shrink at a different rate from the interior parts. The 
 faster the drying at the surface, the greater is the difference 
 in the moisture of the different parts, and hence the greater 
 the strains and consequently also the greater amount of 
 checking. This l^ecomes very evident when freshly cut 
 wood is placed in the sun, and still more when put into a 
 hot, dry kiln. While most of these smaller checks are only 
 temporary, closing up again, some large radial checks re- 
 main and even grow larger as drying progresses. Their 
 cause is a different one and will presently be explained. 
 The temporary checks not only appear at the ends, but 
 
ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING 131 
 
 are developed on the sides also, only to a much smaller 
 degree. They become especially annoying on the surface 
 of thick planks of hardwoods, and also on peeled logs 
 when exposed to the sun. 
 
 So far we have considered the wood as if made up only 
 of parallel fibres all placed longitudinally in the log. 
 This, however, is not the case. A large part of the wood 
 is formed by the medullary or pith rays. In pine over 
 15,000 of these occur on a square inch of a tangential 
 section, and even in oak the very large rays, which are 
 readily visible to the eye, represent scarcely a hundredth 
 part of the number which a microscope reveals, as the 
 cells of these rays have their length at right angles to the 
 direction of the wood fibres. 
 
 If a large pith ray of white oak is whittled out and al- 
 lowed to dry, it is found to shrink greatly in its width, 
 while, as we have stated, the fibres to which the ray is 
 firmly grown in the wood do not shrink in the same direc- 
 tion. Therefore, in the wood, as the cells of the pith ray 
 dry they pull on the longitudinal fibres and try to shorten 
 them, and, being opposed by the rigidity of the fibres, the 
 pith ray is greatly strained. But this is not the only 
 strain it has to bear. Since the fibres shrink as much 
 again as the pith ray, in this its longitudinal direction, 
 the fibres tend to shorten the ray, and the latter in op- 
 posing this prevents the former from shrinking as much 
 as they otherwise would. 
 
 Thus the structure is subjected to two severe strains 
 at right angles to each other, and herein lies the greatest 
 difficulty of wood seasoning, for whenever the wood dries 
 rapidly these fibres have not the chance to "give" or ac- 
 comodate themselves, and hence fibres and pith rays 
 separate and checking results, which, whether visible or 
 not, are detrimental in the use of the wood. 
 
 The contraction of the pith rays parallel to the length 
 of the board is probably one of the causes of the small 
 amount of longitudinal shrinkage which has been ob- 
 served in boards. This smaller shrinkage of the pith 
 rays along the radius of the log (the length of the pith ray) , 
 opposing the shrinkage of the fibres in this direction, be- 
 
132 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 comes one of the causes of the second great trouble in 
 wood seasoning, namely, the difference in the shrinkage 
 along the radius and that along the rings or tangent. This 
 greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due in part to 
 the causes just mentioned, but also to the fact that the 
 greatly slninking bands of summer-wood are interrupted 
 along the radius bj^ as many bands of porous spring-wood, 
 while they are continuous in the tangential direction. In 
 this direction, therefore, each such band tends to shrink, 
 as if the entire piece were composed of summer-wood, 
 and since the summer-wood represents the greater part 
 of the wood substance, this greater tendency to tangential 
 shrinkage prevails. 
 
 The effect of this greater tangential shrinkage effects 
 every phase of woodworldng. It leads to permanent 
 checks and causes the log or piece to split open on drying. 
 Sawed in two, the flat sides of the log become convex; 
 sawed into timber, it checks along the median line of 
 the four faces, and if converted into boards, the latter 
 checks considerably from the end through the center, all 
 owing to the greater tangential shrinkage of the v/ood. 
 
 Briefl}^, then, shrinkage of wood is due to the fact that 
 the cell walls grow thinner on drying. The thicker cell 
 walls and therefore the heavier wood shrinks most, while 
 the water in the cell cavities does not influence the volume 
 of the wood. 
 
 Owing to the great difference of cells in shape, size, and 
 thickness of walls, and still more in their arrangement, 
 shrinkage is not uniform in any kind of wood. This 
 irregularity produces strains, which grow with the dif- 
 ference between adjoining cells and are greatest at the 
 pith rays. These strains cause warping and checking, 
 but exist even where no outward signs are visiljle. They 
 are greater if the wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, 
 but can never be entirely avoided. 
 
 Temporary checks are caused by the more rapid dry- 
 ing of the outer parts of any stick; permanent checks 
 are due to the greater shrinkage, tangentially, along the 
 rings than along the radius. This, too, is the cause of 
 most of the ordinary phenomena of shrinkage, such as 
 
ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING 133 
 
 the difference in behavior of the entire and quartered logs, 
 "bastard" (tangent) and rift (radial) boards, etc., and 
 explains many of the phenomena erroneously attributed 
 to the influence of bark, or of the greater shrinkage of 
 outer and inner parts of any log. 
 
 Once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original 
 size by soaking in water, boiling, or steaming. Soaked 
 pieces on drying shrink again as before ; boiled and steamed 
 pieces do the same, but to a slightly less degree. Neither 
 hygroscopicity, i.e., the capacity of taking up water, nor 
 shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at tempera- 
 tures below 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures, 
 however, reduce these qualities, but nothing short of a 
 coaling heat robs wood of the capacity to shrink and swell. 
 
 Rapidly dried in a kiln, the wood of oak and other 
 hardwoods "case-harden," that is, the outer part dries 
 and shrinks before the interior has a chance to do the same, 
 and thus forms a firm shell or case of shrunken, commonly 
 checked wood around the interior. This shell does not 
 prevent the interior from drying, but when this drying 
 occurs the interior is commonly checked along the medul- 
 lary rays, commonly called "honeycombing" or "hollow- 
 horning." In practice this occurrence can be prevented 
 by steaming or sweating the wood in the kiln, and still 
 better by drying the wood in the open air or in a shed 
 before placing in the kiln. Since only the first shrinkage 
 is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber which has 
 once been air-dried (three to six months for one-inch stuff) 
 may be subjected to kiln heat without any danger from 
 this source. 
 
 Kept in a bent or warped condition during the first 
 shrinkage, the wood retains the shape to which it has 
 been bent and firmly oj^poses any attempt at subsequent 
 straightening. 
 
 Sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more than heartwood of 
 the same weight, but very heavy heartwood may shrink 
 more than lighter sapwood. The amount of water in 
 wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, since in wet wood 
 most of the water is held in the cavities, where it has no 
 effect on the volume. 
 
134 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 The wood of pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very- 
 regular structure, dries and shrinks evenly, and suffers 
 much less in seasoning than the wood of broad-leaved 
 (hardwood) trees. Among the latter, oak is the most 
 difficult to dry without injury. 
 
 Desiccating the air with certain chemicals will cause the 
 wood to dry, but wood thus dried at 80 degrees Fahrenheit 
 will still lose water in the kiln. Wood dried at 120 degrees 
 Fahrenheit loses water still if dried at 200 degrees Fahren- 
 heit, and this again will lose more water if the temperature 
 be raised, so that absolutely dry loood cannot be obtained, 
 and chemical destruction sets in before all the water is 
 driven off. 
 
 On removal from the kiln, the dry wood at once takes 
 up moisture from the air, even in the driest weather. At 
 first the absorption is quite rapid; at the end of a week 
 a short piece of pine, 1\ inches thick, has regained two 
 thirds of, and, in a few months, all the moisture which it 
 had when air-dry, 8 to 10 per cent, and also its former 
 dimensions. In thin boards all parts soon attain the 
 same degree of dryness. In heavy timbers the interior re- 
 mains more moist for many months, and even years, than 
 the exterior parts. Finally an equilibrium is reached, 
 and then only the outer parts change with the weather. 
 
 With kiln-dried woods all parts are equally dry, and 
 when exposed, the moisture coming from the air must 
 pass through the outer parts, and thus the order is re- 
 versed. Ordinary timber requires months before it is 
 at its best. Kiln-dried timber, if properly handled, is 
 prime at once. 
 
 Dry wood if soaked in water soon regains its original 
 volume, and in the heartwood portion it may even sur- 
 pass it; that is to say, swell to a larger dimension than 
 it had when green. With the soaking it continues to 
 increase in weight, the cell cavities filling with water, and 
 if left many months all pieces sink. Yet after a year's 
 immersion a piece of oak 2 by 2 inches and only 6 inches 
 long still contains air; i.e., it has not taken up all the 
 water it can. By rafting or prolonged immersion, wood 
 loses some of its weight, soluble materials being leached 
 
ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING 135 
 
 out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building 
 material. Immersion, and still more boiling and steam- 
 ing, reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and therefore also 
 the troublesome "working," or shrinking and sweUing. 
 Exposure in dry air to a temperature of 300 degrees Fah- 
 renheit for a short time reduces but does not destroy the 
 hygroscopicity, and with it the tendency to shrink and 
 swell. A piece of red oak which has been subjected to a 
 temperature of over 300 degrees Fahrenheit still swells in 
 hot water and shrinks in a dry kiln. 
 
 Expansion of Wood 
 
 It must not be forgotten that timber, in common with 
 every other material, expands as well as contracts. If 
 we extract the moisture from a piece of wood and so cause 
 it to shrink, it may be swelled to its original volume by 
 soaking it in water, but owing to the protection given to 
 most timber in dwelling-houses it is not much affected by 
 wet or damp weather. The shrinkage is more apparent, 
 more lasting, and of more consequence to the architect, 
 builder, or owner than the slight expansion which takes 
 place, as, although the amount of moisture contained in 
 wood varies with the climate conditions, the consequence 
 of dampness or moisture on good timber used in houses 
 only makes itself apparent by the occasional jamming of a 
 door or window in wet or damp weather. 
 
 Considerable expansion, however, takes place in the 
 wood-paving of streets, and when this form of paving 
 was in its infancy much trouble occurred owing to all 
 allowances not having been made for this contingency, 
 the trouble being doubtless increased owing to the blocks 
 not being properly seasoned; curbing was lifted or pushed 
 out of line and gully grids were broken by this action. As 
 a rule in street paving a space of one or two inches wide 
 is now left next to the curb, which is filled with sand or 
 some soft material, so that the blocks may expand longitu- 
 dinally without injuring the contour or affecting the curbs. 
 But even with this arrangement it is not at all unusual 
 for an inch or more to have to be cut off paving blocks 
 parallel to the channels some time after the paving has 
 
136 SEASONING OF AVOOD 
 
 been laid, owing to the expansion of the wood exceeding 
 the amounts allowed. 
 
 Considerable variation occurs in the expansion of wood 
 blocks, and it is noticeable in the hardwoods as well as in 
 the softwoods, and is often greater in the former than in 
 the latter. 
 
 Expansion takes place in the direction of the length of 
 the blocks as they are laid across the street, and causes 
 no trouble in the other direction, the reason being that 
 the lengthway of a block of wood is across the grain of 
 the timber, and it expands or contracts as a plank does. 
 On one occasion, in a roadway forty feet wide, expansion 
 occurred until it amounted to four inches on each side, 
 or eight inches in all. This continual expansion and con- 
 traction is doubtless the cause of a considerable amount of 
 wood street-paving bulging and becoming filled with 
 ridges and depressions. 
 
 Elimination of Stain and Mildew 
 
 A great many manufacturers, and particularly those 
 located in the Southern States, experience a great amount 
 of difficulty in their timber becoming stained and mil- 
 dewed. This is particularly true with gum wood, as it will 
 frequently stain and mould in twenty-four hours, and 
 they have experienced so much of this trouble that they 
 have, in a great many instances, discontinued cutting it 
 during the summer season. 
 
 If this matter were given proper attention they should 
 be able to eliminate a great deal of this difficulty, as no 
 doubt they will find after investigation that the mould 
 has been caused by the stock being improperly piled to 
 the weather. 
 
 Freshly sawn wood, placed in close piles during warm, 
 damp weather in the months of July and August, presents 
 especially favorable conditions for mould and stain. In 
 all cases it is the moist condition and retarded drying of 
 the wood which causes this. Therefore, any method which 
 will provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or 
 after piling will tend to prevent the difficulty, and the 
 best method for ehminating mould is (1) to provide for 
 
ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING 137 
 
 as little delay as possible between the felling of the tree, 
 and its manufacture into rough products before the sap 
 has had an opportunity of becoming sour. This is es- 
 pecially necessary with trees felled from April to Septem- 
 ber, in the region north of the Gulf States, and from March 
 to November in the latter, while the late fall and winter 
 cutting should all be worked up by March or April. (2) 
 The material should be piled to the weather immediately 
 after being sawn or cut, and every precaution should be 
 taken in piling to facilitate rapid drying, by keeping the 
 piles or ricks up off the ground. (3) All weeds (and em- 
 phasis should be placed on the all) and other vegeta- 
 tion should be kept well clear of the piles, in order that the 
 air may have a clear and unobstructed passage through and 
 around the piles, and (4) the piles should be so constructed 
 that each stick or piece will have as much air space about 
 it as it is possible to give to it. 
 
 If the above instructions are properly carried out, there 
 will be little or no difficulty experienced with mould ap- 
 pearing on the lumber. 
 
SECTION IX 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING 
 ^YOOD 
 
 Seasoning and kiln-drying is so important a process in 
 the manufacture of woods that a need is keenly felt for 
 fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific study 
 of the behavior of various species at different mechanical 
 temperatures and under different mechanical drying proc- 
 esses. The special precautions necessary to prevent loss 
 of strength or distortion of shape render the drying of 
 wood especially difficult. 
 
 All wood when undergoing a seasoning process, either 
 natural (by air) or mechanical (by steam or heat in a dry 
 kiln), checks or splits more or less. This is due to the 
 uneven drying-out of the wood and the consequent strains 
 exerted in opposite directions by the wood fibres in shrink- 
 ing. This shrinkage, it has been proven, takes place both 
 end-wise and across the grain of the wood. The old tradi- 
 tion that wood does not shrink end-wise has long since 
 been shattered, and it has long been demonstrated that 
 there is an end-wise shrinkage. 
 
 In some woods it is very light, while in others it is easily 
 perceptible. It is claimed that the average end shrink- 
 age, taking all the woods, is only about 1| per cent. This, 
 however, probably has relation to the average shrinkage 
 on ordinary lumber as it is used and cut and dried. Now 
 if we depart from this and take veneer, or basket stock, 
 or even stave bolts where they are boiled, causing swelling 
 both end-wise and across the grain or in dimension, after 
 thej^ are thoroughly dried, there is considerably more 
 evidence of end shrinkage. In other words, a slack barrel 
 stave of elm, say, 28 or 30 inches in length, after being 
 
DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 139 
 
 boiled might shrink as much in thoroughly drying-out 
 as compared to its length when freshly cut, as a 12-foot 
 elm board. 
 
 It is in cutting veneer that this end shrinkage becomes 
 most readily apparent. In trimming with scoring knives 
 it is done to exact measure, and where stock is cut to fit 
 some specific place there has been observed a shrinkage 
 on some of the softer woods, like Cottonwood, amounting 
 to fully I of an inch in 36 inches. And at times where 
 drying has been thorough the writer has noted a shrinkage 
 of I of an inch on an ordinary elm cabbage-crate strip 
 36 inches long, sawed from the log without boiling. 
 
 There are really no fixed rules of measurement or al- 
 lowance, however, because the same piece of wood may 
 vary under different conditions, and, again, the grain 
 may cross a little or wind around the tree, and this of 
 itself has a decided effect on the amount of what is termed 
 "end shrinkage." 
 
 There is more checking in the wood of the broad-leaf 
 (hardwood) trees than in that of the coniferous (softwood) 
 trees, more in sapwood than in heartwood, and more in 
 summer-wood than in spring-wood. 
 
 Inasmuch as under normal conditions of weather, water 
 evaporates less rapidly during the early seasoning of 
 winter, wood that is cut in the autumn and early winter 
 is considered less subject to checking than that which is 
 cut in spring and summer. 
 
 Rapid seasoning, except after wood has been thoroughly 
 soaked or steamed, almost invariably results in more or 
 less serious checking. All hardwoods which check or 
 warp badly during the seasoning should be reduced to 
 the smallest practicable size before drying to avoid the 
 injuries involved in this process, and wood once seasoned 
 should never again be exposed to the weather, since all injuries 
 due to seasoning are thereby aggravated. 
 
 Seasoning increases the strength of wood in every re- 
 spect, and it is therefore of great importance to protect 
 the wood against moisture. 
 
140 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Changes rendering Drying difficult 
 
 An important property rendering drying of wood pe- 
 culiarly difficult is the changes which occur in the hy- 
 groscopic properties of the surface of a stick, and the rate 
 at which it will allow moisture to pass through it. If 
 wood is dried rapidly the surface soon reaches a condition 
 where the transfusion is greatly hindered and sometimes 
 appears almost to cease. The nature of this action is 
 not well understood and it differs greatly in different species. 
 Bald cypress {Taxodium distichum) is an example in which 
 this property is particularly troublesome. The difficulty 
 can be overcome by regulating the humidity during the 
 drying operation. It is one of the factors entering into 
 production of what is called "case-hardening" of wood, 
 where the surface of the piece becomes hardened in a 
 stretched or expanded condition, and subsequent shrink- 
 age of the interior causes "honeycombing," "hollow- 
 horning," or internal checking. The outer surface of 
 the wood appears to undergo a chemical change in the 
 nature of hydrolization or oxidization, which alters the 
 rate of absorption and evaporation in the air. 
 
 As the total amount of shrinkage varies with the rate 
 at which the wood is dried, it follows that the outer sur- 
 face of a rapidly dried board shrinks less than the interior. 
 This sets up an internal stress, which, if the board be 
 afterward resawed into two thinner boards by slicing it 
 through the middle, causes the two halves to cup with 
 their convex surfaces outward. This effect may occur 
 even though the moisture distribution in the board has 
 reached a uniform condition, and the board is thoroughly 
 dry before it is resawed. It is distinct from the well- 
 known "case-hardening" effect spoken of above, which 
 is caused by unequal moisture conditions. 
 
 The manner in which the water passes from the in- 
 terior of a piece of wood to its surface has not as yet been 
 fully determined, although it is one of the most important 
 factors which influence drying. This must involve a 
 transfusion of moisture through the cell walls, since, as 
 already mentioned, except for the open vessels in the hard- 
 
DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 141 
 
 woods, free resin ducts in the softwoods, and possibly the 
 intercellular spaces, the cells of green wood are enclosed 
 by membranes and the water must pass through the walls 
 or the membranes of the pits. Heat appears to increase 
 this transfusion, but experimental data are lacking. 
 
 It is evident that to dry wood properly a great many 
 factors must be taken into consideration aside from the 
 mere evaporation of moisture. 
 
 Losses Due to Improper Kiln-drying 
 
 In some cases there is practically no loss in drying, but 
 more often it ranges from 1 to 3 per cent, and 7 to 10 per 
 cent in refractory woods such as gum. In exceptional 
 instances the losses are as high as 33 per cent. 
 
 In air-drying there is little or no control over the proc- 
 ess; it may take place too rapidly on some days and too 
 slowly on others, and it may be very non-uniform. 
 
 Hardwoods in large sizes almost invariably check. 
 
 By proper kiln-drjdng these unfavorable circumstances 
 may be eliminated. However, air-drying is unquestion- 
 ably to be preferred to bad kiln-drying, and when there 
 is any doubt in the case it is generally safer to trust to 
 air-drying. 
 
 If the fundamental principles are all taken care of, green 
 lumber can be better dried in the dry kiln. 
 
 Properties of Wood that affect Drying 
 
 It is clear, from the previous discussion of the structure 
 of wood, that this property is of first importance among 
 those influencing the seasoning of wood. The free water 
 may usually be extracted quite readily from porous hard- 
 woods. The presence of tyloses in white oak makes even 
 this a difficult problem. On the other hand, its more 
 complex structure usually renders the hygroscopic mois- 
 ture quite difficult to extract. 
 
 The lack of an open, porous structure renders the trans- 
 fusion of moisture through some woods very slow, while 
 the reverse may be true of other species. The point of 
 interest is that all the different variations in structure 
 
142 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 affect the drying rates of woods. The structure of the 
 gums suggests relatively easy seasoning. 
 
 Shrinkage is a very important factor affecting the dry- 
 ing of woods. Generally speaking, the greater the shrink- 
 age the more difficult it is to dry wood. Wood shrinks 
 about twice as much tangentially as radially, thus intro- 
 ducing very serious stresses which may cause loss in woods 
 whose total shrinkage is large. It has been found that 
 the amount of shrinkage depends, to some extent, on the 
 rate and temperature at which woods season. Rapid 
 drying at high or low temperature results in slight shrink- 
 age, while slow drying, especially at high temperature, 
 increases the shrinkage. 
 
 As some woods must be dried in one way and others in 
 other ways, to obtain the best general results, this effect 
 may be for the best in one case and the reverse in others. 
 As an example one might cite the case of Southern white 
 oak. This species must be dried very slowly at low tem- 
 peratures in order to avoid the many evils to which it is 
 heir. It is interesting to note that this method tends to 
 increase the shrinkage, so that one might logically ex- 
 pect such treatment merely to aggravate the evils. Such 
 is not the case, however, as too fast drying results in other 
 defects much worse than that of excessive shrinkage. 
 
 Thus we see that the shrinkage of any given species of 
 wood depends to a great extent on the method of drying. 
 Just how much the shrinkage of gum is affected by the 
 temperature and drying rate is not known at present. 
 There is no doubt that the method of seasoning affects 
 the shrinkage of the gums, however. It is just possible 
 that these woods may shrink longitudinally more than 
 is normal, thus furnishing another cause for their peculiar 
 action under certain circumstances. It has been found 
 that the properties of wood which affect the seasoning of 
 the gums are, in the order of their importance: (1) The 
 indeterminate and erratic grain; (2) the uneven shrink- 
 age with the resultant opposing stresses; (3) the plasticity 
 under high temperature while moist; and (4) the slight 
 apparent lack of cohesion between the fibres. The first, 
 second, and fourth properties are clearly detrimental, 
 
DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 143 
 
 while the third may possibly be an advantage in reducing 
 checking and "case-hardening." 
 
 The grain of the wood is a prominent factor also af- 
 fecting the problem. It is this factor, coupled with uneven 
 shrinkage, which is probably responsible, to a large extent, 
 for the action of the gums in drying. The grain may be 
 said to be more or less indeterminate. It is usually spiral, 
 and the spiral may reverse from year to year of the tree's 
 growth. When a board in which this condition exists 
 begins to shrink, the result is the development of opposing 
 stresses, the effect of which is sometimes disastrous. The 
 shrinkage around the knots seems to be particularly un- 
 even, so that checking at the knots is quite common. 
 
 Some woods, such as Western red cedar, redwood, and 
 eucalyptus, become very plastic when hot and moist. 
 The result of drying-out the free water at high tempera- 
 ture may be to collapse the cells. The gums are known 
 to be quite soft and plastic, if they are moist, at high 
 temperature, but they do not collapse so far as we have 
 been able to determine. 
 
 The cells of certain species of wood appear to lack 
 cohesion, especially at the junction between the annual 
 rings. As a result, checks and ring shakes are very com- 
 mon in Western larch and hemlock. The parenchyma 
 cells of the medullary rays in oak do not cohere strongly 
 and often check open, especially when steamed too severely. 
 
 Unsolved Problems in Kiln-drying 
 
 1. Physical data of the properties of wood in relation 
 to heat are meagre. 
 
 2. Figures on the specific heat of wood are not readily 
 available, though upon this rests not only the ex- 
 act operation of heating coils for kilns, but the 
 theory of kiln-drying as a whole. 
 
 3. Great divergence is shown in the results of experi- 
 ments in the conductivity of wood. It remains 
 to be seen whether the known variation of con- 
 ductivity with moisture content will reduce these 
 results to uniformity. 
 
144 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 4. The maximum or highest temperature to which 
 the different species of wood may be exposed with- 
 out serious loss of strength has not yet been deter- 
 mined. 
 
 5. The optimum or absohite correct temperature for 
 drying the different species of wood is as yet 
 entirely unsettled. 
 
 6. The inter-relation between wood and water is as 
 imperfectly known to dry-kiln operators as that 
 between wood and heat. 
 
 7. What moisture conditions obtain in a stick of air- 
 dried wood? 
 
 8. How is the moisture distinguished? 
 
 9. What is its form? 
 
 10. What is the meaning of the peculiar surface con- 
 ditions which even in air-dried wood appear to 
 indicate incipient "case-hardening"? 
 
 11. The manner in which the water passes from the 
 interior of a piece of wood to its surface has not 
 as yet been fully determined. 
 
 These questions can be answered thus far only by specu- 
 lation or, at best, on the basis of incomplete data. 
 
 Until these prol)lems are solved, kiln-drying must 
 necessarily remain without the guidance of complete 
 scientific theory. 
 
 A correct understanding of the jirinciples of drying is 
 rare, and opinions in regard to the subject are very diverse. 
 The same lack of knowledge exists in regard to dry kilns. 
 The physical properties of the wood which complicate 
 the drying o]:)cration and render it distinct from that of 
 merely evaporating free water from some substance like 
 a piece of cloth must be studied experimentally. It can- 
 not well be worked out theoreticaUy. 
 
SECTION X 
 
 HOW WOOD 18 SEASONED 
 
 Methods of Drying 
 
 The choice of a method of drying depends largely upon 
 the object in view. The principal objects may be grouped 
 under three main heads, as follows: 
 
 1. To reduce shipping weight. 
 
 2. To reduce the quantity necessary to carry in stock. 
 
 3. To prepare the wood for its ultimate use and im- 
 
 prove its qualities. 
 
 When wood will stand the temperature without ex- 
 cessive checking or undue shrinkage or loss in strength, 
 the first object is most readily attained by heating the 
 wood above the boiling point in a closed chamber, with 
 a large circulation of air or vapor, so arranged that the 
 excess steam produced will escape. This process mani- 
 festly does not apply to many of the hardwoods, but is 
 applicable to many of the softwoods. It is used especially 
 in the northwestern part of the United States, where 
 Douglas fir boards one inch thick are dried in from 40 to 
 65 hours, and sometimes in as short a time as 24 hours. 
 In the latter case superheated steam at 300 degrees Fah- 
 renheit was forced into the chamber but, of course, the 
 lumber could not be heated thereby much above the boil- 
 ing point so long as it contained any free water. 
 
 This lumber, however, contained but 34 per cent moist- 
 ure to start with, and the most rapid rate was 1.6 per cent 
 loss per hour. 
 
 The heat of evaporation may be supplied either by 
 superheated steam or by steam pipes within the kiln 
 itself. 
 
 The quantity of wood it is necessary to carry in stock 
 
146 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 is naturally reduced when either of the other two objects 
 is attained and, therefore, need not necessarily be dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 In drying to prepare for use and to improve quality, 
 careful and scientific drying is called for. This applies 
 more particularly to the hardwoods, although it may be 
 required for softwoods also. 
 
 Drying at Atmospheric Pressure 
 
 Present practice of kiln-drying varies tremendously 
 and there is no uniformity or standard method. 
 
 Temperatures vary anywhere from 65 to 165 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, or even higher, and inch boards three to six 
 months on the sticks are being dried in from four days to 
 three weeks, and three-inch material in from two to five 
 months. 
 
 All methods in use at atmospheric pressure may be 
 classified under the following headings. The kilns may 
 be either progressive or compartment, and preliminary 
 steaming may or may not be used with any one of these 
 methods : 
 
 1. Dry air heated. This is generally obsolete. 
 
 2. Moist air. 
 
 a. Ventilated. 
 
 b. Forced draft. 
 
 c. Condensing. 
 
 d. Humidity regulated. 
 
 e. Boiling. 
 
 3. Superheated steam. 
 
 Drying under Pressure and Vacuum 
 
 Various methods of drying wood under pressures other 
 than atmospheric have been tried. Only a brief mention 
 of this sul)ject will be made. Where the apparatus is 
 available probably the quickest way to dry wood is first 
 to heat it in saturated steam at as high a temperature 
 as the species can endure without serious chemical change 
 until the heat has penetrated to the center, then follow 
 this with a vacuum. 
 
HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 147 
 
 By this means the seh-contained specific heat of the 
 wood and the water is made available for the evaporation, 
 and the drying takes place from the inside outwardly, 
 just the reverse of that which occurs by drying by means 
 of external heat. 
 
 When the specimen has cooled this process is then to be 
 repeated until it has dried down to fibre-saturation point. 
 It cannot be dried much below this point by this method, 
 since the absorption during the heating operation will 
 then equal the evaporation during the cooling. It may 
 be carried further, however, by heating in partially hu- 
 midified air, proportioning the relative humidity each 
 time it is heated to the degree of moisture present in the 
 wood. 
 
 The point to be considered in this operation is that 
 during the heating process no evaporation shall be allowed 
 to take place, but only during the cooling. In this way 
 surface drying and "case-hardening" are prevented since 
 the heat is from within and the moisture passes from the 
 inside outwardly. However, with some species, notably 
 oak, surface cracks appear as a network of fine checks 
 along the medullary rays. 
 
 In the first place, it should be borne in mind that it is 
 the heat which produces evaporation and not the air nor 
 any mysterious property assigned to a "vacuum." 
 
 For every pound of water evaporated at ordinary tem- 
 peratures approximately 1,000 British thermal units of 
 heat are used up, or "become latent," as it is called. This 
 is true whether the evaporation takes place in a vacuum 
 or under a moderate air pressure. If this heat is not sup- 
 plied from an outside source it must be supplied by the 
 water itself (or the material being dried), the temperature 
 of which will consequently fall until the surrounding 
 space becomes saturated with vapor at a pressure cor- 
 responding to the temperature which the water has reached; 
 evaporation will then cease. The pressure of the vapor 
 in a space saturated with water vapor increases rapidly 
 with increase of temperature. At a so-called vacuum of 
 28 inches, which is about the limit in commercial opera- 
 tions, and in reality signifies an actual pressure of 2 inches 
 
148 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 of mercury column, the space will be saturated with vapor 
 at 101 degrees Fahrenheit. Consequently, no evapora- 
 tion will take place in such a vacuum unless the water be 
 warmer than 101 degrees Fahrenheit, provided there is 
 no air leakage. The qualification in regard to air is nec- 
 essary, for the sake of exactness, for the following reason: 
 In any given space the total actual pressure is made up 
 of the combined pressures of all the gases present. If the 
 total pressure ("vacuum") is 2 inches, and there is no air 
 present, it is all produced by the water vapor (which 
 saturates the space at 101 degrees Fahrenheit); but if 
 some air is present and the total pressure is still maintained 
 at 2 inches, then there must be less vapor present, since 
 the air is producing part of the pressure and the space is 
 no longer saturated at the given temperature. Conse- 
 quently further evaporation may occur, with a correspond- 
 ing lowering of the temperature of the water, until a balance 
 is again reached. Without further explanation it is easy 
 to see that but little water can be evaporated by a vacuum 
 alone without addition of heat, and that the prevalent 
 idea that a vacuum can of itself produce evaporation is 
 a fallacy. If heat be supplied to the water, however, 
 either by conduction or radiation, evaporation will take 
 place in direct proportion to the amount of heat supplied, 
 so long as the pressure is kept down by the vacuum 
 pump. 
 
 At 30 inches of mercury pressure (one atmosphere) the 
 space becomes saturated with vapor and equilibrium is 
 established at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. If heat be now 
 supplied to the water, however, evaporation will take 
 place in proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so 
 long as the pressure remains that of one atmosphere, just 
 as in the case of the vacuum. Evaporation in this con- 
 dition, where the vapor pressure at the temperature of 
 the water is equal to the gas pressure on the water, 
 is commonly called "boiling," and the saturated vapor 
 entirely displaces the air under continuous operation. 
 Whenever the space is not saturated with vapor, whether 
 air is present or not, evaporation will take place, by boil- 
 ing if no air be present or by diffusion under the presence 
 
HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 149 
 
 of air, until an equilibrium between temperature and 
 vapor pressure is resumed. 
 
 Relative humidity is simply the ratio of the actual vapor 
 pressure present in a given space to the vapor pressure 
 when the space is saturated with vapor at the given tem- 
 perature. It matters not whether air be present or not. 
 One hundred per cent humidity means that the space 
 contains all the vapor which it can hold at the given 
 temperature — it is saturated. Thus at 100 per cent 
 humidity and 212 degrees Fahrenheit the space is satu- 
 rated, and since the pressure of saturated vapor at this 
 temperature is one atmosphere, no air can be present 
 under these conditions. If, however, the total pressure 
 at this temperature were 20 pounds (5 pounds gauge), 
 then it would mean that there was 5 pounds air pressure 
 present in addition to the vapor, yet the space would still 
 be saturated at the given temperature. Again, if the 
 temperature were 101 degrees Fahrenheit, the pressure 
 of saturated vapor would be only 1 pound, and the ad- 
 ditional pressure of 14 pounds, if the total pressure were 
 atmospheric, would be made up of air. In order to have 
 no air present and the space still saturated at 101 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, the total pressure must be reduced to 1 pound 
 by a vacuum pump. Fifty per cent relative humidity, 
 therefore, signifies that only half the amount of vapor 
 required to saturate the space at the given temperature 
 is present. Thus at 212 degrees Fahrenheit temperature 
 the vapor pressure would only be 7| pounds (vacuum of 
 15 inches gauge). If the total pressure were atmospheric, 
 then the additional 7| pounds would be simply air. 
 
 "Live steam" is simply water-saturated vapor at a 
 pressure usually above atmospheric. We may just as 
 truly have live steam at pressures less than atmospheric, 
 at a vacuum of 28 inches for instance. Only in the latter 
 case its temperature would be lower, viz., 101 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Superheated steam is nothing more than water vapor 
 at a relative humidity less than saturation, but is usually 
 considered at pressures above atmospheric, and in the 
 absence of air. The atmosphere at, say, 50 per cent rela- 
 
150 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 tive humiditjr really contains superheated steam or vapor, 
 the only difference being that it is at a lower temperature 
 and pressure than we are accustomed to think of in speak- 
 ing of superheated steam, and it has air mixed with it to 
 make up the deficiency in pressure below the atmosphere. 
 Two things should now be clear; that evaporation is 
 produced by heat and that the presence or absence of air 
 does not influence the amount of evaporation. It does, 
 however, influence the rate of evaporation, which is re- 
 tarded by the presence of air. The main things influenc- 
 ing evaporation are, first, the quantity of heat supplied 
 and, second, the relative humidity of the immediately 
 surrounding space. 
 
 Drying by Superheated Steam 
 
 What this term really signifies is simply water vapor 
 in the absence of air in a condition of less than saturation. 
 Kilns of this type are, properly speaking, vapor kilns, 
 and usually operate at atmospheric pressure, but may be 
 used at greater pressures or at less pressures. As stated 
 before, the vapor present in the air at any humidity less 
 than saturation is really "superheated steam," only at a 
 lower pressure than is ordinarily understood by this term, 
 and mixed with air. The main argument in favor of this 
 process seems to be based on the idea that steam is moist 
 heat. This is true, however, only when the steam is near 
 saturation. When it is superheated it is just as dry as 
 air containing the same relative humidity. For instance, 
 steam at atmospheric pressure and heated to 248 degrees 
 Fahrenheit has a relative humidity of only 50 per cent and 
 is just as dry as air containing the same humidity. If 
 heated to 306 degrees Fahrenheit, its relative humidity 
 is reduced to 20 per cent; that is to say, the ratio of its 
 actual vapor pressure (one atmosphere) to the pressure 
 of saturated vapor at this temperature (five atmospheres) 
 is 1 : 5, or 20 per cent. Superheated vapor in the absence 
 of air, however, parts with its heat with great rapidity 
 and finally becomes saturated when it has lost all of its 
 ability to cause evaporation. In this respect it is more 
 moist than air when it comes in contact with bodies which 
 
HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 151 
 
 are at a lower temperature. When saturated steam is 
 used to heat the lumber it can raise the temperature of 
 the latter to its own temperature, but cannot produce 
 evaporation unless, indeed, the pressure is varied. Only 
 by the heat supplied above the temperature of saturation 
 can evaporation be produced. 
 
 Impregnation Methods 
 
 Methods of partially overcoming the shrinkage by im- 
 pregnation of the cell walls with organic materials closely 
 allied to the wood substance itself are in use. In one of 
 these which has been patented, sugar is used as the im- 
 pregnating material, which is subsequently hardened or 
 " caramelized" by heating. Experiments which the United 
 States Forest Service has made substantiate the claims 
 that the sugar does greatly reduce the shrinkage of the 
 wood; but the use of impregnation processes is determined 
 rather from a financial economic standpoint than by the 
 physical result obtained. 
 
 Another process consists in passing a current of elec- 
 tricity through the wet boards or through the green logs 
 before sawing. It is said that the ligno cellulose and the 
 sap are thus transformed by electrolysis, and that the 
 wood subsequently dries more rapidly. 
 
 Preliminary Treatments 
 
 In many dry kiln operations, especially where the kilns 
 are not designed for treatments with very moist air, the 
 wood is allowed to air-season from several months to a 
 year or more before running it into the dry kiln. In this 
 way the surface dries below its fibre-saturation point and 
 becomes hardened or "set" and the subsequent shrink- 
 age is not so great. Moreover, there is less danger of 
 surface checking in the kiln, since the surface has already 
 passed the danger point. Many woods, however, check 
 severely in air-drying or case-harden in the air. It is 
 thought that such woods can be satisfactorily handled in 
 a humidity-regulated kiln direct from the saw. 
 
 Preliminary steaming is frequently used to moisten the 
 surface if case-hardened, and to heat the lumber through 
 
152 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 to the center before drying begins. This is sometimes 
 done in a separate chamber, but more often in a com- 
 partment of the kiln itself, partitioned off by means of a 
 curtain which can be raised or lowered as circumstances 
 require. This steaming is usually conducted at atmos- 
 pheric pressure and frequently condensed steam is used 
 at temperatures far below 212 degrees Fahrenheit. In 
 a humidity-regulated kiln this preliminary treatment may 
 be omitted, since nearly saturated conditions can be 
 maintained and graduated as the drying progresses. 
 
 Recently the process of steaming at pressures up to 
 20 pounds gauge in a cylinder for short periods of time, 
 varying from 5 to 20 minutes, is being advocated in the 
 United States. The truck load is run into the cylinder, 
 steamed, and then taken directly out into the air. It 
 may subsequently be placed in the dry kiln if further dry- 
 ing is desired. The self-contained heat of the wood evapo- 
 rates considerable nroisture, and the sudden drying of 
 the boards causes the shrinkage to be reduced slightly 
 in some cases. Such short periods of steaming under 
 20 pounds pressure do not appear to injure the wood 
 mechanically, although they do darken the color appreci- 
 ably, especially of the sapwood of the species having a 
 light-colored sap, as black walnut (Juglans nigra) and 
 red gum {Liquidamber styraciflua). Longer periods of 
 steaming have been found to weaken the wood. There 
 is a great difference in the effect on different species, 
 however. 
 
 Soaking wood for a long time before drying has been 
 practised, but experiments indicate that no particularly 
 beneficial results, from the drying standpoint, are attained 
 thereby. In fact, in some species containing sugars and 
 allied substances it is probably detrimental from the 
 shrinkage standpoint. If soaked in boiling water some 
 species shrink and warp more than if dried without this 
 treatment. 
 
