Pfi/MsPoFEmvcff LiTsPAruPE CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ENGLISH COLLECTION THE GIFT OF JAMES MORGAN HART PROFESSOR OF ENGUSH Cornell University Library PQ 135.W28 Primer of French literature / 3 1924 027 185 804 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027185804 A PRIMER FRENCH LITERATURE. BY F. M. WARREN, Ph.D., Associate in Modxbn Languages in the Johns Hopkins Unite RSITT. oXHo BOSTON, U.S.A.: D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. 1889. COPTBIOHT, 1889, By D. C. heath & CO. Typography by J. S. Cdshinq & Co., Boston. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Preface v Chapter I. Inteoduction 1 PART I. Mediaeval Liteeatuee, to 1327 9-61 II. First Period, to 1150 9 m. Second Period, 1150-1250. Epic Poetry . . 17 IV. Second Period, 1150-1250. Narrative Poetry . 31 V. Second Period, 1150-1250. Didactic and Lyric Poetry. The Drama. Prose ... 40 VI. Third Period, 1250-1327 52 PART II. Pre-Renaissance Literature, 1327-1515 VII. First Period, 1327-1422 Vni. Second Period, 1422-1515 . PART III. Kestaissance Literature, 1515-1601 IX. First Period, 1515-1549 X. Second Period, 1549-1601 . 62-89 . 62 . 73 90-121 . 90 . 101 IV CONTENTS. PART IV. Pagb The Seventeenth Century, 1601-1718 . . 122-173 Oh A1PTHR XI. First Period, 1601-1659 122 XII. Second Period, 1659-1689 148 Xm. Third Period, 1689-1718 165 PART V. The Eighteenth Century, 1718-1801 . . . 174-197 XIV. Fii-st Period, 1718-1750 174 XV. Second Period, 1750-1801 184 PART VI. The Nineteenth Century, 1801- .... 198-234 XVI. First Period, 1801-1848. Poetry. The Drama . 198 XVII. First Period, 1801-1848. Prose . . . .210 XVIII. Second Period, 1848- 224 Index 235 PREFACE. The following outline of French literature is based on lectures given in the Johns Hopkins University, and has therefore certain definite needs of instruction in mind. The original notes have however been worked over, en- larged, and separated into paragraphs — not always hap- pily — and can, by omission or expansion, be made to serve as a statement of facts for any period desired. Certain defects of execution are evident. The attempt to modernize all names and titles previous to the six- teenth century has sometimes faUed through habit or inadvertence. The substitution of the English definite article for the French has led to many absurdities, and seems now to have been unwise. In the first chapters, intended for specialists or for extended commentaries by instructors, the necessary conciseness has at times led to obscurity for beginners. The least satisfactory period is that of the Eighteenth Century, both in division and matter. A serious omission is the dramatic work of Louis-SijBASTiEN Meecibk (1740-1814). The most available reference book for Mediaeval Lit- erature is : La literature franqaise au moyen dge, Gaston Paris. Paris, 1888. 16mo. This manual has served to revise the whole period. Its Bibliography is an impor- tant feature. VI PBEPACE. For Pre-Eenaissance Literature review articles and lectures at the Coll6ge de France by Gaston Paris on the poetry of the fifteenth century have furnished the larger part of the material. The history of the stage previous to the Renaissance is fuUy treated in the Histoire du thMtre, L. Petit de Julleville. Paris, 1880-1886. 5 vols. 8vo and 16mo. On Renaissance Literature the standard authority is : Le Seiziime Slide en France, A. Darmesteter and A. Hatzfeld. Paris, 3d ed., 1887. 16mo. The first volume of the Geschichte der franzosischen Litteratur seit Anfang des XVI. JaJirhunderts, A. Birch-Hirsehfeld, Stuttgart, 1889, 8vo, furnishes many additional facts on the first part of the century. A more general treatise, which has been of much use in the remaining centuries also, is the Lecons de UMrature francaise, L. Petit de Julleville. Paris, 1884. 18mo. The best work on the Seventeenth Century is the Geschichte der franzosischen Litteratur im XVII. Jahr- hundert, F. Lotheissen. Wien, 1877-1884. 4 vols. 8vo. For the novels of the century consult the Geschichte des franzosischen Romans im, XVII. Jahrhundert, H. Koert- ing. Leipzig, 1885-1887. 2 vols. 8vo. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries are exten- sively treated in the Geschichte der franzosischen Litte- ratur, G. Bornhak. Berlin, 1886. 8vo. The Index, mainly of proper names and anonymous works, is designed to supplement the chapter headings. F. M. WARREN. Baltimorb, Noy. 1, 1889. PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 1. Race ; language. — The territory of the French language has varied but little since its formation. The Celts inhabiting Gaul were completely Eomanized. But slight traces of their tongue are to be found in the Latin of the country when the barbaric invasions took place. The Gallo-Eomans assimilated then their Teutonic con- querors more or less completely, according to the number of settlers. Their territory was pushed back from the Rhine to its present limits by the end of the fifth century. In the interior of the country there soon appeared a general linguistic difference which separated the Eomance-speaking region into two nearly equal parts, on a line running from the Atlantic, just north of Bor- deaux, east almost to Lyons, then bending to the south- east and reaching the Alps, after passing near Grenoble. To the south of this line Germanic influence scarcely penetrated. An independent language and literature, the Proven9al, developed freely. — On the contrary, the region north of this boundary was strongly penetrated by the foreign manners and tongue. The vocabulary I PEIMEE OF FEENCH LITERATUEB. received new terms, such as those relating to feudal institutions, to war, to seafaring, to natural scenery, to dress, household utensils, and even to mental and moral conceptions. The spirit of the invaders is also reflected plainly in the literature. — About the same time the original Gallic domain wa,s further circumscribed by the immigration of the British Celts who, fleeing before the Anglo-Saxons, settled the Armoriean peninsula in the fifth and sixth centuries, established there their language and customs and preserved their race traditions. To compensate for these losses, the Norman conquest, in the eleventh century, brought England under the sway of French thought. When the English, in their turn, had absorbed the invaders, South France was restored in the thirteenth century, through the decay of Proven9al literature. 2. Dialects ; Centres of Early Literary Activity. — Already in the tenth century there appear linguistic dif- ferences in Northern France, and the subsequent litera- ture shows the presence of four leading dialects — the Burgundian, Picard, Norman (including Anglo-Norman), and the French proper. With the political predominance of the Isle-de-France and the extension of the influence of Paris, French becomes the standard idiom, and pre- vails from the time of Philip Augustus (1180-1223). — The various sections of the country present also dif- ferent kinds of literature. The heroic epic flourishes best in the northeast, the center, and the northwest. The Arthurian legends prefer Champagne and Picardy, as does also lyric poetry. Historical and didactic works are produced mainly in Normandy and its dependencies. INTRODUCTION. 3 The drama is best maintained in the wealthy communes of Picardy and Flanders. 3. Characteristics of the Age ; Attitude of the Edu- cated Classes ; Value of the Literature. — All literatures are at first orally transmitted. Their primitive form is poetical, as best suited to singing. Later, when the poems are intrusted to manuscript, a class of readers is implied for whom prose can be written. In mediaeval France this natural order was followed. Little prose is found previous to the last quarter of the twelfth century. Up to that time epic and lyric poetry, the amusement of the nobles, prevailed. — On all the spirit of feudalism is plainly stamped. It was taken for granted that the social fabric had always existed as it was, and would continue unchanged. Hence the distorted and curious view of antiquity, transformed into medisevalism in all imitation of Latin authors (Greek authors were known only by Latin translations), and that sense of self-satis- faction, which precluded all curiosity in regard to the future. Society felt no longings, gave no tokens of a desire to progress. The demands of art were satisfied by 'the useful. The beautiful was almost unnoticed. The portrayal of feudal passions on the one hand, on the other the new relations of the sexes, consequent on the real and assumed rise of woman, constitute the distinctive features of the literature of these centuries. Yet, in opposition to the prevailing factitious and con- ventional style, we find in certain works that common sense, malicious wit, and airy grace, which became later the leading qualities of the matured literature. — The principal reason for lack of art can be attributed to the 4 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITBEATtJRB. hostility of the professional classes to the vernacular. Preferring a perfected language, though dead, to a rough and changing tongue, the best minds of the time looked with contempt on the national literature and abandoned it to the needy talents of the undisciplined. The con- sequences "were, absence of individuality, of style, and of standards of taste. The most attractive subjects, reposing on the broad base of popular tradition, were diluted by succeeding generations of hack writers, to suit the passing fashion. Therefore the literature of feudal France is valuable mainly for the study of the manners and thought of the period. It is also the repository for the material which modern times have artistically used. The knowledge of it is essential to the understanding of the other literatures of Western Europe. 4. Independent Development of French Literature. — The cause of the literary leadership of mediaeval France is mainly due to the originality of its literary develop- ment. In this it most closely resembles the literature of Greece. It produced spontaneously epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry. No foreign influence is perceptible before the last part of the twelfth century, and even then lyric poetry alone is affected in its outward form. — No less remarkable was the ease with which French poets seized on every subject which was furnished by the decay of antiquity, the conflicts of new peoples, the rise of Christianity, the superstitions of heathenism still surviving, the nondescript fragments caused by the collis- ion of primeval mythologies, historical religions, savage customs giving way to civilization, the drift-wood of vanished nations drawn in on the wake of the Crusades — INTEODUCTION. 5 all of whicli, misunderstood, perverted, they twisted into their notion of utility and ran into their unyielding groove of insipidity. 5. Versification. — Inasmuch as the mass of literature took a poetical shape, the structure of the verse assumes importance. In common with that of all Eomance nations, French versification is based on accent. The quantity of vowels is never brought into question. A line is made up of syllables, even in number if the last syllable is masculine, uneven if feminine, though the accent in all cases comes on the last syllable, if mascu- line, on the next to the last, if the last is feminine. — The origin of this accented verse is probably to be found in the rhythmical versification of the Latins, crowded out of classical literature by Greek influence, but which sur- vived among the people. — For rime, the earliest epic and lyric poetry, being sung, is assonanced — an agree- ment iu sound between the tonic vowels, and not neces- sarily between the consonants following them. The earliest poetry is also not strophic, but is found in long tirades ending with the same tonic vowel. Later, through the introduction of reading, ordinary rime was em- ployed. — The caesura occurs in verses of more than eight syllables, also occasionally in the latter. 6. Oldest Moniunents. — The oldest specimens of the French language do not belong to the domain, of French literature, properly speaking, yet show somewhat the national influence. — The earliest French preserved is in the oaths taken at Strassburg in 842, in French and German, by the armies of Louis and Charles, and recorded by Nithakd in his Latin history. The Ian- 6 PKIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. guage wavers on the border-line of Latin and Prench. — To the tenth century belongs a fragment of a homily on Jonah, delivered evidently in French, but taken down half in French, half in Latin, partly in ordinary char- acters, partly in Tironian notes. — A sequence on Saint Eulalia, modeled on a Latin sequence, relating the martyrdom of the saint, is perhaps as early, and is the first poem in French. — The Vie de Saint Liger, some- what later in the century, ofEers however the first regular French verse — forty strophes of six octosyllabic verses each, riming in couplets. — The influence of the clergy seen in adapting these edifying subjects to the vernacular was sufficient also to preserve them in monastic libraries, grafted on Latin manuscripts, while the many popular and national poems of the epoch do not appear, in their present form at least, before the last half of the eleventh century. 7. Periods of the Mediaeval Literature. — French litera^ ture, from its beginnings to the advent of the Valois, can ■ be considered as roughly divided into three periods. The First Period, ending about 1150, is characterized by the formation of the national heroic epic, the begin- nings of the liturgical drama, and the commencement of didactic treatises both in poetry and prose. The Second Period, embracing perhaps a Hundred Years, from 1150 to 1260, is marked, at first, by the predominance of the Breton epic (the Arthurian legends) and of historical poetry ; later, by the flowering of lyric poetry under Provenfal influence, by the appearance of romans d'aventure, — precursors of a type of modern novels, — by the rise of allegorical and symbolistic poetry, INTKODTJCTION. 7 representing the finical side of French, character, and of satirical and jocose poetry, embodying its practical and rough side — the espHt gaulois. This is the brilliant period of the mediaeval literature, in which prose also attains a high degree of excellence. The Third Period, extending from 1250 to 1327( is one of decay in the branches of poetical literature previously cultivated — save the allegorical, which chokes in the end lyrical expansion ; and the dramatic, which gains among the people ever-increasing favor. Prose holds its own in legal and historical works. PART I. Mediaeval Literature, To 1327. CHAPTEE II. FIRST PEEIOD. To 1150. 1. Epic Poetry. Roland, a,. 1060; Bvi Louis, 'Sic; Pelerinage de Charlemagne, XI c. ; Charroi de Nimes, XII c. ; Chevalerie Vivien, XII c. 2. Didactic Poetry. Vie de Saint Alexis, a. 1050 ; Vie de Saint Grigoire, XII c. ; Voyage de Saint Brendan, a. 1125 ; Lapi- daries. Bestiaries. Philippe de Thaon, a. 1110-a. 1135. 3. Lyric Poetry. Gantique des Cantiques, XII c. ; Romance; Fastourelle ; Chanson de croisade. 4. Drama. Latin plays. Sponsus, b. 1150. 5. Prose. Psalters of Oxford and Cambridge, a. 1100-a. 1120. 1. Origin of the National Epic. — " The French heroic epic is the product of the fusion of the Germanic spirit, in a Romance form, with the new Christian civilization of France" (G. Paris). — The ancient custom of the Germans to sing their heroes' deeds was turne.d to the advantage of the Roman Church as early as the bap- tism of Clovis. Throughout the Merovingian epoch the Latin chronicles are full, of poetical allusions to the more 10 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. noted kings, which are evidently the echoes of popular songs both in German and Eomance. The French poem, Floovent (XII c), preserves, without doubt, the tradi- tions concerning Dagobert (620) and his title (Chlodo- vinc). — Under the Carolingian dynasty existing songs were gradually transferred to Charles Martel, Pippin, and Charlemagne, and the epic material was vastly increased by their conquests. The reign of Charlemagne saw the greatest development of the national poetry. It diminished under Louis I. and his successors, and rose again under Charles the Bald, to celebrate victorious feudalism. By the middle of the tenth century the original epic matter was complete. 2. Spirit of the National Epic ; Confusion of Subject — Based on historical events (with a slight admixture of Teutonic mythology) and preserved by popular tradi- tion, the epic poems tended to center about one per- son, Charlemagne — confused with Charles Martel and Charles the Bald — and to present a single theme, the struggle of Christian Europe against the Saracens — who finally included all the enemies of the Prankish monarchy. — Many songs, however, remained indepen- dent. These generally extol local heroes and wars, either against the sovereign or between vassals. Some are popular stories of adventure or are made up by the minstrels on epic commonplaces. 3. The Minstrels ; Divisions of the National Epic. The songs at their beginnings were by eye-witnesses of the events, and lyric. As the events receded they became more and more narrative and finally fell into the hands of professional singers, the jongleurs. Traveling from MEDIAEVAL LITERATTJEB. 11 place to place, already in the ninth century they amalga- mated and fused the numerous local traditions, develop- ing and increasing their material. — The various chansons de geste they thus formed (sung to the vielle) they tried to separate into three cycles — the Cycle of the King, relating the deeds of the royal family and the national wars ; the Cycle of Oarin de Monglane, called also of Ouillauiue d'Orange, or of Gmllaume au Court Nez, which recounts the struggle in Southern Prance against the Saracens ; and the Cycle of Doon de Mayence, in which the vassals overcome the monarch. — Including indepen- dent poems, the total number of epic songs still extant is about one hundred, while others are preserved in trans- lations. 4. Cycle of the King. — The three oldest epic poems (1050-1100), and the only ones in the first finished form, belong to the cycle of the King. — Roland, the earliest and most celebrated, having some four thousand deca- syllabic verses grouped in assonanced tirades, is founded on the Spanish war of Charlemagne. In the year 778 his rear-guard was cut to pieces by the Basques at Ron- cesvalles, and Eoland, count of the Breton Marches, killed. The song in his honor, expanding in true epic style, made him the nephew of Charlemagne, changed the Basques into Saracens, and explained the defeat by the treason of a Frankish ambassador, Ganelon. With Roland die his friend, Oliver, the archbishop Turpin, and the remaining Paladins. Various portents and marvels accompany the fight. Charlemagne returns to punish the enemy, and Ganelon is put to death. — The poem pre- sents the feudal ideal in its loyalty, its sense of honor 12 PEIMBR OF FRENCH LITERATUBE. and of religious duty. Pathetic incidents are not want- ing. Patriotism is seen in the invocations of " dulce Prance." — The epic spirit is shown in the use of dialogue, in the action before the eyes, in the frequent repetitions. The style is simple, energetic, noble, but scarcely poetical. The success of the poem was immediate and extensive, as is seen by the German translation of Konkad (a. 1133). — The Bdi Louis is a fragment of some six hundred and sixty assonanced octosyllabic verses. It has its origin in the victory of Louis III. over the Normans (here Sara- cens), at Saucourt (881) (the German Ludmigslied). A traitor is introduced. — The Phlerinage de Charlemagne, composed of about eight hundred and seventy verses of twelve syllables, — the earliest example of the Alexan- drine, — is rather mock-heroic. It is made up of separate traditions devoid of historical basis. The Teutonic love for stories {gab) is shown, and the introduction is bor- rowed from an Eastern tale. The object of the poem is to amuse the crowd at the Lendit fair at Saint-Denis, and to magnify the relics of the a^bey. Half serious, half comic, it has little of the spirit of Roland, but much of the later gaulois faileaux. 5. Cycle of Garin de Monglane. — After the eleventh century no poem of the national epic is preserved Ln its original form. The minstrels constantly renewed, ex- panded, and increased what was bequeathed to them. Most of the manuscripts belong to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and none are earlier than the middle of the twelfth. — Eewritten are all the poems of the cycle of Garin de Monglane. The first trace of them is in a fragment of a Latin poem (X c). The hero of the MEDIEVAL LITBEATURE. 13 cycle is Guillaume of Toulouse (t812), who profited by tlie deeds of homonyms. — The Charroi de Nlmes (XII c.) relates the transfer of Guillaume, under Louis I., to the South, and the capture of Nlmes by introducing his ■warriors, hidden in wine-tuns, into the city. — The Chevalerie Vivien (XII c.) is based on a battle lost near Aries, and is important for its sequels, Aleschans (the Roman cemetery near Aries), translated by Wolfkam VON EsoHENBACH, and Foulque de Gandie, which popular- ized the whole cycle in Italy under the title of the Nerbonesi. " 6. Didactic Poetry; lives of Saints. — The mediaeval writers made no distinction between didactic, religious, and moral literature. It was all viewed from the stand- point of utility. It proceeded from the clergy, generally in translations from the Latin. Its poetical form in French is the octosyllabic couplet. — The Latin lives of saints offered a fruitful field. The Vie de Saint Alexis (a. 1050), composed after epic models in assonanced decasyllabic strophes, is, in its origin, a Byzantine tradi- tion. Its success is seen in many later revisions and translations. — The Vie de Saint Grigoire (XII c), also very popular, is a version of the story of (Edipus, where the crimes are absolved by repentance. In octosyllabic verse it was often translated. — The Voyage de Saint Brendan (a. 1125) is a translation from the Latin, by the monk Benedict, for Queen Adelaide. From Celtic sources it contains many Irish legends of the Atlantic, and became very popular, even entering into assumed discoveries of America. 7. Lapidaries ; Bestiaries ; Philippe de Thaon, 14 PEIMEK OP FRENCH LITERATCTEB. a. 1110-a. 1135. — The treatises on precious stones and beasts are more scientific. Very numerous in Latin, they had incorporated both Eastern and Western supersti- tions, modified often by additions from the Bible and by allegorical explanations. — The French lapidaries were translated from the Latin of Makbodius (tll23). They enumerate as a rule the virtues of the stones, but also show, in their allegory. Church influence. — The bestiaries were much more symbolistic. To real animals many fabulous types from the Scriptures and from Oriental tales were added, and each signified some Church doctrine or belief. — The earliest known was dedicated (after 1121) to Queen Adelaide, by Philippe de Thaon (a. 1110-a. 1135), a priest. He had already addressed to his uncle, chaplain to the Earl of Korfolk, a Comput (b. 1119), in couplets of six syllables, based on Latin sources, as the De temporum ratione of Bbde. It is a popular astronomy, containing a calendar for the use of priests. 8. Lyric Poetry ; Kinds. — The only religious lyric of the century is a paraphrase of the Song of Solomon in assonance, popular in tone and of considerable grace. — The earliest form of the secular lyric seems to be the romance, called also chanson d'histoire and chanson de toile. In form it is lyric-epic — assonanced strophes of from four to eight octo- or decasyllabic verses with refrain. The subject is court-life, both in joustings and love- making. Concise in expression and charming in senti- ment, the romances offer the most agreeable reading of the early literature. Among the best are Bainaud, Orior, and Belle Doette. — The pastourelle, undoubtedly of popu- MEDIEVAL LITEEATUEE. X5 lar origin, is more artistic in the specimens extant. It is composed of rimed strophes of short verses, having a lively measure. A short introduction precedes a dialogue between a knight and a shepherdess. The scenes are rural. — The chanson de croisade is the earliest form of strophes having interlaced rimes. The outr&e song of the first crusade is lost, but one of the second (b. 1147) still exists. It has a refrain, like all songs of popular origin. 9. The Origin of the Drama ; Mysteries and Miracles. — Save certain elements of traditional comedy, kept alive by wandering buffoons, the mediaeval theater grew up within the church. It developed either from the litur- gical ofB.ce, by constantly increasing interpolations, varied by the use of the dialogue, or from sermons, hymns, and devout narratives, thrown likewise into dialogue form. The interpolations, at first textual quotations from the Vulgate, were gradually changed into Latin metrical verse, then into rimed and accented poetry, until, about the beginning of the twelfth century, the vernacular appears, and profane elements mingle with the sacred. In the meanwhile the stage has advanced from before the high altar to the inelosure in front of the church. As a last change, the clergy cease to be the actors, though they support and control the play and keep it in connec- tion with the of&ce of the day. — The plays gather around two centers. Those of Christmas have their origin in the liturgy and canonical traditions and in a sermon, attributed to Saint Augustin, made up of the Messianic prophecies. — Those played at Easter present two themes : the Resurrection and, later, the Passion. — The dramas 16 PKIMER OF FRENCH LITERATCTKE. of both these cycles, Scriptural in their essence, were afterwards known as my stores. — The miracles were the development of songs in honor of saints and the Virgin, or of treatises on their lives. They were given on the eve of the saint's day. — The earliest play in which the vernacular rivals the Latin is Sponsus (b. 1150), a para- phrase of the parable of the Foolish Virgins, rather lyric in its nature. The French (of Poitou) is in decasyl- labic verse, generally monorime. 10. Didactic Prose; Psalters, a. 1100-a. 1120. — The prose of the period is whoUy didactic, and is the work of Anglo-Normans. It consists of two psalters, translated (a. 1100-a. 1120) probably at Canterbury, and called after their present localities, the Psalters of Oxford and Cambridge. The translation is literal and plain, and became the base of many subsequent renderings in prose and poetry. Medieval Literatuee. To 1327. CHAPTER III. SECOND PERIOD. 1150-1250. Epic Pobtky. National Epic. Cycle of the King; Mainet, XII c. ; Jean BODEL, a. 1200 ; Couronnement de Louis, XII c. ; Fierabras, XII c. Cycle of Gaiinde Monglane; Bkrtrand, of Bar-sur- Aube, XIII c. Cycle of Doon de Mayence; Senaud de Montauban, XIII c. ; Kaimbbbt, of Paris, XII c. ; Girard de Boussillon, XII c. ; Huon de Bordeaux, XII c. Independent poems; The Lorraine cycle, XII c. ; Raoul die Cambrai, XII c. ; Horn, XII c. ; Ami et Amile, XII c. ; Jourdain de Blaie, XII c. Crusade Epic. Chanson de Jerusalem, XII c. ; Graindok DE DOUAI, a. 1180-a. 1190; Chevalier au Gygne, XII c. Epic of Antiquity. Alexandre by Alberic, of Briangon, b. 1125; Lambert lb Tort and Alexandre, of Bernal, b. 1190. BbnoIt de Sainte-Mobe, a. 1160-a. 1175. Breton Epic. Nennius, X c. ; GBorrBET of Monmouth, 1 1154. Lais; Marie de Trance, XII c. The Tristran cycle; Beroitl, a. 1150; Thomas, a. 1170. The Arthurian cycle; Chretien de Troies, a. 1160-a. 1180; Raoul de HouDAN, b. 1235; Guinglain, XII c. ; Durmart le Gallois, XIII c. The Grail cycle; Robert de Boron, a. 1200. Prose romances ;■ TVisJran ; Lancelot; Perceval; Saint Graal; Merlin. 18 PRIMER OF PEBNCH LTTBEATUEE. 1. The National Epic; Cycle of the King. — The greater part of the epic poems were written in this period, which includes the reign of Philip Augustus (1180-1223) and ends with the Egyptian crusade of Saint Louis. They are not, however, in their original form. — Roland underwent, as the others, a rimed version (a. 1170) which crowded out the assonanced form. — In a second dress is also Mainet (Maigne), on the youth and exile in Spain of Charlemagne, and his marriage with a Saracen princess — an epic commonplace. The historical basis is found in the life of Charles Martel. The poem is preserved in fragments of monorime alexandrines, the verse which succeeded the decasyllabic tirade. — Fiera- bras (a. 1200), an expanded episode of a lost poem, which had great success abroad, relates the deeds of that giant who is overcome and converted by Oliver — a medley of legends. — The Saisnes (a. 1200), by Jean BoDBL, of Arras, an imitation of a previous poem, con- fuses the Saxon wars of Dagobert with those of Charle- magne. The enemy are often called Saracens. — The Couronnernent de Louis is based on the transference of the empire to Louis I., confused with the succeeding Louis. 2. Cycle of Qarin de Monglane. — The hero of the last- named poem is Guillaume d' Orange. — Another of the same family is seen iu Aimeri de Narhonne, by Bertrand (a. 1212-a. 1225), of Bar-sur-Aube, an imitation of lost poems, which contains the original of Hugo's Aymerillot. — A fusion of epic traditions appears in Girard de Vienne, also by Bertrand. The historical basis is a siege sus- tained by Girard de Eoussillon in Vienne. To this, the MEDIEVAL LITERATUKB. 19 poet added legends concerning Eoland and Oliver, as their dnel (reproduced by Hugo in the Manage de Roland) and the meeting of Eoland and Aude (the source of Uhlaud's Roland und Alda). 3. Cycle of Doon de Mayence. — After Roland, the most important poems are those which favor the feudal idea. — Renaud de Montauban, or the Quatre Fils Aimon — the events of which, occurring under Charles Martel in Aquitania, were enlarged by. Ehenish traditions and episodes of the Crusades, — relates the conflicts with Charlemagne of Eenaud (who has killed an imperial prince with a chess-board) and his brothers, aided by the enchanter, Maugis, and the horse. Bayard. The scene is laid at Montauban and Dortmund. Eenaud finally turns monk, meets a violent death at Cologne, and is glorified by a miracle. Bayard, escaping the vengeance of Charle- magne, stm wanders in the Ardennes. — The deeds of Eenaud, attractive to the communes of Lombardy, availed to make him the chief hero of the Italian romances. The later prose form of the poem is still the popular chap-book of Prance and Germany. — Oger le Danois, by Eaimbert, of Paris, is made up from previous poems, the Enfances Oger (his early deeds), and a narrative of his later exploits. The Lombard wars of Charlemagne are the basis, and Oger, count of the Danish Marches, profited by the renown of homonyms. — Oirard de Rous- sillon, in Burgundian dialect, rests on the wars of Girard, duke of Provence, with Charles the Bald (in the poem, Charles Martel). The celebrity of Girard (who is always aided by his faithful wife. Bertha) gave rise to various Latin lives and French poems, as Girard de Fratte and 20 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITEEATUEB. Girard de Vienne. — Huon de Bordeaux mingles the history of Charles the Infant (t 866) with the magic of the Breton cycle, and introduces Alberich of G-ermanic tradition in the person of the enchanter, Oberon. The English translation of the prose version was used by Shaksperb, while the French, becoming a chap-book, and, appearing in the BiblioiMque des romans (1778), gave rise to the poem of Wieland, which in turn inspired Weber's opera, Oberon. — Dramatized as a mirade, it was played in France down to the time of Moliere. 4. Independent Poems. — The five poems relating the feud of the houses of Metz and Bordeaux, called the Lor- raine cycle, are the most important of those which resisted the cyclic tendencies of the minstrels. Their interest is purely local. They present unchanged the ferocity and harshness of feudalism. — The same characteristics are seen in Raovl de Cambrai, killed in 943 by the house of Vermandois. A fine passage is the burning of the abbey of Ortigny, with its nuns. — Horn is a tale of adventure, from the Anglo-Saxon, which assumes in French the epic verse and certain epic commonplaces. — Ami et Amile, an Eastern story of friendship and mutual likeness, was artificially connected with the court of Charlemagne. — A sequel to it is Jourdain de Blaie, a clever transformer tion of the Latin form of the Greek novel, Apollonius of Tyre. 5. The Crusade Epic; Development from History and Legend; Graindor de Douai, a. 1180-a. 1190. — The poems relating to the first crusade are conscious imita- tions of the national epic. Based on Latin chronicles, they contain also Walloon traditions, arising from the MEDIEVAL LITBRATXJKE. 21 stories of the pilgrims, and borrowings from the national songs. They remain, however, rather historical than epic. — The poetical versions of the previous decades were worked over by Geaindoe de Douai into the Chanson de J&ruscdem (a. 1180-a. 1190), which contains a purely romantic episode of the fights of French prisoners with monsters — the GMtifs. — The real or assumed historical account of Geaindoe was introduced by a version of a mythological legend, probably Germanic, the Chevalier au Cygne, due to minstrels attached to the house of Bouillon. In it the origin of the house is related and the history of the swan-knight, H61ias, who later becomes the ancestor of Godfrey. — The German version, Lohen- grin, was attached by Wolfeam von Eschenbach to the story of the Grail. — Before 1250 both parts of the epic were rendered into prose, to the great advantage of the legendary part, which became very popular throughout Northern and Western Europe. 6. The Cycle of Antiquity ; Poems on Alexander. — In rivalry with the national epic, the -clerks chose from among their Latin readings strange and wonderful adven- tures, adapted them to the vernacular and to the popular taste. — The first subject thus introduced was the legend of Alexander the Great. A narrative embodying his fabulous history and various Oriental superstitions, the Pseudo-CalUsthenes (II c), had its rise at Alexandria, and was later made known to the West by various Latin translations, as the Epitome (IX c.) and the Historia de proeliis (X c). Other sources existed in the Itinerarium, the Epistola ad Aristotelem, and the late Iter ad Paradi- sum. — Based on the Historia, the first French version 22 PBIMEB OF FEBNCH LITERATUBB. was made by Albbric, of Briangon (or Besan^on), in octosyllabic tirades, of which a fragment of one hundred and five verses remains. The purpose is to illustrate by Alexander's short life, the text: "Vanity of vanities." Curious is the transformation of the son of a magician into a mediaeval Christian, surrounded by his knights {milites). Lively and poetical, the work had great suc- cess and was soon translated into German by Lamprecht (b. 1125). — It was also imitated in decasyllabic French in the lost version of a certain Simon. — These French renderings, the fictitious Latin chronicles, the history of QuiNTUs CuRTius, and various popular beliefs gave rise to the poem Alexandre (b. 1190), in four separate branches, and due to at least three authors, Alexandre, of Bernai, Lambert le Tort, of Chateaudun, and Pierre, of Saint Cloud. The peculiar feature of the work is to magnify the knightly virtues of Alexander, and espe- cially his largesses, for which he became the model. Its popularity is seen in the name, alexandrine, given to the already existing line of twelve syllables, which it adopted. — Among the sequels are the Vengeance d^ Alex- andre (b. 1191) by Gui de Cambrai, and, later, by Jean le Venelais. — The Spanish and Dutch versions derive from the Latin Alexandreis (b. 1179) of Gautier DE Chatillon. 7. Imitations of Antiquity by BenoJt de Sainte- MoRE, a. 1160-a. 1175. — The octosyllabic couplet of narrative poetry is the verse of the other works on Greek and Roman themes, most of which are due to a poet of the English court, Beno!t, of Sainte-More. — He dedicated to Queen Eleanor his Roman de Troie (a. 1160), MEDIEVAL LITERATURE. 23 taken from the fictitiotis narrative of the Trojan Dares (V c), from Ovid and other sources, among them the forged account of the Cretan Dictys (II c), translated into Latin and, together with the Iliad, the original of Dares. — Homee, known only by a Latin abridgment, passed in the Middle Ages as a falsifier. — The Troie was probably suggested by the legend of the descent of the French from Francus, grandson of Priam. BbnoIt added to his material and expanded the episodes. He assimilated characters and events to the notions of his age. He refines the manners according to'"the prevailing view of "courtesy," and pleased his hearers by many descriptions of Eastern luxury. His most important episode is. that of Troilus and Briseida, rendered in true romantic style, and which, through the Latin version (1287) of his poem by Guido Colonna, suggested to Boccaccio the Filostrato. This in turn reached Shak- SPEEE through Chaucer and Lydgate. The Troie was likewise translated into German (by Hebbort von Fritzlae) and into other languages of Europe. — The Enias is probably by BEsrofi also. It adapts to mediseval notions a glossed text of the Eneid. Feudal combats and the childish love of ^Eneas and Lavinia are presented in the easy style and conventional manner which make BenoIt the predecessor of the finical graces of the Breton cycle. It introduced "courtesy" into German literature through the translation of Heineich von Vbl- DEKE. — Benoit is perhaps the author of the Moman de TMbes, based on a glossed text of Statius and expanded by new episodes. Its prose versions gave rise to foreign imitations, as that of Ltdgate, while in France various 24 PBIMEE OF PKBNCH LITERATTJBE. tales of adventure borrow from it the names of their heroes. 8. Origin of the Breton Epic; Celtic Mythology and Historical Tradition ; Geo^feet of Monmouth, f 1164. — The poems of the Breton cycle find their historical basis in the wars of the Anglo-Saxon conquest (V-VI c). From these a national epic was evolved which incor- porated with it previously existing elements, mainly mythological. The traditions first appear in the Historia Britonum (X c), ascribed to Nbnnius, in which Arthur is a dux bellorum, who defeats the Saxons in twelve battles. — Soon after the Gaelic minstrels and Breton bards make the legends familiar to the Anglo-Saxons and Normans, who introduce them into literature, after the Norman conquest. — Geotfeey of Monmouth (f 1154), making use of Celtic material, wrote the Prophetia Merlini (1136), which he later inserted in his Historia regum Britanniae (a. 1137), made up from Nennius, Celtic and Latin documents, popular tales, and his own invention. To this work is due the chivalric conception peculiar to the cycle and before unknown. — Translations into French verse followed. That of Geoffbei Gaimae (a. 1145) is lost, but that of Wage, dedicated to Eleanor, the Bi'ut (1156) — so-called from the pretended ancestor of the Britons, Brutus, the grandson of .35neas — adds new legends, notably that of the Eound Table. — The Vita Merlini (b. 1164), of Geoffrey, is a mixture of Breton and foreign traditions which influenced somewhat later poems. 9. Breton Minstrel Poesy, the Lais; Maeib de Feance. — While the compilations of Geoffbey of MEDIEVAL LITEEATTTEB. 25 Monmouth attracted the attention of scholars to the Arthurian tales, they had no immediate effect on the subsequent French poems. The latter developed from the songs of the bards, who, traveling through England and France, recited to the accompaniment of the rote (a kind of harp) musical pieces, which they preceded by an explanation of the subject — invariably a story of adventure which had lost its national setting. The "French designated both the explanatory prologue and the song by the term lai (Anglo-Saxon lag?), and soon trans- lated the best into narrative poems of octosyllabic coup- lets, of which some twenty have been preserved. — Most of these are due to a poetess, Makie, of French birth, who resided at the English court, probably under Henry II., and who knew English and perhaps Celtic. In the fifteen lais which she imitated (evidently from the Anglo-Saxon) are visible the remains of an old mythol- ogy, misunderstood, and transformed after the life of the twelfth century. Lanval, a knight beloved by a fairy; Eliduc, the two-fold love of a knight, ending with veiling of the lawful wife; Chevrefeuille, an episode of the love of Tristran and Ysolt, are among her best, all rendered in a tender and passionate spirit. — Of the lais not by Mabie that of Ignaure, by Eenaud, modelled on the lost lai, Ghiiron, relates the story of the lover's heart fed to the wife. 10. Divisions of the Breton Epic ; Poems relating to Tristran, f. 1150. — The French poems (all in octo- syllabic couplets) of the Breton cycle are grouped around three centers, at first separate, and of which one is possibly not Celtic in origin: Tristran; the Eound 26 PEIMEK OF FEENCH LITER ATTJKB. Table; the Holy Grail. — The sources of the first two are in lais and Celtic legends, which went either directly into the French poems, or indirectly by means of Anglo- Norman versions, now lost. They are mainly bio- graphical. — The poems on the Holy Grail are later and more complex. — The fortunes of Tristran (the earliest French narratives preserved) repose on lost lais of a mythological character, resembling strongly the story of Theseus. These were roughly joined together by an Anglo-Norman, Bbeoul (a. 1160), and connected with the Arthurian narratives. His poem, in fragments (imitated by Eilhart von Obekg), shows its Celtic origin (possibly in English translations) in its rude con- ception of love and its local coloring. — Thomas (a. 1170) is more artistic in the fragments of his Tristran, embell- ishing with reflections and digressions the logical narra- tive, which he has formed from his material by selection and elimination. He attempts to refine the Celtic con- ception of love, after courtly models of the time of Henry II., and adds descriptions of luxury after the manner of BEsrofT. His poem was reproduced by Gott- fried VON Stkassburg, and by English and Norse translations. — Chretien de Troies wrote a Tristran (a. 1160), now lost. 11. The Arthurian Legends; Chretien de Troies, a. 1160-a. 1175; Provengal Influence. — The tales of the Bound Table, which represent the heroic epic and the mythology it absorbed, passed, as a rule, both through lais and Anglo-Norman versions before they reached their present state in the French of the continent. On the way a change of spirit took place. Entering the MEDIEVAL LITERATURE. 27 domain of court poetry, they reflected in their chivalry and refined passion the ideal of the age. — This change became complete in the poems of Chketibn de Troies. Resident at the court of Champagne, protected and influenced by the Countess Mary (1164-1198), daughter of Eleanor of Poitou, Chretien came into contact both with the metaphysical love poetry of the Provenfals, and the Breton legends brought to Mary from England. Beginning his career with a translation of Ovid's Ars amoris and imitations of the Metamorphoses, Chretien is the first French poet known to have followed in his lyrics Proven9al versification. — The Celtic material given him by Mary was in a very mutilated form. The mythological basis — the abduction of a wife by the god of the dead, and her rescue by the husband — had been obscured and fused with historical events and characters. It persisted, however, in certain commonplaces, as the " island of glass," the " country whence none return," the "sword bridge." The husband, identified in Nennius with Arthur, was replaced, perhaps in the Anglo-Nor- man poems, by Lancelot. Chbbtien accentuates the biographical element by which the knights are made the heroes. After Tristran he writes Erec, followed by Cligis, an Eastern story (attached to the cycle), of the voluntary abduction of a wife. — Eeturning to Breton subjects, he dedicates to Mary the Conte de la charrette (a. 1170), the rescue of Guinevere by Lancelot, mounted on a cart. This poem is noteworthy for the first pre- sentation of the unlawful love of Lancelot for the queen, due no doubt to Proven9al influence and to that of Ovid. — His next work, Ivain, or the Chevalier au lion, is fol- 28 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. lowed by Perceval, or the Conte du graal (a. 1175), from a poem given to Chebtibn by Philip of Flanders. — The success of these poems was great. Though the subject is often indefinite and the solution of the plot deferred, the form, in spite of monotony and prolixity, is the best of the age, and the language the model of the century. The expression is delicate, the sentiment graceful, the descriptions are brilliant. In Cheetien is seen best the ideal of mediaeval society : the cultivation of love as an ennobling virtue, having a code designed to make a per- fect knight. Imitations and translations of his poems abound. 12. Biographical Poems; Eaoul de Houdan. — The biographical poems of the imitators of Cheetien have as a constant actor Gawain, second only to the particular hero of the tale. — Eaoul de Houdan (fb. 1235), the best known of his followers, and also an allegorical poet, is probably the author of Miraugis de Portlesguez, a suc- cession of commonplaces, and of the Vengeance de Bagui- del, where Gawain avenges a dead knight. Raoul is cele- brated for his style and his fondness for rich rime and over- flow. — Guinglain, or the Bel Inconnu, by Eenaud (XII c), of Beaujeu, concerns the son of Gawain, who frees an en- chanted maiden by the kiss given to her serpent form. It is well written, and its popularity is seen in the English translation, Lyheas Disconus, and the German imitation of Wient von Geavenbeeg (1203-1205). The Italian poem Carduino rests on an earlier version. — Durmart le Gallois, imitating the style of Cheetien is one of the best poems of the cycle. It attempts to unite the chivalric and Christian moral, and begins with MEDLEVAL LITERATURE. 29 an allegory — a tree bearing burning candles, having the Christ-cliild at the top. The marvelous is almost absent, the plot is logical, and it has unity of action. 13. The Holy Grail ; Egbert de Boeon, a. 1200. — It is uncertain ■whether the third center of the Breton cycle, the Holy Grail, is of Celtic or Christian origin. The Grail first appears in the Perceval of Chretien, left unfinished by its author. His continuators also stopped short of the solution. But their successors, among whom are Mennessibr (a. 1220) and Gerbert DE MoNTREuiL, extended the poem to over sixty-three thousand verses, in which the Grail becomes the cup of the Last Supper, given to Joseph of Arimathea. — EoBEKT DE Boron (a. 1200), probably of Northeastern Prance, proposed to attach this notion of the Grail to the Arthurian legends in a trilogy of poems : Joseph d'Arimathie, from the gospel of Nicodemus and local traditions ; Merlin, the connectiag poem, based vaguely on Gboferet of Monmouth and popular tales ; and Perceval, which ends with the death of Arthur. The last, preserved only in the prose version, soon gave way in the series to the prose Lancelot. 14. The Breton Epic in Prose; Religions Mysticism Predominant. — The prose romances of the Breton cycle seem to have superseded the poetical in favor from the beginning of the thirteenth century, a result due to their excellent style and language. Of these prose versions, all anonymous, Tristran, based on the Tristran of Chre- tien, and the source of the Tavola Bitonda in Italian, alone escapes the mysticism of the Holy Grail. The prose Lancelot, derived from various poems (among them 30 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITEBATUKB. the Conte de la charrette) and from Geoffrey, relates the history of all the Eound Table from Lancelot's birth to its final ruin. Its substitution for Perceval necessi- tated connecting narratives in the series of Kobbet de BoEON. Hence a sequel to Merlin and a Qti6te du saint graal later united to the Lancelot. — These narratives, all having reference to the Grail on the one hand, and to the love of Lancelot and Guinevere on the other, — two centers connected by the failure of Lancelot to find the Grail on account of that love, — were worked over and enlarged many times until they reached their fixed form (a. 1250). The Joseph of Egbert de Boeost be- came known, in its prose form, as the Saint graal, and ia the Quite, made up from the other works, Percival is displaced by Galaad. — The popularity of the Breton epic, both poetry and prose, gave rise to many transla- tions. In Germany the Ivain and the Erec of Chkbtien were translated by Haetmann ton Aue, and his Perceval imitated by Wolfram von Eschenbach. — An abridg- ment of the prose versions, made (a. 1270) by Eustician o, of Pisa, was rendered later into Italian and occasioned new poems. — In England, Malory's Morte Arthure (a, 1470) is based on a similar compilation which contained several poems lost in French. — To the Breton romances was due in great measure the long-prevalent conception of the chivalric society of the Middle Ages. Medieval Literature. To 1327. chapter iv. SECOND PERIOD. 1150-1250. NAEEATIVI! Poetrt. 