^ Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073919676 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned using Xerox software and equipment at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using ITU Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell ' s replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39. 48-1992. The production of this volume was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Digital file copyright by Cornell University Library 1995. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences . Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series THE LITERATURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, 1991-1996, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. D THE JOHN •, CRAIG LIBRARY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, •PABTMENT OF HnRTimn turf, gftRNFII m l\/FHglTV ITHACA. N. Y. ROBERT CLARKE & CO., PUBLISHERS. Hough's Elements of Forestry. The Elements of Foredry. Designed to afford Information concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit; and giving Suggestions upon tlie Creation and Care of Woodlands, with the view of securing the Crreatest Benefit for the Longest Time. Particularly adapted to the Wards and Conditions of tlie United States. By Franklin B. Hough, Ph.D., Chief of Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. A large 12nio vol. With numerous Illustrations, $2.00. Will be sent by mail, prepaid, on receipt of the price. This work is designed to present a concise outline of the general subject of Forestry in its various relations, and especially to afford directions for the planting and care of trees in groves, or as wind, breaks, or for ornament in private grounds, village roads, etc. Although the range and capabilities of species is noticed, with reference to the whole country, and the special interests of other regions is included, particular attention is given to the subject of tree-planting in the Western States, and on the borders of the Great Plains, with suggestions as to the methods best adapted for securing success under the difficulties there encountered. The work is fully illustrated by engravings in the text. Tech- nical details are avoided, and the greatest care has been taken that the definitions and terms used are concise, plain, and easily understood. No theoretical discussions are introduced, and no statements made but those founded upon approved authority. The author has been several years, and is now, engaged under an appointment from the General Government in investigating the subject of Forestry, in the Department of Agriculture, and his re- ports, published by order of Congress, have received the approval of the highest authorities upon Forestry in Europe. They were awarded a Diploma of Honor at the International Geographical Congress at Venice, during the last autumn. ROBERT CLARKE & CO., Publishers, CINCINNATI, O. HOUGH'S ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. The following headings of Chapters will give an idea of the scope and value of the work ; Chap. I. Definitions. II. Of Soils and their preparation ; Effects of Slope and Aspect. " III. Of Climate and Metereological Influences. " IV. Eeproduction from Seed. Y. Of the various modes- of Propagation of Forest Trees. " VI. Planting Continued. " VI T. Of the Structure and Functions of the various parts of Growing Trees. " VIII. General views in regard to Forestry. " IX. Acts of Congress relating to Timber-Rights " X. European Plans of Forest Management. " XI. Ornamental Planting, " XII. Hedges, Screens and Shelter-Belts. " XIII. Cutting and Seasoning of Wood; Defects in Timber. " XIV. Fuel; Charcoal; Wood-Gas. " XV. Forest Fires. " XVI. Protection from other Injuries than Fires. " XVII. Insect Ravages in Woodlands. " XVIIl. Processes for Increasing the Durability of Timber, or for Improving its Quality. " XIX. Resinous and other Products of Conifers. " XX. Use of Wood in the Manufacture of Paper. " XXI. Tanning Materials. " XXII. Description of Particular Species. " XXI II. The Conifers. " XXIV. Tree-Planting in Kansas and Nebraska. ROBERT CLARKE & CO., Publishers, CINCINNATI. THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTKY DESIGNED TO AFFOED INFOKMATION CONCERNING THE PLANTING AND CAKE OF FOREST TREES FOR ORNAMENT OR PROFIT AKD GIVING SUGGESTIONS UPON THE CEEATION MD CARE OF WOODLANDS WITH THE VIEW OF SECURING THE GREATEST BENEFIT FOR THE LONGEST TIME, PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE WANTS AND CONDITIONS OF THE UNITED STATES BY FEANKLIN B. HOUGH, PhD Chief of Forestry Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture Member of the American Philosophical Society, etc. CINCINNATI ROBERT CLARKE & CO 1882 CoprEiGHT, 1882, Bt ROBERT CLARKE & CO. IPREFA^OE. In preparing this work, the author has endeavored to present, in a concise form, a general outline of the subject of Forestry in its most ample relations, without attempting to be exhaustive in any thing. Technical details have been avoided as far as was thought possible ; but in mentioning the names of trees and other organic objects, the scientific as well as the common names have generally both been used, chiefly because the latter are often quite uncertain in their application, while the former can never be mistaken when rightly applied, and are alike in the scientific literature of all languages. In noticing the various subjects embraced, care has been taken to mention the economical uses and commercial values that pertain to them, and in describing dificrent methods, a preference has been stated whenever it was thought to lead to best results. The engravings in this work are chiefly derived from the following sources : Those occupying full pages, and showing details of structure of some of the principal species of Timber-trees, and the laws of development and growth, are from " Der "Wald," by E. A. Eossmassler, an approved German author. The engravings showing de- tails of wood structure, are chiefly from " Les Bois," by M. M. Dupont and Bouquet de la Grye, and some of the illustrations of botanical species are from the " Guide du Forestier," by the latter. The figures of insects, and their ravages, are from " Les Ravageurs des For^ts," by II. de la Blanchere. Those of Charcoal Kilns, are from the " Journal of the U. S. Asso. Charcoal Iron "Workers," and those of Charcoal Meilers, from the American edition of Svedelius' " Handbook for Charcoal Burners." A few of (iii) iv Preface. the smaller illustrations of Botanical species are from an English work, entitled "Woodland Gleanings," and those showing defects in timher, in part from Laslett's " Timher- Trees." Three or four are from Dupuis' "Arbres d' Orne- ment " and his " Coniferes de Pleine Terre," and the sketches of western conifers and other species, are from Prof. J. S. Newberry's Report, embraced in Vol. VI, of the " Pacific Eailroad Surveys." The remainder are from the author's first Report upon Forestry, presented in 1877, and published by order of Congress, except some small sketches drawn for the present work. "Wherever the language of an author has been quoted, the citations given will generally lead' to more extended information, and in the absence of references, it is believed that the facts and principles here presented will generally be found such as are supported by approved experience and well established observation. Although many special works upon planting, arbori- culture, botanical descriptions, and other subjects relating to particular departments of Forestry have been issued, at various times, this is, so far as we know, the first attempt to present, in our language, and in one volume, the sub- ject of Forestry iu the comprehensive sense that we have defined it. It would have been much easier to do this in a larger volume, and it was often found a difficult task to condense into the space that could bo allowed to the several divisions of the subject, all that it was desirable to present concerning it. We have endeavored to adapt this work to the want of students in Forestry, whether in the class- rooms of an institution, or engaged in practical labors; and it has been our special aim to present information that is applicable to our own country, and to those regions where tree-planting is most needed, and often most diffi- cult. If it is found to meet this intention, our object will be attained. Washington, July 1, 1882. CONTENTS. CHAPTEE I. DEFIXITIONS. Forestry — Sy 1 v ioulture — A rboricul ture — Sciences i n vol ved — Trees — A Species — A Genus — A Natural Order — Names used in scientific de- scriptions 1-4 CHAPTER II. OP SOILS AND THEIB PKEPARATION. EFFECTS OF SLOPE AXD ASPECT. Composition of Soils — llumus — Loam — How they affect the Growths of Trees — Silecious, Calcareous, Argillaceous, and Alkaline Soils — Color of Soils — How affected by underlying Rocks — Preparation for plant- ing — Effect of Slope and Aspect — Degrees of Inclination 4-10 CHAPTER III.- OF CLIMATE AXD MEIEOROLOGICAL INFLUEKCES. Definition of Climate — The Atmosphere and its Elements — Oxygen — Nitrogen — Carbonic Acid Gas — Aqueous Vapor — Absolute and rela- tive Humidity — Effect of Heat and of Cold — Dew — Fogs and Clouds — Rains — Effect of Woodlands — Evaporation — Percolation — Tem- perature of Soils — Winds — Agency of Water in Vegetation — Effects of Frost — Injuries from Snow — The Timber-line — Decline of Frult- pvoduction — Ruin from clearing off of Forests — Probable Effects in Western Territories , 10-28 CHAPTER IV. KEPRODgCTIOS FROM SEED. The Blossom — Fertilization —Distribution of Tree-seeds— Dispersion by Winds, by Animals, by Water — Early-ripening Seeds — Gathering and keeping of Seeds, Nuts and Acorns — Germination — Time of sowing or planting — Vitalitv of Seeds 28-36 (V) vi Contents. CHAPTER V. OP THE TARIOUS MODES OF rKOPACATIOIf OP FOREST TREES. Seeds planted where the Trees nro to grow — Methods employed — Planting of Walnut and other Nut-Trees — Soaking of Seeds — Plant- ing in Seed-beds and Nurseries — Spring and Fall planting — Propaga- tion from Cuttings, Layers, and other Methods — Grafting 37-46 CHAPTER VI. PLAN I TNG COKTIKUED. Intervals between Trees — Planting in Rows, in Squares, in Quincunx Order — in Triangles — Number of Trees on given Areas — Necessity of close planiing — Planting of young Trees from the Forests — Plant- ing on the Sod — Planting without disturbance of Roots — Transplant- ing of large Trees — Disadvantage of planting of too large Size — Planting of Rocky Surfaces — Of mulching — Of thinning — Trimming and Pruning — Pollards — Removal of outer Bark — Arbor-days. 47-62 CHAPTER VII. OF THE STRTJCTCRE AND FCKCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OP GROWING TrEES. The Buds— The Leaves— The Wood and Bark— The growth of the Trunk and Branches — Eccentric Forms of Growth — The Roots — The pressure of Sap and its Changes — Autumnal Colors 63-79 CHAPTER Vin. GENERAL VIEWS IN REGARD TO FORESTRY. On the investment of Labor and Capital — Questions of Profit — The due Proportion of Woodlands and cultivated Fields — Forest Areas in Europe — Resemblances and Contrasts in Timber-Growth — General Glance at Forest Resources of United States and Canada — New Eng- land, Middle, Southern and Western States — Rocky Mountain Re- gion — Pacific Coast — Canada — Great Britain — Alternations of Forest Growth 79-91 CHAPTER IX. ACTS OF COXGREi?S RELATING TO TIMBER-RIGHTS. Timber-culture Acts — Homestead Entry Act — Use of Timber by Rail- road Companies — Privileges in certain States and Territories — .Sa!i^ of Timber-lands.... 91-96 Cojitents. vii CHAPTER X. EUROPEAN PLAKS OF FOREST MANAGEMEKT. Method of Selection — Coppice-growth — Woodlands grown to full Ma- turity — European Forest Administrations — Schools of Forestry — Planting of Dunes — Reboisement — Checking of Torrents — Covering denuded Slopes — Plantations in Scotland 96-113 CHAPTER XI. ORNAMENTAL PLAKTIXG. Pleasures and Benefits — Home-adornment — Village-Improvement and the planting of Waysides — City Parks — Rural Cemeteries — Grounds around Public Institutions 113-127 CHAPTER XII. HEDGES, SCREENS AND SHELTER-EEI.TS. Hedges and Screens — Shelter-belts — Planting along Railroads — Plant- ing on Russian Steppes 127-137 CHAPTER XIII. CUTTING AND SEASONING OP WOOD. DEFECTS IN TIMBER. Proper Time for Cutting — Seasoning of Woods — Shrinkage — Strength of Wood with respect to Lines of Growth — Defects of Various kinds 137-144 CHAPTER XIV. rUEL. CHARCOAL. WOOD-GAS. Qualities desirable in Wood for Fuel — Charcoal — Table of Heating Qualities of Wood, by Mr. Bull — Modes of making Charcoal — Meilers or Coal-pits — Kilns — Red Charcoal — Distilled Products — Illuminat- ing Wood-gas 144-154 CHAPTER XV. FOREST FIRES. Their Causes — Prevention — Control 154-159 CHAPTER XVI. PROTECTION FROM OTHER INJURIES THAN FIRES. Pasturage of Woodlands — Injuries to Seeds and Seedlings by Wild Animals i 159-161 viii Contents. CHAPTER XVII. INSECT RAVAGES IN WOODLANDS. General Statements — Effect upon Wood-growth — Coleoptera — Orthop- teia — Hemiptera — Neuroptera — Lepidoptera — Hymenoptera — Bip- tera— Insects that attack the Oaks — Elms— Hickories— Black Wal- nuts— Butternuts-Chestnut — Locust — Maples — Cottonwoods — Pop- lars—Lindens — Birches — Beech — Willows — Pines— Spruces — Firs- Hemlocks 161-187 CHAPTER XVIII. PROCESSES FOR INCREASING THE DURABILITT OF TIMBER, OR FOR IMPROVING ITS QUALITY. General Statements — Causes of Decay — Charring — Immersion in Water — Penetration of Liquids, and of Solids in Solution — Oils — Crude Petroleum — Salt — Incombustible Wood — Alum — Borax — Lime — Processes of Bethell — Boucherie — Burnett — Carey — Hatsfield — Ky an Margary — Payne — Prescott — Robbins — Tait — Thilmany — Re- cipes 187-199 CHAPTER XIX. RESINOUS AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF CONIFERS. Naval stores — Turpentine — ^Spirits of Turpentine — Rosin — Methods of Resinage — Economy and Waste — French Methods with the Maritime Pine — Tar — Pitch — Lamp-black — Canada Balsam — Essential Oils — Perfume from Pine-sap 199-205 CHAPTER XX. USE OF WOOD IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Mechanical Processes of Volter, Hartmann, Siebricht, etc. — Chemical Processes — Cultivation of Poplars for Paper Pulp 205-206 CHAPTER XXL TANNING MATERIALS. Supplies from the Oak — Hemlocks, etc. — Tanning Extracts — Manage- ment of Oak-Coppices — Peeling by the Aid of Heat — Sumac. 206-210 Conti nts. ix CHAPTER XXII. DESCRIPTION OF PAltTICUI.Ar. SPECIES. Oaks — Chestnuts — Beeches — Birches — Alders — Hornbeam — Maples — Box-Elders — Lindens — Elms — Osage-Orange — Mulberry — Hackbeny — Tulip-tree — Sycamores — Buckeyes — Soap-berry — Locusts — Coffee- tree — Red-bud — Acacias — Yellow-wood — Pears and Apples — Crab- trees — Pluuis and Cherries — Thorn-trees — Service-berry — Eucalj'ptus — Eugenias — Cornel Family — Sour-Gum — Elders — Elms — Butter- bush — Silver-bell — Ashes — Olive— Lilac — Hickories — Black Walnut Butternut — Poplars — Cotton woods — Willows — Ailanthus — Arbutus — Manzinita — Paw-paws — Catalpas — Mountain Mahogany — Persim- mon — Burning-Bush — Holly Family — Laurels — Sweet-Gum — Mag- nolias — Pride-of-India — Iron-woods — Sorrel- tree — Mesquits — Buck- thorns — Sumacs — Sassafras — Buffalo-berry — Mahogany — Arrow- wood, etc 210-299 CHAPTER XXIII. THE CONlPEnS. General Statement and Definitions — Classification — Cypress Family — Yews — Families not represented in U. S. — Pine Family — The Cy- presses and W hite Cedars — The Junipers — Red-Cedars — Bald-Cypress — Sequoias — Giant-trees — Redwood — Yews — Torreyas — Ginkgo — Pines — Spruces — Hemlocks — Douglas Fir — Firs — Larches... 299-345 CHAPTER XXIV. TREE-PLANTISG IX KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. List of Species approved in Kansas, by Counties — Propagation by Cut- tings and Native Seedlings — Distances between Trees — Effect of Shelter-belts — Locust-trees in Central Kansas— Gathering and Pre- serving Seeds — Preparation of the Ground — Tree-culture on the Plains 346-353 Recent Decision under Timber-culture Act 354 ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. CHAPTEE I. DEFINITIONS. 1. Forestry, in its most comprehensive sense, is that branch of knowledge that treats of woodlands — their formation, mainte- nance, and renewal, the influences that may affect their welfare ; the methods employed in their management, the removal, prepara- tion, and use of their products, and the economies that may be gained by skillful operation. 2. Sylvictdture^ is that part of Forestry which relates to the plant- ing and cultivation of groves and collective bodies of forest trees. 3. Arboriculture' treats of the cultivation of trees. It is some- times limited to the cultivation of fruit-trees, but the term may properly be extended to include the planting and care of trees gen- erally, whether for fruit, ornament, or other use. 4. Forestry involves the application of many branches of science : (a. ) From natural history it derives the description and classifica- tion of trees, and of the animal and vegetable life that afiect their welfare. (6.) From geology and mineralogy, it learns the origin and com- position of soils and sub-spils, and of the rock formations from which they are derived, their constituent parts, their permeability, and their fitness for the successful growth of particular kinds of trees. (e.) By the aid of chemistry it determines the elements of the soil, the composition and changes that take place in the growth and decay of wood, the methods that may be used for increasing its du- rability or improving its quality, and the various operations con- cerned in the production and use of its chemical products. (d.) From mathematics it derives aid in all processes of measure- (1) From st/iBB, " a grove." (2) From acftor, "a tree." 2 Definitions. ment and calculation concerned in forest lands, materials, manage- ment, working, or revenues. (e.) From mechanics, it applies the various agencies employed in cutting, transporting, and manufacture of wood and timber in every form. (/.) From physics and meteorology, it determines the various questions of atmospheric influence and of climate that may arise, whether as cause or efiect, and seeks to learn how these may be im- proved to best advantage, and, in some cases, controlled. (li to those that grow to six feet in height or less. These terms are however arbitrary, in their use, and can not be with certainty applied to any species. 7. Trees may increase from within, as in the case of palms, or by the deposit of wood in annual layers under the bark. The former have no bark proper, and are called Endogenous, a term signifying "growing from within." They are represented in the Southern States by the palmetto (Sahal palmetto) , and a few other species, but on account of their slight relative importance as forest trees, they will be uo further noticed in this work. The latter are termed Eb- ogenous, a term signifying " growing from without," and increase by the deposit of new layers of wood on the outside, under the bark. This great division includes, with the above exception, all of the na- tive aud naturalized trees of the United States. 8. A Species, when used in Forestry, is understood to mean a group of trees or other plants, resembling iu the details of their structure, Definitions. 3 and producing the like forms of growth from their seeds. They are subject to many variations, due to differences of soil, climate, and other causes, and occasionally produce unusual forms in their leaves, size and color of flowers, quality of fruit, or habits of growth, -which are called " sports." In other case?, hybrids will form by cross-fer- tilization, the result being a tree that partakes of some of the char- acteristics of both species. This is occasionally seen in the oaks and the willows, but as a rule the species remain distinct. These devi- ations from the normal type may be perpetuated by budding, graft- ing, or layers, but when they bear fertile seeds, they do not produce plants having like peculiarities, and tend to return to their original forms. 9. A Genus, is usually a group of species having common resem- blances in the structure of the flowers and fruit, and generally, in their leaves and in the habit of growth, such as the pines, maples, birches, etc. In some cases, howeva-, a genus may include but one species. They are sometimes divided into groups or sub-genera, having some common resemblance, and occasionally these may be further arranged into other groups, having common forms or prop- erties. Where there are several species in a genus, they may be generally grafted upon one another, but in other cases this can only be done successfully within the group or sub-genus to which the species belong. 10. A Natural Order, in botany, is a class of trees or plants that usually embraces several genera, having a common resemblance in the structure of the seed and fruit and in manner of growth, differ- ing from all others and constant within itself. These are again sometimes divided into sub-orders, families, or groups, depending upon a common resemblance, and instances occur in which a natural order includes but a single genus. 11. We have examples of natural orders in the Coniferae, embrac- ing the pines, firs, spruces, cedars, junipers, etc., and in the Legum- inoscB, or bean-like fruited plants, which include, among trees, the locusts, honey-locusts, acacias, Kentucky coffee-tree, and many others. 12. The description aiid classification of orders, genera, and species among trees form a part of the province of botany, and will not be attempted in this work. In mentioning the common names 4 Of Soils, etc. — Humus. — Muck. of trees, we shall generally give with them their scientific or botani- cal uaifles, as a means for more exact designation. 13. The common names are very uncertain, and may in one re- gion be applied to species very unlike those where they are used in another. But the scientiiic names, rightly applied, are exactly un- derstood in every language in which the sciences are taught, ;ind can not be mistaken for any others. They are very generally de- rived from Greek or Latin words, expressing some quality or char- acter in the genus or species to which they are applied. The generic name is more commonly derived from the Greek, and the specific name from the Latin. The former always begins with a capital letr ter — the latter only when it is derived from a proper noun. Where a number of species are mentioned in succession, the initial letter only of the genus will be used after the first one, as Pinus strohus, P. mitis, P. rigida, etc. CHAPTER n. OF SOILS AND THEIR PEEPAEATION — EFFECTS OF SLOPE AND ASPECT. 14. The soil or loose material that generally covers the surface of the earth to a greater or less depth, partakes in a large degree of the chemical character of the rock formations from which it has been derived. These may be the subjacent rocks, or the material may have been transported by former geological agencies, as in "drift," or deposited by those now in action, as in alluvial mud, or littoral sands. 15. Besides these mineral components, the soil generally contains more or less organic material, derived from vegetation, or, to slight extent, from a,nimal life. In the native forests, this ' ' vegetable soil " has been mostly created by the trees and herbage, from materials taken up in solution by the roots from the soil, and absorbed by the leaves from the air, and has gradually accumulated from the decay of the leaves, or of the trees and plants themselves. 16. This organic material is called humus, and its quality and amount depends upon the kind and quantity that has been allowed to decompose. It is sometimes known as " vegetable mold," and has no definite chemical composition, but contains Humic acid (C2oH,205), and various other organic compounds. When vege- tation decays in moist places, as in swamps, it forms mttdb, and Peat. — Loam.— Functions of the Boots. 5 in some situations 'peat. These vary considerably in composition, and the latter contains so large an amount of carbon that it is used profitably as a fuel. The former, when mixed with animal manures, and the latter, when its acidity has been neutralized by lime or al- kalies, become valuable as fertilizers. Both humus and peat ab- sorb water with avidity, and retain it with tenacity. It is partly on this account that vegetable mold, when mixed with other soils, tends to impart fertility by retaining moisture within the reach of vegetation. 17. The term Loam is attached to a class of soils composed of difierent earthy materials of dissimilar particles, not easily ductile, readily diffused when thrown into water, and easily penetrated by the roots of trees and other plants. A mixture of humus renders it porous and fertile, and in a forest, this fertility tends constantly to increase, and hence the growth of trees is one of the best means for restoring exhausted soils. 18. The soil has an influence upon the growth of trees in two ways : it gives them support, and it furnishes them with nourishment. In order to give support, the soil should be permeable by the roots, without being too tenacious to resist their extension, nor too light to hold them. In nursery plantations, the proper qualities may be se- cured by artificial mixture of materials, but except in a very small degree, we can not modify them, and must seek to improve by the choice of species, the conditions as we find them. 19. As the roots of trees penetrate much deeper into the soil than those of agricultural plants, the welfare of woodlands often depends much upon the depth and character of the sub-soil, as is observed in the "Landes" of sc^uth- western France, where a vigorous and profitable growth of trees is obtained upon lands that are almost utterly barren for cultivation in farm crops. In other cases, as in flat limestone districts, the surface soil may be too thin for cultiva- tion, while in the fissures there is sufiicient soil for supplying the roots of trees. These roots, when they decay, besides leaving the organic material of which they were composed, also leave open passages penetrating deeply into the soil, and affording opportunities for drainage. These may become filled in with mold from the surface, and thus they in some degree assist in rendering the soil fertile to a greater depth than would be possible from the simple deposit of or- ganic materials upon the surface. 6 Classification of Soils. 20. The state of division of the soil, as to ■whether coarse or fine, has also an important influence, especially with reference to its per- meability by water, its drainage, and the like. Upon these proper- ties, and the organic materials, in connection with the local climate, the fertility of a given soil may be said to depend. 21. It matters not what the chemical or physical properties of the soil may be, it will remain unproductive unless there be seasonable and sufficient rains, or their equivalent supplied by irrigation, and unless the conditions of temperature be consistent with vegetable growth. 22. Although soils present infinite variety in their constituent parts, they may be classed under four principal divisions, viz.: si- liceous, calcareous, argillaceous, and alkaline. 23. In siliceous soils, the principal constituent is gravel or saiid, composed of silex or quartz, more or less finely divided, and nearly or quite destitute of the power of absorbing of retaining water, un- less underlaid by a retentive sub-soil, or unless it is but moderately above the level of a standing water, from which, by capillary attrac- tion, its moisture may be drawn. 24. In calcareous soils, the carbonate of lime is found, either from the decomposition of limestones, or from marls of more recent or- ganic origin. Such soils have the property of absorbing and retain- ing moisture in a high degree, but, although saturated they do not become impenetrable to the air, and when turned up and exposed to its action they fall to dust, and this the more readily when as- sisted by frost. They will effervesce when thrown into acids, and this afibrds a convenient, but not absolute test. 25. In argiUaceous soils, the silicate of alumina, in the form of clay, forms the principal ingredient. These soils have a strong affinity for water, and hold it with great tenacity ; yet, when exposed to solar heat, they crack into deep fissures in times of drouth. The water that falls upon clay soils does not penetrate, and they often af- ford much resistance to the roots of plants. 26. In alkaline soils, the soluble salts of soda are in excess. Where these soils occur, there is a noted deficiency iu the rain fall, and a marked sterility from this cause, for the excess of alkali appears principally due to the want of moisture for dissolving it out and car- rying it away. When such soils are irrigated, they become fertile, and improve as the excess of alkali is reduced. A lime-like deposit Characteristics of Soils. 7 is found in liollow places where this soil prevails, and the sage-bush (Artemisiatridentata) and grease-wood {Sarcobatus vermieulatus) form the principal vegetation. 27. Although none of these soils can alone be .called fertile, their proper mixture, and especially of the first three, with humus, af- fords conditions highly favorable to success. 28. Besides the qualities resulting from their chemical composi- tion, and their relations to moisture, soils differ greatly in their ca- pacity for absorbing, retaining, and radiating heat. A soil covered with siliceous pebbles retains the heat better than fine sand, and hence it is one of the circumstances that favor the growth of the vine. In the wine districts of France, differences in the time of maturing the fruit have been traced directly to this cause. A sandy- soil radiates heat very readily in clear summer nights, and frosts in- jurious to vegetation are more apt to occur upon these soils, where exposed. 29. The color of a soil has much efiect in determining absorption of solar heat. If dark colored, it becomes warm sooner and to a greater depth and degree than if light. 30. The character of the underlying rock itself has also its influ- ence upon the growth of plants and trees. If siliceous and solid, their roots get no nourishment and no hold. If friable and com- posed of mineral elements that may be taken up in solution by the roots, their fibers will insinuate themselves into the fissures and as- sist the disintegration, especially where moisture is present, and where the frost can act. This operation takes place more readily where the rock, is stratified in thin layers that are highly inclined. 31. It is a fact familiar to geologists that certain forms of vege- tation, and especially of trees, are characteristic of the rock forma- tion that underlies them. We have examples of this in shales rich with potash, that are congenial to the elms. A limestone soil is favorable to the maples but not to the pines, while the latter flour- ish best on siliceous soils, if suitably mixed with other ingredients. A line of outcrop of some rock formation upon a hillside may be made known in some cases conspicuously by the color of the foliage of the trees that grow upon it, especially when they are colored in autumn or remain green in winter. 32. The soil upon a sloping surface is generally deeper, more hu- mid, and richer near the foot, and tends gradually to become thiu, 8 Of. the preparation of Soils. dry, and sterile toward the top. These differences become greater as the inclination is more steep. Upon such slopes, it becomes highly important that the surface should be covered with vegetation and consolidated by its roots. There is no growth so favorable for this. purpose as that of trees, and elsewhere we will notice the disas- trous results that have followed from their clearing off upon steep mountain sides. In some cases, the damage is beyond remedy, while in others it may be arrested and utility restored. Of the preparaiwn of the Soil foi- sowing or planting Forest Trees. 33. In preparing land for a grove or woodland, the soil should be thoroughly mellowed by previous working or cultivation. Upon new prairie land there is but little chance of success in starting a successful growth of trees until the sod has been turned over and thoroughly rotted. This can best be done by cultivating at least one or two years previously with some farm crop. 34. The first breaking up of the sod can only be done to advan- tage in the season when vegetation is most active, and it varies somewhat in different years and in different localities. It may be generally said to last through the month of June, and it sometimes may continue longer. Toward the latter part of summer and in autumn, the soil is too dry and hard for breaking up, and the herb- age does not so readily decompose. The first furrows must be broad and thin. The subsequent plowing should be deeper, and the soil should be rendered perfectly mellow by harrowing. 35. For windbreaks and hedges, this preliminary work may be in the line of proposed planting, and at least four feet wider than the intended borders. 36. In the planting of trees for avenues, the soil near the surface, which is generally more fertile, should be placed by itself, and this should be the first that is used in covering the roots. In hard clay soils, there is an advantage in preparing the holes in autumn, and leaving them to the action of the air and the frost through the win- ter, in readiness for the next spring. 37. It is sometimes necessary, and often advantageous, to fertilize at the time of planting, and the best material that can be used is well-rotted leaf-mold from the woods. It may be first mixed with the soil that is spread next to the roots. Where stable manure is used, it should be placed near, but not in contact with the roots, or it Slope and Aspect. — Northern and Eastern Aspects. 9 should be used as a top-dressing. In the common practice of for- estry, and at present prices of labor and of timber, we can not usu- ally do more than to sow or plant the species that appear to be best suited to the conditions, and we can only fertilize in nurseries and special plantations. It is not improbable that methods of fertiliza- tion upon an extensive scale may hereafter be employed in forest planting, and with profitable results. Of the Slope and Aspect of Surface, and ilmr Effect, upon Tree Growth. 38. The slope of a surface is sometimes mentioned in degrees of the angle that it rises above the level. It may be called a gentk slope, if under 10°; smiewlwct steep, if from 10° to 20°; deep, if from 20° to 34°; and very steep, if from 35° to 45° 39. The aspect or direction of a slope is found to have a percep- tible, and often a notable influence upon tree growth, and this effect is greater in proportion to the extent of surface. Upon isolated swells of land and small hills, it might be scarcely noticed, but ou the opposite sides of mountain ranges, or in mountain valleys, it may be very great. 40. A northern aspect receives no full sunlight, or its rays fall obliquely in the morning or toward evening, according to the angle of elevation. The winds are colder and dryer, but in the growing season generally not strong. The soil retains moisture, and the growth is often rapid. The trees retain their regular shape, and the wood is softer, not as strong, but generally well adapted to manu- facture. As vegetation is a little delayed, the spring frosts are not so apt to do harm, but from the late and imperfect hardening of the new wood, the frosts of winter may do injury. As the snows lie longer on these slopes, the forests are benefited by their delaying the growth in the first uncertain warm days of spring, and by the moist- ure that they retain. The starting of forests by seeding is more easily secured on a north slope than any other, and it is only upon this slope that forest-tree seeds are sown upon the damp snows in start- ing mountain forests. 41. An eastern aspect receives the sun in the cool morning hours, when the temperature and light are moderate. The winds in our Atlantic States are often damp, especially in winter. The soil re- tains its moisture fairly. Timber grows well, and acquires medium qualities that adapt it to the greatest variety of uses. 10 Southe7~n and WesteiTi Aspects. 42. A southern aspect receives both the heat and light with great- est intensity, and is more liable to winds and storms, and the soil to erosion from rains, than any other. The trees, on the whole, are of slower growth, owing to deficient moisture, and are less regular in form, but the wood is firm, heavy, and strong, well adapted to all uses where these qualities are required. Seeding can seldom be se- cured on a steep southern aspect in a warm, dry climate, and trees must be set from nurseries and attended with greater care. The south side of a mountain is much more likely to be bare than any other, every thing else being equal. 43. A western aspect receives the sun obliquely, but in the warm- est part of the day, and in our Western States, vegetation is most exposed on these slopes to drying winds. The soil is apt to become dry, and timber is therefore of slower growth and less regular in form, but in the main good. 44. These differences from aspect are more noticeable in elevated regions than in low grounds, and they depend in degree more or less upon the nature of the soil, and local climatic influences that may determine the direction of the surface winds, or otherwise aifect the location. 45. The degree of inclination has also a notable influence upon vegetation, and on the action of rains upon the surface. If less than one in six, the conditions are generally good. From this to one in three, agricultural cultivation becomes difiicult, and the sur- face is liable to wash ; still, the roots of trees can find a hold; and, if they can get deep into the soil, forests will prosper. At still greater angles, cultivation becomes difficult without terracing, and the_dangers from erosion become greater. Upon such extreme slopes, pasturage is apt to cause great injuries by destroying the herbage and allowing the soil to wash into the valleys. The true policy should be to keep them covered with woodlands, if possible, and to clear by selection, never exposing the whole surface at once. CHAPTER III. OP CLIMATE AND METEOEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES. 46. We understand by climate, the atmospheric conditions of a given region, resulting from its latitude, elevation, temperature, The Atmosphere and its Elements. 11 humidity, amount and distribution of its raius, character and force of the winds, intensity of light, and other general or local causes. T7ie Atmo&phere and, its Elements. 47. The atmosphere from which the trees, through their foliage, derive a part of their aliment, and to which they return certain gaseous elements in the process of growth, consists of about one part of oxygen to four parts of nitrogen by volume. It always contains, besides these, a nearly constant proportion of carbonic acid gas, and a variable amount of aqueous vapor. 