 In general, it may be said that, except possibly for 
 short-period steaming as described above, steaming and 
 soaking hardwoods at temperatures of 212 degrees Fahren- 
 heit or over should be avoided if possible. 
 
HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 153 
 
 It is the old saying that wood put into water shortly- 
 after it is felled, and left in water for a year or more, will 
 be perfectly seasoned after a short subsequent exposure 
 to the air. For this reason rivermen maintain that 
 timber is made better by rafting. Herzenstein says: 
 "Floating the timber down rivers helps to wash out the 
 sap, and hence must be considered as favorable to its 
 preservation, the more so as it enables it to absorb more 
 preservative." 
 
 Wood which has been buried in swamps is eagerly 
 sought after by carpenters and joiners, because it has 
 lost all tendency to warp and twist. When first taken 
 from the swamp the long-immersed logs are very much 
 heavier than water, but they dry with great rapidity. 
 A cypress log from the Mississippi Delta, which two men 
 could barely handle at the time it was taken out some 
 years ago, has dried out so much since then that to-day 
 one man can lift it with ease. White cedar telegraph 
 poles are said to remain floating in the water of the Great 
 Lakes sometimes for several years before they are set in 
 lines and to last better than freshly cut poles. 
 
 It is very probable that immersion for long periods in 
 water does materially hasten subsequent seasoning. The 
 tannins, resins, albuminous materials, etc., which are 
 deposited in the cell walls of the fibres of green wood, and 
 which prevent rapid evaporation of the water, undergo 
 changes when under water, probably due to the action of 
 bacteria which live without air, and in the course of time 
 many of these substances are leached out of the wood. 
 The cells thereby become more and more permeable to 
 water, and when the wood is finally brought into the air 
 the water escapes very rapidly and very evenly. Her- 
 zenstein's statement that wood prepared by immersion 
 a,nd subsequent drying will absorb more preservative, 
 and that with greater rapidity, is certainly borne out by 
 experience in the United States. 
 
 It is sometimes claimed that all seasoning preparatory 
 to treatment with a substance like tar oil might be done 
 away with by putting the green wood into a cylinder with 
 the oil and heating to 225 degrees Fahrenheit, thus driving 
 
154 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 the water off in the form of steam, after which the tar oil 
 would readily penetrate into the wood. This is the basis 
 of the so-called "Curtiss process" of timber treatment. 
 Without going into any discussion of this method of 
 creosoting, it may be said that the same objection made 
 for steaming holds here. In order to get a temperature of 
 212 degrees Fahrenheit in the center of the treated wood, 
 the outside temperature would have to be raised so high 
 that the strength of the wood might be seriously injured. 
 A company on the Pacific coast which treats red fitr piling 
 asserts that it avoids this danger by leaving the green 
 timber in the tar oil at a temperature which never exceeds 
 225 degrees Fahrenheit for from five to twelve hours, until 
 there is no further evidence of water vapor coming out of 
 the wood. The tar oil is then run out, and a vacuum is 
 created for about an hour, after which the oil is run in 
 again and is kept in the cylinders under 100 pounds pres- 
 sure for from ten to twelve hours, until the required amount 
 of absorption has been reached (about 12 pounds per 
 cubic foot). 
 
 Out-of-door Seasoning 
 
 The most effective seasoning is without doubt that 
 obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place 
 in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure 
 to the winds and the sun. Lumber has always been 
 seasoned in this way, which is still the best for ordinary 
 purposes. 
 
 It is probable for the sake of economy, air-drying will 
 be eliminated in the drying process of the future without 
 loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no effective 
 method has been discovered whereby this may be ac- 
 complished, because nature performs certain functions 
 in air-drying that cannot be duphcated by artificial means. 
 Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be success- 
 fully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw, and must 
 receive a certain amount of preliminary air-drying before 
 being placed in a dry kiln. 
 
 The present methods of air-seasoning in use have been 
 determined by long experience, and are probably as good 
 
HOW WOOD IS SEASONED 155 
 
 as they could be made for present conditions. But the 
 same care has not up to this time been given to the season- 
 ing of such timber as ties, bridge material, posts, telegraph 
 and telephone poles, etc. These have sometimes been 
 piled more or less intelligently, but in the majority of 
 cases their value has been too low to make it seem worth 
 while to pile with reference to anything beyond con- 
 venience in handling. 
 
 In piling material for air-seasoning, one should utilize 
 high, dry ground when possible, and see that the founda- 
 tions are high enough off the ground, so that there is 
 proper air cu'culation through the bottom of the piles, 
 and also that the piles are far enough apart so that the 
 air may circulate freely through and around them. 
 
 It is air circulation that is desired in all cases of drying, 
 both in dry kilns and out-of-doors, and not sunshine; that 
 is, not the sun shining directly upon the material. The 
 ends also should be protected from the sun, and every- 
 thing possible done to induce a free circulation of air, and 
 to keep the foundations free from all plant growth. 
 
 Naturally, the heavier the material to be dried, the more 
 difficulty is experienced from checking, which has its most 
 active time in the spring when the sap is rising. In fact 
 the main period of danger in material checking comes 
 with the March winds and the April showers, and not 
 infrequently in the South it occurs earlier than that. In 
 other words, as soon as the sap begins to rise, the timber 
 shows signs of checking, and that is the time to take extra 
 precautions by careful piling and protection from the sun. 
 When the hot days of summer arrive the tendency to 
 check is not so bad, but stock will sour from the heat, 
 stain from the sap, mildew from moisture, and fall a prey 
 to wood-destroying insects. 
 
 It has been proven in a general way that wood will 
 season more slowly in winter than in summer, and also 
 that the water content during various months varies. In 
 the spring the drying-out of wood cut in October and 
 November will take place more rapidly. 
 
SECTION XI 
 
 KILX-DEYI^(> OF AYOOD 
 
 Advantages of Kiln-drying over Air-drying 
 
 Some of the advantages of kiln-drying to be secured 
 over air-drjnng in addition to reducing the shipping weight 
 and lessening quantity of stock are the following: 
 
 1. Less material lost. 
 
 2. Better quality of product. 
 
 3. Prevention of sap stain and mould. 
 
 4. Fixation of gums and resins. 
 
 5. Reduction of hygroscopicity. 
 
 This reduction in the tendency to take up moisture 
 means a reduction in the "working" of the material which, 
 even though slight, is of importance. 
 
 The problem of drying wood in the best manner divides 
 itself into two distinct parts, one of which is entirely con- 
 cerned with the behavior of the wood itself and the physi- 
 cal phenomena involved, while the other part has to do 
 with the control of the drying process. 
 
 Physical Conditions governing the Drying of Wood 
 
 1. Wood is soft and plastic while hot and moist, and 
 
 becomes "set" in whatever shape it dries. Some 
 species are much more plastic than others. 
 
 2. Wood substance begins to shrink only when it dries 
 
 below the fibre-saturation point, at which it con- 
 tains from 25 to 30 per cent moisture based on 
 its dry weight. Eucalyptus and certain other species 
 appear to be exceptions to this law. 
 
 3. The shrinkage of wood is about twice as great cir- 
 
 cumferentially as in the radial direction; length- 
 wise, it is very slight. 
 
 4. Wood shrinks most when subjected, while kept 
 
 moist, to slow drying at high temperatures. 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 157 
 
 5. Rapid drying produces less shrinkage than slow dry- 
 
 ing at high temperatures, but is apt to cause case- 
 hardening and honeycombing, especially in dense 
 woods. 
 
 6. Case-hardening, honeycombing, and cupping result 
 
 directly from conditions 1, 4, and 5, and chemical 
 changes of the outer surface. 
 
 7. Brittleness is caused by carrying the drying process 
 
 too far, or by using too high temperatures. Safe 
 limits of treatment vary greatly for different species. 
 
 8. Wood absorbs or loses moisture in proportion to the 
 
 relative humidity in the air, not according to the 
 temperature. This property is called its "hygro- 
 scopicity." 
 
 9. Hygroscopicity and "working" are reduced but 
 
 not eliminated by thorough drying. 
 
 10. Moisture tends to transfuse from the hot towards 
 the cold portion of the wood. 
 
 11. Collapse of the cells may occur in some species 
 while the wood is hot and plastic. This collapse 
 is independent of subsequent shrinkage. 
 
 Theory of Kiln-drying 
 
 The dry kiln has long since acquired particular ap- 
 preciation at the hands of those who have witnessed its 
 time-saving qualities, when practically apphed to the dry- 
 ing of timber. The science of drying is itself of the simplest, 
 the exposure to the air being, indeed, the only means 
 needed where the matter of time is not called into question. 
 Otherwise, where hours, even minutes, have a marked 
 significance, then other means must be introduced to 
 bring about the desired effect. In any event, however, 
 the same simple and natural remedy pertains, — the 
 absorption of moisture. This moisture in green timber 
 is known as "sap", which is itself composed of a number 
 of ingredients, most important among which are water, 
 resin, and albumen. 
 
 All dry kilns in existence use heat to season timber; 
 
158 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 that is, to drive out that portion of the "sap" which is 
 volatile. 
 
 The heat does not drive out the resin of the pines nor 
 the albumen of the hardwoods. It is really of no ad- 
 vantage in this respect. Resin in its hardened state as 
 produced by heat is only slowly soluble in water and 
 contains a large proportion of carbon, the most stable 
 form of matter. Therefore, its retention in the pores of 
 the wood is a positive advantage. 
 
 To produce the ideal effect the drying must commence 
 at the heart of the piece and work outward, the moisture 
 being removed from the sm-face as fast as it exudes from 
 the pores of the wood. To successfully accomplish this, 
 adjustments must be available to regulate the tempera- 
 ture, circulation, and humidity according to the varia- 
 tions of the atmospheric conditions, the kind and condition 
 of the material to be dried. 
 
 This ideal effect is only attained by the use of a type 
 of dry kiln in which the surface of the lumber is kept soft, 
 the pores being left open until all the moisture within has 
 been volatilized by the heat and carried off by a free circu- 
 lation of air. When the moisture has been removed from 
 the pores, the surface is dried without closing the pores, 
 resulting in timber that is clean, soft, bright, straight, and 
 absolutely free from stains, checks, or other imperfections. 
 
 Now, no matter how the method of drying may be 
 applied, it must be remembered that vapor exists in the 
 atmosphere at all times, its volume being regulated by 
 the capacity of the temperature absorbed. To kiln-dry 
 properly, a free current of air must be maintained, of 
 sufficient volume to carry off this moisture. Now, the 
 capacity of this air for drying depends entirely upon the 
 ability of its temperature to absorb or carry off a larger 
 proportion of moisture than that apportioned by natural 
 means. Thus, it will be seen, a cubic foot of air at 32 
 degrees Fahrenheit is capable of absorbing only two grains 
 of water, while at 160 degrees, it will dispose of ninety 
 grains. The air, therefore, should be made as dry as 
 possible and caused to move freely, so as to remove all 
 moisture from the surface of the wood as soon as it appears. 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 159 
 
 Thus the heat effects a double purpose, not only increas- 
 ing the rate of evaporation, but also the capacity of the 
 air for absorption. Where these means are applied, which 
 rely on the heat alone to accomplish this purpose, only that 
 of the moisture which is volatile succumbs, while the al- 
 bumen and resin becoming hardened under the treatment 
 close up the pores of the wood. This latter result is 
 oft-times accomplished while moisture yet remains and 
 which in an enforced effort to escape bursts open the cells 
 in which it has been confined and creates what is known 
 as "checks." 
 
 Therefore, taking the above facts into consideration, 
 the essentials for the successful kiln-drying of wood may 
 be enumerated as follows: 
 
 1. The evaporation from the surface of a stick should 
 
 not exceed the rate at which the moisture trans- 
 fuses from the interior to the surface. 
 
 2. Drying should proceed uniformly at all points, 
 
 otherwise extra stresses are set up in the wood, 
 causing warping, etc. 
 
 3. Heat should penetrate to the interior of the piece 
 
 before drying begins. 
 
 4. The humidity should be suited to the condition 
 
 of the wood at the start and reduced in the proper 
 ratio as drying progresses. With wet or green 
 wood it should usually be held uniform at a degree 
 which will prevent the surface from drying below 
 its saturation point until all the free water has 
 evaporated, then gradually reduced to remove the 
 hygroscopic moisture. 
 
 5. The temperature should be uniform and as high 
 
 as the species under treatment will stand without 
 excessive shrinkage, collapse, or checking. 
 
 6. Rate of drying should be controlled by the amount 
 
 of humidity in the air and not by the rate of circu- 
 lation, which should be made ample at all times. 
 
 7. In drying refractory hardwoods, such as oak, best 
 
 results are obtained at a comparatively low tempera- 
 
160 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 ture. In more easily dried hardwoods, such as 
 maple, and some of the more difficult softwoods, 
 as cypress, the process maj^ be hastened by a higher 
 temperature but not above the boiling point. In 
 many of the softwoods, the rate of drying may be 
 very greatly increased by heating above the boil- 
 ing point with a large circulation of vapor at at- 
 mospheric pressure. 
 
 8. Unequal shrinkage between the exterior and in- 
 
 terior portions of the wood and also unequal chemical 
 changes must be guarded against by temperatures 
 and humidities suited to the species in question 
 to prevent subsequent cupping and warping. 
 
 9. The degree of dryness attained should conform 
 
 to the use to which the wood is put. 
 10. Proper piling of the material and weighting to pre- 
 vent warping are of great importance. 
 
 Requirements in a Satisfactory Dry Kiln 
 
 The requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln are: 
 
 1. Control of humidity at all times. 
 
 2. Ample air circulation at all points. 
 
 3. Uniform and proper temperatures. 
 
 In order to meet these requirements the United States 
 Forestry Service has designed a kiln in which the humidity, 
 temperature, and circulation can be controlled at all times. 
 
 Briefly, it consists of a drying chamber with a partition 
 on either side, making two narrow side chambers ojDen 
 top and bottom. 
 
 The steam pipes are in the usual position underneath 
 the material to be dried. 
 
 At the top of the side chambers is a spray ; at the bottom 
 are gutters and an eliminator or set of baffle plates to 
 separate the fine mist from the air. 
 
 The spray accomplishes two things: It induces an in- 
 creased circulation and it regulates the humidity. This is 
 done by regulating the temperature of the spray water. 
 
 The air under the heating coil is saturated at whatever 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 
 
 161 
 
 temperature is reciuired. This temperature is the dew 
 point of the air after it passes up into the drying chamber 
 above the coils. Knowing the temperature in the drying 
 room and the dew point, the relative humidity is thus 
 determined. 
 
 The relative humidity is simply the ratio of the vapor 
 pressure at the dew point to the pressure of saturated 
 vapor (see Fig. .30). 
 
 mm^mK&^^^^^^h 
 
 Fig. 30. Section througli United States Forestry Service Humidity- 
 controlled Dry Kiln. 
 
 Theory and Description of the Forestry Service Kiln 
 
 The humidities and temperatures in the piles of lumber 
 are largely dependent upon the circulation of air within 
 the kiln. The temperature and humidity within the kiln, 
 taken alone, are no criterion of the conditions of drying 
 within the pile of lumber if the circulation in any portion 
 
162 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 is deficient. It is possible to have an extremely rapid cir- 
 culation of air within the dry kiln itself and yet have 
 stagnation within the individual piles, the air passing 
 chiefl}^ through open spaces and channels. Wherever 
 stagnation exists or the movement of air is too sluggish 
 the temperature will drop and the humidity increase, 
 perhaps to the point of saturation. 
 
 When in large kilns the forced circulation is in the op- 
 posite direction from that induced by the cooling of the 
 air by the lumber, there is always more or less uncertainty 
 as to the movement of the air through the piles. Even 
 with the boards placed edge-wise, with stickers running 
 vertically, and with the heating pipes beneath the lumber, 
 it was found that although the air passed upward through 
 most of the spaces it was actually descending through 
 others, so that very unequal drying resulted. While 
 edge piling would at first thought seem ideal for the freest 
 circulation in an ordinary kiln with steam pipes below, it 
 in fact produces an indeterminate condition; air columns 
 may pass downward through some channels as well as up- 
 ward through others, and probably stagnate in still others. 
 Nevertheless, edge piling is greatly superior to fiat piling 
 where the heating system is below the lumber. 
 
 From experiments and from study of conditions in 
 commercial kilns the idea was developed of so arranging 
 the parts of the kiln and the pile of lumber that advantage 
 might be taken of this cooling of the air to assist the circu- 
 lation. That this can be readily accomplished without 
 doing away with the present features of regulation of 
 humidity by means of a spray of water is clear from Fig. 
 30, which shows a cross-section of the improved humidity- 
 regulated dry kiln. 
 
 In the form shown in the sketch a chamber or flue B 
 runs through the center near the bottom. This flue is 
 only about 6 or 7 feet in height and, together with the 
 water spray F and the baffle plates DD, constitutes the 
 humidity-control feature of the kiln. This control of 
 humidity is affected by the temperature of the water 
 used in the spray. This spray completely saturates the 
 air in the flue B at whatever predetermined temperature 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 163 
 
 is required. The baffle plates DD are to separate all 
 entrained particles of water from the air, so that it is de- 
 livered to the heaters in a saturated condition at the re- 
 quired temperature. This temperature is, therefore, the 
 dew point of the air when heated above, and the method 
 of humidity control may therefore be called the dew-point 
 method. It is a very simple matter by means of the hu- 
 midity diagram (see Fig. 93), or by a hydrodeik (Fig. 94), 
 to determine what dew-point temperature is needed for 
 any desired humidity above the heaters. 
 
 Besides regulating the humidity the spray F also acts as 
 an ejector and forces circulation of air through the flue B. 
 The heating system H is concentrated near the outer 
 walls, so as to heat the rising column of air. The tempera- 
 ture within the drying chamber is controlled by means 
 of any suitable thermostat, actuating a valve on the main 
 steam line. The lumber is piled in such a way that the 
 stickers slope downward toward the sides of the kiln. 
 
 M is an auxiliary steam spray pointing downward for 
 use at very high temperatures. C is a gutter to catch 
 the precipitation and conduct it back to the pump, the 
 water being recirculated through the sprays. G is a pipe 
 condenser for use toward the end of the drying operation. 
 K is a baffle plate for diverting the heated air and at the 
 same time shielding the under layers of boards from direct 
 radiation of the steam pipes. 
 
 The operation of the kiln is simple. The heated air 
 rises above the pipes HH and between the piles of lumber. 
 As it comes in contact with the piles, portions of it are 
 cooled and pass downward and outward through the layers 
 of boards into the space between the condensers GG. 
 Here the column of cooled air descends into the spray flue 
 B, where its velocity is increased by the force of the water 
 spray. It then passes out from the baffle plates to the 
 heaters and repeats the cycle. 
 
 One of the greatest advantages of this natural circula- 
 tion method is that the colder the lumber when placed in 
 the kiln the greater is the movement produced, under the 
 very conditions which call for the greatest circulation — 
 just the opposite of the direct-circulation method. This 
 
164 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 is a feature of the greatest importance in winter, when the 
 kimher is put into the kihi in a frozen condition. One 
 truckload of kimber at 60 per cent moisture may easily 
 contain over 7,000 pounds of ice. 
 
 In the matter of circulation the kiln is, in fact, seldom 
 regulatory — the colder the lumber the greater the circu- 
 lation produced, with the effect increased toward the cooler 
 and wetter portions of the pile. 
 
 Preliminary steaming may be used in connection with 
 this kiln, but experiments indicate that ordinarily it is 
 not desirable, since the high humidity which can be secured 
 gives as good results, and being at as low a temperature 
 as desired, much better results in the case of certain dif- 
 ficult woods like oak, eucalyptus, etc., are obtained. 
 
 This kiln has another advantage in that its operation 
 is entirely independent of outdoor atmospheric conditions, 
 except that barometric pressure will effect it slightly. 
 
 KILN-DRYING 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Drying is an essential part of the preparation of wood 
 for manufacture. For a long time the only drying process 
 used or known was air-drying, or the exposure of wood to 
 the gradual drying influences of the open air, and is what 
 has now been termed "preliminary seasoning." This 
 method is without doubt the most successful and effective 
 seasoning, because nature performs certain functions in 
 air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial means. 
 Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be success- 
 fully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw. 
 
 Within recent years, considerable interest is awaken- 
 ing among wood users in the operation of kiln-drying. 
 The losses occasioned in air-drying and in improper kiln- 
 drying, and the necessity for getting material dry as 
 quickly as possible from the saw, for shipping purposes 
 and also for manufacturing, are bringing about a realiza- 
 tion of the importance of a technical knowledge of the 
 subject. 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 165 
 
 The losses which occur in air-drying wood, through 
 checking, warping, staining, and rotting, are often greater 
 than one would suppose. While correct statistics of this 
 nature are difficult to obtain, some idea may be had of 
 the amount of degrading of the better class of lumber. 
 In the case of one species of soft wood. Western larch, it 
 is commonly admitted that the best grades fall off sixty 
 to seventy per cent in air-drying, and it is probable that 
 the same is true in the case of Southern swamp oaks. In 
 Western yellow pine, the loss is great, and in the Southern 
 red gum, it is probably as much as thirty per cent. It 
 may be said that in all species there is some loss in air- 
 drying, but in some easily dried species such as spruce, 
 hemlock, maple, etc., it is not so great. 
 
 It would hardly be correct to state at the present time 
 that this loss could be entirely prevented by proper methods 
 of kiln-drying the green lumber, but it is safe to say that 
 it can be greatly reduced. 
 
 It is well where stock is kiln-dried direct from the saw 
 or knife, after having first been steamed or boiled — as 
 in the case of veneers, etc., — to get them into the kiln 
 while they are still warm, as they are then in good con- 
 dition for kiln-drying, as the fibres of the wood are soft 
 and the pores well opened, which will allow of forcing 
 the evaporation of moisture without much damage being 
 done to the material. 
 
 With softwoods it is a common practice to kiln-dry 
 direct from the saw. This procedure, however, is ill 
 adapted for the hardwoods, in which it would produce 
 such warping and checking as would greatly reduce the 
 value of the product. Therefore, hardwoods, as a rule, 
 are more or less thoroughly air-dried before being placed 
 in the dry kiln, where the residue of moisture may be 
 reduced to within three or four per cent, which is much 
 lower than is possible by air-drying only. 
 
 It is probable that for the sake of economy, air-drying 
 will be eliminated in the drying processes of the future with- 
 out loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no method 
 has been discovered whereby this may be accomplished. 
 
 The dry kiln has been, and probably still is, one of the 
 
166 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 most troublesome factors arising from the development 
 of the timber industry. In the earlier days, before power 
 machinery for the working-up of timber products came 
 into general use, dry kilns were unheard-of, air-drying 
 or seasoning was then relied upon solely to furnish the 
 craftsman with dry stock from which to manufacture his 
 product. Even after machinery had made rapid and 
 startling strides on its way to perfection, the dry kiln re- 
 mained practically an unknown quantity, but gradually, 
 as the industry developed and demand for dry material 
 increased, the necessity for some more rapid and positive 
 method of seasoning became apparent, and the subject of 
 artificial drying began to receive the serious attention of 
 the more progressive and energetic members of the craft. 
 
 Kiln-drying which is an artificial method, originated 
 in the effort to improve or shorten the process, by sub- 
 jecting the wood to a high temperature or to a draught of 
 heated air in a confined space or kiln. In so doing, time 
 is saved and a certain degree of control over the drying 
 operation is secured. 
 
 The first efforts in the way of artificial drying were con- 
 fined to aiding or hastening nature in the seasoning process 
 by exposing the material to the direct heat from fires built 
 in pits, over which the lumber was piled in a way to ex- 
 pose it to the heat rays of the fires below. This, of course, 
 was a primitive, hazardous, and very unsatisfactory 
 method, to say the least, but it marked the first step in 
 the evolution of the present-day dry kiln, and in that 
 particular only is it deserving of mention. 
 
 Underlying Principles 
 
 In addition to marking the first step in artificial drying, 
 it illustrated also, in the simplest manner possible, the 
 three underlying principles governing all drying problems: 
 (1) The application of heat to evaporate or volatilize the 
 water contained in the material; (2) with sufficient air 
 in circulation to carry away in suspension the vapor thus 
 liberated; and (3) with a certain amount of humidity 
 present to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly 
 while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior. The 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 167 
 
 last performs two distinct functions: (a) It makes the 
 wood more permeable to the passage of the moisture 
 from the interior of the wood to the surface, and (b) it 
 supplies the latent heat necessary to evaporate the mois- 
 ture after it reaches the surface. The air circulation 
 is important in removing the moisture after it has 
 been evaporated by the heat, and ventilation also 
 serves the purpose of bringing the heat in contact with 
 the wood. If, however, plain, dry heat is applied to the 
 wood, the surface will become entirely dry before the in- 
 terior moisture is even heated, let alone removed. This 
 condition causes "case-hardening" or "hollow-horning." 
 So it is very essential that sufficient humidity be main- 
 tained to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly, 
 while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior. 
 
 This humidity or moisture is originated by the evapora- 
 tion from the drying wood, or by the admission of steam 
 into the dry kiln by the use of steam spray pipes, and is 
 absolutely necessary in the process of hastening the dry- 
 ing of wood. With green lumber it keeps the sap near 
 the surface of the piece in a condition that allows the 
 escape of the moisture from its interior ; or, in other words, 
 it prevents the outside from drying first, which would 
 close the pores and cause case-hardening. 
 
 The great amount of latent heat necessary to evaporate 
 the water after it has reached the surface is shown by the 
 fact that the evaporation of only one pound of water will 
 extract approximately 66 degrees from 1,000 cubic feet 
 of air, allowing the air to drop in temperature from 154 to 
 84 degrees Fahrenheit. In addition to this amount of heat, 
 the wood and the water must also be raised to the tempera- 
 ture at which the drying is to be accomplished. 
 
 It matters not what type of dry kiln is used, source or 
 application of heating medium, these underlying principles 
 remain the same, and must be the first things considered 
 in the design or selection of the equipment necessary for 
 producing the three essentials of drying: Heat, humidity, 
 and circulation. 
 
 Although these principles constitute the basis of all 
 drying problems and must, therefore, be continually 
 
168 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 carried in inind in the consideration of them, it is equally 
 necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the 
 characteristics of the materials to be dried, and its action 
 during the drying jarocess. All failures in the past, in 
 the drying of timber products, can be directly attributed 
 to either the kiln designer's neglect of these things, or his 
 failure to carry them fully in mind in the consideration 
 of his problems. 
 
 Wood has characteristics very much different from those 
 of other materials, and what little knowledge we have 
 of it and its properties has been taken from the accumu- 
 lated records of experience. The reason for this imperfect 
 knowledge lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous 
 material like the metals, but a complicated structure, and 
 so variable that one stick will behave in a manner widely 
 different from that of another, although it may have been 
 cut from the same tree. 
 
 The great variety of woods often makes the mere dis- 
 tinction of the kind or species of the tree most difficult. 
 It is not uncommon to find men of long experience dis- 
 agree as to the kind of tree a certain piece of lumber was 
 cut from, and, in some cases, there is even a wide dif- 
 ference in the appearance and evidently the structure of 
 timber cut from the same tree. 
 
 Objects of Kiln-drying 
 
 The objects of kiln-drying wood may be placed under 
 three main headings: (1) To reduce shipping expenses; 
 (2) to reduce the quantity necessary to maintain in stock; 
 and (3) to reduce losses in air-drying and to properly 
 prepare the wood for subsequent use. Item number 2 
 naturally follows as a consequence of either 1 or 3. The 
 reduction in weight on account of shipping expenses is 
 of greatest significance with the Northwestern lumbermen 
 in the case of Douglas fir, redwood, Western red cedar, 
 sugar pine, bull pine, and other softwoods. 
 
 Very rapid methods of rough drying are possible with 
 some of these species, and are in use. High temperatures 
 are used, and the water is sometimes boiled off from the 
 wood by heating above 212 degrees Fahrenheit. These 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 169 
 
 high-temperature methods will not apply to the majority 
 of hardwoods, however, nor to many of the softwoods. 
 
 It must first of all be recognized that the drying of 
 lumber is a totally different operation from the drying 
 of a fabric or of thin material. In the latter, it is largely 
 a matter of evaporated moisture, but wood is not only 
 hygroscopic and attracts moisture from the air, but its 
 phj'sical behavior is very complex and renders the ex- 
 traction of moisture a very complicated process. 
 
 An idea of its complexity may be had by mentioning some 
 of the conditions which must be contended with. Shrink- 
 age is, perhaps, the most important. This is unequal 
 in different directions, being twice as great tangentially 
 as radially and fifty times as great radially as longitudi- 
 nally. Moreover, shrinkage is often unequal in different 
 portions of the same piece. The slowness of the transfusion 
 of moisture through the wood is an important factor. This 
 varies with different woods and greatly in different direc- 
 tions. Wood becomes soft and plastic when hot and moist, 
 and will yield more or less to internal stresses. As some 
 species are practically impervious to air when wet, this 
 plasticity of the cell walls causes them to collapse as the 
 water passes outward from the cell cavities. This dif- 
 ficulty has given much trouble in the case of Western red 
 cedar, and also to some extent in redwood. The unequal 
 shrinkage causes internal stresses in the wood as it dries, 
 which results in warping, checking, case-hardening, and 
 honeycombing. Case-hardening is one of the most com- 
 mon defects in improperly dried lumber. It is clearly 
 shown by the cupping of the two halves when a case- 
 hardened board is resawed. Chemical changes also occur 
 in the wood in drying, especially so at higher temperatures, 
 rendering it less hygroscopic, but more brittle. If dried 
 too much or at too high a temperature, the strength and 
 toughness is seriously reduced, 
 
 Conditions of Success 
 
 Commercial success in drying therefore requires that 
 the substance be exposed to the air in the most efficient 
 manner; that the temperature of the air be as high as the 
 
170 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 substance will stand without inj urj^, and that the air change 
 or movement be as rapid as is consistent with economical 
 installation and operation. Conditions of success there- 
 fore require the observance of the following points, which 
 embody the basic principles of the process: (1) The 
 timber should be heated through before drying begins. 
 (2) The air should be very humid at the beginning of the 
 drying process, and be made drier only gradually. (3) The 
 temperature of the lumber must be maintained uniformly 
 throughout the entire pile. (4) Control of the drying 
 process at any given temperature must be secured by 
 controlling the relative humidity, not by decreasing the 
 circulation. (5) In general, high temperatures permit 
 more rapid drying than do lower temperatures. The 
 higher the temperature of the lumber, the more efficient 
 is the kiln. It is believed that temperatures as high as 
 the boiling point are not injurious to most woods, pro- 
 viding all other fundamentally important features are 
 taken care of. Some species, however, are not able to 
 stand as high temperatures as others, and (6) the degree 
 of dryness attained, where strength is the prime requisite, 
 should not exceed that at which the wood is to be used. 
 
 Different Treatment according to Kind 
 
 The rapidity with which water may be evaporated, that 
 is, the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of 
 the piece and on the structure of the wood. Thin stock 
 can be dried much faster than thick, under the same con- 
 ditions of temperature, circulation, and humidity. Pine 
 can be dried, as a general thing, in about one third of the 
 time that would be required for oak of the same thickness, 
 although the former contains the more water of the two. 
 Quarter-sawn oak usually requires half again as long as 
 plain oak. Mahogany requires about the same time as 
 plain oak; ash dries in a little less time, and maple, accord- 
 ing to the purpose for which it is intended, may be dried 
 in one fifth the time needed for oak, or may require a 
 slightly longer treatment. For birch, the time required 
 is from one half to two thirds, and for poplar and bass- 
 wood, from one fifth to one third that required for oak. 
 

 KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 171 
 
 All kinds and thicknesses of lumber cannot be dried at 
 the same time in the same kiln. It is manifest that green 
 and air-dried lumber, dense and porous lumber, all re- 
 quire different treatment. For instance. Southern yellow 
 pine when cut green from the log will stand a very high 
 temperature, say 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and in fact this 
 high temperature is necessary together with a rapid circula- 
 tion of air in order to neutralize the acidity of the pitch 
 which causes the wood to blue and discolor. This lumber 
 requires to be heated up immediately and to be kept hot 
 throughout the length of the kiln. Hence the kiln must 
 not be of such length as to allow of the air being too much 
 cooled before escaping. 
 
 Temperature depends 
 
 While it is true that a higher temperature can be carried 
 in the kiln for drying pine and similar woods, this does 
 not altogether account for the great difference in drying 
 time, as experience has taught us that even when both 
 woods are dried in the same kiln, under the same condi- 
 tions, pine will still dry much faster, proving thereby that 
 the structure of the wood itself affects drying. 
 
 The aim of all kiln designers should be to dry in the 
 shortest possible time, without injury to the material. Ex- 
 perience has demonstrated that high temperatures are very 
 effective in evaporating water, regardless of the degree of 
 humidity, but great care must be exercised in using ex- 
 treme temperatures that the material to be dried is not 
 damaged by checking, case-hardening, or hollow-horning. 
 
 The temperature used should depend upon the species 
 and condition of the material when entering the kiln. In 
 general, it is advantageous to have as high a temperature 
 as possible, both for economy of operation and speed of 
 drying, but the physical properties of the wood will govern 
 this. 
 
 Many species cannot be dried satisfactorily at high 
 temperatures on account of their peculiar behavior. This 
 is particularly so with green lumber. 
 
 Air-dried wood will stand a relatively higher tempera- 
 ture, as a rule, than wet or green wood. In drying green 
 
172 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 wood direct from the saw, it is usually best to start with 
 a comparatively low temperature, and not raise the tem- 
 perature until the wood is nearly dry. For example, 
 green maple containing about 60 per cent of its dry weight 
 in water should be started at about 120 degrees Fahrenheit 
 and when it reaches a dryness of 25 per cent, the temjDera- 
 ture may be raised gradually up to 190 degrees. 
 
 It is exceedingly important that the material be prac- 
 tically at the same temperature throughout if perfect 
 drying is to be secured. It should be the same tempera- 
 ture in the center of a pile or car as on the outside, and 
 the same in the center of each individual piece of wood 
 as on its surface. This is the effect obtained by natural 
 air-drying. The outside atmosphere and breezes (natural 
 air circulation) are so ample that the heat extracted for 
 drying does not appreciably change the temperature. 
 
 When once the wood has been raised to a high tem- 
 perature through and through and especially when the 
 surface has been rendered most permeable to moisture, 
 drying may proceed as rapidly as it can be forced by arti- 
 ficial circulation, provided the heat lost from the wood 
 through vaporization is constantly replaced by the heat 
 of the kiln. 
 
 It is evident that to secure an even temperature, a free 
 circulation of air must be brought in contact with the 
 wood. It is also evident that in addition to heat and a 
 circulation of air, the air must be charged with a certain 
 amount of moisture to prevent surface drying or case- 
 hardening. 
 
 There are some twenty-five different makes of dry kilns 
 on the market, which fulfill to a varying degree the funda- 
 mental requirements. Probably none of them succeed 
 perfectly in fulfilling all. 
 
 It is well to have the temperature of a dry kiln con- 
 trolled by a thermostat which actuates the valve on the 
 main steam supply pipe. It is doubly important to main- 
 tain a uniform temperature and avoid fluctuations in 
 the dry kiln, since a change in temperature will greatly 
 alter the relative humidity. 
 
 In artificial drying, temperatures of from 150 to 180 de- 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 173 
 
 grees Fahrenheit are usually employed. Pme, spruce, 
 cypress, cedar, etc., are dried fresh from the saw, allowing 
 four days for 1-inch stuff. Hardwoods, especially oak, ash, 
 maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are usually air-seasoned for 
 three to six months to allow the first shrinkage to take place 
 more gradually, and are then exposed to the above tem- 
 peratures in the kiln for about six to ten days for 1-inch 
 stuff, other dimensions in proportion. 
 
 Freshly cut poplar and cottonwood are often dried 
 direct from the saw in a kiln. By employing lower tem- 
 peratures, 100 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, green oak, ash, 
 etc., can be seasoned in dry kilns without much injury to 
 the material. 
 
 Steaming and sweating the wood is sometimes resorted 
 to in order to prevent checking and case-hardening, but 
 not, as has been frequently asserted, to enable the material 
 to dry. 
 
 Air Circulation 
 
 Air circulation is of the utmost importance, since no 
 drying whatever can take place when it is lacking. The 
 evaporation of moisture requires heat and this must be 
 supplied by the circulating air. Moreover, the moisture 
 laden air must be constantly removed and fresh, drier air 
 substituted. Probably this is the factor which gives 
 more trouble in commercial operations than anything 
 else, and the one which causes the greatest number of 
 failures. 
 
 It is necessary that the air circulate through every 
 part of the kiln and that the moving air come in contact 
 with every portion of the material to be dried. In fact, 
 the humidity is dependent upon the circulation. If the 
 air stagnates in any portion of the pile, then the tempera- 
 ture will drop and the humidity rise to a condition of 
 saturation. Drying will not take place at this portion 
 of the pile and the material is apt to mould and rot. 
 
 The method of piling the material on trucks or in the 
 kiln, is therefore, of extreme importance. Various methods 
 are in use. Ordinary flat piling is probably the poorest. 
 Flat piling with open chimney spaces in the piles is better. 
 
174 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 But neither method is suitable for a kihi in wliich the 
 circulation is mainly vertical. 
 
 Edge piling with stickers running vertically is in use 
 in kilns when the heating coils are beneath. This is much 
 better. 
 
 Air being cooled as it comes in contact with a pile of 
 material, becomes denser, and consequently tends to sink. 
 Unless the material to be dried is so arranged that the 
 air can pass gradually downward through the pile as it 
 cools, poor circulation is apt to result. 
 
 In edge-piled lumber, with the heating system beneath 
 the piles, the natural tendency of the cooled air to descend 
 is opposed by the hot air beneath which tends to rise. 
 An indeterminate condition is thus brought about, re- 
 sulting in non-uniform drying. It has been found that 
 air will rise through some layers and descend through 
 others. 
 
 Humidity 
 
 Humidity is of prime importance because the rate of 
 drying and prevention of checking and case-hardening 
 are largely dependent thereon. It is generally true that 
 the surface of the wood should not dry more rapidly than 
 the moisture transfuses from the center of the piece to 
 its surface, otherwise disaster will result. As a sufficient 
 amount of moisture is removed from the wood to main- 
 tain the desired humidity, it is not good economy to 
 generate moisture in an outside apparatus and force it 
 into a kiln, unless the moisture in the wood is not sufficient 
 for this purpose; in that case provision should be made 
 for adding any additional moisture that may be required. 
 
 The rate of evaporation may best be controlled by 
 controlling the amount of vapor present in the air (relative 
 humidity) ; it should not be controlled by reducing the 
 air circulation, since a large circulation is needed at all 
 times to supply the necessary heat. 
 
 The humidity should be graded from 100 per cent at 
 the receiving end of the kiln, to whatever humidity cor- 
 responds with the desired degree of dryness at the de- 
 livery end. 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 175 
 
 The kiln should be so designed that the proper degree 
 may be maintained at its every section. 
 
 A fresh piece of sap wood will lose weight in boiling 
 water and can also be dried to quite an extent in steam. 
 This proves conclusively that a high degree of humidity 
 does not have the detrimental effect on drying that is 
 commonly attributed to it. In fact, a proper degree of 
 humidity, especially in the loading or receiving end of a 
 kiln, is just as necessary to good results in drying as 
 getting the proper temperature. 
 