1. Romans d'aventure. Of Breton origin ; Ble et Galeron, a. 1157, by Gautier d'Aekas ; Galeran de Bretagne, by Rbnaud, XIII c. Of Breton and Byzantine origin; Guillaume de Dole, a. 1200; Guillaume de Falerme, XII c. Prom life; Ohdtelaine de Vergi, XIII c. ; Qui de Warwick, a. 1250. National ; Robert le Diable, XIII c. 2. Greek and Byzantine Romances. Mracle, a. 1160, by Gatj- TiBE d'Akbas ; Floire et Blanchefleur, b. 1170 ( ?) ; Partenopeua de Blois, XII c. ; Comte de Poitiers, XII c. ; Geebert de MONTEEUIL, b. 1225. 3. Popular Tales. In Eastern framework ; Sept Sages, XII c. Fableaux; Richeut, a. 1156; Henei d'Andbli, XIII c. ; Housse partie; Vilain mire. Animal fables; Romulus; Maeib de Feance; Isopets; Tsengrimus, a. 1148; Roman de Renard, XII-XIII c. 4. Historical Poetry. Geoffkei Gaimae, a. 1150; Wacb, a. 1100-a. 1175; BenoIt de Sainte-Moee; Guillaume de Saint-J'aie, a. 1170; Jouedain Fantosme, a. 1183; Am- BROISE, b. 1200 ; Vie de Guillaume le Sfarichal, a. 1220 ; Pm- LIPPB MousKBT, a. 1200-a. 1243. 1. Romans d'Aventure ; Origin and Significance. — The roman d'aventure is a tale of love and adventure, a 32 PEIMEE OF PEENCH LITEEATUEB. novel in verse. In style and spirit they resemble most the lyric romances, which may have been their model. They are the favorite literature of the nobility, whose manners and life they portray, and are cultivated by a class of professional writers desirous of reputation. Those pre- served, some sixty in all, averaging six or seven thousand octosyllabic verses, are often expanded lais and popular stories in local setting. They may be considered, with the Breton prose narratives, the precursors of the ro- mances of chivalry. — They can be divided into those presenting Breton themes, those confusing Breton and Byzantine stories, those due to events of the age, those based on national history or tradition. The divid- ing line between the romans d'avenhu-e and the poems imitated from Greek novels and tales is not always visible. 2. From Breton Sources; Gautieb d'Arkas; Ee- NAUD. — The first known roman d'aventure is Ille et Galeron (a. 1157), dedicated to Beatrice, wife of IVed- erick Barbarossa, by Gautier d'Arkas. It is a version of the lai Eliduc, preceded by the story of the persecuted orphan, Ille. — Galeran de Bretagne by Eenaud (XIII c.) is a development of the lai, Fr6ne, of Marie, — the story of a foundling who recovers finally her lover. The poem, natural and spirited, imitates the style of the En^as of BenoIt. 3. From Breton and Byzantine Sources. — Guillaume de Palerme (XII c), dedicated to Yolande of Flanders, mixes Greek novelistic elements with notions of the were-wolf, as in the lai Bisdavret, of Marie. The scene is laid in Sicily, and the poem may be due to the Nor- MEDIEVAL LITEKATUEE. 33 mans. — Chiillaume de Dole, dedicated to Miles de Nan- teuil (t 1236 ), is one of the best romans d'aventure. It unites an account of knightly intercourse between French and Germans with the story of the hidden birth- mark (from which the poem is also called the Roman de la Rose) and of the persecuted woman. The insertion of some forty well-known lyrics into the narrative (an inno- vation of the author, much copied) gives it variety and naturalness. The poem has also unity of action and describes vividly feudal life. 4. Poems based on Events of the Time, and on Na- tional History and Legend. — The Chdtelaine de Vergi (XIII c.) is based on actual events, and contains no for- eign elements. A tale of love, having a tragic end, it shows keen analysis and delicacy of feeling, and is nearest of all to the modern novel. — 6ui de WanvicJc (a. 1250), from the Anglo-Saxon, is reproduced in English transla- tions of the next century. — Robert le Diahle (XIII c.) is a story of sin and repentance, here arbitrarily attached to a ISTorman duke. — The romans d'aventure were widely imitated and translated. 5. Poems reproducing the Plots of Greek and By- zantine Narratives ; G-autiee d'Aeeas ; Geebbet de MoNTEEuiL, b. 1225. — To Greek tales and their Byzan- tine imitations are due the plots of many French poems, epic, as Jourdain de Blaie, didactic, as the lives of the saints, and narrative. — Of the latter, the first render- ing known is Eracle (a. 1160), by Gautiee d'Aeeas, a youth endowed with the knowledge of precious stones, of horses, and of women, who becomes Emperor, and wars against Persia. — The charming tale of Floire et Blanche- 34 PRIMER or FRENCH LITERATURE. jleur, in two versions of the twelfth century, may have reached France through the Crusades. In the French a chivalric element has been introduced which pervades also the imitations, of which Boccaccio's Filocolo is the most artistic. — The form of the story, known as Aucdssin et Nicolette (a. 1200), in prose and seven-syllable tirades (hence called Chantefable), is the most attractive literary work of feudal France. — Partinopeus de Blois (XII c.) is the story of Psyche with the parts reversed. In plot and structure it shows superior talent. — The Comte de Poitiers (XII c.) and the Soman de la Yiolette — by Gek- BEKT DE MoNTREUiL (b. 1225) — havc the same plot as Cruillawme de Dole. In the Comte de Poitiers the inno- cence of the woman is the object of a wager. The Violette further follows Ouillaume de Dole in inserting lyric songs as well as epic tirades into the narrative. Many variants exist, as Shakspeee's Cymbeline. * 6. Folk Lore in Mediaeval Literature ; its Eastern Sources. — Many of the romances already mentioned are simply popular stories amplified, embellished, and adapted to the refined tastes of the nobility. Undeveloped, nearer to nature, are the tales which circulated among the lower classes. Their love is coarse, their adventures often buf- foon. The source of most of them is Eastern. They were transmitted to France in writing, or orally through traders, quacks, or pilgrims. Their Indian origin is seen in the Buddhistic notions of transmigration, in polygamy (often misunderstood), and in the ' strategy invariably assigned to woman. They had at the start a moral application, lost in the transmission. Written down at first in Sanscrit, they reached Europe through Persia, KEDI^VAL LITEKATUKE. 35 Syria and Constantinople, or through the Arabs. — The latter touched Europe in Spain, and the first Latin trans- lation of Eastern tales known is the Disciplina dericalis (a. 1106), by a converted Spanish Jew, Peteus Al- PHONsus, after Arabic originals. These instructions of a dying father to his son were afterwards twice rendered into Erench verse, as the ChaMiement d'un p^re d, son fils (XIII c). — Before the translations of collections, many separate tales which show no literary influence had found their way orally to France. — Other stories are due to the fables of Esop, and others are indigenous or are the inventions of their narrators. 7. Stories in Eastern Framework; the Sept Sages, XII c. — Tales derived from Oriental collections are inva- riably in the. form of a loosely connected series. Such a series is seen in the Sept Sages, in poetry (XII c.) and prose (XIII c). Beginning in India, this collection made its way through Persia, Syria, and the Arabs. In Greek it was worked over and became the source for the Western versions. — A Latin form, the Dolopathos (XII c), by Jean db Hautb-Seille, substitutes many new stories (as the swan legend), changes the scene to Eome, and makes Vergil the preceptor. It was translated into Erench (b. 1223) by Herbert. — The imitations of this series are numerous. 8. The Fableaux. — An ordinary form of popular stories is the fableau. It is a poetical narrative, generally in octosyllabic couplets, of a definite and common event. It is usually jocose, often satirical, frequently coarse, and belongs to peasant or citizen life, using the vocabu- lary and idioms of the people. The plot is generally 36 PKIMBK OP FEENCH LITBEATtTKE. the deceit practised by the crafty wife on her boorish husband or on her pretentious clerical lover. Some two hundred fableaux exist, varying from thirty to several hundred lines in length and dated from the middle of the twelfth to the beginning of the fourteenth century. They are mainly anonymous. — Bicheut (a. 1156), the earliest known, is a description of courtesan life taken from nature. — Aristote, by Henri d'Andeli (XIII c), is the Indian tale of the power of love over the wisest, here attributed to the mistress of Alexander and Aris- totle. The attitude of the sage, bridled and carrying his subduer, is a frequent subject of literary reference and artistic representation. — The Housse partie, by Beenier, is also Indian, and teaches filial respect. — The Vilain mire, the revenge of a wife on her cruel husband, is later the theme of the MMecin malgri lui of Molibre. 9. Esopio and Animal Fables; Marie de France. — The animal fables of Esop, in which the moral is the object, were known through the translation of Ph^drus. — Of these, one in prose, the Romulus, ab- sorbed (a. 1000) Oriental tales affected by Christianity and medisevalism. Translated into Anglo-Saxon, this collection was rendered into concise French verse, the Isopet of Marie de France, containing one hundred and three fables. — Other Isopets of the period are based on versions of Romulus in Latin distichs. 10. The Roman de Renard, XII-XIII c. — Besides the Esopic fables, animal stories without morals, derived from shrewd observation, circulated among the people. Many of them referred to the struggle between the cun- ning fox and the heavy wolf. These, forming a group, MEDIEVAL LITEKATUEE. 37 attracted the Esopic fables, rid of their morals. The species were individualized. A proper name, Eaganhard, was given to the typical fox, and Isengrin to the typical wolf. Around them and their wives, Eichild and Her- sind, were gathered the animals of Western Europe and others borrowed from the literary part of the cycle, as Noble, the lion. This process went on, probably in the eleventh century, on the Flemish border, and is first mentioned in a Latin chronicle (1112). — The poem Isengrimus (1148), by a Fleming, in Latin distichs, is composed of twelve main episodes, most of which are found in later French versions. — A lost French compilar tion, of -sixteen episodes, is preserved in Beinhart Fuchs (a. 1180) by Heineich deb G-lichezabe. — The French Roman de Renard is an artistic union of some twenty- six episodes, giving a connected narrative of the lives of Renard and Isengrin. The episode, P&lerinage de Renard, and others belong to the twelfth century. The greater part are of the thirteenth. Among the authors is Piekee DE Saint Cloud. — The most popular episode, the Juge- ment de Renard, is the source of the Flemish Reynaert de vos, in turn the original of the German ReinJce de vos (1498), imitated by Goethe. — The merit of the episodes varies with their age. An observation, keen and ironi- cal at first, passes into a parody on society and ends in fastidious allegory, the animals typifying men. The style is natural, and the best scenes are realistic. 11. Historical Poetry ; Anglo-Norman Accounts ; Geof- FEEi Gaimae ; Wage ; Benoit ; Guillaume de Saint- Paie ; JouBDAiN Fantosmb. — The Latin chronicles of the fixst crusade went into epic poetry, excepting a mon- 38 PEIMER OP FRENCH LITBEATtJEB. orime translation of Baudei de BouBGirEiL (a. 1190). The second crusade passed without popular notice. It is therefore to Norman history that the first narratives in the vernacular belong. They are mainly in octosyllabic couplets. — GEOFrEBi Gaimak wrote the Histoire des Anglais (1147-1151), beginning with the Argonauts, translating Gboffbet of Monmouth, outlining Anglo- Saxon history, and stopping with the death of William Eufus. The fragments of his work have but little his- torical value. — Wage (a. 1100-a. 1175), of Guernsey, canon at Bayeux, after his Brut and various didactic poems, composed the Boti, or Oeste des Nbrmands (1160- 1174) , in monorime alexandrines and octosyllabic coup- lets. He follows Latin chronicles, but adds popular stories and traditions, stopping with 1107. His work is of historical worth. His style is clear, simple, and concise. — Wace, of the old school, was supplanted in the favor of Henry II. by BsNoiT db Sainte-Moke. The latter's Chronique des dues de Nonnandie made use of Wage's sources and Wage himself, and contains roman- tic developments in the flowery language of the Troie and EnSas. — The Chronique du Mont-Saint-Micliel (a. 1170), by GuiLLAUME de Saint-Paie, is local history, rather edifying than scientific. — Jourdain Pantosme, attached to Westminster, relates the Scottish war (1173- 1174) of Henry II. in monorime alexandrines. 12. The Third Crusade; English History; Philippe MousKBT, a. 1200-a. 1243. — The Histoire de la Guerre sainte, by Ambroise, a minstrel of Richard I., is a record of the third crusade. — The Vie de OuiUaume le Marichal, Earl of Pembroke (tl219), of over nineteen thousand MEDIEVAL LITERATURE. 39 lines, is valuable for history and sociology. — Philippe MousKET (a. 1200-a. 1243), of Tonrnai, attempted a his- tory of the French, from Priam to the year 1242. The historical value of his long poem is limited to the thir- teenth century, but it has a literary importance in the numerous extracts from epic poems (some of which are now lost) relating to Charlemagne. . Medieval Literature. To 1327. CHAPTER V. SECOND PERIOD. 1150-1250. Didactic and Lteic Poktrt. The Drama. Prosb. 1. Didactic Poetry. Narrative : Legends and lives of saints ; jSpitre farcie de Saint Mtienne, XII c. ; Vie de Saint Nicolas, by Wack ; Vies des Peres, XIII c. ; Barlaam et Josaphat, by Chardri, XIII c, and Gin de Cambrai, b. 1225; Purgatoire de Saint Patrice, XII c. ; Garnter de Pont-Sainte-Max- ENCE, XII c. Tlie Virgin ; Herman de Valenciennes, a. 1150; Miracles de Nostre Dame. Devout tales; Jacques de ViTui, tl240; the Ange et I'Ermite. Moral; Influence of Ovid. Satirical ; iStats du monde ; ifexiENNB de FouGiEES, tll78; GuiOT DE Provins, a. 1170-a. 1220; £vangile des femmes; Andre de Coutances, XIII c. Sermons in verse. Hortatory ; Helinand t a. 1229 ; Eeclus de Molijens, a. 1150-a. 1230; Pohne moral, a. 1200; Debats; Dits; Guillaume LE Cleec, XIII c. Allegorical ; Raoul de Houdan ; HuoN DE Meri, XIII c. ; GurLLAUJiE DE LoRRis, XIII c. Trans- lations of Scripture and holy writings. Scientific treatises ; Image du Monde, 1245, by Gautibr de Metz. i. Lyric Poetry. Of French origin; Audeeroi lb Batard, XIII c. ; Motet ; Lai ; Sotrouenge. Of Provencal origin; Chan- son; Jeu parti; CoNON de Bethune, f 122-1; Gace Bkule, a. 1200; Blondbxde Nesle, a. 1200; Guide Couci, tl201; Gautier dm Coraci, 1177-1236; Thibaut de Navarre, 1201-1253. MEDIiEVAL LITEEATUEE. 41 3. The Drama. Mysteries; Adam,Xllc.; Besmrection, XII c. Miracles ; Jean Bodel. The Puis. i. Prose. Translations ; Quatre Livres des Eois, XII c. ; The Bible, 1235 ; Turpin ; Ancient history, a. 1225 ; Jean de Thuin, a. 1240. Chronicles ; Geofprbi de Villehardouin, a. 1160-a. 1213; Robert de Clari, XIII c; Ernoul, 1228. Description de Jerusalem. Laws; Assises de Jerusalem; Coutumiers. Maurice de Stjllt, 1 1196. 1. Legends of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew Saints ; Wacs. — The church office of saints' days gave rise to interpo- lations of Scripture, after the style of the liturgical drama. The story of Stephen's martyrdom became a favorite, and poetical paraphrases in the vernacular of the text of the Vulgate are numerous. Of these Epttres farcies, one of the twelfth century, in monorime decasyl- labics, shows much skill and addresses the audience like an epic poem. — Wace wrote, for his patrons, lives of saints, as those of Saint Nicolas, his first poetical effort, and of Saint Margaret — both frequent subjects of poems. — The Eastern compilation, known in French as the Vies des P^res (XIII c), containing forty-two tales of piety, was very popular. A Western pendant was the Dialogus of Gregory I., rendered into French prose and verse, the latter by Anger (1212), of England. 2. Pagan and Celtic Legends ; Ceardri, a. 1300 ; Hedisval Saints ; Garniee de Pont-Sainte-Max- ence, a. 1173. — The absorbing tendency of French lit- erature is seen in Barlaam et Josaphat,' the story of Buddha. Three versions exist, those by the Anglo- Norman, Chardri (a. 1200), and by Gui de Cambeai (a. 1225), being best known. — Chaedki versified also 42 PBIMER OP FRENCH LITERATUBB. the legend of the Seven Sleepers {Sept Dormants), and wrote the Petit Plaid, a discussion between an Epicurean youth and a pessimistic old man on the goods and ills of life. — The Celtic visions of Tungdal and Owen were rendered into French from the Latin, as by Mabie de rEANCB, in the Purgatoire de Saint Patrice. — A favorite subject of Latin and French writers was the death of Thomas Becket. The Vie de Saint Thomas le Martyr (1173), in strophes of five monorime alexandrines, by the clerk, GrARNiEK, of Pont-Sainte-Maxence, is one of the best poems of the age. His narrative, rather historical than didactic, is remarkable for its accuracy, and its devotion to a high religious standard. His language is vigorous and correct, his style concise, simple, and polished. His work, conscious of artistic effort, is a classic of the time. 3. The Virgin ; Hekman de Valenciennes ; G-au- TiER de Coinci, 1177-1236. — The traditions concerning the Virgin derive mainly from the Scriptures and spurious gospels. — Wage versified the Conception. — Herman de Valenciennes (a. 1160) wrote the Joies Nostre Dame and the Assomption. — Numerous were the tales of her inter- cession. These were translated frequently from the Latin — by an Anglo-Norman, Adgar (XII c.) ; by Jean le Maechant (a. 1240), of Chartres ; and by Gautier de Coinci (1177-1236), prior of Vic-sur-Aisne. His Miracles de Nostre Dame (1214-), of some thirty thousand lines, illustrate the divorce between religion and piety. Crimes and sins are pardoned by the mere invocation of the Virgin, or are committed purposely by her devoted fol- lowers. The style of GtAutier is poor. Rich rime and MEDLEVAIi LITERATTJEE. . 43 plays on words and sounds are sought after. — The gem of the stories relating to the Virgin is the Tomheur de Nostre Dame, a clown turned monk, who performs before her image his most difficult tricks, while Mary wipes the sweat from his brow. Its artlessness is typical of the time. 4. Devout Tales; Jacques de Vitki, f 1240. — The primitive form of the stories of the saints and the Virgin is probably seen in the tales of piety. These come generally from the Latin, as from the Liber exem- plorum of Jacques de Vitki (f 1240), itself compiled from Eastern stories. — Among them are the Ange et VErmite, on the ways of Providence, versions of which are found in the Oesta Bomanorum (no. 80), in Pae- nell's Hermit and in Zadig (c. XX.), by Voltaire. — The popular Enfant juif is the escape of a boy from a furnace into which he was thrown by his fanatical father. 5. Moral Narratives ; Vogue of Ovid ; Satire ; Etienne DE Fougbees, t 1178; Guiot de Peovins, a. 1170- a. 1220 ; Politics. — Moral teachings are found in trans- lations from the Latin, as the Distichs, attributed to Cato, or the De consolatione of Bobthius. Eastern proverbs were also put into verse. — Notable is the influ- ence of Ovid. His Ars amons, taken seriously and sub- jected to scholastic analysis, was translated by Cheetien DE Teoies, by ;6lib, and by the author of the Clef d' amour. — Jacques d' Amiens (XIII c), a lyric poet, gave also a free rendering, which borrowed much from the De arte honeste am,andi (a. 1200), of Andke le Chapelain — the love code of the Breton cycle. These 44 PEIMBR OP FRENCH LITERATTJEE. translations had great effect on allegorical poetry. — Universal satire was expressed in poems, called Etats du monde. — Especially severe is the Livre des manures, of ;^TiBNNE DB FouGBEES (f 1178), bishop of Ecnncs, in octosyllabic monorime quatrains. — The Bible (a usual term for satires), of Guiot de Peovins (a. 1170- a. 1220), minstrel and monk, attacks the nobles and upper classes. — Satires against women, clerks, and peas- ants, as the fableaux, are numerous, and show Oriental in- fluence. Against women is the Evangile des femmes, which was worked over many times, beginning with the twelfth century. — Political satire starts early, as the Roman des Frangais, by Andeb de Coutances (XIII c), against the French. — Satires against papal avarice abound. The Complainte de Jirusalem (a. 1214) accuses Eome of ap- propriating Crusade money. 6. Dogmatic and Hortatory Works ; Sermons ; Ee- cLus DE MoLLiENs, a. 1150-a. 1230 ; Helinand, a. 1229; Po&me moral; Dits; Dibats; Henei d'Andeli, XIII 0. ; GuiLLAUMB LE Cleec, XIII c. — Sennons in verse, on the vanity of life, precede those in prose. The earliest is the Grant malfist Adam (a. 1110), in verses of five syllables. — Baethelemi (a. 1150-a. 1230), a monk, calling himself the Eecluse of Molliens, wrote the Roman de Chariti (1180-1190) and, five years later, the Miserere. Both, on the evil of life, are distinguished by rhetorical figures and a striving for rich rime. Twenty-five and thirty manuscripts, respectively, attest their popularity, as does also the frequent imitation of their atrophic struc- ture — twelve octosyllabic verses riming aab aab bba bba. — In this form was written the Vers de la mort, by Heli- MEDIAEVAL LITERATUEB. 45 NAND (t a. 1229), monk of Froidmont, the most success- ful poem of the kind, and often revised. — The Po&me moral (1190-1210), in monorime alexandrine quatrains, is important from a literary and sociological standpoint. ' It incorporates the Vie de Sainte Thais, a tale of Eastern asceticism. — D4bats and dits — poems of argument and description — become popular in the thirteenth century. French versions of the Dihat du coi-ps et de I'dme, in which body and soul accuse each other of their eternal loss, date from the beginning of the twelfth century. — The bataille, a kind of dihat, is a combat between alle- gorical personages, after the Psychomachia of Pkuden- Tius. Parodies occur, as the Dibat du vin et de Veau and the Bataille de car8me et de charnage. — The most famous dit is the Trois morts et trois vifs, the meditation of three young men over three corpses. Many versions of this exist. — Closely connected with the dits are various didac- tic poems, like the Quinze signes du jugement dernier, based on the prophecies of a sybil and often cited. — Among didactic poets of note is Henri d'Andbli, (XIII c), of Paris, who imitates the dibats in his Bataille des vins, a list of the white wines in vogue, and in the Bataille des Sept Arts (a. 1240), the conflict between the literary studies (the Latin poets) and the rising dialectic. He also wrote dits. — Guillaume le Clekc (XIII c), of Normandy, is the author of a Bestiaire (1204-1210), a life of the Magdalen, an imitation of the book of Tobit, a Joies Nostre Dame, a satirical poem, the Trois mots, and of the Besant de Dieu, a much-cited allegorical develop- ment of the parable of the Talents, containing observa- tions on society. 46 PEIMER OP FEBNCH LITERATURE. 7. Allegorical Poetry; Eaoul de Houdan; Huon DE Mebi ; GuiLLAUME DE LoEKis. — Personification of abstract ideas is due to religious teachiags. — The first rrench writer of allegory known is Eaoul de Houdan. In the allegorical journeys, the Songe d'Enfer and the' Voie de Paradis, he employs the form of a dream, seen in the Dibat du corps et de I'dme, which is probably due to the Somnium Scipionis, of Mackobius. In his Roman des ailes de courtoisie a rule of generosity or courtesy is written on the separate feathers. — Huon de Meri imitates Eaoul and Guillaume le Clekc, as well as Peudentius, in the Tournoiement d' Antichrist (1236), a combat in Paradise between the Saviour, at the head of the Virtues, and the Antichrist, leading the Vices. — Ee- suming previous didactic literature, Guillaume de LoKEis (a. 1212-) began the Roman de la Rose (a. 1237). A love romance, in the form of a dream {Somnium Scipi- onis), the plot is the same as in the Dit de la rose. The mistress is a rose growing in the paradise of love (a fre- quent conception), and the actors, save the lover, are per- sonifications of specific attributes, which aid or resist the plucking of the rose. Evident is the influence of Ovid and of Andeb le Chapelain. The poem of Guillaume stops abruptly, after having attained over four thousand verses. Its style and the carrying out of the plot make it one of the best poems of the age, the elegance and superficiality of which it so well reflects. 8. Translations of Scripture and Beligions Writings. — Heeman de Valenciennes versified Genesis, as did EvEEAT, for Mary of Champagne. — Samson de Nanteuil (XIII c.) rimed the Proverbs, adding alle- MEDIiEVAL LITEEATURE. 47 gorical explanations. — Apocryphal books were favorite subjects for French versions, among which were those by Gautieb de Coinci and Andre db Goutancbs (Nicodime). 9. Scientific Works. — Lapidaries and Bestiaries in prose and verse are frequent, as the Bestiaire of Gek- VAiSE and the prose Bestiaire d'amour, of Richard de rouBNivAL (t b. 1260), a lyric poet and disciple of Ovid. In this the lovers are likened to animals. — Various scien- tific treatises were translated from the Latin. Gautieb DE Metz wrote the Image du Monde (1245), based on the Imago Mundi (a. 1120), of Honorius, and other Latin works. A kind of encyclopaedia, it treats of Man, his birth, education, and free will; of Physical Geography and of Astronomy, citing various legends, among them that of Veegil, the astrologer. The success of this book, preserved in some sixty manuscripts, is seen in the writ- iugs of BRumETTO Latino, Jean de Mbun, Du Bartas, and Delille, in Provencal and Italian works and in Caxton's translation of a prose version. 10. Lyric Poetry of French Origin; Audefroi lb Bataed, XTTI c. ; New Kinds. — Bomances continued in favor until the thirteenth century, and were then artis- tically imitated by Audbfroi le Bataed (a. 1200), of Arras, who substituted a varied rime for assonance and lengthened the strophe. — Pastourelles flourished still later, but were changed by Provencal influence. — New kinds, purely French in origin, are : motets, from the Latin, and generally coarse in theme ; lyric lais, prob- ably from Latin sequences, the essential feature being entire difference of the various strophes, and thus later 48 PEIMER OF FEBNCH LITBEATTJEE. confused with the Provengal descort; and rotroiienges, (romances with refrain), the proper term for all songs not subject to ProTen9al influence. Those more serious were called serventois. — The chansons de croisade become affected by Provengal models. — Arras was the great lyric center of France. 11. Lyric Poetry of Provenpal Origin; Structure; Points of Contact; Kinds. — The lyric of Provence, based on a metaphysical and courtly conception of love, had attained exact laws of verse and strophe. — The lyric unit, the chanson, was divided by the rime iuto three strophic parts. Within the strophe the verses form also three parts, the first two always abba or abab, and the third variable. New strophic forms and a complicated system of rimes, following rigorously the order of the first strophe, are other innovations. — This studied form of verse met the simple French measures by the middle of the twelfth century, but its propagation in the North is due to the courts of Eleanor of Poitou, of Alice of Planders, queen of France, and especially of Mary of Champagne. Its chosen field became Northeastern France. Its first known imitator was Chretien de Teoies. — Besides the chanson, it introduced the salut d'amour, a love letter of varying form; the tengon, a dispute in alternate strophes, rare, but akin to the jeu parti, where the poet opening the debate proposes the subject. — Only chansons and jeux partis are frequent. 12. Poets of the Provencal School. — This modified lyric owing to its form and content remained mainly within court circles. — Conon de Bethune (f 1224), of the Sully family, sings at the court of Alice (1180) and MEDIEVAL LITBRATtTRB. 49 of Mary (a. 1182), to whom lie addresses several poems. His works, about ten in all, are full of grace and energy. — Gace BBuiiB (a. 1200), of Champagne, wrote some seventy chansons for one mistress. They excel in har- monious verse. — Blondel de Nesle (a. 1200), of Pic- ardy, known by his legendary connection with Eichard I. (himself a poet), left some thirty light but polished chansons. — The Chatblaiit de Couci, probably Gui (t 1201), wrote a score of chansons, tender and even sad in sentiment. He appears later in fiction. — Thibaut OF Navaeeb (1201-1263) is the most famous of all. He left about seventy chansons and jeux paHis, of pleasing form and sprightly thoiight. He continued the work of Mary, in making Champagne a literary center, by pro- tecting numerous poets. — Eeligious lyric scarcely exists. Gautiee db Coinci parodies, in honor of the Virgin, secular songs. 13. The Drama ; Hysterias and Miracles ; the Fnis. — But two specimens of the many liturgical dramas of this period remain. — Adam (XII c), written in England, is developed from the sermon of the Prophets. It shows a stage outside of the church and in variety of verse and rendering of certain scenes manifests considerable liter- ary merit. — A fragment of the Resurrection (XII e.) shows a great scenic development. — A miracle is the Jeu de Saint Nicolas by Jean Bodel, after the Latin of HiLAET. The religious subject is but a pretext for secular scenes of the Crusades and tavern life, which show that the clergy were no longer the actors. — The Puis, fraternities at first in honor of the Virgin, and later literary guilds, now furnished both pieces and 50 PEIMER OP FRENCH LITEEATUKE. players. To the Pui, at Arras as early as 1192, Bodel addressed his CongS (a. 1206), much imitated later. 14. Translations in Prose; the Bible, 1235; Ancient History; Chronicles; Geoffeei de Villehabdouin, a, 1160-a. 1213; Laws; Sermons. — The most important prose of the period is found in the Breton romances. — Biblical translations are also numerous, as the Quatre lAvres des Bois (XII c.), in pure style, and the complete version of the Bible (a. 1235), probably by members of the University. This rendering has affected all subse- quent translations. The movement of translation around Metz Innocent III. was obliged to check (1199). — The chronicle Turpin was frequently translated. The earliest versions, as that (b. 1198) of Nicolas de Senlis, for Yolande of Flanders, claim to be novelties, and may have been the models for the Breton romances and for Ville- HAEDOuiN. The translation of Nicolas was enlarged into the Chronique saintongeaise (1230). — Ancient his- tory first appears in the Faits des Romains, selections taken from Latin historians, and the Livre des histoires (a. 1225), a compilation made at Lille. — Jules Cisar (a. 1240), by Jean de Thuin, is based on a glossed LucAN, and contains romantic developments ia the Breton manner. It was versified later by Jacot de Forest, and was translated into Italian, as was also the Faits des Romains. — The first original chronicler in French is Geoffeei de Villbhaedouin (a. 1160-a. 1213), mar- shal of Champagne, who relates the events of the fourth crusade (1198-1207) in a straightforward style and in terms drawn often from epic poetry. He was poorly continued by Henki de Valenciennes. — Robeet de MEDIEVAL LITERATUEE. 51 Clabi, a Picard knight, represents the lesser nobility in his account of the same crusade. — Chronicles were written in Palestine, as that (1228) of Eenoul. — Nor- mandy abounded in prose chronicles in the thirteenth century. — Interesting is the Description de Jerusalem (b. 1187), by a pilgrim. — Compilations of laws, as those of William the Conqueror and the Assises de Jirusalem, charters and coutumiers are numerous. — The sermons of SAiifT Bbrna^, translated (a. 1200), and those of Mau- rice DE Sully (t 1195), bishop of Paris, given in French, though perhaps written in Latin, with a few others in the vernacular, show a familiar style and present the manners of the time. They are laden down with stories and parables. Medieval Literature. To 1327. CHAPTER vi. THIRD PERIOD. 1250-1327. 1. Epic Poetry. National epic; Adbnkt le Koi, a. 1240-a. 1298 ; GiRAED D' Amiens, a. 1300. Crusade epic ; Baudouin de Sebourg, a. 1310. Epic of antiquity; Vceux du Paon, 1312. Breton epic ; Claris et Laris, 1268. 2. Narrative Poetry. Romans d'aventure; Richard le Beau, XIII c. ; Ch&telain de Couci, XIII c. ; Philippe db Beau- MANOIR, a. 1246-1296. Popular stories and fableaux ; Ruste- BBUE, t a. 1280 ; Jean de Conde, a. 1280-a. 1345. Sequels to the Roman de Renard. Historical ; Guhxaume Guiabt, 1306; Geoffkei, 1300-1316. 3. Didactic Poetry. Devout tales; Vrai anneau, XIII c. ; Roman de Mahomet, 1258. Moral ; Chk^tien Le Gouais, a. 1300 ; William de Wadington, XIII c. Satirical ; Rustb- BBur; Paix aux Anglais, 1264. Hortatory; Robert de Blois, a. 1250; Baudouin de Conde, a. 1230-a. 1290; Wat- KiQUBT DE CorviN, 1319-1329. Allegorical; Jacques db Baisxeu, XIII c. ; Jean db Meun, a. 1250-b. 1305. Trans- lations; MACf: DE LA Charite, a. 1300. Scientific; The Chasse, b. 1284. 4. Lyric Poetry. Guilebert db Berneville, a. 1260; Adam DB LA Halle, a. 1235-b. 1288. 5. Drama. Miracles. Comedy ; Adam de la Halle ; Farce, a. 1277. 6. Prose. Translations; Guiakt des Moulins, 1251-a. 1320; MEDIEVAL LITEEATtJKB. 53 Regime du corps, a. 1256 ; Jean de Mbun ; Institutes ; Ohro- niqxies de St. Denis, 1260. Chronicles; Histoires de Bau- douin; Becits d'un menestrel de Reims, 1260; Jean de JoLNViLi-E, 1224-1317. Letters. Treatises ; Livre de Sidrac, XIII c. ; Bbunetto Latdjo, tl294; Somme le Roi, 1279; Maeoo Polo, 1298. Laws; Jltablissements de Saint Louis, XIIl c. ; Philippe de Beaumanoer. Language ; Gautier DE BiBELESWORTH, a. 1300. Fiction. 1. Decline of Epic Poetry ; Adenet le Eoi, a. 1240- a. 1298. — The third period of mediaeval literature is that of its decline, particularly in epic and lyric poetry. Yet allegory makes progress in didactic poetry, and the drama increases in favor. Prose becomes general. — In the national epic the tendency is towards cyclic and gene- alogical poems, based on material already used. An exception is the work of Adenet (a. 1240-a. 1298), king of the minstrels of Brabant. He works over the poem of Eaimbebt in the Enfances d' Oger. From a lost source is his Berte aux grands pieds (a. 1275), in alternating masculine and feminine tirades, the story of the perse- cuted mother of Charlemagne and of his birth on a cart (Charles' Wain). Bovon de Comarcis is imitated from a previous poem of the cycle of Garin de Monglane. The style of Adenet, though prolix, is pure and his verse pol- ished. His influence was felt for a century. — Gieabd d'Amiens has neither style nor invention. His Charle- magne (a. 1300) is a poetical history compiled from poems and chronicles. — Burlesques of the epic exist, as the f ableau Audigier, and the Si&ge de Neuville, in Picard and Flemish, the knights being Flemish weavers. 2. The Crusade Epic; the Epic of Antiquity; the 54 PBIMEE OF PEENCH LITERATURE. Breton Epic. — The poems on the Crusades end in a parody. Baudouin de Sebourg (a. 1310), by a poet of Valenciennes or vicinity, is a series of amusing adven- tures, digressions, and satires against monks and women. The same author wrote a sequel, the Bastard de Bouillon, inferior and more extravagant. — Of the cycle of anti- quity, Alexandre received a fanciful episode, the Vceux du Paon (1312), by Jacques de Longuyon, in which the Nine Valiants, so frequent a subject for art, first appear. — The Breton poems were artificially revived in Claris et Laris (1268), a summary of the series in over thirty thousand verses. 3. Romans d'Aventure ; Philippe de Bbaumaitoib, a. 1246-1296. — Richard le Beau unites the story of the son who fights unwittingly with his father (found in lais) with that of the grateful dead man, whose body is redeemed from his creditors (of Eastern origin). — Escanor (b. 1290), by Gieakd d'Amiens, is taken from the Breton epic. — The Ghdtelain de Coud (a. 1300), by Jakbmon Sakesep, is the story of Ignaure, applied to the lyric poet. It received many French imitations in the eighteenth century, and is the source of Uhland's poem. — CUomad&s, by Adenet le Eoi, is the Eastern tale of the flying wooden horse. — It was worked over in Mi- Uadn by Gibaed d'Amiens, who inserted lyrics into the narrative. — Philippe db Beaumanoir (a. 1246-1296), a magistrate, and writer of lyrics a.nd fatrasies (nonsense verses), is the author of Jean de Dammartin et Blonds d' Oxford, the abduction of a young girl by her lover, who is pursued by her father and her betrothed ; and of the Manekine, an Eastern tale of the persecuted woman. MEDIEVAL LITBEATUEB. 55 4. Popular Stories ; Tableaux ; Eustebeuf, f a. 1280 ; Jean db Condb, a. 1280-a. 1345 ; Sequels to the Roman de Reaard. — Popular stories and f ableaux become more artistic. — Eustebeuf (fa. 1280), of Paris, satirized the clergy, women, and a rival poet in several witty fableaux. ■ — Jean de Conde (a. 1280-a. 1345), of Hainault, left five fableaux, and some poetical narratives, though the greater part of his seventy poems, mainly dits, belong to didactic poetry. — The Roman de Renard recedes from popular sympathy in the Oouronnement de Renard (a. 1261), full of covert allusions to contemporary events, — in Renard le Nouvel (1288), by Jacquemakt Geleb, of LiUe, a work of merit, yet rather didactic than narrar tive in its satire and allegory, — and in Menard le Goro- trefait (1319-1342), a recast of the whole by a clerk of Troies, which preserves episodes otherwise unknown, and is valuable for sociology. Scholasticism, moralizing, and allegory are its principal features. 6. Historical Poetry had generally given way to prose. The Brajiche des royaux lignages (1306), by Guillaume Gujakt, of Orleans, relates the Flemish wars of Philip IV. and ridicules the epic traditions. — A chronicle of Paris (1300-1316) was written by a citizen, Geoitrei. — Other short chronicles in verse are found. 6. Didactic Poetry ; Leg^ends and Tales ; Chketien Le GouAis, a. 1300; Wilham de Wadistgton, XIII c, — Though- allegory and satire prevail in didactic poetry, lives of saints, legends of the Virgin, and devout tales are still numerous. — Of the latter, the Vrai anneau, a parable against religious persecutions, due to a Jew, is later the theme of the Decameron (1. 3) and of Lessing's 66 PEIMBR OF FRENCH LITERATURE. Nathan der Weise. — Many similar tales were compiled by the Englishman, Nicole Bozon (XIII c), for pulpit use. — The'Soman de Mahomet (1258), by Alexandke Du Pont, represents the prophet as a trickster. — Chee- TiEN Lb Gouais translates the Metamorphoses (a. 1300), adding allegorical explanations. Many manuscripts attest the success of this long composition (over 72,000 verses). — More dogmatic is the Manuel des Pichis (XIII c), by WiLHAM DB Wadington, a coUection of stories from the Scriptures, the Vitae Patrum and other sources. It ■was popular in spite of its degenerate French, and was translated into English (1303) by Egbert de Beunne. 7. Satirical Poetry ; Eustebeuf ; Political. — The note of personal feeling is struck by Ettstebeuf, the needy hack-writer of Paris, the ancestor of Villon. — A forerunner had been the lyric poet, Colin Muset (b. 1230). — E.USTEBEUF avenges his poverty on the peasants and citizens in his fableaux, and on the Beggar Friars by pamphlets in favor of the University. The poems on his own life, as the Mariage Rustebeuf, though full of plays on words and of grammatical and leonine rimes, are the most real of the century. Among others true to life, are the DU des ribands de Gr^ve, in the spirit of Villon, the Dispute de Oharlot et du barbier, and the Dit de I'herberie, the parody of a quack. Lives of saints written to order, allegories, as the Vote de Paradis, after Eaoul DE HouDAN, and poems on events, satirical in bent, as the Dibat du Groisd et du Non-Croisi, make EusTEBEUP the most varied as well as the most interest- ing author of the age. — Political satires against the English are found, as the Paix aux Anglais (1264) and MEDIEVAL LITBEATXJEB, 57 the Gharte aux Anglais (1299), which ridicule by the forms and sounds of the words the English ignorance of French. 8. Koral Poetry ; Eobeet de Blois ; Baudouin de CoNDB, a. 1230-a. 1290 ; Watkiquet de Couvin, 1319- 1329. — RoBEKT DE Blois inserted in a narrative poem, Beaudous (a. 1250) — the son of Gawain, — didactic poems, sermons in verse, and the Chastiement des dames, a manual of etiquette for women, — Baudouin de Conde (a. 1230-a. 1290), the father of Jean, wrote stories, allegories, as the Prison d'amour; dits, as the Trois marts et trots vifs; and' verses on death, striving after, equivocal and artistic rimes. — Wateiquet de Couvin (1319- 1329) wrote allegories and parables, as the Miroir aux dames and the Miroir aux princes (1327), the dits of the Quatre Si6ges (guarded in Paradise by Arthur, Alexan- der, Naimon, and Girard de Fratte), and of the Fontaine d'amour, historical poems and fableaux, all burdened with plays on words, and rich and leonine rimes. Poetry was in full decadence. 9. Allegorical Poetry; Jean de Meun, a. 1250- b. 1305. — Modelled on Eagul de Houdan, or the Boman de la Rose, Jacques de Baisieu wrote, besides the fableau, Vessie au prStre, and the narrative, Trois chevaliers au chainse, three symbolic poems, as the Dit de I'ipie. — The great allegorical poet of Prance is Jean DE Meun (a. 1250-b. 1305). A student at Paris, he con- tinued the Boman de la Bose (a. 1277) in an entirely different spirit from that of Guillaume de Lorris. The action ceases, reason displaces love, and the tender and graceful allegory becomes a pretext to embody all 58 PEIMBR OF FEENCH LITERATUKE. the ideas and learning of the. author — a satirical encj'clo- psedia, whieh puts before the people the wisdom and strifes of the schoolmen. It is notable for the beginnings of modern thought, as the knowledge of antiquity, and philosophic meditation. On account of its attacks on women, it was violently censured by succeeding writers. United to the poem of Guillaume, it had unexampled success, attested by a hundred manuscripts (a. 22,000 verses), and gave literature for two centuries an alle- gorical dress and a positive, prosaic character. 10. Translations of Scripture ; Science. — Few poetical translations of Scripture or treatises on science are found. — Mace, curate of La Charity, versified (a. 1300) several books of the Bible. — The Chasse du cerf (b. 1284), on hunting, and the Ordre de cJievalerie, on knighting and knightly virtues, are the most interesting practical treatises. 11. Lyric Poetry; Adam db la Halle, a. 1235- b. 1288 ; Popular Porms. — The learned Provencal lyric vanished with feudalism, on which it was based. — ■ GuiLEBEBT DE Berneville, attached to Henry III. of Brabant (1248-1261), left thirty-two poems, superior for their delicacy of sentiment and finished form. — Adam de la Halle (a. 1235-b. 1288), of Arras and Naples, wrote chansons, jeux partis, motets, rondeaux (short, un- divided songs of dance music, of which a part is repeated) ; a Congi^, imitated from BoDEL,but here a satire on Arras; an epic poem for Charles d'Anjou; and two comedies. He excelled as a musician, and considerable portions of his notation are preserved. — Poetesses are known, as a duchess of Lorraine. — Popular poetry was cultivated, MEDIEVAL LITEKATTJRB. 69 especially by the Puis, which held poetical tournaments. The ballette, in consecutive rimes, was developed; the estampie, a dance song with time beaten by the foot ; the vireli, a long rondeau; and parodies on the learned lyric, as sotles chansons and fatrasies. — The united body of mediaeval lyric amounts to some eight hundred poems, many anonymous, but the greater part signed by over one hundred and sixty authors. 12. The Drama. — But one play of the sacred drama belongs to this period, the Miracle de Thiophile, written by EtrsTEBEUF for a Pui probably, and showing a variety of verse. — Genuine comedy appears in the plays of Adam de la Halle. In the Jeu de la Feuillie (a. 1262), at Arras, the author appears on the stage and ridicules his family and neighbors. A variety of scenes follow, including a fair and an inn. It is a short comedy of manners. — Robin et Marion, at ISTaples, is a kind of operetta, made up from pastourelles. Marion is carried off by a knight, but escapes to Eobin. A lively dialogue advances the action, popular songs and refrains are introduced, and a village festival closes the play. The style is clear, and the verse flowing. A prologue, the Jeu du P&lerin (a. 1288), was composed for it at Arras. Art borrows from it its types of pastoral scenes, as in tapestries. — A farce, Du gargon et de Va/oeugle (a. 1277), at Tournai, consists of a series of tricks played on a blind man by his guide, as in Lazarillo de Tormes. 13. Prose Translations. — In prose, Gtjiaet des Mou- LiNS translates (1291-1294) an abridgment of the his- torical part of the Bible and adds various books. — The 60 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITBRATTTRB. Bigime du corps (a. 1256), by Aldbbkand, an Italian, concerns hygiene. — In law, the Code and Institutes were translated ; and in history, the Chroniques de Saint-Denis (1260). — The most noted translator is Jean de Meun. To him is due the prose version (1284) of the De re militari, of Vegetius (versified, 1290, by Jean Pki- OKAT, of Besanfon, as had been, 1280, the Institutes by EioHAED d'Annebaut). Translations of the De miror bilibus Irlandi of Gibaud de Babbi, of the letters of Abelard and H^loise, of a treatise by .^lbed and of BoETHixjs followed. The Testamerii (after 1291) of Jean DE Meun is a devout satire on the times, in monorime quatrains. 14. Historical Works ; Jean de Joinville, 1222-1317; Letters. — The Histoires de Baudouin of Hainault (f 1205) are a vast compilation of chronicles, continued by Bau- douin d'Avesnes (tl289). — The Chronique de Reims (1260) is a minstrel's narrative, of slight historical worth, but full of popular stories and traditions. The style is lively and simple. — Jean de Joinville (1224- 1317), seneschal of Champagne, is the great chronicler of the age. His Histoire de Saint Louis (1304^1309) is a biography mingled with reminiscences, relatiug the wars and moral teachings of Louis IX. It is made up from a diary, from a life of the king and from the Chroniques de Saint-Denis. The account is of much his- torical worth, and the style is easy and famUiar. Join- ville is also the author of a popular Credo (1250), and of a letter in rrench to Louis X. — Other letters on public events are preserved, including a series on the war in Egypt, by Jean Sabbazin. MEDIEVAL LITBEATTJEE. 61 15. Scientific and Doctrinal Treatises; Laws; Lan- guage. — The Livre des mitiers (1268), by jfiTiENNE BoiLEAu, treats of the guilds and corporations of Paris. — The Tr4sor (a. 1265), of Beunbtto Latino (t 1294), is an encyclopaedia, combiriing observations on society with material taken from the Image du monde and from Latin sources. — The Livre de Sidrac is a series of erudite answers to questions. — More dogmatic is the Somme du Boi (1279), for Philip the Bold, by his confessor, LoEENs. Moral advice, drawn from religious teachings to aid in adapting a devout mind to its worldly condition, is given in a simple and polished style, which made it one of the leading works of the age. — In law, the Etab- lissements de Saint Louis, derived from the usages of Anjou, and the Coutumier de Beauvaisis (1283), by Phi- lippe DE Beaumajstoie, are the most important. — Trea- tises on French for use in England begin, as that (b. 1300) of Gautier de Bibbleswokth. — Latin-French glos- saries are found. Hebrew-French date from the eleventh century. 16. Travel ; Fiction. — The first book of travel was dictated (1298) to Rusticiano, of Pisa, by Maeco Polo, in prison at Genoa. — For fiction there are prose versions of popular tales, as Ami et Amile, Floire et Jeanne — a variant of the theme of Quillaume de Dole — and Con- stant I'empereur, on overruling destiny. The last exists also in verse. PAET II. Pee-Renaissance Liteeature. 1327-1515. CHAPTER VII. FIRST PERIOD. 1327-1422. 1. Poetry. Epic; Combat des Trente, 1351; Cuateuer, ISSI; Jean des Pr:es, 1338-a. 1400; Niccol6 da: Verona, a. 1340; Jean de le Mote, a. 1340; Brun de la Montague. Didac- tic; GUILLAUME DE DEGrLTXLEVIL,LB, fa. 1360; PhIUPPE DE ViTRi, 1 1361 ; Jean Le FivRE, a. 1320-a. 1376; Gaoe de la Eigne; Gilles lb Muisit, 1271-1352. Lyric; Jean de Lescukel; New school; Guillaume de Machaut, t a. 1377; EusTACHB Deschamps, a. 1339-a. 1407; Jean Froissaet, a. 1337-a. 1410 ; Christine de Pisan, a. 1363-a. 1430 ; Livre des Cent Ballades, a. 1386-a. 1392. 2. Drama. Miracles de Notre Dame. y. Prose. Translations; Pierre BEKguiBE, t b. 1362; Kaoul DE Presles, a. 1351-a. 1383 ; Nicole Oresme, f 1382. Treatises ; Philippb de Maizi^rbs, a. 1327-a. 1405 ; Honore BONET, a. 1370; Jean Gbeson, 1363-1429. Chronicles; Jean Lb Bel, a. 1290-1370; Jean Froissart; Christine DE Pisan. Saint Voyage de Jerusalem, 1396. Maniere de Langage, 1396. Fiction; Mdusine, 1387; Perceforest, a. 1400. PKE-RENAISSANCE LITEEATtTEE. 