48. Oxygen. This gas is necessary to the existence of all animal and vegetable life, and to combustion, respiration, fermentation, and many other processes of nature. It has a wide range of affinities, and forms a part of all organic and most mineral compounds. It is absorbed or disengaged in various operations of tree-growth, and, under certain conditions, it hastens decay. 49. Nitrogen. This gas has a comparatively small range of affini- ties, and in the air appears to dilute and moderate the action of oxygen. Of itself, it does not sustain life. It forms a part of some vegetables and of all animals, and, combined with hydrogen in the proportion of 1 to 3 (NHg), it forms ammonia, which acts an important part in the vegetation of trees, as well as of the culti- vated grains. 50. Carbonic Acid Gas. This is a compound made up of 2 atoms of oxygen to 1 o^ carbon (CO2, or 72.73 of oxygen to 27.27 of carbon by weight). It has been estimated that this gas forms one thousandth part of the atmosphere, but recent experiments show that the proportion is less, ranging from- two and a half to four ten- thousandths, or even less. It is very uniform, yet is slightly varied by local influences, being increased by combustion, respiration, and other causes. 51. It is from carbonic acid gas, either in the air or in the water taken up by the roots, -that trees obtain the carbon that makes their principal bulk. This gas was probably more abundant in former times, as in the carboniferous period, since mineral coals are largely made up of carbon. It also forms a part of all limestones and marls, and of many minerals and ores. There is no evidence that the proportion in the air has changed within the period of human history. 12 Aqueous Vapor. — JDeio Point. — Absolute Humidity. 52. Aqueous Vapor. The proportion of watery vapor in the air has a most important influence upon tree gi-owth, and where the amount is small, their cultivation becomes difficult or impossible. 53. Water, when exposed, will slowly evaporate, the rate being greater at a high temperature and in a dry air. It is still greater when there is a wind passing over the surface, carrying off the va- por and bringing dry air in its place. 54. Aqueous vapor is always present in the air, although it may be imperceptible to our senses. There is, however, a limit, above which the excess becomes visible as fog or cloud, and falls as dew or rain. If the temperature falls below the freezing point, the dew be- comes Jwar frost, and the rain becomes snow. 55. The degree of temperature at which condensation begins is called the dew point. It may be ascertained by cooling down water in a bright and thin metallic cup until dew begins to form on the outside. 56. The humidity of the atmosphere is usually ascertained by the psychrometer, which consists of two similar thermometers set a few inches apart, one of them having the bulb covered with white mus- lin cloth, which is wet before an observation is taken. The wet bulb is gently fanned till the temperature goes down to a stationary point, and then both thermometers are read. By the aid of tables that have been computed for this purpose, we may very easily ob- tain from the temperature of the dry bulb instrument, and the dif- ference between that and the wet bulb, two separate statements con- cerning the moisture present in the air, viz.: the ahsolute and the relative humidity. 57. The Absolute Humiditij is the elastic force or tension of the vapor, as would be shown in its raising a column of mercury in a guage, and is usually given in decimal parts of an English inch. With a given difference between wet and dry bulb thermometers, it increases with the temperature, being greatest when the weather is warmest, as shown by Diagram 1. We see, for example, that at 90° it is 1.3 inches, the difference between thermometers being 10°, while it is but 0.3 at 55°, and but a little over 0.1 at 40°. The rate gains rapidly at high temperatures, and above the boiling point it becomes the power of steam. 58. As observed in a very warm atmosphere, there may be an abundance of moisture present in the air and no rain. At a fixed Absolute and Relative Humidity. 13 temperature, the amount is and dry bulbs is greatest, and it increases as tliese dif- ferences become less, as we see by Diagram 2, where the lines descend from left to right. The rate of de- scent is similar at difi'erent temperatures, as we see the descending lines are parallel, but they become nearer to- gether as the temperature is less. In this diagram, the degrees on the oblique lines are those of temperature in the open air. If we meas- ure the vertical distances be- tween these oblique lines, we would have a series of num- bers increasing at a gaining rate, which might be shown by a curve something like those of the preceding figure. 59. The Relative Humid- ity. This is the percentage of saturation, 100 being com- plete saturation, as in a fog (when the air can hold no more moisture in invisible form), and being com- plete dryness. In our cli- mate, we never find the air absolutely dry without arti- ficial means. The degree of rela,tive humidity also de- pends on the temperature, and with a given distance between wet and dry bulbs, it is greatest at high temper- least when the difierence between wet Szches ■ zff-7»* a «>• II,- so- M- M- xn- i7i>- M- no' 20 23 2.7 20 2S J/t- 2S 22 22. 20 .» .S .7 .e .s .4- .3 .2 .2 1 II 1 ill III , II Ij 1 11 III J II h 1 1 1 1 1 1 / 1 '/./ / 1^ V ' ,/ ^ / 1.^ -' y / 1. Absolute Humidity at different Tempera- tures, the JJiffopenee between wet and dry Bulb3 being constant. VedrnoL Tht im •joviTHvic^ V? 7- Zis. Miff' 2.9 2.8 2-7 i.e 3.S 2.3 2.2 22 2.0 .0 .S .7 .e .s .4- .z .2 ~ - — ^ ' a _;, — f- -^ ~~ fs. - ■" -* - — ^ ' & ^ =- — ^ - ~ - ■* k — -■ — ^ -- 1 — , - ^ ^ - a •^ -~ ~ — _, & r- fe 1^ .^ - — =z s g ~ ~ - - ~- 2. Absolute Humidity at fixed Temperatures, the Difference between wet and dry Bulbs being variable. 14 JRelatice Humidity, ^'^- JDaareeyS of TempentXur», ^JF.) atures. The rate of increase forms a curve, as shown in the diagram annexed, but increasing in percentage more slowly as the temperature is high. These curves are higher when the wet and dry bulb thermometers are nearer alike, and grow smaller at a regularly decreasing rate as the differences between in- struments increase. 60. At all temperatures, the relative humidity dimin- ishes in percentage as the difference between the in- struments increases, as we see by the descending curves in Figure 4, but not at uni- !?. Eelative Humidity at different Tempera- form rates, as We see that these lines arc curves. The degrees marked on these curves from 0° to 100° are those of temperature in the open air.' (1) The numerical Etatements frcim which this and the preced- ing figures sue constructed will be found in a volume of meteor- ological tables prepared bj- Pro- fessor Guj-ot, and published by the Smithsonian Institution for the use of its observers, at the time when the former system of voluntary meteorological ob- servation was in operation. The limits of this volume do not ad- mit of their insertion in detail, nc r of a statement of the principles upon which thev are 4. Relative Humidity at fixed Temperaturesi . , theflifferenoe.betweeuwetand dry Bulbs being bused, variable. tures the difference between wet'and dry liulbs being constant. Hamidity : Effect of Heat upon Volume of Air. 15 61. The absolute humidity of the atmosphere is much greatest in summer, reaching its maxi- mum iu July or August (0.5 to 0.6 inches), and its mini- mum in December (0.1 or a little higher). The relative humidity follows a different law, and through a much less range. It ranges from 75 to 80 per cent in winter in the Atlantic States, de- scends to the lowest (about 65 per cent, ou the general average) in May, rises to about 70 to 75 in the sum- mer months, and a little higher in winter. These ranges of absolute and rela- tive humidity, taken from the mean of many years' ob- servation at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observar tory at Toronto, in Canada, and at the State Agricult- ural Colleges at Orono, in Maine, and at Lansing, in Michigan, are shown by the accompanying engravings. Effects of Heat aiid of Cold upon tJie Volume of Air. 62. It is a rule that heat tends to expand all bodies, whether solid, liquid, or gas- eous, and that cooling tends to reduce their volume. 63. When any substance expands, it absorbs "latent 6- Kelative Humidity at three American Sta- , ,, , , , , tions througli tlie several Montlis, for a Seiries of neat, and becomes colder. Years. 5. Absolute Humidity at three American Sta- tions through the several Months, for a Series of Years. k K \^i ^l <■ %■■; N \;< =1 /. 1.0, •ySi a^ "" ■^ // — 16 Dew Point: Fogs and Clouds. Condensation has the opposite effect, and the substance condensed becomes ■warm. It is by many astronomers believed that the sun's heat is caused by the condensation of gases going on upon or within its surface. Evaporation, or the passing of a liquid into gaseous form, is notably an expanding, and consequently a cooling process. The leaves of trees in the growing season evaporate abundantly, and hence the coolness of groves in summer. The condensation of vapors in the form of dew or rain, is always the effect of a cooling down of the atmosphere to below the Dew Point [§ 55], and is al- ways attended with a diminution in the previous volume of the air from which it forms. 64. Dew, is the moisture deposited from the air when cooled at night by the radiation of heat from the earth's surface. It can only occur when the temperature is reduced to the "dew point,'' and is greatest iu still clear nights. When covered with clouds, the radi- ations of heat are returned to the earth. The same effect is often seen immediately under a tree, which will remain dry, while all around it the dew on the grass may be heavy. This shows that the air under the tree has been a little warmer than in the open space around it, and that the general percentage of moisture in the air is relatively high. 65. On the contrary, we sometimes see the grass, boards, etc., under a tree wet with the dew, when the ground around it is dry. This occurs from the greater humidity of the air under the tree in consequence of the evaporation of its foliage, and is seen only in a calm night, when the general humidity of the air is less. These effects are sometimes seen where a plank walk extends along under an avenue of large trees standing widely apart. The open portions may be white with hoar-frost (frozen dew), while the parts covered by the trees are bare, or the sheltered portions may be wet, as if rained upon, while the open spaces are dry. 66. Fogs and Chads, are formed only when the air is at or below the dew point, showing that it can hold the moisture no longer, and the excess becomes visible, and may, in certain cases, descend as rain. They show a reduced temperature, and common summer clouds are often formed by the unequal heating of a portion of the earth's surface by the sun. 67. The air in contact with these heated portions expands, and, becoming lighter, rises — the air from surrounding spaces coming in Bains : Effect of Woodlands Stated. 17 to supply its place. An upward current is thus formed, and the air rising and cooling finally comes to the dew point, and the moisture becomes visible as cloud. A column of smoke from a burning clearing will sometimes thus form a cloud, and may cause rain. 68. A country interspersed with groves of trees, presents contrasts in heating tendencies favorable to the formation of these upward currents of the air. Broad areas of cloud passing over a great ex- tent of country, and usually accompanied by a low barometer, are due to more general causes, but always show a reduction of temper- ature in the region where they form. 69. Rains, are caused by a condensation of moisture from cooling below the dew point. The success of forest growth depends largely upon their amount and their seasonable distribution throughout the year, and especially their occurrence when vegetation is most active, and when the new layer of wood for the season is forming. 70. A rain guage on the ground will collect in a year more rain than one on the roof of a house, and the latter more than one on a high tower. Currents of air may tend to cause this difference in part, but it seems to show that the rain-drops gather in size as they descend. 71. On the contrary, in a dry time, we sometimes see filaments of rain descending from a cloud, which dry up and disappear in the warm air below without reaching the. ground. When such clouds pass over large bodies of woodland, where the temperature is cooler and the air more moist, these filaments extend down and afford a shower of rain, but dry up again as they come to the warm air of the fields beyond. Applying these principles of humidity and tem- perature to Forestry, let us consider what effect a woodland can have upon them : 72. In the growing season, there is a vast amount of evaporation going on from the foliage of trees, the moisture being derived from the soil. This evaporation is a cooling process, and as it both in- creases the amount of moisture, while it reduces the temperature, it tends to bring the air to the dew point ; in other words, to the condition favoring the formation of dews and rain. In the nicely balanced state of the atmosphere that we often find in summer, this change may sometimes be the turning point that decides between rain and drouth. 18 Ejfect ofWootUanih : Wata- Svpply. 73. It has been found, many times, that where the trees and bushes are cleared away from large areas of rocky surlace, the re- gion begins to suffer from drouth. The rocks being heated by the sun, remain warm in the night, and the rain-clouds, which, in pass- ing over the wooded surface, formerly condensed in gentle showers, now dry up, upon coming to the heated air, and perhaps yield a co- pious rainfall, over a better-wooded district beyond. These effects are more apparent where the clearings have been extended over considerable areas, and they could with certainty be overcome by allowing the rocks to be again clothed with a growth of trees. 74. The efftct of Woodlands upon the Rain that faUs upon them may next be considered. Admitting that the amount of rain that falls upon the woods is the same as that in adjacent fields, it is evident that a part would be intercepted by the foliage, and in transient showers be evaporated from it, without reaching the ground. But the air within the woods is always more humid in the growing season, and the surface is always shaded from the sun and sheltered from the winds. It is also generally covered with a layer of dead leaves and litter, so that the rain that does actually reach the earth, although it may be rather less in amount, is more in effect, because it is not readily evaporated. It sinks into the ground, instead of running off on the surface. It can not wear away the soil upon steep slopes, nor form sudden and destructive floods, as in a naked and treeless region. The streams rising in woodlands may swell after a rain, but more gradually, and they will subside again more slowly. If they rise in woodland swamps, they are scarcely liable to floods at any season, and tend to an even flow throughout the year. 75. Springs and wells in a wooded region have a much more uniform supply of water than in the same region when cleared. Instances have often been observed where these become dry upon clearing, and again well supplied with water as before when a forest growth was restored. 76. These principles become important when applied to the supply of water for cities and towns, and for the maintenance of water in canals, or for hydraulic power. The basins of supply should, if pos- sible, be kept wooded, and the rivulets kept shaded, if we would avoid failure. 77. In Illinois, and some other prairie states, there has been ob- Causes of dryer Climate : Atmometers. 19 served a noticeable increase in the dryness of the climate since set- tlement first began. This may in part be attributed to the cleariug away of the belts tf native timber along the streams. The roots of these trees formerly kept the channel at a higher level, and in some cases formed extensive swamps. The beds of these streams are now lower, and they drain oif the water to a greater depth. The effect is shown in the failure of water in the wells, and in the more frequent occurrence of drouth, to the injury of agriculture. 78. There is nothing that would more effectually check this tend- ency to deepening of channels than the planting of willows along the sides, and it might eventually in some degree restore what has been lost by raising them to a higher level. 79. The rate of evaporation from the surface of water and from soils is found to be much more in the open fields than in woodlands, and the difference is greater in summer than in winter. 80. Instruments for measuring the evaporation are sometimes called " atmometers,'' and they are of various forms. We here pre- sent a section of one in- vented by Professor La- ment, of the Munich Ob- servatory. It consists of a basin of water, /, g, with a narrow opening at A, com- municating with a reservoir in an adjacent cylinder. Into the latter a plunger may be pressed down or raised by the screw, S. It works through an air-tight collar, a, d, and by this means the water, by press- ure or suction, may be ad- justed in the open basin. When left for observation, the water is drawn down till it is just visible at A, and the scale, s, s, is ad- justed to a zero point at h. It is then forced up till Lament's Atmometer. 20 Measurement of Evaporation and Fercolation. level with a line, N, M, and left. When next observed, the -water is drawn down to A, and the scale will show liow much has been ■wasted by evaporation. More water is added, and the scale is again set. 81. By a simpler plan, known as Piche's evaporator, a plain grad- uated glass tube, with its lower end open and ground flat, is tilled with water. A disc of paper, first wet, is applied. It is then turned, with the closed end up, and the paper is found to adhere by atmos- pheric pressure. It continues wet, and by evaporation the water wastes away, the amount of loss being shown on the scale. 82. An open cylindrical dish of water may be used, the depth being measured at the beginning and end of the observation, and the loss supplied from time to time. The measurement may be made vertically by a scale, or by volume in a graduated meas- uring cup, or by weighing. It is necessary to cover with a wire screen, to prevent birds from bathiug in it. 83. By an instrument shown in the annexed cut, the evapora- tion from soils, either naked or covered with grass, litter, or herb- age, or by small grow- ing trees, may be meas- ured. The zinc-lined box, A, is connected with a reservoir of water, C, through a valve, E, so as to keep wet up to a certain level. The water may be di-awn off from the faucet. The amount supplied from time to time shows the rate of evaporation. 84. The percolation of water through soils is measured by a Lysimeter. It consists of a vessel of known area at the surface, A, set in the ground, and the surface either clear or covered with litter, herbage, etc. The rains that fall on the surface filter down to the tube, C, and are measured in the receiver, D. Instrument for Measuring the Evaporation from Soils. Effect of Forests upon Bamfall and Temperature. 21 9. Lysimeter. Relation between ffie Rainfall and the Native Forests. 85. As a general rule, we find our native forests more dense in proportion as the rainfall is greatest, as Ave see proved upon the Pacific Coast, and in the region south of Lake Supe- rior. They become less as the rains diminish, and as ve approach the great plains, the native timber is found only along the borders of the rivers and smaller streams, and finally it disap- pears altogether. As a rule, where the amount of rain is less than twenty inches in a year, and this chiefly in winter, the growth of trees becomes difiicult, and with many species impos- sible. 86. There is some reason to believe that the capacity for cultivation in a dry region may be increased by tree-planting, and gradually extended to a degree that would not be possible to secure at first. Effect of Woodlands upon the Temperature of the Air and tlie Earth. 87. It is evident to the senses that the air in woodlands is cooler than in the open fields in summer and warmer in winter, although the actual difference in the latter is slight. When we measure the temperature of the soil, we find the efiect of woodlands much greater, the difierence between winter and summer being less in the woods than in the fields, and less at greater depths than at the surface. This difference is greatest in summer, when vegetation is most active. Various means are employed to measure this temperature. In one, a thermometer with a thick glass bulb (Invented by Lamont, of Munich), is left to various depths, and when drawn up for observation it does not quickly change before reading. In other cases, long- lo. stemmed instruments are permanently buried at different ^arth depths, with the scales above the surface. et^I""" 22 The Winds: Agency of Water inVegetation. 88. The, Whids. In considering atmospheric agencies, the drying effects of the winds should be noticed, as liable to be greatly in- creased by the clearing of lauds, and to be lessened by planting. These plantations, in order to serve most effectually as wind-breaks, should extend across the direction from whence the prevailing winds blow. In the states west of the Mississippi, the dry and warm winds, most injurious to vegetation, come from the south-west, and it is against these that we should chiefly guard. 89. The winter storms of greatest violence, known in the North- western States as " blizzards," come from the north-west. There can be no doubt but that their local effects may be reduced, and to some extent their occurrence diminished by the plantations of groves of trees. 90. In some countries exposed to prevailing ocean winds, there will be ample rainfall under any condition, and woodlands can have but little effect ; for, whether present or absent, the humid air from the ocean will precipitate its moisture when it comes over the land. In Norway, the amount of rain on the western coast is over 80 inches a vear. In Great Britain and Ireland, and on the western coast of France, the rains will be abundant from these causes, as they will always be along our Pacific coast. But these ocean winds in passing over mountain ranges must necessarily be cooled down to a degree much below the dew point, and become dry by being thus depleted of their moisture as they pass inland. Tl\e Agency of Water in Vegetation. 91. Whether in solid form, as snow or ice, or as a liquid, supplied by rains, dews, or irrigation, or as a vapor, water acts an essen- tial part in vegetation, and is necessary for the existence of all vege- table life. * For best effect it should be seasonable and suflacient, but not in excess. 92. As a general rule, seeds will not germinate under water, but in some trees the roots Avill bear submergence for a considerable time. The wood of trees thus exposed is often softer and more spongy than it would have been if grown on dryer ground. Generall}', however, a sustained overflow of the surface causes the death of the trees whose roots are thus covered, and "beaver meadows" are thus caused. 93. The Snow is a slow conductor of radiant heat, while it allows Ejfects of Snows and of Frosts. 23 the sun's heat to pass through it with facility. The earth is thus covered and protected from the intense cold of winter, the snow al- lowing it to be warmed b)' the sun's heat, while at the same time it does not allow the warmth of the earth to escape. The melting of snows takes place largely from the under side, as we see evidence in the vacant spaces around every object in the snow as the spring ap- proaches. 94. In forest shade the snow melts but slowly, and the water is thus allowed to sink into the earth, or run off gradually, instead of suddenly, as in the rains in an open country. By this delay in melting, the vegetation is kept back until warm weather is con- firmed and injuries from spring frosts are less liable to happen. 95. In woodlands the snow does not drift, and this effect extends somewhat into the adjacent fields, which are thus kept from ex- posure to injurious frosts in winter. 96. In liquid form the water is taken up by the roots, and with it carbonic acid gas and various mineral substances in solution, the latter supplying the inorganic portions remaining as ashes when the plants are burned. In its chemical composition water consists of two atoms of hydrogen united to one of ox3'-gen (Hj 0), and it is produced when these elements are united by being burned together. The agency of water will be further noticed in connection with the functions of the leaves. Of tlie Effects of Frost. 97. Many species of trees will not endure a freezing temperature ; others are injured but not killed by it, and others appear fitted to endure the greatest rigors of winter without injury, yet in excep- tional cases even these may suffer from intense and prolonged cold. The winters of 1683-4 and 1708-9 were memorable from the in- juries they did in Europe to the forest trees, and in December, 1 879, a severe frost in France did immense damage to young tim- ber. It was found on this last occasion that the injury was greater where the sun struck the trees not protected by snow ; the effect was greater in valleys than on high grounds, and varied much with the soil, the exposure, and the humidity of the air. 98. In these exceptional and fortunately rare cases, the condition of the wood as to maturity had doubtless much influence, as the winter appears to have found them unprepared for its rigors. It was afterwards found, that many trees, supposed to be dead, still put 24 Effects of Frost: hi juries from Snows. forth new buds from the older wood, and thus were able to show hopeful signs of recovery. 99. The injury from frosts depends more on the season than, on its intensity. A late spring frost will kill down the young shoots of conifers that would endure a severe winter. 100. Many trees, and especially oaks, pines, and firs, are found cracked into deep fissures from the unequal action of the frost upon their woody tissues. Such cracks do not heal up or grow over, but remain as a furrow always visible upon the outside, and greatly im- pairing its value for lumber. 101. A freezing rain may load down the branches of trees so as to break them. The roots of young seedling trees may be thrown out of the ground by frost, and the fruit-season may be checked by a frost that kills the buds or blossoms but that is not severe enough to injure the foliage ; or its maturity may be prevented by an early autumnal frost. 102. Trees accustomed to alternately wet and dry seasons, such as conifers from the Pacific coast, become exceedingly liable to win- ter-kill, especially after a mild and damp autumn. A long-continued period of very cold weather in winter has been, noticed as more likely to injure the growth of trees than more intense frost for a shorter period. 103. The effects of frost arc alwaj's to be feared in high moun- tainous regions and in deep humid valleys, for the atmosphere is there always loaded with vapors that condense in fogs as soon as the sun is hid. Young trees bear these exposures with much peril until they get to a height of fifteen or twenty feet ; that is to say, above the ground fogs, or at least above the level at which these injuries are most likely to happen. Of tlu Injuries from Snows. 104. When damp snow falls upon the branches of forest trees, and especially the evergreens, it may break them down by its weight, especially when this is increased by rain, or, when frozen on, it is exposed to a strong wind. An instance occurred in Scot- land, in the early part of 1879, when great damage was done to evergreen forests, and to less extent to the oak, birch, and larch trees, from the weight of snows. 105. In the Rocky Mountain region snow-slides often do great Timber-Line. — Decline in Fruit Production, etc. 25 injury to young timber, and these become more liable to occurrence as the wood near the summit is destroyed. The snow then drifts over and forms great overhanging masses on the leeward side, which are liable to become detached and to slide down into the valleys, car- rying every thing before them. 1 06. Young seedlings when covered with the snow are sometimes broken down by its weight, as it settles from melting on the under side. 107. The Timher-IAne is the upper limit of tree growth upon mountains. Its height is greatest within the tropics, and it descends as we go north or south, until it reaches the surface in the Arctic zone.^ It also decreases as we approach the sea-coast, and it is often, from local causes, higher on one side of a mountain than on the other. In the Himalayas, this line is about 11,800 feet high. On the Alp? it averages 6,400 feet, and in the Rocky Mountains it varies from 9,000 to 12,000 feet.' 108. lu ascending to the timber-line, no great difference in the size of the timber is observed until within a few hundred feet of the limit, when the trees begin to appear short and wide-spreading, and at last almost flat, and leaning from the prevailing winds. Above the line, no trees whatever are found, and but little vegetation of any kind, the mountain rising bleak and barren to its summit, or until it reaches the eternal snows. This snowline varies with the seasons, and is in some years higher or lower than in others, accord- ing as the prevailing conditions of the weather may have varied. Decline of Fruit Production mid its Cause. 109. It is not unusual to hear old people recall the memories of their youth, when peaches and other fruits grew luxuriantly and ■without special care, in regions where they are now unknown, or are raised only in fiiyorable seasons and with extraordinary care. (1) Prof. C. C. Parry, in Prof. Hayden's Report of 1872, gives the lieigh' of the timber line in some twenty places, some of them being as follows: FEET. . FEET. Mount Shasta, Cal 8,000 Gilbert' Peak, Uintas 11,100 Cascade Range, Or 7,000 Audobon's Peak, Colo 11,325 Ward's Peak, Monta 8,784 Mt. Engelmann, Colo 11,518 Bridger's Peak 9,002 Gray's Peak, Colo 11,643 Near Henry's Lake, Idaho 9,36— <»-4M • «-« 26. Mode of Martins for Trees Planted in Rows. Planting in Rows. 179. In this, the intervals maybe ^^ wider apart in one direction than in the other. The rows may be from 4 to 8 feet or more apart at first, and the trees in the rows from 3 to 6 feet. The advantages of this are, that the spaces between can be cultivated more easily for the first years, and by taking out alternate rows, as the trees become crowded, we can pass in between the trees in removing the products. i>- d- ^^- "^ it- 27. Mode of Marking for Trees Planted lu Squares. Planting in Squares. 180. In this, the spaces are at equal distances in both directions ; and in this, as in the preceding, regularity may be secured by mark- ing the ground after it is prepared, and by planting at all the intersections of the right-angled lines, omitting none. Quincunx Order. 181. Here the trees are set at the corners of squares and in the central point within. The trees range in rows horizontally, ver- tically, and diagonally, and if the trees in the former are 10 meas- 48 Modes of Planting Trees. ures apart, the diagonals will be slightly more than 14. This reg- ularity is best secured by marking the ground off into small squares, and planting in alternate points of intersection each way, as shown in the margin. (Fig. 29.) 28. Mode of Planting in Quincunx Order. -«■ V 29. Mode of Markins for Quincunx Planting. 80. Triangular Order of Plantiug. —i t— -< *~ -i ►- -^ -ti \ ' i i K -9 \>- -i < -i >- '-I 1— -i *- -• 81. Mode of Parallel Marking to secure the Triangular Order. The Triangular Order. 182. In this, the rows run in three directions, the trees being at equal distances in each at the cor- ners of equilateral triangles ; or, combining six of these triangles, we find that each tree is the center of a hexagon, with six trees at equal distances around it. We get the same arrangement by drawing a series of circles having equal radii, and so that the circumference of each passes through the centers of all of those around it. We nearly secure this in a practical way, by marking off a field by parallel lines, crossing at right angles, and at twice the distance apart in one direction more than in the other. If we plant at the alternate points of intersection, we shall have the triangular order. By plowing in the three directions between the rows, such plantations may be cul- tivated in the same way as squares, but the rows must be wider apart in order to do this to advantage. Tables showing Number of Trees. 49 183. Number of Trees ihat may be set upon a Piece of Land 100 Yards Square on a side, in RigM-angled Bows of equal and un- equal Distances apart. Yards between Rows. • O 3 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 or, 20,000 13. 333- 10,000 8.000 0,667 5,714 5,000 4.441 4,000 3,636 1.0 10,000 6,067 5.ono 4.000 3,333 2.857 2. .500 2,222 2-,000 1,818 1.5 6,CG7 4,444 3,333 2.667 2.222 1,905 1,667 1,481 1,.333 1,212 2.0 5,000 3.333 2,.'-)0ll 2,000 1,667 3,429 1,250 1,111 1,000 909 2.5 4,000 2.007 2,000 1,600 1,333 1,143 1,000 8.S9 800 727 3.0 3,333 2,222 1,667 1,333 1,111 952 833 741 607 606 3 5 2,857 1.905 1,429 1,143 9.-,2 816 714 635 571 519 4.0 2,500 1,007 1,250 1,000 833 714 625 6.56 600 453 4 5 2,222 1,4S1 1,111 889 741 6.33 656 494 444 401 6.0 2,000 1,.333 1,000 800 667 571 500 Hi 400 304 5.5 1,818 1,212 909 727 606 519 4.35 404 364 333 6 1,6S7 1,111 833 667 5.56 476 417 370 333 303 6 5 1,538 1,028 769 615 513 4-10 385 342 303 280 7.0 ],4-29 9.52 714 571 476 408 3.-,7 317 286 260 7.5 1,333 889 667 533 444 3S1 333 290 267 242 80 1.250 a33 625 500 417 357 313 278 2.50 227 «5 1,170 784 • 688 471 392 336 294 261 235 219 9.0 1,111 741 550 494 370 317 278 247 222 202 10.0 1,000 667 500 400 333 286 2.50 222 200 100 lu this table we may substitute any otber denomination of linear measure in place of yards. 184. Comparison between Uie Numbers set in Squares and in QuiruMnx Order. Q 1— ( ? = :? if si- a 2* 4 \H n :? ■■ g» « : wS • ^ Ptfm He- ■ a i'g'O ■■9o n a ?3 • s CO ?= 0.3 4,0000 46.188 3.3 816 943 6 5 237 273 1.0 1,0000 11,547 4 625 722 7.0 204 236 1.5 4.444 5,132 4.3 494 570 7.5 178 205 2 2,500 2,887 5.0 400 462 8.0 136 180 2.5 1,600 1,848 5.5 333 382 9.0 123 143 3.0 1,111 1,283 6.0 278 321 1 0.0 100 115 *We may substitute any other unit of linear measure, as in preceding table. It will be seen tliat a little over 15 per cent is gained iiy number by tbe quincunx ar- raugement 50 , Close Planting and its Effect: 185. Number of Trees required to Plant an Acre of Land in Squares, or in Bows at Right Angles, and at equal Distances apart both ways. Feet Number Feet Number Feet Number Feet • Number of between of between of between of liows. Trees. Kows . Trees. Hows. Trees . Rows . Trees. 1.0 43,560 7.0 889 13.0 257 19.0 120 1.5 19,360 7.5 779 13 5 239 19. r. 114 2.0 10,890 8.0 680 14.0 222 20 108 2.5 6,970 8.5 603 ]4,5 207 22.0 90 3.0 4,840 9.0 537 15.0 193 24.0 75 3.5 3,556 9.5 482 15.5 181 26.0 64 4.0 2,722 10.0 435 16 170 28.0 55 4.5 . 2,151 in. 5 S95 16.5 164 30.0 48 5.0 1,742 11.0 360 17.0 150 40 27 5.5 1,440 11 5 339 17.5 142 50.0 17 f> 1,210 1,031 12.0 12 5 302 270 18 18 5 134 127 e 5 The Necessity of Chse Planting. 186. As a general rule, all trees growing in an open space have a tendency to spread out laterally, and not to grow as high as where they are surrounded by other trees. This tendency to branch from near the ground is greater in a dry climate and in places exposed to strong winds. It is therefore a common practice among skilled for- esters to plant the trees much nearer together than they could stand when mature, and thin them out as they become larger. 187. We see this thinning-out process going on naturally in the native woods, where the stronger shade out and kill off the feebler, so that but a few of the many that started as seedlings come to matur- ity. It is best to do this at proper times, without waiting for this dying, and, as a general rule, it should be done at stated times and throughout a given piece of woodland at about the same time. If delayed too long, the stems of the trees will be slender and feeble. If done too soon, the effect of shade in carrying up the tree is lost. No fixed rules can be given for thinning, and the judgment of the forester with the conditions before him should be the principal guide. As a general fact, the conifers require less space than deciduous trees. 188. It is an excellent practice in the planting of valuable kinds, that we wish to have grow straight and high, to place them in al- ternate rows, and in alternate places in the rows, with other trees of more rapid growth, but it may be of less value. The latter may be taken out when their shelter and protection are no longer needed, Seedling Plants from the Forest. 51 and when tJie kinds we wish to preserve have grown so as to soon shade the whole of the ground. 189. The oak is found to thrive exceedingly well while young when thus surrounded by pines. The wUlow and the cottonwood are excellent nurses for other trees, such as the walnut and the ash. In alternate rows of willows and walnuts, the latter were found at four years' growth at Lincoln, Nebraska, to be from three to five feet high and very thrifty, while in a full exposure to the sun they were but eighteen inches high and very scrubby. The Planting of Young Trees from the Forest. 190. In transplanting native seedlings from the woods, we should select those that are somewhat separate from the rest, and best exposed to the air and light. If taken from a dense shade into the full light of day, the change may be too severe, even where the ut- most care is taken to prevent exposure of the roots to the air — a pre- caution in which we can not be too careful. 191. The roots should be at once dipped in a puddle of rich soil, and packed in a box, standing upright, but not too close, and only one course in a box. They should not be too closely covered from the air, and should be set with as little delay as possible in nursery rows, or for permanence, the place being previously well prepared. Wild conifers should be cultivated two or three years before final set- ting. The process of taking them from their n^itive place is much more likely to succeed when the air is humid, as in foggy and low- ering weather, and is greatly jeopardized by a cold dry wind. 192. The trees taken small, and with an abundance of fibrous roots, are much more likely to succeed than those of a large size. They will get a better start, and in a few years equal and surpass those that were transplanted at a more advanced age. In most kinds, it is necessary to shorten the branches so that they may bear some proportion to the root. It is a good plan to cover the wounds with coal-tar or paint, but quite often the buds start out and branches form at some distance from the ends, which dry up and finally break off". It is a very common thing to see maple and other trees set from the woods with a dead stick coming out among the lower branches, it being the top of the original tree. These should be broken or cut off close to the trunk, so as to allow the wood on the side to grow over them. If too large, and left too long, they 52 Planting in the Soil: Transplanting. may cause a rotten cavity to form, tending to make the tree hollow and short-lived. 