 Experiments have demonstrated also that injury to 
 stock in the way of checking, warping, and hollow-horning 
 always develops immediately after the stock is taken into 
 the kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too 
 low. The receiving end of the kiln should always be 
 kept moist, where the stock has not been steamed before 
 being put into the kiln. The reason for this is simple 
 enough. When the air is too dry it tends to dry the out- 
 side of the material first — which is termed "case-harden- 
 ing" — and in so doing shrinks and closes up the pores 
 of the wood. As the stock is moved down the Idln, it 
 absorbs a continually increasing amount of heat, which 
 tends to drive off the moisture still present in the center 
 of the stock. The pores on the outside having been closed 
 up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being 
 rapidly formed in the center. It must find its way out 
 some way, and in doing so sets up strains, which result 
 either in checking, warping, or hollow-horning. If the 
 humidity had been kept higher, the outside of the material 
 would not have dried so quickly, and the pores would 
 have remained open for the exit of moisture from the in- 
 terior of the wood, and this trouble would have been 
 avoided. 
 
 Where the humidity is kept at a high point in the re- 
 ceiving end of the kiln, a higher rate of temperature may 
 also be carried, and in that way the drying process is 
 hastened with comparative safety. 
 
 It is essential, therefore, to have an ample supply of 
 heat through the convection currents of the air; but in 
 the case of wood the rate of evaporation must be con- 
 
176 ■ SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 trolled, else checking will occur. This can be done by 
 means of the relative humiditj", as stated before. It is 
 clear now that when the air — or, more properly speak- 
 ing, the space — is completely saturated no evaporation 
 can take place at the given temperature. By reducing 
 the humidity, evaporation takes place more and more 
 rapidly. 
 
 Another bad feature of an insufficient and non-uniform 
 supply of heat is that each piece of wood will be heated to 
 the e^-aporating point on the outer surface, the inside 
 remaining cool until considerable drying has taken place 
 from the surface. Ordinarily in dry kilns high humidity 
 and large circulation of air are antitheses to one another. 
 To obtain the high humidity the circulation is either 
 stopped altogether or greatly reduced, and to reduce the 
 humidity a greater circulation is induced by opening the 
 ventilators or otherwise increasing the draft. This is 
 evidently not good practice, but as a rule is unavoidable 
 in most dry kilns of present make. The humidity should 
 be raised to check evaporation without reducing the 
 circulation if possible. 
 
 While thin stock, such as cooperage and box stuff is 
 less inclined to give trouble by undue checking than 1-inch 
 and thicker, one will find that any dry kiln will give more 
 uniform results and, at the same time, be more economi- 
 cal in the use of steam, when the huinidity and temperature 
 is carried at as high a point as possible without injury to 
 the material to be dried. 
 
 Any well-made dry kiln which will fulfill the conditions 
 required as to circulation and humidity control should work 
 satisfactorily; but each case must be studied by itself, 
 and the various factors modified to suit the peculiar con- 
 ditions of the problem in hand. In every new case the 
 material should be constantly watched and studied and, 
 if checking begins, the humidity should be increased until 
 it stops. It is not reducing the circulation, but adding 
 the necessary moisture to the air, that should be depended 
 on to prevent checking. For this purpose it is well to 
 have steam jets in the kiln so that if needed they are ready 
 at hand. 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 177 
 
 Kiln-drying 
 
 There are two distinct ways of handling material in 
 dry kilns. One way is to place the load of lumber in a 
 chamber where it remains in the same place throughout 
 the operation, while the conditions of the drying medium 
 are varied as the drying progresses. This is the "apart- 
 ment" kiln or stationary method. The other is to run 
 the lumber in at one end of the chamber on a wheeled 
 truck and gradually move it along until the drying process 
 is completed, when it is taken out at the opposite end of 
 the kiln. It is the usual custom in these kilns to main- 
 tain one end of the chamber moist and the other end 
 dry. This is known as the "progressive" type of kiln, 
 and is the one most commonly used in large operations. 
 
 It is, however, the least satisfactory of the two where 
 careful drying is required, since the conditions cannot 
 be so well regulated and the temperatures and humidities 
 are apt to change with any change of wind. The apartment 
 method can be arranged so that it will not require any 
 more kiln space or any more handling of lumber than the 
 progressive type. It does, however, require more in- 
 telligent operation, since the conditions in the drying 
 chamber must be changed as the drying progresses. With 
 the progressive type the conditions, once properly es- 
 tablished, remain, the same. 
 
 To obtain draft or circulation three methods are in use — 
 by forced draft or a blower usually placed outside the kiln, 
 by ventilation, and by internal circulation and condensa- 
 tion. A great many patents have been taken out on 
 different methods of ventilation, but in actual operation 
 few kilns work exactly as intended. Frequently the air 
 moves in the reverse direction for which the ventilators 
 were planned. Sometimes a condenser is used in con- 
 nection with the blower and the air is re-circulated. It is 
 also — and more satisfactorily — used with the gentle 
 internal-gravity currents of air. 
 
 Many patents have been taken out for heating systems. 
 The differences among these, however, have more to do 
 with the mechanical construction than with the process 
 
178 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 of drying. In general, the heating is either direct or in- 
 direct. In the former steam coils are placed in the chamber 
 with the lumber, and in the latter the air is heated by 
 either steam coils or a furnace before it is introduced into 
 the drying chamber. 
 
 Moisture is sometimes supplied by means of free 
 steam jets in the kiln or in the entering air; but more 
 often the moisture evaporated from the lumber is relied 
 upon to maintain the humidity necessary. 
 
 A substance becomes dry by the evaporation of its 
 inherent moisture into the surrounding space. If this 
 space be confined it soon becomes saturated and the proc- 
 ess stops. Hence, constant change is necessary in order 
 that the moisture given off may be continually carried 
 away. 
 
 In practice, air movement is therefore absolutely es- 
 sential to the process of drying. Heat is merely a useful 
 accessory which serves to decrease the time of drying 
 by increasing both the rate of evaporation and the ab- 
 sorbing power of the surrounding space. 
 
 It makes no difference whether this space is a vacuum 
 or filled with air; under either condition it will take up 
 a stated weight of vapor. From this it appears that the 
 vapor molecules find sufficient space between the molecules 
 of air. But the converse is not true, for somewhat less 
 air will be contained in a given space saturated with vapor 
 than in one devoid of moisture. In other words the air 
 does not seem to find sufficient space between the mole- 
 cules of vapor. 
 
 If the temperature of the confined space be increased, 
 opportunity will thereby be provided for the vaporiza- 
 tion of more water, but if it be decreased, its capacity for 
 moisture will be reduced and visible water will be de- 
 posited. The temperature at which this takes place is 
 known as the "dew-point" and depends upon the initial 
 degree of saturation of the given space ; the less the relative 
 saturation the lower the dew-point. 
 
 Careful piling of the material to be dried, both in the 
 yard and dry kiln, is essential to good results in drying. 
 
 Air-dried material is not dry, and its moisture is too 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 
 
 179 
 
 unevenly distributed to insure good behavior after manu- 
 facture. 
 
 It is quite a difficult matter to give specific or absolute 
 correct weights of any species of timber when thoroughly 
 or properly dried, in order that one may be guided in 
 these kiln operations, as a great deal depends upon the 
 species of wood to be dried, its density, and upon the 
 thickness which it has been cut, and its condition when 
 entering the drying chamber. 
 
 Elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and where 
 the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh more 
 than coarse-grained wood of the same species, and, there- 
 fore, no set rules can be laid down, as good judgment 
 only should be used, as the quality of the drjdng is not 
 purely one of time. Sometimes the comparatively slow 
 process gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock 
 through the kiln may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned 
 that it will not give satisfaction when worked into the 
 finished product. The mistreatment of the material in 
 this respect results in numerous defects, chief among which 
 are warping and twisting, checking, case-hardening, and 
 honeycombing, or, as sometimes called, hollow-horning. 
 
 Since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with 
 size, age, species, and individual trees, the following figures 
 as regards weight must be regarded as mere approxi- 
 mations: 
 
 Pounds of Water Lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood 
 IN THE Kiln 
 
 Heartwood 
 or interior 
 
 16-2.5 
 18-60 
 40-60 
 
 (1) Pine, cedar, spruce, and fir 
 
 (2) Cypress, extremely variable 
 
 (3) Poplar, Cottonwood, and basswood 
 
 (4) Oak, beech, ash, maple, birch, elm, hickory, 
 
 chestnut, walnut, and sycamore 
 
 30-40 
 
 The lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood; 
 thus sycamore has more water than hickory, etc. 
 
 The efficiency of the drying operations depends a great 
 
180 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 deal upon the way in which the lumber is piled, especially 
 when the humidity is not regulated. From the theory 
 of drying it is evident that the rate of evaporation in dry 
 kilns where the humidity is not regulated depends entirely 
 upon the rate of circulation, other things being equal. 
 Consequently, those portions of the wood which receive 
 the greatest amount of air dry the most rapidly, and 
 vice versa. The only way, therefore, in which anything 
 like uniform drying can take place is where the lumber is 
 so piled that each portion of it comes in contact with the 
 same amount of air. 
 
 In the Forestry Service kiln (Fig. 30) , where the degree of 
 relative humidity is used to control the rate of drying, 
 the amount of circulation makes little difference, pro- 
 vided it exceeds a certain amount. It is desirable to pile 
 the lumber so as to offer as little frictional resistance as 
 possible and at the same time secure uniform circulation. 
 If circulation is excessive in any place it simply means 
 waste of energy but no other injury to the lumber. 
 
 The best method of piling is one which permits the 
 heated air to pass through the pile in a somewhat down- 
 ward direction. The natural tendency of the cooled air 
 to descend is thus taken advantage of in assisting the 
 circulation in the kiln. This is especially important when 
 cold or green lumber is first introduced into the kiln. 
 But even when the lumber has become warmed the cool- 
 ing due to the evaporation increases the density of the 
 mixture of the air and vapor. 
 
 Kiln-drying Gum 
 
 The following article was published by the United 
 States Forestry Service as to the best method of kiln- 
 drying gum: 
 
 Piling. — Perhaps the most important factor in good kiln- 
 drying, especially in the case of the gums, is the method of 
 piling. It is our opinion that proper and very careful piling 
 will greatly reduce the loss due to warping. A good method 
 of pihng is to place the lumber length-wise of the kiln and 
 on an incline cross-wise. The warm air should rise at 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 181 
 
 the higher side of the pile and descend between the courses 
 of lumber. The reason for this is very simple and the 
 principle has been appUed in the manufacture of the best 
 ice boxes for some time. The most efficient refrigerators 
 are iced at the side, the ice compartment opening to the 
 cooling chamber at tlie top and bottom. The warm air 
 from above is cooled by melting the ice. It then becomes 
 denser and settles down into the main chamber. The 
 articles in the cooling room warm tlie air as they cool, so 
 it rises to the top and again comes in contact with the 
 ice, thus completing the cycle. The rate of this natural 
 circulation is automatically regulated by the temperature 
 of the articles in the cooling chamber and by the amount 
 of ice in the icing compartment; hence the efficiency of 
 such a box is high. 
 
 Now let us apply this principle to the drying of lumber. 
 First we must understand that as long as the lumber is 
 moist and drying, it will always be cooler than the sur- 
 rounding air, the amount of this difference being determined 
 by the rate of drying and the moisture in the wood. As 
 the lumber dries, its temperature gradually rises until it 
 is equal to that of the air, when perfect dryness results. 
 With this fact in mind it is clear that the function of the 
 lumber in a kiln is exactly analogous to that of the ice in 
 an ice box; that is, it is the cooling agent. Similarly, 
 the heating pipes in a dry kiln bring about the same effect 
 as the articles of food in the ice box in that they serve to 
 heat the air. Therefore, the air will be cooled by the 
 luniber, causing it to pass downward through the piles. 
 If the heating units are placed at the sides of the kiln, 
 the action of the air in a good ice box is duplicated in the 
 kiln. The significant point in this connection is that, the 
 greener and colder the lumber, the faster is the circula- 
 tion. This is a highly desirable feature. 
 
 A second vital point is that as the wood becomes grad- 
 ually drier the circulation automatically decreases, thus 
 resulting in increased efficiency, because there is no need 
 for circulation greater than enough to maintain the hu- 
 midity of the air as it leaves the lumber about the same 
 as it enters. Therefore, we advocate either the longitu- 
 
182 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 tudinal side-wise inclined pile or edge stacking, the latter 
 being much preferable when possible. Of course the 
 piles in our kiln were small and could not be weighted 
 properly, so the best results as to reducing warping were 
 not obtained. 
 
 Preliminary Steaming. — Because the fibres of the gums 
 become plastic while moist and hot without causing de- 
 fects, it is desirable to heat the air-dried lumber to about 
 200 degrees Fahrenheit in saturated steam at atmospheric 
 pressure in order to reduce the warping. This treatment 
 also furnishes a means of heating the lumber very rapidly. 
 It is probably a good way to stop the sap-staining of green 
 luml^er, if it is steamed while green. We have not investi- 
 gated the other effects of steaming green gum, however, 
 so we hesitate to recommend it. 
 
 Temperatures as high as 210 degrees Fahrenheit were used 
 with no apparent harm to the material. The best result 
 was obtained with the temperature of 180 degrees Fahi'en- 
 heit, after the first preliminary heating in steam to 200 
 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures may be used 
 with air-dried gum, however. 
 
 The best method of humidity control proved to be to 
 reduce the relative humidity of the air from 100 per cent 
 (saturated steam) very carefully at first and then more 
 rapidly to 30 per cent in about four days. If the change 
 is too marked immediately after the steaming period, 
 checking will invariably result. Under these temperature 
 and humidity conditions the stock was dried from 15 
 per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight, to 6 per 
 cent in five days' time. The loss due to checking was 
 about 5 per cent, based on the actual footage loss, not on 
 commercial grades. 
 
 Final Steaming . — From time to time during the test 
 runs the material was resawed to test for case-hardening. 
 The stock dried in five days showed slight case-hardening, 
 so it was steamed at atmospheric pressure for 36 minutes 
 near the close of the run, with the result that when dried 
 off again the stresses were no longer present. The mate- 
 rial from one run was steamed for three hours at atmos- 
 
KILN-DRYING OF WOOD 183 
 
 pheric pressure and proved very badly case-hardened, but 
 in the reverse direction. It seems possible that by test- 
 ing for the amount of case-hardening one might select 
 a final steaming period which would eliminate all stresses 
 in the wood. 
 
 Kiln-drying of Green Red Gum 
 
 The following article was published by the United 
 States Forestry Service on the kiln-drying of green red 
 gum : 
 
 A short time ago fifteen fine, red-gum logs 16 feet long 
 were received from Sardis, Miss. They were in excellent 
 condition and quite green. 
 
 It has been our belief that if the gum could be kiln- 
 dried directly from the saw, a number of the difficulties 
 in seasoning might be avoided. Therefore, we have under- 
 taken to find out whether or not such a thing is feasible. 
 The green logs now at the laboratory are to be used in 
 this investigation. One run of a preliminary nature has 
 just been made, the method and results of which I will 
 now tell. 
 
 This method was really adapted to the drying of Southern 
 pine, and one log of the green gum was cut into 1-inch 
 stock and dried with the pine. The heartwood contained 
 many knots and some checks, although it was in general 
 of quite good quality. The sapwood was in fine condition 
 and almost as white as snow. 
 
 This material was edge-stacked with one crosser at 
 either end and one at the center of the 16-foot board. 
 This is sufficient for the pine, but was absolutely inadequate 
 for drying green gum. A special shrinkage take-up was 
 applied at the three points. The results proved very 
 interesting in spite of the warping which was expected 
 with but three crossers in 16 feet. The method of cir- 
 culation described was used. It is our belief that edge 
 pihng is best for this method. 
 
 This method of kiln-drying depends on the maintenance 
 of a high velocity of slightly superheated steam through 
 the lumber. In few words, the object is to maintain the 
 temperature of the vapor as it leaves the lumber at slightly 
 
184 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 above 212 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to accompHsh this 
 result, it is necessary to maintain the high velocity of 
 circulation. As the wood dries, the superheat may be 
 increased until a temperature of 225 degrees or 230 degrees 
 Fahrenheit of the exit air is recorded. 
 
 The 1-inch green gum was dried from 20.1 per cent to 
 11.4 per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight in 
 45 hours. The loss due to checking was 10 per cent. 
 Nearly every knot in the heartwood was checked, show- 
 ing that as the knots could be eliminated in any case, this 
 loss might not be so great. It was significant that practi- 
 cally all of the checking occurred in the heartwood. The 
 loss due to warping was 22 per cent. Of course this was 
 large; but not nearlj^ enough crossers were used for the 
 gum. It is our opinion that this loss due to warping can 
 be very much reduced by using at least eight crossers and 
 providing for taking up of the shrinkage. A feature of 
 this process which is very important is that the method 
 absolutely prevents all sap staining. 
 
 Another delightful surprise was the manner in which 
 the superheated steam method of drying changed the 
 color of the sapwood from pure white to a beautifully 
 uniform, clean-looking, cherry red color which very closely 
 resembles that of the heartwood. This method is not 
 new by any means, as several patents have been granted 
 on the steaming of gum to render the sapwood more nearly 
 the color of the heartwoods. The method of application 
 in kiln-drying green gum we believe to be new, however. 
 Other methods for kiln-drying this green stock are to be 
 tested until the proper process is developed. We ex- 
 pect to have something interesting to report in the near 
 future.' 
 
 ' The above test was made at the United States Forestry Service Laboratory, 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
SECTION XII 
 
 TYPES OF DRY KILXS 
 
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 Dry kilns as in use to-day are divided into two classes: 
 The "pipe" or "moist-air" kiln, in which natural draft 
 is relied upon for circulation and, the "blower" or "hot 
 blast" kiln, in which the circulation is produced by fans 
 or blowers. Both classes have their adherents and either 
 one will produce satisfactory results if properly operated. 
 
 The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Kiln 
 
 The blower kiln in its various types has been in use so 
 long that it is hardly necessary to give to it a lengthy in- 
 troduction. These kilns at their inauguration were a 
 wonderful improvement over the old style "bake-oven" 
 or "sweat box" kiln then employed, both on account of 
 the improved quality of the material and the rapidity at 
 which it was dried. 
 
 These blower kilns have undergone steady improvement, 
 not only in the apparatus and equipment, but also in their 
 general design, method of introducing air, and provision 
 for controlling the temperature and humidity. With this 
 type of kiln the circulation is always under absolute con- 
 trol and can be adjusted to suit the conditions, which 
 necessarily vary with the conditions of the material to 
 be dried and the quantity to be put through the kiln. 
 
 In either the blower or moist-air type of dry kiln, how- 
 ever, it is absolutely essential, in order to secure satis- 
 factory results, both as to rapidity in drying and good 
 quality of stock, that the kiln be so designed that the 
 temperature and humidity, together with circulation, are 
 always under convenient control. Any dry kiln in which 
 this has not been carefully considered will not give the 
 desired results. 
 
186 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In the old style blower kiln, while the circulation and 
 temperature was very largely under the operator's con- 
 trol, it was next to impossible to produce conditions in 
 the receiving end of the kiln so that the humidity could 
 be kept at the proper point. In fact, this was one reason 
 why the natural draft, or so-called moist-air kiln was 
 developed. 
 
 The advent of the moist-air kiln served as an education 
 to kiln designers and manufacturers, in that it has shown 
 conclusively the value of a proper degree of humidity in 
 the receiving end of any progressive dry kiln, and it has 
 been of special benefit also in that it gave the manufacturers 
 of blower kilns an idea as to how to improve the design 
 of their type of kiln to overcome the difficulty referred to 
 in the old style blower kilns. This has now been remedied, 
 and in a decidedly simple manner, as is usually the case 
 with all things that possess merit. 
 
 It was found that by returning from one third to one 
 half of the moist air after having passed through the kiln 
 back to the fan room and by mixing it with the fresh and 
 more or less dry air going into the drying room, that the 
 humidity could be kept under convenient control. 
 
 The amount of air that can be returned from a kiln of 
 this class depends upon three things: (1) The condition 
 of the material when entering the drying room; (2) the 
 rapidity with which the material is to be dried; and (.3) the 
 condition of the outside atmosphere. In the winter season 
 it will be found that a larger proportion of air may be 
 returned to the drying room than in summer, as the air 
 during the winter season contains considerably less mois- 
 ture and as a consequence is much drier. This is rather a 
 fortunate coincidence, as, when the kiln is being operated 
 in this manner, it will be much more economical in its 
 steam consumption. 
 
 In the summer season, when the outside atmosphere is 
 saturated to a much greater extent, it will be found that 
 it is not possible to return as great a quantity of air to the 
 drying room, although there have been instances of kilns 
 of this class, which in operation have had all the air re- 
 turned and found to give satisfactory results. This is 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 187 
 
 an unusual condition, however, and can only be accounted 
 for by some special or peculiar condition surrounding the 
 installation. 
 
 In some instances, the desired amount of humidity in a 
 blower type of kiln is obtained by the addition of a steam 
 spray in the receiving end of the kiln, much in the same 
 manner as that used in the moist-air kilns. This method 
 is not as economical as returning the moisture-laden air 
 from the drying room as explained in the preceding para- 
 graph. 
 
 With the positive circulation that may be obtained in 
 a blower kiln, and with the conditions of temperature and 
 humidity under convenient control, this type of kiln has 
 the elements most necessary to produce satisfactory dry- 
 ing in the quickest possible elapsed time. 
 
 It must not be inferred from this, however, that this 
 class of dry kiln may be installed and satisfactory re- 
 sults obtained regardless of how it is handled. A great 
 deal of the success of any dry kiln — or any other 
 apparatus, for that matter — depends upon intelligent 
 operation. 
 
 Operation, of the "Blower" Dry Kiln 
 
 It is essential that the operator be supplied with proper 
 facilities to keep a record of the material as it is placed 
 into the drying room, and when it is taken out. An ac- 
 curate record should be kept of the temperature every 
 two or three hours, for the different thicknesses and species 
 of lumber, that he may have some reliable data to guide 
 him in future cases. 
 
 Any man possessing ordinary intelligence can operate 
 dry kilns and secure satisfactory results, providing he will 
 use good judgment and follow the basic instructions as 
 outhned below: 
 
 1. When cold and before putting into operation, heat 
 
 the apparatus slowly until all pipes are hot, then 
 start the fan or blower, gradually bringing it up 
 to its required speed. 
 
 2. See that all steam supply valves are kept wide open, 
 
188 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 unless you desire to lengthen the time required to 
 dry the material. 
 
 3. When using exhaust steam, the valve from the 
 
 header (which is a separate drip, independent of 
 the trap connection) must be kept wide open, but 
 must be closed when hve steam is used on that 
 part of the heater. 
 
 4. The engines as supplied by the manufacturers are 
 
 constructed to operate the fan or blower at a proper 
 speed with its throttle valve wide open, and with 
 not less than 80 pounds pressure of steam. 
 
 5. If the return steam trap does not discharge regularly, 
 
 it is important that it be opened and thoroughly 
 cleaned and the valve seat re-ground. 
 
 6. As good air circulation is as essential as the proper 
 
 degree of heat, and as the volume of air and its 
 contact with the material to be dried depends upon 
 the volume delivered by the fan or blower, it is 
 necessary to maintain a regular and uniform speed 
 of the engine. 
 
 7. Atmospheric openings must always be maintained 
 
 in the fan or heater room for fresh air supply. 
 
 8. Successful drying cannot be accomplished without 
 
 ample and free circulation of air at all times. 
 If the above instructions are fully carried out, and good 
 judgment used in the handling and operation of the 
 blower kiln, no difficulties should be encountered in suc- 
 cessfully drying the materials at hand. 
 
 The "Pipe" or "Moist-air" Dry Kiln 
 
 While in the blower class of dry kiln, the circulation is 
 obtained by forced draft with the aid of fans or blowers, 
 in the Moist-air kilns (see Fig. -31); the circulation is ob- 
 tained by natural draft only, aided by the manipulation 
 of dampers installed at the receiving end of the drying 
 room, which lead to vertical flues through a stack to the 
 outside atmosphere. 
 
 The heat in these kilns is obtained by condensing steam 
 in coils of pipe, which are placed underneath the material 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 189 
 
 to be dried. As the degree of heat required, and steam 
 pressure govern the amount of radiation, there are several 
 types of radiating coils. In Fig. 32 will be seen the Single 
 Row Heating Coils for live or high pressure steam, which 
 are used when the low temperature is required. Figure 33 
 shows the Double (or 2) Row Heating Coils for Uve or 
 high pressure steam. This apparatus is used when a 
 
 Fig. 31. Section through a tj-pical Moist-air Dry Kiln. 
 
 medium temperature is required. In Fig. 34 will be seen 
 the Vertical Type Heating Coils which is recommended 
 where exhaust or low-pressure steam is to be used, or may 
 be used with hve or high-pressure steam when high tem- 
 peratures are desired. 
 
 These heating coils are usually installed in sections, 
 which permit any degree of heat from the minimum to 
 the maximum to be maintained by the elimination of, 
 or the addition of, any number of heating sections. This 
 gives a dry kiln for the drying of green softwoods, or by 
 shutting off a portion of the radiating coils — thus re- 
 ducing the temperature — a dry kiln for drying hard- 
 woods, that will not stand the maximum degree of heat. 
 
 In the Moist-air or Natural Draft type of dry kiln, any 
 
190 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 bio 
 
 .a 
 
 w 
 
 a, 
 Ph 
 
 bC 
 02 
 
 bO 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 191 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 p 
 
 -a 
 
 03 
 
 Q 
 
 03 
 
 a. 
 
 03 
 
 w 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 bC 
 
192 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 degree of humidity, from clear and dry to a dense fog may 
 be obtained; this is in fact, the main and most important 
 feature of this type of dry kiln, and the most essential 
 one in the drying of hardwoods. 
 
 It is not generally understood that the length of a kiln 
 has any effect upon the quantity of material that may be 
 put through it, but it is a fact nevertheless that long kilns 
 are much more effective, and produce a better quality of 
 stock in less time than kilns of shorter length. 
 
 Experience has proven that a kiln from 80 to 125 feet 
 in length will produce the best results, and it should be 
 the practice, where possible, to keep them within these 
 figures. The reason for this is that in a long kiln there is 
 a greater drop in temperature between the discharge end 
 and the green or receiving end of the kiln. 
 
 It is very essential that the conditions in the receiving 
 end of the kiln, as far as the temperature and humidity 
 are concerned, must go hand in hand. 
 
 It has also been found that in a long kiln the desired 
 conditions anay be obtained with higher temperatures 
 than with a shorter kiln; consequently higher tempera- 
 tures may be carried in the discharge end of the kiln, 
 thereby securing greater rapidity in drying. It is not 
 unusual to find that a temperature of 200 degrees Fahrenheit 
 is carried in the discharge end of a long dry kiln with 
 safety, without in any way injuring the quality of the 
 material, although, it would be better not to exceed 180 
 degrees in the discharge end, and about 120 degrees in 
 the receiving or green end in order to be on the safe side. 
 
 Operation of the "Moist-air" Dry Kiln 
 
 To obtain the best results these kilns should be kept 
 in continuous operation when once started, that is, they 
 should be operated continuously day and night. When 
 not in operation at night or on Sundays, and the kiln is 
 used to season green stock direct from the saw, the large 
 doors at both ends of the kiln should be opened wide, or 
 the material to be dried will "sap stain." 
 
 It is highly important that the operator attending any 
 drying apparatus keep a minute and accurate record of 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 193 
 
 
 O 
 
 Q> 
 
 a 
 a 
 o 
 
 " S 
 
 ■a I 
 
 a o 
 
 
 ci 
 
 CC 
 
 ft" 
 
 CO 
 
194 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 the condition of the material as it is placed into the drying 
 room, and its final condition when taken out. 
 
 Records of the temperature and humidity should be 
 taken frequently and at stated periods for the different 
 thicknesses and species of material, in order that he may 
 have reUable data to guide him in future operations. 
 
 The following facts should be taken into consideration 
 when operating the Moist-air dry kiln: 
 
 1. Before any material has been placed in the drying 
 
 room, the steam should be turned into the heating 
 or radiating coils, gradually warming them, and 
 bringing the temperature in the kiln up to the 
 desired degree. 
 
 2. Care should be exercised that there is sufficient 
 
 humidity in the receiving or loading end of the 
 kiln, in order to guard against checking, case- 
 hardening, etc. Therefore it is essential that the 
 steam spray at the receiving or loading end of the 
 kiln be properly manipulated. 
 
 3. As the temperature depends principally upon the 
 
 pressure of steam carried in the boilers, maintain 
 a steam pressure of not less than 80 pounds at all 
 times; it may range as high as 100 pounds. The 
 higher the temperature with its relatively high 
 humidity the more rapidly the drying will be ac- 
 complished. 
 
 4. Since air circulation is as essential as the proper degree 
 
 of heat, and as its contact with the material to be 
 dried depends upon its free circulation, it is nec- 
 essary that the dampers for its admittance into, 
 and its exit from, the drying room be efficiently 
 and properly operated. Successful drying cannot 
 be accomplished without ample and free circula- 
 tion of air at all times during the drying process. 
 
 If the above basic principles are carefully noted and 
 followed out, and good common sense used in the handhng 
 and operation of the kiln apparatus, no serious difficulties 
 should arise against the successful drying of the materials 
 at hand. 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 195 
 
 Choice of Drying Method 
 
 At this point naturally arises the question: Which of 
 the two classes of dry kilns, the "Moist-air" or "Blower" 
 kiln is the better adapted for my particular needs? 
 
 This must be determined entirely by the species of 
 wood to be dried, its condition when it goes into the kiln, 
 and what kind of finished product is to be manufactured 
 from it. 
 
 Almost any species of hardwood which has been sub- 
 jected to air-seasoning for three months or more may be 
 dried rapidly and in the best possible condition for glue- 
 jointing and fine finishing with a "Blower" kiln, but green 
 hardwood, direct from the saw, can only be successfully 
 dried (if at all) in a "Moist-air" kiln. 
 
 Most furniture factories have considerable bent stock 
 which must of necessity be thoroughly steamed before 
 bending. By steaming, the initial process of the Moist- 
 air kiln has been consummated. Hence, the Blower kiln is 
 better adapted to the drying of such stock than the Moist- 
 air kiln would be, as the stock has been thoroughly soaked 
 by the preliminary steaming, and all that is required is 
 sufficient heat to volatihze the moisture, and a strong 
 circulation of air to remove it as it comes to the surface. 
 
 The Moist-air kiln is better adapted to the drying of 
 tight cooperage stock, while the Blower kiln is almost 
 universally used throughout the slack cooperage industry 
 for the drying of its products. 
 
 For the drying of heavy timbers, planks, blocks, carriage 
 stock, etc., and for all species of hardwood thicker 
 than one inch, the Moist-air kiln is undoubtedly the 
 best. 
 
 Both types of kilns are equally well adapted to the dry- 
 ing of 1-inch green Norway and white pine, elm, hemlock, 
 and such woods as are used in the manufacture of flooring, 
 ceiling, siding, shingles, hoops, tub and pail stock, etc. 
 
 The selection of one or the other for such work is largely 
 a matter of personal opinion. 
 
196 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Kilns of Different Types 
 
 All dry kilns as in use to-day are divided as to method 
 of drying into two classes : 
 
 The "Pipe" or "Moist-air" kiln; 
 
 The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" kiln; 
 both of which have been fully explained in a previous 
 article. 
 
 The above two classes are again subdivided into five 
 different types of dry kilns as follows: 
 
 The "Progressive" kiln; 
 The "Apartment" kiln; 
 The "Pocket" kiln; 
 The "Tower" kiln; 
 The "Box" kiln. 
 
 The "Progressive" Dry Kiln 
 
 Dry kilns constructed so that the material goes in at 
 one end and is taken out at the opposite end are called 
 Progressive dry kilns, from the fact that the material 
 gradually progresses through the kiln from one stage to 
 another while drying (see Fig. 31). 
 
 In the operation of the Progressive kiln, the material 
 is first subjected to a sweating or steaming process at the 
 receiving or loading end of the kiln with a low temperature 
 and a relative high humidity. It then gradually pro- 
 gresses through the kiln into higher temperatures and 
 lower humidities, as well as changes of air circulation, 
 until it reaches the final stage at the discharge end of the 
 kiln. 
 
 Progressive kilns, in order to produce the most satis- 
 factory results, especially in the drying of hardwoods or 
 heavy softwood timbers, should be not less than 100 feet 
 in length (see Fig. 35) . 
 
 In placing this type of kiln in operation, the following 
 instructions should be carefully followed: 
 
 When steam has been turned into the heating coils, and 
 the kiln is fairly warm, place the first car of material to 
 be dried in the drying room — preferably in the morn- 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 197 
 
 ing — about 25 feet from the kiln door 
 or loading end of the kiln, blocking the 
 will remain stationary. 
 Five hours later, or 
 about noon, run in the 
 second car and stop it 
 about five feet from the 
 first one placed in the 
 drying room. Five 
 hours later, or in the 
 evening push car num- 
 ber two up against the 
 first car; then run in 
 car number three, stop- 
 ping it about five feet 
 from car number two. 
 
 On the morning of 
 the second day, push 
 car number three 
 against the others, and 
 then move them all 
 forward about 25 feet, 
 and then run in car 
 number four, stopping 
 it about five feet from 
 the car in advance of 
 it. Five hours later, or 
 about noon, run in car 
 number five and stop 
 it about five feet from 
 car number four. In 
 the evening or about 
 five hours later, push 
 these cars against the 
 ones ahead, and run in 
 loaded car number six, stopping it about 
 preceding car. 
 
 On the morning of the third day, mov 
 ward about six feet; then run in loaded 
 and stop it about four feet from the 
 
 on the receiving 
 
 wheels so that it 
 
 fR 
 
 o 
 
 fe 
 
 g8 
 
 bL i^ 
 
 O w 
 
 f^ 2 
 
 lO 
 
 > 
 
 E 
 
 five feet from the 
 
 e all the cars for- 
 car number seven 
 car preceding it. 
 
198 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Five hours later or about noon push this car against those 
 in advance of it, and run in loaded car number eight, 
 moving all cars forward about six feet, and continue in 
 this manner until the full complement of cars have been 
 placed in the kiln. When the kiln has been filled, re- 
 move car number one and push all the remaining cars 
 forward and run in the next loaded car, and continue in 
 this manner as long as the kiln is in operation. 
 
 As the temperature depends principally upon the pres- 
 sure of steam, maintain a steam pressure of not less than 
 80 pounds at all times; it may range up to as high as 100 
 pounds. The higher the temperature with a relatively 
 higher humidity the more rapidly the drying will be ac- 
 complished. 
 
 If the above instructions are carried out, the temper- 
 atures, humidities, and air circulation properly manip- 
 ulated, there should be complete success in the handling 
 of this type of dry kihi. 
 
 The Progressive type of dry kiln is adapted to such lines 
 of manufacture that have large quantities of material to 
 kiln-dry where the species to be dried is of a similiar 
 nature or texture, and does not vary to any great extent 
 in its thickness, such, for instance, as: 
 
 Oak flooring plants ; 
 
 Maple flooring plants; 
 
 Cooperage plants ; 
 
 Large box plants; 
 
 Furniture factories; etc. 
 
 In the selection of this kind of dry kiln, consideration 
 should be given to the question of ground space of sufficient 
 length or dimension to accomodate a kiln of proper length 
 for successful drying. 
 
 The "Apartment" Dry Kiln 
 
 The Apartment system of dry kilns are primarily de- 
 signed for the drying of different kinds or sizes of material 
 at the same time, a separate room or apartment being 
 devoted to each species or size when the quantity is suf- 
 ficient (see Fig. 36). 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 199 
 
 These kilns are sometimes built single or in batteries 
 of two or more, generally not exceeding 40 or 50 feet 
 in length with doors and platforms at both ends the same 
 as the Progressive kilns; but in operation each kiln is 
 entirely filled at one loading and then closed, and the 
 entire contents dried at one time, then emptied and again 
 recharged. 
 
 Any number of apartments may be built, and each 
 apartment may be arranged to handle any number of cars. 
 
 Fig. 36. Exterior View of Six Apartment Dry Kilns, each 10 Feet wide by 
 52 Feet long, End-wise Piling. They are entirely of fire-proof construc- 
 tion arid equipped with double doors (Hussey asbestos outside and 
 canvas inside), and are also equipped with humidity and air control 
 dampers, which may be operated from the outside without opening 
 the kiln doors, which is a very good feature. 
 
 generally about three or four, or they may be so con- 
 structed that the material is piled directly upon the floor 
 of the drying room. 
 
 When cars are used, it is well to have a transfer car at 
 each end of the kilns, and stub tracks for holding cars of 
 dry material, and for the loading of the unseasoned stock, 
 as in this manner the kilns may be kept in full operation 
 at all times. 
 
 In this type of dry kiln the material receives the same 
 
200 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 treatment and process that it would in a Progressive kiln. 
 The advantages of Apartment kilns is manifest where 
 certain conditions require the drying of numerous kinds 
 as well as thicknesses of material at one and the same time. 
 This method permits of several short drying rooms or 
 apartments so that it is not necessary to mix hardwoods 
 and softwoods, or thick and thin material in the same kiln 
 room. 
 
 In these small kilns the circulation is under perfect 
 control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more 
 extensive plants, and will readily appeal to manufacturers 
 whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning 
 of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume 
 of material of uniform size and grade. 
 
 Apartment kilns are recommended for industries where 
 conditions require numerous kinds and thicknesses of 
 material to be dried, such as: 
 
 Furniture factories; 
 Piano factories; 
 Interior woodwork mills; 
 Planing mills; etc. 
 
 The "Pocket" Dry Kiln 
 
 "Pocket" dry kilns (see Fig. 37) are generally built in 
 batteries of several pockets. They have the tracks level 
 and the lumber goes in and out at the same end. Each 
 drying room is entirely filled at one time, the material is 
 dried and then removed and the kiln again recharged. 
 
 The length of "Pocket" kilns ranges generally from 
 14 feet to about 32 feet. 
 
 The interior equipment for this type of dry kiln is 
 arranged very similiar to that used in the Apartment 
 kiln. The heating or radiating coils and steam spray 
 jets extend the whole length of the drying room, and are 
 arranged for the use of either live or exhaust steam, as 
 desired. 
 
 Inasmuch as Pocket kilns have doors at one end only, 
 this feature eliminates a certain amount of door exposure, 
 which conduces towards economy in operation. 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 201 
 
 In operating Pocket kilns, woods of different texture 
 and thickness should be separated and placed in dif- 
 ferent drying rooms, and each kiln adjusted and operated 
 
 6 . 
 
 o 
 
 .2 3 
 
 ^ CD 
 P m 
 
 3 
 
 £: . 
 
 2 S 
 
 Q a 
 
 ^^ CD 
 
 03 
 
 > 
 
 O !h 
 
 W 2 
 
 
 bC 
 
 E 
 
 to accommodate the peculiarities of the species and thickness 
 of the material to be dried. 
 