68 1. The Literature Preceding the Renaissance ; Changes in Language and Spirit; Divisions. — The period from the advent of the Valois (1327) to the reign of Prancis I. (1515) sees the decay of mediaevalism and the rise of modern society. Literature leaves the nobles and clergy to find a broader and more enduring support in the third estate, as was foreshadowed by Jean db Mbun. Poetry was dominated by the allegorical form and prosaic senti- ment of the Roman de la Hose, though the national songs remained unfettered. Drama and prose were the favorite kinds of composition. — Language undergoes a change with society and thought. Most striking is the loss of the nominative case, which causes great confusion in the old poems and aids the use of prose. — Pre-Renais- sance literature can be divided into two periods. The first ends with the reign of Charles VI. (1422), and represents the century of the Hundred Years' War, destructive to patriotism and thought. The second (1422-1615) begins with the national awakening, continues with the alliance of the third estate and the royalty, and ends with the Italian expeditions, which open the way for the new birth. — From the scanty material at hand, the first period resolves itself into a movement of translation, guided by Petearoh and Charles V., a vogue of chroni- cles, ciJininatuig in Fkoissakt, and the recasting of the exotic Provenfal lyric in the national school of Guil- LAUME DE MaCHAUT. 2. Epic Poetry is almost dead. An alexandrine ver- sion of Girard de Boussillon (1336-1348) is found. — The old poems, however, inspire imitations relating to the English war, as the Combat des Trente Bretons contre 64: PEIMER OF PBBNCH LITERATURE. Trente Anglais (1361), in monorime alexandrines. — The Chronique de Du Guesclin (1384), by Cuvblibe, is sup- plemented by GrUiiiLAuME DB Saint-Andke. — Jean des Pkbs (a. 1338-1400) expands his Geste de Li&ge, of some forty thousand verses, into the prose chronicle, the Miroir des Histoires {1399). — The last of such imitations is the Geste des dues de Bourgogne (a. 1400). — The Crusade epic, under the title of the Ohevcdier au Cygne, was worked over (1350-1356) by a Flemish poet. — The V(eux du Paon received a sequel by Jean Bkisebaeeb, the Bestor du Paon (b. 1338), which was in turn con- tinued in the Parfait du Paon (1340), by Jean de lb Mote, known also by the Regret de GhiiUaume of Hai- nault (t 1339), written for Queen Philippa. Both works are insipid and pedantic. — Brun de la Montagne (after 1350) is a roman d'aventure in alexandrines. Prolix and commonplace, it has a technical interest in its observance of the modern law concerning the feminine caesura. 3. The French National Epic Abroad; Nicolo da Veeona. — The French heroic epic, the influence of which, in Germany and England, has been noted, passed from the latter country into Norway, where, under King Haakon (1217-1263), it was rendered into a connected prose narrative, the Karlamagnus Saga and into separate translations, still popular. — Dutch translations are also numerous, and in Spain the ballads derive from it much material. — Its great success was, however, in Italy. Known from the beginning of the thirteenth century, it inspired poets of the fourteenth to sequels in French. Among them, Niocolo da Verona, the author of the PEE-EENAISSANCE LITEEATUEE. 65 Pharsale (1343), writes part of the long Entrie d'Espagne, ia ■wMch. the cycle takes on a new development. Changed and enlarged, the Carolingian epic passed from the Pranco- Italian poems of the North to the Tuscan prose and ottava rima, until, fused by the court poets of the Renais- sance with the refinement of the Breton romances, it evolved into the Orlando Furioso and the sensuous ele- ment in Tasso. 4. Didactic Poetry: Guillaume db Deguilleville, t a. 1360 ; Philippe db Vitei, f 1361 ; Jean Le FfevEE, a. 1320-a. 1376; Gace de la Eigne; Gilles le Muisit, 1271-1352. — The few poems which are known previous to the revival under Machaut are mainly didactic. Allegory and the Boman de la Bose, which he violently opposed, inspired Guillaume db Deguilleville, be- tween 1330 and 1335, to compose his PHerinage de la vie humaine and PMerinage de I'dme, to which he added the PMerinage de Jisus-Christ (b. 1360). His work had great success, was imitated by Chaucek, and perhaps gave the impulse to Pilgrim's Progress. — Less popular is the Dit des Jiuit blasons by Jean de Batbei, on eight lords killed at Cr^cy. — Possibly more lyric than didactic is the work of Philippe de Vitei (f 1361), attached to John the Good, and friend of Peteaech. His only poem extant, the Dits du Franc-Oontier, in decasyllabic verse, is on country life. It was imitated by Deschamps and trans- lated into Latin. He was also noted as a musician, and is said to have remodeled motets, ballades, lais, and ron- deaux. — Jean Lb Fevke (a. 1320-a. 1376) translated De Vetula of Eichaed de Fouenival, a treatise on music, hunting and like subjects, the Proverbes of Gato, 66 PEIMEB OF PBENCH LITEKATTJKE. and especially the Matheolus, a satire against woman, of the last part of the thirteenth century. — Gace de la Eigne, attached to John the Good and Charles V., wrote the Diduits de la chasse. — Gilles ie Muisit (1271- 1352) is the author of numerous Latin works and French poems of a historical character, and not without merit. 6. L3rric Poetry, Old School: Jean de Lescuebl, b. 1350? New School; Guillaumb de Machatjt; Eus- TACHB DeSCHAMPS ; FeOISSAET ; ChEISTINE- de PlSAN ; Cent Ballades. — A poet, probably of the first half of the century, Jean de Lescuebl, wrote ballades and rondeaux, and shows thus the transition to the forms of Guil- laumb DE Machaut (t a. 1377). — The latter, attached to John of Bohemia, and later to John the Gtood, is no less celebrated as a musician than as a poet, having composed a mass, the music for his poetry, and introduced a new style of musical notation. In light poetry he is assigned some two hundred ballades, eighty motets and rondeaux, many lais and virelais, and various complaintes and chants royaux. His earliest works comprise several dits.- Two long poems, the Livre dw Voir-DU (1363-4), a love story of short lyrics, divided by prpse letters, pretending to be autobiographical; and the Prise d'Alexandrie (1369-), a chronicle of Peter of Lusignan, are best known. His literary merit is mainly in the form of his verse, whence his authority. The content shows the artificial character of the amorous poetry of the time. — The chief pupil and follower of Machaut is Eusxache Deschamps (a. 1339-a. 1407), attached to Charles V. and VI., a constant enemy of decaying feudalism, a pessi- mist. He wrote one thousand and seventy-five ballades, PEE-RENAISSANCE LITEEATUEE. 67 one hundred and seventy-one rondeaux; also viirelais, lais, chants royaux, dits, and the Miroir de mariage, a satire against woman, imitated from Jean de Meun — all with- out literary value though interesting for the history of the time. Prolix, without taste, full of digressions, his language is proverbial and popular. Many of his poems resemble those of Fkoissaet and Chaucbe, as the Mar- guerite. His Art de dieter (1392), in prose, is important for the study of the versification of the age. — Jean Fkoissakt (a. 1337-a. 1410), the chronicler, is the author of some twenty-five thousand lines of lyric and didactic poetry. He delights in allegory and in biographical works, as the Espinette amoureuse. He excels in pas- tourelles. His verse is delicate, fresh, graceful. His rimes are artificial, and in the taste of the time. — Chris- tine DE PisAN (a. 1363-a. 1430), daughter of the Italian astrologer of Charles V., wrote light lyrics from 1389, as the Cent ballades, virelais, rondeaux, jeux d, vendre (a social pastime in the form of an epigram,), lais, and sepa- rate ballades. These poems have both grace and senti- ment. Her more serious works, later in date, include Proverbes moraux, addressed to her son; the Livre du chemin de longue Mude (1403), inspired byBoBTHius; the dit of the Pastoure (1403), directed against the Roman de la Hose; and many other works of occasion, both prose and poetry. Her last known composition is a national song on Joan of Arc (1429). — A collection of poems is the Livre des Cent Ballades (1386-1392), of which the first fifty are virile counsels given to a young knight on loyalty and love, while the remainder represent a poetical tournament on the question: "Whether loyalty or deceit 68 PEIMBR OF PEENCH LITBE ATTIRE, avail more in love." In pure style and polished verse this book became the favorite reading of the time. 6. New Kinds of Lyric: Ballade; Chant royal; Botv- deau, Lai; Decay of Eime. — The Trench lyric of Pro- ven9al origin, affected by the principles of native versifi- cation during the first part of the fourteenth century, was fixed by Guillatjme de Machaut in forms which lasted, with slight changes, until the Renaissance. — The ballade, which seems to derive from French models, is composed of three strophes, similar in verse and rime, the last line of every strophe being the same. It has an envoi, a half-verse, often omitted, which contains the address, generally to the prince of a Pui. — The chant royal is a double ballade, having five strophes of eleven decasyllabic verses and an envoi of five. — The rondeau, originally a strophe of eight verses, in which the first was repeated at the fourth, and the first and the second at the seventh and eighth (called later triolet), became a poem of three etrophes, in which the last verse of the second and third strophes is the same as the first of the first, or their last two verses are the same as the first two (4-1-3-1-5, or 4 -f- 4 -h 6). — The lyric lai was de- veloped into a long poem of twelve strophes, each divided into two parts of eight, nine, ten, or twelve verses. The rimes of every strophe were different, excepting those of the last, which agree with those of the first. — Corre- sponding to the diflculties of versification the rime was subjected to artificial handlings, which ended by destroy- ing poetry. Not content with rich rime (agreement of the tonic vowel and preceding consonant) and leonine (rime of two syllables), the poets of the decadence strove for PKB-EENAISSANCE LITEKATUEB. 69 equivocal rimes (the same form of -word but different in meaning), annexed rimes (where the last syllable of one Terse becomes the first of the verse following), and other juggleries, which reached their limit at the end of the fifteenth century. 7. The Drama: Miracles de Nostre Dame; Eustachb Deschamps. — The dramatic works preserved are almost all Miracles. Forty such pieces, composed for some Pui, are found in one manuscript. In octosyllabic verse, cut at the end of each speech by a verse of four syllables riming with the first verse of the following speech, they all develop common subjects derived from church tra- ditions, narrative poetry, as Ami et Amile, Robert le Diable, or from history. The Virgin appears only at the end to save the sinner. They are consequently devoid of interest, and, owing to their poetical structure, of literary merit. Many of them contain rondeaux, and are followed by serventois, having an envoi. The larger part are accompanied by a short prose sermon. — Of the three other Mirages known, two are of the same order, and the third, the Histoire de Griselidis (1396), resembles rather a morality, having in it nothing of the marvelous. — Fragments of a mystery belonging to this century sup- plement the frequent allusions to their representation. — Of comedy, only two dialogued pieces of Eustachb Des- champs are preserved, and they were probably not in- tended for the stage ; one a morality, the other a farce (dishonest lawyer and deceitful plaintiff) . 8. Prose: Translations; Indications of the Benaissance; Pbtkaech ; Charles V. ; Pieebb BBEguiEB, -f b. 1362 ; Jean d'Aekel, a. 1314-1378; Raotjl db Peesles, a. 1315- 70 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. 1383; Nicole Oresme, 1 1382. — The rise of prose is first seen in a series of translations from classical works by which neologisms were introduced into the language. The impulse came from the papal court at Avignon, and is manifested particularly in the clerical friends of Pe- TEAECH. Later, Charles V. (1364H380), the patron of art and learning, urged on in the same direction, and made the royal court, for the first time, the literary center of Trance. — It was perhaps due to Petrarch's influence that one of his friends, Pieeee BEKguiRE (f b. 1362), a Benedictine, translated Livy (1352-) for John the Good. — Jean d'Aekel (a. 1314-1378), bishop of Li^ge, dedi- cated to Jean Le Bel the Art d'amour, de vertu et de bon- heurte, selections translated from Seneca, Peesius, clas- sical authors and Church Fathers, in a prose which differs but slightly from that of the later fifteenth cen- tury. — Eaoul de Peesles (a. 1315-1383), magistrate, wrote Latin works, and, in French, translated for Charles V. the De civitate Dei of Saint Augustin, and various other works, including the Bible (1377). — The most active of all in this early Eenaissance movement is Nicole Okesme (f 1382), bishop of Lisieux, a writer of Latin treatises and a translator for Charles V. He turned into French prose a good share of Aeistotle, including the Ethics (1370), and the Economics (1371) ; besides writing learned treatises, as the Traiti de la spMre. To express the new ideas he was obliged to add many Latinisms to the vernacular. — In the propagation of learned derivatives the numerous translations of the Bible in this period are important. 9. Didactic Treatises : Philippe de Maizieees, a. 1327- PEE-EENAISSANCE LITEEATURE. 71 1405 ; Jeau- de Beie ; Hokoe:^ Bonet ; Jbait GtEksoit, 1363-1429. — In the same spirit are most of the didactic works of the age, mainly ordered by Charles V. — Philippe DE MAiziiiKEs (a. 1327-1406), partisan of a new crusade, attached to the house of Lusignan, a friend 'of Petkaech and counselor under Charles V., wrote Latin letters and works. In French he is the author of the Songe du vieux phlerin (1382), with admonitions for Charles VI.; the Poirier Jleuri; the PUerinage du pauvre pUerin (1392) ; and, most noted of all, the Songe du verger (1376-1378), translated from his Somnium viridani (1374-1376), which is a compilation, in dialogue form, of arguments relating to the spiritual and temporal power of the pope. A clerk presents the papal arguments, a knight the royal claims. — Of a different style is the Bon Berger (1379), by Jean DE Beie, a kind of Georgic written for shepherds, at the order of the king. — HoNOEi: Bonet, a Provengal, dedi- cated to Charles VI. the Arbre des batailles (a. 1390), on the art of war ; and also, at the illness of the king, wrote the Apparition de Jean de Meun (1398), a dialogue, in which the latter speaks in verse, the author in prose. — Jean Geeson (1363—1429) has a place in French literature as the author of many sermons, which, though pedantic, scholastic and allegorical, have movement and pathos. He was a bitter enemy of the Roman de la Rose, while undergoing its influence and praising its style. — Cheis- TiNE de Pisan wrote Epltres sur le Roman de la Rose (1407), and various treatises on the affairs of the time. 10. Chronicles: Jean Le Bel, a. 1290-1370; Jean Feoissaet ; Cheistine de Pisan. — The second move- ment in prose is in chronicles, which became the pastime 72 PRIMEB OP FRENCH LITERATTJEB. of the learned. — The Chroniques de Saint-Denis were continued, as by Piekke d'Orgemont (f 1389). — Nota- ble are the Ricits d'un bourgeois de Valenciennes (1366), and the lAvre desfaits du marichal de Boucicaut (b. 1421). — Besides Jean des Pbbs, another chronicler was Jean Le Bel (a. 1290-1370), of lAhge, also a writer, of lyrics. His chronicle (1326-1361), in two parts, is the source of the first book (1325-1377) of the Chronique of Feoissaet, whose remaining three books (1377-1400) rest on personal observation. — Fboissaet is the great writer of the age. He sees the brilliant side of court life, and reflects it in his narrative. Though fickle in sentiment, contenting himself with a mere succession of deeds and events, his style is vivid, picturesque, familiar, and original. — Chris- tine DE PisAN wrote a historical eulogy, the lAvre des faits et bonnes moeurs du roi Charles V- (1404). 11. Travels; Language; Fiction. — Succeeding Maeco Polo is the record (1357-1371) of the travels of Sie John Mastdbville, and the anonymous Saint Voyage de Jirw- salem (1396). — In lingaisties, the Mani&re de langage (1396), and a reading-book for children (1399), are both by Englishmen. — Piction is seen in short tales, as Troilus from the Italian, and Milusine (1387) compiled by Jeajh d' Aeeas from a lai and legends localized at Lusignan. — The long Perceforest (a. 1400), an imitation of the Breton prose romances and a precursor of the romances of chiv- alry, mixes legends of Alexander with the history of England. Pke-Eenaissance Liteeature. 1327-1515. CHAPTER VIII. SECOND PERIOD. 1422-1515. 1. Poetry. Didactic ; Danse Macabre, 1424 ; Pikrke Michaut, -1437-1466- ; Jean Mbschinot, flSOO; Martin le Fkanc, a. 1410-1461; Georges Chastelladst, a. 1415-1475;^ Guil- LATJMB Coqueli-art, a. 1422-1510; Jean Molinet, f 1507; GuiLLAUMB Cretin, t 1525. Lyric; Alain Chaktier, a. 1392-b. 1440 ; Charles d'Orleans, 1391-1465 ; Rene d'Anjou, 1409-1480; Martial d'Attvergne, a. 1433-1508; Jean Ebgnier, a. 1385-b. 1465; Franqois Villon, 1431-1462- ; Octaviendb Saint-Gelais, 1466-1502 ; Jean Marot, f a. 1527 ; Vaux de Vire. 2. Drama. Mysteries and miracles ; Eustachb Mercade, -1414- 1441- ; Jacques Millet, a. 1425-1466; Arnoul Greban, -1440-1474- ; Jean Michel, 1 1501 ; Vieux Testament, b. 1458 ; Confrerie de la Passion, 1402. Comedy ; Farce ; Monologue ; Moralite; Sermon joyeux; Sottie; Basoche; Enfants sans souci-f Sots; Henri Baudb, a. 1430-1486- ; Pierre Blanchet, 1459-1519 ; Pierre Gringore, t after 1527 ; Pathelin, a. 1470. 3. Prose. Chronicles ; Mont Saint-Michel, 1343-1468 ; Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris, 1405-1449 ; Pierre Cochon, f a- 1451; Georges Chastellain; Olivier be la Makche, a. 1426-1502^ Jean Le Mabke, a. 1473-1524. History; Phi- lippe DE COMINES, a. 1445-1511. Treatises; Baudet He- 74 PEIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. EENC, 1432; Debat des Herauts, 1453-1461; Robert de Balsac, t a- 1503; Sermons. Fiction; Epic prose; Jean Wauquelin, t 1453; Pierre de Provence; Jean de Paris; ANTOnsTE DE La Salle, 1398-1462-. 1. Characteristics of the Fifteenth Century Literature ; Drama; Lyric Poetry; History. — The literature of this period shows the political changes, the rise, of the third estate. The epic poems were thrown into prose narra- tives, which reached ultimately the peasantry. Didactic and lyric poetry, still ruled by the Soman de la Rose, were broken in upon by the personal current of Ebgniek and Villon, but soon enguKed it. — It is pre-eminently the dramatic century. The great mysteries were written, and comedy reached its highest point under Louis XII. — Prose fiction shows a strong development, and becomes modem in spirit. History begins with Comines. It is a period of realism. 2. Moral and Religions Poetry : Danse de MacabrS, 1424 ; Jeajs- Mbschinot, -1442-1509. — Besides the usual lives of saints, songs by the Puis in honor of the Virgin (gen- erally chants royaux), dSbats, dits, and moral poems, the notion of the vanity of life, seen in the Vers de la mart, and in the Trois marts et trois vifs, found its last and highest expression in the Dance of Death (^Danse de Ma- cabr£), painted on the cemetery of the Innocents at Paris in 1424. This curious fresco, in which skeletons are rep- resented as dragging into a dance men of every condition and age, is accompanied by strophes of eight octosyllabic verses (ahahhcbc), alternating between Death and his victim. Its success was especially great in art. — Imi- tations of the Danse de Macabri, as the Danse des hommes PRB-KENAISSANCE LITEEATTJEE. 75 and the Danse des femmes soon followed. — Pieere MiCHAUT (-1437-1466-), secretary of Charles the Bold, wrote various didactic poems, among them the Danse aux aveugles, an allegory beginning with a dream, where Love, Fortune and Death are the blind ; and the Doctrinal du temps prisent, an allegory in twelve chapters, where the poet, wandering in a forest, meets Virtue, who becomes his guide in moral instruction. — Jean Meschinot (t 1491 or 1509), of Nantes, in the Lunettes des princes is pessi- mistic. He also wrote a poem on the Passion, and ballades to twenty-five envoys sent him by Chastellain. He is notorious for his extravagant rimes. 3. Allegorical and Satirical Poetry : Martin le Franc, a. 1410-1461; Guillaumb Alexis, -j-b. 1493; Guillaume CoQUiLLART, a. 1422-1510; Jean Molinet, tl507; Jean Le Maire, a. 1473-a. 1524. — The attacks on women in the Roman de la Rose called out one of the most impor- tant works of the century, the Champion des dames (1442), by Martin le Feanc (a. 1410-1461), provost of Lausanne. It is an allegory in some twenty-four thousand octosyllabic verses, grouped in strophes of eight — a form borrowed from Chartibr — and is dedicated to Philip the Good. Malebouche and Franc Vouloir are the respective cham- pions. Besides the general defense of woman, the author displays a patriotic spirit, a knowledge of French litera- ture and a classical learning, proven by frequent cita- tions, which counteract to some extent the monotony of his action, all in narrative. A good poet, noble in sen- timent, free in thought, but yet devout, he lacks in delin- eation of character and in vigor of expression. He ded- icated later to Philip the Estrifde la fortune et de la vertu, 76 PEIMEB OF FRENCH LITERATTJKB. an erudite dialogue in prose and verse. Many minor poems folio-wed the Champion in the defense of woman. — Among the writings which satirize woman are those of Guil- LAUME Alexis (fb. 1493), a monk of Lyre. He tra,ns- lated from the Latin of Innocent III. the Passe-temps de tout homme et de toute femme (1481), and composed various poems, as the Blason des faux amours, a coarse satire written in an irregular measure, much imitated later. — Guillaume Coquillaet (a. 1422-1510), of Reims, besides dramatic monologues, a translation of JosEPHus (1460-1463) and various lyrics, wrote the Droits nouveaux, a satire of the Code. His most impor- tant work, the Plaidoyer d'entre la simple et la rusie (1477) , is a parody on a trial at court. A poet of the third estate, vigorous and coarse. — Jean Molinet (f 1507), regarded with Meschinot and Ckbtin as the model of fine lan- guage, was canon of Valenciennes and historiographer of Maximilian I. In prose he "moralized" the Soman de la Rose, explaining the allegory in a Christian sense. In poetry he wrote many pieces of occasion, as the Temple de Mars, on the horrors of war ; the Complainte de Constanti- nople ; and prayers to the Virgin, all rivaling one another in curious versification. — Jean Le Maiee (a. 1473-1524 or 1648), of Beiges, nephew of Molinet and historiographer of Margaret of Austria and Louis XII., exercised great influence on the sixteenth century in language and versi- fication. Besides official poetry composed for the house of Burgundy, allegorical and steeped in classical lore, he shows originality in the Epltres de I'amant vert (1510), addressed to Margaret. His sentiment of rhythm and his poetical phrase and images excel those of his predecessors. PBE-EENAISSANCE LITEKATTJKE. 77 4. Didactic and Historical Poetry : Georges Chastel- LAiN, a. 1415-1475 ; Guillaume Ceetin, f 1525 ; Fean- gois GuABiN, a. 1410-1460-. — Georges Chastbllain (a. 1415-1475), head of the rhetorical school in the last half of the century, was historiographer of Burgundy, and, like Lb Maiee, is best known by his prose. His many poems were, however, highly valued at the time. They are after the pedantic and Latinizing style of Chaetiee. MoralMs, complaintes, historical works, as the Miroir des nobles hommes de France (1457), a satire, the Prince, against Louis XL, chansons, ballades and rondeaux are all pompous and bombastic. — Guillaume Ceetin-, or Dubois (t 1525), of Nanterre, is a synonym for fantastic and puerile versification. He composed a dozen books of rimed chronicles, extending from the Trojan origins of the Franks to the end of the Carolin- gians, besides the customary amount of chants royaux, ballades, rondeaux and epistles. An imitator of Moli- NET, he even attained greater renown at the time. — FEAJsrgois Guaein (a. 1410-1460-), of Lyons, is a poet of doctrines, Protestant in spirit. A poem in strophes of eight verses for his son, and another in couplets (1460), attack the clergy and popular superstitions. 5. End of the Old School in Lyric Poetry: Charles d'Oelbans, 1319-1465; Rise of a New School; Alain Chaetiee, a. 1392-b. 1440 ; Eene d'Anjou, 1409-1480 ; Martial de Paeis, a. 1433-1508. — The last and best representative of the purely mediaeval lyric is the prince Chaeles op Oeleans. A prisoner in England (1415- 1440) and, on his return to France, a protector of letters at Blois, he was regarded by his age as a poet of albums, 78 PBIMBR OF FRENCH LITERATUKE. and remained unprinted, and almost unmentioned, until tlie nineteenth century. His poems, some four hundred rondeaux, over a hundred ballades, and a hundred and more chansons, were composed partly in captivity. They have little originality or variety ; are influenced mainly by the Roman de la Base and the Cent Ballades, but possess natural grace and delicacy, and are written in a clear and simple style. Invention, imagination tinged with melancholy, a mild patriotism, and employment of metaphors are his other qualities. His best poem, the gem of lyric poetry previous to the P16iade, is a rondeau on the return of spring. — Alain Chartiee (a. 1392- b. 1440), of Bayeux, secretary of Charles VII., was the great author of the age, whose fame eclipsed that of Machaut, and whose imitators comprise nearly all the poets of the century. Writing both in poetry and prose, he seems to have avoided the influence of the Bortian de la Bose and to have drawn his inspiration, both patri- otic and gallant, from the Cent Ballades. His most important works are the lAvre des quatre dames (1415 or 1416), in which the loss of their lovers at Agincourt is deplored, the Br4viaire des nobles and particularly the Belle dame sans merci (1426), the sentiment and style of which dominated the poetry of the century. Chartiee in this poem adapted the form of the ballade without refrain to long compositions. The poetry of Chaetiee, regular in versification, pure in language and easy in rhythm, is, in point of quality, inferior to his prose, which is both eloquent and noble. The Quadrilogue invectif, after the treaty of Troyes (1420), is a dialogue on the political outlook between the Three Estates and PKE-EENAISSANCB LITERATTJEE. 79 France. The Curial is a lively description of court vices in the forin of a letter. The language of Chaktieb is to be noticed for its Latinizing tendency. — Eenb d'Ajstjou (1409-1480), king of Naples, -wrote prose and verse, as the lAvre des Toumois, under the influence of the Soman de la Eose. — Martial de Paeis, or d'Auvekgne (a. 1433-1508), procurator of the Parliament of Paris, is the most artistic poet of the century. Besides various didactic Tforks, including a Danse Macabrd des femmes, he wrote treatises on love, as the Amant rendu cordelier d, I'observance d'amour, and the Arrets d'amour, modeled on an imitation of Chaktiek (the Echiquier d'amour) and on Andes le Chapelain. The ArrMs, in prose, pretending to emanate from a parliament of love, are the most important. 6. Personal Poetry : Jea2t Eegniek, a. 1385-b. 1465 ; FsANgois Villon, 1431-1 462-. — In the midst of the for- mal and didactic poetry of the century a personal note is struck by two writers of merit. — Jean Eegniee (a. 1385- b. 1466), of Auxerre, wrote in prison his Testament (1433) in quatrains, and later, ballades and other poems. — The great poet of the age, and perhaps the best before Chb- NiBB, is PKANgois DE MoNCOEBiEE, Called Villon (1431- 1462-). A student, living a lawless life in Paris, his works resemble those of his contemporaries in form alone. In spirit he is entirely original. His two chief poems, the Lais, or Petit Testament (1456), in strophes of eight verses, and the Grand Testament (1461), into which he inserts ballades and lais, are composed of a series of leg- acies, mainly satirical, made to his friends and acquaint- ances. They both rest on local allusions, jocose and 80 PRIMEK OF FRENCH LITERATXJBB. serious, on meditations on human vices and miseries, and on his own life. Besides these two compositions detached pieces are found, mainly ballades but also dits, dihats and other poems in the manner of the time. Remarkable in style and spirit is the Ballade des pendus (1462?). The Ballade des dames du temps jadis is included in the Grand Testament. Almost without an exception the work of ViiLON is distinguished by depth and sincerity of emotion, by vigor and precision of style. He looks back to KtrsTEBEUF, and forward to Alfeed be Musset, though perhaps he is more akin to Heine. 7. Last Lyrics of the Rhetorical School ; Italian Loflu- ence ; Octavibn de Saint-Gblais, 1466-1502 ; Jean Marot, 1 1527 ; Popular Poetry ; Versification and Bime of the Rhetorical SchooL — All poets of the last part of the fifteenth century are both lyric and didactic. Two can be separated from the others as having undergone the influence of classical learning and of the Italian Eenaissance. — Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), bishop of AngoulSme, is of the rhetorical school in his Chasse ou le dipart d'amour, a collection of ballades, ron- deaux and complaintes ; and in the Sijour d'honneur, a poem mixed with prose, giving in the form of an allegory the history of his life. But he shows the Eenaissance move- ment in the translation of the Eneid (1500), and of a score of Ovid's epistles. — Jean des Makes (fa. 1527), called Makot, under similar influences wrote epigrams, rondeaux, eclogues, epistles, the Doctrinal des princesses et nobles dames (a collection of twenty-four rondeaux), the Voyage de O&nes (1507) and the Voyage de Venise (1508). In these latter poems, written in various meas- PEE-EENAISSANCE LITEKATUKE. 81 ures and styles, Maeot combines mythological allegory ■with history, and shows a talent for invention and de- scription, but also great negligence in versification. — While this allegorical and pedantic poetry ran its course in the upper classes of society, the people still cherished its popular songs, of which some hundred and fifty have been preserved : pastourelles from the cycle of Eobin and Marion, -war and love songs, all natural and tradi- tional. — To these can be added patriotic and drioking songs of the valley of the Vire in Normandy, "which seem to have begun "with the patriot, Oliviek Bassblin (a. 1460) and his friends, but remain only in the later imitations of Jean lb Houx. — On the whole, the poetry of the fifteenth century introduced no important change in versification, other than the adoption of the ballade form without refrain (ababbcb c) as a strophic basis for a long poem. This was already seen in the Danse de MoQfibri, and in the Belle dame sans merci. In rime it pushed the faults of the previous period to an extreme. Prom equivocal, often doubly so, and annexed, it proceeded to empei-i&re (where the last part of the third word from the end of the verse is repeated twice successively), to couronnie (where the last word in the verse is the same as the last part of the word immediately preceding), or to brisei (where the first hemistichs rime throughout, as well as the several lines of the strophe). These, and various other kinds of rime, were supplemented by a strophic structure, which allowed often more than thirty different readings. 8. Flowering of the Mediseval Drama : Mysteries and miracles; Eustache Mercadb; Aknoul Geeban, b. 82 primer op french literature. 1452; Jean Michel, 1486; Simon Greban; Jacques Millet, 1452. — The fifteenth century saw the expan- sion and full bloom of the mediaeval theater, both sacred and profane. Resting on popular favor it replaces epic poetry in the third estate. Representations of mysteries, whether in pantomime or orally, fill the chronicles of the time. The word miracle disappears, swallowed up by its more vigorous brother and by the tendency towards a cyclic development. — Among the subjects most in vogue that of the Passion fell into the hands of authors whose names are known, as Eustache Meecade (-1414- 1441-), prior of the abbey of Ham. — The great dramatic author of the period is Aenoul Geeban (a. 1420- 1473-), of Le Mans, who wrote for a Parisian society a Passion (a. 1450) of over thirty-four thousand verses, and later, together with his brother, Simon (-1468- 1472-) — also a lyric poet — the Actes des Apdtres, of nearly sixty-two thousand verses and five hundred char- acters, based partly on Scripture and partly on tradition. It is the greatest effort of the clerical drama. — Jean Michel (f 1501), of Angers, physician to the Dauphin, wrote a Passion (1486) and a Bisurrection (b. 1499). — In 1507 the Passion of Michel was fused with that of Geeban in a vast composition of sixty-five thousand verses. — The Vieux Testament (b. 1458 ?) is a compi- lation by various authors of over forty-nine thousand verses. — Besides these larger plays and many other anonymous ones founded on the Scriptures, the saints gave rise to some forty mysteries. — Profane subjects as well as profane material were used, as the Si&ge d'OrMans and the Destruction de Troie (1452), the latter by Jacques PEE-EBNAISSANCE LITEEATUEE. 83 Millet, or Milet (a. 1425-1466), of Paris, law student at Orleans, who translated the work of Guido Colonna. — While the mystery was still essentially sacred, much that was profane, as comic and grotesque elements (es- pecially the part of the devils), had been introduced. The verse remained, as a rule, the octosyllabic couplet, but other forms were frequent and lyric songs abound. The style is generally poor, but occasionally fine pas- sages appear. — The actors were furnished by societies, the successors of the Puis, or by guilds. Best known is the Gonfririe de la Passion, of Paris, which received a royal charter in 1402. — The total amount of extant mysteries exceeds one million verses. 9. Kinds of Comedy: Moraliti; Farce; Sottie; Ser- mon joyeux; Monologue; Pathelin, a. 1470. — The posi- tive, ironical character of the literature of the fifteenth century (that of Louis XI.) is seen best in the wholl;f popular comedy. Though resting on material accumu- lated during previous centuries, the known works of the comic poets belong almost wholly to the one hundred and fifty years preceding the P16iade. They are divided into quite distinct categories. — The moraliti forms the connecting link between the sacred and profane theater. It differed from the former in that its facts are imagi- nary and belong to domestic life. But it is essentially didactic and often allegorical. Historical moralities were also attempted, and at times a satirical tone brought them near the farce. Of the sixty-five preserved the greater part assail vice and preach virtue, as Bien-avise, mal-avisS, Chariti, Enfants de maintenant (spoiled by their indulgent parents) and the Assomption de Notre- 84 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITEEATXTRB. Dame. A more worldly moral is found in the Condatn- nation des banquets (1507), by Nicolas db la Chesnaye, full of comic details. A historical moraliti which, like the miracles, could have been developed into true drama, is the Empereur qui tua son neveu. Among the authors are Andre db la Vigne and Piekee Gbingobe. — The farce, the oldest and the traditional form of comedy, is reinforced in this period by dramatizing the fableaux. Some one hundred and fifty are known, of which the Cuvier (where a hen-pecked husband takes his revenge) and the Savetier Oalbain (an imitation of Pathelin, where husband and wife reply to each other in well-known songs) are comic, but devoid of the coarse elements which often disfigure the farce. — The masterpiece of the kind, and of French comedy previous to Molieke, is Pathelin (a. 1470). A genuine farce of the traditional polyglot type, the subject is that of a seedy lawyer who outwits a rascally tailor, but is himself beaten in cunning by a loutish shepherd, whom the tailor sues and who employs Pathelin as counsel. The success of this little play was so general that its title has passed into the language as a synonym for cajolery. — The sottie is a farce played by the Sots, sometimes a mere fatrasie, as the Menus propos. — The sermon joyeux began in the FUe des fous and is a parody on a sermon, retaining at its head the text in a turned sense, and imitating the scholastic divis- ions of the pulpit. Some twenty remain, wanton and irreverent to the highest degree, as Bien boire. — The monologue is a burlesque recital (a dramatized dit) of the vices and foibles of the speaker. About a score remain, the hero of which is invariably a lover, a braggart soldier, PRE-EENAISSANCB IJTEEATUEE. 85 or a charlatan. The best known are the Franc archer de Bagnolet (a. 1470), a braggart frightened by a scare-crow, much imitated, and the Grands et merveUleux faits de Nemo, from a Latin sermon on Saint Nemo, due in turn to the jest of Ulysses in the Odyssey. 10. Actors of Comedy: Basoche; Enfants sans soud; Sots. Authors: Henki Baude, a. 1430-1486- ; Piekeb Blanchet, 1459-1519; Am-dkh de la Vigne; Piebee Geingoke, a. 1475-1527. — The comic actors who succeed or perhaps rival the Puis formed in the fifteenth century regular corporations. Besides the various fraternities the Basoche, composed of clerks of the Parliament of Paris, and which claimed to date from 1303, and various other associations in Paris and other cities (called likewise Basoches), played farces and moralities, and later united with the Gonfririe de la Passion in Trinity Hospital. — The Enfants sans soud were the successors probably of the church Fous, known also as Sots, who dressed in green and yellow. — Of the authors known, besides writers of monologues, like Coquillaet, or of moralities, like Chas- TELLAiN, Henei Baude (a. 1430-1486-), of Moulins, wrote for the Basoche of Paris, and Pieeee Blanchet (1459- 1519), of Poitiers, attained celebrity by his satires. — AjfDEE DE LA ViGNE (f 1627), Secretary of Anne of Brittany, wrote the mystery of Saint Martin (1496), several moralitis, and the Complaintes et epitaphes du roi de la Basoche (1504) . — The most celebrated is Pieeee GBijiTGOKE (a. 1475-1527-), a member of the Enfants sans soud and a didactic writer. Louis XII., who en- couraged the drama and wished to make it a weapon against the pope, persuaded Geingoke to write political 86 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. plays as well as to nadertake festival pieces. Among moralities, farces, mysteries, softies and poems of various kinds, is' the trilogy of 1512, consisting of a cri, a sottie and a moraliti {Homme obstini), in favor of the king's warfare against the pope. The Myst&re de Saint-Louis (a. 1514) is in pure and sober style. His last work is the Notables enseignements (1527). 11. Prose Works: Chronicles, Diaries, and Kemoirs; PiEREE CocHON, t a. 1451 ; Geoegbs Chastellain, a. 1415-1475; Olivier db la Mabche, a. 1426-1502; Jean Le Mairb db Bblges, a. 1473-1524? — After drama the great development of this period is in prose, through which many neologisms entered into the language. Chron- icles were continued, as that of the Mont Sairvt-Michel (1343-1468), which dealt principally with the events of the Hundred Years' War. — Pibbbe Cochon (1406-1451-), of Eontaine-le-Dun, used as sources for his chronicle (beginning in 1108) the R6cits de Reims and his own observations. — GtEOeges CnASTBLLAiif wrote various political pamphlets, a funeral oration on Philip the Good, and a treatise of consolation, the Temple de Boccace, ad- dressed to Margaret of Anjou. He undertook, in minute detail, the history of Philip and Charles the Bold (1419- 1474), found in over one hundred manuscripts. Its effect on the literature of the time was great. Impartial, ener- getic in style, striving to mingle with his narrative reflec- tions and judgments, he enriched the vernacular by a study of the ancients and endeavored to give the lan- guage color and breadth by varying its turns and expres- sions. His great trait is observation. He shows already Italian influence and transmits it to Jean Le Maiee. — PEE-EENAISSANGE LITBRATUEE. 87 The latter, in his Illustrations des Gaules (1509-1512), fused the Boman de Troie (translated in 1464 from Guido CoLONisrA by Eaoul le Fbvee, chaplain of Philip) with various other traditions and inventions, thus forming a mixture of chronicle and epic poem. It is an attempt to compromise between the old legends and the rising spirit of classicism. Le Maike, in his erudite and simple lan- guage, gave new words and a poetical prose to the writers who followed him, and was cited as authority by the PMiade. — ^ Olivier de la Maeche (a. 1426-1502), stew- ard of Charles the Bold, wrote Mimoires (1435-1489) imitating Chastellain. — Diaries full of interesting de- tails on the life of the time are seen in the Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris (1405-1449) and the Chronique scan- daleuse (1460-1483), by Den-is Hesselin. 12. History. — Philippe de Comistes (a. 1445-1511), of Burgundy, and later a French diplomat, writes philo- sophical history (already foreshadowed in Chastellain) in his MSmoires. These include the reign of Louis XI. and the Italian expedition of Charles VIII. They are the observations of a man of experience, who seeks in events causes and results. Their tone is practical, posi- tive, but somewhat sad. 13. Treatises ; Sermons. — Interesting from a literary standpoint is the Poitique (1432) of Baudet Heeenc, based on an anonymous work of 1415. — The Dibat des Mrauts de France et d'Angleterre (1453-1461) is a com- parison of the pleasure, prowess and fertility of the two countriee ; answered later by John Coke. — Kobbkt DE Balsao (t 3- 1503), seneschal of Agenais, wrote the Nefdes bataiUes, a military treatise, and the Chemin de 88 PEIMEK OP FKENCH LITERATUEE. Vhdpital, a moral satire. — Translators are numerous. Claude de Seyssel (1450-1520), archbishop of Turin, translated Greek authors into French, p^haps from the Latin. He also wrote a Histoire singuli&re (1508) of Louis XII. — The sermons of the time, as those of Oliv- ier Maillabt (t 1502), Jeak Raulin (t 1514), and Michel Menot (f 1518), are original, lively, but coarse. They assail the higher clergy, the nobility and magis- trates in the language of the populace. 14. Fiction : Prose Versions of the Epic Poems ; Jean Wauquelin, 1 1453. — Like historical writing, the prose fiction of the time centered around the Burgundian court. The chief movement was the rendering of the old epic into prose. Roland and the PHerinage de Charlemagne went into popular form under the title of Galien le Ritori or O'uerin de Monglane, the latter a sequel of the cycle. — Jean Wauquelin (f 1453) wrote, for Philip the Good, Q-irard de Roussillon (1447) and the Histoire du roi Alexandre, introducing into both foreign elements. — The prose version of Huon de Bordeaux dates from 1454. — The Crusade cycle was worked over between 1465 and 1476 for Mary of Cleves, and in 1499 for Louis XII. The other chap books founded on the epic date from this period, as, in 1475, Fierabras and Doon de Mayence. — Stories evidently taken from the romans d'aventure abound, as Pierre de Provence, which resembles, in the episode of a ring stolen by a hawk, the poem Escoiifle; and Jean de Paris, who wins the heroine wooed by the king of England, resembling Jean de Dammartin. 15. Antoine de La Salle (1398-1462-), of Bur- gundy, is the great writer of fiction before Rabelais. PEE-EENAISSANCB LITEEATUKE. 89 His Salade (1445), dedicated to Jean d'Anjou, is a trea- tise on morals and ceremonies. The Quinze joies de mariage (b. 1448) is a satire on matrimony. The Petit Jean de Saintri (1459), addressed to Jean d'Anjou, is a didactic narrative presenting the rules of chivalry and also satirizing them. Another moral treatise (1461) precedes the Cent NouveUes nouveUes, a hundred anec- dotes taken from the fableaux, from Boccaccio and from PoGGio. G-race and sentiment are rarely found amidst the coarseness, but the style, clear and concise, is the best of the age. From this compilation, typical of the time, descend the gaulois stories of French literature. PART III. Renaissance Literature. 1515-1601. CHAPTER IX. FIRST PERIOD. 1515-1549. 1. Poetry. Alione d'Asti, a. 1450-a. 1525 ; Jean Bouchet, 1476- 1555 ; Clement Marot, a. 1497-1544 ; Margaret of Navarre, 1492-1549 ; Mellin db Saint-Gelais, 1487-1558. 2. Drama. Jean du Pontalais, -1512-1535- ; Jean Louvet, -1536-1550- ; Sotties de Geneve, 1523-1524. Theologastres; 1523-1529 ; Italian comedy. 3. Prose. Translators : Lbfevred'Etaples, 1455-1537; Etienne DoLBT, 1509-1546. History and memoirs : Loyal sei-viteur, 1527 ; Jean Bouohet. Treatises : Jean Calvin, 1509-1564. Fiction : FRANgois Rabelais, a. 1495-a. 1553 ; Jean Bona- VENTURE Des Periers, a. 1500-a. 1544 ; Noel du Fail, a. 1520- 1591 ; Margaret of Navarre ; Amadis des Qaules, 1540-1548. Language : Louis Meigret, 1545-1550. 1. Characteristics of the Sixteenth Century in Lan- guage and literature ; Division into Periods. — The distinctive features of French thought in the sixteenth century are due to the revival of classical learning and the reform in religion. By the middle of the fifteenth century Greek teachers were at Paris. They were fol- EENAISSANCE LITERATUKB. 91 lowed before 1470 by German printers. These influences favored and strengthened the tendencies seen in the translators under Charles V. and in the subjects of Philip the Good. But it was not until the Italian expedition of Charles VIII. (1494) and the wars which ensued, that the mass of the nation became aware of the new birth beyond the Alps. French art and architecture were affected before the literature. The reign of Francis I. (1616) first sees a change in spirit, and in 1549, with the manifesto of the PMiade by Du Bellay, the poetical form is changed. — The prose of the time, didac- tic and controversial, is inspired rather by the Eefor- mation. — The language of the sixteenth century writers shows the uncertain, revolutionary condition of the country. That of the first half of the century is mark- edly different from the second half. Until the second manner of Malheebe (1601) there was no literary standard. — The vocabulary, for the most part modern, still retained many words now rejected or known only in restricted meaning. The Latinizing bent already noted took on greater proportions. The residence of Italians at the court of Francis I. and the later alliance with the Medicis brought in many new terms of art, court, pleasure, or war. The wars with Spain and the Spanish support of the League likewise affected the language. The P16iade sought after new compounds and derivatives, especially diminutives. — The orthography was subjected to the theories of both the etymological and the phonetic schools. The former, known already in the previous century, loaded the words down with letters that had been dropped, changed, or had never 92 PBIMEK OP FBBNCH LITBKATURB. existed. Ultimately the pronunciation became affected by this increase of signs. The phonetic school, defeated on the whole, was still able to introduce the cediUa from the Spanish, to distinguish between i and j and u and v, as well as to bring about the use of accents. — The syn- tax shows the same state of transition. The analytical structure gradually prevails and inversion becomes less frequent. — Literature is sharply divided about the mid- dle of the century into two periods. In the first (1515- 1549) the mediaeval elements slowly disappear under the combined pressure of the Renaissance and the Re- form. In the second (1549-1601) the new spirit assumes new forms. 2. Poetry from 1515 to 1549; Old School; Alione d'Asti ; Jean Bouchet, 1476-1555 ; Rogeb db Col- LEEYE, -1494-1638-. — The reign of Prancis I. (1515- 1547) sees the gradual extinction of mediaeval poetry, though the traditions of the rhetorical school of Chastel- LAiN and Cretin still survive. — GtIAngiokgio Alione (a. 1450-a. 1526), of Asti, adopted often in his French poems the Italian octave and terzarima. His political and religious works show imitation of Molinet. His lighter verse and songs have a pleasing vein of satire and are delicate in expression. — Jean Bouchet (1476- 1655), of Poitiers, writes in the rhetorical style of pe- dantic allegory and complicated verse. His Renards traversant les pirilleuses votes (1500) received the honors of a Dutch translation, which penetrated later into Ger- many. He is also the author of various chronicles, after Le Maire, of "which the Annates d'Aquitaine (1531) is the best. He is noted for his care in alternating mascu- EENAISSANCE LITERATUEE. 93 line and feminine rimes. — Eogek de Colleeyb (-1494- 1538-), of Auxerre, is a disciple of Coquillaet, but also shows the influence of G-eingobe and Clement Maeot. Besides various monologues he wrote satirical and gay poetry, belonged perhaps to the Sots, and per- sonified the popular type of Boger Bontemps. 3. The Transition ; Clement Maeot, a. 1497-1544. — The favorite poet of Francis I., Clement Maeot (a. 1497-1544), of Cahors, son of Jean, shows in his work the successive changes of the age. A member of the Basoche, his first poems, collected in the Adolescence Olementine (1532), are in the old style of Molinet and Ceetin, though refined somewhat by the influence of the court. From 1526 to 1536, persecuted as a supposed heretic, in prison and in exile at Ferrara, his talent is developed and his taste elevated. To this decade belong his best works: Enfer (1526), a satire on the Chdtelet prison in decasyllabic verse, epistles to Francis I., an eclogue on the death of Louise-of Savoy (1531), epigrams, dizains, and ballades. He revived the blason (a descrip- tive octosyllabic strophe) and the fatrasie, which he termed coq-d,-l'ane and made satirical. All these pieces are notable for their wit, grace, and simplicity.' During the same time he edited the Roman de la Rose (1527), revising the language, and also the works of Villon (1533). On his return from exile in 1536 he was assailed by a poet of the old school, Sagon, a devout Roman Catholic, and a literary war ensued. His last work of importance was the translation of the first fifty Psalms, condemned by the Sorbonne (1543), and adopted by the Protestants. The spirit of Maeot is essentially gaulois. 