193. In transplanting the oaks and some other hard woods, where the growth is languishing and the shoot is small, it is an excellent plan to cut off the stem near the ground, after the root has got started. This is best done when the leaves are off, in fall or winter. The shoot that comes up in such cases from the root will grow vig- orously and much more rapidly than if left as before. 194. In " grvh-prairies," in the Northwestern States, the soil is full of the roots of trees and bushes, often of the jack-oak, hazel, etc., that have been killed back to the roots by annual fires. They will sprout and grow if protected from cattle and from fires, and gradually other kinds will come in, displaciug the first inferior kinds and forming a forest of more valuable trees. The change thus pro- duced in twenty years in Wisconsin and Minnesota, where these grub-prairies are chiefly found, is sometimes remarkable. Planting on the Sod. 195. lu loose and very damp soils, it is sometimes found advan- tageous to plant wholly upon the surface, by simply spreading out the roots and turning the surrounding soil over them, so as to form a little conical mound. The soil thus heaped up around the trees is then covered, if convenient, with mosses or other non-conducting substances, and on the outside some inverted sod. 196. The trees thus set should have no tap root. An abundance of fine fibrous roots may be secured to help the first growth by sift- ing well-rotted leaf-mold over the roots as they are placed. From careful observation it is found that these mounds retain the heat of the day and cool slower in the night — that the evaporation from them is less than from flat surfaces, and that there is a perceptible disengagement of carbonic acid gas in the interior from the decom- position going on in the grass and other herbage that is covered. This method enables us to plant in places with less drainage, by rais- ing the roots a little higher. The Transplanting of young Trees wiiko-ut Disturbing the Fibers of the Moots. 197. The exposure of the roots of seedlings to the air, and es- pecially to the sun and to dry winds, is generally to be avoided as. Transplanting without Disturbing the Soil. 53 much as possible, and conifers are particularly sensitive in this re- spect. If the fibers of their roots are once dry, they are generally injured beyond remedy. In handling young evergreen seedlings, if there is an interruption of the work but for a short time, the roots should be covered with earth, or some other protection should be given them for retaining their moisture and preventing evap- oration. 198. This sensitiveness of roots to the air has led to various de- vices for removing young trees and small seedlings without disturb- ing the roots. A " bore-spade " was invented many years ago by Dr. Heyer, of Giessen, for the purpose of transplanting young pines, and is often used in Europe for this purpose. It consists simply of a spade, with the blade bent almost into a cylindrical form, and from four to six inches across on the inside. The side opposite the handle is open, so as pass it around the young tree. It is then pressed down with the foot and turned around, loosening and including the roots and all the soil around them, which may then be set in its new place, if not distant, without the least disturbance of the soil within. Several thousand plants may be set from a seed-bed to nursery rows in a day with this simple instrument. 199. The patent office records in "Washington contain various other devices for this object, in some of which two concave blades are connected, so as to act as pincers, to embrace a cylindrical ball of earth around the roots, and compress it as it is raised. 200. A simple contrivance consisting of four spades is sometimes used, in which the blades are pressed down inside of a frame serv- ing as a fulcrum, and the handles are spread apart and fastened by pins in cross-pieces passing through their handles, as shown in the engraving in the margin. All of these methods are limited in their application to young trees, and to those that are to be carried but short distances. In the one last described, two sides of the frame that form the fulcrum are extended out into handles, so that the whole may be carried by two men, like a burden on a hand-bar- row. In light and dry sandy soil, none of them would prevent the 12. Four Spades in a portable Frame for removing the Soil with the Koots iu transplanting small Trees. 54 Transplanting without Disturbame of Soil. saud from escaping, and only the metliods described in §§ 202 or 203 could be employed. 201. For larger trees, an excavation may be made, leaving a mass of earth, nearly cylindrical, but father smaller below, still in place and undisturbed around the roots, and this may be bound with hoops, or with coarse cloths, so as to keep the soil in place until the removal is finished. We notice, in §§ 205 and 206, other methods in speaking of the removal of large trees. 202. For young seedlings of cinchonas and other trees diflBcult to transplant, it is the custom in India to start the seeds in pieces of bamboo filled with rich soil, and at first set as close together as they can stand, for better management in sprouting. In this way they maybe watered, shaded, and otherwise attended, as found necessary, and until they have grown to a size that will enable them to stand open exposure in the free air. They are then taken up, with the bamboo shell still upon them, and set for permanence, the roots soon finding their way through, as the shell decays. These shells are three or four inches in diameter, and prove amply sufficient when cut in lengths of five or six inches. The coffee-trees in Brazil are started in earthern jars, so constructed that they can be carried to the place Of planting in the field, and the contents then transferred entire to the ground where the trees are to grow. 203. Slightly-made baskets of strong paper, reeds, bark, rushes, or thick wood-shavings, would answer the same purpose, if made of perishable material, sufficiently strong to last till the removal. By this means, with careful packing and handling, seedling plants can be transported safely to considerable distances. The expense would, however, limit its application to experimental plantations in the way of acclimatization, or to the propagation of trees for orna- mental or special purposes. 204. Seeds started in wooden boxes, large enough to hold a dozen or two of seedlings, may be kept together for watering and attend- ance, occupying no more space than so many plants in a seed-bed, and then may be carried to the place where the plants are to be set. With proper care, they may be taken out with a curved trowel, and set without disturbing the soil. Slight shaving or pasteboard parti- tions, dividing the box into compartments, would facilitate the sep- aration, and prevent the fibers from interlocking. This method is employed in planting the eucalyptus trees in the unhealthy district Transplanting of Large T'rees. 55 near the city of Rome. By any of these methods of carrymg the plants with the soil still around the roots, the operation of planting may be carried on all summer, and where the climate permits, at all seasons of the year. The Transplanting of Large Trees. 205. This is always an expensive and uncertain operation, partic- ularly with the evergreens. It is sometimes done with much success, where the tree is well supplied with fibrous roots near the trunk, by digging a trench around the tree at some distance, in the fall, and allowing the soil to frecEe into a solid mass, which may be moved without separating it from the roots. In such cases, it is sometimes practiced to take off the surface soil, if not already rich, and to spread in its place other soil of great fertility, and to dig and fill the trench, as above described, with rich soil, a year or two before the time of removal. An abundance of fine fibrous roots will form in such cases iu the fertile soil, which will tend to render the removal more certain of success. 206. In removing large evergreens, it is best done just as the veg- etation is starting, by carefully following out and taking up the roots as far as possible, and wrapping them up in wet moss or hay as fast as they are taken out. When they have been thus taken from the soil, and protected from the air, the tree may be drawn to its new place, set upright, and well stayed ; the covering should then be removed from the roots, which should be carefully spread out and immediately covered with fine rich damp soil. The whole should be well watered as soon as the planting is finished, and from time to time in dry weather, until the roots have got well started. 207. It is generally a good rule, and in light prairie soil absolutely necessary, to press down the earth firmly, not only in the hole be- fore the tree is placed, but also upon the roots after planting ; but in heavy clay soils this would do more harm than good. As a rule, the tree should be set deeper than before. The roots should not be cramped or doubled back, but as wide a space should be allowed as they may need, and they should be carefully spread before being covered. 208. In bracing trees, strong wire is better than cords, which are apt to shrink when wet, and blocks of M'ood should be placed where they are fastened to the tree, to prevent them from galling the bark. 56 Transplanting of Large Trees and Cuttings. Heavy stones placed over the roots will sometimes serve to keep them steady, as wen as to keep the soil from drying. A mulching of straw or litter from the woods is always useful, and sometimes necessary, to keep tie ground moist, and to screen it from the sun. Decaying wood-chips afford a most excellent top-dressing around trees of every kind. 209. Trees should be kept free from weeds and grass. A firm sod prevents the air and rains from penetrating the soil. A thin covering of stable manure over the roots of trees in winter will have an excellent effect upon the next year's growth. Various mineral salts, such as the nitrate of soda, and the phosphate of lime, as well as guano and other fertilizers, may sometimes be used to great advan- tage in nurseries and orchards, and in ornamental plantations gen- erally, but are usually too expensive for profitable forest-culture. The Disadvantages of Planting Cottonwood, and other Trees, from Out- tings of too great Size. 210. In the Western States, in Colorado and elsewhere, it has been the custom to set out poles of cottonwood, and of some of the other poplars and the willows, of considerable size, and without root or branch. In some cases, telegraph poles of cottonwood have thus taken root and become trees, where the soil was damp and all the conditions of growth were favorable. 211. But it has been found that such trees generally become hol- low in a few years, and are short lived. The reason is obvious. The end in the ground readily absorbs moisture and decavs, for it can never grow over like the wound formed on the trunk, after the amputation of a branch, and will remain exposed to all the acrencies that cause decay, however vigorous the new growth may be around it. The top of such a pole will become dry, and the buds that start from the sides will come out at some distance below the end. This dead part finally become quite rotten, leaving a cavity that grad- ually extends down the trunk till it meets the one that is com- ing up from below. The success that such trees promise for the first few years is generally illusory, and it would be much more satisfac- tory to take smaller cuttings, which would, when well supplied with moisture, make a very rapid growth, and remain sound throughout. They might even overtake and surpass those that were planted of Planting of Slopes and Banks. 57 large size, and they will certainly outlive ttem in almost every instance. Planting of Rocky Surfaces. 212. It is one of the peculiar merits of Forest-culture, that it may be practiced upon broken and rocky surfaces that could not be plowed, or scarcely pastured, provided always that there is depth and quan- tity of soil among the stones, and in the crevices, to give a hold to the roots of the treeSrand moisture enough in the soil to afford them adequate support. 213. No general rule can be given for the starting of woodlands upon such surfaces, where so much depends upon the circumstances. In doing this, it is well to study the indications afforded by nature, in the casual growth of trees in the region around, or the experi- ence gained by artificial planting. The yield in growth of wood upon such stony surfaces may sometimes be equal to that upon smooth level land, and return a fair profit, where nothing else could be raised. 214. In planting upon a hUl-side of moderate declivity, it is gen- erally preferable to plow the land and to set the rows of trees in lines parallel with the base, or at right angles with the slope. The reason of this is, that the soil becomes less exposed to the wash of the rains, when so cultivated. The water from rains and melting snows is held in place, and tends to sink into the earth, instead of running off" on the surface. 215. Upon very steep declivities of friable and decomposing rock, it is sometimes practicable to secure sufficient soil for the roots of trees, by digging horizontal terraces or notches at convenient inter- vals, securing their outer edge with brush held in place with pegs. In a year or two these notches will have probably become filled up by the crumbling away of the rock above, and in the soil thus formed trees may be planted with a prospect of success. 216. This form of planting becomes necessary in restoring a wooded covering to eroded mountain sides. Besides its use in re- boisement, as described on a subsequent page, it might sometimes be used with advantage to secure the soil upon crumbling banks that overhang highways and railroads, and in other situations where danger may be expected from the sliding or washing of the soil. 58 Manugcvunt after Planting. Mulching. 217. In transplanting trees in a dry season, and especially in a dry climate, it is often necessary to place on the surface a covering of straw, litter, or other porous material, to protect the ground from the heating and drying influences of the sun and the winds. It also has an effect in preventing the growth of grass and other herb- age, and to retain the moisture of rains. In a very dry climate, it may be found the only means by which trees may be made to sur- vive the trial of the first one or two seasons, and it may need to be continued until the ground is well shaded. It was found on the college farm at Lincoln, Nebraska, that the soft maple grew in much more regular shape, and more thriftily, when planted singly and for shade trees, where the ground around them was well covered with mulching, and the stems protected by wild grass or other substances tied around them to keep ofi^ the sun. When not so treated, the tops grew one-sided, and the trees soon died. Examples might be multiplied indefinitely to prove the ben- efits to be derived from this practice, both in regard to fruit and forest trees. Of course, when this becomes an absolute requirement of the climate, the cultivation of forests for profit is wholly unprof- itable, and it must be limited to orchards and ornamental planting. Of Thinning. 218. As elsewhere repeatedly stated, trees should be made to form a straight and tall body while young, by being somewhat closely planted, but should not be allowed to crowd too closely. A part must be taken out from time to time, to give the remainder a chance at the air and light. It should begin when we see it is needed, and is best done at one time for a given piece of woodland, rather than irregularly. The intervals of time must be regulated by circumstances, and should be greater as tlie trees become large. The only general rule to be followed is, that the trees should not be allowed to interlock their branches, and that the ground should be at all times well shaded. The effect is realized within a year or two in the vigorous growth of the branches that hasten to fill up the void spaces thus formed, and in the increased volume of the wood that is formed. Management after Planting. 59 Trimming and Pruning. 219. Where forests are cultivated on a large scale, and for profit, nothing can be done in the way of pruning. This must be left to natural agencies, and if a proper density of growth is maintained, it will take care of itself. But in small groves, and especially in avenues of trees by the roadside, or plantations around dwellings, or in village streets and city parks, the growth and appearance of the trees may be greatly improved by judicious attention. 220. It is preferable to cut off a branch close to the tree, rather than to leave a stub. The incision should be left as smooth as pos- sible, and it is of great advantage to cover the wound with coal tar. If left to rot off, the branch may form a wound like the one shown on the left-hand side of the annexed cut ; but if smoothly cut off, it may close up completely in a few years. These cavities may extend down to the root, and they not only shorten the life of a tree, but tend to render its timber worthless. Where large cavities are thus formed in a favor- ite tree, the injury may be somewhat delayed by covering the opening with heavily painted canvas or other material that will conceal somewhat the deformity, and keep out the rain. 221. In cutting off large branches, it is nec- essary to first make an incision on the under side, so as to prevent it from tearing down the side of the tree as it falls. The annexed cut, at A and B, shows the way this can be done. After the branch is off, the stump can be smoothed off, so as to leave a clean incision. It is found very advantageous to apply coal tar to such wounds. 222. The season of the year has much to do with the success of pruning. It should generally be done after the growth of the season has been formed, and close to the trunk. If left in pegs, they wiU disfigure the tree, and heal over with 35. Tree that has been difficulty. The unsightly growth shown in the Pf^°ed late in Sum- A Wound well healed and one badly healed in Timber. 34. Proper Mode of cutting off Large Branches. 60 Trimming and Fnining. 36. A Tree that has heen Pruned some distance from the Trunk. anuexed engraving is very common in the button-wood, 'when care- lessly pruned, or otherwise injured. 223. As for dead branches, such as we often see on the lower part of the trunks of coniferous trees, they may be cut at all seasons, and the sooner the better, if we would improve the qual- ity of their wood. It becomes, however, in ex- tensive woodlands an expensive process, and practically it must be left to nature, excepting in a favorite grove, or in avenues or upon lawns. 224. In all forest operations, it is needless to remark, that the use of climbing spurs, like those employed in repairing telegraphs, must be wholly forbidden, as they do irreparable injuries to the bark and the wood, and the laws should protect owners from their unauthorized use by any one, upon any occasion. 225. The tools most used in pruning are the saw, with a wide set, hand-shears, pruning- shears, pruning-chisels, attached to long han- dles, with an edge that cuts in drawing as well as in pushing, the com- mon ax, and various other implements. A tool much used in France is the serpe, which consists of a heavy blade, with both edges sharp, and attached to a short handle. It is carried in a leather case, slung over the shoulder, and is used very skillfully. For small branches, they cut by an upward stroke. 226. In trimming poplars and willows, the whole top of the tree is sometimes cut off. Such trees are called "Pollards." They should be cut off just above where the lower branches separate, and not as shown iiTthe middle figure by the line at A. Such trees will restore themselves without showing the effect of the injury, as shown in the right-hand figure, if properly cut. The practice tends to render 37. Hand-Shears, for Pruning. 38. Prnning-Shears, for a^ taehing to a long Handle. 40. Pruning Chisels. Pollards: Control of Shapes in the Growth. 61 trees hollow and unsightly objects, but in some cases it is not ■with- out advantages. Along the Rio Grande Valley, in New Mexico, it 41. Improper Mode of Cuitiug Pollards. 42, 43. Proper Modes of Cutting Pollards. has long been the practice to' thus cut back the tops of cottonwoods in order to obtain fuel. 227. A great advantage is gained in some cases by fore-shortening the branches by trimming off their ends, so as to give the top a more symmetrical form, and a denser growth. This practice has been very fully described, and its advantages shown by the Count Des Cars, in France, and previously by the Viscount de Courval. When applied to the oak, it has sometimes led to remarkable success in growth, and in ornamental planting it may be sometimes applied to great advantage.^ 228. In Italy the olive is thus cut back to secure a more vigorous growth of the young wood, and the trunk often becomes hollow, but it will survive the injuries for a long time. The marbled and gnarled appearance of the grain of this wood, as often seen in orna- mental work, is chiefly from this cause. The knotted heads of pol- lard poplar trunks are sometimes cut into thin plates for fancy work, and produce a beautiful effect. 229. An upright growth may be secured by lopping off the side branches, and bend- ing the more promising ones upright, secur- ing by a pole lashed to the tree, or driven into the ground, and sometimes by binding one branch around another, as shown in the adjacent cuts. 1 Pull accounts of this method and its results may be found in our first Ee- port upon Forestry (1877), pp. 92, 93, 98. Modes of securing an Upright Growtli. 62 Bemoval of Outer Bark : Arbor Days. Stimulation of the GrowOi of Trees by removal of outer Bark. 230. Sometimes the peeling off of the outer bark of fruit trees will stimulate their growth. The operation should be performed just as the cambium layer is forming, which is generally in the latter part of June, in the Northern States. The cork tree is found in Southern Europe to thrive under peeling, and where elms in Paris and elsewhere have been shaved down to the live bark, in the Robert process, for destroying the larvse of insects, they have taken a new start afterwards. Arbor Days. 231. A pleasant custom was introduced in Nebraska, about 1874, at the instance of the State Horticultural Society, of devoting one day in spring to the planting of trees. The 2d Wednesday of April was designated, and it is claimed that 12 millions of trees were set on that day in that state. In Minnesota, the State Forestry Asso- ciation designated the 18th Tuesday of May for this purpose, and 1876, 1,342,886 trees were reported as planted on that day. la the Year following, the number was 442,558. The Governor of Mich- igan, by proclamation dated February 22, 1876, recommended that the 15th of April be devoted to planting trees, but we have no data as to the result. The Governor of Ohio appointed an Arbor Day to be observed on the 27th of April, 1882. 231J. The custom is admirable as far as it goes, but it is liable to interruption from stormy weather, or seasons unusually early or backward, and in the granting of premiums for greatest number, or best success, it would be much better to have them apply to the whole season, leaving the day to be fixed by the planter as suited his convenience, and as weather favored. Formation and Functions of the Buds, 63 CHAPTEK Vn. OF THE STEUCTUEE AUD FUNCTIONS OF THE VAEIOXJS PARTS OF GROWING TREES. The Formation and Functions of the Bvds. 232. la common deciduous trees, there begins to form, in mid- summer, in the axils of the leaves, a little cellular mass, communicating with a medullary ray, partly covered by the bark, and usually protected by imbricating scales. From these buds or germs, the leaves and blossoms of the next season are to grow. The leaf-buds are usually more sharp and slender than ihe flower-buds, a circumstance quite noticeable upon the elm, and upon many fruit trees. 233. The end of a twig is always terminated by a bud, which advances as the twig extends in length, by the formation of new cells within. Trees and their branches increase in length and height by the formation of these new cells under the terminal bud,- and elongate only during the season of active vegetation, in spring and early summer. The annexed engravings, from Rossmass- ler, represent sections of four kinds of buds. The first is a double one of leaf and flower, and the fourth is a flower- ■■ bud only. It will be seen that the rudiments of the future 16. Sections of Buds : 1. The Pine ; 2. The Bird Oherry ; 3. The Oak ; and 4 The Aspen. ' 64 Classification of Leaves : Chlorophyll. growth are obscurely foreshadowed in these embryo forms, to be displayed in full maturity, when the conditions favor — usually in spring, but exceptionally in autumn. The latter cases are rare, and occur only when a very dry summer is followed by a very mild, humid autumn. Structure and Function of the Leaves. 234. Leaves are the respiratory organs of plants. The juices are there brought in contact with the air, when certain chemical changes occur that fit them for the processes of assimilation that transform them into every part of the growing tree or plant. 235. Trees present an infinite variety of forms in their leaves, but may be divided into two great classes : the liuBar, or acicular form (sometimes shortened into imbricat- ing scales), that distinguish ^ the coniferous order, and, with a few exceptions, remain green during the winter; and the broad-leaved form, supported J\^\ -^ , >^ y- y, by a network of ribs, and, in fiv^\^^'^^Xr'^2>-^ temperate and cold climates, f\c^ ] generally falling from the v;^-V^;^t^I^^----■ winter. Thelatter are termed "'^ 7 .J \. i.\. c n I 48. Leaf of the Mulberry. deciduous, when they tall from 47 Leaves of the *^^® trees in autumn, but this term also applies to a Pine. small number of the linear-leaved class, such as the larch and the bald cypress. A leaf-stem is called a petiole, and when there is no stem the leaf is said to be sessile. 236. The framework of a leaf is filled in with a cellular structure, and these cells are filled with a green matter, in the form of small grains, called cMwophyU, and which, appearing through the trans- parent walls of the cells, give the leaves their green color. In most leaves, the upper side is more charged with chlorophyll than the lower, and is therefore of a deeper green. The form of these cells in the beech leaf are shown in the annexed engraving,' in which 00 is the upper side, and uu the under side ; o, the principal ' From Rossmassler. Structure and Functions of the Leaves. 65 cells of chlorophyll ; I are air spaces ; u, minute masses of chloro- phyll, thus brought in near contact; and sp, " stomata," or breathing pores, through which the air enters. These pores are chiefly 49. Vertical Section of a Beech Leaf, very greatly enlarged. on the under side of the leaf, and vary in number from 1,000 to 170,000 to a square inch. In coniferous leaves there is no network of ribs, but a longitudinal and sometimes a diverging system of fibers. A' cross-section shows a symmetrical arrangement of cells, some filled with grains of chlorophyll, others with air, and others with resinous matter. The arrangement of these cells is constant within genera, and to some extent in species, afibrding character- istics upon which classifications have been formed. The stomata upon coniferous leaves arc more abundant upon the under and lighter colored side of the leaves, but iu some cases where both sides are colored alike, they are found equally on both sides. The ginkgo (SaMiAaria adiantifolia)), one of the Japanese species that is found to thrive in the Middle and Southern States, is a conifer with very exceptional form of leaf. It spreads out flat like a fan, and is de- ciduous. 237. The moisture of the soil, is brought up in the form of sap from the roots to the leaves, bearing in solution certain mineral and organic materials. These are then exposed to the air, and to the carbonic acid in the air, and under the action of the light the latter is decomposed. Its carbon is retained and oxygen given out. A' vast amount of evaporation also takes place from the leaves, so that 66 Structure, of Leaves' and of Wood. as the sap descends under the bark it is much less -watery, and is charged with the materials that by assimilation may form the new layer of wood, and every growing part of the whole structure. 238. The materials thus won from the earth and the air, are added to the tree, as it gains in size, or dropped to the earth with the fall- ing leaves and the fruit— the leaves to add fertility to the soil, and the seeds of the fruit to furnish germs for new creations of the parent type. 239. The form and size of leaves may vary at diiferent ages of the tree and upon different parts of the same tree at the same time. Upon thrifty young sprouts they are generally larger than upon the old branches. As a rule they become smaller at great elevations. In the eucalyptus, the young trees bear heart-shaped and horizontal leaves, and the old trees sickle-formed leaves that stand in a vertical plane, ex- posing both sides to the light, and shading the ground but little. The upper leaves upon the holly are less notched and less spiny, when the tree becomes old. In certain of the cedars, cypresses, and other con- ifers with imbricating leaves, the scales may at certain stages of growth elongate into linear leaves, very different from the more usual form. The same tree may present both forms at the same time, but the linear leaves are more common upon young trees than upon oiJ ones. In certain forms of disease, the linear form is sometimes assumed by these imbricating leaves. Structure of the Wood and Bark. 240. The trunk of an exogenous tree shows three distinct kinds of structure. In the twig of oak of one year's growth, we find the inner part is filled with the pith, m, w an extremely light cellular body which appears essential to new A growth, and is always present in a twig covered with leaves; but in the trunk of the tree it becomes nearly or quite obliterated, and in fact may perish altogether without apparently affecting tlie growth of the tree. The pith or medulla is surrounded by a sheath of hard cellular tissue, and outside of this 60. Cross-section of an Oak Twig Year's Growth. (1) •l^his and the two following figures are from Kossmassler's work- Wald," pp. 85, 88. "Der Structure, of Wood. 67 is a layer of wood, h, which from the first shows a radiating struc- ture — the beginning of the " me'dullary rays." Outside of the wood, there is formed the cambium layer, c, which is to become a new layer of wood. Next a "hast" layer, or inner bark, h, beyond which is the bark, r, of coarse cellular structure, and over all an epider- mis, 0, covering every part. 241. When the wood has made two years of growth, the cross- section shows the structure represented in the annexed engraving, in which m (upper side) includes the pith — m', the spongy portion, and m (lower side) the "me- dullary sheath." The wood, h, is the growth of two years, and is sep- arated by the line, jj. The cambium layer is shown at c, and outside of this is the bark. Fig- ures 1 to 7 show the 51. structure of Oak at two Years of Age. medvllary rays, which are continued outward through the wood and into the bark. The cross-section, Q, the radial section, Sp, and tan- gential section, Se, show the relation which these rays (called by car- penters the " sUver grain") bear to the other parts. In the oak these rays are very conspicuous. They are also very apparent but of much smaller size in the beech, plane tree, maple, etc., while in other trees they are scarcely to be seen. 242. The medullary sheath and rays are composed of condensed cellular tissue, and although generally the latter extend through in a radial line from the sheath to the bark, and into it, there are many secondary rays that form in the wood, and have no connection with the pith, or with the other rays. In the conifers, these rays become reduced to lines in parallel bands, too minute to be seen without a microscope of high magnifying powers. 243. As wood is seen under the microscope, it is made up of elongated cells overlapping each other, and adhering by their sides. They present a great variety of forms, which are often peculiar to the families or orders to which they belong. Among these fibers, thereare numerous ductsand passages. Some contain only air, others 68 Structure of Wood. in their season sap, and others the resinous or other secretions of g m pr g p pr the tree. Upon the length and adherence of these various vessels, th esoli d i Lj"- and strength of wood depends. The accompanying figure represents a longitudi- nal section of heech, magnified 200 diame- ters. In this g repre- sents dotted vessels ; p, short sells with very abrupt ends; pr, elon- gated cells with oblique ends ; m, sections through the medullary rays, and q, examples of the long anuulated cells appearing in the sections like rows of spots. 244. Different kinds of wood exhibit the radiating structures due to the medullary rays in different degrees. In some, it is very con- spicuous in the cross-section, while, iu others, it can scarcely be traced by the eye, except in thin cross-sections, although always to be seen under the microscope. m g ra g p qqq 52. Vertical Section of Beech Wood, in a Plane tan- gent to Kings of Annual Growth. 53. Dlflferent appearances of the Medullary Rays. Structure of Wood. 69 245. In many kinds of the " hard-woods," and especially in the oak,- ash, elm, etc., each annual layer is more spongy and porous on the inner side, and harder on the outer side. The former is some- times called the spring and the latter the autumnal growth. This autumnal growth is, however, formed in the summer, and its dens- ity and relative thickness appears to depend upon the character of the season that follows after it has been deposited. If it remains humid and cold, it will be less dense than if it be dry and warm. The amount of growth for the year is usually determined by the weather in the spring and early summer. 246. In exceptional cases, such as an early and protracted drouth, followed by heavy rains and a warm autumn, a second growth may start ; the buds may expand into leaves, and blossoms may appear. In such cases, it is possible for a double ring of growth to form, but it will not be entirely distinct in every part. Such an autumn, if it is followed by a cold winter, is yery apt to prove fatal to trees, or at least to check their growth for a time, if it does not destroy them. 247. In tropical woods, the annual layers are obscure, the age of a tree can not ascertained from them. 248. In the soft-woods, there is scarcely any difference be- tween the lavers, and tlie sepa-^- section of Mahogany, showing indistinct ' r Layers of Growth in a Tropical Wood, ration between the growth of different years is sometimes difficult to find. 249. Deciduous trees, when stripped of their leaves, as sometimes occurs from insect ravages, will put forth a new crop, from "the buds intended for the next season. The formation of wood is thereby greatly checked, and the foliation of the next season weakened. The chance of blossoms for the coming year may also be ruined. 250. In cross-sections made years «.-— -=s5sr^j»:Ks»'Ti:- - afterwards, the record of the sea- fp#^^^iiil^?l?| sous for a long period may be de- fS^^^^^^^^^^^3itS^ termined, at least in effect, by the ^^^^^^^$^S| width of the rings of annual ^.^^^^^^^^■^M erowth. We sometimes find, at SS. Effect of Different Seasons upon the " . . . Growth of Wood. recurring intervals, a narrow ring, perhaps in every third year, that may have been caused by the loss 70 Structure of Wood. of leaves from worms that appear at that interval, and that- have thus left their record when every other proof of their presence . has, perished. We have seen sections of trees in the museums of Schools of Forestry, in which these proofs were recorded througli a century or more of time, and the years could be definitely fixed by counting inward from the year when the tree was felled. 251. As a rule, the most favorable seasons for the growth of wood are those that are warm, cloudy, and humid in the early part of summer, followed by very warm and dry weather. The maturing process in the newly-formed wood appears to be due to the excess of evaporation from the leaves, as compared with the absorption from the roots, resulting in a hardening of the tissues, and an im- provement in the quality of the new wood. Where the season continues wet, this hardening does not take place, and when fol- lowed by a severely cold winter, the growth may be checked for the season following, or the trees may be killed altogether, or at least the branches of younger growth. In fact, so many causes aifect the amount of growth in difierent years that there may be as much diiierence as is shown in the fol- lowing engravings : 'j> 56. Differences in the Amount of Annual Growth of Wood. Upon irrigated land, in Colorado, the cotton wood has been known, to grow to a diameter of fourteen inches in eight years. If grown in rich, humid soil, but in a confined location, the growth may be rapid, but the texture light and spongy, and the wood of poor quality, although of ample volume. Even the teak, one of the iSlructdre of Wood. 71 strongest of woods, and present ing in texture engraving, becomes brittle and soft, when rapidly grown, and does not harden into heavy strong, and durable wood, until ^*>^^^ it has ripened with age. -i"- 253. Trees grown as reserve^ in a coppice, and exposed alter- ^'^- ^°°^ °' ^*P"^ Growth, bat spongy xcxt- nately to the open air and to the shade of other trees at dif- ferent periods of their growth, have a harder wood than those grown in masses, but it is to be knotty from lateral branches — and such trees being more exposed to the winds and to other accidents, do not have 58. Teak Wood. so straight and regular a body, nor do they grow as high as when many are grown together. Such wood does not readily split into staves: A difference in the width of wood layers may be caused by the greater or less shade in which it has grown, so that the character of the seasons can never be learned definitely in the cross section of a tree, unless it has grown in an isolated position. Still, from the comparison of a great number of facts it might perhaps be possible to determine with some certainty the general character of the cli- mate by this method. 