 Naturally, the more complex the conditions of manu- 
 facturing wood products in any industry, the more dif- 
 
202 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 ficult will be the proper drying of same. Pocket kilns, 
 are, therefore, recommended for factories having several 
 different kinds and thicknesses of material to dry in small 
 quantities of each, such as: 
 
 Planing mills; 
 
 Chair factories; 
 
 Furniture factories; 
 
 Sash and door factories; etc. 
 
 The "Tower" Dry Kiln 
 
 The so-called "Tower" dry kiln (see Fig. 38) is de- 
 signed for the rapid drying of small stuff in quantities. 
 Although the general form of construction and the capacity 
 of the individual bins or drying rooms may vary, the same 
 essential method of operation is common to all. That is, 
 the material itself, such as wooden novelties, loose staves, 
 and heading for tubs, kits, and pails, for box stuff, kindling 
 wood, etc., is dumped directly into the drying rooms 
 from above, or through the roof, in such quantities as 
 effectually to fill the bin, from which it is finally removed 
 when dry, through the doors at the bottom. 
 
 These dry kilns are usually operated as "Blower" kilns, 
 the heating apparatus is generally located in a separate 
 room or building adjacent to the main structure or drying 
 rooms, and arranged so that the hot air discharged through 
 the inlet duct (see illustration) is thoroughly distributed 
 beneath a lattice floor upon which rests the material to 
 be dried. Through this floor the air passes directly up- 
 ward, between and around the stock, and finally returns 
 to the fan or heating room. 
 
 This return air duct is so arranged that by means of 
 dampers, leading from each drying room, the air may be 
 returned in any quantity to the fan room where it is mixed 
 with fresh air and again used. This is one of the main 
 features of ecomony of the blower system of drying, as 
 by the employment of this return air system, considerable 
 saving may be made in the amount of steam required for 
 drying. 
 
 The lattice floors in this type of dry kiln are built on 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 203 
 
 
 
 &S 
 
 ^ j3 
 
 o -O 
 
 3| 
 
 
 
 
 o .y 
 S 1^ 
 
 biO 
 
 ffl & 
 
 IP 
 
 ro Ks o3 
 
 S S ^ 
 
 E 0) S 
 t-1 +:S o 
 
 W 
 
 CO S 
 
 CO "3 
 
 sg" 
 
204 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 an incline, which arrangement materially lessens the cost, 
 and increases the convenience with which the dried stock 
 may be removed from the bins or drying rooms. 
 
 In operation, the material is conveyed in cars or trucks 
 on an overhead trestle — which is inclosed — from which 
 the material to be dried is dumped directly into the drying 
 rooms or bins, through hoppers arranged for that purpose, 
 thereby creating considerable saving in the handling of 
 the material to be dried into the kiln. The entire ar- 
 rangement thus secures the maximum capacity, with a 
 minimum amount of floor space, with the least expense. 
 Of course, the higher these kilns are built, the less relative 
 cost for a given result in the amount of material dried. 
 
 In some instances, these kilns are built less in height, 
 and up against an embankment so that teamloads of 
 material may be run directly onto the roof of the kilns, and 
 dumped through the hoppers into the drying rooms or 
 bins, thus again reducing to a minumim the cost of 
 this handling. 
 
 The return air duct plays an important part in both of 
 these methods of filling, permitting the air to become 
 saturated to the maximum desired, and utilizing much 
 of the heat contained therein, which would otherwise 
 escape to the atmosphere. 
 
 The "Tower" kiln is especially adapted to factories 
 of the following class: 
 
 Sawmills ; 
 Novelty factories; 
 Woodenware factories ; 
 Tub and pail factories; etc. 
 
 The "Box" Dry KUn 
 
 The "Box" kiln shown in Figure 39 is an exterior view 
 of a kiln of this type which is 20 feet wide, 19 feet deep, 
 and 14 feet high, which is the size generally used when 
 the space will permit. 
 
 Box kilns are used mostly where only a small quantity 
 of material is to be dried. They are not equipped with 
 trucks or cars, the material to be dried being piled upon a 
 
TYPES OF DRY KILNS 
 
 205 
 
 raised platform inside the drying room. This arrange- 
 ment, therefore, makes them of less cost than the other 
 types of dry kilns. 
 
 They are particularly adapted to any and all species 
 and size of lumber to be dried in very small quantities. 
 
 Fig. 39. Exterior view of the Box Dry Kiln. This particular kiln is 20 feet 
 wide, 19 feet deep and 14 feet high. Box kilns are used mostly where 
 only a small amount of kiln-dricd lumber of various sizes is required. 
 They are not equipped with trucks or cars, and therefore cost less to 
 construct than any other type of dry kiln. 
 
 In these small kilns the circulation is under perfect 
 control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more 
 extensive plants. 
 
 These special kilns will readily appeal to manufacturers, 
 whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning 
 of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume 
 of material of uniform size and grade. 
 
SECTION XIII 
 
 DRY KIL^ SPECIALTIES 
 
 KILN CARS AND METHOD OF LOADING 
 
 Within recent years, the edge-wise piling of lumber 
 (see Figs. 40 and 41), upon kiln cars has met with con- 
 siderable favor on account of its many advantages over 
 the older method of flat piling. It has been proven that 
 lumber stacked edge- wise dries more uniformly and rapidly, 
 
 Fig. 40. Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker, 
 to go into the Dry Kiln cross-wise. Equipped with two edge piling 
 kiln trucks. 
 
 and with practically no warping or twisting of the material, 
 and that it is finally discharged from the dry kiln in a 
 much better and brighter condition. This method of 
 piling also considerably increases the holding and con- 
 sequent drying capacities of the dry kiln by reason of the 
 increased carrying capacities of the kiln cars, and the 
 shorter period of time required for drying the material. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 207 
 
 In Figures 42 and 43 are shown different views of the 
 automatic lumber stacker for edge-wise piHng of lumber on 
 kiln cars. Many users of automatic stackers report that 
 
 Fig. 41. Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker, 
 to go into the Dry Kiln end-wise. The bunlcs on which the lumber 
 rests are channel steel. The end sockets are malleable iron and made 
 for I-beam stakes. 
 
 the grade of their lumber is raised to such an extent that 
 the system would be profitable for this reason alone, not 
 taking into consideration the added saving in time and 
 labor, which to anyone's mind should be the most im- 
 portant item. 
 
 In operation, the lumber is carried to these automatic 
 stackers on transfer chains or chain conveyors, and passes 
 on to the stacker table. When the table is covered with 
 boards, the "lumber" lever is pulled by the operator, 
 which raises a stop, preventing any more lumber leaving 
 the chain conveyor. The "table" lever then operates 
 the friction drive and raises the table filled with the boards 
 to a vertical position. As the table goes up, it raises the 
 latches, which fall into place behind the piling strips that 
 had been previously laid on the table. When the table 
 returns to the lower position, a new set of piUng strips 
 are put in place on the table, and the stream of boards 
 which has been accumulating on the conveyor chain are 
 again permitted to flow onto the table. As each layer of 
 lumber is added, the kiln car is forced out against a strong 
 
208 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 tension. When the car is loaded, binders are put on over 
 the stakes by means of a powerful lever arrangement. 
 
 Fig. 42. The above illustration shows the construction of the Automatic 
 Lumber Stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln end- 
 wise. 
 
 J'ig. 4.3. The above illustration shows the construction of the Automatic 
 Lumber Stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln cross- 
 «ise. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 209 
 
 rig. 44. The aliovc illustration shows a battery of Three Automatic Lumber 
 
 Stackers. 
 
 Fig. 45. The above illustration shows another l)attery of Three Automatic 
 
 Lunilier Stackers. 
 
210 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Cars Loaded with Luml)er on its Edges by the Automatic Lumber 
 Stackers. 
 
 After leaving the dry kilns, the loaded car is transferred 
 to the unstacker (see Fig. 47). Here it is placed on the 
 unstacker car which, by means of a tension device, holds 
 the load of lumber tight against the vertical frame of the 
 unstacker. The frame of the unstacker is triangular 
 and has a series of chains. Each chain has two special 
 links with projecting lugs. The chains all travel in unison. 
 The lug links engage a layer of boards, sliding the entire 
 layer vertically, and the boards, one at a time, fall over 
 the top of the unstacker frame onto the inclined table, 
 and from there onto conveyor chains from which they 
 may be delivered to any point desired, depending upon 
 the length and direction of the chain conveyor. 
 
 With these unstackers one man can easily unload a 
 kiln car in twenty minutes or less. 
 
 The experience of many users prove that these edge 
 stacking machines are not alike. This is important, 
 because there is one feature of edge stacking that must 
 not be overlooked. Unless each layer of boards is forced 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 211 
 
 Fig. 47. The Lumber Unstacker Car, used for unloading cars of Lumber 
 loaded by the Automatic Stacker. 
 
 Fig. 48. The Lumljer Unstacker Car and Unstacker, used for unloading 
 Lumber loaded by the Automatic Stacker. 
 
212 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 into place by power and held under a strong pressure, much 
 slack will accumulate in an entire load, and the subsequent 
 handling of the kiln cars, and the effect of the kiln-drying 
 will loosen up the load until there is a tendency for the 
 layers to telescope. And unless the boards are held in 
 place rigidly and with strong pressure they will have a 
 tendency to warp. 
 
 A kiln car of edge-stacked lumber, properly piled, is 
 made up of alternate solid sheets of lumber and vertical 
 
 Fig. 49. The above illu.stration shows method of loading kiln cars with 
 veneer on its edges by the use of the Tilting Platform. 
 
 open-air spaces, so that the hot air and vapors rise naturally 
 and freely through the lumber, drying both sides of the 
 board evenly. The distribution of the heat and moisture 
 being even and uniform, the drying process is naturally 
 cjuickened, and there is no opportunity or tendency for 
 the lumber to warp. 
 
 In Figure 49 will be seen a method of loading kiln cars 
 with veneer on edge by the use of a tilting platform. On 
 the right of the illustration is seen a partially loaded kiln 
 car tilted to an angle of 45 degrees, to facilitate the placing 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 213 
 
 of the veneer on the car. At the left is a completely 
 loaded car ready to enter the dry kiln. 
 
 Gum, poplar, and pine veneers are satisfactorily dried 
 in this manner in from 8 to 24 hours. 
 
 In Figure 50 will be seen method of pihng lumber on 
 the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three 
 tracks. 
 
 Fig. 50. Method of Loading Iiimhcr on its Flat, cross-wise of the Dry 
 Kiln when same has Three Tracks. 
 
 In Figure 51 will be seen another method of piling lum- 
 ber on the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same 
 has three tracks. 
 
 In Figure 52 will be seen method of piling lumber on the 
 flat, "end- wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. 
 
 In Figure 53 will be seen another method of piling lum- 
 ber on the flat, "end- wise" of the dry kiln when same has 
 two tracks. 
 
 In Figure 54 will be seen method of piling slack or tight 
 barrel staves "cross- wise" of the kiln when same has three 
 tracks. 
 
 In Figure 55 will be seen another method of piling slack 
 or tight barrel staves "cross-wise" of the dry kfln when 
 same has three tracks. 
 
 In Figure 56 will be seen method of piling small tub or 
 pail staves "cross- wise" of the dry kiln when same has 
 two tracks. 
 
 In Figure 57 will be seen method of pihng bundled staves 
 "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. 
 
214 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 51. Method of loading Lumber on its Flat, cross-wise of the Dry Kiln 
 when same has Three Tracks. 
 
 Fig 52. Method of loading Lumber on its Flat, end-wise of the Dry Kiln 
 by the Use of the Single-sill or Dolly Truck. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 215 
 
 
 0) f_| 
 
 fe 
 
 be 
 
 C 
 
 -3 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 -a 
 o 
 
 j3 
 
 bo 
 
216 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 54. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tight or Slack Barrel Staves 
 cross-wise of Dry Kiln. 
 
 Fig. .5.5. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tight or Slack Barrel Staves 
 cross- wise of Dry Kiln. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 217 
 
 Fig. 56. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tub or Pail Staves cross-wise of 
 
 Dry Kiln. 
 
 Fig. 57. Method of loading Kiln Car with Bundled Staves cross-wise of 
 
 Dry Kiln. 
 
218 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In Figure 58 will be seen method of piling shingles "cross- 
 wise" of dry kiln when same has three tracks. 
 
 In Figure 59 will be seen another method of piling 
 shingles "cross- wise" of the dry kiln when same has three 
 tracks. 
 
 Fig. 58. Method of loading Kiln Car with Shingles cross-wise of Dry Kiln. 
 
 "1 
 
 Fig. .59. Method of loading Kiln Car with Shingles cross-wise of Dry KUn. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 219 
 
 In Figure 60 will be seen method of piling shingles "end- 
 wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks 
 
 In Figure 61 will be seen a kiln car designed for handhng 
 short tub or pail staves through a dry kiln. 
 
 Fig. 60. Car loaded with 100,000 Shingles. Equipped with four long end- 
 wise piling trucks and to go into dry kiln end-wise. 
 
 Fig. 61. Kiln Car designed for handling Short Tub or Pail Staves through 
 
 a Dry Kiln. 
 
220 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In Figure 62 will be seen a kiln car designed for short 
 piece stock through a dry kiln. 
 
 In Figure 63 will be seen a type of truck designed for 
 the handling of stave bolts about a stave niill or through 
 a steam box. 
 
 In Figure 64 will be seen another type of truck designed 
 for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through 
 a steam box. 
 
 In Figure 65 will be seen another type of truck designed 
 for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through 
 a steam box. ^ 
 
 In Figure 66 will be seen another type of truck designed 
 for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through 
 a steam box. 
 
 In Figure 67 will be seen another type of truck designed 
 for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through 
 a steam box. 
 
 In Figure 68 will be seen another type of truck designed 
 for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through 
 a steam box. 
 
 In Figure 69 will be seen the Regular 3-rail Transfer 
 Car designed for the handling of 2-rail kiln cars which 
 have been loaded "end-wise." 
 
 In Figure 70 will be seen another type of Regular 3-rail 
 Transfer Car designed for the handling of 2-rail kiln cars 
 which have been loaded "end-wise." 
 
 In Figure 71 will be seen a Specially-designed 4- rail 
 Transfer Car for 2-rail kiln cars which have been built 
 to accommodate extra long material to be dried. 
 
 In Figure 72 will be seen the Regular 2-rail Transfer 
 Car designed for the handling of 3-raiI kiln cars which have 
 been loaded "cross-wise." 
 
 In Figure 73 will be seen another type of Regular 2-rail 
 Transfer Car designed for the handhng of 3-rail kiln cars 
 which have been loaded "cross- wise." 
 
 In Figure 74 will be seen the Regular 2-rail Underslung 
 type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 3-rail 
 kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." Two im- 
 portant features in the construction of this transfer car 
 make it extremely easy in its operation. It has extra large 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 221 
 
 Fig. 62. Kiln Car Designed for handling Short Piece Stock through a Dry Kiln. 
 
 Fig. 6.3. A Stave Bolt Truck. 
 
999 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 "o 
 
 pq 
 S 
 
 PH 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 223 
 
 Fig. 60. A Stave Bolt Truck. 
 
 Fig. 67. A Stave Bolt Truck. 
 
224 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 68. A Stave Bolt Truck. 
 
 Fig. 69. A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 225 
 
 Fig. 70. A Ucgulur y-liail Transfer Truck. 
 
 Fi"-. 71. A Special 4-Rail Transfer Truck. 
 
 Fig. 72. A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck. 
 
^26 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 73. A Rcgiiiar 2-Rail Transfer Truck. 
 
 Fig. 74. A Regular 2-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck. 
 
 Fig. 7.5. A Regular .3-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 227 
 
 wheels, diameter 13| inches, and being underslung, the 
 top of its rails are no higher than the other types of transfer 
 cars. Note the relative size of the wheels in the illustra- 
 tion, yet the car is only about 10 inches in height. 
 
 In Figure 75 will be seen the Regular 3-rail Underslung 
 type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 2-rail 
 kiln cars which have been loaded "end-wise." This car 
 also has the important features of large diameter wheels 
 and low rail construction, which make it very easy in its 
 operation. 
 
 'n0lt>'- 
 
 Fig. 76. A Special 2-Rail Flexible Transfer Truck. 
 
 In Figure 76 will be seen the Special 2-rail Flexible 
 type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 3-rail 
 kiln cars which have been loaded "cross- wise." This car 
 is equipped with double the usual number of wheels, and 
 by making each set of trucks a separate unit (the front 
 and rear trucks being bolted to a steel beam with malleable 
 iron connection), a slight up-and-down movement is per- 
 mitted, which enables this transfer car to adjust itself to 
 any unevenness in the track, which is a very good feature. 
 
 In Figure 77 will be seen the Regular Transfer Car de- 
 signed for the handling of stave bolt trucks. 
 
 In Figure 78 will be seen another type of Regular Trans- 
 fer Car designed for the handhng of stave bolt trucks. 
 
 In Figure 79 will be seen a Special Transfer Car de- 
 signed for the handling of stave bolt trucks. 
 
228 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Fig. 77. A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks. 
 
 Fig. 78. A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks. 
 
 Fig. 79. A Special Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 229 
 
 In Figure 80 will be seen the Regular Channel-iron 
 Kiln Truck designed for edge pihng "cross-wise" of the 
 dry kiln. 
 
 In Figure 81 will be seen another type of Regular Chan- 
 nel-iron Kiln Truck designed for edge piling "cross- wise" 
 of the dry kiln. 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 bfl 
 
 < 
 
 be 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 bi) 
 
 s 
 
230 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 In Figure 82 will be seen the Regular Channel-iron 
 Kiln Truck designed for flat pihng "end- wise" of the dry 
 kiln. 
 
 Fig. 82. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck. 
 
 Fig. 83. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck. 
 
 Fig. 84. A Regular Single-sill or Dolly Kiln Truck. 
 
 In Figure 83 will be seen the Regular Channel-iron 
 Kiln Truck with I-Beam cross-pieces designed for flat 
 piling "end- wise" of the dry kiln. 
 
 In Figure 84 will be seen the Regular Small Dolly Kiln 
 Truck designed for flat piling "end -wise" of the dry kiln. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 231 
 
 Different Types of Kiln Doors 
 
 In Figure 85 will be seen the Asbestos-lined Door. The 
 construction of this kiln door is such that it has no tendency 
 to warp or twist. The framework is soUd and the body 
 is made of thin slats placed so that the slat on either side 
 
 Fig. 85. An Asbestos-lined Kiln Door of the Hinge Type. 
 
 covers the open space of the other with asbestos roofing 
 fabric in between. This makes a comparatively light 
 and inexpensive door, and one that absolutely holds the 
 heat. These doors may be built either swinging, hoisting, 
 or sliding. 
 
 In Figure 86 will be seen the Twin Carrier type of door 
 hangers with doors loaded and rolling clear of the opening. 
 
232 
 
 SEASONING OF AVOOD 
 
 Fig. 86. Twin Carrier with Kiln Door loaded and rolling clear of Opening. 
 
 iniiri 
 rrnirii 
 frrnin 
 fi lining 
 pmin 
 
 in r rrn 
 
 lillTTI 
 Til 
 
 ^^ninr 
 
 M 
 
 1 1 rnTi 
 
 IliFTkjl 
 
 iniT 
 iTin 
 nm, 
 
 niiT 
 
 rniii 
 I 
 
 Fig. 87. Twin Carriers for Kiln Doors 18 to 35 Feet wide. 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 233 
 
 In Figure 87 will be seen the Twin Carrier for doors 18 
 to 35 feet wide, idle on a section of the track. 
 
 In Figure 88 will be seen another type of carrier for kiln 
 doors. 
 
 In Figure 89 will be seen the preceding type of kiln door 
 carrier in operation. 
 
 In Figure 90 will be seen another type of carrier for 
 kiln doors. 
 
 In Figure 91 will be seen kiln doors seated, wood con- 
 struction, showing 3i" X 5f" inch-track timbers and 
 
 Fig. 88. Kiln Door Carrier engaged to Door Ready for lifting. 
 
 trusses, supported on 4-inch by 6-inch jamb posts. "T" 
 rail track, top and side, inclined shelves on which the kiln 
 door rests. Track timber not trussed on openings under 
 12 feet wide. 
 
 In Figure 92 will be seen kiln doors seated, fire-proof 
 construction, showing 12-inch, channel, steel lintels, 2" X 2" 
 steel angle mullions, track brackets bolted to the steel 
 lintels and "T" rail track. No track timbers or trusses 
 used. 
 
234 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 fe 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
DRY KILN SPECIALTIES 
 
 235 
 
 'j^ai&9Vv-5J"'--' •-■ ■-■■' vi^^-^'^SiltrftMiikLb. . 
 
 Fig. 90. Kiln Door Construction with Door Carrier out of Sight. 
 
 Fig. 91. Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Wood Construction. 
 
236 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 o 
 
 fe 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 p^ 
 
220 
 
 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 
 
 Fig. 93. The United States Forest Service Humidity Diagram for determination of Absolute Humidities. 
 Dew Point.? and Vapor Pressures; also Relative Humidities by means of Wet and Dry-Bulb 
 Thermometer, for any temperatures and change in temperature. 
 
 100 
 
 220 
 
SECTION XIV 
 
 HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN 
 KILN-DEYING 
 
 The Humidity Diagram 
 
 Some simple means of determining humidities and 
 changes in humidity brought about by changes in tem- 
 perature in the dry kiln without the use of tables is almost 
 a necessity. To meet this requirement the United States 
 Forestry Service has devised the Humidity Diagram shown 
 in Figure 93. It differs in several respects from the hy- 
 drodeiks now in use. 
 
 The purpose of the hunhdity diagram is to enable the 
 dry-kiln operator to determine quickly the humidity con- 
 ditions and vapor pressure, as well as the changes which 
 take place with changes of temperature. The diagram 
 above is adapted to the direct solution of problems of 
 this character without recourse to tables or mathematical 
 calculations. 
 
 The humidity diagram consists of two distinct sets of 
 curves on the same sheet. One set, the convex curves, 
 is for the determination of relative humidity of wet-and- 
 dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer ; the other, the con- 
 cave curves, is derived from the vapor pressures and shows 
 the amount of moisture per cubic foot at relative humidi- 
 ties and temperatures when read at the dew-point. The 
 latter curves, therefore, are independent of all variables 
 affecting the wet-bulb readings. They are proportional 
 to vapor pressures, not to density, and, therefore, may be 
 followed from one temperature to another with correctness. 
 The short dashes show the correction (increase or decrease) 
 which is necessary in the relative humidity, read from the 
 convex curves, with an increase or decrease from the normal 
 barometric pressure of 30 inches, for which the curves 
 
238 • SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 have been plotted. This correction, except for very low 
 temperatures, is so small that it may usually be disregarded. 
 The ordinates, or vertical distances, are relative hu- 
 midity expressed in per cent of saturation, from per cent 
 at the bottom to 100 per cent at the top. The abscissae, or 
 horizontal distances, are temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit 
 from 30 degrees below zero, at the left, to 220 degrees above, 
 at the right. 
 
 Examples of Use 
 
 The application of the humidity diagram can best be 
 understood by sample problems. These problems also 
 show the wide range of conditions to which the diagram 
 will apply. 
 
 Example 1. To find the relative humidity by use of wet- 
 and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psyehrometer: 
 
 Place the instrument in a strong circulation of air, or 
 wave it to and fro. Read the temperature of the dry bulb 
 and the wet, and subtract. Find on the horizontal line 
 the temperature shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. 
 Follow the vertical line from this point till it intersects 
 with the convex curve marked with the difference between 
 the wet and dry readings. The horizontal line passing 
 through this intersection will give the relative humidity. 
 
 Example: Dry l)ulb 70°, wet bulb 62°, difference 8°. 
 Find 70° on the horizontal line of temperature. Follow 
 up the vertical line from 70° until it intersects with the 
 convex curve marked 8°. The horizontal line passing 
 through this intersection shows the relative humidity to be 
 64 per cent. 
 
 Example 2. To find how much water per cubic foot is con- 
 tained in the air: 
 
 Find the relative humidity as in example 1. Then the 
 nearest concave curve gives the weight of water in grains 
 per culiic foot when the air is cooled to the dew-point. 
 Using the same quantities as in example 1, this will be 
 slightly more than .5 grains. 
 
 Example 3. To find the amount of water reciuired to saturate 
 air at a given temperature: 
 
 Find on the top line (100 per cent humidity) the given 
 temperature; the concave curve intersecting at or near 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 239 
 
 this point gives the number of grains per cubic foot. 
 (Interpolate, if great accuracy is desired.) 
 Example 4. To find the dew-point: 
 
 Obtain the relative humidity as in example 1. Then 
 follow up parallel to the nearest concave curve until the 
 top horizontal (indicating 100 per cent relative humidity) 
 is reached. The temperature on this horizonal line at 
 the point reached will be the dew-point. 
 
 Example : Dry bulb 70°, wet bulb 62°. On the verti- 
 cal line for 70° find the intersection with the hygrometer 
 (convex) curve for 8°. This will be found at nearly 64 per 
 cent relative humidity. Then follow up parallel with the 
 vapor pressure (concave) curve marked 5 grains to its 
 intersection at the top of the chart with the 100 per cent 
 humidity line. This gives the dew-point as 57°. 
 
 Example 5. To find the change in the relative humidity pro- 
 duced by a change in temperature: 
 
 Example: The air at 70° Fahr. is found to contain 64 
 per cent humidity; what will be its relative humidity if 
 heated to 150° Fahr.? Starting from the intersection of 
 the designated humidity and temperature coordinates, 
 follow the vapor-pressure curve (concave) until it inter- 
 sects the 150° temperature ordinate. The horizontal line 
 then reads 6 per cent relative humidity. The same opera- 
 tion applies to reductions in temperature. In the above 
 example what is the humidity at 60°? Following parallel to 
 the same curve in the opposite direction until it intersects 
 the 60° ordinate gives 90 per cent; at 57° it becomes 100 
 per cent, reaching the dew-point. 
 
 Example 6. To find the amount of condensation produced by 
 lowering the temperature: 
 
 Example: At 150° the wet bulb reads 132°. How much 
 water would be condensed if the temperature were lowered 
 to 70°? The intersection of the hygrometer curve for 18° 
 (150°-132°) with temperature line for 150° shows a rela- 
 tive humidity of 60 per cent. The vapor-pressure curve 
 (concave) followed up to the 100 per cent relative humidity 
 line shows 45 grains per cubic foot at the dew-point, which 
 corresponds to a temperature of 130°. At 70° it is seen 
 that the air can contain but 8 grains per cubic foot (satura- 
 tion). Consequently, there will be condensed 45 minus 8, or 
 37 grains per cubic foot of space measured at the dew-point. 
 
240 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 Example 7. To find the amount of water required to produce 
 saturation by a given rise in temperature: 
 
 Example: Take tlie values given in example 5. The air 
 at the dew-point contains slightly over 5 grains per cubic 
 foot. At 150° it is capable of containing 73 grains per 
 cubic foot. Consequent^, 73-5 = 68 grains of water 
 which can be evaporated per cubic foot of space at the 
 dew-point when the temperature is raised to 150°. But 
 the latent heat necessary to produce evaporation must be 
 supplied in addition to the heat required to raise the air 
 to 150°. 
 
 Example 8. To find the amount of water evaporated during 
 a given change of temperature and humidity: 
 
 Example: At 70° suppose the humidity is found to be 
 64 per cent and at 150° it is found to be 60 per cent. How 
 much water has been evaporated per cubic foot of space? 
 At 70° temperature and 64 per cent humidity there are 
 5 grains of water present per cubic foot at the dew-point 
 (example 2). At 150° and 60 per cent humidity there are 
 45 grains present. Therefore, 45—5 = 40 grains of water 
 which have been evaporated per cubic foot of space, 
 figuring all volumes at the dew-point. 
 
 Example 9. To correct readings of the hygrometer for changes 
 in barometric pressure: 
 
 A change of pressure affects the reading of the wet bulb. 
 The chart applies at a barometric pressure of 30 inches, 
 and, except for great accuracy, no correction is generally 
 necessary. 
 
 Find the relative humidity as usual. Then look for the 
 nearest barometer line (indicated by dashes). At the end 
 of each barometer line will be found a fraction which repre- 
 sents the proportion of the relative humidity already found, 
 which must be added or subtracted for a change in baro- 
 metric pressure. If the barometer reading is less than 
 30 inches, add; if greater than 30 inches, subtract. The 
 figures given are for a change of 1 inch; for other changes 
 use proportional amounts. Thus, for a change of 2 inches 
 use twice the indicated ratio; for half an inch use half, 
 and so on. 
 
 Example: Dry bulb 67°, wet bulb 51°, barometer 28 
 inches. The relative humidity is found, by the method 
 given in example 1, to equal 30 per cent. The barometric 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 241 
 
 line gives a value of 3/lOOH for each inch of change. 
 
 Since the barometer is 2 inches Ijelow 30, multiply 
 3/lOOH l)y 2, giving 6/lOOH. The correction will, there- 
 fore, be 6/100 of 30, which equals L8. Since the barometer 
 is below 30, this is to be added, giving a corrected relative 
 humidity of 31.8 per cent. 
 
 This has nothing to do with the vapor pressure (concave) 
 curves, which are independent of barometric pressure, and 
 consequently does not affect the solution of the previous 
 problems. 
 
 Example 10. At what temperature must the condenser be 
 maintained to produce a given humidity? 
 
 Example: Suppose the temperature in the drying room 
 is to be kept at 150° Fahr., and a humidity of 80 per cent 
 is desired. If the humidity is in excess of 80 per cent the 
 air must be cooled to the dew-point corresponding to this 
 condition (see example 4), which in this case is 141. .5°. 
 
 Hence, if the condenser cools the air to this dew point 
 the required condition is obtained when the air is again 
 heated to the initial temperature. 
 
 Example 1 1 . Determination of relative humidity by the dew- 
 point : 
 
 The quantity of moisture present and relative humidity 
 for any given temperature may be determined directly 
 and accurately by finding the dew-point and applying the 
 concave (vapor-pressure) curves. This does away with 
 the necessity for the empirical convex curves and wet- 
 and-dry-bulb readings. To find the dew-point some form 
 of apparatus, consisting essentially of a thin glass vessel 
 containing a thermometer and a volatile hquid, such as 
 ether, may be used. The vessel is graduall}' cooled through 
 the evaporation of the liquid, accelerated bj^ forcing air 
 through a tube until a haze or dimness, due to condensa- 
 tion from the surrounding air, first appears upon the brighter 
 outer surface of the glass. The temperature at which the 
 haze first appears is the dew-point. Several trials should 
 be made for this temperature determination, using the 
 average temperature at which the haze appears and 
 disappears. 
 
 To determine the relative humidity of the surrounding 
 air by means of the dew-point thus determined, find the 
 concave curve intersecting the top horizontal (100 per 
 
242 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 cent relative humidity) line nearest the dew-point tem- 
 perature. Follow parallel with this curve till it intersects 
 the vertical line representing the temperature of the sur- 
 rounding air. The horizontal line passing through this 
 intersection will give the relative humidity. 
 
 Example: Temperature of surrounding air is 80; dew- 
 point is 61; relative humidity is 53 per cent. 
 
 The dew-point deternrination is, however, not as con- 
 venient to make as the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer 
 readings. Therefore, the hygrometer (convex) curves are 
 ordinarily more useful in determining relative humidities. 
 
 The Hygrodeik 
 
 In Figure 94 will be seen the Hygrodeik. This instru- 
 ment is used to determine the amount of moisture in the 
 atmosphere. It is a very useful instrument, as the readings 
 may be taken direct with accuracy. 
 
 To find the relative humidity in the atmosphere, swing 
 the index hand to the left of the chart, and adjust the 
 sliding pointer to that degree of the wet-bulb thermometer 
 scale at which the mercury stands. Then swing the index 
 hand to the right until the sliding pointer intersects the 
 curved line, which extends downwards to the left from 
 the degree of the dry-bulb thermometer scale, indicated 
 by the top of the mercury column in the dry-bulb tube. 
 
 At that intersection, the index hand will point to the 
 relative humidity on scale at bottom of chart (for example 
 see Fig. 94). Should the temperature indicated by the 
 wet-bulb thermometer be 60 degrees, and that of the dry- 
 bulb 70 degrees, the index hand will indicate humidity 
 55 degrees, w^hen the pointer rests on the intersecting 
 line of 60 degrees and 80 degrees. 
 
 The Recording Hygrometer 
 
 In Figure 95 is shown the Recording Hygrometer com- 
 plete with wet and dry bulbs, two connecting tubes and 
 two recording pens and special moistening device for 
 supplying water to the wet bulb. 
 
 This equipment is designed particularly for use in con- 
 nection with dry rooms and dry kilns and is arranged so 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 243 
 
 that the recording instrument and the water supply bottle 
 may be installed outside of the dry kiln or drying room, 
 while the wet and dry bulbs are both installed inside the 
 
 Fig. 94. The Hygrodeik. 
 
 room or kiln at the point where it is desired to measure 
 the humidity. This instrument records on a weekly 
 chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the 
 entire week. 
 
244 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 The Registering Hygrometer 
 
 In Figure 96 is sliown the Registering Hygrometer, 
 which consists of two especially constructed thermometers. 
 The special feature of the thermometers permits placing 
 
 Fig. 9.5. 'I'lic Heeording Hygrometer, Com))lctc with Wet and Dry Bulbs.- 
 This instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each 
 hour of the day, during the entire week. 
 
 the instrument in the dry kiln without entering the drying 
 room, through a small opening, where it is left for about 
 20 minutes. 
 
 The temperature of both the dry and wet bulbs are 
 automatically recorded, and the outside temperature will 
 not affect the thermometers when removed from the kiln. 
 From these recorded temperatures, as shown when the 
 instrument is removed from the kiln, the humidity can 
 be easily determined from a simple form of chart which, 
 is furnished free by the makers with each instrument. 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 245 
 
 The Recording Thermometer 
 
 In Figure 97 is shown the Recording Thermometer for 
 observing and recording the temperatures within a dry 
 kiln, and thus obtaining a checl^; upon its operation. This 
 
 Fig. 90. The Registering Hygrometer. 
 
 Fig. 97. The Recording Thermometer. 
 
246 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 instrument is constructed to record automatically, upon 
 a circular chart, the temperatures pre^'ailing within the 
 drying room at all times of the day and night, and serves 
 not only as a means of keeping an accurate record of the 
 operation of the dry kiln, but as a valuable check upon 
 
 the attendant in charge of the drying 
 
 process. 
 
 The Registering Thermometer 
 
 In Figure 98 is shown the Register- 
 ing Thermometer, which is a less ex- 
 pensive instrument than that shown 
 in Figure 97, but by its use the maxi- 
 
 Fig. 98. The Registering 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Fig. 99. The Recording Steam- 
 Pressure Gauge. 
 
 mum and minimum temperatures in the drying room 
 dming a given period can be determined. 
 
 The Recording Steam Gauge 
 
 In Figure 99 is shown the Recording Steam Pressure 
 Gauge, which is used for accurately recording the steam 
 pressures kept in the boilers. This instrument may be 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 247 
 
 mounted near the boilers, or may be located at any dis- 
 tance necessary, giving a true and accurate record of the 
 fluctuations of the steam pressure that may take place 
 within the boilers, and is a check upon both the day and 
 night boiler firemen. 
 
 The Troemroid Scalometer 
 
 In Figure 100 is shown the Troemroid Scalometer. This 
 instrument is a special scale of exti^eme accuracy, fitted 
 
 Fig. 100. The Troemroid Scalometer. 
 
 with agate bearings with screw adjustment for balancing. 
 The beam is graduated from to 2 ounces, divided into 
 100 parts, each division representing l-50th of an ounce; 
 and by using the pointer attached to the beam weight, 
 the 1-lOOth part of an ounce can be weighed. 
 
 The percentage table No. II has a range from one half 
 of 1 per cent to 30 per cent and is designed for use where 
 extremely fine results are needed, or where a very small 
 
248 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 amount of moisture is present. Table No. Ill ranges 
 from 30 per cent up to 90 per cent. These instruments 
 are in three models as described below. 
 
 Model A. (One cylinder) ranges from ^ of 1 per cent to 30 
 per cent and is to be used for testing moisture contents 
 in kiln-dried and air-dried lumber. 
 
 Model B. (Two cylinders) ranges from | of 1 per cent up to 
 90 per cent and is to be used for testing the moisture 
 contents of kiln-dried, air-dried, and green lumber. 
 
 Model C. (One cylinder) ranges from 30 per cent to 90 per 
 cent and is applicable to green lumber only. 
 
 Test Samples. — The green boards and all other boards 
 intended for testing should be selected from boards of fair 
 average quality. If air-dried, select one about half way 
 up the height of the pile of lumber. If kiln-dried, two 
 thirds the height of the kiln car. Do not remove the kiln 
 car from the kiln until after the test. Three of four test 
 pieces should be cut from near the middle of the cross- 
 wise section of the board, and | to fV ii^ch thick. Re- 
 move the superfluous sawdust and splinters. When the 
 test pieces are placed on the scale pan, be sure their weight 
 is less than two ounces and more than If ounces. If 
 necessary, use two or more broken pieces. It is better if 
 the test pieces can be cut off on a fine band saw. 
 
 Weighing. — Set the base of the scale on a level surface 
 and accurately balance the scale beam. Put the test 
 pieces on the scale pan and note their weight on the lower 
 edge of the beam. Set the indicator point on the hori- 
 zontal bar at a number corresponding to this weight, which 
 may be found on the cylinder at the top of the table. 
 
 Dry the test pieces on the Electric Heater (Fig. 101) 
 30 to 40 minutes, or on the engine cylinder two or three 
 hours. Weigh them at once and note the weight. Then 
 turn the cyhnder up and at the left of it under the small 
 pointer find the number corresponding to this weight. 
 The percentage of moisture lost is found directly under 
 pointer on the horizontal bar first mentioned. The lower 
 portion on the cylinder Table No. II is an extension of 
 
HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN-DRYING 249 
 
 the upper portion, and is manipulated in the same manner 
 except that the bottom hne of figures is used for the 
 first weight, and the right side of cyhnder for second weight. 
 Turn the cyhnder down instead of up when using it. 
 
 Examples (Test Pieces) 
 
 Model A. Table No. II, Kiln-dried or Air-dried Lumber: 
 If first weight is 90^ and the second weight is 87, the cylinder 
 table will show the board from which the test pieces were 
 taken had a moistm-e content of 3.8 per cent. 
 
 Model B. Tables No. II and III, Air-dried (also Green and 
 Kiln-dried) Lumber. 
 
 If the first weight on lower cylinder is 97 and the second 
 weight is 76, the table will show 2L6 per cent of moisture. 
 
 Model C. Table III, Green Lumber: 
 
 If the first weight is 94 and the second weight is 51, the 
 table shows 45.8 per cent of moisture. 
 
 Keep Records of the Moisture Content 
 
 Saw Mills. — Should test and mark each pile of lumber 
 when first piled in the yard, and later when sold it should 
 be again tested and the two records given to the purchaser. 
 
 Factories. — Should test and mark the lumber when 
 first received, and if piled in the yard to be kiln-dried 
 later, it should be tested before going into the dry kiln, 
 and again before being removed, and these records placed 
 on file for future reference. 
 
 Kiln-dried lumber piled in storage rooms (without any 
 heat) will absorb 7 to 9 per cent of moisture, and even 
 when so stored should be tested for moisture before being 
 manufactured into the finished product. 
 