94 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. His predecessor was Villon, a follower is La Pontaine. His light and fickle character was steadied by the revival of classical learning, as is seen in his translations. He is keen and gay, simple and urbane. His style is easy and his verse elegantly turned. A master of the epigram, he had not sufficient feeling for the elegy. His epistles are models and have consecrated the style known as Marotic. As a versifier he succeeds best with the decasyllabic. 4. Imitators of Maeot: Margaeet of Kavakre, 1492-1549; Mellin db Saint-Gelais, 1487-1558; the Sonnet. — All of the poets of the second quarter of the sixteenth century, who had freed themselves from the mannerisms of the rhetorical school, were followers of Maeot. — Among them his protectress, Maegaeet of Navaeee (1492-1549), wrote farces, mysteries, epistles, complaintes, religious lyrics and other poems, published in 1547 under the title of Marguerites de la Marguerite. They are not without force and poetical merit. — The most noted disciple of Maeot, and the poet in vogue from his death to the time of the P16iade, is Mellin db Saint-GtElais (1487-1558), son of Octavien, and al- moner at. the court. He had studied in Italy, and had come under the influence of its poets, especially of Petkaech. He was the literary purveyor of the court amusements in his rondeaux, quatrains, and poetical mas- querades, but is best known for his connection with Italian literature. He translated Trissino's Sophonisba (1554) into prose, and imitated Boccaccio and Aeiosto. — Saint-Gelais is reputed also to have introduced the sonnet into France. Andee de la Vigne (f 1527) left EENAISSANCE LITERATURE. 95 among Ms poems a sonnet which attempts the dialect of Lombardy, and Clbment Mabot wrote sonnets in pure French (1529). 5. Last Works of the Mediaeval Drama : Jean Louvbt, -1536-1550- ; Jean dxj Pontalais, -1512-1535- ; Sot- ties; Foreign and Classical Productions. — The reign of Francis I. no longer tolerated the free dramatic move- ment of Louis XII. To the despotic character of the king was soon added the reaction against the representa- tion of sacred subjects, which grew out of the attacks of the Protestants. — Yet mysteries were written, as those of Makgaket and the twelve mysteries of Notre Dame de Liesse (1536-1550), by Jean Louvbt, which are miracles of the Virgin composed in a wholly devout spirit. — The old plays remained popular. The Actes des Apdtres were given seven months (1540-1541), and Parliament (1548) was obliged to forbid the Confrerie de la Passion, at the H6tel de Bourgogne, to further represent sacred subjects. This was the official end of the old dramas, though they were still played in the provinces. — The comedy of the time was centered in an actor of renown, Jean dtj Pontalais (de l'Espine), an Enfant sans souci. He played in various pieces from 1612, became director of public shows at Paris (1630), and is men- tioned by the authors of the next decade. A work in prose and verse attributed to him, the Contredits de Songe-creux (1531), is a review of society, with sarcastic observations. — Certain sotties of this time are note- worthy, as those played at Geneva in 1623 and 1524, of a political character, and in the second of which occurs the word huguenot, applied to the enemies of the duke 96 PRIMEK OF FEEKCH LITEEATUEB. of Savoy. — The way in whicli religious partisans seized on the stage as a means of propaganda is illustrated by the farce, TMologastres (1523-1529), against the Eoman- ists of the Sorbonne. — While the popular drama still held its own the works of classical antiquity began to come in favor among the educated. Latin plays, those of Plautus and Tbbencb especially, were given in the schools. Lazaeb de Baif translates the Electra (1537) of Sophocles, and Chables Estienne the Andria (1542) of Teeestce. Many others followed. — Italian plays were brought to France by refugees, as Alamanni, and Italian courtiers. The Calandra of Bibbiena was per- formed at Lyons in 1548 to welcome Catherine de' Med- ici. — Buchanan writes Latin tragedies at Bordeaux (1540), as does also Mueet. 6. Prose Translations : Leebvke d'JStaples, 1455- 1537; i^TiENNE boLET, 1509-1546. Historical Works; Maegakbt op Navaeee. — Translations from classical literature increased greatly in this period. — Jacques Lefbvee (a. 1455-1537), of ilStaples, an ardent student of Greek authors, translated the Gospels (1523) and the entire Bible (1528-1530) . His work aided the Eef orm. — i^TiENNE DoLET (1509-1546), printer at Lyons, a cele- brated humanist, renders into French various books of CiCEEO and Plato. — The latter author is the object of many other versions, as are also Aeistotle and Xeno- PHON. — Greek poetry, as the Iliad (1545) and the dram- atists, was also rendered into the vernacular. — Histor- ical works and chronicles are of but slight value. Two biographies of Bayard — of which the anonymous Loyal serviteur (1527) is interesting on account of its simplic- EENAISSANCB LITERATURE. 97 ity — and a few memoirs, particularly those by Mae- GAKET OP Navakbb (who also left many letters), are worthy of mention. 7. Doctrinal Works: Jean Calvin, 1509-1564.— The Keformation has absolute infiuenoe on the doctrinal works of the time. It not only changed their spirit, but, in appealing directly to the people, it also substituted the vernacular for the Latin. The first theological treatise in French, and the first classical French prose, is the Institution de la religion chr4tienne, of Jean Calvin (Cauvin), of Noyon. The persecutions of heretics by Francis I. in 1535 called out a letter from Calvin to the king, and in 1536 he published, at Basel, the Institutio religionis christiance, which he translated into French in 1541. This exposition of the doctrines of the Eeforma- tion, in four books, retained in the French the construc- tions of the Latin original, though the language is not Latinized. In style it is logical, sober, and precise ; but also sad, bitter, and sometimes stiff. The self-contained eloquence of Calvin is seen in his other dogmatic writ- ings, in his sermons and satirical pamphlets, and is known as the refugee style. 8. Fiction : FitANyois Eabelais, a. 1495-a. 1553. — The other notable authors of the period show rather a mixture of classical antiquity and free-thinking. — These elements, combined with the gaulois, vein of the Gent Nouvelles nouvelles, and with the epic romances, are seen in Fbanqois Eabelais (a. 1495-a. 1553), of Chinon, a restless monk and physician. His first works seem to have been editions of Galen and Hippockates. These were soon foUow-ed by a revised edition of a chap-book, 98 PKIMER OP FRENCH LITEKATUKE. the Ohroniques gargantuines (1532), and the first book of Pantagruel (1633) (the name of one of the devils in the Actes des Apdtres). In 1535 he published the Gargai\tua, suggested by the romance, in 1546 the second book of Pantagruel, in 1552 the third, while the fourth, post- humous (1564), is possibly from notes left by Rabelais. The Qargantua served as introduction to Pantagruel. The whole is a satire on the beliefs and superstitions of the age, under the cover of a burlesque narrative. Exagger- ated descriptions, macaronic language, incoherent compo- sition, coarse buffoonery, now jovial, now sarcastic, allow nevertheless ample room for the display of philosophic thought, for the delineation of character, and even, at rare intervals, for the use of a rich, colored, and precise style. One of the most original features of Pantagruel is the part devoted to the education of Gargantua. A union of bodily and mental exercise, hitherto kept apart by the system of mediaeval education, is enjoined. Strict obser- vation of the laws of hygiene, daily practice in all kinds of athletics, out-door lessons in astronomy, instruction derived from the amusements themselves, are joined to the scholastic demands for the vast acquisition of book- knowledge. — Besides Pantagruel, Eabelais is the author of a series of almanacs written in the same vein. 9. Story Writers : Nicolas of Teoyes ; Jean Bona- VENTUKE Des Pekiees, a. IdOO-a. 1544 ; Maegaket op Navaeee; Noel du Fail, a. 1520-1591. — The Pantor gruel had various imitations and parodies of little value, but its influence is seen on several prominent authors of the time, who, in the main, followed the Gent Nouvelles nouvelles. — An exception, however, is Nicolas, a sadler RENAISSANCE LITERATURE. 99 of Troyes, the author of the Grand parangon des Nouvelles nouvelles (1535), composed of stories taken from. Boc- caccio, from a French translation of the Gesta Roma- norum, and from heresay. His style is popular, simple and clear. — Jean Bonaventueb Des Periebs (a. 1500- a. 1544), secretary of Margaret of Navarre, a humanist of note, "who translated the Lysis of Plato and aided Dolet and Lefevee, published the Cymhalum Mundi (1537), imitated from Lucian, a violent attack on the Gospels, which scandalized both Catholics and Protestants. His Nouvelles ricrSations et joyeux devis (one hundred and twenty-nine tales) were published in 1558. They come rather from the French farces and fableaux, and show a remarkable style, half -literary, half-popular. — Maegaeet OF ISTavaeeb is best known for her Gontes, or Heptameron (1558), a collection of seventy-two tales (modeled on the Decameron), which introduce long conversations on morals and gallantry. — The greater part of the stories of Noel du Fail (a. 1520-1691), a magistrate of Eennes, belong to this period. His Propos rustiques et facitieux (1547) is a realistic report of conversations among peas- ants. The Balivemeries, or Gontes nouveaux d'Eutrapel (1548), describe likewise country life and Breton man- ners, in which the author (Eutrapel) appears. The third collection, the Gontes et discours d'Eutrapel (1586), is a succession of satirical dialogues between three persons on the life of the time. The influence of Rabelais is evident. 10. Romances of Chivalry. — The sixteenth century witnessed in Franco the beginnings of the modern novel. The romances of chivalry, which had slowly and obscure- 100 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. ly developed from the epic prose romances or the romans d'aventure, appeared in the Amadis des Gaules (1540- 1648), translated from Montalvo and his successors by Heebekat Des Essarts (fa. 1550), for Francis I. Its success attracted sequels until, by 1625, it had grown, in France, from eight to twenty-five books. Its charac- teristics are knightly adventures, courtly conversations, love and the supernatural. These entered into the later novels. 11. Treatises on Language and Grrammar. — The study of the vernacular is seen in the Champ-fleuri (1529) of Geofprei Tort, the printer, who introduced the cedilla from the Spanish. — The work (1530) of Pals- grave was unknown to France. — Jacques Dubois (Sylvius) published in Latin (1531) the first grammar of French. — Robert Estienste edited (1539) a French- Latin lexicon. — Louis Meigket wrote a treatise on pronunciation (1545) and the first grammar (1550) in the vernacular. His reforms aroused much hostility. — Thomas Sibilet (a. 1512-1589), a translator of Greek dramas, wrote an Aii: podtique (1548), based mainly on Marot. Eenaissance Literatuee. 1515-1601. chapter x. SECOND PEBIOD. 1549-1601. 1. Poetry. The Pleiade : Pierre de Konsard, 1524-1585 ; Joachim Du Bellay, a. 1525-1560; Remy Belleau, 1528- 1577; Jeak-Antoike de Baif, 1532-1589. Disciples of the Plfiiade : Olivier de Magsty, 1529-1561 ; Louise Labe, a. 1526-1566. Protestant followers : Guillatjme Du Bartas, a. 1544-1590; Agrippa D'Aubigne, 1552-1630. Later imita- tors : Jean Passerat, 1534-1602 ; Jean Vauquelin de i.a Fresnaye, 1536-1606; Philippe Desportes, 1546-1606; Jeast Bertaut, 1552-1611. Popular songs : Jean Le Houx, a. 1545-1616. 2. Drama. Mysteries : Theodore de Bi;zB, 1519-1605. New School : Etienne Jodelle, 1532-1573 ; Jacques Grevin, a. 1540-1570 ; Jean de La Taille, a. 1540-a. 1608 ; Eobekt Garneer, 1545-1601. Italian comedy: Pierre Larivey,' a. 1640-1611. 3. Prose. Translations : Jacques Amyot, a. 1513-1593. His- tory and memoirs : Blaise -de Monluc, a. 1502-1577 ; Fran- cois DE La Noue, 1531-1591 ; Piekkb de Brant6mb, a. 1540- 1614; Pierre de L'Estoile, 1546-1611; Lancelot de La POPBUNB^RE, a. 1540-1608; Jacques-Auguste Db Thou, 1553-1617. Political writings: Jean Bodin, 1529-1596; Etienne de La BoIStib, 1530-1563; Guillaume Du Vair, 1556-1621; Satire Menippee, 1594. Treatises on arts and 102 PEIMEK OF FEENCH LITEUATUKE. sciences : Bernakd Palissy, a. 1510-1589 ; Ambroise Pare, a. 1510-1590; Olivier db Serrbs, 1539-1619. Essay- ists: Michel DE Montaigne, 1533-1592; Pierre Charron, 1541-1603. Language : Henri Estienne, 1531-1598 ; Etiennk Pasquier, 1529-1015 ; Claude Fauchet, 1530-1601. 1. Adoption of Classic Models in Poetry and Drama; Work of the P16iade. — The second period of Eenaissanee literature, from the manifesto of Du Bellay in 1549 to the second manner of Malhekbb in 1601, sees an almost complete rupture with the literature of the past centu- ries. Not only are the forms of expression changed by the imitation of classic models, but the authors of this period ignore disdainfully their predecessors. The pre- vailing spirit in both prose and poetry is classicism. The drama is wholly remodeled and, while mediaeval comedy survives in the new dress, the mystery is rejected for the tragedy of Seneca. — The influence of the Ref- ormation is also evident in the thought of many writers, both Catholic and Protestant. — The linguistic treatises are directed against the invasion of Italian words and constructions. — The center of the classical movement is in a company of scholars at the Coqueret college in Paris, called after their Greek prototypes of the court of the Ptolemies, the PUiade. Under the guidance of the humanist, Jean Daukat or Dinemandy (a. 1508-1588), himself a writer of Greek, "Latin and French poetry, PiBBEE DE RoNSAED, Jean-Antoine de Baip and Eemy- Belleau gave themselves up, the first from 1541, to the study of antiquity. In 1548 Joachim Du Bellay joined them, and later I^tiennb Jodelle and Pontus de Thyakd. Comparing the literature of Greece and EENAISSANCE LITEEATUKB. 103 Borne with that of Trance (with Marot especially), they conceived the notion of improving poetry and drama in four principal ways : first, in creating a poeti- cal language distinct from that of prose; second, in bringing into !French literature the kinds of composition which it lacked, as tragedy, comedy, epic poetry, and the ode ; third, in enriching the versification with sonorous and striking rimes ; fourth, in introducing ancient mythology into poetry. Du Bellay presented these views in a pamphlet of some six-score pages, the Defense et illustration de la langue francaise (1549), but two months after the edict of Parliament against the mysteries. The Difense has three chief ideas : love for the French lan- guage, contempt for previous French poetry, intense admiration for classical literature. The motto of the school as expressed by Du Bellay is : Enrich the French with the spoils of the ancients. 2. The Poets of the P16iade: Pibeee db Ronsaed, 1524-1585. — The lyric impulse was given to the PMiade by its leader, Pieeee db Eonsard (1524-1686), of Vend6me. He followed up the Difense with a volume of odes (1560), modeled on Pindar and Horace, which had immediate success, rallied to him the contemporary poets of the old school, and made him for forty years poetical dictator. The imitation of Pindak was too severe for Eonsaed, and the Amours de Cassandre (1552), sonnets after Petearch with a strong element of mythology, shows in its various editions a more popular style. EoNSAED united his poems in an edition (1560) for Mary Stuart. From 1561 to 1574 he is court poet after the manner of Maeot and Saint-Gelais. At the lOi PlilMEE OP FRENCH LITEBATUEE. same time the troubles of the age inspire in him true poetry, as the Discours des mis&res du temps (1562), di- rected against the Protestants. Yielding to the demand for epic poetry, general at the time, he published four cantos of the Franciade (1572), in decasyllabic verse, based on the Illustrations of Le Maiee. It proved a failure and was not continued. His last poems, in retire- ment, sing the praises of nature in melancholy strains. The merit of Eonsabd lies in his style. In the Horatian ode, as his Mignonne, allons voir si la rose, in the elegy, 'into -which he introduced songs and even dialogues, in the epigram and in certain of his six hundred sonnets, as the Sonnets d, HiUne, he unites to graceful expression harmonious verse and original rhythm. He especially excels in the management of the alexandrine. But in the higher poetry inspiration fails him. There was no passion in the school. 3. Companions of Eonsaed : Joachim Du Bellat, a. 1525-1560; Eemy Belleau, 1528-1577; Jean-An- ToiNB DE Baif, 1532-1589; Pontus de Thtakd, a. 1521-1603. — The associates of Eostsaed are his inferi- ors as poets. — Joachim Du Bellat (a. 1525-1560) is best known for his Defense. In lyric poetry he gave the sonnet of Peteaech its fashion. He began with odes and sonnets, Olive (1549) . The collection contains the Musagnoeomachie, a mythological allegory in the old style. These poems, correct, simple, but without origi- nality, yield in merit to the Antiquites de Borne (1558), a collection of sonnets inspired by the sight of its ruins (translated by Spensee in 1591), the first of the kind. The Regrets (1659), occasioned by disgust for the papacy RENAISSANCE LITEEATURE. lUft and longing for France, are also sonnets, many satirical, the liveliness, force, and ease of which render them his best series. Of a different type but of equal charm are his Jeux rustiques (1558), imitated from Navagbro, and the PoMe courtisan, a genuine satire. To his dainty simplicity of style he joined in his later pieces true personal emotion and unstudied elegance. — Remi Bel- LBAu (1528-1677), of Nogent-le-Eotrou, turned his at- tention to nature and descriptive poetry.. His Petites inventions (1557) are descriptions of objects, with moral allegory and mythological tales. He also translated AjjACEEoisr (1557). The Bergeries (1565, 1572) are a collection of odes, sonnets, hymns, and other verse set in prose dialogues after the style of the Arcadia of Sanna- zARO. His best and most original work is the Pierres pricieuses (1566), a description of thirty-one stones, based on Grreek poetry of the decadence {Orpheus), and on Marbodius. Other productions are commentar ries on Eonsard's Amours de Marie (1557), eclogues from Solomon's Song and Job, macaronic poetry on the Huguenots, and a posthumous comedy, the Beconnue (1562). The qualities of Belleau are those of a poeti- cal painter. His two best poems are Avril of the Ber- geries and the Pierre aqueuse. — Jean-Antoine de Baif (1532-1589), son of Lazare, began with the translation in quatrains of Latin distichs (1551), written for the tomb of Margaret of Navarre. Various collections of sonnets and love songs followed. The Brave (1567) is translated freely from the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus. He also rendered into French the Antigone and the Eunuchus. The MMores (1567) were suggested by the 106 PKIMEB OF FBENCH LITERATUKE. • Georgics. About this time Baip conceived the notion of uniting poetry and music, and founded an Academy (1571). He also wished to introduce into French poetry the quantitative meter of the ancients and to simplify French orthography after the phonetic system of Ramus. His Etrennes (1574) are phonetically printed, as is also his posthumous metrical translation of the Psalms, in rivalry of that of Makot. His best work, the Mimes (1581), is a collection of fables, apologues and maxims, imitated with originality and poetical facility from Theogn^is and Hesiod. The reputation of Baif is that of an innovator in versification. His facility renders his lines weak and his language incorrect. — The remain- ing lyric poet of the P16iade, Pontus de Thtakd (a. 1621-1603), bishop of Chalons, is rather its forerunner. The first book of his Erreurs amoureuses (1649), before the Defense, was followed by others, influenced by Ron- SAED. His verse is cold and stiff, though pure. 4. Followers of the Pleiade: Olivier de Magnt, 1529-1561 ; Louise Labb, a. 1526-1566 ; Marc-Claude DE BuTTET, t a. 1584 ; Amadis Jamyx, a. 1540-1593. — Many versifiers crowded around the P16iade. Olivier DE Magnt (1529-1561), secretary of Henry II., writes sonnets and odes (1653-1559). Imagination, artistic form, and rhythm do not compensate for the absence of force and inspiration. — Louise Labb or Chaely (a. 1626—1566), of Lyons, after a military career, became the center of a literary society and was celebrated by many poets of the time. Her works (1666) comprise elegies and sonnets, incorrect but ardent, and a prose comedy, the Dibat de la folie et de Vamour, an allegory after the KENAISSANCE LITEEATURE. 107 old school. — Maec-Claudb de Buttet (-j- a. 1584), official poet of Margaret of Savoy, published (1561) odes, sonnets, and epithalmia, of which the Sapphic odes are noted for the first attempt to combine rime with metrical rhythm. — Amadis Jamyn (a. 1540-1593), the favorite pupil of KoNSABD, translated the twelve last cantos of the Iliad and the first three of the Odyssey into alexan- drines (1574), wrote a Po&me de la chasse (1574) for Charles IX., and various odes, sonnets, elegies, and re- ligious poems. His verse has movement and ease, but his thought is often coarse. 5. The Protestant Poets. — While the PMiade is rather Pagan in spirit, the Eeform furnishes the conteiit to two followers and rivals of Eonsakd. — G-uillaume de Salluste Du Baktas (a. 1540-1590), the warrior and diplomat, addressed to Jeanne d'Albret the epic poem, Judith (1673), in which the Catholics saw an apology for regicide. The Semaine (1579), an epic in seven cantos on the Creation containing the scientific learning of Du Babtas, derived mainly from Pliny, passed through thirty editions in six years. Translated, it influenced Milton, Moobe and Byeon, and is the original of the Sette Griornate of Tasso. In the same vein are Uranie, a eulogy of poetry, the Neuf Muses, and the Tnomphe de la foi, all poor. The merits of Du Baetas are ardor, eloquence, and imagination. His defects are absence of art, of taste, and a rough and often barbarous style. He exaggerated beyond discretion the poetical reform of the Pldiade and compromised it by his derivatives and his word-building, especially in the formation of compounds. — Thbodobe Ageippa D'Aubignb (1552-1630), attached 108 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. to Henry of Navarre, wrote masquerades, sonnets, stanzas on the death of Jodellb, and a tragedy, CircL His early poetry, Printemps and Hicatomhe d, Diane, shows the disciple of Eonsaed, but lacks good taste. The Creation is a poor imitation of Du Baetas. His best work is the Tragiques, a poem in seven cantos (1577- 1594). The first three refer to the wars of the League, the last four to the persecutions. Their titles, Mis^res, Princes, Chambre dor6e, Feux, Fers, Vengeance, Jugement, reveal their spirit. Force, imagination, abundance of images, fine verse, are side by side with obscurity of phrase, superfluity of details, repetition and painful effort. The influence of the Tragiques on Victor Hugo, notably on the Chdtiments, is seen in the likeness of his style to that of D'Aubigne. The same merits and defects appear in the latter's religious pamphlets, in his Mi- moires (1657-1618), Histoire universelle (1550-1601), and in a species of fiction, Les aventures du baron de Fceneste (1517-1520), a satirical dialogue on dogmatic questions with attacks on the vices of the time. 6. Later Poets of the School: Jean Passekat, 1534- 1602; Jean Vauquelin de la Feesnatb, 1536-1606; Philippe Despoetes, 1546-1606 ; Jean Beetaut, 1552- 1611. — Less forcible and more graceful are the later followers of the PMiade. — Jean Passeeat (1534-1602) is a poet of the gaulois tendency of Villon and Maeot. His works (1606), consisting of sonnets, elegies, epi- grams, songs, eclogues, and light verse, are gay, witty, and in good taste. The eclogue Catin and the villanelle, J' ai perdu ma tourterelle, have given him a lasting repu- tation. — Jean Vauquelin de la Feesnaye (1536- BBNAISSANCE LITEEATUEB. 109 1606), magistrate at Caen, a pupil of Eonsaed and Tahueeau, published the Foresteries (1555), idylls de- scriptive of Kormandy. These were followed later by Satires, after Hokace, the first appearance in French of the type as a species of literature. Patriotic sonnets and epigrams followed, and an Art poMique (a. 1575), based on Horace and Aeistotlb, and enlarged by per- sonal experience and literary knowledge. It formulates the doctrines of the PMiade in a diffuse and incorrect style. — The last of the school, with both merits and defects less striking, is Philippe Despoetes (1546- 1606), canon of the Sainte-Chapelle and a protector of letters. An imitator, often a translator of the ancients and Italians, he shows in his graceful and elegant verse the conceits of the latter. Besides amorous poetry, he wrote religious lyrics and translated the Psalms. His language is classical. — Jean Beetaut (1552-1611), bishop of S^ez, wrote gallant and religious lyrics, in imitation of Despoetes. Harmonious verse coupled often with true emotion are his qualities. — Another ver- sion of the Psalms (1613), by Jean-Baptiste Chassig- NET (a. 1568-a. 1620), of Besan5on, a purely religious poet, is superior to either that of Beetaut or Despoetes. — With the reform of Malheebe the school of the Pl^iade falls into oblivion to revive with the Romantic move- ment. But the seventeenth century nevertheless owed to it a poetical language and a pure and exact expression. 7. Popular Poetry: Jean Le Houx, a. 1545-1616; Moral Quatrains. — Apart from the literary school, the popular poetry continued in love songs, and especially in political songs, excited by the civil wars. — In Normandy 110 PEIMEK OF PRENGH LITERATURE. the traditions of Olitiek Basselin resulted in tlie Vaux de Vire (a. 1570) of Jean Lb Houx (a. 1545-1616), a lawyer of Vire, followed later by some Noels and other Vaux de Vire (1611). — More artistic are the Quatrains moraux, collected for the education of youth. Their authors were Guy du Fauk de Pibkao (1529-1584), a magistrate of Toulouse and a poet of merit; Ajsttoine Fauee (1557-1624) of Savoy, father of Vaugelas ; and PiEEEE Mathieu (1563-1621), historiographer of Henry IV. Both of the latter followed Pibeac. 8. The Bramatic Movement ; Survival of Mysteries and Mediaeval Comedy; Thbodoeb de Bbze, 1519-1605; Theater of the P16iade; JStibnnb Jodblle, 1532-1573. — The plan of the Pldiade included a reform of the theater through the imitation of classical models, either directly, or indirectly by means of Italian copies. — The edict of Parliament against the mysteries in 1548 applied only to Paris. In the provinces they continued to be played and even written, as Abraham sacrijiant (1551), by Thbodoee de Bbze (1519-1605), who is known also in French literature as the continuator of the Psaumes of Maeot, as the author of a Vie de Cal- vin, and of a Histoire ecclisiastique des Sglises r^formAes (1521-1563). — At Paris the Oonfririe de la Passion, at the H6tel de Bourgogne, acted profane mysteries and moralities until, weary of the struggle with rival com- panies, mainly Italian, which were favored by the king, they leased the theater (1588) to an Italian troupe. — To ;^TiENNE JoDELLE (1532-1573), of Paxis, was as- signed the dramatic work of the P16iade. Eonsaed himself had translated and played the Plutus of Aeis- RENAISSANCE LITEEATURB. Ill TOPHANES, but original French tragedy and comedy, in regular form, date from the CUop&tre and the Eugene of JoDELLE, played (1552) at the Boncourt college, by the author and his friends. CUopdtre, from Plutarch, is modeled on Seneca's Latin imitations of the Greek dramatists. Divided into five acts with choruses, unity of time and unity of action are observed. Rather lyric than dramatic, abounding in conversations and mono- logues, nothing of interest takes place on the stage. All is narrated or announced. But the parts are few in number, and a noble style is striven for. Instead of the irregular measures of the mysteries, decasyllabic verse or alexandrine is employed. The choruses in strophes show the alternation of masculine and feminine rimes. — While CUopdtre is an absolute break with preceding drama, Eugene is only a farce in octosyllabic verse, but divided into acts and having a more polished versifica- tion. It shows the influence of the Italian comedies. The success of both plays was immediate and set the style for subsequent dramatic productions. A later tragedy of Jodelle, Didon, taken from the Eneid, is inferior to CUopdtre, save in style and verse. The lines are all alexandrine, and masculine and feminine rimes alternate. Jodelle also wrote Latin and French poetry and court masquerades, as the Argonautes (1558). 9. Followers of Jodelle in Tragedy; Influence of Seneca ; Jean de La Pekuse, a. 1530-1555 ; Jacques Gkevin, a. 1540-1570; Pieere Mathieu, 1563-1621.— Imitators of Jodelle were not lacking among the edu- cated, who in tragedy turned to his model, Seneca. The plays of the latter, in vogue in the schools from the 112 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. beginning of the fifteenth century, recommended them- selves by their tragic crises, by their moral maxims, and by their lack of invention, of study of character, and of analysis of passion. The dramatic system of Seneca was formulated into law by the Poetices libri (1561) of Julbs-Cesab Scaliger, and was predominant for a cen- tury. — In this track followed Jean de La Peruse (a. 1530-1555), a lyric poet of mark, with M6d&e{155S), from Seneca. — Jacques Gbevin (a. 1640-1570) wrote the Trisori^re (1558), a comedy imitated from Eugene, and the Esbahis (1560), from a French version of an Italian original. His Mort de Cisar (1660) is from the Latin of MuRET, and shows an advance in dramatic interest. Among the poems of Grevin is a- hymn on the marriage of Mary Stuart. — Religious plays were written by Pierre Mathibu against the court, as Esther (1585) and Aman. He also produced the political dramas, Cly- temnestre and the Quisiade (1589). — Jean de La Taille (a. 1540-a. 1608), the author of the poem, the Courtisan retirS, and of the Mason, the Marguerite, wrote religious tragedies, Saul furieux (1562) and the Oabaonites (1573), which contain fine scenes. He also tried Italian comedy in the Negromavte, translated from Akiosto, and the Corrivaux (1562), both in prose, the latter of considerable merit. 10. Egbert GrARNiER, 1545-1601. — The best drama- tist of the sixteenth century is Robert Garnier (1545- 1601), a magistrate of Le Mans, and a poet of the Jeux floraux. His tragedies are: Porcie (1568), Cornille, (1674), from Lucan and Plutarch ; Marc Antoine (1578), the same subject as GUopdtre, and three translar RENAISSANCE LITERATUEB. 113 tions made freely from Seneca and from the Greek : Hippolyte (1573), the Troade (1578), and Antigone (1579). In all these imitations of antiquity Gabniek excels his predecessors in nobleness of diction and ele- gance of versification. He is a lyric poet rather than a dramatic. — His master-piece, Sidide or the Juives (1683), a sacred tragedy on the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, has genuine dramatic movement, tragic inspiration, and delineation of character, combined with a vigorous and graceful style. The last work of Gab- NiEE, Bradamante (1580), a tragi-comedy from the Orlando furioso, shows less of Seneca's influence, and is the best of all in composition. The dialogue rids itself of moral reflections and directly advances the action. In Bradamante the confidante appears for the first time. Gae- NiEE surpasses the poets of his time in style and details. 11. Comedy after Jobelle; Farces; Italian Comedy; PiEKEE Laeivet, a. 1 540-1 61 1. — While tragedy flourishes and expands in the last half of the sixteenth century, reg- ular comedy has few adherents. Nearly all the poets of note translated comedies from the ancients or from the Italians, who themselves had adapted the outlines of PiiATJTTjs and Teeence to modern life. Below the lit- erary class, and possessing the public stage, was the old French farce, which eventually gave way to the comedy of masks, introduced by troupes of Italian comedians, and itself an outgrowth of the farce. — The PMiade wrote its comedies in the old farce verse, as those by Geevin, Baif, and Belleau. Prose came in under Italian influence, and the principal writer is of Italian descent. — Pieeee Lakivey (a. 1540-a. 1611), canon at Troyes, devoted him- 114 PEIMER OP FRENCH I/ITERATTJRB. self to translations of both literary plays and tli'ose of the comedy of masks, changing his originals freely to suit French taste (as in the suppression of the female parts), and introducing his own wit and gayety. Of his twelve plays in prose, nine are preserved. The best is the Esprits (1579), from the Aridosio of Loeenzino de' Medici. The Fidelle (1611) had imitators. Possibly MoLiiiRB and Eegnard made use of Laeivet. None of the latter's plays were acted. The farce in verse resisted successfully its prose rival. , 12. Prose ; Translations ; Jacques Amtot, 1513-1593. — The prose of the second half of the sixteenth century, apart from comedy, is the organ of translations, and of historical, scientific, and didactic writings as before. It also enters a new field in essays and linguistic treatises. — Jacques Amtot (1513-1593), bishop of Auxerre, began his career as a translator with TMag&ne et Cha- ricUe (1546), from Heliodoeus. In 1554 he continued with seven books of Diodoeus of Sicily. In 1559 ap- peared Daphnis et Chloi, translated from Longus, and the Vies des hommes illustres of Plutarch, his best work. The CEwvres morales of Plutaech were published in 1574. Pree in his rendering, the work of Amtot has the freshness of an original production. His pure style, his fuU and flowing diction and his choice of words have made him a classical writer. The popularity which he gave to Plutarch, making it the favorite reading of youth, has had a strong and perhaps unfortunate influ- ence on the political development of France. 13. Memoirs: Blaise de Monluc, a. 1502-1577; FRANgois DE La Noue, 1531-1591 ; Pieere de Bean- EENAISSANCE LITERATURE. 115 TOME, a. 1540-1614; Pierre de L'Estoile, 1546-1611. letters: Henry IV., 1553-1610; Duplessis-Mornay, 1649-1623. — Beginning with the reign of Henry II. (1548), memoirs and biographies abound. — The warrior, Blaise de jMonluc (a. 1502-1677), writes his Gommen- taires (after 1570), memoirs with moral observations for young soldiers. Sincere, original, fiery, his style is simple and vigorous. — The Huguenot, TRANgois de La JSTouE (1531-1591), combines history, politics, and relig- ion in his Discours politiques et militaires. Moderate and impartial, his stjde is lively and energetic. — Pierre DE Bouedeilles (a. 1540-1614), abbot of Brantome, soldier and diplomat, writes (after 1584) his impressions of the people he had met. His Vies des hommes illustres, both foreigners and Frenchmen, Vies des dames illustres, Vies des dames galantes, and other works, are valuable, though not strictly true to history, nor marked by regard for morality. His colored and lively but incorrect style resembles his opinions. — To Bbantomb are dedicated the Mimoires of Makgaeet of Valois (1553-1615) on the youth of Henry IV. — Pieeee de L'Estoile (1546- 1611), of Paris, wrote Hegistres-journaux (1574-1611) of everything which came to his notice, invaluable for the doings of the time. His style is easy and bright. — Heney IV. (1553-1610) shows good style in his volumi- nous correspondence. — The same is true of Duplessis- MoENAY (1549-1623), who also wrote didactic treatises, as Discours sur la vie et la mort (1575) and Traiti de la viriti de la religion chritienne (1581). 14. History : Lancelot de La Popeliniere, a. 1540- 1608; Agrippa D'Aubignb; Jacques- Auguste De Thou, 116 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITER ATUKB. 1553-1617. — Historians are less numerous. Lancelot DE La Popelinieke (a. 1540-1608), a Calvinist, writes a Histoire de France (1581) from 1550 to 1577, and at- tempts to interweave also the history of Europe. Poor in style, he has a high historic ideal, and his painstaking and impartiality render his work of documentary value. — The Histoire universelle of D'Aubignb is factional in spirit and full of digressions. — De Thou wrote in Latin the Histona mei temporis (1544-1607), a universal his- tory, impartial and valuable. — Other authors of little merit attempt a complete history of Prance from its origins. 15. Political Treatises : Jean Bodin, 1529 - 1596 ; ^TIENNE DE La BoBTIE, 1530-1563; GUILLAUME Du Vaik, 1556-1621 ; Satire Minijapie, 1594. — Political science finds a representative in Jean Bodin (1529- 1596), procurator at Laon, who wrote the Ripvhlique (1578), in which an absolute monarchy is advocated. Clear and concise style, extensive learning, and exact views made his work celebrated. — The mass of the political treatises of the time are polemics. Etienne DE La BoETiE (1530-1563), the friend of Montaigne, besides various French and Latin poetry and translations from the Greek, wrote, under the influence of antiquity, the Discours de la servitude volontaire, or Centre un (1546— 1548), an ardent pamphlet against tyraimy. — Guil- LAUME Du Vaik (1556-1621), magistrate and orator, is one of the best prose writers of the period. To his oration in defense of the Salic law (1593) he joined various essays of moral philosophy, as the Sainte philoso- phie and the Philosophie morale des stoiques, both remark- KENAISSANCE LITEEATURE. 117 able for thought and expression. — The Satire Minippie (1594) is the last effort of the civil wars and at the same time one of the masterpieces of the time. It is a political pamphlet in two parts. The first,' a prologue, by PiBKKE Lekot, canon of Eouen, introduces two char- latans, cardinals, who vaunt the " catholicon " of Spain. The second part is a parody on the States General of 1593, partly ironical, but mainly serious. ISTicolas Eapin (1535-1608), a French and Latin poet, contrib- uted to it harangues and epigrams ; Jeait Passeeat French and Latin epigrams; Flobent Cheetibn- (1540-1596) a speech in macaronic Latin; Pieeee PiTHOu (1539-1596) the Harangue de M. d'Aubray, the essential part of the MinippSe; and Gilles Dueant (1555-1615) certain verses. The Minippie demands order, toleration, the lawful king. Its spirit is wholly of the third estate, against the ambitious nobility and the credulous populace. Its success killed the League. — Michel de L'Hospital (1504-1573) advocates tolera- tion in several works, as the But de la guerre et de la paix, addressed to Charles IX. — FEANgois Hotman in the Franco-Gallia (1573, translated 1574) argues, from Frankish history, for an elective monarchy and a States General where laborers and artisans replace the clergy. — The sermons of Calvin and de Bbze are dog- matic. Those of Jean Bouchee (1548-1644) are viru- lent against the monarchy and in favor of a theocracy. 16. Scientific Works and Treatises : Beknaed Palissy, a. 1510-1589; Ambeoisb Paee, a. 1510-1590; Olivibe de Seeebs, 1539-1619. — The rise of art and science is also represented in the literature of the time. — Bbenard 118 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITEEATUEE. Palissy (a. 1510-1589), the potter, in his Becette viri- table (1563), a compilation of views on landscape garden- ing, chemistry and geology, with moral digressions and genial fancies; and in the Biscours admirables (1580), a series of treatises in dialogue form on theory and prac- tice, shows himself a writer of imagination and of noble thought, clear in style and pure in expression. — Am- BROisE Pare (a. 1510-1690), the surgeon, is a writer of varying merit. His best work is an autobiography, Apologie et voyages. — Olivier de Sbrres (1539-1619), the agriculturist, gives his experience in the Thidtre d' agriculture (1600), a manual for farming, of which the . order, technical exposition, and style, relieved by poetic fancy, have perpetuated the success. 17. Treatises on Language ; Grammars : Jacques Pel- LETiER ; Eobekt Estienne ; Eamus ; Henri Estienne, 1531-1598; ^tienne Pasquier, 1529-1616; Claude Eauchet, 1530-1601. — The grammars of Jacques Pel- letier, the Dialogue de I'orthographe et de la prononciation frangaise (1554), of Egbert Estienne, the Traiti de la grammaire francaise (a. 1557), and of Eamus (1572), distinguished by its system of phonetics, are best known. — Treatises on rhetoric were written for Henry III. ; one by Amyot, and one anonymous, The Poetices libri of ScALiGER is, however, the standard adopted by the Uni- versity. — Eesistance to the Italianizing of the language prompted the linguistic works of Henki Estienne (1531- 1598), the great humanist and printer, who edited no less than a hundred and seventy editions of the classics, mainly Greek, and published, to his own financial ruin, the Thesaurus graecae linguae (1572). His writings in the RENAISSANCE LITERATURE. 119 vernacular open with an attack on the Catholics, the Apologie pour Hirodote (1566), under the pretense of establishing the veracity of the Greek historian by com- paring his tales with the events of the civil wars. Its licentious character displeased the Calvinists as well. The remaining treatises relate to the origin and worth of the French language. The Traitd de la conformiti du francais avec le grec (1665 ?) assumes the latter to be the parent of the former. The Deux dialogues du nouveau langage franqais italianisd (1578) is an excessive satire against the Ita,lianizing influence of the court. The Projet : De la pricellence de la langue francaise (1579) affirms the infe- riority of Italian. The style of Estiennb, vigorous and argumentative, availed in preserving French against for- eign contamination. — IStienne Pasquieb (1529-1615), the advocate and author of letters, religious pamphlets, and French and Latin poetry, published the Becherches de la France (1560), a series of studies on the political, ad- ministrative, and literary history of the country. His observations on the language, literature, and versification of the sixteenth century are most important. The only oration of Pasquiee preserved, is the one against the Jesuits in favor of the University (1666). — Claude Fauchet (1530-1601), president of the chamber of moneys, and historiographer of Henry IV., created his- torical and literary criticism in" France. The Antiquitis gauloises et francaises (1579-1601), in two books, treat of the history of the Gauls and Franks down to 840. The Recueilde I'origine de la langue et po&sie francaise (1581) establishes the derivation of French from the Latin (though he considers it mixed with Celtic), and 120 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. giyes literary notices and extracts from manuscripts of one hundred and twenty-seven French poets previous to 1300. Fauchet had, unfortunately, no successors in the history of literature. 18. The Essayists: Michel de Montaigne, 1533-1592; PiBKRB Chakeon, 1541-1603. — The philosophical move- ment of the sixteenth century is best seen in the essayists. — PiBKKE DE LA Eambe, Or Eamus (1515-1572), the fol- lower of Plato, published a treatise on logic (1555), the first philosophical work in the vernacular. — A skeptic is Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), counselor to the Parliament of Bordeaux, a writer imbued with classical learning and polished by travel. After a translation (1569) of the Theologia naturalis of Sebonde, followed (1571) by an edition of the French and Latin poetry of La Boetie, Montaigne published his Essais (1580- 1588) . These are a collection of observations and moral reflections, which form the history of Montaigne's thoughts and opinions. Supported by copious quotas tions from classic writers, they show a deep knowledge of human nature, and a wide experience. Frank, familiar, attractive, written in an easy style which is rich, varied, personal, though somewhat provincial, the views pro- pounded err on the side of over-jincertainty. His philos- ophy is wholly destructive. The nucleus of the Essais is a defense of the Theologia naturalis, an apology of Christianity from the standpoint of reason. The rule of conduct evolved is that of convenience. An interesting chapter of the Essais is that on education. Exercise should fortify the body, travel discipline the mind. Books enter in for little ; observation and attention fur- BENAISSANCB LITEEATUEB. 121 nish the greater part. The leading principle should be a sense of honor, and not duty. Accomplishments are desired rather than learning; a ■well-bred man rather than a scholar, as with Eabelais. Montaigne is also the author of a journal of travel in Germany, Switzer- land, and Italy (1580-1581) . — A disciple and imitator of Montaigne is Piekke Chaeeon (1541-1603), a the- ologian, who wrote various dogmatic treatises, and also the TraM de la sagesse (1600), a manual of skepticism in fact, which borrows much from Montaigne and Du Vaie. a portraiture of the weakness of man and of his incapacity for self-elevation, it logically develops the views of Montaigne and poses a system of doubt. 19. Fiction; Translations of Greek, Spanish, and Italian Novels. — The style of the Cent Nouvelles nouvelles was continued in the Oontes du monde aventureux (1655)f from Italian and French sources, and by translations (1560, 1572, the latter by Laeivby), of the Piacevoli notti of Stbapaeola. — Many versions of Italian and Spanish novels supplemented the Amadis and the translations of Greek novels begun by Amyot. The Arcadia of San- NAZAEO, in 1544, the picaresco Lazarillo de Tonnes, in 1561, the Diana of Montemayoe, in 1578, and Guzman de Alfarache, in 1600, introduced both the ideal pastoral and the realistic novel into France. — Their many ren- derings, together with those of Tasso's Aminta, were closely imitated in the Bergeries de Juliette (1685-1698), a pastoral by Nicolas de Monteeux, the author also of the sixteenth book of the Amadis. PART IV. The Seventeenth Century. 1601-1718. CHAPTER XL FIRST PERIOD. 1601-1659. 1. Poetry. Fran^jois de Malhbrbb, 1555-1628; Mathtirin K^GNiER, 1573-1613; Francois db Maynard, 1582-1646; HoNORAT DE Racan, 1589-1670 ; Theophile de Viau, 1590- 1626; Saint-Amant, 1594-1661; Adam Biixaut, t 1662; Jean Chapelain, 1595-1674 ; Vincent Voiturb, 1598-1648 ; Gulllaume Colletet, 1598-1659 ; Paul Scarron, 1610-1660. 2. Drama. AntoinedbMonchrbstien, 1575-1621; Alexandre Hardy, a. 1560-a. 1630 ; Jean de Schelandre, a. 1585-1635 ; Jean de Mairbt, 1604-1683 ; Pierre Du Ryer, a. 1600-1658 ; Tristan l'Hermite, 1601-1655; Pierre Corneille, 1606- 1684 ; Jean Rotrou, 1609-1650. Comedies. 3. Prose. Didactic works : Smnt Francois de Sales, 1567- 1622. Essays and letters: Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac, 1594-1654; Voiture; Gui Patin, 1601-1672. Philosophy: Rbnei Descartes, 1596-1650; Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662. History: Francois Eudes db Mezerai, 1610-1683. Lan- guage : Claude Favre de Vaugblas, 1585-1650. Fiction : Moyen da panenir, 1612. Novels : Honore D'Ueke, 1568- 1625; Jean Barclay, 1582-1621; Jean-Pierre Camus, 1582- 1652; Charles Sorel, 1599-1674; Gombbrville, 1600-1674; La Calprenedb, a. 1609-1663; Madeleine de Scudkry, 1608-1701 ; Cyrano de Bergerac, 1619-1655. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 123 1. The Century of Classical Literature ; Characteristics ; Division into Periods. — The seventeenth century is con- sidered by the French to be the period of classical litera- ture. Prom the Cid of Corneille, in 1636, to the AtJicdie of EAciisrE, in 1691, there followed a succession of master- pieces in prose and drama. Poetry, apart from plays in verse, did not share in this prosperity. Exhausted by the sudden bloom of the Pl^iade, subjection to arbitrary rules hindered its revival. — The general characteristics of the literary productions from the second manner of Malheebe (1601) to the (Edipe (1718) of Voltaire are : order, or common sense, and logic, both due to the spirit of criticism, -which succeeded the lawlessness of the preceding age. In literature, as well as in adminis- tration, the same principle prevailed, that of discipline and submission to authority. — Tor some time the con- flict between measure and excess went on. The finical tendency of the first quarter of the century, reinforced by a strong Spanish influence on dress and manners, as well as on the drama and language, Gongorism, — brought directly or indirectly through the Italian conceits of Marino — successfully resisted the reforms of Mal- HERBE, until Kichelieu, victorious over political factions, gave his aid to absolutism in literature also. For a while the Fronde disturbed again the even flow of art, but the broad judgment and the good taste of Louis XIV. stimulated it again. — His errors in government, beginning with 1685, mark another era, that of decline and transition. — The three subdivisions of this century express both political and literary relations. — The first extends from 1601 to the second manner of Molieee in l'2i PKIMER OF FRENCH LITEEATUKE. 