254. The wood of conifers, as a rule, is heavier, more elastic, and more durable, according as its growth has been slower, and the an- nual rings are narrower. We see this shown in the timber from the Baltic, and in the Siberian larch. These qualities are found greatest in the timber grown in cold climates, and differences may sometimes be detected in the north and south sides of the same tree. As a general rule, trees growingin swampy land have a more open and spongy texture than the same species grown on dryer land. 255. Cellulose, which constitutes the principal body of wood-fiber, is alike in all kinds of wood, when separated from other substances, 72 ■Structure of Wood. 59. Structure of Co niferous Woods. and consists of about 44.4 per cent of carbon, 6.2 per cent of hy- drogen, and 49.3 per cent of oxygen. 256. However plants may differ in form and structure, they are aH the result of cell-growth. These cells form in the interior of n pre-existing cells by subdivision, and, by pressing I upon one another, they elongate into fibrous forms, as already shown on page -68. When macerated, these fibers may be separated, and sometimes they afford differences that enable us to determine the class or group to which the woods belong. In the coniferse, there are thin places along the sides of the cells, which can be readily seen under the mi- croscope, and can be found even in the fibers of paper made from wood. 257. In some woods, as, for eScample, the oak, ash, walnut, etc., the cells grow to a larger size, so as to be visible to the naked eye. These form ducts, which are not continuous for great length, but are intermingled in various fotms, presenting in cross-sections the appearance of pores. They usually contain air, and at certain sea- sons sap. In ascending among these fibers, the sap passes up be- tween and among the fibers, and through their partitions. In some of the larger ducts, they have a spiral coil of fiber, or the sides are made up of rings, and they are sometimes marked with dots. 258. In resinous woods, the turpentine is contained in larger cavities, surrounded by smaller cells. The abundance of this product depends in a great degree upon the vigor of growth, and exposure to the air and light. 259. The annexed cut shows a section of the linden six years old, enlarged about five di- ameters, in which the concentric layers are distinguished by a somewhat denser and slightly colored line along their outer mar- gin, and their relation to the bark is shown. In this figure, a is the medullary sheath, h the liber or inner bark, d the cellular tissues of the bark, e the pith, and / the epidermis 0. Section of a Linden Tree „ ^„j.„ i,„ i of Six Years' Growth. or outer bark. I, Structure of Bark. 73 260. In the bark itself, an annular layer of growth is also formed next to the wood, and in some cases we may count the distinct lay- ers of growth of recent years ; but in other cases they become a homogeneous mass, as seen by the naked eye, and the outer layers are gradually cast off. In some trees, like the birch and the cherry, the outer layers consist of strong fibers, running horizontally around the trunk and branches. These may exfoliate in loose shreds. . This tendency to exfoliation is shown in the plane tree, where the outer bark falls off in hard masses, leaving a fresh surface, at first white, but becoming greenish, and in the Scotch pine {Pinus sylvestris) , in which the outer bark peels off in thin flakes from the upper part of 1 ' M"|l - 1 fill*? ^h ' 'll' - 'i ^h A\ ,1.1 ' ~ , e ll ,- J ' =\- m " i' 1 g-' M 1 ,-i, - 61. Longitudinal Section of the Bark 62. Transverse Section of the Bark of the of the Linden: showingtheminute Linden: showing the outer bark, A; interlocking fibers of the bast-bun- the green cellular layer, g; the bast- dlcs. crossing the longitudinal layer, h; and the edse of contact with fiters.Cl) the wood.srr; with the medullary rays of the bark, m, m, m, m, m, extend- ing into the green cellular layer. (1) the trunk, and from the branches, leaving a smooth and fresh green surface. 261 . When the bark and wood of a tree are cut or wounded by accident, as by the marking-hammer of the forester, or the ax of a 1 From Eossmassler. Structure and Groioth of Wood. surveyor, the growth from the side will gradually close over the in- jury, and fill in the inequalities, so that, when afterwards split off, it will often show in relief any depressions or cuts on the original I. trunk. Many Forest Academies in Europe have in their museums specimens of timber-marks thus cut or stamped into wood, with the cast taken by nature from the mold. The land-marks of surveyors have thus been found more than a hundred years afterwards. Some scar, or, in coniferous trees, per- haps a gum-spot, would be noticed upon the outside, and by cutting down through as many rings of growth as there had been years since the former survey, the marks of the ax would be found. Growth of the Trunk and Branches. 262. The successive layers of wood in the trunk and branches extend over their whole surface, more or less uniformly, as is shown in the accompanying sketch. The inequalities in thickness, often seen, are caused by differences of nutri- tion from particular roots and branches. They will fill up the slight irregularities of early years, so that a sapling may be somewhat crooked, and yet form a tree that is perfectly straight and symmetri- 63. Section showing the Groivth of the cal. Trunk and Branches. (1) no rri. j. i • in p zbd. ine actual size and form of the tree, at every stage of its former life (excepting as modified by the loss of branches), is preserved within, and might be shown by 'From Eossraassler's work — " Der Wald." Structure and Growth of Wood. 75 removing the layers of growth that have formed since any given period. 264. A leaning tree has the center of growth on the upper side, and the same is generally observed in branches near the place where 64. Excentric Forms of Growtli. they come out of the tree. This excentric growth is very common in tropical woods, and in some species there are sec- ondary centers of growth within the principal ones. 265. In some of the conifers, especially in the firs and spruces, there is a remarkable symmetry in the branches, several (often five) springing from a single point, and dividing the angular space equally between them. The vertical distance between these branches generally represents a year's growth in length, and a cross-section above a set of branches has, of course, one less number of rings than Avould be found below them. 266. The rate of growth in wood. differs very/^p^j greatly, according to the soil, elevation, aspect, cli-'\ mate, humidity, temperature, prevailing winds, and other causes. It has been estimated that, on a gen- eral average, a forest will, if not specially cared for, grow about a cord of wood on an acre per year. It may often be much less than this, or much more, and may be largely increased by clearing out the under- growth, and thinning out the trees that crowd too closely. It may be stimulated by fertilizers, applied as a top dressing, and may be retarded by taking °spru(;e°°show^ away the litter that accumulates from the fall of leaves. opBnincSS?^ 76 Hoots: their Structure and Uses. Form, Functions, and Manner of Growth of the Roots. 267. Roots may be divided into two classes : Taproots, wLich descend deeply into the soil, and derive tbeir nourishment from the sub-soil ; or Tracing-roots, that extend laterally and nearer the sur- face. The latter will sometimes run to a great distance. 268. It is sometimes found that a mixture of different species of timber trees makes a better growth upon the whole, in a woodland, than one kind alone. In these cases one has often a tap-root, and the other a tracing-root, thus drawing their support from different depths of the soil. The oak and the beech are examples of this kind, and we shall have further occasion to speak of this subject. 269. The roots of our common trees are made up of concentric layers, and grow by external addition under the bark, in the same manner as the trunk and branches. Their bark is generally thin, and they often grow one into another, and in a much more irregular form than the branches. There is often no apparent difference in texture, corresponding to sap and heart wood. The stumps and roots of trees are in European countries often used for fuel, and in making charcoal, and in the resinous kinds they, in some instances, abound in turpentine, and are used in making tar and pitch. 270. The fiber of root-wood is sometimes very strong and flexible, as in the young spruce. The stump and roots in some trees have a twisted and contorted grain that gives them great value for orna- mental cabinet-work. The " Thuja," of the Atlas Mountains {Cal- litris guadrivahis) , one of the most highly prized of fine woods, is an example. The black walnut often furnishes in its stump and laro-e roots, a beautiful grain in the wood. 271. The roots of trees will insinuate themselves into the thinnest crevices where they can find moisture and soil, and by their expan- sion hasten disintegration, and sometimes raise and displace heavy masses of rock. For this reason, trees should not be planted near the lines of covered aqueducts, or other important works of masonry that might be injured by displacement. 272. The roots of poplars and willows will fill water-pipes, and even wells, if they can reach them. This tendency to penetrate damp soil, renders these kinds, including the cottonwoods, very use- ful in consolidating, the banks of ditches, especially those used for irrigation in arid regions. They doubtless evaporate a part of Moots: their Structure and Grrowth. 77 the water in such cases through their leaves, but they give it out to the air where it most needs it, if there be crops under cul- tivation, and besides strengthening the banks, they shade the sur- face from the sun and winds. The roots of willows aflTord the best prevention against erosion of banks, in light soils, and these and other trees and plants most effectually hold in place embankments, and sands liable to drift by the winds. 273. The smaller roots of trees are covered, especially near their extremities, by radicles or fibers, through which the water in the soil, and various mineral elements in solution, are taken up and conveyed in the form of sap to the leaves, by passing up among the pores of the wood. The vigor of growth in a tree is generally proportioned to the abundance of its radicles, and success in planting depends upon their preservation to as great an extent as possible without drying. 274. Boots will often form buds and produce leaves, when ex- posed to the air, and in many species buds will form roots when buried as layers while still attached to the tree. In the mistletoe and other parasites, the roots wUl penetrate the wood of living trees upon which their viscid seeds get attached, thus weakening the vi- tality of the trees to which they fasten, by absorbing their juices. 275. In some cases the roots, and especially their bark, possess medicinal properties, often due to an essential oil, as in the sassa- fras. These qualities are generally more abundant in trees grown in hot climates, and become less in the same species where.they wUl bear transplanting to cooler latitudes. 276. In rare cases, the roots of different trees of the same species will grow together under ground, so that when one is cut down its stump will continue to live, and even to increase slightly in size, from the nourishment it derives from the other tree. But where from close proximity trees of different species have their roots so closely interlocked that are apparently united as one, it will be found upon a cross-section that there is a line of bark or distinct separation be- tween them. 277. In some cases, a fungus growth will attach to the root, and spreading from one tree to another, cause their destruction, the in- fection extending from a center in a circular form. This is most ef- fectually arrested by digging trenches deeper than the roots reach, 78 The Sap and its Functions. and by digging up and burning the infected portions. A dying off of the chestnut trees in Italy, France, and Spain has been attrib- uted to fungous growths upon the roots. A similar cause of decay is noticed in some species ,of the pine. 278. The truffle, a fungus that forms over the roots of the oak, in some countries, is a highly esteemed article of food, and becomes at times a product of much profit in the forests where it is produced. This fungus is formed chiefly in calcareous soils, and appears to re- quire certain conditions of climate. In the neighborhood of Avig- non, in France, the revenue from this source alone, in a single com- mune, sometimes exceeds $5,000 a year. On the Pressure of Sap, and its Changes. 279. The moisture of the soil is absorbed by the roots, and pass- ing through these to the trunk, branches, and leaves, descends again, more or less changed, to supply nutriment to every part. The ac- tion of liquids in passing through membranes and cellular tissues, amounting sometimes to a pressure of several atmosphere, is called endosmose, and is shown in a striking manner, when measured by gauges. 280. About 1720, the Rev. Stephen Hales, an English observer, began a series of experiments upon the pressure of sap, and the ab- sorption of water by plants, carefully noting the changes observed, and publishing the results. These experiments form the basis of much that has since been determined in this line of research. 281. In the spring of 1873, a series of experiments was begun at the Amherst Agricultural College, Mass., by its president (Mr. W. S. Clark) and associates, which led to very interesting results. Sev- eral mercurial gauges were provided, and attached to trees that had been tapped, by screwing in a hollow plug of metal, to which the gauge was connected. The changes in pressure were read upon a scale. It was found that at some hours the pressure was inwards, and at others outwards. In the latter case only would the sap flow from the spouts in the usual way. These gauges, when at- tached to the birch, showed a much greater range of pressure than on the maple, and this even when connected with an isolated root in the ground. 282. The extreme range in the sugar maple was from -j- 46 to Autumnal Colors: General Views. 79 — 23 inches of mercury, a difference of 69- inches.' In the poplar- leaved white birch, it was from -|- 35 to — 17, in the body of the tree, and from -f. 33.6 to — 20.2 in the root. In the yellow birch (Betidaexcdsa), it ranged from -|-65.5 to — 18.5 ; in the canoe-birch, from -[- 59 to — 7 ; and in the grape-vine, from -|- 74 to 12.7 inches. Where one gauge was placed near the root of a tree, and another near the top, they indicated a difference due to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water equal in length to the distance be- tween the two levels. Trials were made upon the butternut, iron- wood, apple tree, etc., with corresponding results, but less in degree. These experinaents were made before the leaves' had opened, and the force of suction could not therefore be ascribed to evaporation from their surfaces. Autumnal Colors. 283. The coloring of autumnal leaves appears to be due to the formation of organic acids from the absorption of oxygen, and caused by a ripening process, similar to that which colors ripening fruits. It is not the effect of frost, as many people believe, but may be hastened by the cool nights alternating with warm days, that often occur in autumn. The autumnal coloring of European forests is sometimes bright, but never as brilliant as in our Northern States "and in Canada. Its prevailing colors are yellow, shading off into tints of pale orange and reddish brown, while in our northern forests it is often the brightest scarlet and orange, a rich golden yel- low, or an intense purple, but all passing gradually into a nearly uniform shade of brown. CHAPTER VIII. GENERAL VIEWS IN EEGARD TO FORESTEY. Of the Investment of Labor and Capital in Forest-tree Planting — Ques- tions of Profit. 284. As a general rule, the most profitable lands for planting, at pres- ent prices, are not those that would yield the best farm crops, although the best lands will always produce the best growth of forest trees. Upon such lands, forest trees would be sure to thrive, but the profits ' In these statements, the sign (+) is used to denote the outward, and ( — ") the inward piessure. 80 The Profits of Timber- Culture. might be relatively less. la a region of hills and valleys, there are always some portions of the land that yield a much smaller return under equal care than others. They may be valleys and ravines, or steep declivities, or rocky and broken surfaces, and upon these a grove of trees may often prove the best investment. 285. In other cases, the soil may have been reduced to barren- ness by improvident tillage, and then there is no better way to re- store its fertility than by the growth of trees, and the accumulation of a new supply of vegetable soil from the decay of the leaves. In some sections of the country, where old fields have been abandoned for cultivation, a- crop of pines, oaks, or some other kinds of trees, will come in and occupy the land, forming, in the course of a few years, quite a dense growth, but generally not of the most profita- ble kinds. The latter may gradually become introduced. It has been noticed that where we find a woodland principally composed of but one kind of timber, it is of comparatively recent origin, and that a great diversity of species indicates that the woodland has been growing for a long period. 286. In the midst of a well-settled country, with no prospect of increase in value from external causes, the probable revenues of land under common forms of farm cultivation are less than in many other kinds of property. The investment becomes especially desira- ble from the security that it afibrds, and a reasonable prospect that this value may be increased by improvements and the general ad- vance in values as the country becomes older. There are many pleasing associations connected with the solid and enduring posses- sion of a landed estate, and the comfortable independence that it secures. The value of farming land varies with the general wealth and capital of a country, and increases or declines, not only as af- fected by the prosperity of places near it, but also by those which may be more distant, but still large consumers of its products. 287. Except in the suburbs of cities and villages, there is little that is speculative in the possession of land, after the lines of trans- portation, and business points of a country have been fully estab- lished. Should a time come when forests are managed by great , corporations, there is not the least probability that their capital stock would be liable to great and sudden changes, in the ordinary course of dealing. The returns would be slow in coming, but sure The Gaining Bates of Tree-Growth. 81 under careful management, and very considerable at the end of the appointed periods. 288. To illustrate the rates of this increase, we will suppose that the annual rings of growth in a tree are of equal width. As a matter of fact, they are much wider in some years than in others, but, for il- lustration, we will consider them as uniform in thickness. Counting from the center outward, we would have the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., showing the years of growth. The areas of these circles (each including those within it) are 66. concentric Eings of as the squares of these numbers, viz., 1, 4, 9, ^^^ '^°^ 16, 25, etc. By subtracting each of these from the preceding, we have the series, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., that represents the gain of each year upon tlie year preceding. 289. These relative rates may be shown by a simple diagram, in which the gain in diameter is represented by the lower diagonal, and the gain in area by the upper one. The numbers along the bottom in this figure represent the years, and those on the margin units of quantity. The rates thus shown are actually maintained for many years, while young, but be- come less as the trees approach maturity. They show the waste from cutting thrifty young timber at the period of most profitable growth, and should lead us to spare it, when possible, till it has ■Diame'tfrs and of 1 'J. r n 1 Sectional Areas. gamed its full value. 290. But these gaining rates are only those of sectional area ; the trees are at the same time gaining in height, and the timber is gain- ing in quality and value per euMc foot, as it grows older, for it can then be applied to more important uses, when it has grown to large size, besides being of intrinsically greater value, when fully mature. 291. The planting of forests, and their management afterwards, till grown to full maturitj-, can not be followed from fixed rules as to time and manner, but the business must be conducted with an intelligent understanding of the conditions that exist, and the cir- cumstances that may influence their growth. Under equal circum- stances, as in aU other forms of business, the man who pays the closest attention to his afiairs, and neglects nothing, will, at the end ^Allll 1 11/11 n-Z.lZZ..tZ ^ y A ^ - -J- . - . f.-t.^...-. -t-t.-.-ZZ . V Jl Y\ ,t... 82 Advantages from Planting : Its Limit and Proportion. of a given period, have the most to show for his labor. The care of woodlands is not generally as laborious as that of cultivated fields, and, if they are both united upon a farm, the alternation of care from one to the other, as the seasons and the occasion may re- quire, serves to break the monotony of life, and contribute to its enjoyment. 292. There are incidental advantages to be derived from the planting of trees for embellishment and shade, that can not be separately esti- mated. That they increase the general value of an estate, can not be doubted, and perhaps this might best be understood by asking, lum much less would the property be worth vrithovt them. As prices of timber may hereafter advance, the income from stated cuttings will doubtless form a comfortable source of revenue, and there is a point beyond which this may be greater than from any other form of cul- tivation. 293. In the planting of avenues and parks, in or near towns and cities, questions of public utility, of personal comfort, and of health become paramount to all others, and are altogether above pecuniary appraisal. There are other incidental advantages to be gained by the planting of village streets and parks in the neighborhood of cities that will be elsewhere more fully noticed. On the Due Proportion of Woodlands to Cultivated Fields. 294. In considering only the wants of a country, we must admit that wood is absolutely indispensable for our use — that it can only be obtained by natural or artificial growth, and that therefore a cer- tain proportion of land must be devoted to its production. "Where from commercial facilities, or colonial possessions, this growth may be obtained by importation, and the land required for its production may be distant, still the proportion must be maiutained, or a great future interest must be sacrificed to meet a present -want. The actual and relative amount of forests in Europe will enable us to form some idea as to how this question stands at the present time in these countries. The Due Proportion of Woodlands to Fields. 83 295. Fared Area of various Countries of Europe, from late Official COUNTKIES. Russia Finland Sweden Norway . . . Austria ■ . . Germany.. Turkey Roumania. Italy. Acres of Forests. Perc't of total Area. 475,710, 27,171), ■43,.S9o, 18,920, 45,i!09, 34,9B9, 20,50.3, 4,940. 14,228, 40.0 29.4 26.1 22.2 22.0 COUNTBIES. iSwitzerland... France Greece Spain Bel.a;ium Holland Portugal Great Britain Denmark Total .. Acres of Forests. 1,7SS,780 22,CS7,71i> 1,721,029 7,833.647 50i;402 569,160 1,165,420 3,106,824' 464,360 725,985,743 Perc't of total Area. IS 17 3 14 3 7 3 7 7 5 1 4.1 3.4 29.5 296. It ■will be seen from this table, that the general average throughout Europe is between a fourth and a third ; that the least proportion is in those countries where the facilities for foreign im- portation are greatest, or where the demand is least, and that the countries from whence for a century vast supplies have been drawn, are by no means so well wooded as to promise indefinite continu- ance or inexhaustible supply. The relative abundance in Russia is found only in the northern part, and nowhere can a contrast be- tween plenty and want be more strongly shown. Moreover, it should be remembered that in case of need, the government might easily interrupt the exportation, if it became necessary to protect its own interest, or to make other countries feel their dependence upon it for supplies. 297. It is obvious that foreign demands must greatly influence the prices of a commodity in countries from whence it is supplied, without reference to causes that might operate within them ; and since our country has furnished for a long period a large and con- stantly increasing amount of timber and lumber to foreign coun- tries, these questions become with us matters of direct practical in- terest. It is proper, therefore, that we should take a general glance at the distribution and extent of the native timber resources of the *This appears to be an over-statement. From statistics published in 1880, it is shown that there were then 1,435,434 acres of woodland in England, 162,135 in Ireland, and 811,703 in Scotland. The percentages of total area were 4. 4. — 3.4— and 1.6 respect- ively. 84 Resemblances and Contrasts in Timber- Growth. United States ; but before doing this, we ■n-ill notice some points of resemblance and contrast, due to great geographical and climatic causes, which we must recognize in all attempts at the naturalization of species, and which may afford a useful guide in their cultivation. Resemblances and Contrasts in the native Timber-growth of different Regions of Hie United States. 298. There has been noticed a wide difference between the forests of the eastern and the western coasts of North America, and a strong resemblance between the woodlands of the Atlantic States and Canada and the eastern coast of Asia and the islands of Japan. These resemblances apply to identical or representative species of the genera that include the magnolias, lindens, sumacs, buckeyes, box- elder, yellow-wood, honey-locust, pear, shadbush, dog-woods, rhodo- dendrons, holly, persimmon, catalpa, sassafras, osage-orange, pla- nera, walnut, butternut, hazelnut, birch, alder, yellow and white pine, hemlock, arbor-vitse, bald cypress, and yews. 299. None of these, excepting some representatives of the sumac, box-elder, pear, shadbush, and dog-wood, appear on the Pacific coast. The Himalaya region. Northern China, and Mantchuria contain many native species that may be cultivated successfully in ornamental plantations in our Atlantic States, and are already ob- tainable from our great nurseries. It is already ascertained that they have better prospects of success than most of the species that thrive so remarkably in their native localities upon the Pacific coast, but under a climate and in conditions that we can not provide for them in the Atlantic States. They are accustomed to heavy winter rains and long dry summers, and must have them. 300. The same difficulty occurs when we attempt to cultivate on the Pacific coast, many of the species that thrive in the Atlantic States. The hemlock, spruce, Norway spruce, and Austrian pine, among the conifers, and the sugar maple and the hickory among deciduous kinds, grow but slowly there. The pecan and tlie beech do better, but the locust tree is not at all reliable. Reasoning from this analogy, we would expect trees from the west of Europe to succeed in cases where they fail in the Atlantic States. It would well be worth trial as to whether the maritime pine, for example, that grows so luxuriantly in the rainy region of Southwestern Native Forest Resources of the United States. 85 France, would not be found suited to similar conditions upon our ■western coast, and prove a profitable tree for forest-culture. 301. In determining the kinds of trees best adapted to a given region, it is well to observe what kinds have grown up, or that still remain of the native growth, along the borders of streams, or in places where they have been sheltered and protected. 302. It may generally be presumed that these kinds would suc- ceed with much certainty, if planted again, although from ex- haustion of the soil by cultivation, or its injury from fires, it may have been impoverished to an extent that would make it difficult to plant. Before much expense was risked, experimental planting might be tried upon a small scale, and in this it should be the duty of the government to assist, where the conditions are quite new and the probabilities are unknown. General Glance at the Native Forest Resources of the United States and Canada. 303. It is estimated by Professor Brewer, of Yale College, that there may be eight hundred species of woody plants growing na- tive in the United States, of which about three hundred attain a height of thirty feet, and about two hundred and fifty are tolerably abundant somewhere. Excluding semi-tropical species on the extreme southern border, and some others that are rare, there would still re- main about one hundred and twenty species, of which about twenty grow to one hundred feet, twelve to two hundred, and five or six to three hundred feet or over. Of these one hundred and twenty, about fifty are conifers. 304. East of the treeless plains, which extend from north to south across the country, in a belt some hundreds of miles wide, east of the Rocky Mountains, the native forests were largely of de- ciduous kinds, and in great variety of species. West of this belt they are almost entirely conifers. One species, the aspen (Popidus tremidoides), extends entirely across the continent. There may be a few others that are found in rare cases. The New England States. 305. In generalizing by regions, Professor Brewer remarks, that in the New England States, once entirely wooded, there are eighty to eighty-five native species, of which about sixty grow more than 86 Native Forest Resources of the United States. fifty feet high. The greater number of these are hard-woods, and the conifers are chiefly of the pine, cedar, and spruce families. As shade-trees, the elm and the sugar maple there perhaps attain their finest development. Tlie Middle States. 306. In the Middle States, from one hundred to one hundred and five species occur, of 'which sixty-five to sixty-seven grow fifty feet or more in height. These states were once heavily wooded — the conifers in greater or less abundance being mingled among the de- ciduous kinds. Some of the oaks, the chestnut, beech, and some kinds of the ash, and the white-pine, there grow to great perfection in their favorite localities. Southern States. • 307. From Virginia to Florida, about one hundred and thirty species occur, of which about seventy-five grow to fifty feet or more, and perhaps a dozen to one hundred feet. The coast of this region produces the bald cypress, and towards the south the live-oak, the palmetto and other kinds. 308. A broad belt of long-leaved pine (Pinits australis) extends further inland, in irregular form, around through the middle of the Gulf States to beyond the Mississippi river. Still further inland, and at higher level, the oaks and other hard-woods become more common, and on the mountains the northern conifers are found. The pine forests of this region generally present an open appearance, probably from their being overrun by frequent fires. 309. The coast region and the swamps bear a tree-growth that is dense and tangled, and although there may be timber of large size, it is difiicult of access, as the swamps never freeze so as to facilitate lumbering as in the Northern States. In these swamps there is often a deep deposit of vegetable soil, and in some places buried cedar may be found still in excellent preservation. 310. At a short distance west of Trinity river, in Texas, the for- ests begin to disappear, and there are immense regions in that state, extending from the Gulf to the northern and western borders, that are wholly destitute of trees. Tlie Western States. 311. West of the AUeghenies, we find a country originally cov- Timber of the Western States. — The Rocky Mountains. 87 ered with heavy timber, excepting in "oak openings" and "bar- rens," -where the trees had been destroyed by frequent fires, and the " prairies," where from this or other causes no timber was found, except along the borders of streams. 312.- These open spaces of every description, when drained and protected, are found to produce trees readily under cultivation, there being scarcely any part that presents an inherent difficulty in the soil, and none in the climate. '" 313. According to the writer above cited, the country north-west of the Ohio river, contains from one hundred and five to one hun- dred and ten native species, of which sixty-eight to seventy grew to a height of fifty feet. In Southern Ohio and Indiana, oaks and various hard-woods grow to a very large size, and the walnuts, bass- wood, and tulip-tree attain their finest development. 314. The white-pine region begins in North-western Ohio, and ex- tends into the states further north and west. In the interior of Michi- gan, around Saginaw Bay, and along both lakes, there were vast bodies of white pine, but much of this has been worked out, and according to careful estimates the supply can not last many years. 315. In, the upper Peninsula of Michigan, in Northern Wiscon- sin, and in Eastern and North-eastern Minnesota, there were also large bodies of timber, generally a mixture of conifers and hard- woods. The forests south of Lake Superior were originally second only to those of the Pacific coast for their density, and the size of their growth. 316. In Illinois and Southern Wisconsin, and from the Mississippi river westward, the prairies begin to predominate, and the native forests are limited to belts along the rivers iind streams. In some parts, these spread out into broad areas many miles in extent, and in others they are mere fringes, that gradually disappeared altogether further west. The Rocky Mountain Ee-gion. 317. The sides and valleys of these mountains were in favorable situations covered with coniferous forest trees, sometimes occupying broad areas, and elsewhere of more limited extent. The number of species in this region is not over twenty-eight or thirty, of which the conifers form two-thirds the number in species, and by far the greatest proportion in quantity. The box-elder (Negundo aceroides) and the quaking aspen, are the more important deciduous trees. 88 Natioe Forest Resources of the United States. 318. The " divides " between river systems are generally wooded, but in scattered patches and irregular masses, that give a park-like appearance to the country, but do not afford for many years a sup- ply, where mining or other settlements are made in their vicinity. The waste and improvidence with which this timber is being de- stroyed should lead to prompt and adequate measures for its protec- tion. In some places, it can scarcely be made to grow again, when once cut off, and in others the rate of growth is so slow that five hundred years would scarcely replace the thoughtless waste of an hour. 319. The decaying remains of coniferous and other trees are not unfrequently found in this region and westward, extending farther out towards the plains than any of the kind are now found growing, or at least young and in thriving condition. This has been thought to indicate that at no distant period in the past, these trees flourished over a larger area than at present, and in places where, from changed conditions of the climate, they could now scarcely be made to grow by the most careful cultivation. 320. This recession will, in all probability, be hastened by the improvident waste that is now going on, and changes are already perceptible, although the time since settlements began is but brief. The nutritious bunch-grasses of the plains extend up into the bor- ders of the timber belt, and in open valleys are found to nearly 11,000 feet above tide. The Pacific Coast. 321. The forests of this region are for the most part restricted to the sea-coast, the borders of rivers, and the mountain sides, and are distinguished on account of the relatively large preponderance of the coniferous as compared with the deciduous kinds. 322. In speaking of the contrasts between this region and the At- lantic States, Dr. Asa Gray remarks : "California has no magnolia nor tulip-trees, nor star-anise tree; no so- called pawpaw ; no barberry of tlie common single-leaved sort; ... no prickly-asli nor sumac; no loblolly-bay norstuartia; no basswood nor lin- den trees; neither locust, Loney-locust, coffee-trees, nor yellow-wood; nothing answering to hydrangea or witoh-haze), to gum-trees, viburnum, or dier- villa; no buckle- berries, and hardly any blue-berries; no epigsea— charm of our earliest spring— tempering the April wind with a delicious wild fra- grance ; no kalmia, nor clethra, nor holly, nor persimmon ; no catalpa tree; Timber Resources of the United States and Canada. 89 . . . nothing answering to sassafras, Tior to benzoin tree, nor to hickory; neither mulberry r.or elm ; no beech, true chestnut, hornbeam, nor ironwood, nor a proper birch tree; and the enumeration might be continued very much further by naming herbaceous plants and others familiar to botanists." 323. The enormous sizes to which some of the conifers of this region grow, has been the wonder of all travelers ; but these im- mense growths do not cover large areas, and nowhere can such strong contrasts between abundance and scarcity be elsewhere seen. The heavy forests do not extend much beyond the coast region, the borders of rivers or the mountain sides and valleys, and these usually present remarkable peculiarities in the prevailing growth. 324. The consumption and waste that have been going on since settlement began, have already made serious inroads upon these ap- parently "inexhaustible" supplies, and probably already more than half, in all the accessible portions, is now gone. There is a most urgent need of conservative measures, and the time is not distant when the inhabitants of that region, and those depending upon these supplies, will be admonished by enhanced prices of the im- portance of economy and the value of a growing tree. 325. In Canada, there are found sixty-five native species of trees, in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces ; of which about a dozen range as far north as James Bay. The birches, poplars, and tamarac are found in the more northerly region, and south of these the pines and the beech, the latter chiefly south of a line drawn from the outlet of Lake Superior to Quebec. West of Ni- agara river is a zone where the walnut, butternut, tulip-t-ree, sassa- fras, and chestnut occur, with an increasing alDundance of oaks. The absence of trees and of mosses is a notable feature of the prairies of Manitoba and westward.' The principal pine forests of Canada have receded to the upper waters of the great rivers flowing -into the St. Lawrence and the lakes, and from the investigations that have been undertaken by the government in recent years, it appears evident that the time of principal exhaustion is not many years distant. Great Britain. 