 Never work lumber through the factory that has more 
 than 5 or 6 per cent of moisture or less than 3 per cent. 
 
 Dry storage rooms should be provided with heating 
 coils and properly ventilated. 
 
 Oak or any other species of wood that shows 25 or 30 
 per cent of moisture when going into the dry kiln, wiU 
 take longer to dry than it would if it contained 15 to 20 
 per cent, therefore the importance of testing before putting 
 into the kiln as well as when taking it out. 
 
250 
 
 SEASONING OF WOOD 
 
 The Electric Heater 
 
 In Figure 101 is shown the Electric Heater. This 
 heater is especially designed to dry quickly the test pieces 
 for use in connection with the Scalometer (see Fig. 100) 
 without charring them. It may be attached to any electric 
 
 Fig. 101. The Electric Heater. 
 
 light socket of 110 volts direct or alternating current. A 
 metal rack is provided to hold the test pieces vertically 
 on edge. 
 
 Turn the test pieces over once or twice while drying. 
 
 It will require from 20 minutes to one hour to remove 
 all the moisture from the test pieces when placed on this 
 heater, depending on whether they are cut from green, 
 air-dried, or kiln-dried boards. 
 
 Test pieces cut from softwoods will dry quicker than 
 those cut from hardwoods. 
 
 When the test pieces fail to show any further loss in 
 weight, they are then free from all moisture content. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 American Blower Company, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Imre, James E., "The Kihi-drying of Gum," The United States 
 Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry. 
 
 National Dry Kiln Company, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Prichard, Reuben P., "The Structure of the Common Woods," 
 The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of For- 
 estry, Bulletin No. 3. 
 
 Roth, Filibert, "Timber," The United States Dept. of Agri- 
 culture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 10. 
 
 Standard Dry Kiln Company, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Sturtevant Company, B. F., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Tieman, H. D., "The Effects of Moisture upon the Strength and 
 Stiffness of Wood," The United States Dept. of Agricul- 
 ture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 70. 
 
 Tieman, H. D., "Principles of Kiln-drying Lumber," The United 
 States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry. 
 
 Tieman, H. D., " The Theory of Drying and its Application, etc.," 
 The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of 
 Forestry, Bulletin No. 509. 
 
 The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of For- 
 estry, "Check List of the Forest Trees of the United 
 States." 
 
 The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of 
 Forestry, Bulletin No. 37. 
 
 Von Schrenk, Herman, "Seasoning of Timbers," The United 
 States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bul- 
 letin No. 41. 
 
 Wagner, J. B., "Cooperage," 1910. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Abnormal. Differing from the usual structure. 
 
 Acuminate. Tapering at the end. 
 
 Adhesion. The union of members of different floral whorls. 
 
 Air-seasoning. The drying of wood in the open air. 
 
 Albumen. A name applied to the food store laid up outside the 
 
 embryo in many seeds; also nitrogenous organic matter 
 
 found in plants. 
 Albumam. Sap wood, 
 Angiosperms. Those plants which bear their seeds within a 
 
 pericarp. 
 Annual rings. The layers of wood which are added annually to 
 
 the tree. 
 Apartment kiln. A drying arrangement of one or more rooms 
 
 with openings at each end. 
 Arborescent. A tree in size and habit of growth. 
 
 Baffle plate. An obstruction to deflect air or other currents. 
 
 Bastard cut. Tangential cut. Wood of inferior cut. 
 
 Berry. A fruit whose entire pericarp is succulent. 
 
 Blower kiln. A drying arrangement in which the air is blown 
 
 through heating coils into the drying room. 
 Box kiln. A small square heating room with openings in one end 
 
 only. 
 Brittleness. Aptness to break; not tough; fragility. 
 Burrow. A shelter; insect's hole in the wood. 
 
 Calorie. Unit of heat; amount of heat which raises the 
 
 temperature. 
 Calyx. The outer whorl of floral envelopes. 
 CapUlary. A tube or vessel extremely fine or minute. 
 Case-harden. A condition in which the pores of the wood are 
 
 closed and the outer surface dry, while the inner portion is 
 
 still wet or unseasoned. 
 Cavity. A hollow place; a hollow. 
 Cell. One of the minute, elementary structures comprising the 
 
 greater part of plant tissue. 
 Cellulose. A primary cell-wall substance. 
 
254 GLOSSARY 
 
 Checks. The small chinks or cracks caused by the rupture of the 
 
 wood fibres. 
 Cleft. Opening made by splitting; divided. 
 Coarse-grained. Wood is coarse-grained when the annual rings 
 
 are wide or far apart. 
 Cohesion. The union of members of the same floral whorl. 
 Contorted. Twisted together. 
 Corolla. The inner whorl of floral envelopes. 
 Cotyledon. One of the parts of the eml^ryo performing in part the 
 
 function of a leaf, but usually serving as a storehouse of food 
 
 for the developing plant. 
 Crossers. Narrow wooden strips used to separate the material on 
 
 kiln cars. 
 Cross-grained. Wood is cross-grained when its fibres are spiral 
 
 or twisted. 
 
 Dapple. An exaggerated form of mottle. 
 
 Deciduous. Not persistent; applied to leaves that fall in autumn 
 and to calyx and corolla when they fall off before the fruit 
 develops. 
 
 Definite. Limited or defined. 
 
 Dew-point. The point at which water is deposited from moisture- 
 laden air. 
 
 Dicotyledon. A plant whose embryo has two opposite cotyledons. 
 
 Diffuse. Widely spreading. 
 
 Disk. A circular, flat, thin piece or section of the tree. 
 
 Duramen. Heartwood. 
 
 Embryo. Applied in botany to the tiny plant within the seed. 
 Enchinate. Beset with prickles. 
 
 Expansion. An enlargement across the grain or lengthwise of the 
 wood. 
 
 Fibres. The thread-like portion of the tissue of wood. 
 
 Fibre-saturation point. The amount of moisture wood will im- 
 bibe, usually 25 to 30 per cent of its dry-wood weight. 
 
 Figure. The broad and deep medullary rays as in oak showing 
 when the timber is cut into boards. 
 
 Filament. The stalk which supports the anther. 
 
 Fine-grained. Wood is fine-grained when the annual rings are 
 close together or narrow. 
 
 Germination. The sprouting of a seed. 
 
 Girdling. To make a groove around and through the bark of a 
 tree, thus killing it. 
 
GLOSSARY 255 
 
 Glands. A secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having 
 
 the appearance of such an organ. 
 Glaucous. Covered or whitened with a bloom. 
 Grain. Direction or arrangement of the fibres in wood. 
 Grubs. The larvae of wood-destroying insects. 
 Gynmosperms. Plants bearing naked seeds; without an ovary. 
 
 Habitat. The geographical range of a plant. 
 
 Heartwood. The central portion of tree. 
 
 Hollow-homing. Internal checking. 
 
 Honey-combing. Internal checking. 
 
 Hot-blast kiln. A drying arrangement in which the air is blown 
 
 through heating coils into the drying room. 
 Humidity. Damp, moist. 
 Hygroscopicity. The property of readily imbibing moisture from 
 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Indefinite. Applied to petals or other organs when too numerous 
 
 to be conveniently counted. 
 Indigenous. Native to the country. 
 Involute. A form of vernation in which the leaf is rolled inward 
 
 from its edges. 
 
 Kiln-drying. Drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in an 
 inclosed room. 
 
 Leaflet. A single division of a compound leaf. 
 
 Limb. The spreading portion of the tree. 
 
 Lumen. Internal space in the spring- and summer-wood fibres. 
 
 Median. Situated in the middle. 
 
 Medulla. The pith. 
 
 Medullary rays. Rays of fundamental tissue which connect the 
 
 pith with the bark. 
 Membranous. Thin and rather soft, more or less translucent. 
 Midrib. The central or main rib of a leaf. 
 Moist-air kiln. A drying arrangement in which the heat is taken 
 
 from radiating coils located inside the drying room. 
 Mottle. Figure transverse of the fibres, probably caused by the 
 
 action of wind upon the tree. 
 
 Non-porous. Without pores. 
 
 Oblong. Considerably longer than broad, with flowing outline. 
 Obtuse. Blunt, romided. 
 
256 GLOSSARY 
 
 Oval. Broadly elliptical. 
 
 Ovary. The part of the pistil that contains the ovules. 
 
 Parted. Cleft nearly, Ijut not quite to the base or midrib. 
 Parenchyma. Short cells constituting the pith and pulp of the 
 
 tree. 
 Pericarp. The walls of the ripened ovary, the part of the fruit 
 
 that encloses the seeds. 
 Permeable. Capal^le of being penetrated. 
 Petal. One of the leaves of the corolla. 
 
 Pinholes. Small holes in the wood caused b}^ worms or insects. 
 Pistil. The modified leaf or leaves which l^ear the ovules; usually 
 
 consisting of ovary, style and stigma. 
 Plastic. Elastic, easily iDent. 
 Pocket kilns. Small dr3dng rooms with openings on one end only 
 
 and in which the material to l)e dried is piled directly on the 
 
 floor. 
 Pollen. The fertilizing powder produced by the anther. 
 Pores. Minute orifices in wood. 
 Porous. Containing pores. 
 Preliminary steaming. Subjecting wood to a steaming process 
 
 before drying or seasoning. 
 Progressive kiln. A drying arrangement with openings at both 
 
 ends, and in which the material enters at one end and is dis- 
 charged at the other. 
 
 Rick. A pile or stack of lumber. 
 
 Rift. To split; cleft. 
 
 Ring shake. A large check or crack in the wood following an 
 
 annual ring. 
 Roe. A peculiar figure caused by the contortion of the woody 
 
 fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them. 
 
 Sapwood. The outer portions of the tree next to the bark; 
 
 alburnam. 
 Saturate. To cause to become completely penetrated or soaked. 
 Season checks. Small openings in the ends of the wood caused 
 
 by the process of drying. 
 Seasoning. The process bj^ which wood is dried or seasoned. 
 Seedholes. Minute holes in wood caused by wood-destroying 
 
 v.'oims or insects. 
 Shake. A large check or crack in wood caused by the action of 
 
 the wind on the tree. 
 Shrinkage. A lessening or contraction of the wood sul)stance. 
 
GLOSSARY 257 
 
 Skidways. Material set on an incline for transporting lumber or 
 logs. 
 
 Species. In science, a group of existing things, associated accord- 
 ing to properties. 
 
 Spermatophyta. Seed-bearing plants. 
 
 Spring-wood. Wood that is formed in the spring of the year. 
 
 Stamen. The pollen-bearing organ of the flower, usually con- 
 sisting of filament and anther. 
 
 Stigma. That part of the pistil which receives the pollen. 
 
 Style. That part of the pistil which connects the ovary with the 
 stigma. 
 
 Taproot. The main root or downward continuation of the plant 
 
 axis. 
 Temporary checks. Checks or cracks that subsequentl}^ close. 
 Tissue. One of the elementary fibres composing wood. 
 Thunder shake. A rupture of the fibres of the tree across the 
 
 grain, which in some woods does not always break them. 
 Tornado shake. (See Thunder shake.) 
 Tracheids. The tissues of the ti-ee which consist of vertical cells 
 
 or vessels closed at one end. 
 
 Warping. Turning or twisting out of shape. 
 Wind shake. (See Thunder shake.) 
 
 Working. The shrinking and swelling occasioned in wood. 
 Wormholes. Small holes in wood caused by wood-destrojdng 
 worms. 
 
 Vernation. The arrangment of the leaves in tlie bud. 
 
 Whorl. An arrangement of organs in a circle al^out a central axis. 
 
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES 
 
 Abies amabalis, 21 
 Abies balsamea, 20 
 Abies concolor, 20 
 Abies grandis, 20 
 Abies magnifica, 21 
 Abies nobilis, 21 
 Acer macrophyllura, 69 
 Acer negundo, 69 
 Acer Pennsylvanicum, 70 
 Acer rubrum, 69 
 Acer saccharinum, 69 
 Acer saccharum, 68 
 Acer spicatum, 69 
 jEsculus flava, 45 ;' 
 
 ^sculus glabra, 45 
 ^sculus octandra, 45 
 Ailanthus glandulosa, 37 
 Asimina triloba, 76 
 
 Betula lenta, 41 
 Betula lutea, 42 
 Betula nigra, 43 
 Betula papyrifera, 43 
 Betula populifolia, 42 
 Betula rubra, 43 
 Buxus sempervirens, 77 
 
 Diospyros Virginia, 77 
 
 Evonjrmus atropurpureus, 82 
 
 Fagus ferruginea, 40 
 Fraxinus Americana, 37 
 Fraxinus Caroliniana, 39 
 Fraxinus nigra, 38 
 Fraxinus Oregana, 38 
 Fraxinus Pennsylvanica, 38 
 Fraxinus pubescens, 38 
 Fraxinus quadrangulata, 38 
 Fraxinus sambucifolia, 38 
 Fraxinus viridis, 38 
 
 Gleditschia triacanthos, 66 
 Gymnocladus dioicus, 49 
 
 Hicoria alba, 64 
 Hicoria glabra, 64 
 Hicoria minima, 64 
 Hicoria ovata, 64 
 Hicoria pecan, 64 
 
 Ilex monticolo, 65 :, - 
 
 Ilex opaca, 64 
 
 Carpinus Caroliana, 44 
 Castanea Americana, 48 
 Castanea chrysophylla, 49 
 Castanea dentata, 48 
 Castanea pumila, 48 
 Castanea vesca, 48 
 Castanea vulgaris, 48 
 Catalpa bignonioides, 46 
 Catalpa speciosa, 46 
 Celtis occidentalis, 62 
 Chamfficyparis Lawsonia, 18 
 Chama;cyparis thyoides, 17 
 Cladrastis lutea, 85 
 Cornus florida, 49 
 Cupressus nootkatensis, 18 
 
 Juglans cinerea, 45 
 Juglans nigra, 82 
 Juniperus communis, 19 
 Juniperus Virginiana, 18 
 
 Larix Americana, 22 ; 
 
 Larix laricina, 22 
 Larix occidentalis, 22 
 Libooedrus decurrens, 18 
 Liquidamber styraciflua, 54 
 Liriodendron tulipfera, 81 
 
 Madura aurantiaca, 76 
 Magnolia acuminata, 67 
 Magnolia glauca, 67 
 
260 
 
 INDEX OF LATIN NAMES 
 
 Magnolia tripetala, 67 
 IMorus rubra, 70 
 
 Nyssa aquatica, 60 
 Nyssa sylvatica, 62 
 
 Ostrya Virginiana, 65 
 Oxydendrum arboreum, 80 
 
 Picea alba, 28 
 Picea canadensis, 28 
 Picea engelmanni, 28 
 Picea mariana, 27 
 Picea nigra, 27 
 Picea rubens, 28 
 Picea sitchensis, 28 
 Pinus banksiana, 27 
 Pinus cubensis, 26 
 Pinus divaricata, 27 
 Pinus enchinata, 26 
 Pinus flexilis, 24 
 Pinus inops, 27 
 Pinus JefFreyi, 25 
 Pinus Lambertiana, 24 
 Pinus monticolo, 24 
 Pinus Murryana, 27 
 Pinus palustris, 24 
 Pinus ponderosa, 25 
 Pinus resinosa, 25 
 Pinus rigida, 26 
 Pinus strobus, 23 
 Pinus taeda, 25 
 Pinus Virginiana, 27 
 Platanus occidentalis, 80 
 Platanus racemosa, 81 
 Populus alba, 79 
 Populus angulata, 77 
 Populus balsamifera, 79 
 Populus fremontii, 78 
 Populus grandidentata, 79 
 Populus heteropylla, 78 
 Populus monilifera, 77 
 Populus nigra italica, 79 
 Populus tremuloides, 79 
 Populus trichocarpa, 78 
 Populus Wislizeni, 78 
 Prunus Pennsylvanica, 47 
 Prunus serotina, 47 
 Pseudotsuga douglasii, 29 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 29 
 Pyrus coronaria, 49 
 
 Quercvis acuminata, 73 
 Quercus alba, 71 
 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 Quercus 
 
 aquatica, 73 
 bicolor, 72 
 chrysolepis, 76 
 coccinea, 75 
 digitata, 75 
 durandii, 71 
 falcata, 75 
 garryana, 71 
 ilicijolia, 74 
 imbricaria, 75 
 lobata, 72 
 lyrata, 73 
 macrocarpa, 72 
 marilandica, 75 
 Michauxii, 74 
 minor, 74 
 nigra, 75 
 obtusiloda, 74 
 palustris, 73 
 phellos, 72 
 platanoides, 72 
 prinoides, 74 
 prinus, 73 
 pumila, 74 
 rubra, 74 
 tinctoria, 74 
 velutina, 74 
 virens, 75 
 
 Rhamnus Caroliniana, 45 
 Robinia pseudacacia, 66 
 Robinia viscosa, 66 
 
 Salix alba, 83 
 Salix amygdaloides, 84 
 Salix babylonica, 84 
 Salix bebbiana, 84 
 Salix discolor, 84 
 Salix fluviatilis, 84 
 Salix fragilis, 84 
 Salix lucida, 84 
 Salix nigra, 83 
 Salix rostrata, 84 
 Salix vitellina, 83 
 Sassafras sassafras, 80 
 Sequoia sempervirens, 19 
 
 Taxodium distinchum, 19 
 Taxus brevifolia, 30 
 Thuya gigantea, 17 
 Thuya occidentalis, 17 
 Tilia Americana, 39 
 Tilia heterophylla, 39 
 
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES 261 
 
 Tilia puVjescens, 39 Ulmus orassifolia, 51 
 
 Tsuga canadensis, 21 Ulmus fulva, 51 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana, 21 Ulmus pubescens, 51 
 
 Ulmus racemosa, 50 
 
 Ulmus alata, 51 Umbellularia Calif ornica, 65 
 Ulmus Americana, 50 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abele, Tree, 79 
 
 Absorption of water by dry wood, 124 
 
 Acacia, 66 
 
 Acacia, false, 66 
 
 Acacia, three-thorned, 66 
 
 According to species, different kiln 
 drying, 170 
 
 Advantages in seasoning, 128 
 
 Advantages of kiln-drying over air- 
 drying, 156 
 
 Affect drying, properties of wood 
 that, 156 
 
 Ailanthus, 37 
 
 Air circulation, 173 
 
 Air-drying, advantages of kiln-dry- 
 ing over, 156 
 
 Alaska cedar, 18 
 
 Alaska cypress, 18 
 
 Alcoholic liciuids, stave and heads of 
 barrels containing, 112 
 
 Almondleaf willow, 84 
 
 Ambrosia or timber beetles, 99 
 
 American box, 49 
 
 American elm, 50 
 
 American larch, 22 
 
 American linden, 39 
 
 American oak, 71 
 
 American red pine, 25 
 
 Anatomical structure, 14 
 
 Annual ring, the yearly or, 10 
 
 Apartment dry kiln, 198 
 
 Apple, crab, 49 
 
 Apple, custard, 76 
 
 Apple, wild, 49 
 
 Appliances in kiln-drying, helpful, 237 
 
 Arborvita?, 17 
 
 Ash, 37 
 
 Ash, black, 38 
 
 Ash, blue, 3S 
 
 Ash, Carolina, 39 
 
 Ash, green, 38 
 
 Ash, ground, 38 
 
 Ash, hoop, 38 
 
 Ash-leaved maple, 69 
 
 Ash, Oregon, 38 
 
 Ash, red, 38 
 
 Ash, white, 37 
 
 Aspen, 39, 79 
 
 Aspen, large-toothed, 78 
 
 Aspen-leaved birch, 42 
 
 Aspen, quaking, 79 
 
 Atmospheric pressure, drying at, 146 
 
 Bald Cypress, 19 
 
 Ball tree, button, 80 
 
 Balm of gilead, 79 
 
 Balm of gilead fir, 20 
 
 Balsam, 20, 79 
 
 Balsam fir, 20 
 
 Bark and pith, 8 
 
 Bark on, round timber with, 106 
 
 Barrels containing alcoholic liquids, 
 
 staves and heads of, 112 
 Barren oak, 75 
 Bar willow, sand, 84 
 Basket oak, 74 
 Basswood, 39 
 
 Basswood, small-leaved, 39 
 Basswood, white, 39 
 Bastard pine, 26 
 Bastard spruce, 29 
 Bay poplar, 60 
 Bay, sweet, 67 
 Bear oak, 74 
 Beaver wood, 67 
 Bebb willow, 84 
 Bee tree, 39 
 Beech, 40 
 Beech, blue, 44 
 Beech, red, 40 
 Beech, water, 44, 80 
 Beech, white, 40 
 Berry, sugar, 62 
 Beetles, ambrosia or timber, 99 
 
INDEX 
 
 263 
 
 Big bud hickory, 64 
 
 Bilsted, 54 
 
 Birch, 41 
 
 Birch, aspen-leaved, 42 
 
 Birch, black, 41 
 
 Birch, canoe, 43 
 
 Birch, cherry, 41 
 
 Birch, gray, 42 
 
 Birch, mahogany, 41 
 
 Birch, old field, 42 
 
 Birch, paper, 43 
 
 Birch, red, 42 
 
 Birch, river, 43 
 
 Birch, silver, 42 
 
 Birch, sweet, 41 
 
 Birch, white, 42, 43 
 
 Birch, wintergreen, 41 
 
 Birch, yellow, 42 
 
 Bird cherry, 47 
 
 Bitternut hickory, 64 
 
 Black ash, 38 
 
 Black birch, 41 
 
 Black cherry, 47 
 
 Black cott:nwood, 78 
 
 Black cypress, 19 
 
 Black glim, 62 
 
 Black hickory, 64 
 
 Black jack, 75 
 
 Black larch, 22 
 
 Black locust, 66 
 
 Black nut hickory, 64 
 
 Black oak, 74 
 
 Black pine, 25, 27 
 
 Black spruce, 27 
 
 Black walnut, 44, 82 
 
 Black willow, 83 
 
 Blower dry kiln, operation of, 186 
 
 Blower or hot h>last dry kiln, 185 
 
 Blue ash, 38 
 
 Blue beech, 44 
 
 Blue poplar, 81 
 
 Blue willow, 83 
 
 Bois d'arc, 45, 76 
 
 Bolts, stave, heading and shingle, 
 
 109 
 Borers, flat-headed, 103 
 Borers, powder post, 105 
 Borers, round-headed, 101 
 Box, American, 49 
 Box elder, 69 
 Box dry kiln, 204 
 Broad-leaved maple, 69 
 Broad-leaved trees, 31 
 
 Broad-leaved trees, list of most im- 
 portant, 37 
 Broad-leaved trees, wood of, 31 
 Brown hickory, 64 
 Brown locust, 66 
 Buckeye, 45 
 Buckeye, fetid, 45 
 Buckeye, Ohio, 45 
 Buckeye, sweet, 45 
 Buckthorne, 45 
 Bud hickory, big, 64 
 Bull nut hickory, 64 
 Bull pine, 25 
 Bur oak, 72 
 Burning bush, 82 
 Bush, burning, 82 
 Bush, juniper, 18 
 Butternut, 45 
 Button ball tree, 80 
 Button wood, 80 
 
 California Redwood, 19 
 
 California white pine, 25 
 
 Canadian pine, 25 
 
 Canary wood, 81 
 
 Canoe birch, 43 
 
 Canoe cedar, 17 
 
 Carolina ash, 39 
 
 Carolina pine, 26 
 
 Carolina poplar, 77 
 
 Cars, method of loading kiln, 206 
 
 Catalpa, 46 
 
 Cedar, 17 
 
 Cedar, Alaska, 18 
 
 Cedar, canoe, 17 
 
 Cedar, elm, 51 
 
 Cedar, ground, 19 
 
 Cedar, incense, 18 
 
 Cedar of the West, red, 17 
 
 Cedar, Oregon, 18 
 
 Cedar, pencil, 18 
 
 Cedar, Port Orford, 18 
 
 Cedar, red, 18, 19 
 
 Cedar, white, 17, 18 
 
 Cedar, yellow, 18 
 
 Changes rendering drying difficult, 
 
 140 
 Characteristics and properties of 
 
 wood, 1 
 Checking and splitting, prevention 
 
 of, 129 
 Cherry, 47 
 Cherry birch, 41 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cherry, bird, 47 
 
 Cherry, black, 47 
 
 Cherry, Indian, 45 
 
 Cherr}-, red, 47 
 
 Cherrj', rum, 47 
 
 Cherr)', wild, 47 
 
 Cherry, wild red, 47 
 
 Chestnut, 48 
 
 Chestnut, horse, 45, 05 
 
 Chestnut oak, 73 
 
 Chestnut oak, rock, 73 
 
 Chestnut oak, scrul), 74 
 
 Chuiquapin, 48, 49 
 
 Chinquapin oak, 73, 74 
 
 Chinquapin oak, dwarf, 74 
 
 Choice of drying method, 195 
 
 Circassian walnut, 00 
 
 Circulation, air, 173 
 
 Clammy locust, 66 
 
 Classes of trees, 5 
 
 Cliff elm, 50 
 
 Coast redwood, 19 
 
 Coffee nut, 49 
 
 Coffee tree, 49 
 
 Color and odor of wood, 89 
 
 Color, odor, weight, and figure in 
 wood, grain, 86 
 
 Composition of sap, 116 
 
 Conditions and species, tempera- 
 ture depends on, 171 
 
 Conditions favorable for insect in- 
 jury, 106 
 
 Conditions governing the drj-ing of 
 wood, 156 
 
 Conditions of success in kiln-drying, 
 169 
 
 Coniferous trees, 8 
 
 Coniferous trees, wood of, 8 
 
 Coniferous woods, list of important, 
 17 
 
 Containing alcoholic liquids, staves 
 and heads of barrels, 112 
 
 Cooperage stock and wooden truss 
 hoops, drv, 112 
 
 Cork elm, 50 
 
 Cotton gum, 60 
 
 Cottonwood, 49, 77, 78 
 
 Cottonwood, black, 78 
 
 Cottonwood, swamp, 78 
 
 Cow oak, 74 
 
 Crab apple, 49 
 
 Crab, fragrant, 349 
 
 Crack willow, 84 
 
 Crude products, 106 
 Cuban pine, 26 
 Cucumber tree, 49, 67 
 Cup oak, mossy, 72 
 Cup oak, over-, 72, 73 
 Custard apple, 76 
 Cj'press, 19 
 Cypress, Alaska, 18 
 Cypress, bald, 19 
 Cypress, black, 19 
 Cypress, Lawson's, 18 
 Cypress, pecky, 19 
 Cypress, red, 19 
 Cypress, white, 19 
 
 D'Arc, Bois, 45, 76 
 
 Deal, yellow, 23 
 
 Demands upon soil and moisture of 
 
 red gum, 56 
 Depends on conditions and species, 
 
 temperature, 171 
 Description of the forest service 
 
 kiln, theorj' and, 161 
 Diagram, the uses of the humidity, 237 
 Difference between seasoned and 
 
 unseasoned wood, 121 
 Different grains of wood, 86 
 Different kiln-drying according to 
 
 species, 170 
 Different species, weight of Idln- 
 
 dried wood of, 95 
 Different types, kilns of, 196 
 Different types of dry kilns, 185 
 Different types of kiln doors, 231 
 Difficult, changes rendering drying, 
 
 140 
 Difficulties of drying wood, 138 
 Distribution of water in wood, 114 
 Distribution of water in wood, local, 
 
 114 
 Distribution of water in wood sea- 
 sonal, 115 
 Dogwood, 49 
 
 Doors, different types of kiln, 231 
 Douglas spruce, 29 
 Downy linden, 39 
 Downy poplar, 78 
 Dry cooperage stock and wooden 
 
 truss hoops, 112 
 Drying according to species, different 
 
 kiln, 170 
 Drying, advantages of kiln-drying 
 
 over air, 156 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 Drying at atmospheric pressure, 146 
 Drying by superheated steam, 150 
 Drying, conditions of success in kiln, 
 
 169 
 Drsdng difficult, changes rendering, 
 
 140 
 Drying gum, Idln, 180 
 Drying, helpful appliances in kiln, 237 
 Drying, kiln, 164, 177 
 Drying, loss&s due to improper kiln, 
 
 141 
 Drying method, choice of, 195 
 Drying, methods of kiln, 145 
 Drying, objects of kiln, 16S 
 Drying of green red gum, kiln, 183 
 Drying of wood, kiln, 156 
 Drying of wood, physical conditions 
 
 governing the, 156 
 Drying, physical properties that in- 
 fluence, 125 
 Drying, properties of wood that 
 
 effect, 141 
 Drying, theory of kiln, 157 
 Drying, underlying principles of 
 
 kiln, 166 
 Drying under pressure and vacuum, 
 
 146 
 Drying, unsolved problems in kiln, 
 
 143 
 Drying wood, difficulties of, 138 
 Drying 100 lb of green wood in the 
 
 kiln, pounds of water lost, 179 
 Dry kiln, apartment, 198 
 Dry kiln, box, 204 
 Dry kiln, operation of the blower, 
 
 186 
 Dry kiln, operation of the moist-air, 
 
 192 
 Dry kiln, moist-air or pipe, 188 
 Dry kiln, pocket, 200 
 Dry kiln, progressive, 196 
 Dry kiln, requirements in a satis- 
 factory, 160 
 Dry kilns, different types of, 185 
 Dry kiln specialties, 206 
 Dry kilns, types of, 185 
 Dry kiln, tower, 202 
 Dry wood, absorption of water by, 
 
 124 
 Duck oak, 73 
 Due to improper kiln-drying, losses, 
 
 141 
 Dwarf chinquapin oak, 74 
 
 Effects of Moisture on Wood, 
 
 117 
 Elder, box, 69 
 Electric heater, the, 250 
 Elimination of stain and mildew, 136 
 Elm, 50 
 
 Elm, American, 50 
 Elm, cedar, 51 
 Elm, cliff, 50 
 Elm, cork, 50 
 Elm, hickory, 50 
 Elm, moose, 51 
 Ehn, red, 51 
 Elm, rock, 50 
 Elm, slippery, 51 
 Elm, water, 50 
 Elm, winged, 51 
 Elm, white, 50 
 Enemies of wood, 98 
 Evaporation of water, manner of, 123 
 Evaporation, rapidity of, 124 
 Expansion of wood, 135 
 
 Factories, Scalometer ix, 249 
 
 False acacia, 66 
 
 Favorable for insect injury, condi- 
 tions, 106 
 
 Fetid buckeye, 45 
 
 Fibre saturation point in wood, 118 
 
 Field birch, old, 42 
 
 Field pine, old, 25, 26 
 
 Figure in wood, 96 
 
 Figure in wood, grain, color, odor, 
 weight, and, 86 
 
 Final steaming of gum, 182 
 
 Fir, 20 
 
 Fir, balm of gilead, 20 
 
 Fir balsam, 20 
 
 Fir, noble, 21 
 
 Fir, red, 21, 29 
 
 Fir tree, -20 
 
 Fir, white, 20, 21 
 
 Fir, yellow, 29 
 
 Flat-headed borers, 103 
 
 Forest service kiln, theory and 
 description of, 161 
 
 Form of the red gum, 55 
 
 Fragrant crab, 49 
 
 Gauge, the Recording Steam, 246 
 Georgia pine, 24 
 Gilead, balm of, 79 
 Gilead fir, balm of, 20 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ginger pine, 18 
 
 Glaucous willo\y, 84 
 
 Governing the drying of wood, 
 physical conditions, 156 
 
 Grain, color, odor, weight, and 
 figure in wood, 86 
 
 Grains of wood, different, 86 
 
 Gray birch, 42 
 
 Gray pine, 27 
 
 Green ash, 38 
 
 Green red gum, kiln-drying, 183 
 
 Green wood in the kiln, pounds of 
 water lost in drjdng 100 lbs., 179 
 
 Ground ash, 38 
 
 Ground cedar, 19 
 
 Growth red gum, second, 59 
 
 Gum, 52 
 
 Gum, black, 62 
 
 Gum, cotton, 60 
 
 Gum, demands upon soil and mois- 
 ture of red, 56 
 
 Gum, final steaming of, 182 
 
 Gum, form of red, 55 
 
 Gum, kiln-drying, 180 
 
 Gum, kiln-drying of green red, 183 
 
 Gum, method of piling, 180 
 
 Gum, preliminary steaming of, 182 
 
 Gimi, range of red, 55 
 
 Gum, range of tupelo, 61 
 
 Gum, red, 54, 79 
 
 Gum, reproduction of red, 57 
 
 Gum, second-growth red, 59 
 
 Gum, sour, 62, 80 
 
 Gum, sweet, 54, 80 
 
 Gum, tolerance of the red, 56 
 
 Gum, tupelo, 60 
 
 Gum, uses of tupelo, 61 
 
 Hackberhy, 62 
 Hacmatac, 22 
 Hard maple, 68 
 Hard pine, 26 
 Hard pines, 24 
 Hard pine, southern, 24 
 Hardwoods, 37 
 Hazel pine, 54, 60 
 Headed borers, flat, 103 
 Headed borers, round, 101 
 Heading, stave and shingle bolts, 109 
 Heads and staves of barrels contain- 
 ing alcoholic liquids, 112 
 Heart hickory, white, 64 
 Heartwood, sap and, 8 
 
 Heater, the electric, 250 
 
 Helpful applicances in kiln-drying, 
 
 237 
 Hemlock, 21 
 Hemlock spruce, 21 
 Hickory, 63 
 Hickory, big bud, 64 
 Hickory, bitternut, 64 
 Hickory, black, 64 
 Hickory, black nut, 64 
 Hickorj', brown, 64 
 Hickory, bull nut, 64 
 Hickory elm, 50 
 Hickory, mockernut, 64 
 Hickory, pignut, 64 
 Hickory, poplar, 81 
 Hickory, scalybark, 64 
 Hickory, shagbark, 64 
 Hickory, shellbark, 64 
 Hickory, swamp, 64 
 Hickory, switchbud, 64 
 Hickory, white heart, 64 
 Holly, 64, 65 
 Holly, mountain, 65 
 Honey locust, 66 
 Honey shucks, 66 
 Hoop ash, 38 
 Hoops, dry cooperage stock and 
 
 wooden truss, 112 
 Hop hornbeam, 65 
 Hornbeam, 44 
 Hornljeam, hop, 65 
 Horse chestnut, 45, 65 
 Hot blast or blower kiln, 185 
 Humidity, 174 
 
 Humidity diagram, uses of the, 237 
 How to prevent insect injury, 107 
 How wood is seasoned, 145 
 Hygrodeik, the, 242 
 Hygrometer, the recording, 242 
 Hygrometer, the registering, 244 
 
 Illinois Nut, 64 
 
 Important broad-leaved trees, list 
 
 of most, 37 
 Important coniferous woods, list of, 
 
 17 
 Impregnation methods, 151 
 Improper kiln-drying, losses due to, 
 
 141 
 Incense cedar, 18 
 Indian bean, 46 
 Indian cherry, 45 
 
INDEX 
 
 267 
 
 Influence drying, physical proper- 
 ties that, 125 
 
 Injury, conditions favorable for in- 
 sect, 106 
 
 Injury from insects, how to prevent, 
 107 
 
 Insect injury, conditions favorable 
 for, 106 
 
 Insects, how to prevent injury from, 
 107 
 
 Iron oak, 74 
 
 Ironwood, 44, 65 
 
 Jack, Black, 75 
 Jack oak, 75 
 Jack pine, 27 
 Jersey pine, 27 
 Juniper, 18 
 Jumper bush, 18 
 Jumper, red, 18 
 Jumper, savin, 18 
 
 Keep Records op the Moisture 
 
 Content, 249 
 Kiln, apartment dry, 198 
 Kiln, blower or hot blast, 185 
 Kiln, box dry, 204 
 
 Kiln cars and method of loading, 206 
 Kiln doors, different types, 231 
 Kiln-dried wood of different species, 
 
 weight of, 95 
 Kiln-drying, 164, 177 
 Kiln-drying according to species, 
 
 different, 170 
 Kiln-drying, conditions of success in, 
 
 169 
 Kiln-drying gum, 180 
 Kiln-drying, helpful appliances in, 
 
 237 
 Kiln-drying, losses due to improper, 
 
 141 
 Kiln-drying, objects of, 168 
 Kiln-drying of green red gum, 183 
 Kiln-drying of wood, 156 
 Kiln-drying of wood, 156 
 Kiln-drying over air-drying, advan- 
 tages of, 156 
 Kiln-drying, theary of, 157 
 Kiln-drying, underlying principles of, 
 
 166 
 Kiln-drying, unsolved problems in, 
 
 143 
 Kiln, operation of the blower dry, 186 
 
 Kiln, operation of the moist-air dry, 
 
 192 
 Kiln, pipe or moist-air dry, 188 
 Kiln, pocket dry, 200 
 Kiln, progressive dry, 196 
 Kiln, requirements in a satisfactory 
 
 dry, 160 
 Kilns, different types of drj^, 185 
 Kilns of different types, 196 
 Kiln specialities, dry, 206 
 Kiln, theory and description of the 
 
 forest service, 161 
 Kilns, types of dr5', 185 
 Kiln, tower dry, 202 
 
 Land Spruce, Tide, 28 
 
 Larch, 22 
 
 Larch, American, 22 
 
 Larch, black, 22 
 
 Larch, western, 22 
 
 Large-toothed aspen, 79 
 
 Laurel, 65 
 
 Laurel oak, 75 
 
 Lawson's cypress, 18 
 
 Leaf pine, long-, 24 
 
 Leaf pine, short-, 26 
 
 Leaf willow, long, 84 
 
 Leaved Ijasswood, small, 39 
 
 Leaved birch, aspen, 42 
 
 Leaved maple, ash, 69 
 
 Leaved maple, broad, 69 
 
 Leaved maple, silver, 69 
 
 Leaved trees, broad, 31 
 
 Leaved trees, list of most important 
 
 broad, 37 
 Leaved trees, wood of broad, 31 
 Leverwood, 65 
 Life, tree of, 17 
 Lime tree, 39 
 Lin, 39 
 Linden, 39 
 
 Linden, American, 39 
 Linden, downy, 39 
 Liquidamber, 54 
 Liquids, staves and heads of barrels 
 
 containing alcoholic, 112 
 List of important coniferous trees, 17 
 List of most important broad-leaved 
 
 trees, 37 
 Live oak, 75, 76 
 Loading, kiln cars and method of, 
 
 206 
 Loblolly pine, 25 
 
268 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Local distribution of water in wood, 
 
 114 
 Locust, 66 
 Locust, black, 66 
 Locust, Ijrown, 66 
 Locust, clammy, 66 
 Locust, honey, 66 
 Locust, sweet, 66 
 Locust, yellow, 66 
 Lodgepole pine, 27 
 Lombardy poplar, 79 
 Long-leaf pine, 24 
 Long-leaf willow, 84 
 Long-straw pine, 24 
 Losses due to improper kiln-drying, 
 