1659.— The second, the Age of Louis XIV., from 1659 to the war against the Grand Alliance in 1689. — The third from 1689 to 1718. 2. First Period: the Work of Malherbe, 1555-1628. — The literary movement from 1601 to 1659 is divided unequally in time, but not in production, by the repre- sentation of the Cid (1636). The years previous are years of conflict between the advocates of literary lib- erty and those of literary discipline. They also experi- enced the influence of the Hdtel de Eambouillet and saw the founding of the Trench Academy. — The center of the reform is Francois de Malherbe (1555-1628), of Caen, court poet from 1605 to 1628, and also a translator and letter-writer. His first works, as the Larmes de Saint Pierre (1587), imitated from the Italian poet Tas- siLLO, have all the defects of the old school. With the Stances d, Du Perrier sur la mort de sa file (1601—1605) Malherbe began his true career as a poet and a critic. His work applied both to language and versification. He reduced the first to order by establishing as standard the French of Paris, by rejecting all foreign infiltra- tions, and by demanding a sober and simple style. The ideal poem to him was the exact and forcible expression of a few orderly general ideas in the ordinary language, but with unusual harmony. In versification he forbade hiatus, overflow, demanded that the line be complete in itself, and that the caesura follow the sense (in the alex- andrine, after the sixth syllable). Easy and weak rimes he condemned. — Clear construction and good taste in expression, joined to a highly polished versification, pro- ceeded from the criticisms of Malherbe, but at the THE SEVENTEENTH CBNTUKY. 125 same time vigor, fancy, and variety ■were seriously en- dangered. The work of the P16iade was thus systemar tized and perpetuated. Malhekbb himself is at times a poet of high rank. In the harmony and finish of his verse French literature offers few equals. Yet the greater part of his work is monotonous and too abundant in mythological allusions. His followers without his talent observed his rules. Lyric poetry lingers painfully until the time of Andeb Chbnibk. It was prose which profited most by the critical spirit of Malhekbb. 3. Opponents of Malheebb : Mathuein Eegnibe, 1573-1613; Thbophile de Viau, 1590-1626. — The two best poets, contemporaries of Malheebb, are hostile to his reform. — Mathuein Eegnibe (1573-1613), of Char- tres, nephew of Despoetes, belongs in spirit to the six- teenth century, and rather to the school of Villon and Maeot than to that of Eonsakd. In his sixteen Satires (1608-1613), imitated and transformed from Hoeace, Plint, Juvenal, or the Italians, as Beeni and Della Casa, he attacks the courtiers, parasites, hypocrites, and braggarts. One is directed against Malheebb in defense of the PMiade. The best is Macette, the portrait of a pious hypocrite. Ebgniee is also the author of epistles, elegies, and religious stanzas. In all he is both good and bad. His language is popular and natural, his words exact, his phrases, at times obscure and incorrect, are often so many proverbs. He is a poet of talent, but undisciplined. — Thbophile de Viau (1590-1626), from the Agenais, was the favorite poet of the time. A writer of pastoral dramas, as the Amours tragiques de Pyrame et ThisM (1617), which had great success, though tainted 126 PEIMBR OF PfiENCH LITEEATtTKE. with Grongorism, and of an unfinished ijovel, the Histoire comique (b. 1620), Theophilb is an adept in rhythm and versification. His attention is given to the form rather than the thought. In his criticism he holds a middle ground between Malherbe and the P16iade. 4. Followers of Malheebb : FEANgois de Matnaed, 1582-1646; Honoeat de Eaoan, 1589-1670; Jean Ogier de Gombauld, 1570-1666; FEANgois le Mbtel DE BoiSEOBEKT, 1592-1662. — The remaining poets of distinction are disciples of Malheebe. Two, though inferior to their master, excel in merit. — FEAJsrgois de Matnaed (1582-1646), of Toulouse, was a writer of epigrams and sonnets and the author of a pastoral poem, Philandre, based on the Astr6e. He is known as having definitely established a break in the six-line strophe after the third verse and in the ten-line after the seventh. He is vivacious and witty, essentially modern. — HoNOEAT DE BuBiL (1589-1670), marquis of Eacan, an intimate of Malheebe, wrote amorous lyrics, para- phrases of the Psalms (1651), containing local allusions, and a pastoral drama, the Bergeries (1619), which set the fashion for the kind. Without dramatic interest, the verses are full of sentiment, simple and natural. A love of nature, unusual in the literature of the seventeenth century, is revealed. Eaoan combines naturalness, sim- plicity, and emotion to a degree infrequent in French poetry. — Among the other writers of odes, sonnets, and epigrams, are two of the first Academicians. Jean Ogiee de Gombauld (1570-1666), of Saiutonge, passed as a master of the sonnet. He wrote also pastorals and epigrams. — Less important is FEANgois le Metel de THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY. 127 BoiSKOBEET (1592-1662), of Caen, abbot and favorite of Eichelieu. A voluminous ■writer of epistles, unplayed tragi-comedies, and farces, his vogue died with his protector. 5. The Hotel de Rambouillet : Vincent Voituke, 1598-1648 ; The Gulrlajide de Julie, 1641. — A great influence, second only to that of Malherbe, was exer- cised by the literary circle, the Hotel de Rambouillet. The daughter of the French ambassador to Rome and of a Roman lady, Catherine de Vivonne (1588-1665), marchioness of Rambouillet (1600), withdrew from the unpolished court of Henry IV. and opened to men of letters and sympathizing nobles the first literary salon. In manners, they there learned courtesy and refinement ; in literature, good taste and moderation. The rendez- vous of Malhekbe, Balzac, Coeneille, or Vaugelas, delicacy of sentiment and decency of language were enjoined by the H6tel de Rambouillet, together with respect for literary men. — Besides Balzac, the great exponent of the company was Vincent Voituee (1598- 1648), of Amiens, whose period of production cor- responds (1620-1646) with its prosperity. He wrote light, brilliant letters, wholly in the taste of the time but devoid of thought, elegies, epigrams, quatrains, and other poems of occasion, the success of which was un- bounded. His sonnet Uranie (1638) and the rival sonnet Joh of Isaac de Bbnseeade (1612-1691), a poet and dramatist, divided the literary world into opposing fac- tions. — The typical production of the H6tel de Ram- bouillet is the collection of madrigals, illustrating flowers painted in miniature, known as the Guirlande de Julie 128 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. (1641), the daughter of the marchioness, and offered to her on her birthday. Nineteen poets signed the pieces, among them Ohapelain, Colletet, and Cobntiille. It was the acme of the gallantry set in motion by the Astrie. 6. The French Academy, 1635: Jean Chapelain, 1595-1674 ; Guillaume Colletet, 1589-1659. — Side by side with the H6tel de Eambouillet grew up a much more enduring, though at the time less influential insti- tution. A few literary men, who for some years had met privately at the house of Valentin Coneakt (1603- 1675), were persuaded by Boisbobekt, acting in behalf of Richelieu, to take on a public character. The model was already at hand in the numerous academies of Italy. Accordingly, in 1634 (the royal approval dates from 1635), the French Academy was constituted. Its stat- utes, drawn up by Coneakt, its first perpetual secretary, directed that its members, residents of Paris, should maintain the purity of the French language and should create a Dictionary, a Grammar, a Rhetoric, and an Art of Poetry. — Instrumental in accepting the overtures of Richelieu was Jean Chapelain (1595-1674), of Paris, the literary autocrat of his day. He wrote, among other poems, an epic on Joan of Arc, the Pucelle. The first twelve cantos (1656) had great success. But the empti- ness and the prosaic character of the work prevented, by a change in taste, the publication of the remaining twelve. — Another Academician is Guillaume Colletet (1598-1669), a lawyer of Paris, poet and critic. His essays on literature, collected in the Art poitique (1658), and his Histoire des pontes francais, destroyed during the Commune, are his best works. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 129 7. Popular and Burlesque Poets: Adam Billaut, 1 1662; Saint-Amant, 1594-1661 ; Paul Scakkon, 1610- 1660. — The popular vein was crowded out of literature by the prevalence of rules and coteries. Its only repre- sentative in this period is Adam BillatjT (t 1662), a join- er of Nevers. Yet his productions, the Chevilles (1641), the Vilehrequin (1663), and the Robot, are rather learned than popular, both in form and content. — The begin- nings of burlesque poetry are found in Makc-Asttoine DE Geeaed, called Saint-Amant (1594-1661), a hanger- on of princes. Embracing • both the pr&cieux and the gaulois tendency, he writes descriptive and satirical poe- try, an epic, Motse sauvi, attacks on Eome and England, drinking-songs, and the like. A member of the Academy, his ofdce was to collect grotesque terms for its dictionary. — The exponent of the burlesque in France is Paul ScAEEON (1610-1660). He wrote a realistic novel, the Roman comique (1651), stories, comedies, and tragi- comedies, imitated from the Spanish and very successful, as Jodelet, ou le maltre valet (1645) and Dom Japhet d'Arminie (1653). Scaeeon began his poetic career with a burlesque epic, the Typhon (1644), followed by lyric poems (1645), a lampoon, the Mazarinade (1649), and the Vlrgile travesti (1648), a parody of the Eneid, which was considered the model of the kind. An out- growth of Italian frivolity, burlesque poetry was foreign to Erench soil and never prospered there. — Scaeeon had imitators, among whom is GtUillaume de Bebbeuf (1618-1661), known by his translation of Lucan's Phar- salia (1655). 8. The Dramatic Movement: the Tragedies of An- 130 PEIMEK OP FRENCH LITBBATUBB. ToiNE DE MoNCHEBSTiEN, 1575-1621. — The most note- worthy movement of the period is in drama. The learned productions, probably not played, of the followers of the P16iade gave way to popular imitations of the Spanish theater, which, like the English, mingled both tragedy and comedy. These were in turn succeeded by the re- action of the classical drama and the renewed separation of tragedy and comedy. The latter gained, however, more than the former and became truly national, going back to the farces and the study of manners. Inspired by the vogue of the Astrde and modeled on the Aminta and the Pastor Fido, a series of pastoral plays began with Theophile and Racan. — A disciple of Gabniee and a lyric rather than a dramatic poet is the Huguenot, Antoinb de Moncheestien (1675-1621), of Falaise. His tragedies, probably not given, began with Sophonisbe (1596), imitated from Teissino. It was followed by the Lachies, or Constance (1599), after Plutaech; David, or AduMre (1600) ; Aman, or Vaniti (1601), the original of the Esther of Eaoinb ; Hector (1603) ; and the Ecossaise, or Marie Stuart (1605), his masterpiece, offered to James I. All, in alexandrines, the regular verse since Jodelle's Didon, alternating masculine and feminine rimes, they differ from the previous tragedies by the sustained sentiment of heroism. The tendency of the French theater towards types appears in the double titles of the plays. Other works of Monchees- TiEN are a poem, Suzanne, a Bergerie in prose and verse, and a Traiti d'6conomie politique (1615), the first use of the term. 9. The Popular Theater of Alexandee Haedy, a. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 131 1560-a. 1630 ; Ms Sources ; Ms Reforms. — In spite of the despotism exercised over the literary drama by the Poetices libri of Scaliger, the popular theater was un- conscious of the Three Unities in its adherence to moral- itis, profane mysteries, farces, and Italian masks. A man of genius imbued with national feeling might have saved the Trench stage. — It was a second-rate talent, however, which guided Alexandre Haedt (a. 1560- a. 1630) . Himself both actor and playwright, he began his Parisian career at the Marais theater in 1600, and in the next thirty years produced some six hundred plays, of which he printed forty-one tragedies, tragi-comedies, and pastorals. His subjects Hardt borrows from the Greeks, the Latins, the Italian pastorals, the Spanish stories and plays, and from obscure sources, but works them over and makes them his own. A professional actor, he frees the action from the long monologues and conversations. He banishes or reduces the chorus. He introduces dramatic situations and seeks sensational scenes. Forcible and natural, he has neither taste nor style. His verse is the worst in French literature. His plots were much imitated by subsequent authors. 10. Minor Dramatists : Jeajst de Schelandre, a. 1585- 1635; Jean de Maiebt, 1604-1683; Tristan l'Her- MiTE, 1601-1655 ; Jean Desmarets, 1595-1676 ; Pierre Dtr Kyer, a. 1600-1658. — A number of less important dramatists precede Corneille or are influenced by his first triumphs. — The Tyr et Sidon (1628) of Jean de ScHELANDRE, the anagram of the poet, Daniel d'An- CHERES (a. 1586-1035), a tragi-comedy in two days, of five acts each, is a protest against the laws of the classi- 132 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. cal drama and an attempt to restore to favor the freedom of the mysteries and of the Spanish stage. Certain traits are seen later in Corneillb. A preface to the edition, by T'ban^ois Ogier, demands with modern critics that writings be judged by their environments. — Jean de Maieet (1604-1683), of Besangon, begins his literary successes with the pastoral, Sylvie (1621), in which the characters approach nearer to real life. Its composition and style show also an advance on previous works. In his Sylvanire (1625), taken from the Astrie, an attempt is made to observe the three unities. Pol- lowing up this notion through the tragi-comedy Virginie (1628), Maieet produces the first classical tragedy, Sophonishe (1629), which held for a long time popular favor. The essential traits of the classical French trag- edy, as seen in Sophonishe, are : " Nobility of style, exclusion of the comic element, refinement in analysis and expression of sentiments, oratorical tendency in the language, logical simplification of plot, abstract and powerful conception of characters " (Petit de Jtjlle- viliie). The remaining plays of Maikbt passed un- noticed. — Teistast l'Heemite (1601-1655), of Souliers, a lyric poet of note and the author of the realistic novel, the Page disgrad6 (1643), began a series of successful plays at the Marais theater with Marianne (1635), after Hardy, one of the favorite tragedies of the century. Its delineation of character is noteworthy. — Jean Des- maeets (1595-1676), of Paris, a lyric poet, member of the Academy, and favorite of Eichelieu, wrote plays on plots suggested by his protector. A comedy, the Vision- naires, is directed against the finical society of the time. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 133 His tragedies, of no value, were ■written in part by Eichelieu. His favorite work was an epic poem, Clovis (1657), inspired by Chapelain. In the quarrel between the ancients and moderns, Desmarbts sides with the latter. — PiEKEB Du Ever (a. 1600-1658), of Paris, wrote pastorals, two of which were taken (1630-1631) from Barclay's Argents. Influenced by Corneille, he continued with local comedies and tragedies, as Alcicm&e (1640) and Scevole (1647) . — Another unimportant favorite of Richelieu was Claude de L'Estoile (1602- 1652), son of Pierre, who wrote with Boisrobert, CoLLETET, Corneillb, and E/OTROU, the Oomidie des Tuileries (1635). 11. Comedy before Coeneille : Faroes; Italian Masks; GrAUTiBR-GARGtriLLE, f 1634 ; Tabaein-, t a. 1634. — The pure comedy of the first three decades of the seventeenth century calls for little comment. At the H6tel de Bour- gogne, from 1588, reigned the comedy of masks, played by Italian companies, and farces performed by Gautibr- G-AEGUiLLB (HuGTjEs GuEEU, f 1634), Gros-Guillaume (Robert Gubrin, f 1634), and Tuelupin. On the Pont- Neuf Tabaein (t 1634) and the Italian Mondoe gave their coarse dialogues and scenes of buffoonery. The influence of these low productions is seen at times in the literary plays, as in the Qalanteries du duo d'Ossonne (1627) of Mairbt. — The pastoral comedy flourished but little longer than a decade. Its last important con- tribution is the Amaranthe (1625) of Gombauld. 12. PiBRRB Corneille, 1606-1684. — The plays of PiEEEE CoENEiLLE (1606-1684), of Eouen, the greatest of French dramatists, fall naturally into three groups : 134 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. the first, composed, mainly of comedies, begins in 1629 and ends in 1636 ; the second extends from 1636 to 1651 ; the third begins in 1652. — In the first group, M&Me, a comedy, is succeeded by the tragi-eomedy, CUtandre (1632), lawless and bombastic, and four comedies, which bring before the spectators scenes of Parisian life : the Veuve (1633), the Qalerie du Palais (1633), the Suivant^ (1634), where the nurse of comedy gives way to the soubrette, and the Place Boyale (1634). In 1636 is pro- duced M6d6e, taken from Seneca and Euripides, the best tragedy up to that time, but which did not satisfy CoENBiLLE. The Illusion comique (1636), a play in a play, representing theatrical life, an imitation of the Spanish drama, closes the first series. — The second group, mainly tragedies, begins with the Gid (1636), Coenbille's master-piece, imitated from the Mocedades del Gid of G-uillen de Castro, followed by four trag- edies, almost equal in merit : Horace (1640), Ginna (1640), Polyeucte (1640), and Pompie (1641) ; the first from LivY, the second from Seneca's Be Glementia, the third from a Latin life of the saint, the last from LucAsr. Eeturning to Spanish sources, Coenbille produced the Menteur (1642), imitated from the Verdad sospechosa of Alaecon, the best comedy previous to Molibee, and the Suite du Menteur (1643), after the Amar sin saber d quien of Lope de Vega. The tragedy Bodogune (1644^ CoENEiLLB preferred to his best works. TModore (1645), another sacred tragedy, was a failure, as was Hiraclius (1647). With AndromMe (1650), based on Ovid, Coenbille imitates the operatic plays of the Italians. Don SancJie (1650), a tragi-comedy, is sug- THE SEVENTEENTH CBNTTJRY. 135 gested by Spanish -works and history. NicomMe (1651), of the same style as Don Sanche, is the last superior piece of the dramatist. — The failure of Pertharite (1652) turned Cokneille aside to works of a religious nature, poems, and a translation in verse of the Imitation de Jisus-Ghrist. CEdipe (1659) was received with favor and was followed by the Toison d'or (1660), a spectac- ular play. Sertonus (1662), Sophonisbe (1663), from Liw, Othon (1664), Ag&silas (1666), in which verses of six syllables are mingled with alexandrines, Attila (1667), Tite et BirSnice (1670), inferior to the rival play of Racine, PsyeM (1671), a tragedy-ballet in coUaborar tion with Molibbb and Quinault, with music by Ltjlli, PulcMrie (1672), and Sur&na (1674), though occasionally successful, are works of decadence. Besides his theater CoKXEiLLE wrote poems of occasion, translations of hymns and Psalms ; and in prose, letters, criticisms and analyses of his plays and essays, as the three Discours (1660) on the scenic poem, on tragedy, and on the three unities. — The services of Cobneilie towards the drar matic literature of France are inestimable. He found comedy in the hands of the populace. Milite is a long step in advance both in composition and in language. In the plays on Parisian life, increasing clearness and observance of propriety are shown, until in the Menteur the process of reformation was complete. Excepting the inginue, Molibee receives his leading types from CoKNEiLLB. — In tragedy the way was much smoother. The dramatic unities had been established by Maikbt. After a short hesitation between the Spanish imitations of Haedt and the lifeless tragedies of Seneca, Coe- 136 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. NEiLLE found his manner in the Gid. The criticisms of the purists of the Academy on this play, deficient in unity of place, affected, unfortunately, the genius of its author. His succeeding tragedies observe the rules of ScALiGEK. — Though characters are well delineated by CoENEiLLE in his serious pieces, the tendency towards types is already strong in them, and in the comedies, as in the Menteur, it is overwhelming. The qualities of CoBNEiLLi! are imagination, invention, originality. The heroic plane of his thought and the sonorous eloquence of his phrase render him the greatest master of the alexandrine. His defects are the reverse of his merits : hollow rhetoric, prosaic verse. 13. Followers and Rivals of Coeneille : Jean Eoxkou, 1609-1650; Georges de Scudbey, 1601-1667. — The most eminent dramatist, contemporary with Cokkteille, is Jean Eotkou (1609-1650), of Dreux. Of his many plays, thirty-six in all, the Sosies (1636), imitated from Plautus, begins the best series ; in which are Laure per- sicutie (1637), a tragi-comedy of unusual force, and Saint Genest (1646), a tragedy due to the Polyeucte of Coe- NEiLLE. Venceslas (1647), still played, presents a strug- gle between jealousy and honor on the part of a brother. Don Bernard de Cabr^re (1647), a tragi-comedy, and Cosrois (1649), a tragedy, are also superior. Though a free imitator of the ancients and of the Spaniards, his poetic inspiration, his power of invention, and the force of his genius render Eoteou entirely original. His style, rough at times, abounds in sublime verse and elo- quent tirades. Subsequent dramatists, and even Cok- NEiLLE, owe much to Eoteou. — Followers of Coeneille, THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 137 as Du Eteb, and rivals, as La Calpeenbde, are numer- ous. — Of the latter Geokges de Scudbky (1601-166T), brother of Madeleine, distinguished himself as an es- pecially bitter opponent of the did. A lyric poet, the author of the epic Alaric (1664) , he wrote in his youth pastorals, taken from the Astr&e but in the style of Hakdy, tragedies notable for their observance of the unities, and comedies of which the Comidie des comediens (1635), in prose, is interesting for theatrical history. 14. Prose Writers: Sermons and Treatises by Pean- gois DE Sales, 1567-1622. — The prose works of this period show a great advance on previous efforts. A spirit of analysis and subdivision separates more rigidly the kinds. Philosophy and moral treatises produce their best compositions in Descaktes and Pascal. It is also the great period of novel-writing so abundantly prepared in the last half of the sixteenth century. — In the florid style of fiction and in the spirit of the sixteenth century. Saint FEAsgois de Sales (1567-1622) composed his religious works. Beginning with the Etendard de la croix (1597), a controversial pamphlet against the Prot- estants, he continued with the Introduction d> la vie divote (1608) , a treatise on piety for laymen, next to the Imita- tion in popidarity. In reply to a criticism on the effemi- nacy of the book, Saint FEANgois published the Traiti de V amour deDieu (1614), equally successful though less read to-day. His other writings comprise religious letters, dogmatic treatises, and sermons less declamatory and more spiritual than those of his predecessors. The style of Saint PEANgois, poetical, full of similes, flowery to the highest degree, gives grace and life to his severe and 138 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. solid thougM, though at times his mysticism and subtlety, joined to over-delicacy of expression, detract from the effect. 15. letters and Essays : Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac, 1594^1654; Gui Patin, 1601-1672. — WhUe letters in- creased greatly with the increase of civilization, no episto- latory style had yet been set. — This became the ambi- tion of Jean-Louis Guez be Balzac (1594-1654), of Angouleme, historiographer of Louis XIII. His first collection of letters (1624) established a standard of prose composition. This was followed by a political essay, the Prince (1631), which sketched the ideal ruler, a despot. His remaining works are moral treatises, as the Discours (1544), which also discuss literary questions, the Socrate chritien (1652), the Entretiens (1657), and Aristippe (1658), the ideal of a statesman. The style of Balzac, his main merit, is sober, clear, measured, forming a harmonious, full, and well-balanced period. His principal defect is excessive use of the hyperbole. The first writer of academic prose, he influenced all the authors of the classi- cal school. — His friend, Voituee, imitates him. — The only author of the period whose correspondence is impor- tant is Gui Patin (1601-1672), the physician, whose letters, written without regard for style, are valuable for the private life of the time. 16. Philosophy : Rene Descartes, 1596-1650. — In this period pure philosophy first speaks in the vernac- ular. Bene Descaktes (1596-1660), of La Haye, soldier, and, after 1629, resident in Holland, began in Latin, but published his first book in Prench in order to reach the greater number. His Discours de la mithode (1637), a THE SEVENTEENTH CENTTJEY. 139 work of fourscore pages, founds the system of Cartesian philosophy and classical French prose at the same time. His other works, as the Mediiationes (1641) and the Prin- cipia (1644), appeared in Latin, but were soon translated. The Traiti des passions de I'dme (1649) was written in French. — The influence of Descartes on the ideas and the language of the seventeenth century was enormous. In ideas skepticism gave way to affirmation, morality per^ vaded literature, and reason ruled even poetry. The phrase of Descaktes is periodic and Latin, ingeniously constructed, conformed to the thought, the accessories carefully subordinated to the principal idea by an unpre- cedented use of relative pronouns. Yet the style is clear and noble, the order and precision perfect. The logical simplicity of French literature and its psychological bent are the most enduring legacies of Descaktes. 17. Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662; Moral Science.— Descaetes had taught his generation philosophical re- search; Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), of Clermont-Fer- rand, the celebrated mathematician and physicist, con- cerned himself with moral truths of a practical bearing. Attracted by the Jansenist doctrines of the Port-Eoyal, Pascal undertook the defense of his teacher Antoine Aknauld (1612-1694) — a polemist, author of a Gram- maire ginirale (1660) and an Art de penser — against the Jesuits. For this purpose he wrote the Lettres pro- vinciales (1656-1657), the first theological discussions in the vernacular, in which the moral doctrines of the casuists and of the Jesuits are attacked. The success of the series, written in a logical, energetic, but witty and sarcastic style, was great. It was the best French prose 140 PKIMEK OF FKENCH LITEEATtJKE. yet publislied. The Pensies of Pascai,, left incomplete at his death, are a series of notes and meditations which were to form a defense of the Christian religion, and to aid belief in religious truths. It was suggested by a con- versation held by Pascai and Lb Maistkb de Sact (1613-1684) — translator of the Bible (1672) —on the views of Epiotetus and Montaigne. The true religion is the Christian, where the burden of sin, which the soul must feel, is taken away by the Messiah. The thought and the expression of Pascal are unexcelled. His other works include a Latin treatise on conic sections (1639), and various moral writings. 18. Memoirs; History; Journalism: Sully, 1560-1641 ; PKANgois EuDES DE Mezekai, 1610-1683; the Gazette de France, 1631. — The memoirs of the seventeenth cen- tury begin with a relic of the sixteenth, the (Economies royales (1638, 1662), of Maximilibn de Bethune (1560- 1641), duke of Sullt, a recital of the work of Henry IV. and of the author, but not historically reliable. — Histories of Prance were attempted, as that of Scipion Dupleix, from 1621 to 1663. — The best historian of the period is FRAN901S EuDES DE Mbzerai (1610-1683), of Ey. His Histoire de France (1643-1651) is better for the personal qualities of the author than for science. His Ahr&gi chronologique (1668) has availed to preserve the longer work. — This period saw also the beginning of journalism. The Mercure francais (1605) is rather a chronological record. The first weekly newspaper, in the modern sense of the word, was the Gazette de France, which appeared on May 30th, 1631. Its founder was Thbophkaste Ee- NAUDOT (1584-1663), of Loudun, encouraged by Richelieu. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY. 141 — Jean Loeet (f 1666) addressed to Mme. de Longue- ville a weekly Muse historique (1660-1665) in which, literary and social gossip was given in verse. 19. Linguistics : Claude Favee de Vaugelas, 1585- 1650; GiLLES Menage, 1603-1692. — Besides the various essays on literature, especially on the drama, as the Prcir tique du tM&tre (1657), by I^ANgois Hbdelin (1604- 1676), abbot D'Aubignac, which is the code of the purists, this period saw the first standard treatise on grammar. — Claude Tavee de Vaugeim.s (1585-1650), of Savoy, had given himself to the study of the French language. Though entrusted with the Academy's dictionary, he pub- lished only the Remarqaes sur la langue francaise (1647), in which he established, as a rule of language, the usage of the court and of good writers. The choice of words by Vaugelas was often arbitrary and mistaken, but he did good service in freeing French from foreign, provin- cial, and vulgar locutions. Vaugelas became authority. — Gilles Menage (1603-1692), of Angers, modeled on Vaugelas many linguistic works, as the Origines de la langue francaise (1660) and Observations (1673), while Eacine and Boileau acknowledge his value. 20. Fiction ; Stories : Guillaume Bouchet ; the Moy- en de parvenir, 1612; Ideal Novels; Honoeb D'Uefe, 1568-1625. — The early part of the period abounds in stories. Guillaume Bouchet, of Poitiers, gives in the Series (1608) the gossip of that town. — The Moyen de parvenir (1612), of Beeoalde de Veevillb, is a sym- posium of ancients and moderns, whose stories show a strong influence of Eabelais. — The last noted work of the kind is the Caquets de VaccoucMe (1623), a collection 142 PlilMEB OF FRENCH LITERATURE. of extremely coarse and bitterly satirical comments on people and the government. — The place left vacant by the gaulois stories was immediately filled, among the educated, by novels, mainly ideal. The elements of the Amadis, of the Diana, of the pastorals of Italy and the erotic novels of Greek literature were combined by Ho- NORB D'Ukfb (1568-1625), of Forez, in the AstrSe (1610- 1627) , a pastoral novel in five volumes comprising over five thousand pages. The story of the loves of noble shepherds and shepherdesses, interrupted by countless episodes, obstacles, and descriptions after the style of the Greek novels, is here made more vivid by personal observation of society and more attractive by the love for the birthplace of the author, where the scene is laid. The lyric parts are mainly imitated from Peteaech. A well-ordered narrative, a fair delineation of character, and a good exposition of the subject imited with the ideal spirit of the novel to make it the favorite reading of a tirrie, which saw in it its own aspirations. The in- fluence of the Astrie on the H6tel de Eambouillet, and through this on the literature of the time, is seen most clearly in the many theatrical pieces dramatized from among its thirty-three episodes. In the Astrie and its imitations are found that romantic phraseology and erotic psychology which constantly crop out in the gravest writers. The Astrie aided much in making literature decent, but it also rendered it frequently insipid. Other works of D'Urfb are EpXtres morales; a poem, Sireine, after the Diana; a dramatization of one of the episodes of the Astr4e, in blank verse, Silvanire ; religious poems ; and an epic fragment, the Savoysiade. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 143 21. The Political Novel of Jean Barclay, 1582-1621 ; the Allegorical Novel of Gombauld ; the Religious Novels of Jean-Pieere Camus, 1582-1652. — Following the Astrie, Jean Barclay (1582-1621), of Scottish descent, wrote in Latin tlie Argenis (1621, translated into French in 1623), a political novel representing the life of prominent nobles. Unity of action, freedom from retarding episodes, and a fair delineation of character are among its merits. — The poet Gombauld attempts an allegorical novel, the Endymion (1524), based on his attachment to Marie de' Medici. It is complicated, dry, and insipid. — A much more successful novelist is Jean- Pierre Camus (1582-1652), bishop of Belley, and friend of Saint FRANgois de Sales. It is to the latter, who advised also D'Urfb, that the conception of Camus' writings is doubtless due — to convert the world by fic- tion. The author of numerous historical, religious, and moral narratives, his tales, Dane (1620) and Aristandre (1624), have a sadness of tone which is essentially modern, while his novels proper, Palombe (1624), on Spanish life, and Clioreste (1626), the story of Eomeo and Juliet, can be considered as anticipating the psychological novel. 22. The Heroic-gallant Novel: Marin Leeoy de Gom- BEEviLLE, 1600-1674 ; Gautiee de Costes de La Cal- PRENBDE, a. 1609-1663. — A continuation of the romance of chivalry, as the Amadis, in the form set by the Astrie, and influenced greatly by the Greek novel of erotic adventure, was the heroic-gallant novel. Its inventor was Marin Leeoy de Gombeevillb (1600-1674), of Paris, a member of the Academy and a leader of the pr6cieux. Besides various treatises on history and phi- 144 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. losophy and poetry of occasion, Gombeeville wrote the novel, CaritMe (1621), of slight value, followed by Pdlexandre (1632-1637), in five volumes, in which love and knightly honor are the theme. CytherSe (1639), which borrows from the Amadis and Heliodorus, and Alcidiane (1651), a continuation of Polexandre, are both inferior to the latter. — Gautieb de Costes (a. 1609- 1663), knight of La Galpbenbde, likewise a follower of the Hdtel de Eambouillet, was also a dramatist of note. Among his plays the Mort de Mithridate (1635) and the Comte d' Essex (1639) had success. Thoroughly imbued with the Amadis, his novels are historical like his dramas. Cassandre (1642-1645), in ten books, up- holds the lofty ideal of heroic virtues, dear to the time. CUophtre (1647), likewise of Eastern adventure, and Faramond (1661-1663), based on national tradition, continued his reputation. La Calprenbde is the first French novelist to adopt and follow a developed plan. He even observes unity of place. He refines love to gallantry under the influence of the prddeuses, and the supernatural of the Amadis is here replaced by the dreams and forebodings of the Greek novel. The great success of La Calprenede lasted to the time of Eous- SBAu in France, is seen in many German and Italian translations and in English borrowings. 23. Madeleine de Soudery, 1608-1701. — A more voluminous but not more talented novelist was Mad- eleine DE ScuDERY (1608-1701), of Le Havre, who became the center of the literary society of Paris, and wrote various stories and dialogues (Conversations) of much merit. Her fixst novel, Ibrahim (1641), received THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 145 with favor, was followed by Artamlne, or the Grand Cyrus (1649-1653), an immense work of over sixty-six hundred pages. The great success of the latter was due to its representation of the society of the time, and its artifice of disguised characters and events. GUlie (1654r- 1660), which employs the same methods, contains the celebrated Carte et description giographique du pays de Tendre, the climax of the influence of the precieuses. More narrative and romantic are Almahide (1660), after the Spanish history of Pekbz de Hita, and Mathilde (1667), on a Spanish theme. The change in taste soon destroyed the vogue of the heroic-gallant novel. 24. The Realistic Novel : Chables Sokel, 1599-1674. — The influence of the picaresco novels of Spain reveals itself in the first two decades of the seventeenth century in France in various unsuccessful attempts. Of such a nature are the Eiiphormio (1603), in Latin, of Bakclat, a true picaresco sketch; the Fragments d'une histoire comique (a. 1620), of Theophilb, a satire on the ideal novels ; and the Baron de Fceneste, of D'Atjbignb. — The first notable realistic novelist is Charles Sorel (1599- 1674), of Paris. The author of various ideal stories and an ideal novel, the Orphise de Chrysante (1626), he began the novel of manners with Francion (1622-1641), which satirizes the higher society and the fashionable literature in the adventures of a young noble. The Berger extras vagant (1627) is a direct parody of the Astree, and contains valuable observations on French literature. Its model is Don Quixote. — Many imitations followed, as the Gascon extravagant (1639), of Clekville. — The last novel of Sorel is the Polyandre (1648), a series of sketches of 146 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. Parisian life. Soeel is also the author of many satirical poems, allegories, controversial, historical, and scientific ■works, as the Science universelle (1641) and the Biblio- tMque francaise (1664). 25. Minor Realistic Writers : Jean de Lannel ; Andre Makeschal; Tkistan l'ELermite; Paul Scaeeon. — Among the realistic novels of the time are the Roman satirique (1624), of Jean de Lannbl, a moral and political satire in the form of the Amadis; the Chrysolite (1627), of Andkb Maeeschal, which is of a genuine psycho- logical character; the Page disgracii (1643), of Teistan l'Hbemite, an autobiography; and the Roman comique (1651), of ScAEEON, the adventures of a troupe of wan- dering comedians, of interest to the history of the theater. Its model was the Viage entretenido of Eojas; an imi- tation is the Capitaine Fracasse, of Gautiee. 26. Fanciful Novels : Cteano de Beegekac, 1619- 1655. — Opposition to idealism, love of nature, philo- sophical views and satire prompted the fantastic novels of travel of Savinien Cyeano (1619-1655), of Paris, a resident of Bergerac. A writer of letters and of plays, as the PMant joui (1645-1654), in prose, and the Mort d'Agrippine (1654), and of political and philosophical satires, Cteano began his novels with the Histoire co- mique ou Voyage dans la lune (a. 1650). The sources, besides those found in antiquity and in scientific works, may have been the novels of John Wilkins and Fran- cis Godwin. The influence of Rabelais and Sokel is also evident. Among the many imitators of Cteano are Swift, Poe, and Veene. A sequel is the Histoire comique des 4tats et empires du soleil (a. 1663), inferior THE SEVENTEENTH CENTTTRY. 147 in vividness of description, and abounding in philosophi- cal speculations, hostile to Cartesianism. Both -works satirize the manners and vices of the time. — Various other realistic novels of little value belong to this period, mainly anti-pastoral and anti-heroic. The Seventeenth Century. 1601-1718, CHAPTER XII. SECOND PERIOD. 1659-1689. 1. Poetry. Court poets. Fabulists : Jean de La Fontaine, 1621-1695. Critics: Nicolas Boilbau, 1636-1711. Libret- tists : Philippe Quinault, 1635-1688. 2. Drsuna. Comedy: Jban-Baptistb Poquelin (Molibre), 1622-1673 ; Edmb Bouksault, 1636-1701. Tragedy : Thomas CoKNEiLLE, 1625-1709; Nicolas Pkadon, t 1698; Jean Eacine, 1639-1699. 3. Prose. Memoirs and letters: Paul de GrONBi (Retz), 1614- 1679; Roger de Rabutin, 1618-1693; Gideon Tallemant DBS R^AUX, 1619-1692; Marie de SEViaNE, 1626-1696. Moralists : Francois de La Rochefoucauld, 1513-1680 ; Pierre Nicole, 1625-1695; Jean de La BRurfiRE, 1645- 1696. Philosophy: Nicolas de Malebranche, 1638-1715. Critics : Charles de Saint-Bveemond, 1613-1703. Lan- guage : Olivier Pateu, 1604-1681 ; Antoine Furetiere, 1620-1688; Dominique Bouhours, 1628-1702. Sermons: Jacqubs-BiSnignb Bossubt, 1627-1704 ; Louis Bourdaloue, 1632-1704; EsPEiT Fi^CHlER, 1632-1710. Novels: Marie- Madeleine DE La Fayette, 1634-1693 ; Furetiere. 1. Court Poetry: EEANgois de Mauckoix, 1619-1708 ; Jean de Segrais, 1624-1701 ; Antoinette Deshou- LiEEES, 1637-1694. — The period which covers the most THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 149 fortunate part of the reign of Louis XIV. and from wbicli many of the masterpieces of French literature date, is almost entirely deficient in lyric poetry. Emotion, naturalness, poetic thought, are scarcely found outside of drama and the works of La Fontaine. Poems of occar sion, sonnets, madrigals, rondeaux, dealing with the most trivial subjects, succeeded the longer efforts and the epic strivings of the previous generation. — FEANgois db Mauceoix (1619-1708), the friend of La Fontaine, besides translations of the Church Fathers, wrote madri- gals and epigrams of a certain grace and wit. — Jean de Segeais (1624^1701), of Caen, a literary aid of the Great Mademoiselle, and renowned in the circles of the pri- cieuses, exercised his poetical talent in pleasing pastorals. — Ajsttoinette Deshotjlibees (1637-1694), a pricieuse of taste, published poetry -in the Mercure and imitated Kaoan in idylls and madrigals. Odes, eclogues, epistles, and tragedies, as GensSric (1680), increased her reputar tion. She was called the Tenth Muse. Her correspon- dence with Flbchiee is of interest. 2. Jean de La Fontaine, 1621-1695. — It was nation- al literary tradition which established the fame of the most prominent versifier of the time, Jean de La Fon- taine (1621-1696), of Chateau-Thierry. Of an idle and dreamy disposition, a lover of nature, indifferent to duty, independent and restless, he lived under the protection of the wealthy. His career as author began with an imitation of Teeence's Eunuchus (1654). A poetical narrative, the Adonis (1668), addressed to Fouquet, was followed by various poems of occasion, as the Eligie aux nymphes de Vaux (1661), and by a play, Clymine (1660). 150 PEIMEE OP PEENCH LITEKATUKB. To amuse the duchess of Bouillon (Marie Mancini) he wrote the Oontes et nouvelles (1665, 1666), in two vol- umes, a poetical version of stories from the Italian, as the Decameron, or from the French collections, as the Ceiit Nouvelles nouvelles. The Fables, which had already circulated in manuscript, he published (1668) for Mar- garet of Lorraine. They were already a favorite com- position of the court poets of the century. A realistic novel in prose and verse, the Amours de PsycM (1669), Aodeled on Apuleius, was followed, under the protection of Mme. de la Sablifere, by new Fables (1678, 1679), by a libretto, Daphni, for LuUi, whose refusal of it called out the satirical play, the Florentin (1685) . Various plays, as Galatie (1682), the libretto, Astr&e (1691), and poems of occasion, as the Quinquina (1682), preceded new Gontes (1685), translations of Psalmsy and the twelfth book of the Fables (1694), dedicated to the duke of Burgundy. — The merit of La Fontaine is mainly in the Fables, which are either pictures from life without morals, or rules for life with morals. Having great powers of observation, he is simple, natural, and often gay. He began as a disciple of Malheebe, but enlarged later his verse and vocab- ulary by the study of the classics, of the older French writers, as Villon and Eabblais, and of the Italians, as Akiosto and Tasso. He opposed Cartesianism through his sympathy for animals. To his friendship with Mau- CROix and Boilbau he owes much in taste and style. 3. Nicolas Boileau, 1636-1711. —The work of Mal- HERBB was continued and established beyond controversy by the critic, Nicolas Boileau-Despeeaux (1636-1711), of Paris. Endowed with a critical spirit and a severe THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 151 literary taste, he began with various short lyrics ■which were followed by nine Sati7-es (1660-1667), against the poor poets of the age, the burlesque and the pricieux, or on moral themes. The nine Epltres (1667-1677), after Horace, on various subjects ; the Lutrin (1672-1683), a mock heroic poem which contains his best verse ; and the Art poitique (1669-1674), in four cantos, which shows Boi- LEAu's ignorance of previous French literature, while giving rules for drama and poetry (modeled on the ancients) and moral advice to poets, combined to make his authority absolute. Historiographer with Racine (1677), the last years of his life saw three Satires (1693- 1703) a,nd. thiee JEpUres (1695). In the quarrel of the ancients and moderns' he took the side of the former. — The work of Boileau is that of a critic rather than poet. His verse is little else than rimed prose. His aim was to make literary composition simple and true to life. His mistake was to pay excessive attention to form, to erect into general principles a part of literary truth. His influence on his contemporaries is his great- est service. He corrected and guided Eacinb and La PoNTAiNE, upheld and defended Molibkb, directed the natural good sense and judgment of Louis XIV., and dis- credited the bombastic and finical writers of the day. ■ He established solid taste in style and language. 4. Philippe Quinault (1635-1688), of Paris, is the most important of the poets condemned by Boileau. Among his seventeen plays, beginning with the Bivales (1663), a comedy, the tragedy, Astrate (1664), and the comedy, the M&re coquette (1665), under the influence of MoLiBEE, were received with great favor. His style is 152 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. of the school of the prSoieuses, and a tragedy, the Mort de Cyrus (1666), is from the Artam&ne of Mlle. db Scudbkt. But the reputation of Quinault rests on his fourteen librettos (1671-1686), written for Lulli. Besides his part in PsychS (1671), his Proserpine (1680), Roland (1685), from the Orlando furioso, and Armide (1686), after Tasso, are poems of much lyric merit. His verse is harmonious, his expression graceful. Many passages are even brilliant and forcible. 6. Comedy: Molibee, 1622-1673. — The great creation of the period is the theater of Jean-Baptistb Poqiielin-, called MoLiBEB (1622-1673), of Paris. Up to his time, with the exception of Coenbille's plays, French comedy had been an imitation of Plauxus and Tebenoe, of Spanish tragi-comedy, and of the Italian comedy of masks and adaptations from antiquity. The interest centered in a complicated intrigue. The Menteur stood alone as a character play. — Molieke, after studying the classics and hearing the lectures of the sensualist philos- opher, PiEKEE Gassestdi (1592-1655), joined the HIus- tre tM&tre (a. 1643) of Madeleine Bdjart. For it he wrote many farces on Italian models, of which the Jalousie du barbouilU and the Midecin volant are preserved. More ambitious are the comedies of character, due perhaps to the Menteur, the Etourdi (a. 1655), at Lyons, a free imi-* tation of the Inavvertito of Baebieei, and the Ddpit amoureux (1656), at Bdziers, an improved and enlarged version of the Interesse of Secchi. The set types of the old comedy remained, but observation and invention gave them life and interest. — Eeturning to Paris (1658), MoLiEBE devoted himself to the study of manners. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 153 With, the Pricieuses ridicules (1659) he begins his war- fare against the affectations in language and conduct of the pricieuses. Sganarelle (1660), a farce, was followed by the unsuccessfid Don Garde de Navarre (1661), a cape-and-sword comedy of the Spanish type, taken from the Gelosie fortunate of the Italian, Cigognini. He returns to true comedy in the Ecole des rmans (1661), the plot of the Adelphi of Tekenoe improved upon, and the Facheux (1661), written for Fouquet, a series of character sketches including that of the pedant. The Ecole des femmes (1662) was severely attacked by the prdcieuses, to whom Molieke replied in the Critique de V Ecole des femmes (1663). A letter to the king from the envious actors of the H6tel de Bourgogne was an- swered by the short Impromptu de Versailles (1663), defending, as did the Critique, his presentation of real life. — The third period of- Molierb's career begins with a farce, tjtie Mariage forc& (1664), followed by the Prin- cesse d' Elide (1664), a poor imitation of the Desden con el desden of Mokbto, written for the Versailles festivals. Tartuffe, began (1664), was forbidden for a time. Don Juan (1665) was taken probably from the Festin de pierre (1659), of de Villiebs, itself a translation of Gili- BEKTis' version of the Burlador de Sevilla of Tirso de Molina. A farce, the Amour mMedn (1666), was fol- lowed by one of Momekb's best works, the Misanthrope (1666), in verse, a keen study of society. The merry farce, the Midecin malgri lui (1666), is the plot of the Vilain mire. A pastoral scene, MMicerte (1666), for the king, and an act of comic opera, the Sicilien (1667), pre- ceded the finished Tartuffe (1667), on devout hypocrisy. 