326. Of the native trees of Great Britain, there are only about a dozen genera and thirty siiecies, that grow to thirty feet or more ' Drummondr's Canadian Timber Trees, p. 5. 90 Alternations in Forest Groioth. in height, and only two of these are conifers. By importation from other countries, the number now under cultivation is largely in- creased, and very many have been found entirely suited to the soil and climate. Among these, the larch may be mentioned as the one that has come into favor more than any other species, as a forest tree, especially in Scotland. The conifers of our Pacific coast, and especially the Douglas fir, appear in many cases to thrive well when cultivated as timber trees. Alternations of Forest Growth. 327. It has been often observed that when a forest has been de- stroyed, and more especially if it has been killed off by fire, the growth that succeeds, when left to itself, is very often of a different kind. If the former growth was pine, the succeeding one may be cherry or poplar, and in some regions oak. In the Southern States, oak and hickory may be followed by pine. The white oak cut off at Valley Forge by the American army in 1777-8 was fol- lowed by black oak, hickory and chestnut. In Florida, the black- jack (J^uercus nigra) often follows the long-leaved pine {Firms qustralis). 328. These facts have by some been regarded as favoring a theory of rotation of crops in timber, by natural causes, as we practice ■with advantage in agriculture ; but, according to the best received opinions, this alternation is not a law of nature, but rather the re- sult of external circumstances, which will generally be found suf- ficient to account for all the facts wc meet with. Either the decid- uous or the resinous species can be introduced and maintained by the aid of judicious cultivation, in places where the conditions for their welfare exist in the soil or climate. 329. But as different trees do not draw equally from the soil, we should study the natural adaptation of the conditions of the local- ity, and seek to accommodate the species to them, to the best ad- vantage. In another part of this work, wc notice some of the ao^en- cies through which this natural seeding may occur.' 330. In seeking to continue the production of the same species upon a soil wliere it has formerly prospered, we must never allow the soil to become impoverished by the removal of the dead leaves 1 See pages 30-33. Acts relating to Timber on the Public Lands. 91 and rubbish. If this is done, the fertility is diminished, in a man- ner comparable to that of agricultural lands that will gradually be- come exhausted, unless manures are applied. In no form of forest- culture is there a tendency to general exhaustion of the soil by long continued use, as we observe in agricultural cultivation ; still there may be an exhaustion of the local supply for the roots of trees in particular places, and when this occurs the trees may languish and die, or their growth may be cheeked. This sometimes happens in ornamental planting, where very fertile soil is used for filling in the holes, and where these holes are dug in a very poor soil. CHAPTER IX. ACTS OF CONGRESS RELATING TO TIMBER RIGHTS. Entry of Land under ike Timber-c/idture Acts. 331 . By an act of Congress approved March 3, 1873,' and amended March 13, 1874, and again June 14, 1878, any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one, and is a citizen of the United States, or who has filed his declaration of intention to become such, may apply at the office of the Register ef a Land District, for the entry of any vacant land in such district as a timber daim, upon the following conditions : 332. The amount may not be more than a quarter section (1 60 acres) to one person, nor more than this amount can be taken up by any person in one section. The applicant must make oath that the land is composed wholly of prairie lands, or other lands devoid of timber ; that the entry is made for the cultivation of timber, and for his own exclusive use and benefit, and in good faith, and not forthe purpose of speculation, or directly or indirectly for the use or bene- fit of any other person ; and that he intends to hold and cultivate the land, and fully to comply with the provisions of the law. He must also swear that he has not previously entered any lands under the present act, or the acts of which it is amendatory. 333. Upon the payment of a fee of ^10, and the further sum of "84, for commissions, if for more than eighty acres, or of $5 and $4 if eighty acres or less, he receives a certificate of entry, and may occupy at once, upon the following conditions : 334. If the entry is for 160 acres, he must break or plow five acres the first year and another five acres the second year. The land 92 Acts relating to Timber on the Public Lands. plo-wed the first year, must bo cultivated by crop or otherwise in the secoud year. In the third year he must cultivate the five acres broken in the second year, and plant in timber trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, the five acres first broken or plowed, and cultivate the remainder that has been broken. In the fourth year, iic must plant in timber trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, the second five acres. 335. If the entry is for eighty acres, the amount to be broken and planted must be one-half, or if for forty acres, one-fourth of the above amount. K the trees, seeds, or cuttings are destroyed by grass- hoppers, or by extreme or unusual drouth, for any year or term of years, the time for planting is increased one year for every such year when they liave been destroyed. In applying for an extension of time, an afiidavit by the applicant, corroborated by two witnesses, must be filed, setting forth the destruction of the trees. 336. At the end of eight years from the date of entry, or within five years thereafter, the person who made it, or if he or she be dead his or her heirs or legal representatives must prove, by two credible witnesses, that the amount of land has been plowed, cultivated, planted, and protected as above required, and a statement of the quantity and character of trees thus planted ; that not less than 2,700 trees were planted on each acre ; ' and that at least 675 are living and thrifty, upon each acre, at the time of making such proof. This will then entitle him to a patent for the quarter-sec- tion, or less amount' of land that was entered. 337. The claim is forfeited at any time before the eight years, upon neglect of any of the conditions, and may be entered by another person, either as a homestead or as a timber claim, the original claimant being notified as prescribed by rules, and his rights deter- mined by evidence, as in other contested cases. 338. Timber-claims are not liable to the satisfaction of debts con- tracted before elate of finjl certificate. The penalties prescribed with respect to oaths and afiirmatious falsely made in other cases ap- ply to this, and the Commissioner of the General Land Office is re- quired to issue rules and regulations for the execution of the act. 339. Entries made under the acts of 1873 or 1874 may be com- pleted under the act of 1878, upon complying with its conditions, and in this case it is not necessary to prove that the manner of ' Equivalent to rows four feet apart each way. Acts of Covgress relating to Timber Rights. 93 planting begun under former acts were complied with. It may liave been done under the manner prescribed by either of these acts. 340. With respect to the kinds of trees that might be regarded as timber trees, within the meaning of the law, the following were specified, viz.: "Ash, alder, beech, birch, black-walnut, basswood, black-locust, cedar, chestnut, cottonwood, elm, fir, including spruce, hickory, honey-locust, larch, maple, including box-elder, oak, pine, plane-tree, otherwise called cotton-tree, buttonwood or sycamore, service-tree, otherwise called mountain-ash, white-walnut, otherwise called butternut, white-willow, and whitewood, otherwise called tulip-tree." 341. The above list was only intended as a general guide, and will not be construed to exclude any trees falling within the descrip- tion of trees recognized in the neighborhood as of value for timber, or for commercial purposes, or for firewood and domestic use.^ 342. The preparation of the land and the i>lanting of trees being acts of cultivation, the time so employed is to be counted as a part of the eight years of cultivation required by law. Final proof must be made in person, with his witnesses, and iu the Land District where the land is located. The testimony must be given before a Judge or Clerk of a court of record in that Land District, and the identity and credibility of the party making the affidavit must be certified by the officer administering the oath. , 343. The sum of $4, in addition to the amount paid upon entry, must be paid when the final proof is made. Nj additional fees are required or allowed. 344. By official rulings entries by subdivisions of quarter-sections may be made, if in the same section, and in a compact body, not exceeding 160 acres in all. Where an entry is made upon a claim that has been abandoned after breaking or planting, the second party is not entitled to any allowances for the work done. After entry of 160 acres, if from sickness the party can not complete the 1 This general permission was granted by a. decision of February IQ, 1882. The omissions in the list previously enumerated had given rise to severe criti- cisms. Either of the following might in some localities be found worth cul- tivating as t'mbcr trees, and several of them may be classed among the more valuable kind?, viz; Ailanthus, blue-beech, cherry (especially the black cherry,) gum-trees, hackberry, iron- wood, osage-orange, peach, pear, apple, plum, etc. 94 Acts of Congress relatinri to Timber Rights. planting, if the amount broken be as much as the law requires for a less amount, he may relinquish 80 acres, retaining the part on which nork is begun. A claim once entered can not be exchanged for another. 945. A strict compliance with the terms of the law has been held as necessary. Should less than five acres be broken, for example, in one year, the difference could not be made up by au excess of plowing the second year. The word " cultivation" does not neces- sarily imply the raising of a crop. It may be done by plowing harrowing, or otherwise. 346. Every timber-culture entry is made subject to a right of con- test, by any person who can show non-compliance as a ground of forfeiture. He who faithfully complies with the law has little to apprehend, for contestants must pay the costs if not successful. 347. Where a scattered growth of trees exists on the margin of a stream or a section of land, and there are none growing elsewhere on the section, it has been held that the tract is " naturally devoid of timber" if there are less than 50 trees to the section. The quality of the trees, rather than their number, has determined questions arising upon this point. Because a tract was covered by a prior timber-culture entry, this is not evidence that the land is properly subject to the timber-culture law. The person who makes affidavit should assure hinaself of the fact. Planting under the Homestead- Entry Act. 348. Under an act relating to homestead entries, in force from March 13, 1874, to June 14, 1878, a person entitled under the homestead act, who at any time after the third year of his or her residence thereon, had, in addition to the settlement and improve- ments required by law, brought under cultivation for two years one acre of timber, not more than twelve feet apart each way, and had kept it in good thrifty condition, for each sixteen acres of his homestead, he was entitled to receive a patent for the same, upon proof of the fact. The rights acquired while this act was in force, will remain valid, until the limitation of that act has expired. Use of Timber by Railroad Companies. 349. By an act approved March 3, 1878, entitled " an act granting to railroads the right of way through the public lands of the United States," these companies are allowed the right of 100 feet on each Acts relating to Timber on the Public Lands. 95 side of the central line of their road, and the right to take from the public lands adjacent to the line of said road the timber and other materials necessary for construction, and a tract not to exceed twenty acres iu a place, once in ten miles, for a station. Privileges granted to tJie Citizens of Colorado, Nevada, and the Terri- tories. 350. By "An Act authorizing the citizens of Colorado, Nevada, and the Territories, to remove Timber on the Public Domain for Min- ing and Domestic Purposes," approved June 3, 1878, the bona fide residents of the above states, and the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Dakota, Idaho and Montana, and all other mineral districts of the United States, w-ere permitted to take any timber or other trees growing on the public lands, said lands being mineral, and not subject to entry, as they might need fo.r building, agricutural, mining, or domesiic purposes, subject to such regula- tions as the Secretary of the Interior might prescribe. Sale of Timber Lands in California, Oregmi, and Nevada, and in Wash- ington Territory. 351. By an act of June 3, 1878, providing for the survey of pub- lic lands in the above states and territories which are chiefly valu- able for timber but unfit for cultivation, and which had not been offered for sale, it is provided that such lands may be sold in quan- tities not exceeding 160 acres to one person, at a minimum price of $2.50 per acre. During the year ending June 30, 1881, there were entered the following amounts : In California, 179 entries=19,829.66 acres. In Washington Ter., 134 entrie.s^l6,436 acres. In Oregon, 49 entries= 5,044.55 acres. In Nevada, 1 entry = 160 acres. 3")2. An applicant must make affidavit that he is a citizen, or has filed a declaration of intention to become such ; that the land is un- fit for cultivation, and chiefly valuable for timber (or stone) ; that it is uninhabited; that it has not gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or coal ; that he has made no previous application ; does not buy on speculation ; and has not made any agreement by which the benefit shall accrue to any other person. This allegation must be sup- ported by that of two other persons who have no interest in the 96 European Plans of Forest Management. transaction. After advertisement for sixty days, if no adverse claim is filed, the land may be conveyed. This act does not re- serve land covered by timber and fit for -cultivation from the opera- tion of the homestead or pre-emption laws. A person resident on a timber claim has been allowed to change it to a homestead entry, upon relinquishing the former, under section 3, Act of May 14, 1880. Applicants are not allowed to remove the timber from the land em- braced in their application prior to making proof and payment. CHAPTER X. EUROPEAN PLANS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 359. In countries where Forestry has been studied with most care, several different systems of management have been devised, in each of which certain advantages may be gained when properly employed. The preference that should be given to one or another, must in all cases be determined by the circumstances and conditions. They are as follows : (1.) Mtihod of Selection.^ 360. In this method, the trees are cut out here and there, leaving others not yet mature to grow to their full size. It is the same plan that we see in common use, in the tracts of woodland reserved upon farms, in the older parts of the United States, where the timber is cut out here and there, as it is wanted for particular uses, or as it begins to decay. 361. It is also employed to some extent in the cutting of trees for lumber, chiefly in pine, cedar, or spruce forests, where all the trees above a certain diameter are cut out, and those of smaller size are left, until the tract can again be cut over in like manner. 362. It results from this management, that the forest always presents a great diversity of growth of young trees among the old, and the actual amount of wood upon such a tract is generally much less than where a great uniformity in size and age has been main- tained. As too often practiced upon farms, if cattle and sheep are allowed to pasture in such woods, the seedlings and youno- sprouts 'Called by the French "Jorrfinajre," literally "gardening;" or sometimes "fueringe," that is, "stealing" here and thei'e from the forest, as described in the text. European Plans of Forest Management. 97 are eaten off, or are broken down, and the tendency to ruin is hastened. 363. In such woodlands, where trees are felled every year, the young timber is very liable to injury, — bare places are very apt to form, and the general tendency is to a continual narrowing in of the boundary and final clearing off. In such irregular forests, the winJs are apt to do more injury than where the growth is uniform, and the timber itself is generally not so valuable, on account of the injuries and accidents to which it is exposed when young, and the unequal growth that it forms. Nevertheless, in certain cases, it is the only form of management that is admissible, as, for example, upon a mountain side liable to erosion from torrents, if all cleared at once, or in places difficult of access, where large timber could not be got out, or upon loose sands that might be liable to drift, if fully exposed to the winds. 364. In the case of pine or spruce woodlands, and in cedar swamps, where an interval of several years occurs between the cut- tings, and due protection is given, the practice of selection is a good one, because in such cases a chance for seeding is afforded at each partial clearing, and the younger growth has the benefit of air and light, most favorable to its welfare. 365. In all cases, where the young growth becomes too dense, so that the branches interlock, it is advisable to thin out a part, in order to favor the growth of the remainder. In some localities, the young trees thus taken out may be profitably used for stakes and poles, affording a small revenue to the owner. (2.) Meffwd of Coppice-growth. 366. The term "coppice" is applied to a woodland that is cut off completely when the timber has grown to a size for the uses to which it is intended, and a new growth is allowed to spring up from the roots and stumps. 367. We have scarcely an instance among the resinous species in which this can be done with advantage. But very few ' will sprout 'The redwood of California (Sequoia sempervirens) is a notable exception to this rule, as it sprouts freely from the stump, and even from the fallen timber, if cut at the proper season. The pitch-pine of New England (Pinus rigida) shows some tendency to sprout, but the sprouts seldom attain much growth. 7 98 European Plans of Forest Management. from the stump at all, and of these the after-gro>vth does not pro- duce a new crop of much value. 368. Although most deciduous trees will sprout when cut, some of them, especially the beech and the maple, will scarcely grow to advantage. In other kinds, as the chestnut, oaks, ashes, poplars, willows, linden, etc., the second growth under favorable conditions is very good. As a rule, the growth is best when the cutting is nearly or quite level with the ground, for then the sprouts are able to get independent roots. 370. If, however, a second growth had already been obtained, it would be better to cut a little higher, and in the new wood, where the growth would be more likely to succeed than under the hardened bark of the old wood. 371. To insure success by this method, the timber must be cut a little before the season when growth begins. In a climate so varied as we find in the United States, it would be quite impossible to fix this time by a general rule, and even in a given locality it might vary in diifereut years. In the Northern States, the latter part of win- ter would be best ; but in intensely cold and dry weather the frost might so injure and loosen the bark that it would separate from the wood, and the vitality of the stump would be weakened or de- troyed. 372. In some species, the flow of sap will tend to injury if the cutting is done too near the time when it begins to start. It is de- sirable to have the full effect of the first impulse of growth, and if the cutting be delayed until after this has advanced the sprouts be- come weak. 373. In mild climates, where we have no fear of heavy winter frosts, the cutting may be done at any time after the fall of the leaves, or in the broad-leaved evergreens, as soon as the movement of the second sap has ceased. 374. If cut in midsummer or early autumn, after the growth of wood for the year has formed, no sprouts will form, or they will be feeble and transient. 375. It is further to be observed, that as the sprouts from a stump start from along the line of junction between the wood and the bark, care should be taken not to wound or tear cff" the bark wheii cut. It is an excellent plan to go over the stumps with a sharp adze, and carefully trim the edges, always cutting towards the center, so European Plans of Forest Management. 99 as to leave the edges smooth and the stump convex. This will en- able it to shed off the rains which might otherwise settle in hollow places and hasten decay. 376. As only a f^w of the sprouts that come up from the stump are wanted as trees, a part of them should be cut off. If some of them are bent down, secured in place by pegs, and partly covered with soil, they will take root and become independent trees, when separated from the parent stock. In putting down these layers, the part that is buried should be partly cut off, and the tip end be left exposed. 377. In some species, as in the locust, and in many of the pop- lars, we find a strong tendency to spread by sending up sprouts from the roots, often at a great distance from the parent tree. These sprouts will rtadily form thrifty trees, and where these tracing roots are broken, and the ends brought to the surface; they grow readily from these ends. 378. Where it is desirable to hasten the growth of trees from sprouts and the ground is full of small roots, we may break these and bring their ends to the air and thus hasten a new growth. This can be done where poplars have been cut off, and a new crop is de- sired. 879. It is needless to remark that a coppice growth scarcely ad- mits of any kind of pasturage at any time during its growth, and that to insure success it should always be kept inclosed. In some countries, the leaves are gathered while still green, and dried for winter fodder. 380. The period at which a coppice may be cut depends upon the uses to which the wood is to be applied, and the conditions of soil, climate, and exposure under which it has grown. It should never extend beyond forty, and it may be reduced to fifteen, or even to ten years. It will be very liable to be governed by the wants of the owner and the market prices of timber. Generally, from twenty to thirty years is ample time for firewood, charcoal, railroad ties, etc. For hoop poles and other small wood it may be cut in five or six years. 381. As a general rule, the result is best where the period is uni- form, but this can not be determined in a given locality until all the circumstances of growth and the opportunities for market are known. The wood should be taken out before the sprouts get up 100 European Plans of Forest Management. so as to be liable to injury, and the brush should be burned as soon as may be — if possible in the spring of the same year. 382. Koads are of first importance for facilitating the removal of products, and when kept free from dry litter, they afford lines of defense in case of forest fires. 383. Sometimes one or two agricultural crops are taken off' at the time of cutting of a coppice. The benefit in exceptional cases may be considerable, but as a rule it will do more harm than good. 384. One of the most important applications of the method of coppice growth, in Europe, is for the production of oak bark, to be used in tanning, as will be elsewhere more fully noticed. 385. As thetreesin a coppice do not come to maturity, they seldom tend to seed themselves, or if this occurs it is apt to result that in- ferior species of easy and rapid growth may get an undue start, and tend to supplant the more valuable kinds. It is always advisable to notice the void places in a coppice woodland, and plant or sow them at the proper season. In this, attention should be given to favor the more valuable kinds. A proper mixture of species will sometimes yield a greater quantity of material and more profit, in a given time, than when it is all alike. 386. As coppice woods must be cut in the season when the sap is about to start, the durability of the wood is not so great as when cut iu the dormant season. For some uses this is not important, but in others, as in the case of railroad ties, posts, and the like, it becomes a question for consideration as to whether the season of cut- ting should not be that which tends to greater durability, at the risk of failure of reproduction by coppice-growth. 387. It is to be remarked that the best success in reproduction after cutting, occurs in rich and humid soil, and in a damp climate, and that as we pass to those that are dryer the chances become less, until we approach those of the arid type, when they disappear altogether. From the greater dryness of our climate, as compared with that of Europe, we can not so uniformly depend upon this method as there. 388. In a given species it is observed that the tendency to send up vigorous sprouts diminishes with age, and that finally, it ceases almost entirely. We should not therefore depend upon the stumps of trees of large size for the growth of coppice wood. In cases ■where it is desirable to hasten their decay, to get room for others, European Plans of Forest Management. 101 they may be cut concave, so that the rain-water will settle upon them instead of running off. 389. In skilled forestry there is a constant effort to increase the production of a given area, and to improve the quality of the wood grown. Since coppice woods are generally cut before maturity, their timber has not the size or excellence that allow it to be used where pieces of large dimensions and great strength are needed, and it has been customary at every cutting to reserve some of the finest and thriftiest trees and allow them to grow to a second, third, fourth, or fifth period, thereby attaining their greatest size and value.' 390. These reserved trees affect the young growth around them, either by their .covert or their shade. (a.) The covert of a tree is the action that a tree may have upon the space that is covered by the top and branches, and it is gener- ally injurious, by intercepting a part of the rain and much of the light, and by preventing the formation of dew. (6.) The shade is the shadow which a tree casts at different times in the day, and where it does not rest too long, and alternates with sunshine, it is almost always salutary to the young growth. It tends to prevent evaporation, while it does not hinder the free access of the air. 391. As a rule, the reserves should not cover more than from the twentieth to the sixteenth part of the surface, and they should be distributed as uniformly as possible. At every cutting some should be taken out, so that the number of each class becomes less. 392. The oak, when thus left under an unusual exposure of the sun and air, is especially liable to put out large lateral branches of vigorous growth. These ' ' gormand " branches should not be allowed to become large, and can best be trimmed off close to the trunk, and late in summer. They will then be less liable to sprout the next spring, and may sooner heal over with new wood. It is a good practice to paint over these wounds with coal-tar. ' The ti-ees thus left, received certain names according to the periods they are left over. In French forestry these names, with their English equiva- lents, as nearly as cnn be rendered, are as follows- 1st period. liciliveau — " young reserves.'' 2d period. Modernes — " muderns." 3d period. Anciens, 2d class — " old, of 2d class. 4th period, Anciena \st class — old, of 1st class. 5th period. Vieilles ecorcea — " old-bark." 102 European Plans of Forest Management. 393. In the case of timber used for ship building, the knees and other curved or angular parts are generally taken from trees that have the desired shapes. These are oftener found along the borders of a woodland than in the interior, and the reserves affording these forms being more desirable, more of them may be left in propor- tion to their number than of others that are more upright. It has been practiced to some extent, to bend and confine young trees, to secure these curves and forms that give them special value for cer- tain uses. This may be done by fastening one branch to another of the same tree, or by binding it to the ground, or fastening it to a plank molded to the proper curve, until it will stay in place. (3.) The Growing of Woodlands to full Maturity.^ 394. For the production of large timber, of great strength ,,an4 fit for the most important uses in civil and naval constructions, a special course of management is required, which we will briefly describe, although it has not hitherto been much followed, except upon lands belonging to governments, and in a large degree for the supply of their own wants. 395. In this form of cultivation, the trees are generally all started at the same period, and at all stages of growth they are of the same age and size, but progressively become less in number, by thinning out from time to time, in order to allow the remainder a better chance to grow. 396. The period of " revolution" with the same kinds varies with the richness of the soil, the climate, and the exposure, and it is longer in some kinds than with others. 397. The deciduous kinds most prized for this are the English oak,^ beech, elm, ash, sycamore, maple, hornbeam, birch, and locust, often more or less mixed, and sometimes with spruces, firs, and pines. The conifers can be cultivated only in this way or by "Jardinage." [§ 360.] 398. The beginning is secured either by sowing or planting (upon ^We have no single word in the English language to express the idea which the French convey in the vord futaie, and the Germans in horhwald, meaning a forest grown to full age, in a period ranging from 60 or 70 years to 150 or 200. * Quercus pedunculaia, and Q. sessiliflora, by some botanists regarded as varieties of the same species, which they name Que7'cus rubur. European Plans of Forest Management. 103 ground previously prepared) over its whole surface, or in squares or pockets, so as to be near enough together to shade the whole ground in two or three years, and thus take an upward growth to reach the air and light. They should be thinned out when too dense, but no rule can be given as to the time when, and the extent to which this thinning should be done, where so much depends upon circum- stances, and the judgment of the forester in charge. 399. In Germany, upon a good soil, and a uniform growth, the number of trees at different clearings, after the trees get to be of a considerable size, is about as follows : 1st clearing, at 30 to 40 years, 1 ,300 to 1 ,600 trees left to an acre. 2d " " 50 to 60 " 500 to 600 3d " " 70 to 80 " 300 to 400 4th " "90 to 100 " 200 to 250 400. In the evergreen or coniferous kinds the number left may be greater, because, with a given size of body, the foliage is less. Upon poor soils and in rude climates it may be greater, because the trees will be smaller, and upon mountain sides the same, because the trees do not then shade one another so much, and are better exposed to the light. 401. Much importance is attached to these thinnings, for they secure a great gain in value of the final product, besides that de- rived from the trees taken out, and that would have perished from shading out if left to themselves. From the first of these thinnings they have a value, which increased at every time, from poles to timber of useful size; and at all stages they furnish wood for fuel- and charcoal. 402. While these accessory products afibrd in advanced stages a revenue, much above the whole cost of supervision and labor, their removal stimulates the growth of the remainder in a notable degree, and they gain much faster in size, as their branches and roots find more room to spread. By letting in the sun and the air, they con- tribute to give qualities of solidity and elasticity, that they could not acquire in a dense shade. 403. In a well kept woodland, dead and dying trees should be taken out whenever found, as their presence favors the breeding of beetles, that might injure the remaining trees. It is a poor policy to allow the dead leaves and the litter to be taken out ; but when the 104 European Plans of Forest Management. trees become large, the fattening of swine upon the nuts and acorns is usually allowed. 404. In such a forest, in best condition, the trees are much nearer together than as we commonly find them in a wild-wood :' the ground is so shaded that no grass will grow, and the seeds that fall soon perish for want of air and light. In fact the trees them- selves do not bear seeds as freely as when they have more space., 405. At the time of these thinnings, the soft woods -of more rapid growth, such as the poplars, birches, alders, etc., should be taken out where they are not wanted ; but a mixture of kinds, such as the oak aud beech, or the beech and Scotch pine is often en- couraged, as they agree well together, and make a more profitable product than either would alone. As the oak yields a more valu- able timber, they generally prefer to give it a greater chance. 406. Care should be taken to clear out the brambles and shrubs, good for nothing but faggots, and which are bound in bundles and sold. The branches of trees cut in thinning are also used as faggots. 407. Finally, as the time for general cutting draws near, and it becomes necessary to provide for a new forest-growth, the seeding of the plants that are to form the future forest is secured without cost, and with great success, by a simple course of management that deserves careful notice : 408. At first, they take out some of the trees uniformly over the whole surface, so as to let in the air and light, and thus favor the remaining trees in bearing fruit. The seeds that form fall under or near the parent trees, and become lightly covered by the leaves of the same season. Being on the surface of a rich soil, which has been forming for a long period, from the decay of foliage, and now exposed to the sun's light and warmth, they spring up as young 1 Nothing can be more impressive to one accustomed only to the irregu- larity of an American forest, than the sight of a well kept European plan- tation in full growth. As he looks into the gloomy recesses, the trees stand in rows like organ pipes, greatly exceeding in number those ever found from spontaneous growth, and witli asymmetry in size and hei"-ht that is remarkable. "When seen at a distance, such forests appear level at the top, and we often see different levels, indicating differences in aije. The best cultivated forests of Germany are worth from three to five times as much as native woods. European Plans of Forest Management. 105 plants, and in a year or two the ■whole surface of the -woodland is carpeted with the fresh green foliage of young seedling trees. 409. These tender plants would soon wither and perish in the full light of day in an open field. They need just the kind of shelter that the parent-trees afford. The sunlight comes down sprinkled here and there, and the shadows pass over them, so that with this alternation of light and shelter the plants receive just the proportion that is needed for their most thrifty growth. 410. As they gain in size, they need more light, and will bear more exposure ; and finally, when they need shelter no longer, the remaining trees are carefully taken out, and the young forest starts off on a new period, to supply timber for the use of generations un- "born. 411. This period in the larch and the birch ranges from 50 to 60 years, or with the former in cold regions it may extend to 120 or 140 years. With the locust and the maritime, Aleppo and Corsican pines, it is from 60 to 70 years ; with the Scotch pine, it is from 80 to 90 years ; with the beech, from 80 to 140 years ; with the ash, from 90 to 100 years; with the chestnut, from 90 to 120 years; with the spruce, from 90 to 140 years; with the fir, from 100 to 140, the average being about 120 years ; with the elm, 100 to 120 years ; and with the oak, 120 to 200 years. " 412. The profits of a full-grown forest, as compared with a cop- pice, are very great. It is shown by Hartig, a noted German au- thor, that a high forest cut at 120 years bears to a coppice cut once in 30 years, through the same time, the proportion of 7 to 4, aU re- ceipts and expenses being taken into the account. 413. Whenever the time shall come that our only supplies of timber are furnished by cultivation, great corporations will doubtless be formed, for managing great forest properties, under skilled agents, and with a capital that can afiTord to wait a long time, so long as it is earning a good rate, and promises a sure profit. By such means, forests can be grown to great advantage, but best upon an extensive scale. European Fared Administrations. 414. In every country upon the continent of Europe, considerable tracts of woodland belong to the government. The local munici- palities (communes, cities, etc.) own other tracts, generally near or 106 European Forest Adminidrations. within their limits, and often subject to rights of common usage, such as the supply of wood for fuel or building purposes, pasturage, feeding of swine upon acorns, and the like. Many public estab- lishments, such as churches, monasteries, charities, etc., also own forest estates, as a part of their endowment. 415. Over all of these the government has supervision, and there has grown up an organized branch of the public service, known as the Forest Administration, with regular grades of promotion, and generally pensions to those who have spent their strength in the service until their working days are over. 416. In the German States, and in the Scandinavian kingdoms, the Forest Administration is generally a branch of the Ministry of Finances; in Russia, in that of the Imperial Domains, and in Aus- tria, France, Italy, and Spain, it is associated with the Ministry of Agriculture, or of Agriculture and Commerce, with some differences due to the organization of the several governments. 