 141 
 Lost in kiln-drying 100 lb. green 
 
 wood in the kiln, pounds of water, 
 
 179 
 
 Magnolia, 67 
 
 Magnolia, small, 67 
 
 Magnolia, swamp, 67 
 
 Mahogany, birch, 41 
 
 Mahogany, white, 45 
 
 Manner of evaporation of water, 123 
 
 Maple, 67 
 
 Maple, ash-leaved, 69 
 
 Maple, broad-leaved, 69 
 
 Maple, hard, 68 
 
 Maple, mountain, 69 
 
 Maple, Oregon, 69 
 
 Maple, red, 69 
 
 Maple, rock, 68 
 
 Majile, silver, 69 
 
 Maple, silver-leaved, 69 
 
 Maple, soft, 69 
 
 Maple, striped, 70 
 
 Maple, sugar, 68 
 
 Maple, swamp, 69 
 
 Maple, water, 69 
 
 Maple, white, 69 
 
 Maul oak, 75, 76 
 
 Meadow pine, 26 
 
 Method, choice of drying, 195 
 
 Method of loading kiln cars, 206 
 
 Method of piling gum, 180 
 
 Methods, impregnation, 151 
 
 Methods of drying, 154 
 
 Mildew, elimination of stain and,136 
 
 Minute structure, 34 
 
 Mockernut hickory, 64 
 
 Moist-air dry kiln, operation of, 192 
 
 Moist-air or pipe kiln, the, 188 
 Moisture content, keep records of 
 
 the, 249 
 Moisture, demands upon soil and, 
 
 56 
 Moisture on wood, effects of, 117 
 Moose elm, 51 
 Moose-wood, 70 
 Mossy-cup oak, 72 
 Most important broad-leaved trees, 
 
 list of, 37 
 Mountain holl}% 65 
 Mountain maple, 69 
 Mulberry, 70 
 Mulberry, red, 70 
 Myrtle, 65, 70 
 
 Nettle Tree, 62 
 Noble fir, 21 
 Norway pine, 25 
 Nut, cofTee, 49 
 Nut hickory, black, 64 
 Nut hickory, bull, 64 
 Nut, Illinois, 64 
 Nyssa, 60 
 
 Oak, 70 
 
 Oak, American, 71 
 
 Oak, barren, 75 
 
 Oak, basket, 74 
 
 Oak, bear, 74 
 
 Oak, black, 74 
 
 Oak, bur, 72 
 
 Oak, chestnut, 73 
 
 Oak, chinquapin, 73, 74 
 
 Oak, cow, 74 
 
 Oak, duck, 73 
 
 Oak, dwarf chinquapin, 74 
 
 Oak, iron, 74 
 
 Oak, jack, 75 
 
 Oak, laurel, 75 
 
 Oak, live, 75, 76 
 
 Oak, maul, 75, 76 
 
 Oak, mossy-cup, 72 
 
 Oak, over-cup, 72, 73 
 
 Oak, peach, 72 
 
 Oak, pin, 73 
 
 Oak, possum, 73 
 
 Oak, post, 74 
 
 Oak, punk, 73 
 
 Oak, red, 74, 75 
 
 Oak, rock, 73 
 
 Oak, rock chestnut, 73 
 
INDEX 
 
 269 
 
 Oak, scarlet, 75 
 
 Oak, scrub, 74 
 
 Oak, scrub chestnut, 74 
 
 Oak, shingle, 75 
 
 Oak, Spanish, 75 
 
 Oak, swamp post, 73 
 
 Oak, swamp Spanish, 73 
 
 Oak, swamp white, 72, 73 
 
 Oak, water, 73 
 
 Oak, western white, 71 
 
 Oak, white, 71, 72 
 
 Oak, willow, 72 
 
 Oak, yellow, 73, 74 
 
 Oak, Valparaiso, 76 
 
 Objects of kiln-drying, 168 
 
 Odor and color of wood, 89 
 
 Odor, weight, and figure in wood, 
 
 grain, color, 86 
 Ohio buckeye, 45 
 Old field birch, 42 
 Old field pine, 25, 26 
 Operation of the blower kiln, 186 
 Operation of the moist-air kiln, 192 
 Orange, osage, 76 
 Oregon ash, 38 
 Oregon cedar, 18 
 Oregon maple, 69 
 Oregon pine, 29 
 Orford cedar. Port, 18 
 Osage orange, 76 
 Out-of-door seasoning, 154 
 Over-cup oak, 72, 73 
 
 Papaw, 76 
 
 Paper birch, 43 
 
 Peach oak, 72 
 
 Pecan, 64 
 
 Pecky cypress, 19 
 
 Pencil cedar, 18 
 
 Pepperidge, 60 
 
 Perch willow, 84 
 
 Persimmon, 77 
 
 Peruche, 21 
 
 Physical conditions governing the 
 
 drying of wood, 156 
 Physical properties that influence 
 
 drying, 125 
 Pignut hickory, 64 
 Piling gum, methods of, 180 
 Pine, American red, 25 
 Pine, bastard, 26 
 Pine, black, 25, 27 
 Pine, bull, 25 
 
 Pine, California white, 25 
 
 Pine, Canadian, 25 
 
 Pine, Carolina, 26 
 
 Pine, Culian, 26 
 
 Pine, Georgia, 24 
 
 Pine, ginger, 18 
 
 Pine, gray, 27 
 
 Pine, hard, 26 
 
 Pine, hazel, 54, 60 
 
 Pine, jack, 27 
 
 Pine, Jersey, 27 
 
 Pine, loblolly, 25 
 
 Pine, lodge-pole, 27 
 
 Pine, long-leaf, 24 
 
 Pine, long-straw, 24 
 
 Pine, meadow, 26 
 
 Pine, Norway, 25 
 
 Pine, old field, 25, 26 
 
 Pine, Oregon, 29 
 
 Pine, pitch, 26 
 
 Pine, Puget Sound, 29 
 
 Pine, pumpkin, 23, 24 
 
 Pine, red, 29 
 
 Pine, rosemary, 25 
 
 Pine, sap, 25 
 
 Pine, scrub, 27 
 
 Pines, hard, 24 
 
 Pine, short-leaf, 26 
 
 Pine, short-straw, 25 
 
 Pine, slash, 25, 26 
 
 Pine, soft, 23, 24 
 
 Pine, southern, 24 
 
 Pine, southern hard, 24 
 
 Pine, spruce, 26 
 
 Pine, sugar, 24 
 
 Pine, swamp, 26 
 
 Pine, torch, 26 
 
 Pine, Weymouth, 23 
 
 Pine, western, 25 
 
 Pine, western white, 25 
 
 Pine, western yellow, 25 
 
 Pine, white, 23, 24 
 
 Pine, yellow, 24, 25, 26 
 
 Pin oak, 73 
 
 Pipe or moist-air kiln, 188 
 
 Pitch pine, 26 
 
 Pith and bark, 8 
 
 Plane tree, 80 
 
 Pocket dry kiln, the, 200 
 
 Point in wood, the fibre saturation, 
 
 118 
 Pole pine, lodge, 27 
 Poplar, 67, 77, 79, 81 
 
270 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Poplar, bav, 60 
 
 Poplar, blue, SI 
 
 Poplar, Carolina, 77 
 
 Poplar, downy, 7S 
 
 Poplar, hickory, 81 
 
 Poplar, Lombardy, 79, 
 
 Poplar, swamp, 60 
 
 Poplar, white, 79 81 
 
 Poplar, yellow, 81 
 
 Port Orford cedar, 18 
 
 Possum oak, 73 
 
 Post borers, powder, 105 
 
 Post oak, 74 
 
 Post oak, swamp, 73 
 
 Pounds of water lost in drying 100 
 lb. gjeen wood in the kiln, 179 
 
 Powder post borers, 105 
 
 Preliminary steaming of gum, 182 
 
 Preliminary treatments, 151 
 
 Pressure and vacuum, drying under, 
 146 
 
 Pressure, drying at atmosjiheric, 146 
 
 Prevent injury from insects, how to, 
 107 
 
 Prevention of checking and split- 
 ting, 129 
 
 Principles of kiln-drying, under- 
 lying, 166 
 
 Problems in kiln-drying, unsolved, 
 143 
 
 Products, crude, 106 
 
 Products in the rough, seasoned, 112 
 
 Products in the rough, unseasoned, 
 109 
 
 Progressive dry kiln, the, 196 
 
 Properties, characteristics and, 1 
 
 Properties of wood, 4 
 
 Properties of wood that affect dry- 
 ing, 141 
 
 Properties that influence drying, 
 physical, 125 
 
 Puget Sound pine, 29 
 
 Pumpkin pine, 23, 24 
 
 Punk oak, 73 
 
 Pussy willow, 84 
 
 Quaking Aspen, 79 
 
 Range of Red Gum, 55 
 Range of tupelo gum, 61 
 Rafjidity of evaporation, 124 
 Recording hygrometer, the, 242 
 Recording steam gauge, the, 246 
 
 Recording thermometer, the, 245 
 Records of the moisture content, 
 
 keep, 249 
 Red ash, 38 
 Red beech, 40 
 Red birch, 43 
 Red cedar, IS, 19 
 Red cedar of the West, 17 
 Red cherry, 47 
 Red cherry, wild, 47 
 Red cypress, 19 
 Red elm, 51 
 Red fir, 21, 29 
 Red gum, 54, 79 
 Red gum, demands upon soil and 
 
 moisture of, 56 
 Red gum, form of the, 55 
 Red gum, kiln-drying of green, 183 
 Red gum, range of, 55 
 Red gum, reproduction of, 57 
 Red gum, second-growth, 59 
 Red gum, tolerance of, 56 
 Red juniper, 18 
 Red maple, 69 
 Red mulberry, 70 
 Red oak, 74, 75 
 Red pine, 29 
 Red pine, American, 25 
 Rod spruce, 2S 
 Redwood, 19, 27 
 Redwood, California, 19 
 Redwood, Coast, 19 
 Registering hygrometer, the, 244 
 Registering thermometer, the, 246 
 Rendering drying difficult, changes, 
 
 140 
 Reproduction of red gum, 57 
 Requirements in a satisfactory dry 
 
 kiln, 160 
 Ring, the annual or yearly, 10 
 River birch, 43 
 Rock chestnut oak, 73 
 Rock elm, 50 
 Rock maple, 68 
 Rock oak, 73 
 Rosemary pine, 25 
 Rough, seasoned products in the, 
 
 112 
 Rough, unseasoned products in the, 
 
 109 
 Round-headed borers, 101 
 Round timber with bark on, 106 
 Rum cherry, 47 
 
INDEX 
 
 271 
 
 Samples for Scai-ometer Test, 248 
 
 Sand bar willow, 84 
 
 Sap and heartwood, 8 
 
 Sap, composition of, 116 
 
 Saplings, 108 
 
 Sap pine, 25 
 
 Sassafras, 80 
 
 Satin walnut, 54 
 
 Satisfactory dry kiln, requirements 
 in a, 160 
 
 Saturation point in wood, fibre, 118 
 
 Sawmills, scalometer in, 249 
 
 Savin juniper, 18 
 
 Scalometer in factories, 249 
 
 Scalometer in sawmills, 249 
 
 Scalometer, test samples for, 248 
 
 Scalometer, the troemroid, 247 
 
 Scalometer, weighing with, 248 
 
 Scalybark hickory, 64 
 
 Scarlet oak, 75 
 
 Scrub chestnut oak, 74 
 
 Scrub oak, 74 
 
 Scrub pine, 27 
 
 Seasonal distribution of water in 
 wood, 115 
 
 Seasoned and unseasoned wood, dif- 
 ference between, 121 
 
 Seasoned, how wood is, 145 
 
 Seasoned products in the rough, 112 
 
 Seasoning, advantages in, 128 
 
 Seasoning is, what, 119 
 
 Seasoning, out-of-door, 154 
 
 Second-growth red gum, 59 
 
 Sequoia, 19 
 
 Service kiln, theory and description 
 of forest, 161 
 
 Shagbark hickory, 34 
 
 Shellbark hickory, 64 
 
 Shingle, heading and stave bolts, 109 
 
 Shingle oak, 75 
 
 Shining willow, 84 
 
 Short-leaf pine, 26 ■ - 
 
 Short-straw pine, 25 
 
 Shrinkage of wood, 130 
 
 Shucks, honey, 66 
 
 Sitka spruce, 28 
 
 Silver birch, 42 
 
 Silver-leaved maple, 69 
 
 Silver maple, 69 
 
 Slash pine, 25, 26 
 
 SHppery elm, 51 
 
 Small-leaved basswood, 39 
 
 Small magnolia, 67 
 
 Soft maple, 69 
 
 Soft pine, 23, 24 
 
 Soil and moisture, demands upon, 56 
 
 Sorrel-tree, 80 
 
 Sound pine, Puget, 29 
 
 Sour gum, 62, 80 
 
 Sourwood, 80 
 
 Southern hard pine, 24 
 
 Southern pine, 24 
 
 Spanish oak, 75 
 
 Spanish oak, swamp, 73 
 
 Specialties, dry-kiln, 206 
 
 Species, different kiln-drying accord- 
 ing to, 170 
 
 Species, temperature depends upon 
 condition and, 171 
 
 Species, weight of kiln-dried wood 
 of different, 95 
 
 Spindle tree, 82 
 
 Splitting, prevention of checking and, 
 129 
 
 Spring and summerwood, 12 
 
 Spruce, 27 
 
 Spruce, bastard, 29 :> 
 
 Spruce, black, 27 ^'iin 
 
 Spruce, Douglas, 29 '.: 
 
 Spruce, hemlock, 21 
 
 Spruce pine, 26 
 
 Spruce, red, 28 
 
 Spruce, Sitka, 28 
 
 Spruce, tide-land, 28 
 
 Spruce, white, 28 
 
 Stain and mildew, elimination of, 136 
 
 Stave, heading and shingle bolts, 109 
 
 Staves and heads of barrels con- 
 taining alcoholic liquids, 112 
 
 Steam, drying by superheated, 150 
 
 Steam gauge, the recording, 246 
 
 Steaming of gum, preliminary, 182 
 
 Steaming of gum, final, 182 
 
 Stock and wooden truss hoops, dry 
 cooperage, 112 
 
 Straw pine, long, 24 
 
 Straw pine, short, 25 
 
 Striped maple, 70 
 
 Structure, anatomical, 14 
 
 Structure, minute, 34 
 
 Structure of wood, 4 
 
 Stump tree, 49 
 
 Success in kiln-drying, conditions of, 
 169 
 
 Sugar berry, 62 
 
 Sugar maple, 68 . 
 
272 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Sugar pine, 24 
 
 Summerwood, spring and, 12 
 
 Superheated steam, drying by, 150 
 
 Swamp Cottonwood, 78 
 
 Swamp hickory, 64 
 
 Swamp magnolia, 67 
 
 Swamp maple, 69 
 
 Swamp pine, 26 
 
 Swamp poplar, 60 
 
 Swamp post oak, 73 
 
 Swamp Spanish oak, 73 
 
 Swamp white oak, 72, 73 
 
 Sweet bay, 67 
 
 Sweet buckeye, 45 
 
 Sweet birch, 41 
 
 Sweet gum, 54, 80 
 
 Sweet locust, 66 
 
 Switchbud hickory, 64 
 
 Sycamore, 80, 81 
 
 Tacmahac, 79 
 
 Tamarack, 22, 27, 29 
 
 Temperature depends upon condi- 
 tions and species, 171 
 
 Test samples for scalometer, 248 
 
 Theory and description of the forest 
 service kiln, 161 
 
 Theory of kiln-drying, 157 
 
 Thermometer, the recording, 245 
 
 Thermometer, the registering, 246 
 
 Thorned acacia, three, 66 
 
 Three -thorned acacia, 66 
 
 Tide-land spruce, 28 
 
 Timber, 1 
 
 Timber beetles, ambrosia or, 99 
 
 Timber with bark on, round, 106 
 
 Timber worms, 103 
 
 Tolerance of red gum, 56 
 
 Toothed aspen, large-, 79 
 
 Torch pine, 26 
 
 Tower dry kiln, the, 202 
 
 Treatments, prehminary, 151 
 
 Tree, abele, 79 
 
 Tree, bee, 39 
 
 Tree, button ball, 80 
 
 Tree, coffee, 49 
 
 Tree, cucumber, 49, 67 
 
 Tree, fir, 20 
 
 Tree, lime, 39 
 
 Tree, nettle, 62 
 
 Tree of life, 17 
 
 Tree, plane, 80 
 
 Trees, broad-leaved, 31 
 
 Trees, classes of, 5 
 
 Trees, coniferous, 8 
 
 Trees, list of important coniferous, 17 
 
 Trees, list of most important broad- 
 leaved, 37 
 
 Tree, sorrel, 80 
 
 Tree, spindle, 82 
 
 Tree, stump, 49 
 
 Trees, wood of broad-leaved, 31 
 
 Trees, wood of the coniferous, 8 
 
 Tree, tulip, 81 
 
 Tree, umbrella, 67 
 
 Troemroid Scalometer, the, 247 
 
 Truss hoops, dry cooperage stock and, 
 112 
 
 Tulip tree, 81 
 
 Tulip wood, 67, 81 
 
 Tupelo, 82 
 
 Tupelo gum, 60 
 
 Tupelo gum, range of, 61 
 
 Tupelo gum, uses of, 61 
 
 Types of dry kilns, different, 185 
 
 Types of kiln doors, different, 231 
 
 Types, kilns of different, 196 
 
 Umbrella Tree, 67 
 
 Underlying principles of kiln-dry- 
 ing, 166 
 
 Unseasoned products in the rough, 
 109 
 
 Unseasoned wood, difference be- 
 tween seasoned and, 121 
 
 Unsolved problems in kiln-drying, 
 143 
 
 Uses of the humidity diagram, 237 
 
 Uses of tupelo gum, 61 
 
 Vacuum, Drying under Pressure 
 
 AND, 146 
 Valparaiso oak, 76 
 Virgilia, 85 
 
 Wahoo, 51, 82 
 
 Walnut, 45, 82 
 
 Walnut, black, 44, 82 
 
 Walnut, Circassian, 60 
 
 Walnut, satin, 54 
 
 Walnut, white, 45, 83 
 
 Water beech, 44, 80 
 
 Water by dry wood, absorption of, 
 
 124 
 Water elm, 50 
 
INDEX 
 
 273 
 
 Water in wood, 114 
 
 Water in wood, distribution of, 114 
 
 Water in wood, local distribution of, 
 
 114 
 Water in wood, seasonal distribution 
 
 of, 115 
 Water lost in drying 100 lb. of 
 
 green wood in the kiln, pounds of, 
 
 179 
 Water, manner of evaporation of, 
 
 123 
 Water maple, 69 
 Water oak, 73 
 Weeping willow, 84 
 Weighing with scalometer, 248 
 Weight, and figure in wood, grain, 
 
 color, odor, 86 
 Weight of kiln-dried wood of dif- 
 ferent species, 95 
 Weight of wood, 91 
 Western larch, 22 
 Western pine, 25 
 Western white oak, 71 
 Western white pine, 25 
 Western yellow pine, 25 
 West, red cedar of the, 17 
 Weymouth pine, 23 
 What seasoning is, 119 
 White ash, 37 
 White basswood, 39 
 White beech, 40 
 White birch, 42, 43 
 White cedar, 17, 18 
 White cypress, 19 
 White elm, 50 
 White fir, 20, 21 
 White heart hickory, 64 
 White mahogany, 45 
 White maple, 69 
 White oak, 71, 72 
 White oak, swamp, 72, 73 
 White oak, western, 71 
 White pine, 23, 24 
 White pine, California, 25 
 White pine, western, 25 
 White poplar, 79, 81 
 White spruce, 28 
 White walnut, 45, 83 
 White willow, 83 
 Whitewood, 39, 81, 83 
 Wild apple, 49 
 Wild cherry, 47 
 Wild red cherry, 47 
 
 Willow, 83 
 
 Willow, almond-leaf, 84 
 
 Willow, bebb, 84 
 
 Willow, black, 83 
 
 Willow, blue, 83 
 
 Willow, crack, 84 
 
 Willow, glaucous, 84 
 
 Willow, long-leaf, 84 
 
 WUlow, oak, 72 
 
 Willow, perch, 84 
 
 Willow, pussy, 84 
 
 Willow, sand bar, 84 
 
 Willow, shining, 84 
 
 Willow, weeping, 84 
 
 Willow, white, 83 
 
 Willow, yellow, 83 
 
 Winged elm, 51 
 
 Wintergreen birch, 41 
 
 Wood, absorption of water by dry, 
 124 
 
 Wood, beaver, 67 
 
 Wood, canary, 81 
 
 Wood, characteristics and proper- 
 ties of, 1 
 
 Wood, color and odor of, 89 
 
 Wood, different grains of, 86 
 
 Wood, difference between seasoned 
 and unseasoned, 121 
 
 Wood, difficulties of drying, 138 
 
 Wood, distribution of water in, 
 114 
 
 Wood, effects of moisture on, 117 
 
 Wood, enemies of, 98 
 
 Wood, expansion of, 135 
 
 Wood, figure in, 96 
 
 Wood, grain, color, odor, weight, 
 and figure in, 86 
 
 Wood, how seasoned, 145 
 
 Wood in the kiln, pounds of water 
 lost in drying 100 lb. of green, 
 179 
 
 Wood, iron, 65 
 
 Wood, kiln-drying of, 156 
 
 Wood, lever, 65 
 
 Wood, local distribution of water in, 
 114 
 
 Wood, moose, 70 
 
 Wood, of broad-leaves trees, 31 
 
 Wood of different species, weight of 
 kiln-dried, 95 
 
 Wood of coniferous trees, 8 
 
 Wood, physical conditions govern- 
 ing the drying of, 156 
 
274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Wood, properties of, 4 
 
 Wood, seasonal distribution of water 
 
 in, 115 
 Wood, shrinkage of, 130 
 Woods, list of important coniferous, 
 
 17 
 Wood, spring and summer, 12 
 Wood, structure of, 4 
 Wood that effect drying, properties 
 
 of, 141 
 Wood, the fibre saturation point in, 
 
 118 
 Wood, tulip, 67, 81 
 Wood, water in, 114 
 Wood, weight of, 89 
 Wood, white, 81, 83 
 Wood, yellow, 85 
 
 Wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage 
 
 stock and, 112 
 Worms, timber, 103 
 
 Yearly Ring, the Annual of, 10 
 
 Yellow birch, 42 
 
 Yellow cedar, 18 
 
 Yellow deal, 23 
 
 Yellow fir, 29 
 
 Yellow locust, 66 
 
 Yellow oak, 73, 74 
 
 Yellow pine, 24, 25, 26 
 
 Yellow pine, western, 25 
 
 Yellow poplar, 81 
 
 Yellow willow, 83 
 
 Yellow wood, 85 
 
 Yew, 29, 30 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 25 PARK PLACE 
 NEW YORK 
 
 SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 
 
 OF 
 
 JPttblications antr Jmpartattona 
 
 OP 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING 
 
 BOOKS 
 
 This list includes 
 the technical publications of the following English publishers: 
 
 SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. JAMES MUNRO & CO., Ltd. 
 
 CONSTABLE&COMPANY,Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents. 
 
OOTOBER, 1918 
 
 5H0RT=T1TLE CATALOG 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Publications and Importations 
 
 OF 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO/V\PANY 
 25 PARK PLACE, N. Y. 
 
 All Trices in thi-t lUt are ffET. 
 All bindings are in cloth unless othertaise noted. 
 
 Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy. Svo, *$s oo 
 
 A Treatise on Fuel. (Science Series No. 9.). . i6mo, o 50 
 
 Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.) i6ino, 50 
 
 Abraham, Herbert. Asphalts and Allied Substances 8vo, 5 00 
 
 Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans, by T. E. Maw i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Adams, H. C. Sewage of Sea Coast Towns 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Adler, A. A, Theory of Engineering Drawing 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Principles of Parallel Projecting-line Drawing 8vo, *i 00 
 
 Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone 8vo, *8 o^ 
 
 d'Albe, E. E. F., Contemporary Chemistry i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Allan, W. Strength of Beams Under Transverse Loads. ( Science Series 
 
 No. 19.) i6mo, 51 
 
 Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 11.) i6mo, 
 
 Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and Applications. i2mo, *2 5j 
 
 Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook i2mo, i 50 
 
 Andes, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils Svo, *7 25 
 
 Animal Fats and" Oils. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, *5 00 
 
 Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid Driers Svo, *7 50 
 
 Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling and Anti-corrosive Paints. Trans, by 
 
 C. Salter Svo, '6 oo 
 
 Oil Colors, and Printers' Ink. Trans, by A. Morris and H. 
 
 Robson Svo 
 
 Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes. Trans, uy C. Salter. 
 
 i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Andrews, E. S. Reinforced Concrete Construction i2mo, -2 00 
 
 Theory and Design of Structures Svo, '3 50 
 
 Further Problems in the Theory and Design of Structures. .. .Svo, '■' 1 50 
 
 The Strength of Materials Svo, '4 00 
 
 Andrews, E. S., and Heywood, H. B. The Calculus for Engineers, iimo, '2 00 
 Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry. Twelve Volumes now 
 
 ready. Vol. I., 1904, Vol. XJI., 1914 Svo, each, "2 00 
 
 '3 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 3 
 
 Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French by 
 
 A. S. Hardy. (Science Series No. 52.) i6mo, 50 
 
 Armstrong, R., and Idell, f . E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers. 
 
 (Science Series No. i.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct-Current Dynamos. Trans, by 
 
 F. B. DeGress 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Asch, W., and Asch, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce, 8vo, *6 00 
 Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoretically and 
 
 Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. Engineering Preliminaries and 
 
 Direct Current Sub-Stations i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Electricity: Experimentally and Practically Applied i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Ashley, R. H. Chemical Calculations i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Atkins, W. Common Battery Telephony Simplified i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and Magnetic Calculations 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Air in Mines. (Science Series No. 14.) . .i6mo, o 50 
 Atkinson, J. J., and Williams, Jr., E. H. Gases Met with in Coal Mines. 
 
 (Science beries Ho. 13.) i6mo, 50 
 
 Atkinson, P. The Elements of Electric Lighting i2mo, i 00 
 
 The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Power Transmitted by Electricity i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve Motions Simplified 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Austin, E. Single Phase Electric Railways 4to, *5 00 
 
 Austin and Cohn. Pocketbook of Radiotelegraphy (In Press.) 
 
 Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, 5 50 
 
 Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indicator . . i2mo, 
 
 Bailey, R. D. The Brewers' Analyst 8vo, 
 
 Baker, A. L. Quaternions 8vo, 
 
 ■ Thick-Lens Optics i2mo. 
 
 Baker, Benj. Pressure of Earthwork. (Science Series No. 56.). .. i6mo, 
 
 Baker. G. S. Ship Form, Resistance and Screw Propulsion 8vo, 
 
 Baker, I. O. Levelling. (Science Series No. 91.) i6mo. 
 
 Baker, M. K. Potable Water. (Science Series No. 61.) i&mo, 
 
 Sewerage and Sewage Purification. (Science Series No. i8.)..i6mo, 
 
 Baker, T. T. Telegraphic Transmission of Photographs i2mo. 
 
 Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry Practice. Two Volumes. i2mo. 
 
 Vol. I. Foundry Equipment, Materials Used *3 00 
 
 VoL II. Machine Moulding and Moulding Machines 
 
 Ball, J. W. Concrete Structures in Railways... 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Ball, R. S. Popular Guide to the Heavens 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Natural Sources of Power. (Westminster Series.) . 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers 8vo, *3 50 
 
 Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 108.) . i6mo, o 50 
 Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric Lamp. ..8vi), 3 00 
 Barker, A. F. Textiles and Their Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 2 00 
 
 Barker, A. F., and Midgley, E. Analysis of Woven Fabrics Svo, 4 25 
 
 Barker, A. H. Graphic Methods of Engine Design i2mo, 2 00 
 
 — Heating and Ventilation 4*0. *8 °o 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 '5 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 'I 
 
 50 
 
 ''4 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
4 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Barnard, J. H. The Naval Militiaman's Guide i6mo, leather i oo 
 
 Barnard, Major J. G. Rotary Motion. (Science Series No. 90.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Barnes, J B. Elements of Military Sketching i6mo, *o 60 
 
 Barrus, G. H. Engine Tests 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Barwise, S. The Purification of Sewage i2ii>o, 3 50 
 
 Baterden, J. R. Timber. (Westminster Series.) b\o, *2 00 
 
 Bates, E. L., and Charlesworth, F. Practical Mathematics and 
 
 Geometry i2mo, 
 
 Part I. Preliminary and Elementary Course . . *i 50 
 
 Part II. Advanced Course *i 5° 
 
 Practical Mathematics 1 2mo, *2 00 
 
 Practical Geometry and Graphics i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Batey, J. The Science of Works Management 1 2mo, * i 50 
 
 Steam Boilers and Combustion i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Bayonet Training Manual i6mo, c 30 
 
 Beadle, C. Chapters on Papermaking. Five Volumes i2mo, each, *2 00 
 
 Beaumont, R. Color in Woven Design 8vo, *6 00 
 
 Finishing of Textile Fabrics 8vo, *^ 50 
 
 Standard Cloths 8vo, *7 50 
 
 Beaumont, W. W. The Steam-Engine Indicator 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Bechhold, H. Colloids in Biology and Medicine. Trans, by J. G. 
 
 Bullowa {In Press.) 
 
 Beckwith, A. Pottery 8vo, paper, o 60 
 
 Bedell, F., and Pierce, C. A. Direct and Alternating Current Manual. 
 
 8vo, 4 00 
 
 Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics 8vo, "425 
 
 Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Beggs, G. E. Stresses in Railway Girders and Bridges {In Press.) 
 
 Bender, C. E. Continuous Bridges. (Science Series No. 26.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Proportions of Pins used in Bridges. (Science Series No. 4.) 
 
 i6mo, o 50 
 
 Bengough, G. D. Brass. (Metallurgy Series.) {In Press.) 
 
 Bennett, H. G. The Manufacture of Leather 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Bernthsen, A. A Text - book of Organic Chemistry. Trans, by G. 
 
 M'Gowan i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Trans, by A. C. 
 
 Wright 8vo, 
 
 Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans, by L. S. Robertson 8vo, 5 00 
 
 Beveridge, J. Papermaker's Pocket Book i2mo, *4 00 
 
 Bmnie, Sir A. Rainfall Reservoirs and Water Supply 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Binns, C. F. Manual of Practical Potting 8vo, *io 00 
 
 The Potter's Craft T2mo, *2 00 
 
 Birchmore, W. H. Interpretation of Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Blaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its Applications i2mo, *i 75 
 
 Blake, W. H. Brewers' Vade Mecum 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Blasdale, W. C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. ( Van Nostrand's 
 
 Textbooks. ) i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design of Irrigation Works 8vo, 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Bloch, L. Science of Illumination. Trans, by W. C. Clinton 8vo, 
 
 Blok, A. Dlumination and Artificial Lighting i2mo, 
 
 Bliicher, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry. Trans, by J. P. Millington. 
 
 Svo, 
 
 Blyth, A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis Svo, 
 
 Poisons: Their Effects and Detection 8vo, 
 
 Bockmann, F. Celluloid i2mo, 
 
 Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors and Turbines i2mo, 
 
 Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables 8vo, 
 
 Bonney, G. E. The Electro-platers' Handbook i2ino, 
 
 Booth, N. Guide to the Ring-spinning Frame i2mo. 
 
 Booth, W. H. Water Softening and Treatment Svo, 
 
 Superheaters and Superheating and Their Control Svo, 
 
 Bottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mechanical Equipment and 
 
 Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen 4to, 
 
 Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, by C. Salter. ... izmo, 
 
 Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for Automobilists izmo, 
 
 Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber. (Science Series No. 82.) i6mo, 
 Bourcart, E. Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers Svo, 
 
 Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. 113.) i6mo, 
 Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. Trans, by A. B. Searle. 
 
 Svo, 
 
 Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining Svo, 
 
 Bowles, O. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series No. i25.).i6mo. 
 
 Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry i2mo, 
 
 Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus . i2mo, 
 
 Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics i2mo, 
 
 Elementary Treatise on Hydro-mechanics i2mo, 
 
 — — A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges izmo. 
 
 Boycott, G. W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving Svo, 
 
 t>radford, G., 2nd. Whys and Wherefores of Navigation i2mo, 
 
 Sea Terms and Phrases i2mo, fabrikoid (/« Press.) 
 
 Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design i2mo, 
 
 Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries Svo, 
 
 Brainard, F. R. The Sextant. (Science Series No. loi.) i6mo, 
 
 Brassey's Naval Annual for 1915. War Edition Svo, 4 00 
 
 Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating. (Science Series No. 
 
 68.) i6mo, 50 
 
 Bright, 0. The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilson Bright Svo, *4 50 
 
 Telegraphy, Aeronautics and War Svo, 6 00 
 
 Brislee, T. J. • Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines of Indus- 
 trial Chemistry.) Svo, *3 00 
 
 Broadfoot, S. K. Motors: Secondary Batteries. (Installation Manuals 
 
 Series.) i^mo. *o 75 
 
 Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists 
 
 Brown, G. Healthy Foundations. (Science Series No. 80.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Brown, H. Irrigation 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Brown, H. Rubber 8vo, *2 00 
 
 W. A. Portland Cement Industry Svo, 3 00 
 
 Brown, Wm. N. Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing 
 
 Bras3 Ware izmo, *2 00 
 
 Handbook on Japanning i2mo, *2 50 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 *7 
 
 5° 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 -'■3 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 50 
 
 *I0 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 OD 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ■'7 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 "7 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 25 
 
 ''^ 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
D. 
 
 VAN NOSTRAXD CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Brown Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal i2mo, ^^2 25 
 
 House Decorating and Painting ri2mo, "'2 25 
 
 . History of Decorative Art i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Workshop Wrinkles 8vo, *i 75 
 
 Browne, C. L. Fitting and Erecting of Engines 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 81.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Bruce, E. M. Detection of Common Food Adulterants i2mo, i 25 
 
 Brunner R. Manufacture of Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and Leather 
 
 Dressings. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, *4 50 
 
 Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Bunkley, J. W. Military and Naval Recognition Book i6mo, i oc 
 
 Burley, G. W. Lathes, Their Construction and Operation r2mo, 2 25 
 
 Machine and Fitting Shop Practice i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Testing of Machine Tools r2mo, 2 50 
 
 Burnside, W. Bridge Foundations i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With Text Svo, i 50 
 
 Diagram. Sold separately *i 00 
 
 Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 2 51) 
 
 Buskett, E, W. Fire Assaying i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Butler, H. J_ Motor Bodies and Chassis Svo, *3 00 
 
 Byers, H. G., and Knight, H. G. Notes on Qualitative Analysis .... 8vc, *i 50 
 
 Cain, W. Brief Course ii^ the Calculus i2mo, *i 75 
 
 Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 . Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 . Practical Designing Retaining of Walls. (Science Series No. 3.) 
 
 r6mo, o 50 
 
 . Theory of Steel-concrete Arches and of Vaulted Structures. 
 
 ( Science Series No. 42.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 . Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 ^— Symbolic Algebra. (Science Series No. 73.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Calvert, G, T. The Manufacture of Sulphate of Ammonia and 
 
 Crude Ammonia i2mo, 4 00 
 
 Carpenter, F. D. Geographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 37.). r6mo. 
 
 Carpenter, R. C, and Diederichs, H. Internal Combustion Engines. . Svo, *5 00 
 
 Carter, H. A. Ramie ( Rhea ), China Grass i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning Svo, '4 50 
 
 Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing of Fabrics Svo, *r 25 
 
 Gary, E. R. Solution of Railroad Problems with the Slide Rule. . r6mo, *i 00 
 
 Casler, M. D. Simplified Reinforced Concrete Mathematics i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Part I. Fastenings Svo, *3 00 
 
 Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. L Elements of Graphic Statics. . Svo, *3 00 
 
 Short Course in Graphics i2mo, i 50 
 
 Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematiclnorganic Chemistry. i2mo, "'2 00 
 
 Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Chalmers. T. W. The Production and Treatment of Vegetable Oils, 
 
 4to, 7 50 
 
 Chambers' Mathematical Tables Svo, i 75 
 
 Chambers, G. F. Astronomy r6mo, *i 50 
 
 Chappel, E. Five Figure Mathematical Tables 8vo, *2 m 
 
 Charnock, Mechanical Technology 8vo, *3 00 
 
 C harpentier, P. Timber 8vo, *7 2'-, 
 
 Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science Series 
 
 No. 126) i6mo, o 50 
 
 How to Use Water Power r2mo, *i 50 
 
 Gyrcstatic Balancing 8vo, *r 25 
 
D. VAX \OSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 7 
 
 Child, C. D. Electric Arc 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Christian, M. D'sinfection and Disinfectants, Trans, by Chas. 
 
 S^lt^r laiiio, 3 00 
 
 Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming 8vo, *3 00 
 
 ■ Chimney Design and Theory 8vo, *3 00 
 
 ■ Furnace Draft. (Science Series No. 123.) l6mor o 50 
 
 Water: Its Purification and Use in the Industries 8vo, •200 
 
 Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinch 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Clapham, J. H. Woolen and Worsted Industries 8vo, 2 00 
 
 Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering. 
 
 Vol. I. Construction *3 00 
 
 Vol.11. Design Svo, *3 00 
 
 Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Eng':nes New Edition (Jn Press.) 
 
 Clark, J. M. New System of Lj.ying Out Railway Turnouts i2mo, i 00 
 
 Clarke, J. W., and Scott, W. Plumbing Practice. 
 
 Vol. I. Lead Working and Plumbers' Materials Svo, *4 00 
 
 Vol. II. Sanitary Plumbing and Fittings (/» Press.) 
 
 Vol. III. Practical Lead Working on Roofs (In Press.) 
 
 Clarkson, R. B. Elementary Electrical Engineering {In f'ress.) 
 
 Clausen-Thue, W. ABC Universal Commercial Telegraphic Code. 
 
 Sixth Edition ( /;, Press.) 
 
 Clerk, D., and Idell, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. (Science Series 
 
 No. 62.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government Surveying. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, 
 Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata Rvo, 
 
 Cochran, J. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Specifications Svo, 
 
 Inspection of Concrete Construction 8vo, 
 
 ■ Treatise on Cement Specifications Svo, 
 
 Cocking, W. C. Calculations for Steel-Frame Structures lamc, 
 
 Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy i2mo, 
 
 Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. (Science 
 
 Series No. 2.) i6mo. 
 
 Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics i2mo, 
 
 Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use Svo, 
 
 Collins, C. D. Drafting Room Methods, Standards and Forms Svo, 
 
 Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, Jewelers. 
 
 i6mo, 
 
 ColHs, A. G. High and Low Tension Switch-Gear Design Svo, 
 
 Switchgear. ( Installation Manuals Series. ) i2mo, 
 
 Comstock, D. F., and Troland, L. T. The Nature of Electricity and 
 
 Matter Svo, 
 
 Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. fScience Series No. 120.) i6mo. 
 
 Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries Svo, 
 
 Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 4to, 
 
 Corfield, W. H. Dwelhng Houses. fScience Series No. 50.) .... i6mo, 
 
 Water and Water-Supply. (Science Series No. 17.) i6mo, 
 
 Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-oipe Analysis Svo, 
 
 Cowee, G. A. Practical Safety Methods and Devices Svo, 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *6 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 *4 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 '^3 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ^''3 
 
 50 
 
 ■^0 
 
 50 
 
 '■'2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 *9 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 •0 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
8 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water ijmo, *3 oo 
 
 Craig, J. W., and Woodward, W. P. Questions and Answers About 
 
 Electrical Apparatus i2mo, leather, i 50 
 
 Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) . i6mo, o 50 
 
 Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) r6mo, o 50 
 
 Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Crehore, A. C. Mystery of Matter and Energy 8vo, i 00 
 
 Greedy, F. Single Phase Commutator Motors 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. The Generating Plant 3 00 
 
 Vol. II. Distributing Systems and Lamps 
 
 Crocker, F. B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Crocker, F. B., and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma- 
 chinery i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and Its Applica- 
 tions. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 
 
 Crosskey, L. R. Elementary Perspective 8vo, 
 
 Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective 8vo, 
 
 Culley, J. L. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 87.) i6mo. 
 
 Gushing, H. G., Jr., and Harrison, N. Central Station Management . . . 
 
 Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics i2mo, 
 
 Dana, R. T. Handbook of Construction plant izmo, leather, 
 
 Danby, A. Natural Rock Asphalts and Bitumens 8vo, 
 
 Davenport, G. The Book. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 
 
 Davey, N. The Gas Turbine 8vo, 
 
 Davies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction 8vo, 
 
 Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manual Series.) 
 
 i6mo, 
 Deerr, N. Sugar Gane 8vo, 
 
 Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King 4to, 
 
 De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. Morris. Svo, 
 
 Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors Svo, 
 
 Denny, G. A. Deep-level Mines of the Rand 4to, 
 
 Diamond Drilling for Gold *5 
 
 De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.) i6mo, 
 
 Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong i2mo, 
 
 Maintenance-of-Way Engineering (In Preparalion.) 
 
 Desaint, A. Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them Svo, 
 
 De Varona, A. Sewer Gases. (Science Series No. 55.) i6mo, 
 
 Devey, R. G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals Series.) 
 
 i2mo, 
 Dibdin, W. J. Purification of Sewage and Water Svo, 
 
 Dichmann, Carl. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process i2mo, 
 
 Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins, .. .8vo, 
 Dilworth, E. C. Steel Railway Bridges 4to. 
 
 Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery . . . i2mo, 
 Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Calculator. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, i 25 
 Dodge, G. F. Diagrams for Designing Reinforced Concrete Structures, 
 
 folio, *4 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ''"2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 "5 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 *s 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 *I 
 
 50 
 
 ''ID 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 SO 
 
 *3 
 
 75 
 
 \ 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
*6 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 ■*n 
 
 50 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOC ,j 
 
 Dommett, W. E. Motor Car Mechanism 12010, '2 25 
 
 Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, 2 00 
 
 Draper, C. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and Sound . . i2mo, i 00 
 
 Heat and the Principles of Thermo-dynamics i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas l2mo, i 00 
 
 Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and Extracts. 
 
 8vo, *6 25 
 Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of Collieries. 
 
 8vo, 
 Dunkley, W. G. Design of Machine Elements. Two Volumes. 8vo, each, 
 
 Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. B. T. Textbook of Practical Chemistry. 
 
 i2mo, 
 Durham, H. W. Saws Svo, 
 
 Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 
 
 Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas Svo, 
 
 Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, 
 
 Dyson, S. S., and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works Svo, 
 
 Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony i2mo, *8 80 
 
 Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul Hogner, 
 
 Svo, 
 
 Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads Svo, 
 
 Eddy, L. C. Laboratory Manual of Alternating Currents i2mo, 
 
 Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo, 
 
 Edgcumbe, K, Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments Svo, 
 
 (In Press.) 
 Edler, R. Switches and Switchgear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. . Svo, 
 
 Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold Svo, 
 
 The Metallurgy of Silver Svo, 
 
 The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Wad Svo, 
 
 A Handbook on Modern Explosives Svo, 
 
 Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams folio, 
 
 Electric Light Carbons, Manufacture of Svo, 
 
 Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualitative 
 
 Chemical Analysis i2mo, *r 25 
 
 Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils Svo, (In Press.) 
 
 Ellis, G. Modem Technical Drawing Svo, *2 00 
 
 Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils Svo, *4 00 
 
 Applied Thermodynamics 8vo, *4 50 
 
 Flying Machines To-day i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing Svo, *2 00 
 
 Erwin, M. The Universe and the Atom i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads (/" P-^ss.) 
 
 Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron Svo, *4 00 
 
 Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores i2mo, *o 50 
 
 Notes on Pottery Clays izmo, *2 25 
 
 "2 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 'l 
 
 50 
 
 'i 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 'i 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
10 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 FaLrley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. (Science 
 
 Series No. 58.) i6nio, o 50 
 
 Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Falk, M. S. Cement Mortars and Concretes 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Fanning, J. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors 8vo, '4 00 
 
 Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Findlay, A. The Treasures of Coal Tar i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Firth, J. B. Practical Physical Chemistry i2mo, i 25 
 
 Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans, by R. V. 
 
 Stanford i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working Drawings Oblong Svo, i 00 
 
 Mathematics of the Paper Location of a Railroad, .paper, i2mo, *o 25 
 
 Fisher, H. K. C, and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing . ,8vo, *3 50 
 Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Trans, by C. M. Aikman. 
 
 Svo, 4 50 
 Fleming, J. A. The Alternate-current Transformer. Two Volumes. Svo. 
 
 Vol. I. The Induction of Electric Currents *5 50 
 
 Vol. II. The Utilization of Induced Currents 5 50 
 
 Propagation of Electric Currents Svo, *3 00 
 
 A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room. Two 
 
 Volumes 8vo, each, *5 00 
 
 Fleury, P. Preparation and Uses of White Zinc Paints Svo, ''3 50 
 
 Flynn, P. J. Flow of Water. (Science Series No. 84.) i2mo, o 50 
 
 Hydraulic Tables. (Science Series No. 66.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Forgie, J. Shield Tunneling Svo. {In I'rcss.) 
 
 Foster, H. A. Electrical Engineers' Pocket-book. (Scrcnlh Edilion.) 
 
 i2mo, leather, 5 00 
 
 Engineering Valuation of Public Utilities and Factories Svo, *3 00 
 
 Handbook of Electrical Cost Data Svo (/// Prpss.) 
 
 Fowle, F. F. Overhead Transmission Line Crossings i2mo, *i 50 
 
 The Solution of Alternating Current Problems Svo (//( Prcxs.) 
 
 Fox, W. G. Transition Curves. (Science Series No. no.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical Draw- 
 ing 1 2mo, 125 
 
 Foye, J. C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 69.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments 4to, 15 00 
 
 Franzen, H. Exercises in Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (Installation 
 
 Manuals Series.) i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Friend, J. N. The Chemistry of Linseed Oil i2ma, i 00 
 
 Frith, J. Alternating Current Design Svo, *2 50 
 
 Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by D. Grant. 
 
 Svo, *6 50 
 
 Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers' Pocket-book i2mo, leather, *$ 00 
 
 Fuller, G. W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio River. 
 
 4to, *io 00 
 Fumell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes Svo. 
 
 Gairdner, J. W. I. Earthwork Svo i/n Press.) 
 
 Gant, L. W. Elements of Electric Traction Svo, *2 50 
 
4 
 
 SO 
 
 ■''5 
 
 oo 
 
 I 
 
 so 
 
 *^5 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 b 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 '4 
 
 00 
 
 "4 
 
 00 
 
 *'3 
 
 oo 
 
 D. VAN XOSTRANIJ CO.'S SHOia' TITLE C\TALO(; 
 
 Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms 8vo, 
 
 Gardner, H. A. Paint Researches, and Their Practical Applications, 
 
 8vo, 
 Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explosions and 
 
 Fires i2mo, leather, 
 
 Garrard, C. C. Electric Switch and Controlling Gear 8vo, 
 
 Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, 
 
 Gear, H. B., and Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Distribution 
 
 Systems gvo, 
 
 G«erligs, H. Cj P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture 8vo' 
 
 — — Chemical Control m Cane Sugar Factories 4to, 
 
 Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology 8vo, 
 
 Mountains. Their Growth, Origin and Decay 8vo, 
 
 The Antiquity of Man in Europe 8 vo, 
 
 Georgi, F., and Schubert, A. Sheet Metal Working. Trans, by C. 
 
 Salter 8vo, 425 
 
 Gerhard, W. P. Sanitation, Watersupply and Sewage Disposal of Country 
 
 Houses i2mo, * 
 
 Gas Lighting (Science Series No. in.) i6mo, 
 
 • Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) i6mo, 
 
 House Drainage. (Science Series No. 63.) i6rr: 0, 
 
 Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.) i6rro, 
 
 Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 8vo, ' 
 
 Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Alum and Sulphates. Trans, by C. 
 
 Salter 8vo, * 
 
 Gibbings, A. H. Oil Fuel Equipment for Locomotives 8vo, 
 
 Gibbs, W. E. Lighting by Acetylene i2mo, * 
 
 Gibson, A. H. Hydraulics and Its Application 8vo, * 
 
 Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines i2rao, * 
 
 Gibson, A. H., and Ritchie, E. G. Circular Arc Bow Girder 4to, 
 
 Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study i2mo, * 
 
 Bricklaying System 8vo, 
 
 Field System i2mo, leather, 
 
 Primer of Scientific Management i2mo, * 
 
 Gillette, H. P. Handbook of Cost Data i2mo, leather, 
 
 Rock Excavation Methods and Cost i2mo, 
 
 and Dana, R. T. Cost Keeping and Management Engineering. gvo, 
 
 and Hill, C. S. Concrete Construction, Methods and Cost....8vo, 
 
 Gillmore, Gen. Q. A. Roads, Streets, and Pavements i2mo, 
 
 Godfrey, E. Tables for Structural Engineers i6mo, leather, 
 
 Golding, H. A, The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, ' 
 
 Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor 8vo, * 
 
 Goodchild, W. Precious Stones. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, * 
 
 Goodell, J. M. The Location, Construction and Maintenance of 
 
 Roads 8vo, 
 
 Goodeve, T. M. Textbook on the Steam-engine. . 12 mo, 
 
 Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals 8vo, * 
 
 Gould, E. S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine i2mo, 
 
 ■ Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, 
 
 High Masonry Dams. (Science Series No. 22.) i6mo, 
 
 Gould, E. S. Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic Formulas. (Science 
 
 Series No. 117.) i6rao, o 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ■6 
 
 00 
 
 ^5 
 
 00 
 
 '2 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 '5 
 
 00 
 
 '2 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 50 
 
 ■2 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 ■I 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 ■5 
 
 00 
 
 -3 
 
 50 
 
 ■5 
 
 00 
 
 J 
 
 25 
 
 ■ 2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 ■2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 \3 
 
 SO 
 
 T 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
12 U. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Gratacap, L. P. A Popular Guide to Minerals 8vo, 
 
 Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines i2mo, 
 
 Marine Boiler Design i2mo, 
 
 Greenhill, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight 8vo, 
 
 Gregorius, R. Mineral Waxes. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, 
 
 Grierson, R. Some Modern Methods of Ventilation 8vo, 
 
 Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures i2mo, 
 
 Dental Metallurgy 8vo, 
 
 Gross, E. Hops 8vo, 
 
 Grossman, J. Ammonia and Its Compounds i2mo, 
 
 Groth, L. A. Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electricity. 
 
 (Westminster Series) 8vo, 
 
 Grover, F. Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, 
 
 Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, 
 
 Gnmsky, C. E. Topographic Stadia Surveying i6mo, 
 
 GUldner, Hugo. Internal Combustion Engines. Trans, by H. Diederichs. 
 
 4to, 
 
 Gunther, C. 0. Integration 8vo, 
 
 Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half morocco, 
 
 Guy, A. E. Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, 
 
 Haenig, A. Emery and Emery Industry 8vo, 
 
 Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans., by C. Salter i2mo. 
 
 Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry lamo, 
 
 Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles r2mo. 
 
 Hall, G. L. Elementary Theory of Alternate Current Working. .. .8vo, 
 
 Hall, R. H. Governors and Governing Mechanism i2mo. 
 
 Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus 8vo, 
 
 Descriptive Geometry 8vo volume and a 4to atlas, 
 
 Haller, G. F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil r2mo, 
 
 Halsey, F. A. Slide Valve Gears i2mo, 
 
 — — • The Use of the Shde Rule. (Science Series No. 114.) i6mo, 
 
 Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series No. 116.) i6mo, 
 
 Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics 8vo, 
 
 Hancock, W. C. Refractory Materials. (Metallurgy Series.) {In Press.) 
 
 Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Haring, H. Engineering Law. 
 
 Vol. I. Law of Contract 8vo 
 
 Harper, J. H. Hydraulic Tables on the Flow of Water i6mo, 
 
 Harris, S. M. Practical Topographical Surveying {In Press.] 
 
 Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics' Tool-book T2mo, 
 
 Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work 8vo, 
 
 Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping 8vo, 
 
 Principles of Hot Water Supply 8vo, 
 
 Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage 8vo, 
 
 Haskins, C. H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, 
 
 Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist square i2mo, 
 
 Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans, by A. C. 
 
 Wright lamo, *3 00 
 
 Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans, by A. C. 
 
 Wright 8vo, *7 2.S 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 2b 
 
 *2 
 
 SO 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 *5 
 
 25 
 
 *I 
 
 25 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *,S 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 ^i.-; 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *7 
 
 50 
 
 *r 
 
 25 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 25 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 25 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 ■4 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 '3 
 
 25 
 
 ^4 
 
 25 
 
 "4 
 
 25 
 
 ^4 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 'I 
 
 50 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 13 
 
 Hausmann, E. Telegraph Engineering 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Hausner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. Trans. 
 
 by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *4 25 
 
 Hawkesworth, J. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Design. 
 
 4to, 
 
 Hay, A. Continuous Current Engineering 8vo, 
 
 Hayes, H. V. Public Utilities, Their Cost New and Depreciation. , .8vo, 
 
 Public Utilities, Their Fair Present Value and Return 8vo, 
 
 Heath, F. H. Chemistry of Photography 8vo. ( 1 11 Press. ) 
 
 Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering 8vo, 
 
 Heaviside, O. Electromagnetic Theory. Vols. I and II. . 8vo, each, 
 
 Vol. Ill 8vo, 
 
 Heck, R. C. H. The Steam Engine and Turbine 8vo, 
 
 Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volumes. 
 
 Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics 8vo, 
 
 Vol. II. Form, Construction, and Working 8vo, 
 
 ■ Notes on Elementary Kinematics 8vo, boards, 
 
 Graphics of Machine Forces 8vo, boards, 
 
 Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by A. C. Wright i2mo, 
 
 Heidenreich, E. L. Engineers' Pocketbook of Reinforced Concrete, 
 
 i6mo, leather, 
 Hellot, Macquer and D'Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton. 8vo, 
 
 Henrici, O. Skeleton Structures 8vo, 
 
 Hering, C, and Getman, F. H. Standard Tables of Electro-Chemical 
 
 Equivalents i2mo, 
 
 Hering, D. W. Essentials of Physics for College Students 8vo, 
 
 Hering-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two Vols.. .8vo, 
 
 Hering-Shaw, A. Elementary Science 8vo, 
 
 Hcrington, C. F. Powdered Coal as Fuel Svo, 
 
 Herrmann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans, by A. P. 
 
 Smith i2mo, 
 
 Herzfeld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics Svo, 
 
 Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present Svo, 
 
 Hildenbrand, B. W. Cable-Making. (Science Series No. 32.) . . . .i6mo, 
 
 Hilditch, T. P. A Concise History of Chemistry i2mo. 
 
 Hill, C. S. Concrete Inspection i6mo, 
 
 Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New Edition. 
 
 (Ill Prrss.) 
 
 Interpretation of Water Analysis (lit Press.) 
 
 Hill, M. J. M. The Theory of Proportion Svo, 
 
 Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.). ..i6mo, 
 
 Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, 
 
 Hirshfeie, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science Series No. 45.) 
 
 i6mo, 
 
 Hoar, A. The Submarine Torpedo Boat i2mo, 
 
 Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering Svo, 
 
 Design of Static Transformers i2mo, 
 
 Electricity 8vo, 
 
 Electric Trains 8vo, 
 
 Electric Propulsion of Ships Svo, 
 
 -t-2 
 
 50 
 
 '2 
 
 50 
 
 ''■2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 GO 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 *7 
 
 50 
 
 '■3 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 SO 
 
 *S 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 SO 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 75 
 
 *5 
 
 00- 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 "I 
 
 25 
 
 ''I 
 
 00 
 
 ■'•2 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ''2 
 
 DO 
 
 *4 
 
 50 
 
 ■"2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
14 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 'I 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 75 
 
 'I 
 
 5° 
 
 '8 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 5° 
 
 2 
 
 oo 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 ■2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 "I 
 
 5° 
 
 ■I 
 
 25 
 
 'I 
 
 00 
 
 '0 
 
 70 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 '5 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 Hobart, J. F. Hard Soldering, Soft Soldering and Brazing i2mo, 
 
 Hobbs, W. R. P.- The- Arithmetic of Electrical Measurements i2mo, 
 
 Hoff, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas i2mo, 
 
 Hole, W. The Distribution of Gas 8vo, 
 
 Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 
 
 Hopkins, N. M. Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, 
 
 Hopkinson, J., Shoolbred, J. N., and Day, R. E. Dynamic Electricity. 
 
 I Science Series No. 71. ) i6mo, 
 
 Horner, J. Practical Ironf ounding 8vo, 
 
 Gear Cutting, in Theory and Practice 8vo, 
 
 Horniman, Roy. How to Make the Railways Pay For the War. . . .8vo, 
 
 Houghton, C. E. The Elements of Mechanics of Materials i2mo, 
 
 Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production i2mo, 
 
 Hovenden, F. Practical Mathematics for Young Engineers i2mo, 
 
 Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man i2mo, 
 
 Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthenware. 
 
 8vo, paper, 
 
 Hoyt, W. E. Chemistry by Experimentation 8vo, 
 
 Hubbard, E. The Utilization of Wood-waste 8vo, 
 
 H'jbner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous Materials. 
 
 I Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, 
 
 Hudson, 0. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. ) .8vo, 
 Humphrey, J. C. W. Metallography of Strain. (Metallurgy Series.) 
 
 {In Press.) 
 Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering Practice. .8vo, *i 25 
 
 Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo. (In Press.) 
 
 Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color 8vo, 
 
 Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products 8vo, 
 
 Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases 8vo 
 
 Soaps 8vo, 
 
 Hurst, G. H., and Simmons, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils 8vo, 
 
 Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics 8vo, 
 
 Also published in three parts. 
 
 Part I. Dynamics and Heat 
 
 Part II. Sound and Light 
 
 Part III. Magnetism and Electricity 
 
 Hutchinson, R. W., Jr. Long Distance Electric Power Transmission. 
 
 i2nio, *3 00 
 Hutchinson, R. W., Jr., and Thomas, W. A. Electricity in Mining. i2mo, 
 
 (In Press.) 
 Hutchinson, W. B. Patents and How to Make Money Out of Them. 
 
 i2mo, I 00 
 
 Button, W. S. The Works' Manager's Handbook 8vo, 6 00 
 
 Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Kyde, F. S. Solvents, Oils, Gums, Waxes 8vo, *2 00 
 
 ■"4 
 
 25 
 
 *6 
 
 25 
 
 *7 
 
 25 
 
 *7 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 o so 
 
 Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo u 50 
 
 Ingham, A. E. Gearing. A practical treatise ..8vo, *2 50 
 
 Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry 8vo, *4 25 
 
I 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 'i 
 
 50 
 
 ^''3 
 
 50 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 D VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG ig 
 
 Inness, C. H. Problems in Machine Design i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Air Compressors and Blowing Engines i2mo, 
 
 ■ Centrifugal Pumps i2mo, ^3 oo 
 
 The Fan i2mo, ''4 00 
 
 Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction of 
 
 Storage Reservoirs. (Science Series No. 6) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans, by G. W. 
 Plympton i2mo, 
 
 Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8vo, 
 
 Jennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (Westminster Series.) 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments 8vo, 
 
 Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction 8vo, 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 8vo (//( Preparutinn.) 
 
 Jervis-Smith, F. J. Dyr.amometers 8vo, 
 
 Jockin, W. Arithmetic of the Gold and Silversmith i2mo, 
 
 Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps and Accessory Apparatus. (Installation 
 
 Manuals Series.) i2mo, *o 75 
 
 Johnson, T.M. Ship Wiring and Fitting. (Installation Manuals Series.) 
 
 i2mo, *o 75 
 
 Johnson, W. McA. The Metallurgy of Nickel (///, Preparation.) 
 
 Johnston, J. F. W., and Cameron, C. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry 
 
 and Geology i2mo, 
 
 Joly, J. Radioactivity and Geology i2mo, 
 
 Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity i2mo, 
 
 Nature of Solution 8vo, 
 
 New Era in Chemistry r 2mo, 
 
 Jones, J. H. Tinplate Industry Svo, 
 
 Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint i2mo, 
 
 Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral i2mo, leather, 
 
 Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gearing . . 8vo, 
 Jiiptner, H. F, V. Siderology; The Science of Iron Svo, 
 
 Kapp, G. Alternate Current Machinery. (Science Series No. 96.). i6mo, 050 
 
 Kapper, F. Overhead Transmission Lines 4to, *4 00 
 
 Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings Svo, *3 00 
 
 Keller, S. S. Mathematics for Engineering Students. i2mo, half leather. 
 
 and Knox, W. E. Analytical Geometry and Calculus *2 00 
 
 Kelsey, W. R. Continuous-current Dynamos and Motors 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Kemble, W. T., and Underbill, C. R. The Periodic Law and the Hydrogen 
 
 Spectrum Svo, paper, *o 50 
 
 Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks Svo, *i 50 
 
 Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R. H. Kinematics of Machinery. 
 
 (Science Series No. 54.) i6mo, 50 
 
 Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C, and Idell, F. E. Compressed Air. 
 
 (Science Series No. io6.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 ''3 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 25 
 
l6 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT "^ITLE CATALOG 
 
 Kennedy, R. Electrical Installations. Five Volumes 4to, 15 oo 
 
 Single Volumes each, 3 50 
 
 Flying Machines ; Practice and Design i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Principles of Aeroplane Construction 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Kent, W. Strength of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 
 
 The Electric Furnace in Iron and Steel Production l2mo, 
 
 Electro-Thermal Methods of Iron and Steel Production. .. Svo, '3 00 
 
 Kindelan, J. Trackman's Helper lamo, 2 00 
 
 Kinzbrunner, C. Alternate Current Windings 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Continuous Current Armatures 8'7o, *i 50 
 
 Testing of Alternating Current Machines 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Kirkaldy, A.. W., and Evans, A. D. History and Economics of 
 
 Transport 8vo, '3 00 
 
 Kirkaldy, W. G. David Kirkaldy's System of Mechanical Testing .4to, 10 00 
 
 Kirkbride, J. Engraving for Illustration 8vo, *i 75 
 
 Kirkham, J. E. Structural Engineering 8vo, *5 0,0 
 
 Kirkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters 4to, 7 50 
 
 Kirschke, A. Gas and Oil Engines i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Klein, J. F. Design of a High-speed Steam-engine Svo, *5 00 
 
 Physical Significance of Entropy 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Klingenberg, G. Large Electric Power Stations 4to, *5 00 
 
 Knight, R.-Adm. A. M. Modern Seamanship Svo, *6 50 
 
 Pocket Edition i2mo, f abrikoid, 3 00 
 
 Knott, C. G., and Mackay, J. S. Practical Mathematics Svo, ■ 2 00 
 
 Knox, G. D. Spirit of the Soil i2mo, '■'i 25 
 
 Knox, J. Physico-Chemical Calculations i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. (Chemical Monographs. ). i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Koester, F. Steam-Electric Power Plants 4to, *5 00 
 
 Hydroelectric Developments and Engineering 4to, *5 00 
 
 KoUer, T. The Utilization of Waste Products Svo, *5 50 
 
 Cosmetics 3 vo, *3 00 
 
 Koppe, S. W. Glycerine i2mo, *4 25 
 
 Kozmin, P. A. Flour Milling. Trans, by M. Falkner Svo, 7 50 
 
 Kreraann, R. \pplication of the Physico-Chemical Theory to Tech- 
 nical Processes and Manufacturing Methods. Trans, by H. 
 
 E. Potts Svo, *3 00 
 
 Kretchmar, K. Yarn and Warp Sizing 8vo, *6 25 
 
 Laffargue, A. Attack in Trench Warfare i6mo o 50 
 
 Lallier, E. V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine i2mo,' *2 00 
 
 Lambert, T. Lead and Its Compounds Svo *4 25 
 
 Bone Products and Manures gvo' *4 2^^ 
 
 Lamborn, L. L. Cottonseed Products gvo *^ 00 
 
 Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin gvo *7 ^o 
 
 Lamprecht, R. Recovery Work After Pit Fires. Trans, by C. Salter . Svo', +6 25 
 
 Lancaster, M. Electric Cooking, Heating and Cleaning Svo, *i 00 
 
 Lanchester, F. W. Aerial Flight. Two Volumes. Svo. 
 
 Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 00 
 
 Vol. II. Aerodonetics *6 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG [7 
 
 Lanchester, F. W. The Flying Machine 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Industrial Engineering: Present and Post-War Outlook. .. lamo, i 00 
 
 Lange, K. R. By-Products of Coal-Gas Manufacture lamo, 3 00 
 
 Lamer, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents i2mo. *i 25 
 
 La Rue, B. F. Swing Bridges. (Science Series No. 107.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Lassar-Cohn. Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. M. 
 
 Pattison Muir i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent Electric 
 
 Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, 
 
 Latta, M. N. Handbook of American Gas-Engineering Practice . . . 8vo, 
 
 — — American Producer Gas Practice 4to, 
 
 Laws, B. C. Stability and Equilibrium of Floating Bodies 8vo, 
 
 Lawson, W. R. British Railways. A Financial and Commercial 
 
 Survey 8vo, 
 
 Leask, A. R. Breakdowns at Sea i2mo, 
 
 Refrigerating Machinery i2mo, 
 
 Lecky, S. T. S. "Wrinkles" in Practical Navigation 8vo, 
 
 Danger Angle i6mo, 
 
 Le Doux, M. Ice-Making Machines. (Science Series No. 46.) . . i6mo, 
 
 Leeds, C. C. Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools oblong 4to, 
 
 ■ Mechanical Drawing for High and Vocational Schools 4to, 
 
 Lefevre, L. Architectural Pottery. Trans, by H. K. Bird and W. M. 
 
 Binns 4to, 
 
 Lehner, S. Ink Manufacture. Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson.Svo, 
 
 Lemstrom, S. Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture 8vo, 
 
 Letts, E. A. Fundamental Problems in Chemistry 8vo, 
 
 Le Van, W. B. Steam-Engine Indicator. (Science Series No. 78.)i6mo, 
 Lewes, V. B. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. (Westminster Series.) . .8vo, 
 
 Carbonization of Coal 8vo, 
 
 Lewis, L. P. Railway Signal Engineering 8vo, 
 
 Lewis Automatic Machine Rifle ; Operation of i6mo, 
 
 Licks, H. E. Recreations in Mathematics izmo, 
 
 Lieber, B. F. Lieber's Five Letter Standard Telegraphic Code.Svo, * 
 
 Code. German Edition 8vo, * 
 
 Spanish Edition 8vo, * 
 
 French Edition 8vo, * 
 
 Terminal Index Svo, 
 
 Lieber's Appendix folio, * 
 
 Handy Tables 4*0, 
 
 Bankers and Stockbrokers' Code and Merchants and Shippers' 
 
 Blank Tables Svo, * 
 
 100,000,000 Combination Code Svo, * 
 
 Engineering Code Svo, * 
 
 Livermore, V. P., and Williams, J. How to Become a Competent Motor- 
 man i2mo, 
 
 Livingstone, R. Design and Construction of Commutators Svo, 
 
 Mechanical Design and Construction of Generators 8vo, 
 
 Lloyd, S. L. Fertilizer Materials (fn Press.) 
 
 Lobben, P. Machinists' and Draftsmen's Handbook Svo, 
 
 Lockwood, T. D. Electricity- Magnetism, and Electro-telegraph . . . 8vo, 
 Electrical Measurement and the Galvanometer lamo. 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 50 
 
 *6 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 .SO 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 25 
 
 *8 
 
 50 
 
 -3 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 •■^0 
 
 75 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 '10 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 '15 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 25 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 75 
 
I 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 5" 
 
 50° 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 *I 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 ■25 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 50 
 
 18 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Lodge, O. J. Elementary Mechanics i2mo, i 50 
 
 Signalling Across Space without Wires 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Loewenstein, L. C, and Crissey, C. P. Centrifugal Pumps *4 5° 
 
 Lomax, J. W. Cotton Spinning i2mo, 
 
 Lord, R. T. Decorative and Fancy Fabrics 8vo, 
 
 Loring, A. E. A Handbook of the Electromagnetic Telegraph .... i6mo 
 
 Handbook. (Science Series No. 39.) i6m, 
 
 Lovell, D. H. Practical Switchwork izmo. 
 
 Low, D. A. Applied Mechanics (Elementary) i6mo, 
 
 Lubschez, B. J. Perspective i2mo, 
 
 Lucke, C. E. Gas Engine Design 8vo, 
 
 ■ Power Plants: Design, Efficiency, and Power Costs. 2 vols. 
 
 (In Preparation.) 
 
 Luckiesh, M. Color and Its Application 8vo, 
 
 Light and Shade and Their Applications 8vo, 
 
 Lunge, G. Coal-tar and Ammonia. Three Volumes 8vo, 
 
 Technical Gas Analysis 8vo, 
 
 ~— Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. Four Volumes ... Svo, 
 
 Vol. I. Sulphuric Acid. In three parts *i8 00 
 
 Vol. I. Supplement Svo, 5 00 
 
 Vol. II. Salt Cake, Hydrochloric Acid and Leblanc Soda. In two 
 
 parts (In Press.) 
 
 Vol. III. Ammonia Soda (In Press.) 
 
 Vol. IV. Electrolytic Methods (In Press.) 
 
 Technical Chemists' Handbook i2mo, leather, *4 00 
 
 ■ Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis. Trans, by C. A. Keane 
 
 in collaboration with the corps of specialists. 
 
 Vol. I. In two parts Svo, *I5 00 
 
 Vol. II. In two parts Svo, *i8 00 
 
 Vol. III. In two parts 8vo, *i8 00 
 
 The set (3 vols. ) complete *5o 00 
 
 Luquer, L. M. Minerals ia Rock Sections Svo, *i 50 
 
 MacBride, J. D. A Handbook of Practical Shipbuilding, 
 
 i2mo, fabrikoid (In Press.) 
 
 Macewen, H. A. Food Inspection Svo, *2 50 
 
 Mackenzie, N. F. Notes on Irrigation Works 8vo *2 
 
 Mackie, J. How to Make a Woolen Mill Pay 8vo, *2 
 
 Maguire, Wm. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing .... Svo, 4 00 
 
 Malcolm, C. W. Textbook on Graphic Statics 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Malcolm, H. W. Submarine Telegraph Cable (/» Press.) 
 
 Mallet, A. Compound Engines. Trans, by R. R. BueL (Science Series 
 
 No. 10.) i6mo, 
 
 Mansfield, A. N. Electro-magnets. (Science Series No. 64.) . . i6mo, o 50 
 
 Marks, E. C. R. Construction of Cranes and Lifting Machinery. .i2mo, *2 00 
 
 — — Construction and Working of Pumps i2mo 
 
 — ^ Manufacture of Iron and Steel Tubes i2mo *2 00 
 
 Mechanical Engineering Materials i2mo', *i 50 
 
 Marks, G. C. Hydraulic Power Engineering 8vo 4 co 
 
 Inventions, Patents and Designs i2mo *i 00 
 
 Marlow, T. G. Drying Machinery and Practice Svo, *s 00 
 
 50 
 25 
 
D. VAN NOSTRA.N'I) CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 ''"l 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 '■"1 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 *A 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 Marsh, C. F. Concise Treatise on Reinforced Concrete 8vo, *2 50 
 
 • Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram. Mounted on 
 
 Cloth Boards *i - 50 
 
 Marsh, C. F., and Dunn, W. Manual of Reinforced Concrete and Con- 
 crete Block Construction i6mo, fabiikoid ( In Press ) 
 
 Marshall, W. J., and Sankey, H. R. Gas Engines. (Westminster Series.) 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Martin, G. Triumphs and Wonders of Modern Chemistry 8vo, 
 
 Modern Chemistry and Its Wonders 8vo, 
 
 Martin, N. Properties and Design of Reinforced Concrete i2mo, 
 
 Martin, W. D. Hints to Engineers lamo, 
 
 Massie, W. W., and Underhill, C. R. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 
 
 i2mo, 
 Mathot, R. E. Internal Combustion Engines 8vo, 
 
 Maurice, W. Electric Blasting Apparatus and Explosives Svo, 
 
 Shot Firer's Guide Svo, 
 
 Maxwell, F. Sulphitation in White Sugar Manufacture i2mo, 
 
 Maxwell, J. C. Matter and Motion. (Science Series No. 36.). 
 
 i6mo, 50 
 Maxwell, W. H., and Brown, J. T. Encyclopedia of Municipal and Sani- 
 tary Engineering 4to, *io 00 
 
 Mayer, A. M. Lecture Notes on Physics Svo, 2 00 
 
 Mayer, C, and Slippy, J. C. Telephone Line Construction Svo, *3 00 
 
 McCullough, E. Practical Surveying i2mo, *2 00 
 
 , Engineering Work in Cities and Towns Svo, *3 00 
 
 Reinforced Concrete i2mo, *i 50 
 
 McCullough, R. S. Mechanical Theory of Heat Svo, 3 50 
 
 McGibbon, W. C. Indicator Diagrams fur Marine Engineers Svo, ''3 50 
 
 Marine Engineers' Drawing Book oblong 4to, *2 50 
 
 McGibbon, W. C. Marine Engineers Pocketbook i2mo, *4 00 
 
 Mcintosh, J. G. Technology of Sugar Svo, *j 25 
 
 Industrial Alcohol Svo, *4 25 
 
 ■ Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries. Three Volumes. 
 
 Svo. 
 
 Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling 
 
 Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making "^6 25 
 
 Vol. III. Spirit Varnishes and Materials *7 25 
 
 McKay, C. W. Fundamental Principles of the Telephone Business. 
 
 Svo. {Ill Press.) 
 
 McKillop, M., and McKillop, A. D. Efficiency Methods i2mo, i 50 
 
 McKnight, J. D., and Brown, A. W. Marine Multitubular Boilers.... '''2 50 
 McMaster, J. B. Bridge and Tunnel Centres. (Science Series No. 20.) 
 
 i6mo, o 50 
 
 McMechen, F. L. Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals i2mo, *i 00 
 
 McPherson, J. A. Water-works Distribution Svo, 2 5c 
 
 Meade, A. Modern Gas Works Practice Svo, *S 50 
 
 Meade, R. K. Design and Equipment of Small Chemical Laboratories, 
 
 Svo, 
 
 Melick, C. W. Dairy Laboratory Guide i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Mensch, L. J. Reinforced Concrete Pocket Book i6mo, leather, *4 00 
 
 Merck, E. Chemical Reagents ; Their Purity and Tests. Trans, by 
 
 H. E. Schenck Svo, i 00 
 
 Merivale, J. H. Notes and Formulae for Mining Students i2mo, i 50 
 
 Merritt, Wm. H. Field Testing for Gold and Silver. .. .i6mo, leather, 2 00 
 
20 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Mertens. Tactics and Technique of River Crossings. Translated by 
 
 W. Kruger 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Mierzinski, S. Waterproofing of Fabrics. Trans, by A. Morris and H. 
 
 Robson 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Miessner, B. F. Radio Dynamics i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Miller, G. A. Determinants. (Science Series No 105.) i6mo, 
 
 Miller, W. J. Introduction to Historical Geology i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace-making i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Mills, C. N. Elementary Mechanics for Engineers 8vo, *i 00 
 
 Mitchell, C. A. Mineral and Aerated Waters 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Mitchell, C. A., and Prideaux, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and Allied 
 
 Industries 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Mitchell, C. F., and G. A. Building Construction and Drawing. i2mo. 
 
 Elementary Course *i 50 
 
 Advanced Course *2 50 
 
 Monckton, C. C. F. Radiotelegraphy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Monteverde, R. D. Vest Pocket Glossary of English-Spanish, Spanish- 
 English Technical Terms 64mo, leather, 
 
 Montgomery, J. H. Electric Wiring Specifications i6mo, 
 
 Moore, E. C. S. New Tables for the Complete Solution of Ganguillet and 
 
 Kutter's Formula 8vo, 
 
 Moore, Harold. Liquid Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines . Svo, 
 Morecroft, J. H., and Hehre, F. W. Short Course in Electrical Testing. 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Morgan, A. P. Wireless Telegraph Apparatus for Amateurs i2mo, 
 
 Morgan, C. E. Practical Seamanship for the Merchant Marine, 
 
 i2mo, fabrikoid (In Press.) 
 
 Moses, A. J. The Characters of Crystals Svo, 
 
 and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy Svo, 
 
 Moss, S.A. Elements of Gas Engine Design. (Science Series No.i2i.)r6mo, 
 
 The Lay-out of Corliss Valve Gears. (Science Series No. ii9.)i6mo, 
 
 Mulford, A. C. Boundaries and Landmarks lamo, 
 
 Mullin, J. P. Modern Moulding and Pattern-making i2mo, 
 
 Munby, A. E. Chemistry and Physics of Building Materials. (West- 
 minster Series. ) 8vo, 
 
 Murphy, J. G. Practical Mining i6mo, 
 
 Murray, J. A. Soils and Manures. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 
 
 Nasmith, J. The Student's Cotton Spinning. Svo, 
 
 Recent Cotton Mill Construction i2mo. 
 
 Weave, G. B., and Heilbron, I. M. Identification of Organic Compounds. 
 
 i2mo, 
 
 Neilson, R. M. Aeroplane Patents Svo, 
 
 Nerz, F. Searchlights. Trans, by C. Rodgers Svo, 
 
 Neuberger, H., and Noalhat, H. Technology of Petroleum. Trans, by 
 
 J. G. Mcintosh Svo, ' 
 
 Newall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears Svo, 
 
 Newbigin, M. L, and Flett, J. S. James Geikie, the Man and the 
 
 Geologist Svo, 
 
 Newbeging, T. Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers 8vo, 
 
 Newell, F. H., and Drayer, C. E. Engineering as a Career. .i2mo, cloth, 
 
 paper, 
 
 Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations 8vo, 
 
 Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements i2mo. 
 
 •■r 
 
 00^ 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 •2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 '10 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 *6 
 
 50 
 
 •I- J 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRy\ND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CAT/VLO& 21 
 
 Nisbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, 
 
 Nolan, H. The Telescope. (Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Norie, J. W. Epitome of Navigation (2 Vols.) octavo, 15 00 
 
 A Complete Set of Nautical Tables with Explanations of Their 
 
 Use octavo, 6 50 
 
 North, H. B. Laboratory Experiments in General Chemistry i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Nugent, E. Treatise on Optics i2mo, i 50 
 
 O'Connor, H. The Gas Engineer's Pocketbook i2mo, leather, 3 50 
 
 Ohm, G. S., and Lockwood, T. D. Galvanic Circuit. Translated by 
 
 William Francis. (Science Series No. 102.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Olsen, J. C. Text-book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Olsson, A. Motor Control, in Turret Turning and Gun Elevating. (U. S. 
 