154 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITBEATUKB. — The last division of Moliekb's plays sees again imita- tions from antiquity and studies of contemporary manners, satirical in spirit. Amphitryon (1668), from Plautus, Georges Dandin (1668), a satire on ambitious marriages (the development of the Jalousie du harbouilU), and the Avare (1668), in prose, suggested by the Aulidaria of Plautus and the Esprits of Lakivey, but entirely remod- eled and one of the dramatist's best efforts, were fol- lowed by a farce. Monsieur de Pourceaugnac (1669), by the poor Amants magnifiques (1670), and by the comical satire against social ambitions, the Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670). The festival play, PsycM (1671), suggested by the novel of La Fontaine, was worked on also by Coeneille and QuiNAULT, and set to music by Lulli. Two farces, the Fourberies de Scapin (1671), a valet of comedy, and the Comtesse d' Escarbagnas (1671), a satire on provincial nobility, may have had their origin in Molibke's lost works and show borrowings from other authors. The Femmes savantes (1672) is a new and more finished attack against the prScieuses and the pedants. The last play of MoLiJiEB, the Malade imaginaire (1673), a farce, is a satire on the medical profession, assailed often in his previous plays, and a favorite theme of comedy. — After the death of Molieee, the Palais-Eoyal theater came into the possession of Lulli. The actors, trans- ferred to another stage, were amalgamated with those of the H6tel de Bourgogne, and the GomMie francaise was founded (1680). — The present admiration for Moliere, and his rating as the first writer of Prance, was not shared by his contemporaries. Producing little but com- edy (as the poem, the Gloire du Val-de-Grd/x (1665)), THE SEVEKTEENTH CENTURY, 155 and actor as well as author, he suffered from the preju- dice against the stage. His buffooneries were urged against him ; his style, too poetical and rich for the taste of the purists, was blamed for its negligence and its strange expressions. His picturesque and original lan- guage, taken from the people, was considered incorrect and even barbarous. Molibee succeeded in presenting exactly and forcibly the society of his time, not as indi- viduals with many-sided character, but as types, the gen- eral failure of the French theater. Where the types are universal, his work belongs to the world and is superior to that of any other dramatist. Where they are local and temporary, they have lost interest. 6. Opponents and Imitators of Molibbb : Samuel Chapuzeau, 1625-1701 ; Edme Botjbsault, 1636-1701 ; Jean Donneau de Vizb, 1638-1710; Montflbuby, 1640- 1685. — Molibee stands alone in French literature. Among the many dramatists of the time who opposed and imitated him, none, save Quinault and ThomAs Coe- NEiLLE, have remained in favor. — Of the minor writers, Samuel Chapuzeau (1625-1701), theater director at Hannover, the author of a treatise on comedy, the Thidtre francais (1674), produced in prose the Gerde des femmes (1656), versified later in the Acadimie des femmes, which may have influenced the Femmes savantes. — Edme Boub- SAULT (1636-1701), of Champagne, attacked the Critique in the Portrait du peintre (1663), and Boileau in the Critique des satires (1670) . He is the author of various other plays, as the Comidie sans titre (1679), the Fables d'Esope (1690), and Esope d, la cour (1701). He also wrote historical fiction. — Jean Donneau de Vizb (1638- 156 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITBEATUEB. 1710), founder of the literary journal, tlie Mercure galant (1672), collaborated with Thomas Cokneille, as in the InconnU (1675), opposed the Critique of Molibbe with Zilinde (1663), and, among other plays, imitated Molibrb in the Geniilhomme Guipin, a satire on the provincial nobility. He also devoted himself to memoirs of the times. — Antoine Jacob (1640-1685), called Montfleukt, the. son of the actor, assailed MoliIike and wrote many plays, all lacking in invention and observation. The best is the Femme juge et partie (1669). — Two actors of the H6tel de Bourgogne, Eaimond Poisson (1633-1690) and GuiLLAUME MAkcouREAu DE Bebcouet (t 1685), wrote many one-act comedies. — None of these writers, save BouESAXjLT, aimed at literary form or solid content. 7. Tragedy: Thomas Coeneille, 1625-1709; Nicolas Pkadon, 1 1698. — Many minor dramatists followed in the track marked out by Coeneille, as Quinault and Thomas Coeneille (1625-1709) . — The latter exercised his talent in both comedy and tragedy. In his fifteen comedies, beginning in 1647, he follows the Spanish eape- and-sword plays, as Don Bertrand de Gigarral (1650), imitated from Eojas; or sketches manners, as in the Berger extravagant (1653). They are all poor in thought and language. Of his seventeen tragedies, the first, Timo- crate (1656), was played six months in succession, a unique instance in this century. In romantic style it shows the influence of the Cid. In the same manner is Canima (1661). The later tragedies of Coeneille imi- tate the style of Eacine. Of them, Ariane (1672) and the Gomte d^ Essex (1678), pathetic in sentiment, are stiU read. Various librettos are found among his plays. He THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 157 versified MoliSee's Don Juan. Other works of Coe- N-EiLLE are Observations (1687) sur Vaugelas, and dic- tionaries of popular science : Des arts et des sciences and Giogi-aphique et historique (1708), an innovation in his time. The chief defects of Coeneillb arise from his subserviency to fashion and his weak . composition. — Nicolas Peadon (f 1698), also of Kouen, is remembered as a self-constituted rival of Eacinb, whom he imitated. His FMdre et Hippolyte (1677) displaced the PhMre of Racine through a literary cabal. 8. Jean Eacine (1639-1699), of La Fertd-Milon, a pupil at Port-Eoyal, began with Latin and French poems on the beauties of nature. His ode, the Nrjmphe de la Seine (1660), on the marriage of Louis XIV., brought him into public notice. After some attempts he produced, under the influence of Molieee and Boileau, the Th4- baide (1664), played at the Palais-Eoyal by the company of MoLiBEE. In it he follows the dramatic method of CoEiirEiLLE, while imitating Eueipides, Seneca and EoTEOu. Its slight success prompted Alexandre le Grand (1665), an imitation of Cokneille and Quijstault, a mix- ture of force and gallant tenderness, received with little favor. — Eacine's true manner appears in Andromaque (1667), imitated freely from Eueipides, his master-piece in the delineation of womanly constancy and female jealousy. A short comedy or farce, the Plaideurs (1668), based on Aristophanes, is a clever satire of legal pro- cedure. Britannicus (1669), from Tacitus, and Birinice (1670), written for Henrietta of England, a poetical dia- logue between lovers, almost an idyll, which triumphed over the rival play of Coeneillb, were followed by a 158 PEIMER OF PKENCH LITEKATUKE. tragedy from Turkish history, Bajazet (1672), -wMcli shows the influence of Port-Eoyal. MUhridate (1673), more faithful to the spirit of antiquity, and Iphiginie (1674), after Etjbipides, one of the best ■works of French poetry, ■which increased the enmity of his rivals, preceded his most dram^-tic piece, PJiMre (1677), after Eukipides, a vivid delineation of passion and remorse. — Beset by unjust critics and harassed by religious scruples, Eacine renounced the further imitation of the Greek stage, ■which he had planned. Made historiographer with Boileau (1677), he writes a libretto, translates the Symposium, and eulogizes Coeneillb (1685). At the request of Mme. de Maintenon he writes for the school of Saint Cyr two religious plays, Esther (1689), on the model of the old plays, containing choruses of unusual beauty; and Athalie (1691), perhaps his best drama, joining to his lyric qualities, force, interest, and the study of character. — The other works of Eacine include many letters, a Histoire de Port-Royal, religious poems, odes, sonnets, epigrams, and a lost Histoire de Louis XIV. — In his tragedies Eaciste is noted for refined sentiment, polished verse, and correct language. He aims, in the study of character, to be psychological, and excels in the portraits of women. His action is simple, freed from extraneous matter, and proceeds from the characters themselves. His dramatic ideal was evidently Sophocles. In style he follows Vebgil. The great defect of Eacine lies in the contrast between his subject, often sanguinary, and his delicacy of expression. But he presents more indi- viduals and fewer types. In him is seen again the great mistake of French tragedy — the lack of a national basis. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY. 159 9. Memoirs and Letters. — Prose in this period devel- oped essentially in the line of memoirs and letters. — Jeau--Fean50is-Paul de Gondi (1614-1679), cardinal DE Eetz, is the most important of the memoirists. His Mimoires (1662-1679) concern the intrigues of the Fronde, and are in the nature of confessions. Of doubt- ful historical accuracy, they are valuable for the portraits they conjain. Their style is vigorous and original. Eetz is also renowned as a pulpit orator, the Discours (1645), before Louis XIV., being of much merit. — Me- moirs of the regency of Anne of Austria were written by Mme.db Motteville (1621-1689). — The same period is also covered by the Mimoires (1646) of La Eocheeou- CAULD. — Of a different style are the Mimoires of Eogek DE Rabutin (1618-1693), count of Busst, the author of the scandalous Histoire amoureuse des Gaules (1665), of letters and minor works. — A rival to Bussy was found in Gedeon Tallbmant (1619-1692), called des Eeaux. His Historiettes are a series of anecdotes, social scandals, and jests, prompted by love of gossip, and valuable for the private life of the time. — The greatest of French letter-writers, erecting the art into literature, as did Balzac and Voituee, is Maeie de Eabutin-Chantal (1626-1696), marchioness db Sevignb. Her daily cor- respondence with her daughter, Mme. de Grignan, of which over fifteen hundred letters remain, is the best document extant for the literary, social, and moral his- tory of the epoch. In a most artistic style and in the purest language, she records (1669-1693) all the news of the court and country, and mingles her own observa- tions, often brilliant and always interesting. Her cor- 160 PEIMEE OF FRENCH XITBKATUKE. respondence with others, notably with Busst, shows the same traits of style and mind. — A historiographer is Paul Pellisson (1624-1693), of B6ziers. His Mimoires and Discours au Roi, in behalf of Pouquet, are models of argument and exposition. His most valuable work is the Histoire de VAcademie fran^aise (1653). He also wrote historical fragments and fables. 10. The Moralists. — The philosophical impulse, pro- ceeding from Desoaktes and Pascal, had incited the pricieuses of the circle of Mme. de Sabl6 to the composi- tion of maxims. — Following, them, PRANgois db La Eochefoucauld (1613-1680), embittered by his fail- ures, published the Refleodons ou sentences et maximes morales (1665-1678), which are based on observation and personal experience. Their leading principle is that human actions arise from self-love and personal interest. Their form, epigrammatic, polished, and expressive, be- longs to the best of Prench literature. — Different in spirit is the Port-Eoyalist, Piekee Nicole (1625-1695), the author of a long series of Essais de morale (1671- 1696), much admired at the time, but now tiresome through their monotonous style and excessive analysis. He also shared in the educational works of Port-Eoyal and in the Provinciales of Pascal. — A moralist is also Jean DE La Beuybke (1645-1696), of Paris. Besides a translation of Theophkastus and dialogues on Quiet- ism, La Beuybke wrote the Oaract&res (1688-1696), sketches of types of society with special animus against the nobles. They show the influence of Montaigne, Pascal, and La Eochefoucauld. Good sense, lively description, independent observation in the restricted THE SEVENTEENTH CENTtJEY. 161 field, are expressed in witty and delicate portraits, too often of the "weak side of human character. His style shows that simple prose was passing from favor. 11. Philosophy and Criticism. — Among the followers of Dbsoaktes, the only philosopher who shows original thinking is Nicolas de Maiebeanchb (1638-1715), a monk of Paris. His book, De la recherche de la viritS (1674), is a religious development of Cartesian meta- physics, in a pure and poetical style, which gave it great success. His other works are theological expansions of the fijst, as the TraiU de morale (1684). — The most distinguished critic of the period, also a skeptical philos- opher, was Charles de Saint-Denis (a. 1613-1703), lord of SAiNT-!fivBEMOND, exiled to England in 1661. Two comedies, the Academiciens (1643), on their quib- bling and pedantry, and the Gomidie des opiras, against the Italian novelties, preceded essays, Sur la morale d'Epicure, Riflexions sur les divers gSnies du peuple ro- main, which inspired Montesquieu, and many criticisms on French literature, one-sided in view, but which had authority in France. His bent was satirical. — Of au- thority at the time were the Entretiens sur les tragidies de ce temps (1675), by the abbot de Villieks, who ad- vised Biblical subjects. 12. Language. — Of writers on linguistics, the orator, Olivier Pateu (1604-1681), rivaled the authority of Vaugelas. He introduced orations at receptions into the Academy. — Antoinb Fukbtibke (1620-1688), of Paris, author of satirical essays and the Roman bourgeois (1666), compiled a Dictionnaire (1690) of the French language, for which he was unjustly expelled from the Academy 1G2 PKIMER OP FRENCH LITEKAT0EE. as a plagiarist. — Dominique Bouhoubs (1628-1702), Jesuit and grammarian., wrote various treatises, among them the Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eughie (1671), and Doutes et nouvelles remarques sur la langue franqaise (1674). The mixture of religion and grammar con- tributed to the success of these works. 13. Sermons and Funeral Orations. — Taste and sim- plicity entered into- court and pulpit oratory during the reign of Louis XIV. In the former Oliviee Pateu is the most eminent. — In the latter the chief is Jacques- Bbnigne Bossuet (1627-1704), perhaps the greatest writer of the century. His first sermon was improvised at the H6tel de Eambouillet. The two hundred and more which followed, mainly before the court, are unsur- passed in logical development of dogma, in aptness of metaphor, in nobility of expression, and in simple, vigor- ous, and colored language. They all teach practical mo- rality. — The same qualities are perfected in his funeral orations, a kind of sermon which Bossuet made classical literature. His best are those on the Queen of England (1669), on Henrietta of England (1670), on Maria The- resa (1683), on Anne de Gonzague (1685), on Michel Le TeUier (1686), and on the Prince of Cond6 (1687). A mixture of eulogy and of moral instruction, they excel in recital of events and in portrayal of character. — Among the other works of Bossuet are treatises for his pupil, the Dauphin, as the Traitd de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-m^me, a summary of Cartesian philosophy ; the Poli- tique tirde de VEcriture sainte, a manual on royal duties ; and the Discours sur VHistoire universelle (1681), a sketch of sacred and profane history down to Charlemagne, from THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 163 the philosophical standpoint. It strongly influenced Montesquieu. Various polemical works against the Protestants, in favor of the Galilean Church, against the Quietism of Penelon, and against comedy, increased the authority of Bossuet. The leading element of his style is grandeur. — Louis Boukdaloue (1632-1704), Jesuit, was ranked unjustly above Bossuet as a preacher. Some seventy-four sermons remain distinguished for rig- orous dialectic, for moral analysis, and for the portrayal of vices, in a sober and exact style. He pronounced funetal orations, as on Cond^ (1687). — Esprit Flbchiek (1632-1710), bishop of Ntmes, began his literary career with Latin and French poems, defending the pricieuses. As an orator he gained his reputation in the funeral ora- tion, those on Mme. de Montausier (1672) and on Turenne (1676) being most noted. His style, modeled on Balzac, is highly artificial. — Jules Mascaeon (1634-1703), bishop of Agen, a preacher of great force and frankness, is known to-day by his funeral oration on Turenne (1676) . 14. Psychological Novels ; Realistic. — Psychological studies are found first in the novels of Makie-Made- LEiNE, countess DE La Payette (1634-1693), the friend of La Eochefoucauld. Besides memoirs she wrote two stories, Mademoiselle de Montpensier (1660) and the Comtesse de Tende, the latter a pathetic narrative in the defense of the Princesse de Cloves. — Her first novel, Zayde (1670), was inspired by Mlle. de Scudbby, and rests on the history of Perez de Hita. Having the form of the heroic-gallant novel, Zayde shows mental analysis, sim- plicity, and naturalness. The style is correct and grace- ful. — The Pnncesse de Cloves (1677) is the author's 164 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. master-piece. Short and simple in action (whicii is wholly mental), it represents faithfully true sentiments, and is the starting-point of the modern school. — To Zayde was prefixed the Traiti de I'origine des romans by Pierke-Daniel Hubt (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches. It seeks their source in the East and forms a landmark in literary history. — The writer of realistic novels in this period, besides the PsycM of La FoifTAimE, is Antoini! Fueetieke. The NouveUe alligorique (1658), a literary satire against the ideal novels, is followed by the Roman bourgeois (1666), in two books, the first a narrative of middle-class life in Paris, pessimistic and satirical, the second a satire against Soeel. — Various parodies of the ideal novels were written by minor authors. The Seventeenth Century. 1601-1718. CHAPTER XIII. THIRD PERIOD. 1689-1718. 1. Poetry. Guillaume Amfryb de Chaulieu, 1639-1720 ; Jean- Baptiste Rousseau, 1670-1741. 2. Drama. Comedy : Charles EiviiiKB Dufeesny, 1648-1724 ; jKAN-FRANgois Kegnaed, 1655-1709; Florent Carton Dancourt, 1661-1725 ; Marc-Antoine Legrand, 1673-1728. Tragedy : Antoine de La Fosse, 1654-1708 ; Jean Galbert DB Campistron, 1656-1723 ; Prosper Jolyot de CRisiLLON, 1674r-1762. 3. Prose. Memoirs and letters : Franqoisb d'Aubign]£ de Mjuntenon, 1635-1719 ; Bernard de Fontenelle, 1657- 1757. History: Claude Fleury, 1640-1723. Philosophy: Pierre Bayxe, 1647-1706. Iianguage : FranqoiS-SiSkaphin E^gnier-Desmarets, 1632-1713. Essays : Fkanqois de La MOTHE FAnelon, 1651-1715. Sermons: Jean-Baptiste Massillon, 1663-1742. Fiction : Charles Perrault, 1628- 1703 ; Anthony Hamilton, 1646-1721 ; Marie-Catherine D'Aulnoy, 1650-1705 ; Alain-Een^ Lesagb, 1668-1747. 1. Transition in Literature ; Poetry. — The political decline of Louis XIV. and the impoverishment of the country were accompanied by a literary change. Already in La Bruyeke simple prose is replaced by a somewhat affected style. In drama, comedy ridicules new vices, 166 PRIMEK OF FRENCH LITEKATUEB. while tragedy is a weak imitation of the great masters. Poetry almost ceases. — Guillaume Amfrye (1639- 1720), abbot of Chaulieu, wrote drinking and love songs for the circle of the princes of Vend6me, and Epltres, full of skeptical sensualism. — His friend Chakles- AuGUSTE (1644-1712), marquis of La Pake, is the author of light poems and of the libretto, PantMe. — Antoine Bauderon de Senecb (1643-1737) is known by his satires, epigrams, and nouvelles en vers, all poor in style and language. — The only poet of lasting reputation is Jean-Baptiste Eousseatj (1670-1741), of Paris. His best work is in his epigrams and Epltres, after the man- ner of BoiLEAu. He also wrote Odes, declamatory in style and moral in content, Cantates in harmonious verse, allegories, Psalms, and comedies, as the Flatteur. Highly valued in his day, he adds little to the forms of Mal- HERBE and is merely a skillful versifier. 2. Comedy. — Charles Riviere Dufresny (1648- 1724), of Paris, wrote at first, with Eegnard, for the Italian comedians. Of his eighteen French plays (1692-), mainly in prose, the Joueuse (1698), a vivid portrayal of the passion for gambling, the Esprit de contradiction (1700), the Double veuvage (1702), his best, and the Disir (1719) show much wit, but little dramatic talent. — Jean-Francois Eegnard (1655-1709), of Paris, is the only follower of Mowere who recalls his qualities. After writing masks for the Italian comedians, which contain the germ of his later plays, as the Divorce (1688), he begins at the GomMie francaise with farces (1694r- 1696), followed by a comedy, the Joueur (1696), his mas- ter-piece, in the spirit of the eighteenth century, vigorous, THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 167 witty, and polished, but with little depth of observation. In it the valet begins his future importance. The Distrait (1697), after La Beuyere, is jocose. Dimocrite (1700) vio- lates unity of place. The Mdnechmes (1705), after Plau- Tus, abounding in unexpected situations and containing- much fine verse, and the Ldgataire universel (1708), a most amusing comedy of manners, in the style of Molibre, are still popular. Originality is wanting. Gayety and good poetry are his chief merits. Eegnaed also wrote Epltres and satires, a novel, the Provenrale (a weak imi- tation of the Princesse de CKves), and Voyages, both interesting and exact, as those on Lapland and Kussia. Regnabd is the best poet of the period. — Floeent Carton Dancourt (1661-1725), of ITontainebleau, was both actor and author. He succeeds Molibre in the farce. His forty-seven plays are mainly in one act, in prose. They represent the fashionable life of the day, with wit and aptness, and are valuable for sociology. His types, as valets and soubrettes, show the social changes. The ing&nue of Moliere becomes accustomed to the world of self-seeking. His peasants are shrewd and calculating. His best pieces are the Chevalier d, la mode (1687), the Bourgeoises de qualiti (1700), and the Comidie des comediens (1710). — Marc-Antoine Lbgrand (1673-1728), the actor, wrote comedies, as the Roi de cocagne. — The collaboration of David-Augustin de Brubys (1640-1723) and Jean Palapeat (1650-1721) produced the Grandeur (1691) and the Avocat Pathelin (1706), the old farce adapted to the taste of the time. — Opera had now displaced comedy. 3. Tragedy. — Most of the writers of tragedy imitated 168 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITBRATUEB. IIacine. — A follower of Cokneille is Antoine de La Fosse d'Aubigny (1654-1708), an adherent of the pr&- cieuses. Polyxene (1696) preceded Manlius Capitolinus (1698), the best tragedy since Athalie, imitated from Otways' play, who in turn took his plot from the His- toire de la conjuration de Venise (1674), of the abbot Cesar Vichakd de Saint-Ebal (1639-1692). — Jean Gr albert de Campistron (1656-1723), of Toulouse, wrote both comedies and tragedies, the latter closely patterned on Eacine. Andronic (1685), the same theme as Schiller's Bon Carlos; Aleibiade (1685) ; and Tiridate (1691), his most successful play, borrow both details and language from Eaoine. — La Grange-Chancel (1676- 1758) gained a certain reputation with Oreste et Pylade (1697) and Amadis (1701). — The greatest writer of tragedy between Eacine and Voltaire is Prosper JoLTOT DE Crbbillon (1674-1762), of Dijon. He seeks to revive the drama by violent and bloody scenes and superhuman crimes. In AirSe et Thyeste (1707) and Radamiste et Z&nohie (1711), his best work, terror and horror are the dramatic methods employed. His last plays, as Gatalina (1742), were in rivalry of Vol- taire. Vigorous verse does not lid his plays of monot- ony of action or of a declamatory rather than a dramatic style. 4. Memoirs and History. — Prose already shows the trace of the restless, questioning spirit of the eighteenth century. — Memoirs continued a favorite diversion, as those of Mme. de Maintenon (1635-1719), of Niort, mainly in letters regarding Saint-Cyr. Other works are, Entretiens sur Viducation desJUles, Conseils aux demoiselles, THE SEVEKTEENTH CBNTUEY. 169 and various ^essays ■written for the school. In a style simple and eloquent, she shows herself a moralist, an educator, and a keen observer of youth. — The memoirs of Mme. la Duchesse D'Orleans (1653-1722) are letters on court life, valuable for the portraits of man- ners and men. — Approaching more the historian is Ber- nard LE BoviER DB FoNTENELLE (1657-1757), the nephew of Corneille. Beginning with unsuccessful tragedies and with librettos, he continued with the para- doxical Dialogues des marts (1683), followed by the Pastorales. His bent was revealed in the Entretiens sur la pluralite des mondes (1686), which brought science down to the vulgar comprehension. His more historical works are the Histoire de VAcadimie des sciences and the Eloges des acad^miciens (1708, 1717), which made the scientists known to the public at large. In the barren quarrel between the ancients and moderns (1670-1720) FoNTEHELLE sided with the latter. He is also the author of a F?e de Comeille. — More claim to the title of his- torian has the abbot, Claude Fleukt (1640-1723), of Paris. Essays, such as the Moeurs des IsraMites (1681) and the treatise, Du choix et de la mitliode d'itudes (1686), in which he proposes reforms in education, pre- cede the Histoire eccUsiastique (1691-1720), a vast uncrit- ical compilation of documents. — True critical research is seen in the Latin works of Jean Mabillon (1632- 1707). 5. Philosophy; language. — The spirit of the eigh- teenth century is seen in the writings of Pierre Bayle (1647-1706), professor of philosophy at Eotterdam. Besides various essays on Cartesianism and polemics ii 170 PKIMER OF PKBNCH LITERATTJKE. favor of the Protestants lie founded the Ifterary review, Nouvelles de la ripublique des lettres (1684), which be- came the literary authority. His great work, the Dic- tionnaire historique et critique (1697), conceived in a negative, impartial spirit, is a kind of encyclopaedia, in which scientific criticism first appears. — In linguistics the publication of the Dictionnaire (1694) of the Acad- emy was followed by the Qrammaire (1705) of Feak-- 50is-Sbbaphin RBGifiER-DESMAEETS (1632-1713), its secretary. 6. FKANgois DE La Mothe Fbnblon (1651-1715), archbishop of Cambrai, best illustrates the literary tran- sition of the last years of Louis XIV. His first work was the TraiU de Viducation des Jilles, foUowed by the Traiti de la nature et de la grace (1680), against Male- BBANCHE. The three Dialogues de I'Moquence, in favor of simple, practical preaching, showed the tendency to improvise which has lost to posterity his sermons. — Having become preceptor (1689) of the duke of Bur- gundy, he wrote for his pupil Fables, in prose, to condemn his defects; the Dialogues des morts, between learned men of all epochs ; and TiUmaque (1699), the counsels of Mentor given to the son of Ulysses. Beauty of style, delicacy of expression, and skill of invention have mad,e this imitation of antiquity the most popular narrative of France. — Embracing the mysticism of Quietism in his Eacplication des maximes des saints (1697) , Fbnelon in- curred the royal displeasure. His Examen de la conscience d'un roi (1711), for the duke of Burgundy, relates the ruin of the kingdom and advises local self-government. The Lettre ck M. Dacier sur les occupations de VAcadimie THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 171 franmise (1714) is the first literary criticism in French. The last chapter, on the quarrel of the ancients and moderns, shows Fenelon ardent for the former. His posthumoxis Lettres spirituelles advocg-te a religion of entire self-renouncement. — In general, Fenelost, though chimerical and reforming in character, is still a firm adherent of the theocratic monarchy of the seventeenth century. 7. Sermons. — Jean - Baptiste Massillon (1663 - 1742), bishop of Clermont, was the last of the great pulpit orators. Court preacher after Bossuet, he resem- bles more closely BouKDALOtrE in his portrayal of vice and elegance of diction. His Petit Careme (1718), of ten sermons, is his most finished work. The Avent and the Grand Careme are more Christian and personal. In the funeral oration he acquired renown, as those on Conti (1709), on the Dauphin (1711), and on Louis XIV. (1715). The Discours synodaux (1723-1742) are less elaborate and more original. His defects are in preaching morals rather than dogma and in striving for too artistic a style. 8. Fiction: Novels; Fairy Tales. — The novelistic effort of the seventeenth century died away with Mme. DE La Fayette. Short stories and popular tales become the fashion. — Following the Princesse de Cloves, Maeie- Cathekinb D'Aulnoy (1650-1705) wrote various novels, as the Aventures d'Hippolyte, comte de Douglas (1690). She is better known for her Contes de F4es (1698), the simplicity of which she ruined with contemporaneous allusions, ghe is also author of Mimoires sur la cour d'Espagne (1690). — Mlle. de La Fokce (1650-1724) wrote memoirs and the Roman de Chistave Vasa. — 172 PKIMER OF FRENCH LITBEATUKE. Anthony, count of Hamilton (1646-1721), imitates tlie Contes of La Pontaine in the Contes de Fieries, and ■writes the Mdmoires du comte de Grammont (1713), val- uable for the social life of the time. — The great ■writer of fairy tales is Chakuss Pebkault (1628-1703), of Paris, "who began -with poor epic and lyric poetry. His Steele de Louis le Grand (1687), a poem read before the Academy, rene'wed, by its comparisons "with antiquity, the quarrel of the ancients and moderns. In ans-wer to BoiLEAtr, Perkault published the ParaUUe des andens et des modemes (1688, 1693) in dialogue form, foUo-wed by the Hommes illustres (1696-1701), the biographies of the Prench leaders of the century. The fame of Per- RAULT is due to the Histoires ou Contes du temps passd (1697) or the Contes de ma mdre VOie, -which he took from among the people and rendered in an attractive form. The Contes en vers (1694), similar tales,he had published in the Becueil of Moetjbns at The Hague. — Of interest are the Mille et une nuits (1704-1708), translated by ANTOrsTE Galland (1646-1715) from Arabian and Turk- ish manuscripts. 9. Picareseo Novels. — The great novelist of the epoch is Alain-Eene Lesagb (1668-1747), of Sarzeau. After many hack translations and literary failures, a prose comedy, Crispin rival de son maltre (1707) established his reputation. A picareseo novel, the Diable boUeux (1707), freely imitated after the Diablo cojuelo of Gue- vara, revealed his talent in its realistic pictures of Prench life. Another comedy, Turcaret (1709), a bitter satire against the financiers, exact in vie-w and lively in dialogue, -was foUo-wed by farces for the fairs. His THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 173 master-piece is the picaresco novel, Histoire de Gil Bias de Santillane (1716-1735), a portrayal of- the manners, weaknesses, and vices of all classes of society, due to the author's own observation. Its influence on English fic- tion was great. Lksage translated many Spanish novels, the Orlando innamorato of Bojakdo, wrote the Mille et un jours (1710-1711), vaudevilles, and comic operas. His style is that of the seventeenth century, though his spirit is modern. PART V. The Eighteenth Century. 1718-1801. CHAPTER XIV. FIRST PERIOD. 1718-1750. 1. Poetry. Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire), 1694-1778; Louis Racine, 1692-1763; Jean-Baptiste-Louis Grbsset, 1709-1777. 2. Drama. Tragedy: Voltaire; Antoine Houdart de La MOTTE, 1672-1731. Comedy: Pierrb Carlet de Cham- BLAiN DE Marivaux, 1688-1763; Philippe Nericatjlt Des- TOUCHKS, 1680-1754 ; Alexis Piron, 1689-1773. Melodrama : PlBRRE-CLAtTDB NiVELLE DE La ChAUSS^, 1692-1754. 3. Prose. Voltaire. Memoirs and history : Louis de Eou- vrayde Saint-Simon, 1675-1755; Mme.de Staal-Delaunay, 1684-1750 ; Charles Rollin, 1661-1741. Essays : Charles DE Sbcondat de Montesquieu, 1689-1755 ; Luc de Clapiers DE Vauven ARGUES, 1715-1747. Philosophy : Julien Defray DB La Mettrie, 1709-1751. Oratory: Henri-Francois D'Aguesseau, 1668-1751. Novels : Antoine-Francois Pro- vost D'ExiLBS, 1697-1763; Claudb-Prosper Jolyot de CidajiLLON, 1707-1777. 1. Characteristics of the Eighteenth Century; Divis- ions. — The literature from (Edipe (1718) to Atala (1801) is, in general, typified by Voltaire. The spirit THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 175 is critical, scientific, inspired by English philosophy. Newtoit and Locke -were the masters. Negation be- came the fashion. — The language is but slightly changed from that of the seventeenth century. Scientific- terms were introduced, but the writers, striving after simplicity and purity, fell into monotony, poverty of expression, and a colorless style. — Poetry -was still more enfeebled by these causes, ■working out the rules of Boileau and Malhekbb. — With poetry suffered also drama, though melodrama was iuvented, ideas were taken from the English stage, and various bright but superficial comedies appeared. The best of the century is in the prose and rather in. the thought than in the style, which copied the authors of the classical period with decreasing vigor and richness. — Two periods are clearly marked. One of reaction against previous thought, from 1718 to the advent of Eousseau in 1750 — a period satirical rather than revolutionary. — The second, from 1750 to 1801, is characterized by a virulent attack on the existing order of things, culminating in the Revolution. 2. Poetry ; Voltaire. — Poets of merit were few. EKAJsrgois-MAKiB Abotjet, called Voltaire (1694-1778), of Paris, attempted pure poetry in an epic poem, the Henriade, published at London (1728). The subject is Henry IV. The episodes are imitated from the Eneid. Lack of inspiration, monotonous versification, and a rhe- torical style did not hinder its success at the time. A second poem, the Pucelle (1730), is a coarse parody on Joan of Arc. — Besides fine passages in the Henriade, the best verse of Voltaire is in his Epttres, as those to Boi- leau and Horace (1772), and his Satires, as the Pauvre 176 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. diable, against his opponents^ His poetry of occasion and epigrams are also lively and elegant. Various didactic poems, as the Discours sur I'homme, after Pope, and the Po&me sur le disastre de lAsbonne, present the ideas of the English deists and of Newton in a pure and poetical style. VoLTAiEE is best in the secondary kinds of verse. He lacks the talent and enthusiasm necessary to the higher poetry. 3. Other Poets.— Louis Eacine (1692-1763), son of Jeajst, wrote odes, epistles, MSmoires sur la vie de Jean Racine (1747), and translated Paradise Lost. His best works are the didactic poems, GVdce and Religion (1742). His style is polished and clear.. — Jban-Baptiste-Louis Geesset (1709-1777), of Amiens, is the author of a comedy, the MSchant (1747), witty and poetical. His best work is the humorous epic. Vert- Vert (1734), on a parrot's life. The Carime impromptu and the Chartreuse are narratives remarkable for style. Gresset is saved by his wit. 4. Tragedy. — As in poetry so in drama Voltaire is the best author of the period, though second-rate. He was inspired by the plays of the classical writers and of the English stage. (Edipe (1718), declamatory but vigor- ous, revived popular interest in tragedy. Brutus (1730), and Zaire (1732), his master-piece, are inspired by notions of political liberty. Mir ope (1743) is nearest his models in style and action. Several tragedies of Cebbillon were worked over by Voltaieb without success (1748-1762). TancrMe (1760) is his last good play. Of the dozen remaining, Alzire, or the Amh~icains (1736) and Mahomet (1741) deserve mention. — The THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 177 theater of Voltaiee is brilliant but superficial. He established a larger choice of subject, improved the mechanism of the play and reformed costume and scenery in a practical way. His style, often animated and emo- tional, is more frequently declamatory and prosaic. His plots are generally arguments in favor of his views, and thus are wanting in the study of character and in pas- sion. — Antoike Houdart de La Mottb (1672-1731) was an essayist, a writer of odes, and a leader of the moderns in their quarrel with the ancients. Though ignorant of Greek, he worked over the Iliad to prove HoMEE a poor poet. His best work is the pathetic tragedy, In^s de Castro (1723). 6. Comedy. — The theater of the period is much more attractive on the side of comedy. — Pieeee Caelet de Chamblain de Maeivaux (1688-1763), of Paris, invents his own plots and style. Superficial, avoiding dramatic scenes and character studies, he excels in grace, in wit, and in delicacy of sentiment. To his thought is fitted his language, termed marivaii,dage for its witty affecta- tion. Several of his plays remain on the stage, as the Jeu de I'amour et du hasard (1730), the Fausses confiden- ces (1736) and the Legs (1736) . — Philippe Nbeicault Destouches (1680-1754), of Tours, deeply imbued with English literature, shows its didactic and pathetic ten- dency in his many comedies, which are among the best of the century. The Irrisolu (1713), the Philosophe marii (1727), and especially the Olorieux (1732), a satire on the sudden fortunes of the Eegency, are well written and skillfully wrought out, yet fail in gayety and obser- vation. They were frequently translated into German. 178 PEIMBfi OP FKENCH LITEEATUEB. — Alexis Pieon (1689-1773), of Dijon, noted for his brilliant epigrams and for his literary club, the Caveau, wrote vaudevilles, parodies, tragedies, and attained last- ing dramatic success in the comedy, M&tromanie (1738), a satire on poetasters, in fine style and polished verse. 6. Melodrama. — An attempt to revive comedy, sug- gested probably by English models, was made by Pzebkb- Claude Nivelle de La Chaussbe (1692-1754), of Paris. A union of the comic with the pathetic, called Comidie larmoyante or Drame bourgeois, the plays of La Chaussbe have a moral purpose and deal with social questions. Among them are the Fausse antipathie (1733), the Prijugi d, la mode (1735),, Milanide (1741), the Ecole des mh-es (17^4), and the Oouvernante (1747). Poor in style, monotonous, abounding in maxims and didactic harangues, they still were popular, compelled Voltaire to imitation in the ^Infant prodigue (1736) and Nanine (1749), and opened the way for Dideeot. 7. Prose ; Memoirs. — Philosophic essays on people, customs, and institutions form the great body of prose in this period. — It saw, however, the greatest memoirist of Prance, Louis de Eouveay (1675-1755), duke of Saint- Simon. From daily notes he compiled his Mimoires (a. 1740) of the decadence of Louis XIV. and of the Eegency (1692-1723). A courtier, honest but preju- diced, he sketches his life and surroundings at the court, analyzing intrigues and delineating character. Vigorous and impassioned, neglecting style in his eagerness to narrate, his .descriptive talent and his intimate knowl- edge of the times render his work most valuable. — Mme. de Staal-Delaunat (1684-1750) owes her repu- THE EIGHTEENTH CENTtJEY. 179 tation to her style. The Mimoires of her unimportant life, both, witty and natural, often sad, are a model of clear and sprightly narration. — The Souvenirs of Mme. DE Cayltjs (1673-1720), niece of Mme. de Maiotenon, are life-like, graceful sketches of court scenes. — Inter- esting for the common life of the time is the Journal of Mathieu Marais (1665-1737). — Many memoirs were "written hy magistrates and statesmen. 8. Voltaire, eminent in this as in the other branches of literature, began with a study of the English people and laws in the Lettres sur les Anglais (1731), a eulogy of England, detractive of France, and inspired with a skeptical spirit. More historical is the Histoire de Charles XII. (1731), clear, concise, brilliant, but rather romantic. The Si&cle de Louis XIV. (1762), finished at Berlin, had great influence in establishing the literary supremacy of that age. Making arbitrary use of his material, studying the events from the standpoint of civilization, he errs in the construction of his narrative and interrupts its continuity. Yet he is clear in exposi- tion, easy in style, and sensible in opinion. It is his best historical work. The Essai sur les maeurs et Vesprit des nations (1756), developed from the Abregi d'histoire universelle, though one-sided in its opposition to the views of BossuET, founded the history of national devel- opment. The Histoire de Bussie sous Pierre I. (1769) resembles that of Charles XII. Other historical works, as the Pricis du siMe de Louis XV. (1768), have the same merits of style and narration and the same critical defects. — Literary, political, moral, and religious subjects are discussed by Voltaiee in a multitude of essays pub- 180 PKIMER OF FE.BNCH LITBRATTJRE. lished separately, or in the Encyclopaedia of Didekot, and collected in the Dictionnaire pMlosophique. They show his merits of style and good sense, but also his frivolity* and superficiality. Hostility to Christianity pervades the greater part. His Commentaire de Comeille (1764) reveals good literary taste and judgment, but also his ignorance of the history of the French language and literature. — The best conception of Voltaibb's life and work is gained from his vast Correspondance of several thousand letters, models of the art, addressed to all ranks of society. 9. Chaeles de Second at (1689-1755), baron of Montesquieu, rivaled Voltaike in celebrity and excels him in lasting worth. The Lettres persanes (1721) are a satire on the manners and life of France under the Regency, keen and bold. It was followed by the Temple de Guide (1725), a somewhat immoral narrative. After travels in Europe, where he came under the influence of Chesterfield, and a residence in England, Montesquieu worked in retirement on the Considirations sur les causes de la grandeur des Somains et de leur dScadence (1734), the first complete illustration of philosophical history. The style is concise, simple, sententious. A continuation is the Dialogue de Sylla et d'Eucrate (1745). — The Con- siderations were but an introduction to the great work of Montesquieu, the Esprit des lois (1748), conceived in the same spirit and the product of the same method. It is a study of cause and effect in human affairs. Though divided into an excessive number of paragraphs the style is pure, vigorous, and precise. Its success is seen in its twenty-two editions in less than two years. Its influence THE EIGHTEENTH CENT UK Y. 181 on subsequent legislation is incalculable. — Minor -works of Montesquieu are a story, Lysimaque ; a novel, Arsace et Ism&nie ; and a voluminous correspondence. 10. Essays ; History ; Oratory ; PMlosopliy. — Among the many writers of the time, few, by their thought and form, belong to literature. — Charles Eollin (1661- 1741), of Paris, eminent in the history of education, began with the Traite des itudes (1726-1731), a system of public education, advocating instruction in French, the study of history, of the elements of science, and changes in discipline. As treatises for the youth he wrote the Histoire ancienne (1730-1738) and the Histoire romaine (1738—1741), both compilations from the his- torians of antiquity, uncritical, but well-ordered and at- tractive. The former remained the text-book for many decades and was much translated. — A moralist is Luc DE Clapieks (1715-1747), marquis of Vauvenaegues. His unfinished work includes the Introduction d, la con- naissance de I' esprit humain (1746) and Reflexions et max- imes, in which duty and virtue are enjoined in a pure and poetical style. The Caract&res and Dialogues are short moral and critical treatises. An idealist, his writ- ings attract by their emotion. — Oratory of the pulpit had declined. That of the bar was made eminent by HENEi-FEAJsrgois D'Aguesseau (1668-1751), of Limoges. His Mercuriales (before Parliament) . and pleas are for- cible, eloquent, but too ornate. In the Instructions, for his son, he imitates Chestbefield. His correspondence is valuable for the knowledge of the times. — Material- istic philosophy is represented by Julien Offeay de La Mettkie (1709-1761), of St. Malo. Among his 182 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITEEATUEB. numerous works are the Histoire naturelle de I'a (1745) and the Homme-machine (1748). Man is merely body. There is no soul. 11. Fiction. — After Lesage novels deteriorated. — Maeivaux, who tried journalism in the Spectateur fran- ^ais (1722), after Addison, wrote the still readable Vie de Marianne (1731-1741), illustrating the triumph of virtue. Less successful is the unfinished Pa/ysan par- venu (1735). Both influenced English fiction. — The Histoire du CJievalier des Gh'ieux et de Manon Lescaut (1733), by the abbot ANTOixE-FEANgois Pebvost d'Ex- iLES (1697-1763), has alone survived of his two hun- dred volumes — mainly imitations and translations of the English school. Its accent of truth and fidelity to life give it lasting success. Peevost also edited the Pour et le Centre (1733-1740), modeled on the Spectator. — Short stories were -written by Voltaiee. Zadig (1747), Candide (1759), the Inghiu (1767), and the Homme aux quarante Sous (1768) rival one another in irony, bitterness, and the satirical description of human faults and weaknesses. Though without plan or com- position, they are in style the best of Voltaike. — The stories of Claude-Peospee Joltot de Ceebillon (1707-1777), the Younger, are striking pictures of the social vices of the time, relieved by psychological keen- ness and a fine style. The Lettres de la marquise (1732), the Egarem^nts du cceur et de I'esprit (1736) and the Soplia (1745) were imitated by a school of minor writers. 12. Literary History. — On the history of literature various important works appeared, as the Histoire gi- nirale du tMatre francais (1745-1749) by Claude (1701- THE EIGHTEEKTH CENTURY. 183 1777) and TKAirgois (1698-1756) Paefaict ; the His- toire littiraire (1733-), begun by the Benedictines and continued by the, Institute; the BihliotMque frangaise (1741-1766) of Claude-Pierre Goujet (1697-1767); and the Usage des romans (1734), by the abbot Lenglet Du Fresnot. The Histoire de VAcadimie, of Pellisson, was continued by the abbot d'Olivet (1682-1768), who also translated the classics and wrote treatises on gram- mar. The Eighteenth Century, 1718-1801. CHAPTER XV. SECOND PERIOD. 1750-1801. 1. Poetry. Lyric: Ponce-Denis Echouard-Lbbkun, 1729- 1807; Claude-Joseph Dorat, 1734-1780; Nicolas-Joseph- Lauuent Gilbert, 1751-1780 ; EvARiSTE-DfeiR^ Desforges DE Parny, 1753-1814 ; AndkiS-Marie de CiiifiNiER, 1762-1794. Descriptive ; CHARLES-PRANgois de Saint-Lambert, 1716- 1803 ; Jacques Delille, 1738-1813. 2. Drama. Melodrama: Denis Diderot, l'713-1784. Comedy: Miciiel-Jban Sedaine, 1719-1797; Charles Palissot de MONTENOY, 1730-1814; Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beau- marchais, 1732-1799 ; Jean-Francois Collin d'Hakleville, 1755-1806. Tragedy: JBAN-FRAN901S DuciS, 1733-1816; Marie-Joseph de ChiSnier, 1764-1811. Vaudevilles. 3. Prose. Jean-Jacqubs Rousseau, 1712-1778. The Encyclo- pedists: Diderot; Jean Le Rond D'Alembert, 1717-1783. Treatises: Francois Quesnay, 1694-1774; Turgot, 1727- 1781; Gabriel BoNNOT de Mably, 1709-1785; Guillaumf^ Thomas-Francois Raynal, 1713-1796. Essays : Charles PiNOT Duclos, 1704^1772; SAbastien-Roch-Nicolas Cham- fort, 1741-1794 ; Antoine de Rivakol, 1753-1801. Science : Jean-Louis Leclerc de Bufpon, 1707-1788. Criticism: Jean-Francois Marmontel, 1723-1799; Jean-Francois de La Harpe, 1739-1803; Friedrich Melchior Grimm, 1723- 1807. Philosophy: Claude- Adrien HELvrf.Tius, 1715-1771 ; 15T1ENNE BONNOT DE Mably-Condillac, 1715-1780. Ora- THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 185 tory : Mirabbau, 1749-1791. riction : Diderot ; Maemon- tel; Jban-Jacqubs BaktiiAlbmy, 1716-1795; Jacques- Henri Bbrnaedin db Saint-Pierre, 1737-1814; Jean- Pierre Claris db Florian, 1755-1794. 1. Features of the Period; Poetry. — The second period of the eighteenth century includes two distinct features : the stage of revolutionary preparation in literature was followed by a revolutionary outbreak, beginning with Beaumabchais' Manage de Figaro (1784). The spirit, however, was one of social reform. Elements of a liter- ary transformation do not appear before Chateaubriand. — The drama and prose of the period testify to the national unrest, and consider, as a rule, social questions. In merit they differ but little from those of the preced- ing period. — Poetry, however, improves in the hands of more talented writers, and produces one of the best poets of France, Andre de Chenier. The descriptive kind is erected into a separate branch. 2. Lyric Poets of the Conventional Type. — A follower of J.-B. EoussEAu is Lbfkanc de Pompignan (1709- 1784), whose religious odes have often emotion and force. — Epic poetry was continued by Marie- Aniste Fiquet Du BoccAGE (1710-1802), in the Paradis terrestre (1748), after Milton, and ia the Colcnnbiade (1756), both very poor. — Ponce-Denis !