417. They agree in having a central administrative office, from ■whence all important business is ordered, and to which reports are made. They generally have in the superior grades of service a number of inspectors, who make periodical visits to the different forests, to observe their condition, and detect any fault or neglect that may have crept into their management. It is in some coun- tries the custom to transfer the local superintendents from time to time to new fields of duty, as tending to a more faithful discharge of their trusts. 418. There is also a system of forest-guards, sometimes organized upon a military basis, for the protection of timber and game, and to see that the work of cutting and removal of products is done in accordance with regulations. These guards, when on duty, alwavs wear a uniform, and are commonly armed with a carbine. They may make summary arrests, and are held accountable for any dam- age or trespass done within their districts which are not promptly reported by them for investigation and punishment. 419. For every grade of service a uniform is prescribed, to be worn when on duty, and on certain public occasions, as in our army and navy. Greefi, among Foresters, is a favorite color, and an cak- leaf-and-acoru is a common symbol of the profession. A marking- hammer is also a symbol of the Forester, as is the anchor with the sailor, or the pick with the minei-. European Forest Societies, Periodicals and Schools. 107 Forest Societies : Periodical lAterature. 420. Forest societies of various kinds are organized in most coun- tries. These generally meet quarterly or annually for the discussion of subjects of professional interest, and their proceedings are usually published. These annual meetings usually last several days, and excursions are commonly made to places of interest. Besides these associations, composed of proprietors and professional foresters, there are various other associations, some for mutual relief of members, and some for special objects, such as the maintenance of schools of Forestry, the prosecution of experimental researches, the interests concerned in the lumber and timber trade, etc. 421. There are also a great number of periodicals, issued at reg- ular intervals, and wholly or partly devoted to the interests of For- estry. If we include quarterlies and annuals with those issued monthly or oftener, the number would amount to nearly fifty. Many of these are conducted with great ability, and afford substan- tial aid to the interest to which they are devoted. Schools of Forestry. 422. Nearly every government upon the continent in Europe has established one or more Schools of Forestry, for preparing young men for service as. officers of the forest and administration. None can enter this service until they have passed through the studies and practical exercises at these schools. The course gener- ally lasts two to three years, and the students must first finish their studies in the public schools. They are taught mathematics, natural sciences (especially botany and entomology), chemistry, meteorology, physics, sylviculture, drawing, surveying, forest and hunting laws, forest management, etc., and make regular excursions with the pro- fessors, for observation and practice. 423. The following are the principal schools of Forestry in Europe. Those preceded by a star are connected with some univer- sity or other institution : Austria: *Vienna, Eulenburg, Weisswasser, Lemburg, Aggs- bach, Bergenz, *8chemnitz, and *Gratz, and of lower grade in other places. Denmark: *Copenhagen. ■ Finland: Evois. 108 Schools of Forestry : Planting of Dmes. France: Nancy, Barres, and *Paris. (Institut Agronoinique.) Gekmany : Baden, *Carlsruhe ; Bavaria, AschafFenburg, and *Muuich; Hesse-Darmstadt, *Giessen ; Prussia, Eberswalde and MiJnden; Saxe-Weimar, Eisnach; Saxony, Tharand; Wurtemburg, *Tubingen. Italy: Vallombrosa. Norway: At two or three places small elementary schools. Pmiugal: ^Lisbon. Russia: St. Petersburg, *Moscow, Lisino, and *Nova Alexandria (Poland), besides a short course at six farm schools. Spain : Escorial. Sweden: Stockholm, and small schools at seven other places. Switzerland: ^Zurich. Turkey : Constantinople. 424. These schools generally have forest gardens, laboratories, collections in natural history, and especially in Forestry, and special libraries connected with them. In Austria, several of them are supported by Forest Associations, composed of laud proprietors and others interested in Forestry. In many universities and polytechnic institutions. Forestry is incidentally taught as a part of their general course. Planting of Dunes. 425. On certain coasts the sands thrown up by the waves are drifted by the winds into hills, sometimes two hundred feet or more in height and miles in widih, which are consta,ntly changing in form, and gradually advancing inland. These drifting sands, by closing the mouths of streams, generally cause a series of ponds to be formed behind them, which may render the country sickly, as well as the soil worthless from overflow. In various places on the northern and western coast of France, villages and hamlets have been buried by drifting sands, and considerable tracts of fertile land have been thus overwhelmed.' The planting of these "dunes,'' and their control, may be reckoned among the proudest achievements of Forestry. 426. In these exposed places, the plants need shelter in getting started, and the first thing to be done is to compel the winds to build a high and regular embankment for their protection. To se- ^ We have nn example of these disasters at Grand Haven, Michigan, where a raUroad station has been buried by drifting sands. Planting of Dunes. 109 cure this, a line of obstructions is placed along the shore, three or four hundred feet from the water's edge, consisting of bundles of faggots set in diagonal rows near together, or planks three or four feet high, with a space of an inch between. A part of the sand as it glides along will lodge in front of these obstructions, and a part will pass through and settle behind. 427. As they get buried, a new series of bundles of faggots is set, or the planks are drawn up, from time to time, and a huge mound of sand is finally formed, with a gentle slope towards the sea (7° to 12°) and one more abrupt (about 22°) on the land side. These slopes are then sown with beach-grass and other maritime plants, in squares like a chess-board, so that they will spread and cover the whole surface, and behind they sow the seeds of trees. 428. On the southwestern coast of France, the most ample suc- cess has followed from planting the maritime pine (Pinits pinaster) , the seeds being sown with those. of beach-grass, and covered with brush. This work was begun by Brfemontier, an engineer under the auspices of the government, in 1787, and is now practically finished and the whole coast covered with a profitable growth of timber.' 429. In other regions, where this pine will not thrive, various grasses, with tracing roots, Scotch pine, poplars, willows, tamarisk, and other plants are set, as the opportunities present. 430. Upon the coast of Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, the pitch pine (P. rigida) and the beach-grass {Calamagrostis arenaria) are planted on the dunes with great success. Upon the Florida coast, and further north, the. Bermuda grass {Oynodon dactylon) has been used with success, and the maritime pine may succeed there, although it has failed upon the Massachusetts coast. 431. There are occasionally places in the interior where the sands exposed to the winds will thus drift, and the surest way to prevent this is by planting. In this we should begin on the side of the pre- vailing winds, and if the soil is somewhat damp, willow cuttings 'In Octoter, 1881, we rode some twenty miles on horseback among these dunes, in the neighborhood of Arcachon and La Teste. The pines are largely used for the production of turpentine, and are cut out from time to time, as they become large, to make room for a younger growth, but never in bodies together, or so as to expose the sand. Many years ago the govern- ment placed it monument in the midst of the pines that Bremontier planted, to commemorate his great achievement. 110 Methods of Beboisemevt. may provide the best defense. If seeds are sown, it may be neces- sary to cover them with brush, that is fastened down with stakes. Under this cover, the plants may get well rooted ; and if this is se- cured, the success of the work is certain. Reboimment. 432. By- " reboisement," we mean the planting of woodlands where they have been destroyed, and especially where their destruc- tion has caused great injury from torrents by the eroding of mountain sides, and covering the valleys below with stone and gravel. The desolation and sterility thus occasioned is increased by pasturage, especially by sheep and goats, so that regions once highly fertile and densely populated have often become utterly desolate and solitary. 433. In recent years, most European governments have taken measures to stop these ruinous practices, and have with much suc- cess, but at vast expense, secured a gradual return of fertility, and an effectual prevention of future injuries. These measures may be described under two heads : (a.) Barriers for cheeking €ie Torrents. 434. These are made of stone, in the bottoms of the ravines, and convex up-stream, the top being lowest in the middle. They are sometimes made of bundles of willow securely fastened down. They will then often spout and grow, thus by their roots preventing further erosion. (6.) Reboisement of the deivuded Slopes. 435. This is by far the most important, and often the more diffi- cult work to be done, as it tends to prevent the formation of the torrents. The rains that fall upon a wooded, or even a sodded slope, have their force broken, and they quietly filter into the soil, or flovv down with so many obstiuctions that they do no iujurv. But on a bare surface, they begin to wear little channels, which presently enlarge in width and depth, till they become enormous chasms. 436. To secure a wooded or sheltered surface, the soil should be Methods of Beboisement. Ill disturbed as little as possible in sowing or planting, and on a north slope the seed may sometimes be best sown on the snow. 437. Steep banks that will probably slide or crumble down, should 'be rendered more sloping before trees are planted. They are dug away at the top, and the soil slid into the ravine below, or some- times thrown down by blasting. A drain may be secured by first filling in the bottom with trees and brush. 438. To obtain a chance for the roots of trees, the steep naked slopes are dug into horizontal notches or terraces, beginning at the top, and the edges of these are planted with almost any thing that can be made to grow, or at least are secured by fascines and strong stakes. These bands are nearer together where the slo[)e is steeper, and the brush by slow decay helps to fertilize the soil. These ter- races tend to get tilled up in a year or two, and thus afibrd a soil deep enough to hold the trees, and then lines of young trees from nurseries are set along these belts of deep soil. If they get fairly rooted, they will secure the object intended, and will prevent the recurrence of further damages. 439. Paths are made along the banks, to give access to the work, and for future use in the removal of products, but in these situa- tions no tree will ever be taken, unless others are coming on to re- place it. By these costly but necessary methods, about one-fourth part of the work to be done in France in the way of restoration by reboisement, which was begun in 1860, had been accomplished in 16 years, and 63,168 acres had been replanted with trees, at an enormous cost ; but this expense was less than the damages which a single flood might produce, and which wooded slopes on the hills and mountains would have prevented. 440. In many parts of our own country, and especially in the mountainous regions of the interior and upon the Pacific coast, the greatest injury is being done from the clearing and burning off of mountain sides, and we already notice a marked effect upon the climate, aside from the local damages to the surface from this cause.' The same, in less degree, may be seen in every part of the country, wherever there are steep slopes exposed to heavy rains ; and private interests should lead to watchful care, in every case where these efiects are in operation, or are liable to occur. ' See Forestry Report, 1877, p. 334, for a statement of these effects. 112 A European Method of Forest Planting. On the, Management of Forest Plardatwm in Scotiand. 441. A Forester of great experience' has given the following summary of the course usually pursued in the management of wood- lauds in Scotland : ■*' For ordinary planting, the size of plants pre- ferred are one year as seedling and two years transplanted ; but for bare heathery liills, that are much exposed, fir plants one year as seedling and one year transplanted, or two years' seedling are con- sidered best. These are planted by notching. 442. " The most approved mode of planting coniferous trees here is as follows : If the soil and situation are considered likely to pro- duce larch (Larix Europea) to maturity as sound timber, it is gen- erally planted as a pure crop, with a very slight intermixture of silver fir {Abies peetinata) and Scot's fir {Firms sjjlvestris) among the larches. If there is any doubt of the larch being overtaken by disease, then we plant larch and Scot's fir in equal numbers, at four feet apart, regularly intermixing them. 443. " In training them, the plantation may be trained up as a mixed one, or if the larches prove healthy, it 'may be converted wholly into a pure larch, or if otherwise, into a pure Scot's fir plantation. Hence we plant a larger area under Scot's fir, with a considerable mixture of larch, and often on soft moorland a consid- erable number of spruce and silver fir ; but the ground, where re- quiring it, is thoroughly drained first. The trees are put in by slitting. 444. "Oak and all other hard-wood trees are planted at from 12 to 15 feet apart, and the intermediate spaces are filled up generally with larch to four feet apart. A slight intermixture of other conif- erous trees is often introduced, so as to augment the ornamental character of the plantations. The larches and other firs are gradu- ally thinned out as the plantation advances, leaving a few inter- mixed for the ultimate crop. Oak and other hard-wood trees are planted by pitting. 445. " The thinning of fir plantations commences when they have stood about ten years, and is repeated at intervals of 4 to 6 years, ' Mr. Wm. SIcCorquodiile, who for 45 years lias held the office of wood- manager to the Earl of Mansfield. Mr. C. has also, during this period, sur- veyed and r.>ported upon the future management of over 160 other forest estates in Scotland. Scotch Plantations: Ornamental Planting. 113 till the plantation arrives at about 40 to 45 years of age. At each tkiuniug, the trees are left standing about clear of each other. At certain stages of growth, the trees might be thinned out to stand at one-third of their height apart, as, for example, trees of 21 feet might stand 7 feet apart. 446. " We have generally, for the permanent crop, about 200 to 250 trees per acre. After the last course of thinning, the trees are not interfered ■with again until they arrive at maturity. When the crop comes to the age of 60 to 80 years, it is sold in sections, in the growing state, and the ground is again replanted as soon as it is cleared off and properly prepared. 447. " Hard- wood plantations are treated as follows : As soon as the nurses are interfering with the hard-wood trees, their thinning begins, and it is gradually carried on till they are all removed, by the time they arrive at thirty years of age, with the exception of such as are left for ornament, to grow to maturity." 448. An idea of the relative profit of trees of difierent kinds in Scotland, we give the following list of prices of timber per cubic foot, in 1882 : Larch Is. to Is. Id. Oak (standing).... 2s. to 3.s. Scot's fir M. to M. Asli Is. 3rf. to Is. &d. Spruce 4rf. to 6rf. Beech lOii. to Is. Silver fir M.iolQd. Elm U. Zd. io \s. M. In 1876, fifteen acres of Scotch fir timber, 80 years old, near Perth, Scotland, sold for £132 per acre. A handsome revenue had been previously got from the thinnings. CHAPTER XI. ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 449. Although the leading object of this book is to convey utili- tarian ideas upon the subject of tree-planting, and. to indicate the methods and opportunities for doing this with most profit and surest success, it should be borne in mind that these objects are not in the least degree inconsistent with a due appreciation of the beauties of woodland scenery, whether presented in the somber shadows of a dense forest, the cheerful shade of a grove, or in the grandeur or grace of an isolated tree. 8 114 Ornamental Planting. 450. In fact, there is nothing that -will so effectually promote a taste for sylviculture, and a familiarity with the methods of For- estry, as the adornment of homesteads and villages by ornamental planting. The pleasures to be derived from this employment have been described by Addison, in the simplicity and elegance that char- acterize his stj'le, in one of the numbers' of the Spectator: 451 . " There is, indeed, something truly magnificent in this kind of amusement. It gives a nobler air to several parts of nature ; it fills the earth with a variety of beautiful scenes, and has something in it like creation. For this reason, the pleasure of one who plants is something like that of a poet, who, as Aristotle observes, is more delighted with his productions than any other writer or artist what- soever. Plantations have one advantage in them which is not to be found in most other works, as they give a pleasure of a more lasting date, and continually improve in the eye of the planter. When you have finished a building, or any other undertaking of the like nature, it immediately begins to decay on your hands; you see it brought to its utmost point of perfection, and from that time hast^ ening to its ruin. On the contrary, when you have finished your plantations, they are still arriving at greater degrees of perfection, as long as you live, and appear more delightful in each succeeding year than they did in the foregoing." 452. To realize how much the imagery of the poets and of beauty in landscape painting depends upon sylvan scenery and rural asso- ciations, we need but imagine how blank and dreary would poetry and painting be without them. Whatever tends to cultivate and extend this appreciation of the beautiful in nature is in direct ad- vancement of Forestry. In this ihe taste and good sense of one, may become an example for another, as in every phase of life, and in every pursuit of business or of pleasure. Mankind are largely influenced by the example of others, and can often assign no better reason for this imitation than that it is the practice of neighbors. 453. It has sometimes been a custom to plant a tree to commem- orate an event— the birth of a child; the visit of an illustrious guest; the graduation of a college class, and other occasions, which give a lasting interest to the act. It occasionally happens that some historical incident becomes associated with a tree, as the Royal Oak 1 No. 588. Ornamental Planting. 115 that once sheltered Charles the Second ; the Charter Oak at Hart- ford, and the Treaty Tree at Philadelphia, which were monuments while they lasted, and were cherished as relics when they fell. 454. It is a pleasant thing on any commemorative occasion, as the centennial of a town, the dedication of a church, or the founda- tion of an institution, to plant a tree as a living witness of the occasion. It should be of some long-living and large-growing kind, to the end that it may, for a long period bear in remembrance the occasion that gave it a place, and that claims for it a protection. 455. lu considering the subject of ornamental planting, it may be presented under the three following divisions, viz. : (1.) Home-adornment, and the planting of private grounds. (2.) Village-improvement, and the planting of the wayside. (3.) City parks, and the plantation of grounds in rural cemeteries, and around public institutions. (1.) Some-adornment, and the Planting of Private Grounds. 456. In respect to this class of ornament, the author will venture to quote from a paper read by him before the Department of Super- intendence of the National Educational Association, at its meeting held in New York city, in the spring of 1881, as presenting thoughts concerning the motives and their eflect, that may be deemed of in- terest in this connection : 457. " The man who has cleared a farm out of the forest seldom or never plants a tree. He has come, from long custom, to look upon trees as an incumbrance to be removed ; and whenever his home presents a noticeable amount of sylvan shade, it is more likely to be the work of a younger generation, who have no sympathy with his aversion, and a better idea of the comforts of home-life. Americans have been reproached for having but slight attachment to the homes of their childhood ; and this willingness to sell to a stranger the land that a parent has cleared and cultivated, and on which their own early years have been spent, has been ascribed to a certain instability of character, and an uneasy desire for change. There is doubtless a strong affinity between a love of home and of country, and it is true that an attachment to a homestead because of ancestral possessions and family associations, would greatly tend to increase our national prosperity and happiness. It would lead to sub- stantial investments for permanence and future enjoyment, that the 116 Ornamental Planting. transient and speculative owner would never make, and it would tend to the more solid foundation of our public institutions generally. The man who settles temporarily for business, and expects to depart when he becomes rich, spends no money upon public libraries, and cares noth- ing for the charitable and educational establishments of the place, pro- vided they do not burden him while he remains. His influence will generally be adverse, if these objects require expenses that bring no return during his stay, and he wUl prefer temporary expedients to per- manent investments, if they but serve to bridge over the time of his sojourn. The solid and substantial foundation of our institutions is laid by those having a permanent interest in the prosperity of the places where tliey are located. It is this class alone that erects monuments, and that leaves evidence that its members have lived for the welfare of those who are to come after them. It is a point worthy of inquiry, as to whether much of this indifference to the home of childhood and to the possessions of ancestors with which Americans have been charged, is not due to their bleak aud cheer- less surroundings. We can not doubt that the influence of a pleas- ant rural homestead and the choice memories of refined associations in early youth, are as capable of making as strong an impression upon our native population as in any country whatever, and although in the absence of laws of entail, and under the impulse of adventure, or motives of interest, or the force of circumstances, a change of ownership may often happen, and the choice and cherished homestead become the property of a stranger, still the chances become less as the attractions are greater, and a motive worthy of earnest and hon- orable effort is presented, in favor of mainteuance in the family line." 458. In the choice of a site for farm buildings, while there is an obvious convenience in having them near a highway, there are ad- vantages to be considered in placing them more or less in the interior, where a spring of water or perennial stream may offer conveniences tliat money could not carry to a roadside residence, and a gentle swell of land a site for building that a prince might envy. The saving of labor and team-work, in cultivating such a centralized farm, should not be overlooked. 459. A neatly painted gateway should distinguish the main entrance from others opening upon the highway, and if the farm be of size to warrant the steady employment of a laborer with his Ornmnental Planting. 117 family, English taste would place his cottage by the gate. A mass of shrubbery upon each side of the entrance gives a pleasing effect. 460. A good road, bordered by an avenue of trees, should lead by gentle curves, as the surface required, to the premises of the owner. There may be a fence or not, as there is occasion, but a well kept hedge is better. One advantage of the trees would be to afford a guide by night, as well as shade by day. They should be set at measured intervals, and all of one kind. Such an avenue, when fully grown, gives a stately effect, and an air of stability and opulence far surpassing that of an irregular one, as if from trees reserved in a clearing ; and it may be had at no considerable cost. If an intervening grove hides the dwelling until near approach, and then presents it in full view, the effect is increased. 461. Large trees in tjie back-ground, and those of smaller size and of less common kinds, in the foreground, produce the finest effect. It is there that the species most ornamental from their blos- soms, their fruit, or their bright-colored ornamental foliage, may be used with greatest advantage. There should be a studied effort to imitate nature in the groupings of trees and shrubbery, and t^iscan not be done by placing them in rows or in symmetrical ordef^'but in clumps, with openings here and there, and with a studied avoidance of the formal in their arrangement. 462. With such approaches and surroundings, which do not re- quire a large investment, a dwelling of itself not large or expensive, may display an air of comfort, and even of opulence, which a more costly mansion by the roadside, unadorned by trees and shrubbery, could never be made to present. It gives to the observer the im- pression that its owner has not only means but taste, and is a strong indication of domestic happiness within. 463. The opportunities of a brook for supplying a fountain, or feeding a fish-pond, may often occur, and the observing owner may secure these ornaments at a moderate expense. His fountain '■ will not need costly castings or masonry — the jets may issue from piles of rustic rock-work, and his ponds may be bordered with a line of rude stones, half concealed by ferns and wild flowers, and the bottom covered with clean white sand. 464. But in case the buildings are already near the highway, and there be no desire to change them, there are still opportunities for rural adornment, to ample extent. The roadside may be bordered 118 Ornamental Planting. with lines of trees as we approach from either way; screens of ever- green may be planted on the cold side or the warm side, as there may be need of shelter from the cold, or heat, or to conceal objects not pleasing to the eye, and groups of shrubbery may be planted in clumps, or in masses, as may be found most pleasing and natural. There should, upon large grounds, be a suitable variety, but if the space be small, it is not wise to attempt too much. A single phase of beauty, of whatever type the circumstances most favor, is sure to be pleasing ; where, if too many objects be to closely crowded the effect is confused and lost. 465. Large and dense evergreens in the foreground would be very likely to produce a gloomy and somber impression ; they will be found to show to best advantage, rising in the back-ground, behind and among the deciduous kinds. 466. Trees should not be planted too near a dwelling. Their shade and humidity are unfavorable to health, if in excess, and they tend to cause damp, moldy walls. They hinder ventilation and the- access of air and light, so conducive to health, and some- times breed insects that prove a nuisance. Their roots will find their way into the walls ; and trees planted near a building become one-sided and deformed, from their unequal exposure to the light. 467. There is always something to conceal. An old stump, or broken and dead tree, may possibly be still made beautiful with the Virginia creeper or the ivy. Barns and out-buildings may be partly hidden, or entirely screened from notice by trees, and a barn- yard may be made comfortable for stock, both in winter and sum- mer, by dense shelter-belts. A useless pile of bowlders, or a rock, may be covered with ferns and myrtle, by giving their roots a hold in the soiL A brook, a marshy spot, or a pond, may be made orna- mental, by drooping willows, or clumps of alders, and by a variety of aquatic shrubs and plants. 468. It is in good taste to separate the kitchen garden by a hedge, from the lawn plantations, and it is generally profitable to surround the orchard with a shelter belt, or an evergreen screen. Clumps of thrifty evergreens, here and there in an orchard, are of great ad- vantage. 469. The Lombardy poplar forms an admirable wind-break ; but in ornamental planting it shows to best advantage when it rises from behind, or among trees with rounded tops — not at measured Ornamental Planting. 119 intervak, but here and there. The same may be said of the ever- greens having a pyramidal growth, unless they are purposely in- tended as a screen or wind-break. The eye will tolerate a symmetry of arrangement where there is an obvious object, while symmetry without a motive may fail to please. 470. In planting poplars and wiUows, we should remember that their roots have a great liking for drains and wells, and will some- times fill them if too near. They may cause leaks in aqueducts of masonry, and the roots of these and other trees may heave foun- dations and displace stone walls, if planted close by them, in a deep mellow soil. These qualities become of the greatest value in con- solidating the soil of eroding streams, and upon embankments, the borders of irrigating ditches, and upon sands, where moisture can be reached by the roots. They should be used in ornamental plant- ing, where they can be placed to best advantage, but should gener- ally have a secondary place. 471. In the immense range of opportunity which our country presents, there is an infinite variety of conditions, and in the vast number of our native species, and of exotic kinds that prove suit- able for cultivation, no general rules could be followed in homestead planting. If the general idea of studying the pleasing effects in natural grouping be observed, and proper judgment is used in the selection of kinds suited to the soil and exposure, the result will be satisfactory. 472. It may be added that such a homestead is worth more money than one wholly unadorned. This is indeed a low motive, as com- pared with the more refined and honorable aims of life ; but if we can secure the enjoyment that these improvements afford, and at the same time enhance the value of the estate, let us by no means miss the opportunity. (2.) Village-improvement, and the Planting of Way-sides. 473. Nothing gives a more inviting appearance to a village street, or a country road, than well kept avenues of trees. To secure the best effect, attention should be paid to the following rules : (a.) In a village or city, the planting and care should be under one direction, although the expense may be chargeable to the prop- erty adjacent. This may be some oflBcer designated by law, or a 120 Ornamental Plantbuj. committee of citizens whose authority is recognized by general con- sent. (6.) Upon a given street, the trees should be all of one kind. The diflferent streets may be planted with different kinds, and a pleasing diversity thus secured. (c.) The lines of trees should not be less than six feet, and in wide streets not less than eight or ten feet from the outer line. In very wide and quiet streets, not thoroughfares, a charming effect is secured, by having a line of trees in the middle, with carriage-ways on each side, and at proper crossings. (d.) The trees should be protected by proper guards while young, and generally by a railing on the side towards the middle of the road when they have grown to a large size. (e.) They should be protected by Avell-enforced ordinances, and by public sentiment, from being used as hitching-posts for horses. To prevent the necessity, such posts should be provided, far enough away to be free from danger to the trees ; it may still be within their shade. (/.) For immediate effect, as well as ultimate advantage to the plantation, the trees first set may be at half the distance apart that is intended for the full-grown trees ; and the alternate ones may be of some quickly growing kind, that should be taken out as they crowd the more valuable kinds which are to remain. These tem- porary trees will tend to render the growth of those between them higher, and will leave less trimming necessary afterwards. The cottonwoods, sofl-maples, poplars, and willows afford convenient trees for such uses. ig.) Care should be taken that the soil be kept mellow around the roots, and that they be watered while young in times of great drouth. 474. In streets much traveled, a grating placed in tlie pavement, and extending a yard or so on every side, would be useful. In Eu- rope, iron gratings of ornamental design are placed around the trees, but not in contact with them. They are on a level with the pavement, and so placed as not to obstruct travel. Througli these gratings the air circulates freely, and the roots are fully exposed to the rains. They may be watered and fertilized in case of need, and the soil mellowed by spading from time to time. We here present the sketch of a grating suitable for such a purpose. It may be made Ornamental Planting. 121 ■■■^li^^ *■■■■ GS. Screen for placing over Hoots of Trees in Pavements . highly ornamental, and a monogram, a trade-mark, a sign, or any other device may be introduced, that fancy might suggest. In front of premises owned by a city or a state, the crest of the official arms ■would be very proper. The part ■with radiating bars, in this sketch, might be of several sizes, to be changed as the tree became large, and the grating might be sup- ported by -^vrought-iron bars, as represented by dotted lines. The inner disc should be cast in two sections, and the outer one in two or more. In our figure we have shown three divisions. They should be securely fastened down, and would be very durable. They might be circular, oval, or in any other form, and being flush ■with the pavements, they ■would not in the least interfere with their use. The edge nearest the tree should have a flange turned up, so as to prevent injury to the bark by sliding objects. 475. With respect to the kinds of trees most suitable for streets and roadsides, it is impossible to give a rule. There are some, like the horse chestnut, the catalpas, and the conifers generally, that ap- pear to better advantage alone or iu groups, upon a lawn or in a park, while others, like the elms, box-elder, maples, locusts, poplars, lindens, and many of the oaks show to fine advantage in avenues. 476. In Germany, ■we see many miles of continuous lines of ap- ple trees by the roadside, and in the absence of fences marking their direction for great distances across the country. In France, it is common to find the Lombardy poplar thus planted ; and in Italy, the mulberry and the olive, often supporting festoons of grape- vines, and in their season loaded with fruit. 477. In planting the roadsides in a prairie, a rod or so of land should be thoroughly broken up and cultivated along the line, before the trees are set, and some hoed crop may be cultivated to advantage between- and around them till they get -well set. 478. In planting screens of evergreen to prevent snowdrifts in exposed places, the trees should be set in several oblique rows, as in the quincunx order [§ 181], and should be protected, if need be, by a fence, until able to protect themselves. 122 Ornamental Planting. 479. In planting avenues of trees, it is best to have the holes all dug before the youug trees are brought upon the ground. The lioles should be deeper than the tree is to set, and wide enough to allow the roots to be well spread. Some fresh soft, mellow, and fer- tile soil should be thrown upon the bottom, before the trees are placed, so as to bring up the tree nearly to the level at which it formerly stood. 480. Observations have been made to ascertain whether a tree does better when set in the same position with respect to points of compass that it stood in before planting, the conclusion being that there was no perceptible difference. 481. After spreading the roots, sprinkle over them first the richer soil from the surface, so that it shall settle closely in among them, leaving no void places. Then fill in the holes, putting the soil from the deepest part on top. In prairie planting, and especially in dry regions, there is no danger in pressing down the soil firmly over the roots. In a strong clay soil, this practice would be injurious. 482. The young fibers of the roots require moisture at once. In a moderately damp soil, they can find it, but in a dry soil they should be well wet as soon as planted, and in a dry season after- wards until the plants are well rooted. 483. The most effectual security against injury from drouth is in mulching ; and for this, decayed chips, hay, grass, straw, or dead leaves may be used. This practice will sometimes double the growth in a single year, and save the life of a young tree in dry seasons. 484. Before leaving the subject of planting in villages, we should not omit to notice the advantages to be derived from Village Improve- ment Associations, in the cultivation of a taste for rural ornament, and the development of town pride and public spirit. In many villages in New England and elsewhere, such associations have been formed, and from the concert of action and unity of purpose that they secure, they have done much to adorn and beautify their locali- ties, thus rendering them more agreeable to their citizens and more inviting to the transient visitor, and to those who may be seeking a pleasant rural residence. 485. To give these associations permanence and regularity, they should have the form of a regular Society, v.'ith a Constitution, By- laws, and rules of membership, and their object may extend beyond Ornamental Planting. 123 the simple ornamenting of streets by planting and paring, to their grading and drainage, the maintenance of grass plats and flower- beds upon public squares, the providing of fountains and drinking troughs, the clearing off of snows in winter, lighting of streets at night, and other subjects of like character. 486. Extending beyond the material, they may wisely include the intellectual welfare of their localities, by the formation and maintenance of a public library and reading-room, courses of public lectures, local museums, and, in short, whatever tends to elevate and refine the taste, or to promote the enjoyment of the citizens by uniting them in common interests, wherein each one contributes his share, and from which he derives pleasure. 