 Navy Electrical Series, No. i.) i2mo, paper, *o 50 
 
 Ormsby, M. T. M. Surveying i2mo 2 50 
 
 Cudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Owen, D. Recent Physical Research 8vo, 
 
 Pakes, W. C. C, and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene . .8vo, *i 7S 
 
 Palaz, A. Industrial Photometry. Trans, by G. W. Patterson, Jr . . 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Pamely, C. CoUiery Manager's Handbook Svo, *io 00 
 
 Parker, P. A. M. The Control of Water Svo, *5 00 
 
 Parr, G. D. A. Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments. .. Svo, *3 50 
 
 Parry, E. J. Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes. ... 10 00 
 
 Foods and Drugs. Two Volumes. 
 
 Vol. I. Chemical and Microscopical Analysis of Foods and Drugs. *io 00 
 
 Vol. II. Sale of Food and Drugs Act *4 25 
 
 • and Coste, J. H. Chemistry of Pigments Svo, *6 50 
 
 Parry, L. Notes on Alloys Svo, ''3 50 
 
 Metalliferous Wastes Svo, *2 50 
 
 Analysis of Ashes and Alloys Svo, *2 50 
 
 Parry, "L. A. Risk and Dangers of Various Occupations Svo, *4 25 
 
 Parshall, H. F., and Hobart, H. M. Armature Windings 4to, *7 50 
 
 Electric Railway Engineering 4to, *io 00 
 
 Parsons, J. L. Land Drainage Svo, *i 50 
 
 Parsons, S. J Malleable Cast Iron Svo, *2 50 
 
 Partington, J. R. Higher Mathematics for Chemical Students. .i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Textbook of Thermodynamics Svo, *4 00 
 
 Passmore, A. C. Technical Terms Used in Architecture Svo, *4 25 
 
 Patchell, W. H. Electric Power in Mines Svo, *4 00 
 
 Paterson, G. W. L. Wiring Calculations i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Electric Mine Signalling Installations i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Patterson, D. The Color Printing of Carpet Yarns Svo, *4 25 
 
 — — Color Matching on Textiles Svo, *4 25 
 
 Textile Color Mixing Svo, *4 25 
 
 Paulding, C. P. Condensation of Steam in Covered and Bare Pipes Svo, *2 00 
 
 Transmission of Heat through Cold-storage Insulation i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Payne, D. W. Iron Founders' Handbook Svo, *4 00 
 
 Peckham, S. F. Solid Bitumens Svo, *5 00 
 
 Peddie, R. A. Engineering and Metallurgical Books i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Peirce, B. System of Analytic Mechanics 4to, ro 00 
 
 Linnear Associative Algebra 4to, 3 00 
 
 Pendred, V. The Railway Locomotive. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 
 
22 D. VAN XOSTRAXD CO.S SHOKf TITLK CATALOG 
 
 Perkin, F. M. Practical Msthods of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *i oo 
 
 Perrin, J. Atoms 8vo, *2 50 
 
 and Jaggers, E. M, Elementary Chemistry i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Perrine, F. A. C. Conductors for Electrical Distribution 8vo, *3 50 
 
 Petit, G. White Lead and Zinc White Paints 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. O'B. Hubbard, and 
 
 J. H. Ledeboer 8vo, *i 50 
 
 Pettit, Lieut. J. S. Graphic Processes. (Science Series No. 76.) . . . i6mo, 50 
 Philbrick, P. H. Beams and Girders. (Science Series No. 88.) . . . i6mo, 
 
 Phillips, J. Gold Assaying 8vo, *3 75 
 
 Dangerous Goods 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Phin, J. Seven Follies of Science i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Pickworth, C. N. The Indicator Handbook. Two Volumes. . i2mo, each, i 50 
 
 Logarithms for Beginners i2mo boards, o 50 
 
 The Slide Rule i2mo, i 25 
 
 Pilcher, R. B., and Butler-Jones, F. What Industry Owes to Chemical 
 
 Science i2mo, r 50 
 
 Plattner's Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis. Eighth Edition, revised. Trans. 
 
 by H. B. Cornwall 8vo, 
 
 Plympton, G. W. The Aneroid Barometer. (Science Series No. 35.) i6mo, 
 
 How to become an Engineer. (Science Series No. 100.) i6mo, 
 
 Van Nostrand's Table Book. (Science Series No. 104.) i6mo, 
 
 Pochet, M. L. Steam Injectors. Translated from the French. (Science 
 
 Series No. 29.) , . , . i6mo, 
 
 Pocket Logarithms to Four Places. (Science Series No. 65.) i6mo, 
 
 leather, 
 
 Polleyn, F. Dressings and Finishings for Textile Fabrics 8vo, 
 
 Pope, F. G. Organic Chemistry r2mo. 
 
 Pope, F. L. Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph 8vo, 
 
 Popplewell, W. C. Prevention of Smoke Bvo, 
 
 Strength of Materials 8vo, 
 
 Porritt, B. D. The Chemistry of Rubber. (Chemical Monographs, 
 
 No. 3.) i2mo. 
 
 Porter, J. R. Helicopter Flying Machine . i2mo. 
 
 Potts, H. E. Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. (Outliues of Indus- 
 trial Chemistry ) 8vo 
 
 Practical Compounding cf Oils, Tallow and Grease ^ gvo,' 
 
 Pratt, K. Boiler Draught i2mo 
 
 High Speed Steam Engines 8vo 
 
 Pray, T., Jr. Twenty Years with the Indicator gvo 
 
 Steam Tables and Engine Constant gvo 
 
 Prelini, C. Earth and Rock Excavation gvo 
 
 Graphical Determination of Earth Slopes gvo 
 
 Tunneling. New Edition gvo 
 
 — — Dredging. A Practical Treatise gvo 
 
 Prescott, A. B. Organic Analysis. gvo 
 
 Prescott, A. B., and Johnson, O. C. Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, 
 Prescott, A. B., and Sullivan, E. C. First Book in Qualitative Chemistry. 
 
 12110, 
 
 Prideaux, E B. R. Problems in Physical Chemistry Rvo, 
 
 The Theory and Use of Indicators Svo, ■; 00 
 
 Primrose, G. S. C, Zinc. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press.) 
 
 '•4 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 .so 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 ^3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 25 
 
 ■'"2 
 
 50 
 
 :Pj 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 5'^ 
 
 '''■'2 
 
 50 
 
 ■4 
 
 25 
 
 -I 
 
 25 
 
 ■2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 '^3 
 
 00 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 50 
 
 'T 
 
 eo 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAXD CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 23 
 
 Prince, G. T. Flow of Water i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Pullen, W. W. F. Application of Graphic Methods to the Design of 
 
 Structures i2mo, ' 
 
 Injectors: Theory, Construction and Working i2mo, 
 
 Indicator Diagrams 8vo, 
 
 Engine Testing 8vo, 
 
 Putsch, A. Gas and Coal-dust Firing 8vo, 
 
 Pynchon, T. R. Introduction to Chemical Physics 8vo, 
 
 Rafter G. W. Mechanics of Ventilation. (Science Series No. 33.) . r6mo, 
 
 Potable Water. (Science Series No. 103.) i6mo, 
 
 Treatment of Septic Sewage. (Science Series No. 118.) . . . i5mo. 
 
 Rafter, G. W., and Baker, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United States. 
 
 4to, 
 
 Raikes, H. P. Sewage Disposal Works 8vo, 
 
 Randau, P. Enamels and Enamelling 8vo, 
 
 Rankine, W. J. M. Applied Mechanics 8vo, 
 
 Civil Engineering , 8vo, 
 
 Machinery and Millwork 8vo, 
 
 — — The Steam-engine and Other Prime Movers 8vo, 
 
 Rankine, W. J. M., and Bamber, E. F. A Mechanical Text-book. . . .8vo, 
 
 Ransome, W. R. Freshman Mathematics i2mo, 
 
 Raphael, F. C. Localization of Faults in Electric Light and Power Mains. 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Rasch, E. Electric Arc Phenomena. Trans, by K. Tornberg 8vo, 
 
 Rathbone, R. L. B. Simple Jewellery 8vo, 
 
 Rateau, A. Flow of Steam through Nozzles and Orifices. Trans, by H. 
 
 B. Brydon 8vo 
 
 Rausenberger, F. The Theory of the Recoil Guns 8vo, 
 
 Rautenstrauch, W. Notes on the Elements of Machine Design. 8vo, boards, 
 Rautenstrauch, W., and Williams, J. T. Machine Drafting and Empirical 
 
 Design. 
 
 Part I. Machine Drafting 8vo, 
 
 Part II. Empirical Design {In Preparation.) 
 
 Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering i2mo, 
 
 Rayner, H. Silk Throwing and Waste Silk Spinning 8vo, 
 
 Recipes for the Color, Paint, Varnish, Oil, Soap and Drysaltery Trades, 
 
 8vo, 
 
 ' Recipes for Flint Glass Making i2mo, 
 
 Redfern, J. B., and Savin, J. Bells, Telephones (Installation Manuals 
 
 Series.) i6mo, 
 
 Redgrove, H. S. Experimental Mensuration i2mo. 
 
 Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) i6mo. 
 
 Reed, S. Turbines Applied to Marine Propulsion 
 
 Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, 
 
 Key to the Nineteenth Edition of Reed's Engineers' Handbook. ,8vo, 
 
 Useful Hints to Sea-going Engineers i2mo, 
 
 Reid, E. E. Introduction to Research in Organic Chemistry. (In Press.) 
 
 Reid, H. A. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete CoDstruction 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Reinhardt, C. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers, and Students. 
 
 oblong 4to, boards, i 00 
 
 ^■2 
 
 50 
 
 ''2 
 
 00 
 
 '■'2 
 
 50 
 
 "5 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 *6 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 "'7 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 SO 
 
 ■I 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 ■2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *1 
 
 50 
 
 *5 
 
 CO 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *2 
 
 so 
 
 *6 
 
 50 
 
 ■5 
 
 25 
 
 *o 
 
 50 
 
 ''I 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 So 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
24 D- VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Reinhardt, C. W. The Technic of Mechanical Drafting, 
 
 oblong, 4to, boards, *i oo 
 Reiser, F. Hardening and Tempering of Steel. Trans, by A. Morris and 
 
 H. Robson i2mo, *3 oo 
 
 Reiser, N. Faults in the Manufacture of Woolen Goods. Trans, by A. 
 
 Morris and H. Robson 8vo, 
 
 Spinning and Weaving Calculations 8vo, 
 
 Renwick, W. G. Marble and Marble Working 8vo, 
 
 Reuleaux, F. The Constructor. Trans, by H. H. Sup'ee 4to, 
 
 Reuterdahl, A. Theory and Design of Reinforced Concrete Arches. 8vo, 
 Rey, Jean. The Range of Electric Searchlight Projectors Svo, 
 
 Reynolds, 0., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines. (Science 
 
 Series No. 99.) i6mo, 
 
 Rhead, G. F. Simple Structural Woodwork i2mo, 
 
 Rhodes, H. J. Art of Lithography Svo, 
 
 Rice, J. M., and Johnson, W. W. A New Method of Obtaining the Differ- 
 ential of Functions i2mo, 
 
 Richards, W. A. Forging of Iron and Steel i2mo, 
 
 Richards, W. A., and North, H. B. Manual of Cement Testing. . . . i2mo, 
 
 Richardson, J. The Modern Steam Engine Svo, 
 
 Richardson, S. 8. Magnetism and Electricity i2mo, 
 
 Rideal, S. Glue and Glue Testing Svo, 
 
 Riesenberg, F. The Men on Deck i2mo, 
 
 Rimmer, E. J. Boiler Explosions, Collapses and Mishaps Svo, 
 
 Rings, F. Concrete in Theory and Practice i2mo, 
 
 ■ Reinforced Concrete Bridges 4to, 
 
 Ripper, W. Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing folio, 
 
 Roberts, F. C. Figure of the Earth. (Science Series No. 79.) i6mo, 
 
 Roberts, J., Jr. Laboratory Work in Electrical Engineering Svo, 
 
 Robertson, L. S. Water-tube Boilers Svo, 
 
 Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition Svo, 
 
 Robinson, S. W. Practical Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels. (Science 
 
 Series No. 24.) i6mo, 
 
 Railroad Economics. (Science Series No. 59.) i6mo, 
 
 Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 60.) i6mo, 
 
 Robson, J. H. Machine Drawing and Sketching 8vo, 
 
 Roebling, J. A. Long and Short Span Railway Bridges folio, 
 
 Rogers, A. A Laboratory Guide of Industrial Chemistry Svo, 
 
 ■ Elements of Industrial Chemistry i2mo 
 
 Manual of Industrial Chemistry 8vo' 
 
 Rogers, F. Magnetism of Iron Vessels. (Science Series No. 30.) i6mo 
 Rohland, P. Colloidal and Crystalloidal State of Matter. Trans, by 
 
 W. J. Britland and H. E. Potts i2mo, 
 
 RoUinson, C. Alphabets Oblong, i2mo. 
 
 Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant Svo, 
 
 • Key to Engines and Engine-running i2mo 
 
 Rose, T. K. The Precious Metals. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 
 
 Rosenhain, W. Glass Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) 8vo. 
 
 Physical Metallurgy, An Introduction to. (Metallurgy Series.) 
 
 Svo, 
 Roth, W. A. Physical Chemistry 8vo, 
 
 •^s 
 
 00 
 
 '■'6 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 ■■■4 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 ^l 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 *i 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 SO 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 75 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *,■> 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 '-2 
 
 00 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 ""5 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 So 
 
 *i 
 
 25 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 50 
 
 "■2 
 
 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 25 
 
 Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modern Steam-boiler 8vo, *3 00 
 
 and Idell, F. E. Boiler Incrustation and Corrosion. ( Science 
 
 Series No. 27.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Roxburgh, W. General Foundry Practice. (Westminster Series. ) .8vo, *2 00 
 
 Ruhmer, E. Wireless Telephony. Trans, by J. Erskine-Murray. .8vo, *4 50 
 
 Russell, A. Theory of Electric Cables and Networks 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Rutley, F. Elements of Mineralogy i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Sandeman, E. A. Notes on the Manufacture of Earthenware. . . lamo, 3 50 
 
 Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Saunders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics i6mo, i 00 
 
 leather, i 25 
 
 Sayers, H. M. Brakes for Tram Cars 8vo, *i 25 
 
 Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Scheithauer, W. Shale Oils and Tars 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Scherer, R. Casein. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *4 25 
 
 Schidrowitz, P. Rubber, Its Production and Industrial Uses 8vo, "6 00 
 
 Schindler, K. Iron and Steel Construction Works i2mo, *2 25 
 
 Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and Solid. 
 
 i2mo, half leather, *i 75 
 
 Schmeer, L. Flow of Water 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation. .. .i2mo, leather, i 50 
 
 Schwarz, E. H. L. Causal Geology 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Schweizer, V. Distillation of Resins 8vo, 4 50 
 
 Scott, W. W. Qualitative Analysis. A Laboratory Manual. New 
 
 Edition 2 50 
 
 Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis 8vo, *6 00 
 
 Scribner, J. M. Engineers' and Mechanics' Companion. .i6mo, leather, i 50 
 Scudder, H. Electrical Conductivity and Ionization Constants of 
 
 Organic Compounds 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Searle, A. B. Modern Brickmaking 8vo, *7 25 
 
 Cement, Concrete and Bricks 8vo, *6 50 
 
 Searle, G. M. "Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. 
 
 (Science Series No. 124.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering 8vo 8 00 
 
 Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine Engi- 
 neering i6mo, leather, 3 50 
 
 Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India Rubber and 
 
 Gutta Percha. Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh 8vo, *5 00 
 
 Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances. .. .8vo, 3 00 
 
 Seligman, R. Aluminum. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press.) 
 
 Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4to, *io 00 
 
 Railway Maintenance Engineering i2mo, '"'2 50 
 
 Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Sever, G. F. Electric Engineering Experiments 8vo, boards, *i 00 
 
 Sever, G. F., and Townsend, F. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Elec- 
 trical Engineering 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Sewall, 0. H. Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Lessons in Telegraphy i2mo, *i 00 
 
20 D VAX XOSTRAXD CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Sewell, T. The Construction of Dynamos 8vo, 
 
 Se.\-ton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials i2mo, 
 
 Chemistry of the Materials of Engineering i2mo, 
 
 Alloys (Non-Ferrous) 8vo, 
 
 Sexton, A. H., and Primrose, J. S. G. The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel. 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Seymour, A. Modern Printing Inks 8vo, 
 
 Shaw, Henry S. H. Mechanical Integrators. (Science Series No. 83.) 
 
 i6mo, 
 
 Shaw, S. History of the Staffordshire Potteries 8vo, 
 
 Chemistry of Compounds Used in Porcelain Manufacture. .. .8vo, 
 
 Shaw, T. R. Driving of Machine Tools i2mo, 
 
 Precision Grinding Machines i2mo, 
 
 Shaw, W. N. Forecasting Weather 8vo, 
 
 Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines i2mo, 
 
 Alternating Current Machines i2mo, 
 
 Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Electric Traction and Transmission 
 
 Engineering i amo, 
 
 Physical Laboratory Experiments, for Engineering Students. .8vo, 
 
 Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction i2mo, 
 
 Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 
 
 Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer i2mo, fabrikoid, 
 
 Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap Manufacture, 
 
 8vo, 
 
 Simmons, W. H., and Mitchell, C. A. Edible Fats and Oils Svo, 
 
 Simpson, G. The Naval Constructor i2mo, fabrikoid, 
 
 Simpson, W. Foundations 8vo. [In Press.) 
 
 Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine. .8vo, half leather, 
 Sindall, R. W. Manufacture of Paper. {Westminster Series.). .. .8vo, 
 
 Sindall, R. W., and Bacon, W. N. The Testing of Wood Pulp Svo, 
 
 Sloane, T. O'C. Elementary Electrical Calculations i2mo, 
 
 Smallwood, J. C. Mechanical Laboratory Methods. (Van Nostrand's 
 Textbooks.) i2mo, fabrikoid. 
 
 Smith, C. A. M. Handbook of Testing, MATERIALS Svo, 
 
 Smith, C. A. M., and Warren, A. G. New Steam Tables Svo, 
 
 Smith, C. F. Practical Alternating Currents and Testing Svo, 
 
 Practical Testing of Dynamos and Motors 8vo, 
 
 Smith, F. A. Railway Curves i2mo, 
 
 Standard Turnouts on American Railroads i2mo, 
 
 Maintenance of Way Standards i2mo. 
 
 Smith, F. E. Handbook of General Instruction for Mechanics . . . i2mo, 
 Smith, G. C. Trinitrotoluenes and Mono- and Dinitrotoluenes, Their 
 
 Manufacture and Properties i2mo, 
 
 Smith, H. G. Minerals and the Microscope i2mo, 
 
 Smith, J. C. Manufacture of Paint 8vc, 
 
 Smith, R. H. Principles of Machine Work i2mo, 
 
 Advanced Machine Work i2mo, 
 
 Smith, W. Chemistry of Hgt Manufacturing i2mo, 
 
 Snell, A. T. Electric Motive Power Svo, 
 
 Snow, W. G. Pocketbook of Steam Heating and Ventilation. (In Press.) 
 Snow, W. G., and Nolan, T. Ventilation of Buildings. (Science Series 
 
 No. 5.) i6mo, 
 
 Soddy, F. Radioactivity Svo, 
 
 -^3 
 
 00 
 
 '■'2 
 
 50 
 
 1-2 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *6 
 
 50 
 
 '"3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 "6 
 
 00 
 
 "2 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 "3 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 ■SO 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *I 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 ^^5 
 
 00 
 
 '■4 
 
 50 
 
 "5 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 "'2 
 
 DO 
 
 *2 
 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 *2 
 
 SO 
 
 *I 
 
 25 
 
 ■'•3 
 
 50 
 
 "3 
 
 DO 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 OD 
 
 '''i 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 '''i 
 
 25 
 
 •'•3 
 
 50 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 '■4 
 
 50 
 
 *4 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 .=;o 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
00 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAXD CO.'S SHORT TITLIi CATALOG 
 
 Solomon, M. Electric Lamps. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 
 
 Somerscales, A, N. Mechanics for Marine Engineers i2mo, *% oo 
 
 Mechanical and Marine Engineering Science 8vo, *5 oo 
 
 Sothern, J. W. The Marine Steam Turbine 8vo,' '5 oo 
 
 Verbal Notes and Sketches for Marine Engineers 8vo, *9 oo 
 
 Sothern, J. W., and Sothern, R. M. Elementary Mathematics for 
 
 Marine Engineers i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Simple Problems in Marine Engineering Design i2mo, 
 
 Southcombe, J. E. Chemistry of the Oil Industries (Outlines of In- 
 dustrial Chemistry.) 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Soxhlet, D. H. Dyeing and Staining Marble. Trans, by A. Morris and 
 
 H. Robson 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Spangenburg, L. Fatigue of Metals. Translated by S. H. Shreve. 
 
 (Science Series No. 23.) i6mo, 50 
 
 Specht, G. J., Hardy, A. S., McMaster, J. B., and Walling. Topographical 
 
 Surveying. (Science Series No. 72.) i6mo, 
 
 Spencer, A. S. Design of Steel-Framed Sheds 8vo, 
 
 Speyers, C. L. Text-book of Physical Chemistry 8vo, 
 
 Spiegel, L. Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action. ( Trans. 
 
 by C. Luedeking and A. C. Boylston. ) i2mo, 
 
 Sprague, E. H. Hydraulics i2mo, 
 
 — ■ — Elements of Graphic Statics 8vo, 
 
 Stability of Masonry i2mo, 
 
 Elementary Mathematics for Engineers i2mo, 
 
 Stability of Arches i2mo, 
 
 Strength of Structural Elements lamo, 
 
 Stahl, A. W. Transmission of Power. (Science Series No. 28.) , i6mo, 
 
 Stahl, A. W., and Woods, A. T. Elementary Mechanism i2mo, 
 
 Staley, C, and Pierson, G. S. The Separate System of Sewerage. . . 8vo, 
 
 Standage, H. C. Leatherworkers' Manual 8vo, 
 
 Sealing Waxes, Wafers, and Other Adhesives 8vo, 
 
 Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes i2mo, 
 
 Stanley, H. Practical Applied Physics ( /» I'rcss. ) 
 
 Stansbie, J. H. Iron and Steel. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 
 
 Steadman, F. M. Unit Photography i2mo, 
 
 Stecher, G. E. Cork. Its Origin and Industrial Uses i2mo, 
 
 Steinman, D. B. Suspension Bridges and Cantileveis. (Science Series 
 
 No. 127.) 
 
 Melan's Steel Arches and Suspension Bridges 8vo, 
 
 Stevens, E. J. Field Telephones and Telegraphs 
 
 Stevens, H. P. Paper Mill Chemist iSrao, 
 
 Stevens, J. S. Theory of Measurements i2mo, 
 
 Stevenson, J. L. Blast-Furnace Calculations i2mo, leather, 
 
 Stewart, G. Modern Steam Traps i2mo. 
 
 Stiles, A. Tables for Field Engineers i2mo, 
 
 Stodola, A. Steam Turbines. Trans, by L. C. Loewenstein 8vo, 
 
 Stone, H. The Timbers of Commerce 8vo, 
 
 Stopes, M. Ancient Plants 8vo, 
 
 The Study of Plant Life 8vo, 
 
 Sudborough, J. J., and James, T. C. Practical Organic Chemistry. i2mo, 
 
 Suf fling, E. R. Treatise on the Art of Glass Painting 8vo, 
 
 Sullivan, T. V., and Underwood, N. Testing and Valuation of Build- 
 ing and Engineering Materials [lit Press.) 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 *"i 
 
 50 
 
 'I 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 ■^2 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 '3 
 
 00 
 
 'i 
 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 "3 
 
 50 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 ''2 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ^3 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 *4 
 
 25 
 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 *i 
 
 00 
 
 *i 
 
 75 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 *5 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 "2 
 
 00 
 
 ''2 
 
 00 
 
 "4 
 
 25 
 

 
 50 
 
 *2 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 '■"2 
 
 50 
 
 •■'2 
 
 50 
 
 -2 
 
 00 
 
 *I 
 
 oo 
 
 *3 
 
 00 
 
 28 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 
 
 Sur, F. J. S. Oil Prospecting and Extracting 8vo, *i 00 
 
 Svenson, C. L. Handbook on Piping 8vo, 4 00 
 
 Essentials of Drafting 8vo, i 50 
 
 Swan, K. Patents, Designs and Trade Marks. (Westminster Series.). 
 
 8vo, *2 00 
 Swinburne, J., Wordingham, C. H., and Martin, T. C. Electric Currents. 
 
 (Science Series No. 109.) i6mo, 
 
 Swoope, C. W. Lessons in Practical Electricity i2mo, 
 
 Tailfer, L. Bleaching Linen and Cotton Yarn and Fabrics 8vo, 
 
 Tate, J. S. Surcharged and Different Forms of Retaining-walls. (Science 
 
 Series No. 7.) i6mo, 
 
 Taylor, F. N. Small Water Supplies i2mo, 
 
 Masonry in Civil Engineering 8vo, 
 
 Taylor, T. U. Surveyor's Handbook i2mo, leather, 
 
 Backbone of Perspective 1 2mo, 
 
 Taylor, W. P. Practical Cement Testing 8vo, 
 
 Templeton, W. Practical Mechanic's Workshop Companion. 
 
 i2mo, morocco, 2 00 
 Tenney, E. H. Test Methods for Steam Power Plants. (Van 
 
 Nostrand's Textbooks.) i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Terry, H. L. India Rubber and its Manufacture. (Westminster Series. ) 
 
 8vo, *2 00 
 Thayer, H. R. Structural Design. 8vo. 
 
 Vol. I. Elements of Structural Design *2 
 
 Vol. IL Design of Simple Structures *4 
 
 Vol. III. Design of Advanced Structures {In Preparation.) 
 
 Foundations and Masonry (In Preparation.) 
 
 Thiess, J. B., and Joy, G. A. Toll Telephone Practice 8vo, *3 
 
 Thom, C, and Jones, W. H. Telegraphic Connections.. . oblong, i2mo, i 50 
 
 Thomas, C. W. Paper-makers' Handbook (In Press.) 
 
 Thomas, J. B. Strength of Ships 8vo, 3 00 
 
 Thomas, Robt. G. Applied Calculus i2mo (In Press.) 
 
 Thompson, A. B. Oil Fields of Russia 4to, *7 50 
 
 Oil Field Development y 50 
 
 Thompson, S. P. Dynamo Electric Machines. (Science Series No. 75.) 
 
 i6mo, o 50 
 
 Thompson, W. P. Handbook of Patent Law of All Countries i6mo, r 50 
 
 Thomson, G. Modern Sanitary Engineering i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Thomson, G. S. Milk and Cream Testing i2mo| *2 25 
 
 Modern Sanitary Engineering, House Drainage, etc 8vo, *3 
 
 Thornley, T. Cotton Combing Machines 8vo, *3 
 
 Cotton Waste 8vo', *4 50 
 
 Cotton Spinning. 8vo. 
 
 First Year 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Thurso, J. W. Modern Turbine Practice 8vo, *4 
 
 Tidy, C. Meymott. Treatment of Sewage. (Science Series No. 94.) i6mo, o 50 
 Tillmans, J. Water Purification and Sewage Disposal. Trans, by 
 
 Hugh S. Taylor gvo, *2 00 
 
 Tinney, W. H. Gold-mining Machinery 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Titherley, A. W. Laboratory Course of Organic Chemistry Svo, *2 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 •2 00 
 
 *4 25 
 
 ■3 50 
 
 00 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT 'flTLE CATALOG 
 
 2y 
 
 Tizard, H. T. Indicators (/n Press.) 
 
 Toch, M. Chemistry and Technology of Paints 8vo, *4 oo 
 
 Materials for Permanent Painting i2mo, *2 oo 
 
 Tod, J., and McGibbon, W. C. Marine Engineers' Board of Trade 
 
 Examinations 8vo, *2 oo 
 
 Todd, J., and Whall, W. B. Practical Seamanship 8vo, 8 oo 
 
 Tonge, J. Coal. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo 
 
 Townsend, F. Alternating Current Engineering 8vo, boards, *o 75 
 
 Townsend, J. S. Ionization of Gases by Collision 8vo, ' i 25 
 
 Transactions of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Svo. 
 
 Eight volumes now ready. Vol. I. to IX., 1908-1916. Vol. 
 
 X. Ill Press Svo, each, 6 00 
 
 Traverse Tables. (Science Series No. 115.) i6mo, 50 
 
 morocco, i 00 
 
 Treiber, E. Foundry Machinery. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, i 50 
 
 Trinks, W., and Housura, C. Shaft Governors. (Science Series No. 122.) 
 
 i6mo, o 50 
 
 Trowbridge, W. P. Turbine Wheels. (Science Series No. 44.) . . i6mo, 50 
 
 Tucker, J. H. A Manual of Sugar Analysis Svo, 3 50 
 
 Tunner, P. A. Treatise on Roll-turning. Trans, by J. B. Pearse. 
 
 Svo, text and folio atlas, 10 00 
 Turnbull, Jr., J., and Robinson, S. W. A Treatise on the Compound 
 
 Steam-engine. (Science Series No. S.) i6mo. 
 
 Turner, H. Worsted Spinners' Handbook i2mo, *3 50 
 
 Turrill, S. M. Elementary Course in Perspective i2mo, *i 25 
 
 Twyf ord, H. B. Purchasing Svo, *3 00 
 
 Storing, Its Economic Aspects and Proper Methods Svo, 3 50 
 
 Tyrrell, H. G. Design and Construction of Mill Buildings Svo, *4 00 
 
 Concrete Bridges and Culverts i6mo, leather, *3 00 
 
 Artistic Bridge Design Svo, *3 00 
 
 Underbill, C. R. Solenoids, Electromagnets and Electromagnetic Wind- 
 ings 1 2mo, *2 00 
 
 Underwood, N., and Sullivan, T. V. Chemistry and Technology of 
 
 Printing Inks Svo, *3 00 
 
 Urquhart, J. W. Electro-plating i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Electrotyping 1 2mo, 2 00 
 
 Usborne, P. O. G. Design of Simple Steel Bridges Svo, *4 00 
 
 Vacher, F. Food Inspector's Handbook i2mo. 
 
 Van Nostrand's Chemical Annual. Fourth issue igiS.fabrikoid, i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Year Book of Mechanical Engineering Data (In Press.) 
 
 Van Wagenen, T. F. Manual of Hydraulic Mining i6mo, i 00 
 
 Vega, Baron Von. Logarithmic Tables Svo, 2 50 
 
 Vincent, C. Ammonia and its Compounds. Trans, by M. J. Salter. Svo, *3 00 
 
 Volk, C. Haulage and Winding Appliances Svo, *4 00 
 
 Von Georgievics, G. Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres. Trans. 
 
 by C. Salter 8vo, 
 
 Chemistry of Dyestuffs. Trans, by C. Salter Svo, *4 50 
 
 Vose, G. L. Graphic Method for Solving Certain Questions in Arithmetic 
 
 and Algebra (Science Series No. 16.) i6mo, o 50 
 
^o 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAXD CO.'S SHORT TJTLE CATALO 
 
 G 
 
 Vosmaer, A. Ozone 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Wabner, R. Ventilation in Mines. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *6 50 
 
 Wade, E. J. Secondary Batteries 8vo, *4 0° 
 
 Wadmore, T. M. Elementary Chemical Theory i2mo, *i 5° 
 
 Wagner, E. Preserving Fruits, Vegetables, and Meat... i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Wagner, J. B. A Treatise on the Natural and Artificial Processes of 
 
 Wood Seasoning 8vo, 3 00 
 
 Waldram, P. J. Principles of Structural Mechanics i2mo, *3 00 
 
 Walker, F. Dynamo Building. (Science Series No. 98.) i6mo, o 50 
 
 Walker, J. Organic Chemistry for Students of Medicine .Svo, '3 00 
 
 Walker, S. F. Steam Boilers, Engines and Turbines Svo, 3 00 
 
 Refrigeration, Heating and Ventilation on Shipboard i2mo, *2 oo 
 
 — ■ — Electricity in Mining 8vo, *4 50 
 
 Wallis-Tayler, A. J. Bearings and Lubrication Svo, *i 50 
 
 Aerial or Wire Ropeways Svo, *3 00 
 
 Preservation of Wood Svo, 4 00 
 
 Refrigeration, Cold Storage and Ice Making Svo, 5 50 
 
 Sugar Machinery i2mo, •■2 50 
 
 Walsh, J. J. Chemistry and Physics of Mining and Mine Ventilation, 
 
 i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Wanklyn, J. A. Water Analysis i2mo, 2 00 
 
 Wansbrough, W. D. The A B C of the Differential Calculus. .. .i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Slide Valves i2mo, *2 00 
 
 Waring, Jr., G. E. Sanitary Conditions. (Science Series No. 31.) . i6mo, o 50 
 
 Sewerage and Land Drainage "6 00 
 
 Modern Methods of Sewage Disposal i2mo, 2 00 
 
 How to Drain a House i2mo, i 25 
 
 Warnes, A. R. Coal Tar Distillation Svo, *5 00 
 
 Warren, F. D. Handbook on Reinforced Concrete i2mo, *2 50 
 
 Watkins, A. Photography. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 
 
 Watson, E. P. Small Engines and Boilers i2mo, i 25 
 
 Watt, A. Electro-plating and Electro-refining of Metals Svo, *4 50 
 
 Electro-metallurgy i2mo, i 00 
 
 The Art of Soap Making Svo, 3 00 
 
 Leather Manufacture Svo, *4 00 
 
 Paper-Making Svo, 3 00 
 
 Webb, H. L. Guide to the Testing of Insulated Wires and Cables. i2mo, i 00 
 
 Webber, W. H. Y. Town Gas. ( Westminster Series. ) Svo, *2 00 
 
 Wegmann, Edward. Conveyance and Distribution of Water for 
 
 Water Supply Svo, 5 00 
 
 Weisbach, J. A Manual of Theoretical Mechanics Svo, *6 00 
 
 sheep, *7 50 
 
 Weisbach, J., and Herrmann, G. Mechanics of Air Machinery ... .Svo, *3 75 
 
 Wells, M. B. Steel Bridge Designing Svo, *2 50 
 
 Wells, Robt. Ornamental Confectionery i2mo, 3 00 
 
 Weston, E. B. Loss of Head Due to Friction of Water in Pipes. .i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Wheatley, 0. Ornamental Cement Work Svo, "2 25 
 
 Whipple, S. An Elementary and Practical Treatise on Bridge Building. 
 
 Svo, 3 CO 
 White, C. H. Methods of Metallurgical Analysis. ("Van Nostrand's 
 
 Textbooks.) i2mo, 250 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 31 
 
 White, G. F. Qualitative Chemical Analysis i2mo, *i 25 
 
 White, G. T. loothed Gearing i2mo, *2 25 
 
 White, H. J. Oil Tank Steamers i2mo, i 50 
 
 Whitelaw, John. Surveying 8vo' 4 50 
 
 Widmer, E. J. Military Balloons 8vo 3 00 
 
 Wilcox, R. M. Cantilever Bridges. (Science Series No. 25.). .. .i6mo, 50 
 
 Wilda, H. Steam Turbines. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Cranes and Hoists. Trans, by C. Salter i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Wilkinson, H. D. Submarine Cable Laying and Repairing 8vo, *6 00 
 
 Williamson, J, Surveying 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Williamson, R. S. On the Use of the Barometer 4to, 15 00 
 
 Practical Tables in Meteorology and Hypsometery 4to, 2 50 
 
 Wilson, F. J., and Heilbron, I. M. Chemical Theory and Calculations. 
 
 i2mo, '''i 00 
 
 Wilson, J. F. Essentials of Electrical Engineering 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Wimperis, H. E. Internal Combustion Engine Bvo, ''3 00 
 
 Application of Power to Road Transport izmo, *i 50 
 
 Primer of Internal Combustion Engine i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Winchell, N. H., and A. N. Elements of Optical Mineralogy 8vo, *3 50 
 
 Winslow, A. Stadia Surveying. (Science Series No. 77.) i5mo, o 50 
 
 Vv'isEcr, Lieut. J. P. Explosive Materials. (Science Series No. 70.) 
 
 i6mo, 50 
 
 Wisser, Lieut. J. P. Modern Gun Cotton. (Science Series No. 89.) . i6mo, o 50 
 
 Wolff, C. E. Modern Locomotive Practice 8vo, *4 20 
 
 Wood, De V. Luminiferous Aether. (Science Series No. 85;...i6mo, o 50 
 Wood, J. K. Chemistry of Dyeing. (Chemical Monographs No. 2.) 
 
 i2mo, *i 00 
 
 Worden, E. C. The Nitrocellulose Industry. Two Volumes 8vo, *io 00 
 
 Technology of Cellulose Esters. In 10 volumes. 8vo. 
 
 Vol. VIII. Cellulose Acetate *5 00 
 
 Wren, H. Organometallic Compounds of Zinc and Magnesium. (Chem- 
 ical Monographs No. i.) T2ino, *i 00 
 
 Wright, A. C. Analysis of Oils and Allied Substances 8vo, *3 50 
 
 Simple Method for Testing Painters' Materials 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Wright, F. W. Design of a Condensing Plant i2mo, *i 50 
 
 Wright, H. E. Handy Book for Brewers 8vo, *6 oa 
 
 Wright, J. Testing, Fault Finding, etc., for Wiremen. (Installation 
 
 Manuals Series.) lomo, *o 50 
 
 Wright, T. W. Elements of Mechanics 8vo, *2 50 
 
 Wright, T. W., and Hayford, J. F. Adjustment of Observations. . .8vo, *3 00 
 Wynne, W. E., and Sparagen, W. Handbook of Engineering Mathe- 
 matics 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Yoder, J. H., and Wharen, G. B. Locomotive Valves and Valve Gears, 
 
 8vo, *3 00 
 
 Young, J. E. Electrical Testing for Telegraph Engineers 8vo, *4 00 
 
 Youngson. Slide Valve and Valve Gears 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Zahner, R. Transmission of Power. (Science Series No. 4o.)..i6mo, 
 
 Zeidler, J., and Lustgarten, J. Electric Arc Lamps 8vo, *2 00 
 
 Zeuner, A. Technical Thermodynamics. Trans, by J. F. Klein. Two 
 
 Volumes 8vo, *8 00 
 
 Zimnier, G. F. Mechanical Handling and "Storing of Materials. .. .4to, *i2 50 
 Mechanical Handling of Material and Its National Importance 
 
 During and After the War 4to, 4 00 
 
 Zipser, T. Textile Raw Materials. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *6 25 
 
 Zur Nedden, F. Engineering Workshop Machines and Processes. Trans. 
 
 by J. A. Davenport 8vo, *2 00 
 
D. Van Nostrand Company 
 
 are prepared to supply, either from 
 
 their complete stock or at 
 
 short notice, 
 
 Any Technical or 
 
 Scientific Book 
 
 In addition to publishing a very large 
 and varied number of Scientific and 
 Engineering Books, D. Van Nostrand 
 Company have on hand the largest 
 assortment in the United States of such 
 books issued by American and foreign 
 publishers. 
 
 All inquiries are cheerfully and care- 
 fully answered and complete catalogs 
 sent free on request. 
 
 25 Park Place - - - New York