|Schouaed-Lebrun (1729-1807), of Paris, wrote good odes on public men and events, as the Vengeur. He excelled in the epigram and attempted didactic poetry. — Claude-Joseph Dorat (1734-1780) imitated with skill the stories and fables of La Fon- taine. He advocated, in the Id4e de la poisie aMemande, the study of German literature. — Much more talent 186 PKIMER OF FRENCH LITERATtJBE. and inspiration was slio-wn by Nicolas-Joseph-Laurent Gilbert (1751-1780), of Lorraine. His Dix-huimme si&cle (1775) is a forcible and bitter satire on the vices of the time, in the style of Juvenal. The Ode imitie de plusieurs psaumes (1780) is the most poetical composition of the century previous to Chenier. — jStariste-Desire Desporges (1763-1814), viscount Parnt, was the author of emotional elegies of much beauty, of gallant verse, the Po^mes irotiques, and of the anti-religious epic, the Cruerre des Dieux anciens et modemes (1799). His influ- ence on Chateaubriand and Lamartine is seen in their early works. — The patriotic poetry of Joseph EouGET DE L'IsLE (1760-1836) is known through the Marseillaise (1792). He also wrote the Chant de ven- geance and the Chant de Roland. 3. Andke-Marie de Chbnier (1762-1794), born at Constantinople, and guillotined under the Terror, stands apart from his age in talent and spirit. Son of a Greek mother, he began his ^koetie career with translations of An- AOREON and Sappho. Traveling in Switzerland, he is the first French poet to celebrate the mountains (1783) . On the approach of the Revolution, his poems show a desire for political freedom, and he becomes an editor of the Giron- dist Journal de Paris. His unfinished work comprises the Bucoliques, many imitated freely from the Greek; didactic poems, as Hermes (an encyclopaedia of the world and man), Invention, and Am6rique, all abounding in fine verse ; El&gies and Epltres, recounting his life and habits. After 1789 appear his Odes, as the Jeu de Paume, A Charlotte Corday, and Versailles, his best. In prison he wrote the lambes, against the Jacobins, his master-pieces THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 187 being the poems, Comme un dernier rayon and the Jeune captive. He began also tragedies and comedies. — The inspiration of the pre-Eevolutionary poetry of Chbnibb is mainly that of antiquity. Yet he is still of the eigh- teenth century, skeptical, epicurean, calm. After the States General the hopes and passions of the time iind in him their expression. In both periods he shows him- self a master of form, of poetical language, and of har- monious rhythm. He freshens the alexandrine. His inspiration is in-ward, personal. Unknown for decades (1816), he had no followers. 4. Descriptive Poetry. — The last resource of art is description. The descriptive poetry of the period is in imitation of that of England. — Chaelbs-Feak50is de Saint-Lambekt (1716-1803), of Nancy, imitated Thom- son in his Saisons (1769), which excited the admiration of the age. He also wrote the CatScMsme universel (1797—1800), a treatise on moral science. — Jacques Delille (1738-1813) followed also the English school in translating the Georgics (1769), in writing the Jardins (1782), the Homme des champs (1800), and various other poems, all correct, but without emotion. He was the literary dictator of his time. — Many other poets copied them or their English models, as Jean-Ajsttoinb Eoucher (1745-1794), of Montpellier, author of the Mois (1779). — The Erench school was, in turn, imitated in Italy and Spain. 5. Melodrama. — The efforts of La Chaussbe to quicken comedy were systematically continued by Denis DiDBKOT (1713-1784), of Langres. The purpose of DiDBKOT was to make the stage a mirror of real life, as 188 PEIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. well as to inculcate moral lessons. He attacked tlie classi- cal unities, the stiff tone of tragedy, and the separation of the comic and tragic. He chose the life of the middle class for his field, and substituted for poetry the prose of daily conversation. His plays, the Fils naturel (1767) and the Fire defamille (1758), pathetic and didactic, had more influence abroad, as in Germany, than in rrance. 6. Comedy. — The notion of taking plots from the middle and lower classes prevailed likewise in comedy. — Michel-Jean Sedaine (1719-1797), after a volume. Pieces fugitives (1752), produced one of the best plays of the century in the Philosophe sans le savoir (1765), and took from a story of Scaekon the plot of the Gageure imprivue (1768). He also improved comic opera by his reforms and his librettos, as Richard Coeur de Lion. — Louis Cakkogis db Cakmontelle (1717-1806) intro- duced still further the popular element by dramatizing proverbs in his Proverbes dramatiques (1768-1781). — Chaeles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814) imitated VoLTAiEE in a satirical epic, the Dundade (1764), against the Middle Ages, wrote unsuccessful tragedies, but called attention to his comedies by assailing Eousseau and the Encyclopedists, as in the Philosophes (1760). He was also a fair literary critic. — jEAN-FEANgois Collin d'Harleville (1755-1806) was lyric rather than dra- matic in his Inconstant (1786), Chdteaux en Espagne (1789), and Vieux cSUbataire (1792). — As director of the Op6rarComique Chaeles-Simon Favart (1710-1792), a poet of the Jeux floraux, wrote vaudevilles, much in vogue, and light operas, as the Trois Sultanes (1761). 7. PiEEEE-AuGUSTiN Caeon DE Beaumaechais (1732- THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. 189 1799), of Paris, was the most successful dramatist of the time. He began with sentimental dramas, in the style of Diderot, as Euginie (1767) and the Deux amis (1770) which were well received. Democratic in spirit and hos- tile to the privileged classes is his comedy, the Barbier de Siville (1776), witty, abounding in dramatic situations and happy in invention. A sequel is the Manage de Figaro (1784), in which the upper classes and their char- acteristics are keenly and forcibly held up to ridicule. Its great run foretold the coming Eevolution. A contin- uation, the M^re coupable (1791), was lifeless and flat. Beaxjmaechais gained much fame from four Mimoires (1773) against bribery in law, which aroused public sen- timent on the subject. — A follower of Beaumaechais is PHiLippE-FKAsrgois-NAzAiEE Fabee (1755-1794), called d'EgiiAntine from a prize won in the Jeuxjloraux. He satirizes the higher society in successful plays, as the Philinte de Moli&re and the Pricepteurs. — Vaudevilles became very popular in this period and were cultivated by literary writers. 8. Tragedy. — The taste for classical tragedy had passed, though it was still written and played. — Pieeee- Louis DE Bellot (1727-1776) wrote many national tragedies, of which the Si&ge de Calais (1765), deeply patriotic, had success. — English dramatic influence, in- troduced by VoLTAiKE, took shape in the TM&tre de Shakespeare, a poor prose translation by Pieeee Letoue- NEUE (1736-1788), which aroused Voltaiee's jealousy. — On this translation jEAN-FKANgois Duois (1733-1816), of Versailles, based his sentimental versions of Hamlet (1769), Borneo et Juliette (1772), Macbeth (1789), and 190 PRIMEE OF FKENCH LITEKATUKE. other plays whicli prepared the way for subsequent re- forms. — A follower of Voltaire is Mabie-Joseph de Chbnieb (1764-1811), brother of Andee, who brought into his plays political doctrines. Charles IX. (1789), Henri VIII. (1791), GcCius Gracchus (1792), TimoUon (1794), and his best drama, Tihh-e (1805), forbidden by Napoleon, are dissertations against tyranny and fanati- cism. He is also the author of good EpUres. — The period shows throughout a constant effort to put new ideas into the old forms. 9. Prose: the Work of Eotjsseau. — The great writers of the period proclaimed the inferiority of poetry to prose. Voltaike stood alone in his cultivation of the former. — Jean- Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), of Ge- neva, introduced into prose the language of poetry. An ardent musician and writer of comedies and operas, as the Devin du village (1762), he attracted universal notice in a prize essay (1750) for the Academy of Dijon on the benefits derived from civilization. The system of Eous- SEAu is found already in this eloquent tirade against learning, society, and progress. The Lettres sur la musique francaise (1752) deny musical talent to France. The Discours sur I'iconomie politique (1753), in the Encyclo- psedia, advocates state control of property and manners. The Discours sur Vorigine et les fondemsnts de Vindgaliti parmi les hommes (1755), for the Dijon Academy, assails society and property and afB.rms the ideal state to be that of nature, of the savage. The Lettre d, d'Alembert centre les spectacles (1768) attacks the stage as glorifying vice. — To further advance his social views he chooses the form of a novel, Julie., ou la Nouvelle Hilolse (1760), THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUKY. 191 which, excited great interest. Nominally in the interest of virtue, abounding in rhetorical figures, eloquent and -often declamatory, this work in its description of land- scapes introduces into literature the love of nature. — The Contrat social (1762) is an argument in favor of an abso- lute democracy which by majority vote may control the public and private life of the individual. The influence of Plutarch is evident. — The views of Rousseau on education, derived partially from Locke, appear in Emile (1762). The child should be left to nature and learn by nature's laws, aided by a .skillful instructor. In Emile EoussEAu takes occasion to afiB^rm his belief in the im- mortality of an immaterial soul and in the existence of a personal God (the Profession de foi du vicaire Savoyard). — The Confessions (1782) are a cynical autobiography, remarkable for style, for the sentiment of nature, the desire for a simple life, and for the enthusiasm for a new social fabric. Among his other works is a Dictionnaire de musique. — The influence of Eousseau in politics is seen in the conduct of the French Eevolution ; in literature, by the sentimental spirit of subsequent fiction in Prance and Germany. On education, on religion, and on domestic life his views were studied and widely followed. 10. The Encyclopedists. — Opposed to Eousseau in reality, though associated with him in work and reforms, were the disciples of Voltaibe. Their chief, Didekot, began his career with translations from the English, with philosophic essays, as Sur le mirite et la vertu (1745), after Shaptesbuet, and with a defense of athe- '}3m, the Lettre sur les aveugles (1749). He undertook he EncyclopMie (1751-1777), in thirty-five volumes, 192 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. aided by D'Alembeet and the prominent writers of the time, with, the object of bringing together all human knowledge and of presenting its principle. The part of DiDEEOT, besides the editorial work, bore especially on the arts and trades. The spirit of the work was, in the main, materialistic. Its success was great, and translar tions spread abroad its doctrines. Didbkot began art criticism in the Salons (1761-), but considered paint- ings rather from the standpoint of a moralist. His Correspondance is valuable for social and literary studies. His later essays, of which the most important are the Lettre sur les sourds-muets (1754) and the B&ve de D'Alem- bert (1769), show the same materialistic bent. — His style is unequal, sometimes precise, but often pretentious. It is always animated. — Jeak Le KoiirD D'Alembeet (1717-1783), of Paris, a scientist, wrote the Discours pr&iminaire de V Encyclopidie (1751), after Bacon, and the mathematical articles. Among his other works is a Histoire des membres de I'AcadSmie francaise marts de- puis 1700 jusqu'en 1771 (1779-1787). His style is clear but lifeless. 11. Treatises. — Scientific, historical, and political writers abound, many of whom contributed to the Ency- clopaedia. — Franqois Q0ESNAY (1694-1774), physician to Louis XV., published various works on political econ- ,omy, as the Tableau iconomique (1768), ia which agri- culture is given as the source of the national wealth. — Anne-Eobeet-Jacqubs Tuegot (1727-1781) wrote many essays on religion and economics, notably the Recherches sur I'origine et la formation des richesses (1774). — Gabeiel Bonnot de Mably (1709-1785) aided the THE EIGHTEENTH CENTtTKY. 193 revolutionary current in his Observations sur les Checs (1749), Sur I'histoire de France (1765), Sur les Etats-Unis (1784), his Entretiens de Phocion (1763), and other works, poor in style, but filled with admiration for the constitu- tions of antiquity. — GuiLiiAuME-THOMAs-FKAJSTgois Ray- NAL (1713-1796), the author of a Correspondance UtUraire (1742-1754), attacks religion and state in the Histoire pJiilosopMque et politique des Stablissements et du commerce des Europiens dans les deux Indes (1778), written under the influence of Didebot. — Charles De Beosses (1709- 1777), president of the Parliament of Dijon, describes his travels in Italy in the Lettres sur I'dtat de la ville de Herculanum (1750), attempts scientific treatises, as the Formation m,&canique des langues (1765), and history. 12. Essays are not less numerous. — Charles Pinot Dttolos (1704-1772), a poor novelist and historian, suc- ceeded in the witty Considirations sur les mceurs de ce siMe (1751), an agreeable and animated description of manners and men. — Sebastibn-Roch-Nicolas Cham- FOET (1741-1794) wrote comedies, literary Eloges, but especially Pensies, maximes, anecdotes, bitter, keen, and embodying concisely the spirit of the age. — Antoinb DE RivAEOL (1753-1801), a literary critic and translator of Dajsttb, satirizes contemporary writers in the Petit almanack de nos grands hommes (1788). A royalist, he contributes to their journals (1789-) many political articles. He possessed also the elements of a philolo- gist. — More technical and less moral are essays on the fiae arts by Charles Batteux (1713-1780). His Prin- cipes de UMrature (1747-1755), based on Aristotle, had much influence in Germany. 194 PEIMEB OF FRENCH LITEEATUBE. 13. Science becomes literature in. the hands of Jean- Louis Leclekc (1707-1778), count of Buefon. His investigations, conducted patiently and methodically, were embodied in the Histoire naturelle (1749-1804), of debatable technical worth, but remarkable for its noble and digniiied style. The views of Buefok on this point are given in his Discours de reception d, VAcadimie fran- gaise (1763). Ideas are universal, style alone is peculiar to the individual : " Le style est I'homme m6me." Bur- FON had a great aversion for poetry. 14. Criticism forms the lasting work of Jeajst-T'ean- 901S Maemontel (1723-1799), of Limousin, who began with tragedies (1748-1753), after Voltaiee, and left Mimoires concerning particularly the literary salons of the century. His PoUiquefranqaise (1763) was followed by the EUments de littirature (1787), a collection of arti- cles written for the Encyclopeedia. He also wrote novels, an essay, Sur la langue francaise, and poems in imitation of the Spanish ballads. — jEAsr-FEANgois de La Harpe (1739-1803), of Paris, likewise a disciple of Voltaiee, began with successful tragedies, as Warwiclc (1763) and Philoct&te (1783), after Sophocles, and pronouiiced em- phatic Eloges. In the Lyc&e (1799-1805) — lectures delivered at that institution — he founds oral literary criticism in Trance. He is an advocate of poetry and contributed to the national esteem for the authors of the seventeenth century. La Haepe is the author of a Cor- respondance litt&raire (1801-1807) and of commentaries on the theater of Eacine and Voltaiee. — Feiedeich Melchioe Geimm (1723-1807), of Eatisbonne, owes his importance to his Correspondance Uttdraire, a bi-monthly THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 195 series of letters to prominent personages on French lit- erature (1753-1790), and giving the most authentic account of the time. His example was much imitated. — Interest in the old literature was revived by the pub- lication of the popular epic romances in the BibliotMque universelle des romans (1775-1789), begun by La Vergne DE Tkessast (1705-1783), and in the Nouvelle biblioth^que des romans (1798-1805). — A philologist was La Cuenb DE Sainte-Palaye (1697-1781), who left a manuscript of the first Dictionnaire des antiquMs frangaises. — Dus- sieux published the first daily newspaper, the Journal de Paris (1777). 15. Philosophy continued materialistic. — Claude-Ad- KiEN Helvetius (1715-1771), of Paris, opposed the views of Montesquieu in his work De V esprit (1758), the doctrine of selfishness. — Paul Heineich Dietrich VON HoLBACH (1721-1789), of Heidelsheim, assailed all existing relations in the Syst&me de la nature (1770), in which the individual, the work of nature, should follow freely his nature. Political anarchy was one of its con- sequences. — The mathematician, Caeitat de Condoe- CET (1743-1794), in the Esquisse d'un tableau historique desprogrds de V esprit humain (1794), showed the histori- cal development of the human mind. — Constantin- FKANgois DE CHAssEBffiUF-VoLNEY (1758-1820), the last of the Encyclopedists, applied materialism to moral science in the CaticMsme d'un citoyen frangais (1793), and to historical events in the Buines. He also, among other treatises, wrote a scheme of a world-language. — The best philosopher of the century is a follower in part of Locke, the abbot ^Stienne Bonnot de Mablt-Con- 196 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. DiLLAc (1715-1780). In the Essai sur I'origine des connaiss'ances humaines (1746), the Trait4 des syst&mes (1749), and the Traiti des sensations (1754), he derives all knowledge from sensual perception. His style is clear and attractive. 16. Oratory was revived by the Eevolution and found a tribune in the National Assembly. Of the many har rangues of the period the Discours of Gabbibl-Honoke DB EiQTjETTi-MiKABEAtJ (1749-1791) preserve still, in their rough style and incorrect expression, their force and brilliancy. — Mikabeau is also the author of polit- ical treatises, as the Essai sur le despotisme (1776) and De la monarchie prussienne (1788). 17. Fiction produced little of lasting value. — Didekot followed Cbbbillon in the Bijoux indiscrets (1748). A polemic, but influenced by EiOHAEDSOif, is the Religieuse (1760), a psychological study. The Neveu de Rameau (1760), in dialogue form, assails vices and theorizes on music. Other stories, the Petits papiers, are remarkable for style and finish. — Makmontel, guided by the Eng- lish school, wrote the Contes moraux (1761) for the Mer- cure, keen in observation; the historical but argumentative novels, B&lisaire (1767) and the Incas (1777), declama- tory against fanaticism; and the Nouveaux contes moraux (1801). — Jean-Jacques Babthblemt (1716-1795) puts in the form of a novel, the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Or&ce (1788), his knowledge of the manners and life of ancient Greece. The work incited scientific research. — Jacques-Henki Beknardin de Saint-Pieeee (1737- 1814), of Le Havre, was a disciple of Eousseau in his sentimentality and love of nature. This influence, given THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. 197 free play by extensive travel, appeared in the Voyage d, I'Isle de France (1773) and in the Etudes de la nature (1789), which include the idyll, Paul et Virginie. The natural innocence and happiness of man, removed from civilization and left to the savage state, is here unfolded in romantic descriptions and emotional phrases. Its over- delicacy and excessive sentiment were not felt %■ the ideal tendency of the time. It is the only enduring novel of the period. Of a similar nature is the story, the Cliau- midre indienne (1790). The Harmonies de la nature (1796) continue the Etudes. Saint-Piekkb is the me- dium of communication between Eousseau and Eoman- ticism. — Jean-Pxebee Claris de Floeian (1755-1794) wrote the pastoral novels, Galatie (1783) and Estelle (1788). His historical romances, Numa Pompilius (1786), Gonzalve de Cordoue (1791), after Pebez de Hita, and Guillaume Tell (1794) were too sentimental. His com- edies, stories, and Fables (1792), after La Fontaine, were better received. — Aenaud Beequin (1749-1791), a writer of idylls and ballads, gained reputation by the Ami des enfants (1782), after Weisse, and other books for children. — Eestif de la Beetonne (1734-1806) was a voluminous writer of coarse tales, distinguished for observation of manners. In satire he follows Ctrano. He id much imitated in later literature. PAKT YI. The Nineteenth Century. 1801-. CHAPTER XVI. EIHST PERIOD. 1801-1848. POETRY. THE DRAMA. . Poetry. The Classical School: Charles de CHtNEDOLLK, 1769-1833 ; L0UIS-P1ERRE-MAEIB-FEAN901S Baoxjr-Lormian, 1770-1854; Marc-Antoine-Mabeleine D^saugiers, 1772- 1827; Pierre-Jean de BiSranger, 1780-1857; Charles-Hu- bert MiLLEVOYE, 1782-1816; Pierre-Antoine Lebrun, 1785-1873. The Komantic School : Alphonse Makib-Louis DE Lamaetinb, 1790-1869; !^MILE Deschajips, 1791-1871; Alfred de Vigny, 1799-1863 ; Victor-Marie Hugo, 1802- 1885; AuGUSTB Barbier, 1805-1882; Alfred de Musset, 1810-1857; Theophile Gautier, 1811-1872. Drama. Classical tragedy : Louis-jEAN-NiSpoMrcENE Le- MERCIBR, 1773-1840 ; Alexandre Soumet, 1788-1845 ; Jej^n- FEANgois-CASiMiR Delavignb, 1794-1843. Classical comedy : Francois Andrieux, 1759-1833 ; Louis-BbnoIt Picabd, 1769- 1828. The Romantic theater: Hugo; Alexandre Dumas, 1803-1870 ; DE "ViGNY; AuGUSTiN-EuGbNE Scribe, 1791-1861 ; DE Musset. Classical reaction : Delphine Gay, 1805-1855 ; Francois Ponsaed, 1814-1867. 1. Characteristics of the Ifineteenth Century ; Periods. -The literature of the nineteenth century is the out- THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY. 199 come of the social and political revolution of 1789. Opening the French mind to the thought of neighboring peoples, English and German writers were widely imitated. The transference of power to the third estate, and ulti- mately to the laborer and artisan, gave a new field for study and a new reading public. — The literary revolution began with Eousseau. It was fulfilled in spirit with Chateaubkiand, in form with Hugo. The principles which prevailed were to regard more the thought of the productions, their likeness to nature, rather than fidelity to fixed rules of expression. Standards of style wavered. The taste of the moment guided the best authors. Beauty in form and nobility in sentiment were absent. — Two distinct periods separate the works of the century. The first extends from Atala (1801) to the death of Chateau- briand (1848), which year saw also, a further change in society and government. The second is not yet ended. — The first period is subdivided in poetry and drama. From 1801 to 1820 — the years of the writings of Cha- TEAuBKiAifD — diminished and deteriorated by the abso- lutism of the Revolution, of Napoleon, and of Louis XVIII., they remained within the old forms, and pre- sented, as did the costume and art of the time, the figures of antiquity. On the other hand, the prose, more faith- ful to the masses, showed in its intense Catholicism in religion and literature, the desire for new and broader modes of thought, which culminated in the reform of the Romantic movement (1820-1848). 2. Poetry in the forms marked out by Boileau was continued in a romantic spirit by Charles de Chene- DOLLE (1769-1833), who, in his love for nature and 200 PRIMER OP FRENCH LITERATURE. emotional expression, was guided by Saint-Pieere and Chateaubkiand. — Louis-PiEKEB-MABiE-FEANgois Baoue-Loemian (1770-1854), a writer of tragedies and an enemy of the Romantic movement, attempted epic poetry in the Atlantide and the Betour de la religion, but is best known for his translations of the Gerusalemme liberata and of Ossian. — Pieere-Antoine Lebeun (1785-1873) celebrated the military glory of the Empire in various odes, as Ode d la grande armie (1805) and Pohme lyrique sur la mort de Napoleon (1821). He produced Marie Stuart (1820), after Schillee, and described travels in the poem. Voyage en Ghr&ce (1828). — Descrip- tive poetry was cultivated by Chaeles-Hubeet Mille- VOTE (1782-1816), in the Plaisirs d'un poite, Charlemagne d, Pavie, and the elegy, CJivie des feuilles. 3. Popular Poetry received a literary finish in the chansons of Maec-Antoine- Madeleine Dbsaugiees (1772-1827), the head of the Caveau modeme and a vau- devillist. His songs are mainly on love and wine. — The family poet, who was also patriotic and jovial, was Pieeee- Jean de Bbean-gee (1780-1857), of Paris. Beginning with general themes, he continues after the Kestoration with political and satirical songs, attacking the govern- ment and extolling the Empire, which owes much of the notions of its glory to Bbrangee. His popularity is still great. His letters are fine specimens of prose. 4. The Romantic lyric. — The essence of Romanticism was freedom in literature. Opposition to rules and theories and attacks on the classical forms were the main features of the movement. The writers sought in the art of the Middle Ages and in the poetry of the THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY. 201 P16iade their inspiration. — Less important was the in- fluence of the Catholic reaction in Prance. — The lan- guage "was enriched with new and obsolete words. Color, life, and sonorousness were aimed at in expression. The versification was rid of the prosaic element, poetical terms were revived or invented, the rules for the caesura and overflow disregarded, and a multiplicity of verse sought after. — The Eomantic school began with the study of foreign literature. It first appeared in journal- ism, the Muse francaise, to which the Globe (1824-1832), founded by Paul Dubois, succeeded. The club of the reformers, the Ginacle, was first led by Chateaubriand, afterwards by Nodiek. 5. AlphonsbMakib-Louis deLamaktine (1790-1869), of MAeon, forms the transition between the new ideas and their new forms. Like Chateaubeiand his chief char- acteristics are admiration for religion and nature. His favorite reading was found in Italian authors, Milton, Ossian and his French predecessors. Parny influenced his first poems. The Meditations poitiques (1820), re- posing on personal experience and rendered in pure and harmonious verse, revealed the new spirit though still in the old dress. The Lac is perhaps the most finished elegy in French literature. — The Nouvelles MMitations (1823) and the Harmonies poitiques et religieuses (1829) are along the lines marked out by Chateaubriand and show the same excellence of style and sentiment. — A project of a Christian epic resulted in the episodes, Jocelyn (1836), the best long poem of Lamartine, and the Chute d'un avge (1838), a failure through negligence of expression and dilution of thought. — The Mecueille- 202 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITERATUKE. ments poitiques (1839) and detached ■works, as the Mort de Socrate (1823), and the Dernier chant du p&lerinage de CJiilde Harold (1825), after Byeon, show the merits of Lamabtine, harmony and purity, and his defects, ex- cessive facility and vagueness. — His prose works, as the Voyage en Orient (1835), after Chateaubbiand, the Histoire des Girondins (1847), a prose epic, the suc- cess and political influence of which was enormous, and the story Graziella (1852), an idyll of Naples, are lively in narration and poetical in style. A vast amount of historical sketches, biography, and criticism of slight value contributed to destroy the literary reputation of the poet. — Lamabtine was also eminent as an orator. In his Discours de reception (1830), at the Academy, he appeared as mediator between the old and new schools of poetry. 6. Victob-Maeie Hugo (1802-1885), of Besan^on, the leader of the Romantic school, seeks only outward material in royalty and Christianity. His genuine inspiration comes from literary opposition to the seven- teenth century classics and the ideas of the Encyclope- dists. Putting himself forward as the mouthpiece of his age, he aims to express its inspirations and emotions. A poet of the Jeux floraux (1818), his Odes (1822) show force and beauty. In the Odes et ballades (1826), from the Middle Ages, and the Orientates (1829), on Eastern subjects, he reveals his nature in the color and brilliancy of his language, in the strangeness of his images, and in the variety of his measures. Eich rime is revived, and the rhythm- often drowns the thought. — Social and political subjects are replaced by those of the household THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 203 and family in the Feuilles d'automne (1831)^ the Chants du cripuscule (1836), the Voix intirieures (1837), and the Rayons et les ombres (1840). — Political, against the Second Empire, are the Chatiments (1862), after D'Au- BiGjrii. The Contemplations (1856), on his own life, on the poor, and on nature, were followed by his most am- I'bitious undertaking, an epic of humanity, the Ligende I des siMes (1859, 1877), which for depth of thought, for variety and nobility of expression and richness of similes and verse, is the best work of Hugo. A collection of graceful pastorals are the Chansons des rues et des hois (1865). The Quatre vents de V esprit (1881) contain many fine pieces. The posthumous poetry of Hugo, as Toute la lyre, shows both the qualities and defects of his previous work. The latter arise from poverty of thought, from a striving for rhetorical effect, and from extrava- gance in metaphors and language. 7. AiFEBD DE MussET (1810-1867), of Paris, the third great poet of the century, began as an extreme Eomanticist in idea and form, as in the Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie (1830). Later his original talent brings him back to classicism. Eefleeting the idle and wasted side of life in the Byronian manner, he publishes several collections of poems, as Un spectacle dans un fauteuil (1832), in which is Namouna, after Bybon's Don Juan. Holla (1833) is in the same vein of weary disgust of life. — A broader style and deeper thought are found in the four N'uits (1835-1836), inspired by an unfortunate pas- sion for George Sand. Various poems of the first rank, as the Lettre d, Lamartine and the Stances d, la Malibran, followed. — MussET is peculiarly the poet of youth. 204 PEIMER OP PEBNCH LITEEATITEE. Save these last works his poems are limited in scope and immature. But he is intense in the expression of personal pain and passion. His verse has the harmony of Lamaktinb together with his own lightness and conciseness. 8. Minor Poets of the Romantic School. — The work of fiivmE Deschamps (1791-1871), of Bourges, was to introduce foreign literature. He translated Goethe's plays, Schiller's poems, and Shakspebe's dramas. His Etudes frangaises et Mrang&res (1829-1835) copy the forms of foreign lyrics with an excessive use of feminine rimes. — His brother, AifTONT (1800-1869), translated Petrakch and Dante. — Makcblinb Desbordes-Val- MOKE (1787-1859) wrote elegies and descriptive poems of much feeling and grace. — More inspiration is shown by Alfred de Vigny (1799-1863), of Loches. A dis- ciple of Chbnier and a friend of Hugo, his Po^mes antiques et modernes (1822-1826) are unusual for their philosophic thought, pure style, and graceful expression. Didactic and descriptive are the Destinies of his later years. His best single works are Moise and Eloa of his first attempts. — Auguste Babbier (1805-1882), of Paris, is best known for his lambes (1831), imitated in form from Chenibe. They are satires against the vices and greed of the time. Later, foreign subjects were treated by Barbiee, as n pianto (1833), on Italy, and Lazare (1841), on the English laborer. Lighter are his Chansons et odelettes (1851) and Silves et rimes Ughres (1872). — A poet of nature is Auguste Brizeux (1806- 1858), of Lorient, whose idylls, Marie (1831) and the Bretons (1845), written at first in Celtic, are delicate and THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY. 205 simple scenes of rural life. — Hbgbsippe Mokbau (1810- 1838), of Paris, in the Myosotis (1838), a collection of elegies, describes his unfortunate career and his misery. 9. Thbophile Gautier (1811-1872), of Tarbes, is the most faithful follower and imitator of Hugo. His vocation of artist influenced his choice of picturesque and colored language. His Premihres po&sies (1830), after the Orientales, are addressed to the senses alone. His Emaux et cam6es, clear-cut, finely polished, leave little to be desired from the artistic standpoint. He is the leader of the school of art for art and the head of the Parnassiens. 10. Classical Tragedy, upheld by the genius of Talma (1763-1826), was cultivated by Louis-Jean-Nbpomu- CENE Lemekciek (1773-1840), the author of the scien- tific epic, the Atlaniiade, and of the satirical epic, the Panhypocrisiade (1819). His best tragedy was Agamem- non (1797). In Ohi-istophe Colomb (1809) the three unities are disregarded. Mediaeval history furnishes the subject of later plays, as FrMegonde et Brunehaut (1821). Original and vigorous, Lemekciee approaches the views of the Romantic school. — Victor-Joseph ^tienne de JoxTT (1764-1846) wrote JBilisaire (1818) and Sylla (1821), of slight interest. — Antoine- Vincent Arnault (1766-1834) extolled Bonaparte, after the Vinitiens (1799), in Scipion (1804) and Oermanicus (1817). He was also a moral poet and fabulist. ■ — Alexandre Sou- met (1788-1845) shows the influence of the reform in Jeanne d'Arc (1825), after Schiller, in Une F&te de mron (1830) and Norma (1831). 11. Uore Bomantic is jEAN-FRANgois-CAsiMiR Dela- 206 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. viGNE (1794-1843), the poet of the political Messiniennes (1818) against the Restoration. Purely classical are his Vipres siciliennes (1819). The Paria (1821), Romantic in theme, is followed by Marino Fcdiero (1829), after Bykon. Louis XI. (1832) and the Enfants d'Edouard (1833), both still popular, show the absorbing tendency of the new school. Dblavigne wrote also comedies, at first in the old patterns, as the Oomidiens (1821) and the Princesse AurUie (1828), afterwards, as Don Juan d'Autriche (1835), imitating Sckibe, with whom he also collaborated. The versification and facility of Dela- viGNE do not compensate for his lack of invention. — jACQUBS-AKSENE-PoLTCAEPE-l'EANgOIS AnCELOT (1794- 1854) produced a highly successful tragedy, Louis IX. (1819), imitated Schilleb in Fiesque (1824), wrote dramas, vaudevilles, comedies, an epic poem, a novel, and the Epitres famili&res, a collection of satires. 12. Classical Comedy is represented by FBANgois- GuiLLAUME Andkieux (1759-1833), of Melun, whose Etourdis (1787) is his best play. His Contes are also distinguished for their wit and grace. — Louis-BenoIt PicAED (1769-1828) is amusing and witty in Mediocre et rampant (1797), the Petite ville (1801) or the Marion- nettes (1806). But he lacks style and is superficial. His novels are forgotten. — Michel -Theodore Leclerq (1777-1861) followed Cabmontelle in his Proverbes dramatiques (1823, 1836). 13. The Romantic Drama, like the poetry, so far as it is in verse, was inspired by the same notions of opposi- tion. In subject, however, it aimed at the imitation of the English stage and attempted, like the drame bourgeois THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 207 of DiDEEOT, to draw nearer to life. The fusion of the comic and the tragic, the violation of the unities, and the introduction of monologues are the principal features. Its language is both popular and noble ; its rhythm both regular and broken, the alexandrine is varied, and lyric measures are frequent. The manifesto of the school is the preface of Cromwell (1827). 14. Victor Hugo, after presenting his views in Crom- well, which was never acted, produced, in imitation of the English drama, Hernani (1829). The triumph of this play over the opposition of the classicists led to Marion Delorme (1831), the Soi s'amuse (1832), Lucrhce Borgia (1833), Marie Tudor (1833), Angelo (1835), Buy Bias (1838), next to Hernani in merit, and the Burgraves (1843), a decided failure. Torquemada (1882) is his last play. — The theater of Hugo is his weakest point. His violation of the traditional laws of composition and versification was not counterbalanced by sufficient vigor of thought or dramatic skill. The comic side is too often vulgar, and his conception of the real too trifling or grotesque. 15. Alexandre Dumas (1803-1870), of Villers-Cotte- rets, followed English and German models in his plays, original or dramatized from his novels. Christine de SuMe (1829), Henri III. et sa cour (1829), in the taste of the time and full of life, were successful in spite of their defects of action and of historical exactness. Antony (1831) and the Tour de Nesle (1833) are cruel and bloody, as are the remaining tragedies. In his comedies, as Kean (1836) and Mile, de Belle-Isle (1839), Dumas employs the same methods of surprises and unconnected 208 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITEKATUKE. development of plot. In his knowledge of the stage and in dramatic instinct he is the best of the school. — Alfked DB ViGNY translated from Shakspebb, Shylock (1828) and Othello (1829). His historical plays, the Mar^chale d'Ancre (1831) and Chatterton (1835) are less exaggera/- ted than those of Hugo or Dumas. — The main defect of the Eomantic drama is unreality. The truth sought after is lacking. The characters, feebly sketched, speak in- variably the sentiments of the author, which derive not from observation, but from imagination. Melancholy is the main trait of the hero. 16. The Comedy of the time is neither classical nor Eo- mantic. — Its great exponent, AuGUSTiN-EuGBisrE Sceibb (1791-1861), of Paris, the author of some four hundred pieces, is renowned mainly for his skill in construction. Beginning with farces, as Une nuit de corps de garde, he tried high comedy in the successful Mariage d'argent (1827), against the prevailing avarice, and ia Avant, Pendant et Apr^s (1828), a political trilogy in favor of the government. Besides many vaudevilles, he wrote com- edies of note, as Bertrand et Eaton (1833) and Adrienne Lecouvreur (1849), for Eachel. Sceibe is the best libret- tist of France, as the Dame Blanche, Masaniello, Fra Diavolo and the operas of Meyerbeer demonstrate. — Alfeed de Mussbt produced, for reading, various short dramas, as the Nuit vinitienne (1830), the Caprices de Marianne (1833), Lorenzaccio (1834), more ambitious, and the Chandelier (1035). His dramatized proverbs, as line faut jurer de rien, On ne badine pas a-yec I' amour, and II faut qu'une parte soit ouverte ou fermie, are perhaps the most charming short plays in French literature, THE NINETEENTH CENTtJEY. 209 resembling those of Maeivaux, but stronger, more pa- thetic, and highly poetical. — Pkospee Mbeimeb (1803- 1870), of Paris, introduced Romantic notions in a collec- tion of dramas, the TJi4vLtre de Clara Gazul (1825), rather realistic in nature. 17. Classical reaction in tragedy was brought about by the improbabilities and exaggerations of the Eomantic drama. — Incited by iSlisabeth Eachel (1821-1858), who revived (1838) Coestedlle and Eaoine with great success, Delphixe Gat de Gieaedin (1805-1855), of Aachen, a follower of Lamaktine in odes and elegies, wrote Judith (1843) and Oleopatre (1847). In comedy she imitated MoLiEEE in Lady Tartuffe (1853) and produced the still popular La joie fait peur (1859). — Fean^ois Ponsaed (1814^1867), of Vienne, opposed the Romanticists in Lucrhce (1843), written for Rachel, which established his reputation. Agnis de Meranie (1846) and Charlotte Cor- day (1850) were taken from French history. The popu- lar taste changing, Ponsaed produces comedies of the ideal, didactic kind, as Honneur et I'argent (1863), the Bourse (1856), the Lion amoureux (1866), and Galilee (1867). The Nineteenth Century. 1801-. CHAPTER XVII. FIRST PERIOD. 1801-1848. PEOSE. ProBe. FEANgois-RENE DB Chateaubriaj^d, 1768-1848. Politi- cal treatises : Louis-Gab^iel-Ambroise de Bonald, 1753- 1840 ; Joseph-Marie de Maistre, 1754-1821 ; Hugues-Fb- LiciTB-ROBEBT DE Lambnnais, 1782-1854. Social treatises : Claude-Henri DB Saint-Simon, 1760-1825; FKANrois-MARiE- CiiARLES Fourier, 1772-1837 ; Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, 1809-1865. Essays: Joseph Joubebt, 1754-1824; Paul- Louis Courier, 1772-1825. History : Aimable-Guillaumb- Prosper BBUGliSRB DB Barantb, 1783-1866; FEAN501S- Pierre-Guillaumb GuizoT, 1787-1874 ; Augustin Thierry, 1795-1856; FBANgoiS-AuGUSTE-ALEXiS MiGNET, 1796-1884; Louis-Adolphe Thiers, 1797-1877 ; Jules Michelet, 1798- 1874 ; Alexis CliI;rel de Tocqueville, 1805-1859. Literary history and criticism : FRANqois-JusTB-MARiB Raynouard, 1761-1836; ABEL-FBAK901S Villemain, 1790-1870; Charles- AuGusTiN Saintb-Bbuvb, 1804-1869. Philosopliy : Pierre- Paul RoYBR-CoLLARD, 1763-1845; Victor Cousin, 1792- 1867 ; AuGUSTE Comte, 1798-1857. Oratory ; Jean-Baptiste- Henbi Lacordairb, 1802-1861. Fiction; Ideal: Mme. dk Staicl, 1766-1817; HuGO; dbVigny; Dumas; dbMusset; Gautier; George Sand, 1804-1876; Emile Souvestre, 1806-1854; GltRAKD DE Nerval, 1808-1854; Jules San- DEAU, 1811-1883. Realistic: Marie-Henri Beyle (Stend- hal), 1783-1842; Prosper MArimAe, 1803-1870; Honor]!: de THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 211 Balzac, 1799-1850; Fe^d^ric Soulit!:, 1800-1847; EugSne Sub, 1804-1857 ; Jules Janin, 1804-1874 ; Charles db Bbb- NAED, 1805-1850. 1. The Prose of the period was affected by the Eo- mantic movement in its vocabulary and style. The sim- ple, concise, logical phrase gave way before the enthu- siasm pf new ideas and new modes of expression and left the sentence wavering and obscure. — The dominating spirit is that of Eousseau and of the Encyclopedists. In politics and social science many theories are advocated. History is philosophically cultivated. Criticism is given a new and objective base. Oratory is advanced to a higher plane and invades the schools. Fiction under- goes a great revival and extension and becomes again the leading popular branch of literature. 2. FKANgois-EENE DE Chateaubbiand (1768-1848), of St. Malo, is the leader and inspirer of his generation. In him the worship of nature is united with the relig- ious enthusiasm of the Catholic reaction. Attempts at poetry were followed by the skeptical Essai Mstorique, politique et moral sur les revolutions (1797), in which he represents humanity as turning hopelessly in an endless circle. — His true vein, strengthened by travel in Ameri- can forests, appears in Atala (1801), a tale of nature, melancholy, and suicide. It forms an episode of the G4nie du Christianisme (1802), a defense of Christianity from the artistic and literary standpoint, and a eulogy of the Middle Ages. Sentimental rather than dog- matic, bold in its attacks on infidelity, the new thought expressed in a colored and figurative language, the vivid- ness of description and the warmth of its literary expo- 212 PEIMEK OF FRENCH LITERATURE. sition assured the work the sympathy of the times it represented. Another episode, Reni, is the romance of the savage life of its restless, melancholy hero. In these fictions is seen the disciple of Eousseau and Saint-Piebbe. The Dernier des Abencerages (1807), after Perez de Hita, was followed by the Mai-tyrs (1809), a sequel, iu novel form, to the Ginie. — The style of modern travels was set by the Itineraire de Paris d, Jirusalem (1810). Various political writings, the Natchez (1826) — a sequel to SenS, — the autobiographical M6- moires d'outre torribe (1811-1833) and the Etudes histo- riques (1831) are his remaining works. — The main defect of Chateaubbiand is lack of plan. He reflects his epoch. He forms the transition and is the chief inspirer of the Romantic movement. 3. Political and Religious Treatises. — Among the political writers Louis-Gabeiel-Ambroise de Bonald (1753-1840) opposed the Revolution in various essays, as the TJiiorie dupouvoir civil et religieux (1796). His views are summed up in the Legislation primitive (1802). Weak thinking and a severe and firm style are his char- acteristics. — To the same party belongs Joseph-Maeie DB Maistbe (1754-1821), of Chamb6ry. The Considd- rations sur la France (1796), against the doctrines of the eighteenth century, the Essai sur le principe ginSrateur des constitutions politiques (1810), in favor of an unlim- ited monarchy, and Du pape (1819), advocating the supreme spiritual and temporal authority of the pontiff, were followed by the Soiries de Saint-Pitershourg (1821), philosophical conversations on evil and its punishment, and by various posthumous works. De Maistre resem- THE "NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 213 bles Rousseau in his dogmatism and eloquence. — From a purely religious point of view the abbot Hugues- Fblicite-Eobert de Lamennais (1782-1864), of St. Malo, defends the church in the Biflexions sur I'itat de Viglise en France (1808) and in the Essai sur Vindiffirence (1817-1823), an eloquent attack on skepticism and in favor of the absolute theocracy of the pope. The rights of the latter he had shown historically in the Traditions de Viglise (1814). The Apologie (1821) defends the privileges of the church. The essay, De la religion (1825- 1826), is against GaUican independence. His journal, the Avenir (1830), supported the same democratic opin- ions. These were further advocated in the Paroles d'un croyant (1833), in Biblical style. Other treatises against Rome and in favor of socialism, as De I'esdave moderne (1840) and Esquisse d'une philosophie (1841-1846), based on common consent, reveal theistic notions. Ardent declamation and mysticism are the chief qualities of Lamennais. — Louis Veuillot (1813-1883) was the Ultramontane champion in the journal, Univers, in cleri- cal novels, and in keen but often coarse pamphlets. — Benjamin" Constant (1767-1830), an orator of note, led the liberals in politics and religion. His numerous writ- ings and orations and his philosophical work, De la religion (1824-1830), were supplemented by novels, as AdolpJie (1816), and a tragedy, Waldstein. 4. Political Economy is represented by the numerous works of Jean-Baptiste Sat (1767-1832) of the school of Adam Smith. — Industrial socialism is upheld by Claudb-Henei db Saint-Simon (1760-1826), in the Biorganisation de la sodM europienne (1814) and other 214 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITBEATUEB. ■writings. — Social reform is demanded by FBANgois- Makie-Chaeles Foukiek (1772-1837) in the TMorie de quatre mouvements (1808) and later treatises. — Private property is attacked in Qu'est-ce que la propri4ti ? (1840) and the Systime des contradictions iconomiques (1846) of PiEKEE-JosEPH Pboudhon (1809-1865). 5. The Essays of Joseph Joubeet (1754^1824), of Montignac, consist of Pensies and Maodmes on various subjects, highly polished, concise and classical. — Paul- Louis CouEiEE (1772-1825), of Paris, a student of Greek and of the sixteenth century, satirized the Resto- ration in pamphlets of exquisite irony and extremely artistic style. 6. History of the descriptive kind is seen in the His- toire des dtics de Bourgogne (1824-1828) of Aimable- Gitillaume-Peospek Beugieee de Baeante (1783- 1866), who opposed centralization in other works, as the essay Des communes et de I'aristocratie (1821) and the Histoire de la Convention (1852-1853). His Tableau de la littSrature francaise au XVIII" silde (1809) advocates national themes and contains well-grounded judgments. — Philosophical history is found in the numerous pro- ductions of PEANgOIS-PlEEEE-GuiLLAUME GuiZOT (1787- 1874), of Nimes. His lectures at the Sorbonne on the history of civilization were published as Cours d'histoire moderne (1828-1830). The Histoire de la rifoolvMon d'Angleterre (1826-1828), the Collection de mimoires (1823-1836), the Vie de Washington (1839), Mimoires (1858-1868), and the Histoire de France (1870-1875) are among his most important works. The broad style and easy eloquence of Guizot attracted imitators, as did his THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 215 method of historical investigation. — Among them Fean- 901S-AUGUSTE- Alexis Mignet (1796-1884), of Aix, gained celebrity by the Histoire de la Eivolution francaise (1824), which centers around the third estate. Various studies and biographies, as the Histoire de Marie Stuart (1851) and Portraits et notices of past colleagues, are distinguished for their keenness of insight and brilliancy of style. — Louis-Adolphb Thibks (1797-1877), of Marseille, an emiuent orator, wrote a Hintoire de la Revo- lution francaise (1823-1827), somewhat epic in character, but is best known for the Histoire du Oonsulat et de V Empire (1843-1863), precise and clear. — A work of social science is De la democratie en Amirique (1835), by Alexis Clbkbl db Tocqueville (1805-1869), to which his Ancien regime et la Revolution (1856) is hardly in- ferior. — The head of the descriptive school is Augustin Thiekby (1795-1856), of Blois, who produced, with more criticism than Baeante, the Histoire de 4a conquite de I'Angleterre (1825), the Lettres sur VMstoire de France (1827), the Ridts des temps mirovingiens (1840) and the Tiers-Etat (1853) .— Jules Michelbt (1798-1874), of Paris, a deeply poetical nature, displays more partisan- ship and fancy than historical accuracy in the Histoire de France (1837-1867), the Histoire de la Revolution fran- ^ise (1847-1853), and various essays, remarkable for their abrupt and picturesque style. — Edgae Quinbt (1803-1876), of Bourg, philosophizes on history and religion in numerous writings, as the Ginie des religio7is (1842) a,nd the Revolutions d' Italie (1848). He is also a poet and an admirer of the mediaeval literature. His bent is mystical. — Henki Maetin (1810-1884) resumes 216 PKIMEE OF FRENCH LITBEATURE. the results of the investigators in the standard Histoire de France (1833-1836). — Minor historians abound. 