487. An attractive plantation of streets and squares in one village, becomes an object for imitation in another, and by friendly emula- tion, each may tend to stimulate the efforts of the other in securing a beautiful effect. 488. Where the children in the public schools, and students in academies can be interested in these improvements, the impressions formed may be permanent, and will find application in after life in diffusing a correct taste for rural adornment in places far remote, while the memory will travel back to these scenes of quiet beauty, and rest with satisfaction upon the incidents that they recall.' (3.) City Paries, and the Plantation of grounds in Rural Cemeteries, and around Public Institutions. 489. It is only in recent years that the advantages of providing places of public resort, under official management, in the neighbor- hood of our cities and large towns have been recognized, or the op- 'The form of a chartev of a " Village Improvement Association," by George E. Waring, Jr., is given in Scribner's monthly for May, 1877, and the subject is farther noticed in our Pcrestry Report for 1877, page 217. The Hon. B. G. Northnip, Mr. N. H. Egleston and others, have done much to promote these objects, and their writings may be consulted with great advantage. The city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, is sometimes called the "Druid City," from the oaks planted some forty-five years ago, at the instance of JUr. Thomas Maxwell. The city of Cleveland is called the "Forest City," through the plantation? induced by the late Leonard Case, and other property owners. New Haven is called the '■ City of Elms," and well deserves its name. 124 Ornamental Planting. portunities afforded by wild and rocky suburb, or of waste and vacant grounds for rural adornment, have been improved. In other cases there are still barren wastes, river banks, shores, islands and points of land, within or near a city, and sometimes belonging to the cor- poration, that have not yet been noticed, where, at a moderate ex- pense, there might be secured a little paradise of beauty, and an inviting place of resort. 490. In laying out city parks, the leading idea should be to make them easily accessible, and as widely useful as possible. 491. They need not, therefore, embrace awde areas, unless there be convenient bodies of land available, but they should be as long as may be. They may sometimes consist of separate pieces connected by broad, well-planted boulevards or avenues. It is an excellent plan, where the space is ample, to lay out the boundary-street, at one or two hundred feet distance, within the actual line of owner- ship, at the beginning, and to sell or lease this strip of land outside, upon condition that dwellings shall be built and maintained upon plans prescribed or approved by the commissioner in charge, and that their future use for purposes injurious to the general objects of the park be forbidden in their title deeds or leases. 492. In some instances, vacant grounds near cities have been highly improved with plantations, fountains, lakes, and other objects of rural interest, upon private account ; and the adjacent and inter- vening lands sold upon conditions tending to maintenance and to great profit upon the investment. Where persons of congenial tastes, and united by a common sympathy in social, educational, religious, or other matters, can estalslish suburban colonies of this kind near our large cities, they may multiply the enjoyments of life indefinitely, and by carefully arranging a plan of organization in the beginning, they may secure the maintenance of their object, by the exclusion of any thing that might interfere with its operation. Even as a simple speculation, such enterprises have an admirable effect, and in some instances present an inviting field for investment. 493. The traveler in Europe will often find the line of fortifications of a former period now converted, or in process of transformation, into a line of gardens and pleasure-grounds, the moat affording ready-made a meandering lake, and the slopes and ramparts still left presenting that diversity of surface most desirable for ornamental plantation. Upon certain of these points admirable sites are found Ornamental Planting. 125 • for the erection of statues and monuments where they will appear to best advantage. The cities of Copenhagen and of Leipzig may be mentioned as examples, ■while the " Eing-Bahn" of Vienna, one of the finest streets of Europe, owes its beauty to the line of pub- lic and private buildings which have been built upon the line of its former defenses. 494. It occasionally happens that certain points in these meander- ing gardens have a local history of thrilling interest, as being places of successful attack, or of heroic defense, or as the point where the fate of a battle was decided, or the fortunes of a commander made or lost. 495. In a city park, a native woodland can often be improved to great advantage, and artificial plantations are most successful where they truly represent the features of a native forest. In the plant- ing of trees in parks, with the exception of avenues of approach or connection, there should be a studied diversity in location, and a great variety in the species. 496. There should also be — what is not often seen — at least some portion specially planted as an arboretum, embracing in groups, by natural families, as great a number of species of each genius as can be made to grow, each being labeled with its sdentifie and common name. 497. In planting small parks upon college grounds, or in the midst of great thoroughfares, we must remember that persons upon bus;- ness always hasten to their object in direct lines. They are impatient at curves and winding ways, and will strike straight across a plat of ground or a corner, unless absolutely prevented by a barrier. 498. It is therefore unwise to contend against this fact, in the arrangement of walks in such places, and it is better to lay out a few straight paths in the lines of most travel, at the sacrifice of what might be thought a principle in taste, or a rule in landscape garden- ing. Such walks may still be made a'ttractive by flowers and shrubbery along their borders, and comfortable by the shade of trees. 499. If the space allows, there should generally be provided in these small parks such winding paths as the surface and the circum- stances favor. They will be used only in moments of leisure, and by persons seeking quiet and rest. 500. If there be summer-houses, grottoes, fountains, monuments, 126 Ornamental Planting. or objects of historical interest, that attract attention, or invite to repose, they should be placed near these winding and less frequented paths, rather than along the great thoroughfares of a park, and along these chiefly should seats be placed. 501. It is the custom, however, in Europe, to place monuments or other structures intended to inspire patriotic sentiment, or remind the passer-by of a religious duty, in the most conspicuous parts of pub- lic grounds, and often in the midst of the most frequented thorough- fares. The little areas formed by intersecting city avenues present the best opportunities for costly monuments and fountains, as they may be seen to a distance from several directions. If possible they should be inclosed, with a grass-plat or beds of flowers around them, but no shrubbery or trees that would conceal any part. 502. In squares reserved for military parade, the area must nec- essarily be left open, and planting can be done only around the borders. There may often be laid out an avenue for promenade, shaded by a single or double row of trees, and at the entrance there should be beds of flowers or colored-leaved plants, as the opportuni- ties offer. 503. Upon the grounds belonging to universities, colleges, and academies, we insist upon the labeling of trees, as above mentioned, as one of the most important features of education, by familiarizing the student and the visitor with these names, and of enabling them to form true ideas concerning the resemblances and diflPerences in the form, foliage, and other characteristics of forest trees. 504. The best labels are tablets of porcelain, or of while earthen- ware, with the names in black enameled lettering. The cheapest are strips or plates of zinc, with the writing in a corrosive ink, that leaves indelible black lines. Neither of these will suffer from the weather, and both will last for an almost indefinite time. 505. In rural cemeteries, there is great opportunity for effect in the plantation of avenues of approach, and of masses of shrubbery and flowers around the entrance, and in the circles and plats formed by intersecting avenues. There should be, if possible, a belt of woodland, or its equivalent in a screen, that shall isolate it as far as convenient from the busy world, and impart that aspect of separa- tion and quiet, consistent with the general object of the place. 506. Custom has given to the "funereal cypress," and to other evergreens, a prominence in cemeteries, and there is a certain fitness Ornamental Planting : Hedges and Screens. 127 in their use ; but they should not exclude the proper introduction of the deciduous kinds. In this we should, above all, avoid the planting of those that have tracing roots, as they ai-e continually liable to send up shoots, and, if neglected, to overrun the premises, or at best occasion constant care in their suppression. 507. The planting and removal of trees iu a cemetery should be wholly under the control of a superintendent or a board, and by this means alone can harmony of arrangement and an agreeable effect be secured. 508. Upon the grounds of public institutions generally, and in all forms of ornamental planting, there is an additional interest se- cured by the use of exotic and unusual species, provided always that they prove hardy and reliable. In this, the forest flora of Eastern Asia and Japan, from its general resemblance, yet specific differences, and the forests of the Himalaya region, have furnished many species that deserve to be widely planted, and more generally known. "It is "not improbable that by this wider diffusion, some species will be noticed that show an unexpected vigor and success in growth that may entitle them to notice for planting as timber trees. 609. The English elm (JJlmus campedris) appears to be a better tree for cities and smoky villages than our native elms. It will grow on dryer ground and endure a greater degree of drouth. CHAPTER Xn. HEDGES, SCREENS, AND SHELTEE-BELTS. Hedges and Screens. 510. A hedge is a living fence, generally planted with some thorny tree or shrub, and strong enough to prevent the passing of domestic animals. A screen is more frequently a closely planted wall of ver- dure, generally of some evergreen tree, intended to conceal some unsightly object, or to afford shelter from the winds and protection to gardens, nurseries, orchards, stock-yards, or buildings. They may both be classed among ornamental plantations, and either of them may perform the offices of both. 511. In no line of planting will there be found so great a variety of opinions with regard to the kinds that should be planted, and as 128 H(-* o o Pj p" c ^ o . o ™ ^1 o & o ga o o n o S.3 o o B o B h. m 772 3430 25 74 547 28 78 838 31 6.40 697 3115 25 00 .445 23 41 779 a? 6.40 0.724 .S236 19.62 .618 27 20 635 23 6. 697 3115 19.40 .428 22.52 604 27 6. 630 2309 19.00 .364 19.15 450 24 6. 0.067 2534 20.79 .237 12 47 6"7 42 6. 565 2525 24.72 .238 12.52 624 60 6.40 0.522 2333 25.29 .379 19.94 690 30 6.40 0.597 2608 21.70 .411 21.63 579 27 6.10 0.S15 3643 21.00 .650 28.94 765 26 6.10 .180 2592 24. 8d .357 18.79 644 34 6 40 703 3142 22 16 .400 21 05 696 38 6 20 634 2834 19.69 .418 21.73 658 26 6. 1.00(1 4469 26.29 .625 32.89 1172 36 6.40 949 4241 25.22 .637 33.52 1070 32 6.40 829 3705 22 9P 509 26.78 848 32 6.30 0.784 3505 21.40 .368 19.36 750 ■ 39 6.10 602 2691 22.77 .374 19 68 613 31 6 20 720 3218 19.00 .456 23 94 611 25 6 663 2963 24 02 .467 24 05 712 30 6 40 644 2S78 21.43 .431 22.68 617 27 6 10 597 2668 20.64 .370 .19.47 551 28 6. 605 2704 21.59 .406 21 36 684 27 6.10 885 3655 22 70 .481 25.31 900 36 6.80 OSo.'i 3821 21.62 .401 21 10 820 39 6 20 776 3464 21.50 .437 22 99 745 32 6 20 747 3339 23.17 .392 20 63 774 38 6.30 747 3339 22 22 .436 22 94 742 32 6 20 0.728 32r,4 23.80 .387 20 36 774 38 6 30 0.728 32.54 22 43 .411(1 21 05 630 30 6 20 694 8102 22.37 .447 23.52 094 29 6 20 678 3030 20. 86 .436 22 94 632 28 6. 0.653 2919 21 60 .294 15.62 631 41 6 10 548 2449 22.95 .362 19.06 562 80 6 20 0.711 8178 23.44 .469 24 68 745 80 6 30 0.551 2463 23.75 .333 17.52 585 33 6.30 0.478 2137 24.88 .385 20 26 532 26 6 40 426 1904 26 76 .298 15 68 610 33 6 40 0.418 1868 24 35 .293 15 42 466 80 4 40 0.663 2516 21.81 .3X3 21 15 649 27 6.10 0.397 1776 25 00 .245 12 89 444 34 6 40 618 2762 22 58 427 22 47 627 28 6 20 0.887 3964 22 62 .694 31 26 897 29 6 20 0.585 2391 23.60 .374 19 68 564 29 6 30 0.681 3044 22 56 .418 22.00 6S7 SI 6.20 0.752 3361 23.30 .506 26.57 783 29 6.30 • mm K< r+1 (D 2* 77 70 65 63 48 51 56 62 55 75 67 57 100 95 81 72 57 65 66 60 54 56 86 81 74 73 71 71 69 66 61 60 52 69 54 48 43 42 52 40 59 84 52 65 73 Marcus Bull's Table — Charcoal. 147 Botanical Names of the foregoing kinds of Trees and Shrubs. 1. Fraxinus Americana. 16. Carya . 33. Quercus prinoa acumin- 2. F-yrus malus. 17. HanKumelis virginica. ata. 3. Fagus aylvaiiea. 18. Ilex opaea. 34. Quercus falcata. 4. Betuhi Irnta. 19. Carpiniie Americana. Katmia lalifolla. 35. DLoapyros Virginiana. 6. Betula alba, rar. popuH- 20. 36. Pinus milia. folia. 21. Acer aaccharinum. 37. Pinus inops. 6. Juglans cinerea. •22. Acer rvbrum. 38. Pinus rigida. 7. Jiiniperus Virginiana. 23 Magnolia granrjiflora. 39. Pinua strobua. 8. Castanea vesca, vaT. Amer- 24. Quercus prinun palvstris. 40. Liriodendron tulipifera. icana. 25. Quercus alba. 41. Populus dilatata. 9. CerasuB Virpiniajia. 26. Quercus obtusiloba. Quercus Catesbaei. 42. Sassafras offlemali: 10. Comus Florida. 27. 43. AmeUmchier Canadensis. U. VlmuB Americana. 28. Quercus pnlustriB. Quercus BanisterH. 44. Acer pseudo-platanus. 12. Nijssa mitUifiora. 29. 4.>. Juglans nigra. 13. Liquuiambtr etyracifiua. 30. Qtiercus rubra. 46. Yacdnium corymboaum. 14. Carya alba. 31. Quercus ferruginen. 1.5. Carya porcina. 32. Quercus yrinos monticola. 589. Charcoal is a slow conductor of heat and a non-conductor of electricity. When exposed lo the most intense heat, without ac- cess of air, it remains unchanged, but it burns freely without flame or smoke in the open air, leaving a.s ashes a part of the mineral constituents of the wood from which it was made. 590. It absorbs and holds moisture with great readiness, and is an active absorbent of gases. It will take up many times its bulk, .but this amount is much greater with some gases than others." It is for this reason a most valuable disinfectant, and a material for filters. 591. The chief use, however, of charcoal is as a fuel in smelting ores, and in forges, furnaces, and other metallurgical operations, and for these uses immense quantities of wood are annually re- quired. 592. The wood for charcoal should be cut only in winter, and it is generally piled for partial seasoning till the next autumn. It is found, as is shown elsewhere under the head of " seasoning," that wood acquires its greatest dryness in about eighteen months, but practically a single summer's drying is found sufiicient. 593. There are several modes of charring wood in use, but by far the most common one is that in " meilers" or " coal-pits." Fur "DeSaussure found that boxwood charcoal would absorb 90 times its bulk of ammonia, 55 times of sulphuretted hydrogen, 35 times of carbonic acid gas, 9i times of oxygen, 7J times of nitrogen, and If times of hydro- gen. The absorbing power is greatest when the wood has been charred at a low temperature in a damp atmosphere, and with a high barometric pressure of the air. The absorption of gases is attended with an increase of tem- perature. 148 Preparation of Charcoal. these, a place should be selected where the ground is dry, and a little descending from the central part ; the rubbish should be care- fully cleared away, the soil beaten down hard, and the greatest precaution taken against the escape of fire. In Europe, the law generally requires that a trench should be dug around the coaling- ground, and that a sufficient supply of water shall be near. The place should be well sheltered from the winds, and the soil should be compact, and not so porous that air can enter through it from below. 594. Three stakes are first set in a triangular form, and around these the wood is piled as closely as possible, and generally as cut in lengths of 3 to 4 feet. It is either laid horizontally or vertically, as shown in the accompanying cut, taken from Karsten's Atlas. The 77. Vertical Section through the Centers of two Different Kinds of Meilers. more common way is to set the wood endwise, sloping towards the center, and there is usually a second course, with the top filled out and made convex by wood pDed flatwise. 595. The whole is then covered with straw, dead leaves, or sod, and over this with earth, and the fire is dropped in at the top. Around the bottom holes are left for the admission of air ; or some- times a passage is left on one side for introducing the fire. It is best to kindle early in the morning, and in fine weather, because i t requires much attention at first to get the ignition begun. When this is fairly established, the top is closed with sod. 596. At first, a great deal of steam is generated, which condenses on the inner surface of the cover, and especially around the base, which is left open ; and explosions may occur from the admission of air to the inflammable gases within, especially with dry resinous woods. Preparation of Charcoal. 149 597. When the sweating stage is over, the openings around the base should be partly closed, but some vent-holes must be left for the escape of gases. If hollow places form, the cover must be re- moved, and their place hastily filled in with wood. The process must be watched day and night until it is completed, which is known by the color of the smoke. The time required for cooling is gener- ally about three weeks. The meiler is then packed as closely as possible, to exclude the air, and when cool enough the coals are drawn out. 598. It is stated from experience that it is best not to wait until the fire is wholly extinguished, but to quench with water such sparks or burning places as are found. 599. Sometimes a meiler is made higher and narrower than in the preceding figures, and in every form it is convenient to have plat- forms around the sides, at one or two levels, so as to be able to reach conveniently every part. In the annexed figure, a, h, represents the central opening for applying the fire, e, ;c^^| d, a bank, of earth, >^^^ifH%^SS with a step at e. An ><''^^Miiiiii^^^ upper step, g, is sup- y^^^^RfliPi™^^ ported by braces on ^^>^^^»J'«| various sides, as at/, ^?*-— 4!-«^ ' "- i; and near the top the ^^ gecUoi. of a Meilei-, or Coal-plt, prepared for Firing, cover is laid open un- as Practiced in Bavaria. til the whole part is well ignited, and the steam has principally passed ofi". 600. It is sometimes preferred to burn charcoal in kilns. They are generally made of brick, and the following sizes, among others, are in use : Length. Width. Height. Capacity (Cords.) „ , ^ (50 leet. 12 feet. 12 feet. 55 feet. Used in New England j 40 .■ 35 " 15 " 70 " Tvpe of those used in Mexico 40 ■' 19 " IS |' 75 '| A"kind used in Michigan 48 17 18 mu It requires from 35 to 40 M. of brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. These rectangular kilns are arched at the top, and supported externally by a wooden framework, and iron tie rods. They have an iron door (d) capable of being made air-tight, and near the top a smaller door (e) for filing the upper .S^"::.!: 150 Preparation of Charcoal. part. AJong the sides are air-holes (a, h, c,) that may be closed at will. Fig.l. SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION 79. CAarcoaiiTiins.— Side elevation, with air-holes, a, 6, c. End elevation, with air-holes, a, b, r., an iron door, rf, for filling with Avood and withdrawiiis coal, and .'^mall door, e. for completing the filling. Cross-section, with air-holes, doors, etc., as in end elevation. The figures on dotted lines are feet and inches. 601. Other kilns are cylindrical, with a low arch for a cover, but the principle of their operation does not essentially differ from that above represented. They all have openings for admitting air around the base, and for the escape of gases from above, all of which may be closed at will. 602. In another method, the kilns are of brick or stone made round and somewhat conical like a hay-stack, with openings on the side for filling and emptying, and air-holes for regulating the burning. They are of various capacities, but generally hold from 40 to 60 cords of wood. They are best built upon sloping ground, with doors on the upper side for filling, and at the bottom for removing the coal, and in both rectangular and conical kilns there is a further ad- Preparation of Charcoal. 151 vantage from having several near together, that they may be watched and' attended at less expense. 603. In kilns of every form it will be found that the acid vapors of the smoke tend to act upon the lime in the mortar, and to corrode the iron-work exposed to its action, requiring attention, in order to prevent failure or accident from this cause. It is this action of smoke upon the mortar in chimneys that sometimes renders them unsafe when they become old. 604. Charcoal made at low temperatures contains relatively more carbon and other gaseous elements than at a high degree of heat. The quantity also depends on the temperature, and the duration of the process. The weight and~ excellence is generally in proportion to the dry weight of the wood from which it is made, and it is more easily kindled, if made at a low heat. 605. The average yield in weight and volume varies, as wiU be seen by the following table : Percentage of Charcoal made in Standing Metiers, as shmim by European Experim£nts.^ Kinds of Wood. Birch body-wood Beeeh and oak body-wood . Beech round-wood.. I'ine body-wood Pine rouud-wood Pine stuinp-wood Spruce body-wood Spruce round-wood Larch body-wood Larch round-wood Silver fir body-wood Silver fir round-wood Alder body-wood Alder round-wood Alder branches In Kilns or "Standing Meilers." In Weight. In Volume 20-21 2:}-27 18-20 24r-28 20-24 21-25 22-25 18 24 20-28 20 65-68 52-54 56-62 60-70 42-50 50-65 00-64 57 75 60-65 50 In Temporary Meilers. In Weight. In Volume . 18 53 19 47 19 58 18 53 20 52 16 42 22 60 18 55 19 52 20 25 18 50 54 37 606. In laying-meilers, the average per cent of the coniferous woods is about 23 by weight, and 60 by volume — and for beech woods 22 per cent of weight, and 50 by volume. ^From Fromme's Austrian Forest Calendar, 1882, p. 255, upon various authorities tliere cited. 152 Preparation of Charcoal. 607. By the Dromart Process a kiln is constructed of cast-iron plates that form the floor and sides, and may be set up and taken down from time to time as it becomes desirable to change the site. Beneath the iron floor there are flues leading to equi-distant points in the bottom, and a fire is kindled externally for supplying in part the heat required by the process. There are air-holes around the side and a chimney at the top, all of which may be opened or closed at will. The wood is set up endwise, and fills the entire space. In this, as in all other kilns, the volatile products may be saved. 608. The Moreau Process proposes to secure carbonization in sheet- iron receivers of cylindrical or prismatic form, and capable of hold- ing a cord or two each. They are filled at the top through an open- ing that may be closely sealed, and the air is admitted through perforated tubes from below. These receivers are so arranged that several may be attended by the same men simultaneously, some being filled or emptied while the others are at work. They have no bottom, and are speedily emptied by being turned over on their side. It is claimed that they afford 41 to 43 per cent in volume, and 30 in weight. 609. Charcoal is an ingredient in gunpowder, and the best is made from the alder buckthorn {Rhamnvs frangvla) , although the common alder, willow, soft maple, hornbeam, basswood, and poplar are used. It is best prepared in iron retorts, in which the heat is applied externally, and the wood should be peeled, to avoid acci- dents from the ignition by sparks from sand in the bark in manu- feeture. 610. The percentage of ash in woods, as a rule, decreases as well in the bark as the wood, from below upwards, being more in the branches than in the trunk, and most in the twigs and leaves. In coniferous trees, the alkalies, magnesia, phosphoric acid, and sul- phuric acid in various combinations, occur most in the needles, and lime, iron, and manganese in the bark, and small branches. 611. By far the most ashes are contained in the cambium and bark bundles, and more in the sap-wood generally than in the heart- wood. As the cellular system ceases to be active, it appears to give up its alkali and phosphoric acid to the use of the younger forma- tions, and thus in the life-process the same atoms may be used over and again in the same tree. 612. It follows, from this, that the tree when young requires rela- tively more food than when old, and that nurseries exhaust the soil Hed Charcoal — Distilled Products of Wood. 153 more rapidly in proportion than a forest of large trees. The process of assimilation may be compared to that observed in animal life, where the structures are formed in early life. Red Charcoal. 613. About 1836, a method was introduced in France for semi- carbonizing wood, by placing it in chambers at the mouths of fur- naces, and exposing it to a heat by which the water and acetic acid are expelled, and the combustible gases left. This product, some- times called " terrified wood," is used in melting pig-iron for cast- ing and other purposes. It ignites freely, does not impair by keep- ing, and bums with a copious flame and intense heat. It is said for certain purposes to afford 30 per cent more of heat than fully- burned charcoal. The process being stopped just at the point where carbonization begins, the wood retains its texture and ap- pearance ; it may be split, cut, or sawed, but has lost its strength, and is of a reddish brown color. Distilled Products of Wood. 614. In all forms of kilns the volatile products may be condensed and saved. The smoke is drawn from the kilns and condensed. The methylic alcohol or wood-spirit is first separated by distillation ; the residue of dilute acetic acid is then neutralized with lime, and evaporated to dryness. About two gallons of the wood spirit are produced from the smoke of a cord of hard wood, and when puri- fied it may be applied to all chemical uses for which common alco- hol is employed, but chiefly in making paints and varnishes. After the spirits are distilled out, the residue, with lime added, yields about 200 pounds to the cord. It is chiefly used in making white lead. 615. Besides these, a large number of chemical products may be derived from the distillation of wood, having use in calico printing, and in other industries, and the value from a given quantity of wood from these sources, at present prices, amounts to more than twice that of the charcoal made at the same time. The gases re- maining in this process have not much illuminating power, but are used in supplying a part of the heat required for the evaporation. 154 Wood Gas — Forest Fires. Illuminating Gas from, Wood. 616. It is found that wood exposed to cherry-red heat in close retorts, yields a gas which, when purified, has a much greater illuminating power than the best obtained from coal. In this way chips and other waste pieces of wood have been turned to profitable account. The heat in this process must be carried to a greater de- gree than in the making of charcoal, and hence the residual product is of inferior quality. The difierent kinds of wood are about alike as to value in furnishing gas for illumination, the quantity averag- ing, in eight of the common kinds, about 582.35 cubic feet to 100 pounds of wood. 617. The condition as to dryness, however, is of great importance, since the vapor of water coming in contact with the incandescent charcoal will form an oxyde of carbon and of hydrogen, that will reduce its illuminating power. The wood should therefore be dried as much as possible just before being placed in the retort, or else it will again absorb moisture from the air. 618. Where steam-power is used, the waste steam may be carried in pipes through the drying chamber, and a current of air may be driven or drawn through the wood, securing the requisite degree of dryness, without much expense. The retorts may be like those for coal gas, but larger, and as the process gives the best result when heated rapidly, the furnaces should have a larger amount of grate-surface. A charge is worked out in an hour and a half, and the charcoal formed is at the end drawn out into sheet-iron extin- guishers and tightly closed for cooling. As the liquid products are corrosive to iron, copper pipes must be used, and the gas must be purified before being used.' CHAPTER XV. FOREST FIEES. 619. There is no subject in Forestry more important than the prevention and control of forest fires. They every year do a vast amount of injury, not only to standing timber and young trees, but 'Those wishing to look further into this subject, will find detailed iDforma- tionin the Forestrj- Report of 1877, published b3' the Department of Agri- culture, p. 133, and in the authorities there cited. Forest Fires. 155 to fences, bridges, buildings, farms and mill property, and to cord- wood, lumber and bark cut in readiness for market. Not only this, they sterilize the land by burning out the vegetable mold, so that trees can not be made to grow again, until in some degree this ma- terial is restored by the decayed herbage, and the fall of leaves from an undergrowth of bushes — a process which requires many years to accomplish. 620. Sometimes the fire runs from tree to tree in the tops, instead of spreading along the ground, as in the great Miramaehi fire of New Brunswick, in 1825, and the Peshtigo fire of Wisconsin, in 1871. Upon each of these occasions, many hundred human lives were lost. The Michigan fires of 1871 and 1881 were memorable from the destruction of towns, villages, bridges, and farm property that they occasioned. 621. In the great fires above mentioned, the forests had been long exposed to intense solar heat and to drouth, and vegetable matter in every form would ignite from the least spark, and burn beyond control. The currents of air which the flames excited, be- came furious gales of wind, and swept every thing before them in a tornado of fire. 622. Without giving historical or statistical details, we will pre- sent the subjects under the three heads of causes, prevention and control. (1.) Ckmses of Forest Fires. 623. These fires generally originate from the following causes, and somewhat in order of importance as here placed : (a.) From fires that escape in the clearing of lands, and the burn- ing ofi"of brush and stubble in preparing the ground for cultivation. (6.) From sparks and coals of locomotives along lines of railroad. (c.) From fires purposely set to improve pasturage, upon moun- tains and in marshy grounds. This is a very common practice in the Southwestern and Southern States, the fires being often set by persons who do not own the land, to afibrd grazing to their few head of cattle, upon lands not their own. (d.) From fires carelessly left by persons camping, hunting or fishing, and by tramps. (e.) From the careless use of matches, that are thrown down and not extinguished, or from tobacco-pipes, cigars, or gun-wads. 156 Forest Fires. (/.) From fires that escape from coal-pits and other operations carried on in the woods. (jf.) From malicious design. Qi.) From natural causes, such as lightning, friction between dry wood in high winds, and spontaneous combustion. (2.) Prevention of Forest Fires. 624. A constant vigilance in the use of fire, and in extinguishing every spark, when left, and proper care in the clearing away of all combustible materials around the place where a fire is kindled in or near a woodland, would render every other prevention almost need- less. The danger from fires should be thoroughly impressed upon every one, and especially upon children, at home and at school, so that they may grow up with careful habits in this respect. 625. A kind of safety-match is made in immense quantities in Sweden, and is used extensively throughout Europe. It can not be ignited except when rubbed upon a surface that is chemically pre- pared, and that is placed upon one side of the box in which they are sold. The use of matches prepared like these, and the habit of extinguishing them when lighted, would prevent accidents from this cause. Gun-wads are also made that will not burn, and that are entirely safe as to retaining fire. 626. The risk of fire from locomotives may be largely diminished by the use of spark-extinguishers and other arrangements, many of which have been patented. The law in most states renders rail- road companies responsible for the damages that they may cause, and this law rigidly enforced would greatly tend to the exercise of more care in this respect. As a further precaution, the leaves and rubbish along railroads should be raked off and burned, at a time when the fires can be managed. Piles of old decaying ties should be removed. Belts of timber, less inflammable than pines, should be planted along railroads that run through pine forests, and railroads should be patrolled in a dry time, for the purpose of extinguishing the fires that may be set, before damages are done. 627. In regions where fires are exceedingly liable to occur, the burning off of belts of land in winter, when the fires do not spread beyond control, and need some help to burn at all, is a safe precau- tion ; such fires, however, injure the young trees, and they should be allowed to extend no more than necessary. Forest Fires. 157 628. Damages from prairie fires are best prevented by plowiug a few furrows ia parallel liues, fifty or a hundred feet apart, and burning ofi" the grass between, soon after it is killed down by frost, and before it is very dry. This practice along the sides of railroads in a prairie region, is excellent. 629. In Europe, fire-guards are made through the woods, by clearing away all trees and all matter that can burn, in belts from fifty to one hundred feet wide. To be efiectual, they must be cleaned out every year or two. If such belts were planted with deciduous trees, that do not take fire so readily as conifers, they would afibrd some protection, but not as much as the bare soil. 630. Cjmmon roads answer the same end, and in a region liable to fires, they should be wide and the sides well cleared. The French Ordinance of Waters and Forests (1669), prescribed that public roads through forests should be at least seventy-two feet wide, and that all thorns and bushes within sixty feet should be cleared ofi" on each side. 631. Avenues through a forest present the unavoidable disad- vantage of exposing the timber to the winds. This efiect is greatest in heavy-topped hemlocks, etc., and least where the woodland has grown up with the space reserved, as the branches of the trees on the outside are then strong, and extend lower down, afibrding much resistance to the wind. 632. Where streams of water flow through nearly level wood- lands, they may sometimes be raised by dams, so as to form a series of narrow ponds for long distances, that would check all ground- fires. Stone walls, mounds of earth, and cactus-hedges afibrd some protection. 633. Our state laws should provide for the designation of some existing officer, or the election of some "special officer, who should have authority to call out help for extinguishing forest fires. Such men should be thoroughly familiar with their districts, and with all lines of defense that can be used to oppose an advancing fire. Per- sons when thus called upon, should be liable to a fine if they refuse to assist without reasonable excuse. 634. Laws rendering all persons responsible for the damages that may be done from fires that they set, whether carelessly or in- tentionally, should be enacted and enforced. In Pennsylvania they have a law rendering the counties responsible for the expenses in 158 Forest Fires. hiring men to extinguish fires, and it should be adopted generally. If farmers found that they might have taxes to pay for damages done by this cause, they would be very careful in burning their fallows, and in seeking to prevent it from being done carelessly by others. 635. A ground-fire that runs through a young plantation of ash, oak, catalpa, and other deciduous trees, may kill down the tops, and apparently destroy them entirely. We should not give them up as ruined, for they will often sprout from the roots, and grow as vigor- ously as before. The most that can be done in such cases, is to cut off the old stems and all but the thriftiest of the new ones. As for the old one, it only does harm by preventing its place from healing over. Several small growing sprouts from one root are not so de- sirable as one strong one. 636. In humid climates, and in damp grounds, the undergrowth sometimes comes in so as to cover the surface, to the injury of the growth of the trees.^ It is necessary, in order to secure the greatest benefit, to clear out the bushes and ground-herbage and burn it. For this purpose the material, after being pulled up, is best arranged in piles, at some distance from the trees, covering it with sod before setting it on fire. By avoiding a dry time, this can be done safely, as the fire will smolder away, with much smoke and little flame, until the whole is reduced to ashes. These are then spread over the ground, tending to renew its fertility. The larvse of many kinds of insects that fiud shelter in the litter, are by this means destroyed. (3.) Control of Forest Fires. 637. Among the means employed for stopping the progress of a forest fire when started, the following are the most important: Throwing water and wetting a line of ground ; sand and soil thrown upon the edge of a line of fire will sometimes do almost as well ; the fire may be whipped out with green bushes; the rubbish may be raked away toward the advancing fire and burned : and some- times furrows may be plowed, to present a line of fresh earth. 638. Bach-firing, consists in setting a fire commencing along some road, stream of water, wall, or other line where its spread in one ' In French Forestry this undergrowth is called " boia mart," literally " dead wood." Forest Fires — Other Injuries. 