7. Literary History and Criticism. — Incited by the new historical research, FEANgois-JusTE-MAEiB Kat- NouAKD (1761-1836), of Brignoles, the author of trage- dies, as the Templiers (1805), turned his attention to Proven9al linguistics. The EUments de la grammaire romane (1816), the Choix de poisies originales des Trou- badours (1816-1821), and the Lexique roman (1838- 1844), together with other publications, established his reputation. — The South of France was ■ also the object of the historical and literary studies of Claude Faukiel (1772-1844), whose Histoire de la po6sie proven ^ale (1846) is best known. — Jean-Chaeles-Lbonakd Simonde de SisMONDi (1773-1842), of Geneva, attracted attention by various historical works, as the Histoire des Francois (1821-1844), and by De la litt&rature du midi de I'Europe (1839).— ABEL-FEANgois Villemain (1790-1870), of Paris, began the criticism of literature from the histori- cal standpoint. His lectures, published as the Cours de littirature francaise (1828-1838), were supplemented by many literary and historical essays. — The most promi- nent follower of Villemain is FRANgois-AuGUSTE Saint- Maec Gieaedin (1801-1873), the author of the Gours de littirature dramatiqiie (1843) and of La Fontaine et les fabuUstes (1867). 8. Chaeles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869), of Boulogne-sur-Mer, the critic of the Bomantic school, reaches the highest point of the historical method. Be- ginning with articles in the Globe, united in the Tableau de la po&sie franchise au seizi^me siide (1828, enlarged THE NINETEENTH CBNTtJEY. 217 1838 by tlie TMdtre), he proved the former independence of the rules of Malheebe. He continued with various ■ poems and a novel, Volupt6 (1834). A study of the Jansenists resulted in the Histoire de Poii-Boyal (1840). Under the head of Portraits litteraires (1832-1839), Por- traits contemporains (1846), Causeries du lundi (1851- 1862), Nouveaux lundis (1863-1869), and other titles, he collected many studies and sketches which form a his- tory of French literature from the sixteenth century. Isolated works, as Chateaubriand et son groupe Uttiraire (1860), complete the journal articles. The method of Sainte-Beuvb was to study au author in connection with his surroundings. — Jban-Makie-Napoleon-De- siEE NisAKD (1806-1888) upholds the dogmatic, sub- jective criticism of the old school in his Histoire de la littirature francaise (1844-1861), remarkable for its rigid application of aesthetic principles. 9. Philosophy passes from the materialistic to the ideal school in the writings of Maine de Biban (1766- 1824). — The doctrines of the Scottish school were adopted by the celebrated orator, Pieere-Paul Eotee- CoLLAED (1763-1845). — Victoe Cousin (1792-1867), of Paris, is eclectic and superficial. His Cours d'histoire de la philosophie (1827), his Fragments philosophiques (1826), and Du vrai, du beau et du bien (1836) are noted for their firm and pure style. Cousin attained more lasting reputation in his literary-historical essays, as Jacqueline Pascal (1842), Mme. de Longueville (1853), and the Sociite frangaise au XVII" si^cle (1868). — The great philosopher of the period is Auguste Comte (1798- 1857), whose positivism is expounded in the Oours de 218 PEIMEE OF FRENCH LITERATUBE. philosophie positive (1839-1842) and the Syst^me de politique positive (1851-1854). 10. Oratory counts many illustrious names, as Pieeee- AiTTOiNE Beeeyee (1790-1868), a lawyer and political orator. — The Dominican, Jean-Baptiste-Henei Lacoe- DAiEE (1802-1861), at first associated with Lamennais, is the greatest preacher of the century. His Conferences (1835-1850) treat also of political and social questions. 11. Ideal Fiction. — A co-worker with Chateaubeiand in preparing Eomanticism (which word she introduced) was AjfNE-LouisE-GEEMAiNE Neckee DE Stael (1766- 1817), of Paris. The influence of Eousseau is seen in dramas, as Jane Gray ; stories, as Mirza; and the Lettres sur le caractlre et les icrits de J.- J. Rousseau (1788). Various political pamphlets preceded the demand for a new poetry, after Ossian and Werther, in De la littiror ture considir&e dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales (1800). The ideal novel, Delphine (1802), is against social forms and their harmful influence on the individual. Corinne (1807), likewise inspired by her own life, revealed Italian art and literature to Prance. In De I'Allemagne (1810) the German people in its life and education is compared from its own standpoint with the French. The effect of this work on the popular spirit was decisive. Various political treatises and me- moirs are posthumous. — Poetical and sensitive, Mme. DE SxABL is unequal in her writings. Her main merit was in opening the Prench mind to foreign influences. — The classical ideal novel was continued by Mme. de Genlis (1746-1830) ; by Joseph Fievbe (1767-1839), the author of the Dot de Suzette; by £1tienne Piveet THE NINETEENTH CENTTJRy. 219 DE Sbnancour (1770-1846), whose Obermann (1804) is a series of melancholy letters on moral themes and on nature; and by Sophie Gat (1776-1852) who, like Senancoue, shows the new movement in various works, as Anatolie (1815). — More observation and reality are found in the stories, after Sterne, of Xavibk de Maistke (1764^1852). His Voyage autour de ma chambre (1794), L^reux de la citi d'Aoste, and the Prisonniers du Caucase, excel in narrative and emotional style. — Chakles-Emmanuel Nodjer (1780—1844) begins with sentimental and idyllic novels, as Stella (1802) and the Peintre de Saltzbourg (1803). His later works are a mix- ture of classicism and Eomanticism, as Smarra (1821) and Trilby (1822). He also attempted linguistics and literary history. 12. The Eomantic Fiction is characterized by a striv- ing for the grotescLue, the fantastical, and the terrible, and by a brilliant and colored style. — Victor Hugo reveals all the faults of the school in the unreal and bloody Han d'Islande (1823) and Bug-Jargal (1825). The successful Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) combines the qualities of imaginative construction with a local study of the fifteenth century. Its broad and rapid style and picturesque narrative made it the leading novel of the decade. It argues against religious dogmas. The Misirables (1862), the best work of Hugo, advocates the cause of the poor. The Travailleurs de la mer (1866) relates man's struggles against nature. The Homme qui rit (1869), an extravagant romance, was followed by one more moderate, Quatre-vingt-treize (1874). Other prose works, of a social, political, and literary nature, as the 220 PRIMBE OF FEENCH LITBRATUEB. Dernier jour d'un condamni (1829) and Histoire d'un crime, present the same mingling of gigantic and puny- thoughts and phrases. 13. The Historical Novel of Scott is imitated in the Cinq-Mars (1826) and Stello (1832) of Alfbed de ViGNY. — Alexandbe Dumas turned his attention to liction and produced numerous novels, with slight fidelity to history. The plots were his own, the composition often the work of others. Fanciful, vigorous, and lively, his most popular romances are the Trois moiisquetaires (1844), Monte-Cristo (1844-1845), and Vingt ans apr^s (1845). Entertaining and keen are the Impressions de voyage (1833-1841) Of Dumas. 14. Amantine-Aueoeb Dudevant (1804-1876), of Paris, called Geok&b Sand, is the leader of the ideal school of EoussEAu. Beginning with Saudeatt in Rose et Blanche (1831), she continued, in Indiana (1832), the narrative of her own experience. Lilia (1833) is also a plea for social freedom. Under the influence of Lamen- NAis she produced a series of democratic novels, as Mau- prat (1837). Her musical surroundings inspired Corir suelo (1842-1843), and the Comtesse de Rudolstadt (1843- 1845). Her most enduring works are pastorals, as the Mare au diable (1846), Frangois le Champi (1849), and the Petite Fadette (1849) . Various dramas, as the Manage de Victorine (1851), after Sedaine, and memoirs, belong to her later years. Great invention, emotion, and inspi- ration, united with a superior style, often too fluent, are her qualities.- — The sentiment of Mme. Sand for the poor was the theme of Leon Gozlan (1803-1866) in the Notaire de ChaiUilly (1836), and other narratives and THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 221 plays. — ]6mile Souvestee (1806-1854), of Morlaix, is the author of socialistic plays and novels, as the Confes- sions d'un ouvrier and Uh pMlosophe sous les toils (1851). — Gebakd Labetjnie (1808-1854), of Paris, called db Nekval, wrote poems, dramas, translated Faust and pro- duced stories, as Filles du feu and the Boh&me galante, of much beauty and originality. — Jules Saitdeau (1811- 1883), of Aubusson, described provincial life in the Doc- teur Herheau (1841), Mile, de la Seigli&re (1848) and Jean de Tliommeray (1873). Many of his stories were dramatized. — Xavier Boniface (1798-1865), called Saintiste, noted as a dramatist, produced Picciola (1836), the best of his novels. 15. Alfred de Musset belongs to the Eomantic school in the unreal Confessions d'un enfant du si&cle (1836) and ia various stories, as the Fils du Titien, Fridiric et Ber- nerette and Margot (1838). — Theophile Gautier ex- hibits his sensuous leanings in Mile, de Maupin (1835). Various tales of the same order and the historical novel Capitaine Fracasse (1863), after SoARROiir, with exact and witty relations of travel, and criticisms on art and literature, are preserved by their faultless form. 16. The Realistic Novel of the century begins with the psychological studies of Marie-Henri Beyle (1783- 1842), of Grenoble, called Stendhal. Criticisms on art and literature preceded the novel Armance (1827), a sarcastic picture of Parisian society. The Rouge et le noir (1830) and the Chartreuse de Parme (1839) are bitter and powerful sketches of evil. — The immediate follower of Beyle was the great stylist. Prosper Mbei- iviBE, also a former Eomanticist. His stories, as Colomha 222 PKIMER OF FKENCH LITERATTJKE. (1841), the best known, and Carmen (1847), are unex- celled in observation, wit, and simplicity of style. His posthumous Lettres 4 une inconnue (1873) are personal and vigorous, though unsympathetic. 17. HoNOKB DE Balzac (1799-1850), of Tours, began ■with unsuccessful tragedies, as Cromwell, and romances. He won the public with the historical novel, the Dernier Chouan (1829), but turned immediately, under Stend- hal's influence, to the life of the time. He saw, as the leading motive ia society, avarice. After the Contes drolatiques (1830), in the old gaulois style, and studies of married Mfe, in the Pliysiologie du mariage (1831), he paints the greed of money in the Peau de chagrin (1831), one of his best works. Observing all sides of humanity, he calls his productions the Human Comedy, and divides them into scenes from Private life. Provincial life, Pari- sian life. Political life. Military life. Country life. He writes also novels under the titles of Etudes philosophiques and Etudes analytiques. Of the ninety-eight known, the Recherche de I'absolu (1834), Eugenie Orandet (1834), and the Ph'e Goriot (1835) are the best. His drama, Vavirin (1840), and comedy, Mercadet (1851), were well received. Together with Lamennais, Dumas, and Geoege Sand, he founded the Soditi des Ghns de Lettres (1837) . — Balzac is the genuine head of the moderate realistic school, and shows both its merits and defects. Seeking types true to life, he often saw only the repul- sive and vicious. He is both simple and sophistical in his exposition. His style, abrupt and broad, is poor on the whole. His attention to details becomes wearisome. The influence of Balzac on subsequent fiction is over- THE NINETEENTH CBNTUKY. 223 whelming, both at home and abroad. He still remaias the greatest French novelist. 18. Minor Writers of the Realistic School include the voluminous Paul db Kook (1794-1871). — Charles de Bekitaed (1805-1860) excels in witty and agreeable tales, as the Paravent (1839), and in the longer Gerfaut (1838) and the Peau du lion (1841). Satire against the liberals pervades them. — Satire, but against the Roman- tic school, is also the substance of J&r6me, Paturot d, la recherche d'une position sociale (1843), a study of misfor- tune by Louis Eetbaud (1799-1879). — A pleasing writer is Eodolphe Toepfi-bk (1799-1846), of Geneva, the author of Nouvelles ginevoises (1841) and Jtosa et Gertrude (1846). 19. Naturalist Novels, so called from their description solely of the evil side of life, were written by rBBDBKic SouLiE (1800-1847), of Foix, a dramatist, and an enemy of the educated classes, which he satirizes in the Vicomte de Biziers (1834), the Conseiller d'itat (1835), and the Forgerons (1842).— Eugene Sue (1804^1857), of Paris, imitated Coopek in narratives, as Atar-Gull (1831), and Dumas, as Arthur (1838). From the people he took his Mystires de Paris (1842-1843) and the Juif errant (1844-1845), which were translated into all the lan- guages of Europe. With Sub vice is ever triumphant, and cruelty the leading motive. — Jules Janin (1804- 1874), of St. ifitienne, better known as a critic, as the Histoire de la littirature dramatique (1858), produced many stories of hardship and crime, as the Ane mort (1829), Barnave (1831), more historical, and the Chemin de traverse (1836). The Nineteenth Century. 1801-. CHAPTER XVIII. SECOND PERIOD. 1848-. 1. Poetry. Victor de Laprade, 1812-1884. The Parnassians : Charles-Maeib Leoonte de Lisle, 1818- ; Charles Baude- laire, 1821-1867 ; Theodore Faullain de Banvxlle, 1820- ; REKiS-FRANgois-ARMAND Sully-Prudhommk, 1839-; Frau- gois CoppiiB, 1843-. 2. Drama. Drame: Alexandre Dumas .7!?s, 1824- ; Victorien Sardou, 1831-. Comedy: Eugene Labiche, 1815-1888; Emele Augier, 1820- ; Edouard Pailleron, 1834-. 3. Prose. History and politics: LuDOVic Vitet, 1802-1873; Charles Forbes de Montalembert, 1810-1870; Edouard DE Laboulaye, 1811-1883; Victor Duruy, 1811- ; LouiS Blanc, 1813-1882 ; Ernest Renan, 1823-. Literary history and criticism : Maxmilien-Paul-Emile Littr^, 1801-1881 ; HiPPOLYTE Taine, 1828-. Social and economic treatises: Maxime Ducamp, 1822^; Lucien-Anatolk Pr]&vost-Para- DOL, 1829-1870. Fiction; Ideal: OcTAVi; Feuillet, 1812- ; Victor Cheubuliez, 1832-. Realistic : Gustave Flaubert, 1821-1880 ; Alphonse Daudet, 1840-. Naturalist : Edmond (1822-) and Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt; Emilb Zola, 1840-. 1. Features of the Period. — The literature of France since the death of Chateaubkiand and the social change brought about by the revolution of 1848, sees no prevail- THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 225 ing standard or school. As a reaction to Romanticism real life in content and simplicity in form are sought after. Individualism is everywhere. The practical side of things and a scientific attention to detail are combined, ■with a general eclecticism. — The language suffers from the introduction of neologisms and foreign words, though the democratic spirit shows at present a reversion to the language of the people. — In poetry, Eomantic extrava- gance gives way to the school of art for art, and later to domestic and popular themes. — In drama, tragedy is almost entirely replaced by the drame: the union of tragedy and comedy, modified and refined, attempted by Hugo. Comedy returns to the principles of Molibre. In both the rules of the unities again appear. — In prose, science displaces literature. The study of linguistics assumes importance. Fiction tends towards naturalism and prepares a reaction towards didactic romances, after the Russian school. Over-delicacy of style and affected analyses sap its vigor. 2. Poetry; The Parnassians. — The great writers of the Romantic school still survive in works and influence. — A follower of Lamaktine is Victor de Lapkade (1812-1884), of Montbrison, whose PsychS (1841), Sym- phonies (1855), Pernette (1868), and the Livre d'un p^re are philosophical and religious. — Gautier alone is the founder of a school, the Parnassiens, distinguished for word-painting and rhythm. Their manifesto was a col- lection of poems, the Parnasse contemporain (1866). — Among the Parnassians are Chakles-Maeie Leconte DE Lisle (1818-), of Reunion. His Po&mes antiques (1852), Po&mes barbares (1862), and translations from 226 PEIMEB OF FEBNCH LITEBATUKE. the Greek, as the Iliad (1866), ^schylus (1872), and Sophocles (1877), are remarkable for form and diction. — Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), more original, represents naturalism in poetry. The Fleurs du mal (1857) is his best work. He belonged to the opium- eating writers, and translated Poe and De Quincey. — Theodore Faullain de Banyille (1820-), a critic, writer of comedies and stories, as the Fauvres Saltim- banques (1853), imitated Musset in the Cariatides (1842), and later Gautier. His Odes funambulesques (1859), Ballades joyeuses (1873), and the Ocddentales (1875) show a return to the forms of pre-Renaissance poetry. His Petit trait6 de poisie fran^aise (1872) embodies the doctrines of the school. — Josephin Soulaby (1815-), more Romantic, cultivated the sonnet in Sonnets humor- istiques (1858) and other collections. 3. Bene - FRANgois - Abmastd Sully - Prudhommb (1839-) began as a Parnassian, in Stances et po&mes (1865). His later works are profoundly philosophical, as Justice (1878) and Bonheur, and represent a classical reac- tion. — FRANgois CopPBE (1843-), of Paris, was like- wise a Parnassian, but turned his verse to the praise of humble living and fireside scenes, as the Humbles (1871) and Arriire-saison (1888). His best work is found in his plays, as the Passant (1869), the Luthier de Crimone (1876), and Severo Torelli (1883). His Contes rapides (1888) are admirable examples of story-writing. — Paul DbroulJidb has a temporary reputation as a patriotic poet. — Jean Richepin is a naturalist, after the manner of Villon, as in the Chanson des gueux, and is a success- ful dramatist. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 227 4. The Drame. — This legacy of the Eomantic school was taken up by Alexandre Dumas fils (1824-) in the best serious plays of the period. The mixed society of the Second Empire furnished him the theme of the novel, the Dame aux camilias (1848), which he drama^ tized (1852), and of the plays, Diane de Lys (1853), also from a novel (1852), and the Demirmonde (1855). Becoming philosophical, Dumas advocates legal and social reforms in the Fils naturel (1858), the Idies de Mine. Aubray (1867), and Monsieur Alphonse (1873). Simplicity of action, brilliancy of dialogue, and a return to the classical stage are the qualities of Dumas. His novels, as the Affaire CMmenceau (1866), are against existing social abuses. He is also known as the author of pamphlets on divorce. — Victorien Sardou (1831-), of Paris, less original than Dumas, continues the work of ScBiKE. The Pattes de mouche (1861), the Famille Benotton (1865), Babagas (1872), and Daniel Bochat (1880) are superior in thought to his later comedies and drames. Sardou excels in dramatic construction and theatrical display. — Henri de Bornibb (1825-) ap- proaches tragedy in the Fille de Boland (1872), a patri- otic play. 5. Comedy. — Many of the best plays of Sardou are comedies, satires on the vices of the time. — Emilb AuGiER (1820-1889), of Valence, a follower of Ponsard in classical comedy, wrote the Cigue (1844), the Aventuri^re (1848), Gabrielle (1851), and the less serious Oendre de M. Poirier (1854). The Fils de Giboyer (1862) was answered by Veuillot in the Fond de Giboyer. The FourchambauU (1878) was also a success. The subjects 228 PEIMER OF FRENCH LITERATUtlB. are taken from life, and the form is witty and elegant. — ■ Eugene Labichb (1816-1888), of Paris, excels in the farce. The Chapeau de paille d'ltalie (1851) and the Voyage de M. Perrichon (1860) are highly amusing and free from coarseness. — I^douakd Paillbeon (1834-), of Paris, the author of the satirical poems, the Parasites (1861) and Amours et haines (1868), followed at first PoNsAED, but achieved success in light and graceful irony, as the Monde oil Von s'amuse (1868) and the Monde oil Von s'ennuie (1881). — Eenest LEGOirvii (1807-), of Paris, wrote plays, treatises in behalf of the higher posi- tion of woman, and collaborated with Scribe in Adrienne Lecouvreur. — Octave Feuillet (1822-), of St. L6, wrote comedies, as Montjoye (1863), but won popular- ity by his many Proverhes, in the manner of Musset. — Hbnei Meilhac (1832-), of Paris, collaborated with LuDOvic Halevy in many amusing farces which fur- nished themes to Offenbach, as OrpMe aux enfers (1861), and the Vie parisienne (1866), and in Froufrou (1869). 6. Prose. — Political Essays and plays form the most important part of the work of the journalist, IISmile de GiEAEDiN (1806-1881).— LuDOvicViTBT (1802-1873), the author of numerous historical dramas (1826-1829), wrote various economic essays. He is best known, however, for his Etudes sur Vhistoire de Vart (1864). — Chaeles Foebes db Montalembeet (1810-1870), of London, associated with Lamennais, defended the church in various pamphlets and historical treatises, as the Moines d' Occident (1860-1867). — Henei Eochefoet (1830-), of Paris, the journalist, bitterly attacked the Second Empire and his later political foes. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 229 7. History became more detailed and less literary- after the great historians had passed away. — jfiDOUAKD DE Laboulaye (1811-1883), of Paris, satirized the Second Empire in the novel, Paris en Amirique (1862) . Besides travels, stories, and political studies, he is the author of a Histoire des Etats-Unis. — Victor Dukuy (1811-) paid especial attention to ancient history, as in his chief work, the Histoire des Romains. He also pro- duced short histories of Greece, Rome, France, the medi- eval and modern epochs. — Louis Blanc (1813-1882), of Madrid, shows a socialist leaning in. the Histoire de dix ans (1841-1846) and the Histoire de la Revolution francaise (1847-1862). 8. Eenest Rest an (1823-), of Trdguier, is rather a historical critic than a historian. His Histoire des langues simitiques (1855) was followed by a study of Avei-roes (1853), the Etudes d'histoire religieuse (1857), the Livre de Job (1859), and the Cantique des cantiques (1860). Adopting the views of the German school, his Vie de Jesus (1863) attracted wide attention by its dramatic exposition and vivid description. Other essays on the New Testament and religious dogmas, as Saint Paul (1869), and the Eglise chritienne (1878), were marked by the same qualities of style. The Dialogues et fragments philosophiques (1876) contain perhaps the most enduring prose of the century. Marc-Aur^le (1882) and the Histoire d'Israel (1888) are philosophical essays of great brilliancy. In literary studies and theatrical pieces Eenan displays also his critical keenness and affable irony. 9. Literary History and linguistics are the most im- 230 PBIMEE OF FEENCH LITERATURE. portant subjects treated by Maximilieit-Paul-Emile LiTTBB (1801-1881), of Paris, a follower of Comte. The Analyse raisonnd du cours de philosophie (1845) and Augliste Comte et la philosophie positive (1863) are among bis philosophical essays. The Histoire de la langue frangaise (1862) was followed by his great work, the Dictionnaire de la langue franqaise (1863-1872) and various articles on philosophy, politics, and language. — Jean-Jacques Ampeke (1800-1864) attempted the his- tory of mediaeval literature, as the Histoire de la littera- ture francaise au moyen dge (1841), but is more valuable for his influence than for his research. His later works are essays on history and literature, remarkable for style. — Paulin Paris (1800-1881), less literary but more scientific, advanced the study of mediaeval poetry by his contributions to the Histoire littiraire and his version of the Romans de la Table ro:nde (1872-1877). 10. Criticism is represented by Hippoltte-Adolphe Taine (1828-), of Vouziers, a disciple of Sainte-Beutb. The latter's method he developed into the rules of deter- mining an author's work by his race, surroundings, and epoch. These he applied in the Histoire de la littirature anglaise (1864). Other literary studies are Surles fables de Lafontaine (1853), and Sar Tite-Live (1856). Travels, lectures on art, as Philosophie de I'art en Italie (1867) and en Gr^ce (1869), essays on philosophy, and a partisan Origines de la France contemporaine, reveal great activity. — Paul de Saint-Victob (1827-1881), the author of Hommes et Dieux, pays more attention to style than to accuracy. — A follower of Sainte-Beuve was Edmond ScHBKEK (1815-1888). — Of the living critics of French THE NINETEENTH OENTUKY. 231 literature, Ferdinand Bbunetieee, ISmile Faguet, and Paul Staffer are noted for power and breadth. 11. Studies of Economics, as Paris, ses organes, ses fonctions et sa vie (1869-1875), were pursued by Maxime Due AMP (1822-), of Paris. Besides various travels in the East he celebrates man's conquest of matter in numerous poems, as the Ohants modernes (1855). He is also a novelist. — Lucien-Anatole Pkevost-Pakadol (1829-1870), of Paris, treats of social evils in Du rdle de la famille dans I'iducation (1857), and other moral and political essays, as France nouvelle (1868). Of critical import are his Etudes sur les moralistes frangais (1864). 12. Ideal Fiction. — Octave Feuillet imitated at first Dumas, but afterwards adopted a more refined, though sensuous manner. The Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (1858) was dramatized. His two best works are M. de Camors (1867) and Julie de Tr&cceur (1872), both pathetic and melancholy. The Journal d'une femme (1878) shows also the best qualities of the author's style, pure and graceful. — Henri Murger (1822-1861), of Paris, describes the Latin Quarter in the Vie de BoMme (1848), the Pays latin (1852), and the Buveurs d'eau (1856), series of pleasing and vivid sketches. — Emile Erckmann (1822-) and Alexandre Chatrian' (1826-) imitated Hofemann, as in Gontes de la montagne (1860), based on Alsatian life. Their first successful novel was the Illust7-e docteur MatMus (1859). This was followed by stories of the wars of the Revolution and Empire, as Madame TMrise (1863), Histoire d'un consent de 1813 (1864), Waterloo (1865), and the Blocus (1867), all from the peasant's standpoint. Their influence in disposing 232 PKIMEE OF FKBNCH LITERATUBE. the mass of the nation for peace was great. Some of their tales were dramatized, with success, as Ami Fritz (1864), on village life. Their later works represent Alsatian patriotism, as the Rantzau (1882). — Edmond About (1828-1886), of Dieuze, the journalist, began with stories and novels, based on his foreign travels. Tolla (1865), the Hoi des montagnes (1856), and Ger- maine (1857) are his best works. Witty and amusing are the Homme d, Voreille cassie (1862) and the Nez d'un notaire (1862). — Viotob Cheebulibz (1832-), of Gen- eva, a follower of Geokge Sasj>, displays much dramatic force in the Oomte Kostia (1863), the Roman d'une honnite femme (1866), and the Aventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869). Meta Holdenis is witty and ironical. Cheebulibz is the author also of essays on art and politics. — Ludovic Ha- LBVY (1834-), of Paris, is unexcelled in the keen and pol- ished satire of his stories, as Monsieur et Madame Car- dinal. Of his novels the best known is ..466^ Gonstantin. 13. Bealistic Fiction entered on a new phase with the novels of Gustave Flaubbbt (1821-1880), of Eouen. His master-piece, Madame Bovary (1857), a study of provincial Hfe, recalls Balzac in observation and Gau- TiEE in style, while in construction it is superior to either. Salammbd (1862), a study in archaeology, con- tains fine descriptions. The Education sentimentale (1869) is philosophical but rambling. The Tentation de St. Antoine (1874) is a fantastical narrative. Trois Contes (1877) contain some of the author's best work. Bouvard et Picuchet (1881), unfinished, is disheartening in its coldness and pessimism. Elaubbrt in his later writings becomes over-erudite and finical in style. THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 233 14. AiPHONSE Daudet (1840-), of Nlmes, tried at first poetry and stories for the Figaro, as his admirable Lettres de mon moulin (1863—), on the life of Provence. Theatrical pieces ■were followed by an autobiographical romance, the Petit chose (1866), and by the stories, Contes du lundi (1868-), of great charm and delicacy. Tales of the war and plays, as the ArUaienne (1872), pre- ceded perhaps his best novel, Fromont jeune et Risler ahiS (1874), remarkable for observation and composition and its sadness of tone. The Nabob (1877) is highly dra- matic, while Numa Roumestan (1881) is broader in plan and insight. The later works of Daudet show a falling- ofE in thought and style. A painstaking artist, his obser- vation is too often narrow and special. 15. Nataralism in Fiction has formed for itself a school which proceeds by scientific methods and docu- mentary evidence, limited as yet to the evils of life. At its head are the brothers Edmond (1822-) and Jules (1830-1870) DE GrONCOUKT, who became known by studies on the art and society of the eighteenth century. In fiction they descend from Flaubert. Sm^ir Philom^ne (1861), Renie Mauperin (1864), remarkable for its dia- logue, and Germinie Lacertreux (1865) are all sad and pessimistic. 16. !]Smile Zola (1840-), of Italian origin, was at first a hack-writer, but won the populace in the My stores de Mar- seille (1867), of no literary merit. Thir&se Raquin (1867), in his better manner, was succeeded by a series of natural- ist novels, the Rougon-Macquart (1871-), describing the decadence of a family through its various members. The best work of the series is the Assommoir (1877), which 234 PRIMER OF FRENCH LITERATURE. in scope and force is unequalled in French literature. Oerminal (1885) has an epic tone. — Zola excels in com- bination of detail, in picturesque and sensuous language, and in sweep of diction. Unnecessarily coarse and repul- sive, his work is less faithful to life than that of the realistic school, which he however surpasses in exuber- ance of imagination. 17. Minor Writers in vogue include ANTonrE-GusTAVE Dkoz (1832-), the author of delicate and witty society tales, as Monsieur, Madame et B&M (1866) ; Paul BouK&ET, a disciple of Stendhal in psychological analy- sis, as the Oruelle inigme (1885) ; Guy de Maupassant, who is superior in stories of the naturalist school, though often showing the pleasant side of life ; and Pierre LoTi (JuLiEN Viaud), whose tales of the Breton sailors and sketches of Japan are remarkable for style and artis- tic appreciation. INDEX. About. E., 232s. Academy. French, 124, 128ss, 129, 136, 143, 161, 170, 172, 202. Adam, 149s. Adam de la Halle, 58s, 59s. Addison, 182. Adelaide. Queen, 13, 14. Adenet le Boi, 53s, 54. Adgar, 42. JElred, 60. .Eschylus, 226. Aimeri de Narhonne, 18. Alamanni. L., 96. Alarcon, 134. Alberic of Brian9on, 22s. Alberich, 20. Aleschans, 13. Alexander the Great, 21ss, 72. Alexandre, 22s, 54, 88. Alexandre. La Vengeance d', 22s. Alexandre du Pont, 56s. Alexandre of Bernai, 22. . Alexandreis, 22. Alexis. G., 76s. Alexis. La Vie de St., 13. Alice. Queen, 48. Alione d'Asti. G., 92s. Allegory, 45ss. Amadis des Gaules, 100s, 121, 142, 143, 144, 146. Ambroise, 38. Ami et Amile, 20, 61, 69. Aminta. See Tasso. Ampere. J-J., 229s. Amyot. J., 114SS, 118, 121. Anacreon, 105, 186. Ancelot. J-A-P-F., 206s. Ancients and Moderns. Quarrel of, 151, 169, 171, 172, 177. Andre de Coutances, 44, 47. Andre' de la Vigne, 84, 86s, 94-95. Andre le Chapelain, 43, 46, 79. Andrieux. F-G., 206s. Anc/e et VErmite. L', 43. Anger, 41. Anglais. La Chartre anx, 56-^7. Anglais. La Paix aux, 56. Anne de Gonzague, 162. Anne of Brittany, 85. ApoUonius of Tyre, 20. Apotres. Actes des, 82s, 95, 98. Apuleius, 150. Ariosto, 65, 94, 112, 113, 150, 152. Aristophanes, 110-111, 157. Aristotle, 70, 96, 109, 193. Amauld. A., 139s. Arnault. A-V., 205s. Arras, 48, 49. Assomption de Notre Dame. L', 83-84. Assonance, 5. Astr^e. L'. See D'Urfi?. Atala. See Chateaubriand. Aucassin et Nicolette, 34. Audefroi le Batard, 47s. Audigier, 53. Augier. ti., 227-228. Augustin. St., 15, 70. 236 INDEX. Avignon, 70. Bacon. F., 192. Baif. J-A. de, 102, 105-106, 113. Bail. L. de, 96s, 104. Ballade, 68s. Ballette, 59s. Balsac. R. de, 87-88. Balzac. H. de, 222-223, 232. Balzac. J-L. Guez de, 127, 138ss, 159, 163. Banville. T. FauUain de, 2263. Baour-Lormian. L-P-M-F., 200s. Barante. G-P. Brugifere de, 214s, 215. Barbier. A., 204s. Barbieri, 152. Barclay. J., 133, 143s, 1453. Barlaam et Josaphat, 41. Barthelemy. J-J., 1963. Basoche. Tbe, 85s. Basselin. O., 81s, 110. Bastard de Bouillon. Le, 64. Bataille, 45s. Bataille de careme et de charnage. ia, 45. Batteux. C, 193s. Baude. H., 85s. Baudelaire. C, 2263. Baudouin d'Avesnes, 60. Baudouin de CondiS, 57s. Baudouin de Sebourg, 54. Baudri de Bourgueil, 38. Bayard, 96. Bayle. P., 169-170. Beatrice. Empress, 32. Beaumarchais. P-A. Caron de, 185, 188-189. Becket. Thomas, 42. Bede, 14. Be'jart. Mad., 152. Belleau. R., 102, 1053, 113. Belle Doette, 14. Belloy. P-L. de, 1893. Benedict, 13. Benoit de Ste-More, 22ss, 26, 32, 38. See Troie. Benserade. I. de, 127s. Be'ranger. P-J. de, 2003. Berijuire. P., 70s. Bergerac. S. Cyrano de, 146-147, 197. Bernard. C. de, 223s. Bernard. St., 51. Berni, 125. Bemier, 36. Beroalde de Verville, 141s. Be'roul, 26. Berquin. A., 197s. Berryer. P-A., 218s. Bertaut. J., 109s. Bertrand ol Bar-sur-Aube, 18s. Bestiaries, 14s. Beze. T. de, llOs, 117. Bibbiena, 96. Bible. The, 50, 70, 96, 140. Bien avisi, mal avisi, 83. Bien boire, 84. Billaut. A., 1293. Blanc. L., 229s. Blanchet. P., 85s. Blason, 93s. Blondel de Nesle, 49s. Boccaccio, 23, 34, 55, 89, 94, 99, 150. Bodel. J., 18, 493, 58. Bodin. J., 1163. Boiithins, 43, 60, 67. Boileau. '&., 61. Boileau. N. Despreaux, 141, 150-151, 155, 157, 158, 166, 172, 175, 199. Boisrobert. F. le M^tel de, 126-127, 128, 133. Bojardo, 173. Bonald. L-G-A. de, 2123. Bonet. H., 71s. Borfiier. H. de, 227s. Bossuet. J-B., 162-163, 171, 179. Boucher. J., 117s. Bouchet. G., 141s. INDEX. 237 Bouchet. J., 92-93. Boiicicaut. Le Livre des fails du marichal de, 72. Bouhours. D., 162s. Bourdaloue. L., 163s, 171. Bourget. P., 234s. Bourgogne. Hotel de, 95, 110, 133, 153, 154, 156. Boursault. E., 155s, 156. Bozon. N., 66s. Brantome. P. de Bourdeilles de, 115s. Brebeuf. G. de, 129s. Brecourt. G. Marconreaii de, 156. Brendan. Le Voyage de Saint, 13. Brisebarre. J., 64. Brizeux. A., 20t-205. Brueys. D-A. de. 167s. Brun de la Montac/ne, 64. Brunetiere, F., 231. Brunetto Latino, 47, 61s. Brutus, 24. Buchanan, 96. Buddha, 41. Buffon. C. L. Leclerc de, 194s. Burgundy, 76, 77, 78. Burgundy. Duke of, 150, 170. Bussy-Rabutin. R. de, 159s, 160. Buttet. M-C. de, 107s. Byron, 107, 202, 203, 206. Calvin (Cauvin). J., 97ss, 117. Campistron. J. Galbert de, 168s. Camus. J-P., 143s. Caquets de I'accoucMe. Les, 141- 142. Carduino, 28. Carmontelle. L. Carrogis de, 188s, 206. Castro, G. de, 134. Cato, 43, 65. Caveau. The, 178, 200. Caxton, 47. Caylus, Mme. de, 179s. C^nacle. The, 201. Cent Ballades. Le Livre des, 67-68, 78. Cent Nouvelles nouvelles. Les, 89b, 97, 98, 121, 150. Chamfort, S-ErN., 193s. Chanson, 48s, 200. Chanson de croisade, 16s, 48. Chanson de gesie, 11. Chanson. Sotte, 69. Chant royal, 68s, 74. Chapelain. J., 128s, 133. Chapuzeau. S., 1553. Chardri, 41s. Charity. La, 83. Charlemagne, 10, 18, 19, 39, 162. Charles the Bald, 10, 19. Charles the Bold, 75, 86, 87. Charles the Infant, 20. Charles V., 63, 66, 67, 70s, 71, 91. Charles VI., 63, 66, 71. Charles VII., 78. Charles VIII., 87, 91. Charles IX., 107, 117. Charles d'Anjou, 58. Charles d'Orleans, 77-78. Charles Martel, 10, 18, 19. Charroi de Nimes. Le, 13. Charron. P., 121s. Chartier. A., 75, 77, 78-79, 81. Chasse du cerf. La, 58. Chassignet. J-B., 109s. Chastellain. G., 76, 77s, 86, 86s, 87s, 92. Chastiement des dames. Le, 57. Chastiement d'un pere a son fils. Le, 35. Chateaubriand. F-R. de, 174, 185, 186, 199, 200, 201, 202, 211-212, 218, 224. Chatelain de Couci. Le, 54. Chatelain de Couci. G., 49s. Chatelaine de Vergi. La, 33. Chatelet. The, 93. Chatrian. A., 231-232. 238 INDEX. Chaucer, 23, 65, 67. Chaulieu. G. Amfrye de, 166s. Chenedolle. C. de, 199-200. Che'nier. A-M. de, 79, 125, 185, 186- 187, 190, 204. Ch^nier. M-J. de, 190s. Cherbuliez. V., 232s. Chesterfield, 180, 181. GMtifs. Les, 21. \ Chevalier^u cygne. Le, 21, 69. Chretien. F., 117s. Chre'tien de Troies, 26-28, 29, 30, 43, 48. Christine de Pisan, 67s, 71s, 72s. Chronique saintongeaise. La, 50. Chronique scandaleuse. La, 87. Chronique de Reims. La. See R^cits. Chroniques de Saint-Denis. Les, 60s, 71. Chroniques gargantuines. Les, 98. Cicero, 96. Cigognini, 153. Claris et Laris, 54. Clef d'amour. Le, 43. Clerville, 145. Clovis, 9. Coehon. P., 86s. Code. The, 60, 76. Coke. J., 87. Colin Muset, 56s. CoUerye. R. de, 93s. CoUetet, G., 128s, 133. Collin d'Harleville. J-F., 188s. Combat des Trente. Le, 63s. Comidie des Tuileries. La, 133. Com4die fran(;aise, 154, 166. Com^die larmoyante, 178s. Comines. P. de, 74, 87s. Comte, A., 217-218, 230. Comte de Poitiers. Le, 34. Condd. Prince of, 162, 163. Condillac. ^. Bonnot de Mably-, 195-196. Condorcet. M-J-A-N. Caritat de, 195s. Confldante. The, 113. Conrart. V., 128s. Constant. B., 213s. Constant I'empereur, 61. Conon de Bethune, 48s. Contes du monde aventureux. Les, 121s. Conti. Prince of, 171. Cooper, 223. Coppe'e. F., 226s. Coq-a-l'dne, 93s. Coqnillart. G., 76s, 85, 93. CorneiUe. P., 123, 127,128, 131, 132, 133, 134r-136, 137, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 168, 169, 209. CorneiUe. T., 155, 156-157. Correspondance litt^raire. La, lM-195. Courier. P-L., 214s. Cousin, v., 217s. Covtum,iers, 51. Crebillon. C-P. Jolyot de, 182s, 196. Crebillon. P. Jolyot de, 168s, 176. Cretin. G. (Dubois), 76, 77s, 92, 93. Crusades. The, 4, 19, 37s, 38. Cuvelier, 64. Cuvier. Le, 84s. Dagohert, 10, 18. D'Aguesseau. H-F., 181s. D'Alembert. J. Le Eond, 192s. Daucourt. F. Carton, 167s. Dance of Death. See Macabri, Danse des femmes. La, 75. Danse des hommes. La, 74. Dante, 193, 204. Dares, 23. D'Aubignac. F. H^delin, 141s. D'Aubigne'. T-A., 107-108, 116s, 145, 203. Daudet. A., 2aSs. D'Aulnoy. M-C, 171s. Dauphin, The, 162, 171. INDEX. 239 Daurat. J. (Dinemandy) , 102s. D^bat, 45s, 74. D4bat des h^rauts. Le, 87s. Debat du corps et de I'dme. Le, 45, 46. Dibat du vin et de I'eau. Le, 45. De Brosses. C, 193s. Decameron. See Boccaccio. Delavigne. J-F-C, 205-206. DeliUe. J., 47, 187s. Delia Casa, 125. De Quiucey, 226. DeroulMe. P., 226s. Desaugiers, M-A-M., 200s. Desbordes-Valmore. M., 204s. Descartes. E., 137, 138-139, 147, 150, 160, 161, 162, 169. Deschamps. A., 204s. Deschamps. ii., 204s. Deschamps. E., 65, 66-67, 69s. Descort, 47. Des Essarts. N. Herberay, 100s. Deshoulieres. A., 149s. Desmarets. J., 132-133. Des Pe'riers. J. Bonaventure, 99s. Desportes. P., 109s, 125. Destouches. P. Isfericault, 177s. De Thou. J-A., 116s. Dialogxis of Gregory I., 41. i)jc«2/s, 23. Diderot. D., 178, 180, 187-188, 189, 191-192, 193, 196s, 207. Diodorus, 114. Disciplina clericalis, 35. Bit, 45s, 74, 84. Dit des trois marts et trois vifs. Le, 45, 57, 74. Dolet. :^., 96s, 99. Dolopathos, 35. Don Quixote, 145. Doon de Mayence, 88. Dorat. C-J., 185s. Drame, 225s. Drame bourgeois, 178s, 206. Droz. A-G., 234s. Da Bartas. 6. de Salluste, 47, 107ss, 108. DuBellay. J., 91, 102s, 103s, 104- 105. Du Boocage. M-A. Fiquet, 185s. Dubois. J. (Sylvius), 100s. Dubois. P-F., 201. Dueamp. M., 231s. Ducis. J-F., 189-190. Duclos. C. Pinot, 193s. Dufresuy. C. Riviere, 166s. Dumas. A., 207-208, 220s, 222, 223, 231. Dumas. A.fils, 227s. Dupleix, S., 140s. Duplessis-Mornay. P., 115s. Durant. G., IHs. D'Urle'. H., 126, 128, 130, 132, 137, 142SS, 143, 145. Durmart le Gallois, 28s. Duruy. V., 229si. DuEyer. P., 133s, 137. D'Ussieux. L., 195s. Du Vair. G., 116-117, 118. ichiquier d'amour. L', 79. Eilhart von Oberg, 20. Eleanor. Queen, 22, 24, 48. Elie, 43. Empereur qui tua son neveu. L', 84s. Empire. First, 200, 231. Empire.vSecond, 203, 227. Encyclopaedia. The, 180, 188, 190, 191-192, 194, 195, 202, 211. Mn^as. Soman d', 23s. Eneid. See Vergil. Enfant juif. L' , 43. Enfants de Maintenant. Les, 83. Enfants sans sovci. The, 86s. England, 64, 72, 161, 179, 180. England. Queen of, 162. Entree d'Espagne. L' , 65. Epictetus, 140. 240 INDEX. 6pitre farcie, 41s. Erckmann. i.., 231-232. Ernoul, 51. JEscovfle. Soman de I', 88. Esop, 35, 36. Estampie, 59. Estienne. C, 96. Estienne. H., 118-119. Estieune. K., 100s, llSs. Istahlissements de Ht. Louis. Les, ,61. Etats du monde. Les, 44. Jiltienne de Fougeres, 44. ifetienne de Jouy. V-J., 205s. Eulalia. Sequence on St., 6. Euripides, 134, 157, 158. Svangile desfemmes. L', 44. Everat, 46. Fableau, 12, 35s, 84, 89. Fabre d'J^glantine. P-F-N., 189s. Faguet. :&., 231. Faits des Romains. Les, 50. Farce, 59, 83, 84s, 111, 113. ■ Fatrasie, 54, 59, 84, 93. Fauchet. C, 119-120. Faur de Pibrac. G. du, 110s. Faure. A., 110s. Fauriel. C, 2163. Favst. See Goethe. Favart. C-S., 188s. F^nelon. F. de La Mothe, 163, 170- 171. Feuillet. O., 228s, 2313. Fierdbras, 88. Fie'v^e. J., 218. Figaro. Le, 233. Flaubert. G., 232s, 233. Fl(?chier. E., 149, 163s. Fleury. C, 169s. Floire el Blanchefleur, 33, 34. Floire et Jeanne, 61. Floovent, 10. Florian. J-P. Claris de, 197s. Folklore, 34s. Fontenelle. B. le Bovier de, 169s. Foulque de Candle, 13. Fouquet, 149, 153, 160. Fourier. F-M-C, 214s. Fous. The, 85s. Fous. La Fete des, 84. Franc archer de Bagnolet. Le, 85s. Francis I., 63, 91, 92,93, 95, 100. Francus, 23. Froissart. J., 63, 67s, 72s. Furetiere. A., 161-162, 164s. Gab, 12. Gace BruM, 49s. Gace de la Bigne, 66s. Galen, 97. Galien le KHori, 88. Galland. A., 1723. Gar<;on et de I'aveugle. Du, 59. Gamier. R., 112-113, 130. Gamier de Pont-Ste-Maxence, 42. Gasseudi. P., 152. Gautier. Th., 146, 205s, 221s, 225, 226, 232. Gautier-Garguille (Hugues Gudru), 133. Gautier d'Arras, 32s, 33s. Gautier de Bibelesworth, 61s. Gautier de Chatillon, 22s. Gautier de Coinci, 42s, 47, 49. Gautier de Metz, 47s. Gay, S., 219s. Gay de Girardin, D., 209s. Gazette de France. La, 1403. Gel^e. J., 55s. Genlis. Mme. de, 218. Gens de Lettres. La Soditi des, 222. Geoffrei of Paris, 65s. Greoffrei Gaimar, 24s, 38. Geoffrey of Monmouth, 243, 25, 29, 30, 38. Gerbert de Montreuil, 29, 34. Germany, 64, 92, 188, 191, 193, 218. Gerson. J., 7l3. INDEX. 241 Gerusalemme liherata. See Tasso. Gervaise, 47. Gesta Somanorum, 43, 99. Geste des dues de Bourgogne. La, 64. Gilbert. N-J-L., 186s. Giliberti, 153. GiUes le Muisit, 66s. Girard d' Amiens, 53, 54s. Girard de Fratte, 19. Girard de Boussillon, 18, 19. Girard de Boussillon, 19, 63, 88. Girard de Vienne, 18, 20. Girardin. E. de, 228. Giraud de Barri, 60. Globe. Le, 201s, 216. Glossaries, 61. Grodfrey of Bouillon, 21. Godwin. F., 146. Goethe, 37, 204, 218, 221. Gombauld. J. Ogier de, 126s, 133, 143s. Gomberville. M. Leroy de, 143-144. Goncourt. E. de, 233s. Goncourt, J. de, 233s. Grongorism, 123s, 126. Gottfried von Strassburg, 26. Goujet. C-P., 183s. Gozlan. L., 220-221. Graindor de Douai, 21. Grant maljist Adam, 44. Greban. A., 82s. Greban. S., 82s. Gr4goire. La Vie de St., 13. Gresset. J-B-L., 176s. Gre'vin. J., 112s, 113. Grignan. Mme. de, 159. Grimm. F. M., 194^195. Gringore. P., 84, 85-86, 93. Griselidis. L'Histoire de, 69. Gros-GuiUaume (Robert Guerin), 133. Guarin. F., 77s. Guerin de Monglane, 88. Guevara, 172. Gui de Cambrai, 22, 41. Gtii de Warwick, 33. Guiart. G., 55. , Guiart des Moulins, 59. Guide Colonna, 23, 83, 87. Guilebert de Berneville, 58. Guillaume au Court Nez, 11. GuiUaume de Deguilleville, 65s. Guillaume de Dole, 33, 34, 61. Guillaume de Lorris, 46s, 57, 58. Guillaume de Palerme, 32. Guillaume de Saint-Andre, 64. Guillaume de Saint-Pair, 38. Guillaume d'Orange, 11, 13, 18. Guillaume le Clerc, 45, 46. Guillaume le Mar^ehal. La Vie de, 38s. Guiot de Provins, 44. Guirlande de Julie. La, 127-128. Guiron, 25. Guizot, F-P-G., 214-215. Guzman de Alfarache, 121. Haakon. King, 64. Halevy. L., 222, 232s. Hamilton. A., 172s. Hardy. A., 131ss, 132, 135, 137. Hartmann von Aue, 30. Heine, 80. Heinrich der Glichezare, 37. Heinrich von Veldeke, 23. Hainand, 44-45. Heliodorus, 114, 144. Helve'tius. C-A., 195s. Henri d'Andeli, 36, 45. Henri de Valenciennes, 50. Henrietta of England, 157, 162. Henry II., 106, 115. Heniy III., 118. Henry IV., 108, 110, 115s, 119, 127, 140, 175. Henry III. of Brabant, 58. Herbert, 35. Herbert von Fritzlar, 23. 242 INDEX. Herenc. Baudet, 87s. Herman de Valenciennes, 42, 46. Hesiod, 106. • Heaselin. D., 87s. Hilary, 49. Hippocrates, 97. Sistoire litteraire. L', 183s, 230. Histoires de Baudouin. Les, 60. Hita. Perez de, 145, 163, 197, 212. Hoffmann, 231. Holbach. P. H. Dietrich von, 195s. Holy Grail. The, 21, 26, 29ss. Homer, 23, 85, 96, 107, 177, 226. Honorius, 47. Horace, 103, 109, 125, 151, 175. Sorn, 20. Hotman. F., 117s. Housse partie. La, 36. Huet. P-D., 164s. Hugo. V-M., 18, 19, 108, 199, 202- 203, 204, 205, 207s, 208, 219-220, 225. Huguenot, 95. Hnon de Jiordeavx, 20-21, 88. Huon de M&i, 46. Ignaure, 25, 54. Iliad. See Homer. Image du Monde. V, 47, 61. Imitation de Jisns-Christ. L', 135. Ingenue. The, 135, 167. Innocent III., 50, 76. Institutes. The, 60. Isengrimus, 37. Isopets, 36s. Italy, 13, 64ss, 91, 94, 187, 193, 2(W, 218. Jacot de Forest, 50. Jacques d' Amiens, 43. Jacques de Baisieu, 57. Jacques de Longuyon, 54. Jacques de Vitri, 43. Jakemon Sakesep, 54. James I., 130. Jamyn. A., 107s. Janin. J., 223s. Jean d'Anjou, 89. Jean d'Arkel, 70s. Jean d'Arras, 72s. Jean de Bateri, 65. Jean de Brie, 71s. Jean de Cond^, 55, 57. Jean de Bam,martin, 54s, 88. Jean de Haute-Seille, 35. Jean de le Mote, 64. Jean de Lescurel, 66s. Jean de Meun, 47, 57, 58, 60s, 63, 67. See Rose. Roman de la, Jean de Paris, 88s. Jean des Pr&, 64s, 72. Jean de Thuin, 50. Jean le Marchant, 42. Jean le Venelais 22. Jeanne d'Albret, 107. Jerusalem. Assises de, 51. Jerusalem. Chanson de, 21. Jerusalem,. Complaints de, 44. Jerusalem,. Description de, 51. Jerusalem. Saint Voyage de, 72. Jeu parti, 78s. Jeux a vendre, 678. Jeuzfloraux, 112, 188, 189, 202. Joan of Arc, 67, 128, 175. Jodelle. A, 102, 108, 110-111, 130. John of Bohemia, 66. John the Good, 65, 66, 70. Joinville. J. de, 60s. Jonah. Homily on, 6. Jongleurs. The, 10-11, 12. Joseph of Arimathea, 29. Josephus, 76. Joubert. J., 214s. Jourdain de Blaie, 20, 33. Jourdain Fantosme, 38. Journal de Paris. Le, 195. Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris. Le, 87. Juvenal, 125, 186. Karlamagnus Saga, 64. INDEX. 243 Kock. P. de, 223. Kourad, 12. Labe. L. (Charly), 106s. Labiche. E., 228s. La Boe'tie. E. de, 116s, 120. Laboulaye. :&. de, 229s. La Bruyere. J. de, 160-161, 165, 167. La Galprenede. 6. de Costes de, 137, 144SS. La Chaussee. P-C. Nivelle de, 178s, 187. Lacordaire. J-B-H., 218s. La Fare. C-A., 166s. La Fayette. M-M. de, 163-164, 167, 171. La Fontaine. J. de, 94, 149-150, 151, 154, 164, 172, 185, 197. La Force. Mile, de, 171. La Fosse d'Aubigny. A. de, 168s. La Grange-Chancel. F-J. de, 168. La Harpe. J-F. de, 194s. Zai. The lyric, 47, 68s. Lai. The narrative, 25. Lamartine. A-M-L. de, 186, 201-202, 204, 209, 225. Lambert le Tort, 22. Lamennais. H-F-K. de, 213s, 218, 220, 222, 228. La Mettrie. J. Offray de, 181-182. La Motte. A. Houdart de, 177s. Lamprecht, 22. Lancelot, 29-30. Lanyage. La Maniere de, 72. Lannel. J. de, 146s. La Noue. F. de, 115s. La Peruse. J. de, 1123. Lapidaries, 14, 47. La Popellniere. L. de, 116s. Laprade. V. de, 225s. Larivey. P., 113-114, 121s, 154. la. Rochefoucauld. F. de, 159, 160s, 163. La SaUe. A. de, 88-89. La Taille. J. de, 112s. Lazarillo de Tormes, 59, 121. Le Bel. J., 70, 72s. Lebrun. P-A., 200s. Lebrun. P-D. Echouard-, 185s. Leclerq. M-T., 206s. Leconte de Lisle. C-M., 225-226. Le Fiivre. J., 65-66. Leftvre d'liltaples. J., 96s. Lefranc de Pompignan. J-J., 185s. L^f/er. La Vie de St., 6. Le Gouais. C, 56. Legouve'. E., 228s. Legrand, M-A., 1673. Le Houx. J., 81, 110s. Le Maire de Beiges. J., 76s, 77, 86- 87, 92, 104. Lemercier. L-J-N., 205s. Lenglet du Fresnoy. N., 183s. Leroy. P., 117s. Lesage. A-E., 172-173, 182. Lessing, 55. L'Estoile. C. de, 1333. L'Estoile. P. de, 115s, 133. Le Tellier. M., 162. Letourneur. P., 189. L' Hospital. M. de, 117s. Littrd M-P-E., 230s. Livre des histoires. Le, 50. Livy, 70, 134, 135. Locke, 175, 191, 195. Lohengrin, 21. Longueyille. Mme. de, 141. Longus, 114. Lope de Vega, 134. Lorens, 61. Loret. J., 141s. Lorraine. Duchess of, 58. Loti.P. (J. Viand), 234. Louis I., 10, 18. Louis IX., 18. Louis XI., 77, 83, 87. Louis XII., 74, 76, 85, 96. Louis Xm., 138. 244 INDEX. Louis XIV., 123s, 124, 149, 151, 157, 159, 162, 165, 170, 171, 178. Louis XV., 192. Louis XVIII., 199. Louis. Le Oouronnement . Sodiiino, M-I., 188s, 220. SsgiiilM. .). do, It'.is. Scnaucour. K. Pivort do, 218-219. Soup™, 70, 102, 111-112, Ho, VM, UIO, 157. St'iuu'o. A. Baudovoii do, 166s. .S'(7)( Siincs. Les, 86s. Si:rmonJiii/ci(x, 848. Sorrcs. 6. do, 118s. Hcnifntdis, Ws. ScWigne. M. do Kabutin-Chantal do, 169-100. Soyssol. v.. do, 88s. Shaftosbury, 1!U. Slmksporo, 20, 21!, 'M, 180-llK), 2tM, 208. Sibllet. T., 100s. I^idnif. Lc Lirre dc, (il. Simon, 22. Sisraondl. J-C-I.. Slinondo do, 210s. Smith. Adam, 21.'!, Somme du Jioi. Le, fll. Snmniiim Scii>ion/K, 46. iS'(iH;/ 0/ Solomon, 14. Soniiot. T\u\ !M-!)5. SoplKH'los, IK), 108, 188, 194, 22(i. Sdl'liomio. The. !>:!,