159 direction may be prevented, and allowing this fire to run till it meets the principal fire. Great fires sometimes cause an inward current of air that favors back-firing. As fires advance down hill more slowly than they ascend, the counter-fires may often be set to best advantage at the bottom of a valley. The crest of a ridge is, however, a much better line of defense. 639. After a fire has apparently been brought under control, it should be carefully watched until it is entirely extinguished. If neglected it will sometimes get under way with more energy than before, even some days or weeks afterwards. On a rocky surface, full of deep fissures, there is very great danger to be dreaded from these concealed fires, that may smolder unobserved for a long time. 640. It is always a safe precaution to have water, buckets, spades, axes, etc., in readiness for use in case of fires. In some regions in Europe, a system of signals is arranged, and persons are on watch from towers on high hills, for the special purpose cf discovering fires, and making known their locality. A system of telegrapliic signals, consisting of willow-baskets by day, and of lanterns by night, has been proposed in Spain for this use, and by a simple com- bination representing numbers, a correspondent may receive a great variety of messages in a brief space of time, by the aid of books in which these messages are referred to by corresponding numbers. CHAPTER XVI. PROTECTION FROM OTHEE INJURIES THAN FIEES. 641. A young woodland needs protection even more than a grain- field, because the injuries done, may destroy the growth of several years instead of one. These damages may be done by wild or do- mestic animals, or by insects ; or they may be caused by disease, by storms of wind, by the obstruction of water-courses that may over- flow level lauds, and in various other ways, many of which can be prevented or removed. Pasturage of Woodlands. 642. In European governments, the rights of pasturage in the public woodlands are regulated by law, and sometimes they are sold, for one year at a time, at public auction. In many cases it is a common right, subject to regulation by the local government. 160 Injuries- from Animals. The practice is forbidden altogether in yoimg woods, until the growth has reached a size that would prevent injury from being done. 643. As a general rule, sheep and goats do much more harm than horses and cattle, and in some countries they are altogether ex- cluded at all times. The fattening of swine upon acorns and nuts is considered of no injury to large trees. The pasturage of steep mountain slopes is much more injurious than upon level land, and has tended to produce immense injuries by exposing the soil to erosions, as elsewhere more fully noticed. 644. It is an admirable practice to plant groves of trees in pas- ture grounds, to provide shade for stock, but such groves must be protected by fences until- the foliage is above the reach of cattle, and the trunks of the trees are so large that they would not be liable to injury. Injuries to Seeds, Seedlings, and Trees, by wild Animals. 645. In noticing the agencies for the distribution of seeds, we have elsewhere given credit to birds, and especially to squirrels, as planters [§ 125]. We must, however, guard against the latter, in keeping nuts in heaps for spring planting. The liability to injury by moles and mice in winter, is a principal reason for our delaying to plant nuts, acorns, and other seeds till spring, instead of planting in the fall, as is done in nature. [§ 130.] 646. These animals do injuries to nurseries and plantations in winter, especially when the snows are deep. Babbits are very fond of gnawing the bark from young trees, and where these animals are kept, it is necessary to guard against their injuries by stone walls, laid from below the reach of their burrows, or by wire screens. 647. Fruit and shade trees may be protected by binding tarred paper around the trunks near the ground, and by treading down the snows around them in winter. Hedgehogs will feed upon the bark and twigs of the hemlock in winter, and certain birds may do injury to trees by biting off the buds. 648. The gopher (Geomys bursarius) is one of the most trouble- some pests in the Western States, from its eating off the roots of young trees; and a single animal has been known to follow a line of newly set osage orange hedge, in the soil soft from recent plant- ing, and destroy the roots for many rods. They may be poisoned Birds that Destroy Fine Seeds — Insect Ravages. 161 by placing strychnine or arsenic in a carrot, apple, or a potato near where their burrows come to the surface — but caution should be taken in the use of these dangerous poisons. 649. In parks and forests where game is protected, there is some- times much sacrificed from their propensity to gnaw and rub. Deer are as destructive to the herbage of young trees as sheep or goats. In Europe, it is customary to feed hay and turnips to herbivorous game in winter. 650. In sowing pine seeds, it becomes necessary to guard against some of the gramnivorous birds, who seem to be attracted, as if by instinct, to the feast. The white-throated and white-crowned spar- rows, appear to be particularly fond of these seeds, and after the young shoots have come up, they become dainty food for the com- mon yellow-bird. The best remedy against these birds, is a thin covering of marsh-grass or of fine brush, care being taken that it does not smother the young plants. A better one would be an old seine, suspended upon poles a few inches above the seed-beds in the nursery. CHAPTER XVII. INSECT RAVAGES IN WOODIANDS. 651. Our limits do not permit more than a general notice of the damages done to trees from insects. They begin with the seed — are found in the young shoot, and in the bark or wood of the roots, trunk and branches, at every stage of growth — in the leaves, the blossoms, and the ripening fruit. They sometimes appear in small numbers, and every year alike, and at others they increase in im- mense number, and either progressively or simultaneously destroy every thing before them. 652. Among those most systematic in their movements is the processionary caterpillar, shown in the annexed engravings, copied from De la Blanchire.^ The moth appears in August or Septem- ber, and for some days remains motionless under the leaves and branches, flying only in the twilight. The female lays some two hundred eggs upon the hark, and from these the worms soon hatch out. They live together in a common net, often changing their abode till the third moult, when they set out in the evening ^Les Eavageurs dea Foreis, ei des Arbres d' AUgnemeni, i. 170. 162 Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 81. Female Moth of the Bombyx pro- cessionea 80. Bombyx processionea.— (The Processionary Caterpillar.) •f^^ in an orderly inarcli — first one, then i^- J ;; -*' two, three, and f >ur abreast, and so <** V' widening by one at every rank, in solid triangular phalanx, and in immense legions. When there are no more oak leaves to destroy, they consume the undergrowth, and they do not fail to take harvests and gardens before them. The hirsute append- ages with which they are covered cause irritating inflammations when in contact. with the naked skin or a mucous surface, and neither man nor beast can remain in a forest when ^ they are abroad. 653. Against enemies like these man is scarcely able to defend himself, but there are enemies 82. CoJosoma. a Carnivorous Beetle, de- that also appear abundantly when struetive to the Prooessionarv Caterpil- j.i • i- j i i j. _,i , lar. their lood becomes plenty, that Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 163 •1 J tend to limit these injuries. One of these is a carnivorous beetle, that hatches out at about the same time. Although they have wings, they attack them on the ground, and mount upon the trees to seize their prey. 654. Usually beetles of the general form shown in the foregoing engraving, with long sharp jaws and very rapid movements, belong to the carnivorous class. Something may be done to prevent the injuries of the worms above described, by scraping off the eggs from the bark. They are always deposited on the out- side trees of a forest, and never within it. 665. Of bark-boring insects the conifers have an unusually large share, there being, perhaps, no species that is entirely free from their rav- ages. They are sometimes very symmetrical in their work, the bark, externally, showing a row of holes at equal intervals, and, between the wood and bark, burrows running sometimes horizontally, at other times vertically or ob- liquely, with numerous branching burrows that seldom or never run into one another, however nearly they may approach. 656. The main stem of these burrows is made by the parent-insect, who, as she ad- vances, deposits her eggs on the sides. From these the larvae hatch, and, because small, the passage which they make is at first narrow. It widens as they grow in size, and at the end may expand into a little chamber. When the worm , has finished this stage of its growth, it becomes a pupa, and finally eats out into the open air, as a perfect insect. Its natural size is shown by the side of the above engraving. 657. The immense numbers in which these insects appear in some years, render their ravages very destructive, and as they often pro- duce two broods in a year, a single insect may, in three or four seasons, when the increase is not checked, multiply in enormous quantities. I. Insect Ravages under the Bark pE Trees. 164 Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 658. As a general rule, these bark-boring insects are most liable to attack fallen timber, and espeoially that which has been over- thrown by storms in the season of active vegetation, or trees that have had their vitality weakened from being scorched by fire. 84. Hylesinus pini- 85. Burrows of the flj/iesiniMpim'penfa under the Bark of the perda. (greatly en- Scotch Pino, with the Insects of natural size, larged). 659. The damage done to logs cut for lumber may be lessened by taking off the bark as soon as the trees are felled. The above en- gravings represent an en- larged view of one of these bark-insects, with the form of its burrows, and the insect of its nat- ural size. 660. With respect to wood-boring insects, the amount of injury done to the timber depends upon the uses to which it is to , Punctures mafle In the TTenrt- wood of Oak, by a , ,. , -rj> ,• t ^ .^ ■ Lymexyelon; natural size. be applied. It shght, it Irisect Ravages in Woodlands. 165 may still be good for car- pentry, but improper for coopers' use ; if the bur- rows are large, they tend to admit moisture, and to become great open cavi- ties, and in certain other cases the wood is so eaten that it becomes nothing but a shell — perhaps sound and without the least ap- pearance of injury exter- nally, but wholly eaten out into caverns within. 661. These wood-eating insects are especially com- mon in decaying wood, and where they are strict- ly limited to this, they can scarcely be c(msidered as of great injury, and in some cases they may be even beneficial, in hasten- ing its decay. 662. There are other classes of insects found upon wood and leaves, and even in burrows in the wood and bark, that are predatory in their habits, pursuing other insects and destroying them, either iu the perfect state, or as lar- vae, or by feeding their eggs. 87. Cavities made in Fallen Timber by the Larvae of Insects, tending to rapidly hasten Its Decay. upon 88. Wood that has been thoroughly mined by the Larvae of the Cerambi/x hems. 662J. These carnivorous insects are the surest agency for counter- acting the inordinate increase of the injurious kinds, and when the latter multiply to undue extent, the abundance of food thus offered leads to their increase also, until the balance of nature is again re- 166 Insect Ravages in Woodlands. stored. We here present a cut of the larva of the great Capricorn beetle; that which sometimes proves destructive to the oak, and that causes the damages shown in the last preceding engraving. 89. Larva of the Cerambyx heros. These insects require three years for their transformations, and do not usually attack the timber until it has passed its stage of full maturity and has begun to decline, but while the wood is still hard aud sound. The Capricorn beetles to which this insect belongs, are among the most destructive of wood-borers ; some inhabiting the trunks of trees, and some only the limbs. There are other insects that devour the pith or the roots, and some are found only in herbaceous plants. 663. The insects that burrow under the bark, or that mine into the wood, are sometimes very systematic in their operations, and this symmetry may all be due to the work of one insect, that de- posits her eggs at equal intervals along the burrow. These, upon hatching into larvae, eat their way from the main burrow, sometimes to but a short distance, and without enlargement at the end, and at 90. Cross-section showins the Burrows of the Boslrichns lineatu^. other times widening as they gain in size, till they reach their limit of growth, and then, after completing their transformations, they Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 167 91. Vertical Sentionthroiigh the Burrows o£ the Bostrichus lineatus. emerge through holes eaten in the bark, and come forth as perfect insects. 664. Climatic vicissitudes have great influence upou the multiplication or decrease in the number of insects. A very hot and dry season may favor an increase, or an unusually cold, wet, and backward one may destroy them. 665. Insectivorous birds do much to keep injurious insects in check, and where there is an abundance of this food, they will sometimes appear in great numbers. The presence of these birds is therefore to be encouraged ; and as groves and belts of timber are multiplied, the conditions favoring their coming and sojourn, to the benefit of our grain and fruits, are increased. For these reasons they should be strongly protected by efficient game laws, and by public sentiment, against their destruction, or the disturbance of their nests. 665J. In some countries, as in France, the importance of protect- ing birds is taught in the schools, and the children are shown how to distinguish the useful kinds of birds, small animals, reptiles, and insects from those that are injurious, and the best means for pro- tecting the former, and of destroying the latter. Little "Protec- tion Societies" are organized among the children, for preventing in- juries to birds and their nests, and various means are devised to impress the young with correct ideas concerning the interests depending upon the allies of the field. 666. In nurseries, gardens, orchards, and parks, we may some- times adopt measures for the destruction of insects, when they ap- pear in unusual number, by some kind of poisons, such as Paris- green,- London-purple, white-hellibore, etc., but where they invade a whole forest, and especially when they occur in regions remote from settlements, we can do nothing, and must await the operation of natural causes for restoring the balance, through the natural agencies of climate and the antagonism in insect life. 667. In some countries this can be done by costly methods, such as cutting down the infected trees, and burning the tops and the 168 Insect Ravages in Woodlands. bark. But these heroic remedies are practically much beyond our means for successful application in a large way. Fortunately these great invasions do not last many years in succession. They may leave a wide-spread ruin behind them, but some other species of timber tree with fewer insect enemies will come on to supply the place ; and generally the timber killed may still be used for lumber or fuel, if cut within a year or two afterwards. In the case of timber bored into cavities, of course the value is greatly impaired for many uses, and its decay is generally hastened by these causes. 668. Where the tree survives the injury of an insect year, the W^S^?-3^^ effect is generally seen in the diminished growth , -.>. .-^ ^^ t\iii,\, season. We have seen in the Museum of a School of Forestry, a section of a tree some hun- dreds of years old, in which for long periods to- gether every third ring of growth was narrow, as we see in one of the rings. in the annexed engrav- ing. This was caused by the eating off of the leaves every third year by a caterpillar. 669. If the leading shoot of a young conifer is eaten off by insects, or killed from any other *^iurie1i''to'the Leaves <^*"^®' ^'^ growth is checked until another, and Growthcff Wood"*' sometimes two shoots are formed in its place. This gives a defective form, and injures its value. In a lawn or nursery, this damage may be repaired by herbaceous grafting from the terminal shoot of another tree, as elsewhere described. 670. The damages done by insects to a forest are sometimes im- mense. In recent years the spruce timber in New Brunswick, Maine, and Northern New York has been thus destroyed to the ex- tent of millions of dollars in value. 671. Kaltenbach, an approved European writer upon Forest Entomology, enumerates 537 species of insects injurious to the oaks, 107 to the elms, 264 to the poplars, 396 to the willows, 270 to the birches, 119 to the alder, 154 to the beech, 97 to the hazelnut, and 88 to the hornbeam. Of coniferous trees, the pines, spruces, larch, and firs are fed upon by 299 species, and the junipers by 33. 672. In the United States, while many observers have given their attention to this branch of natural history, much still remains to be known upon this subject, especially as relates to the geograph- Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. 169 ical range of species, their migrations, the causes that favor or hinder their increase, and the means for diminishing their damages. 673. In a recent publication of the U. S. Eutomological Com- mission, prepared by Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., of Providence, E. I.,' there has been collected a summary of all that had been previously published concerning the forest-insects of the United States. We will present some of the more important facts of this Report, con- cerning the more injurious of these insects. As it will be necessary to refer to the orders under which insects are classed, they may be first concisely defined : (1.) Coleoptera (Beetles). 674. These are insects. with jaws, two thick wing-covers, in a straight line on the top of the back, with two filmy-wings, which are folded transversely. They pass through four stages of life — the egg, the larvae or grubs (generally provided with six legs), the pupa, and the perfect insect. In most cases the greatest damage is done in the larva state. The coleoptera are divided into several great divisions, the principal of which are as follows : 675. (a.) The Scarabceidce, embracing an immense number of species, known as ground or dung-beetles, tree-beetles, etc. Their larvas do great damages to the roots of trees, and the perfect in- sects to the leaves and twigs. They fly in the evening, and may be destroyed to some extent by shaking them off from the trees in the morning, first spreading cloths before jarring the trees. 676. (6.) The Lucanidce, or stag-beetles, which are distinguished by the great size and peculiar form of their upper jaws. The grubs of the larger kinds are said to remain six years before changing to a perfect insect. They live in the trunks and roots of trees, and bore into the solid wood. 677. (c.) The Bupestridoe, or saw-horned beetles, so called because the tips of the joints of their antennae project more or less on the inside, somewhat like the teeth of a saw. They are often brightly colored, and have usually a hard shell and an oblong form, tapering behind. They keep concealed at night, and are abroad only by ' Bulletin No. 7. Insects Injurious to Forest and Shnde Trees, 1881, p. 275. This Cominission consists of Professors Charles V. Riley, of the Depart- ment of Agriculture at "Washington, Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., of Brown Uni- vftrsity. Providence, and Prof. Cyrus Thomas, of Carbondale, 111. 170 Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. day. The larvae are wood-borers, and chiefly attack forest and fruit trees that are past their prime. The pine and hickory trees especially suffer from their ravages. Their larvae are long, rather flat, yellowish white, and widened near tlie forward part. The head itself is small, and provided with teeth for boring. They in- 93. Melolontha vulgaris (Male and Female). elude the flat-headed larvae found under the bark and in the wood of our fruit trees, and may to some extent be kept out by surround- ing the trunks with tarred paper, and by soaping, white-washing, and cutting out, or by seeking and destroying the perfect insects. 678. (_d.) The Elaterida, or spring-beetles, are most destructive to wood and roots in the larva state. They are sometimes called wire- worms, and some are wood-eaters, living under the bark; and in the Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. 171 trunks of old trees. The timber-beetles, so destructive in ship- yards, belong to this division. The foregoing beetles, although differing greatly in form and habits, agree in one character, viz., their feet are five-jointed, while those that follow are four-jointed. 679. (e.) The Rhynchophoridm, or weevils, mostly of very small size, so destructive to grains, and upon trees, boring into the bark, leaves, buds, fruit, and seeds, and feeding upon the juices and soft parts therein. They are day-insects, and love to come out in the sun- shine. Some fly well, but others have no wings, and generally they are slow and timid in their motions. The weevils are divided into several great families, and include an immense number of species. 680. (/.) The Scolytidcn, or cylindrical bark-beetles, mostly very small, but often doing the most serious injuries, especially in pine and spruce forests, by mining under the bark, and boring galleries in the new wood. 681. (g.) The BostriehidcB — formerly classed with the preceding, but now separately. They are often of large size, and especially in tropical countries, they may prove very destructive. Their larvae bore galleries in the solid wood of living trees. 94. Bostriclius typo- praphicus (greatly enmrgedy. 95. Burrows of the Bosirichuf typnqrapMcus under the Bark of the Spruce, with the Insects of the Natural Size. 682. Two nearly allied species of the JBostrychus have proved very destructive to spruce forests in Europe. They are always found more or less under the bark of decaying trees, but when the condi- 172 Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. ditions for their increase are multiplied, as in case of many trees being prostrated by a gale, they increase in enormous quantities, and destroy whole forests. In such cases, they appear to attack per- fectly healthy trees. The first of these (B. typographic^) does the most harm, and is found chiefly in and under the bark of the trunk and large branches. The preceding engraving represents a set of burrows made by the larvae hatched from the eggs of one insect, and an enlarged view of the insect itself. 683. The burrows of the Bostriekus eahographus are generally found at the same time, and upon the same trees as those of the preceding species, but only upon the smaller branches. The only 96. Burrows of the Bostrichus chalcagraplms, with the Insects of Natural Siz^. effectual remedy known against these insects, is that of cutting down the trees, and peeling and burning the bark. In an invasion of these insects in the Jura region in South-eastern France, following as one of the consequences of a storm that happened in November, 1864, it became necessary from 1867 to 1873 to carefully examine every tree in a forest, arid to cut down every spruce that showed signs of the insect, and to peel and burn the bark upon over Classification of Insects : Orthoptera. 173 181,000 trees. By this energetic means, the ravages of these in- sects were arrested. 684. In the United States, at present prices of labor, and of timber, such a remedy would be wholly impracticable, but this statement serves to illustrate the great importance attached to this subject in Europe, and the sacrifices that are sometimes made to check these injuries. 685. (A.). The Geramhycidem — the long-horned or Capricorn beetles, are de- structive wood-borers. They generally rest by day upon the trees, and fly by night. Their larvse are long whitish grubs, with the head smaller than the first ring, and provided with short but powerful jaws. These grubs, in some cases, live several years before coming to maturity. They are divided into three families and many groups, some species in the tropics measuring five or six inches in length and two inches in breadth. 686. The remaining divisions of the beetles, some of which are injurious to trees, and especially to the leaves, can not be here de- scribed in detail. Some species are leaf-miners, eating out the soft parts and leaving the skeleton, and some doing injury in the larva form while others injure as perfect insects. Many of these appear to be governed by climatic influences, appearing in some years very abundantly, while at other times they disappear for a series of years altogether. (2.) Orthoptera (Cockroaches, Crickets, GrasAoppers, etc). 687. These are insects with jaws, two rather thick and opaque upper wings, ovft'lapping a little on. the back, and two larger thin wings, which are folded in plaits. Transformation partial, larvse and pupae active, but want- ing wings. All insects of this order — except the camel- crickets, which prey upon other insects — are injurious gg. Moie-crieket. Cerambyx carcharias. 174 Insects : Semiptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera. to man. The mole-cricket is one of this class, and in Europe is very troublesome in nurseries and gardens, by eating the roots of trees and plants. A single brood wiU destroy a whole seed-bed. By breaking the crust of hardened earth in June, their nests are exposed to the air, and the eggs perish. (3.) Hemipteea (Bugs, Loeiists, Plant-lice, etc.). 688. These are insects with a horny beak for suction, four wings, of which the upper are generally thick at the base, with thinner ex- tremities, and which lie flat and cross each other on the top of the back, or are of uniform thickness throughout, and slope at the sides like a roof. Transformation partial, larvae and pupae nearly like the adult insect, but wanting wings. Some, like the cochineal insect, are use- ful, but the damages done by plant-bugs, locusts, tree-hoppers, froth-insects, plant-lice, bark-lice, mealy-bugs, and the like, by sucking the juices of plants, is very great. (4.) Neueopteea (Dragon-flies, Lace-winged Flies, May-flies, Antiion, Day-fly, White Ants, etc.). 689. These are insects with jaws, four netted wings, of which the hinder ones are the largest, and no sting. Transformation com- plete or partial, larva and pupa various. White ants, wood-lice and wood-ticks, are almost the only noxious insects of this order, and even these do not injure living plants. Many of them destroy other insects for their food. (5.) Lepidoptera. (Butterflies, Sphinges, and Moths). 690. These insects have a mouth with a spiral sucking tube; wings four, covered with branny scales. Transformation complete. The larvse are caterpillars, and have six true legs, and from four to ten fleshy prop-legs. Pupa with the cases of the wings and of the legs indistinct, and soldered to the breast. 691. Of the butterflies proper, the forester has not much to com- plain. The perfect insects feed upon flowers, and the larvce upon vegetable substances. They usually change their skins about four times before they come to full size. Their life in the final state is brief, and in the splendor of colors they rival sometimes all other forms of animal life. Classification of Insects : Lepidojptera. 175 99. One of the Hawk-moths or Sphinges (Sesi'a), in Form of perfect Insect. 692. The Sphinges or hawk-moths derive the name "Sphynx" from a fancied resemblance of their cater- ' pillars, when at rest, to the Egyptian sphynx, supporting themselves up- right by their fore-legs. They in- clude a peach-tree borer, and some other species injurious to trees. We present in the margin an engraving of the perfect insect, the larvae of which infest the wood of the elm, al- ways boring at the base of the trunk, where it unites with the root, and appearing to divide the territory with the Cossus, that bores only in the trunk. 693. A nightmoth near- ly allied with the Bom- byces, and by some natu- ralists classed with them, but by others made a sep- arate family, named Zeii- zerados, is very often found in Europe upon the horse- fchestnut. The larvae are white, soft and naked, or slightly downy, with brown horny heads, spots on the body, as shown in the en- graving, and sixteen legs. They are wood-borers, and are also very destructive to the pear, apple, lilac, and occasionally to the young elms. In favorite trees it may be killed by a wire inserted into its burrow, the opening of which may be known by the dust that falls out, and a violet-colored tinge on its border. The genus to which this be- longs is European, and, according to Davis, has not been found in this country. We have many others, however, of closely allied forms, and of very destructive nature. 694. Linnaeus divided the Moths into eight groups, viz. : Attid, Bmnbyces, Noduce, Geometroe', Tortrices, Pyralides, Tinece and Aludtce. 100. Zeuzera 3MCuli, 101. Laiva of the Zeuzera. 176 Classification of Insects : Lepidoptera. (Hale.) Iffi. B&mbyx neuitria. V {Female.) (Perfect Insect.) The first of these has, by later naturalists, been merged with others, but, with this exception, these groups hare been considered as well marked, and are generally retained. We present a few examples of some of these forms. 695. The Brnnby- ces, or spinners, are thick-bodied moths, with feathered an- tennae, at least in the males, tongue short or wanting, thorax woolly but not crest- ed, and the larvae generally spinners. The figures here giv- en show one of nu- merous species of this group. They have sometimes proved exceedingly destructive, by eat- ing off the leaves of trees, while in the larva state. We here present a view of the perfect insect, the larvae of which prove very destruc- tive to the Scotch pine. Whole forests 103. Larva of the Bombyx neusiria. 104. Bombyx of tlie Pine. (Female.) 105. Larva of the Bombyx pini. Classification of Insects: Lepidoptera. 177 are sometimes laid waste by these devourers. They will even fill ditches that have been dug to arrest their progress, aud the only way to control them, is to collect in winter and burn the mosses in which they are concealed. 696. The Nodum, or owlet moths, chiefly fly by night, and are thick-bodied, swift-flying moths, that do considerable damage to vegetation, and some of them live exposed on the leaves of trees and shrubs, but the greater part feed only by night. 697. The Geometras, or span worms, live mostly in the larva state only on the leaves of trees, and undergo their transformation in the ground. Their larvae derive their name from their manner of crawl- ing, by drawing up the body into an arch, aud then reaching forward for a new hold. When disturbed, they drop by a silken thread, till the danger is over, and then climb back again to their former place, with a tolerably ^^^ MaiTMoth '^eoeom- rapid motion, by seizing the thread with s^n-wTrmli' °'^^ °^ *''* their jaws and forelegs. 698. The canker-worm female moths are nearly without wings, and are sluggish in their movements. They in- stinctively make their way from the ground where they have been hatched towards the nearest trees, and slowly creep up the trunks, pairing with their 107.' remade Moth winged mates in their ascent. They are chiefly in- blti^t^uSam^"' jurious to the apple and elm trees, but also attack the plum, cherry, and lime trees, and strip them of the pulpy part > of the leaves, leaving the mid- ribs and veins remaining. 699. The Trniricei, or leaf- rollers, are so called from the cylindrical rolls that they forme's- ^"^ E^kiroi'its" Rl'IgeT' ""^ *'"' around themselves at the close of their larva-life. Very few of them make cocoons, and most of them go through their transformations in their leaf-cases. The moths of this tribe are mostly small, and they fold their wings over their bodies when at rest, like a steep roof. Most of them when dis- 178 Classification of Insects : Lepidoptera. turbed in the larva state wUl drop by a silk thread like the pre- ceding kinds 108. Torlrix resinianse. (The Insect at Rest of the Natural Size; the Larva and Flying Insect Enlarged.) 700. The Pyralides are nearly akin to the geometers, and are sometimes called delta-moths, from the triangular manner of closing their wings. Tliis tribe includes the meal-worms of old flour barrels, the grease-moths, the hop-vine caterpillar, etc., but they are not particularly injurious to trees. 701. The Tinew are chiefly destructive to clothing and household stuff, but some of them burrow into leaves, and make winding passages in the pulpy substance of plants. Classification of Insects : Hymenoptera, Diptera. 179 702. The AlucitxB, or feather-winged moths, is a small tribe of not much importance from the injuries done. (6.) Hymenopteea (Saw-Flies, Ants, Wasps, Bees, etc). 703. These are insects with jaws, four veined wings in most species, the hinder pair being the smallest, and a piercer or sting at the end of the abdomen. Transformation complete. Larvse mostly maggot or slug-like ; of some, caterpillar-like. Pupse with the legs and wings unconfined. 704. In the adult state, these chiefly live upon honey, the pollen of flowers, and the juices of fruits. As slugs or false caterpillars they sometimes injure plants. Some are wood-borers and wood-eaters, the pines and firs suflering most. Others cause galls and excres- cences upon leaves and twigs, those upon the oak furnishing the nut- galls of commerce. On the whole, the injury they do is far more than counterbalanced by their benefits, especially in the ichneumon flies, which destroy enormous numbers of noxious insects, by puncturing their eggs or their larvse, and depositing their own eggs within them. 705. Others lay their eggs in the provisioned nests of other insects, whose young are starved by the food being first eaten by the earlier-hatched intruders. The larvse in which the ichneumon fly has laid its eggs do not at once die. They may even complete this stage, and form a cocoon, from which, in due time, an ichneumon flv will emerge in place of the original insect. 706. The wood- wasps, sand-wasps, etc., are predaceous, and feed upon other insects. Our honey-bee and the bumble-bee belong to this order, and serve a most useful purpose, by conveying the pullen from one blossom to another, and thus fertilizing them. (7.) DiPTEEA. (Musquitoes, Gnats, Flies, etc). 706J. These are insects with a horny or fleshy proboscis, two wings only, and two knobbed threads, . called balancers or poisers, behind the wings. Transformation complete. Their maggots have no feet. These are generally not injurious to trees. The Cecidomy- diadce includes the midges, or gall-gnats, whose effects are often seen on the leaves of trees, but generally not so as to materially injure their growth. The wheat-fly, Hessian-fly, and fruit-flies belong to this order. 180 Insects injurious to Oaks and Elms. 707. Some writers have assigned the rank of a separate order to certain groups that present intermediate or anomalous characters, but for the present purpose the above may be sufficient, and in spealiing of these orders, we will use the numbers above given, instead of their names. 708. Insects tliat attack the Oaks. Of these 223 are enumerated, of which about 38 belong to the 1st class, 9 to the 3d, 103 to the 5th, and 64 to the 6th. To the 1st class belong several de- structive flat-headed and bark borers, the oak-pruner, a leaf-roller, and several species of borers that live in stumps and decaying timber. 709. The 3d class includes the seventeen -year locust (Cidda sep- temdeceni) , which spends the interval between its appearance as a perfect insect, in the ground, attached to the roots of trees or other plants, and when it comes out to breed does considerable damage to the twigs or trees by stinging them, for the purpose of depositing its eggs. 710. The 5th class includes the carpenter-moths, whose larvae bore large holes in the wood, acorn-worms, the leaf- miners, tent- caterpillars, oak-worms, tussock caterpillar, American silk-worm (from which silk of good quality may be made), geometer moths, and leaf-rollers. 711. The 6th class includes the gall-flies, that sting the twigs and leaves, of which there are many species. Of these something can be done to destroy the flat-headed borers, by applying soap to the trunk, and by cutting in and extracting them. Where branches fall, from the work of oak-pruners, they may be gathered and burned, to destroy the eggs or insects that are in them. 712. Insects injurwus to tiie Elms. Of these about 47 are known, of which 14 belong to the 1st class, 1 to the 2d, 4. to the 3d, 25 to the 5th, and 3 to the 6th. The 1st class includes the elm-tree borer (Saperda trideivtata), bark-borers, and great elm-beetle. The 3d in- cludes the gall-louse ; the 5th, the canker-worms, span-worms, fall web-worms, and American silk-worm, of the same species found upon the oak {Telea polyphemm) ; and the 6th the saw-flies. 713. As a remedy against the canker-worm, printer's ink spread on tarred paper, or the use of troughs filled with oil, or cotton fast- ened around the tree, will prevent the females from ascending it. Insects injurious to Elms. 181 Web-worm nests can be removed with mops dipped in carbolic acid solution or kerosene. 714. The elm is liable to suffer from a beetle which makes its at- tack upon the bark, in the interior and on the under side, and with- out showing much appearance externally. The tree will begin to languish, apparently -while in the full vigor of growth, and, when cut down, the bark will in a little while loosen and fall off, disclosing a multitude of burrows. 110. Perfect Insect of the Scolidua destruclor, of natural size above, and enlarged be- low: together with the l-arva and Pupa, of natural size and enlarged; and the Burrows, under the Bark, made by the Hcolylus multistriatus. 715. A remedy has been proposed by Dr. Eugene Robert, of Paris, which consists in shaving off the outer bark down to the liber or live bark, from the whole trunk, and on scarifying down to the wood the smaller branches, by drawing a sharp, three-bladed hooking in- strument (with the middle blade somewhat shorter than the others) lengthwise along the surface. This is, of course, an expensive pro- cess, and only to be practiced in city parks, and other places where the elms are prized as shade trees. It should be done only after the summer growth is ended, and before the sap starts in spring. The disagreeable color which this process leaves, may be covered up with a paint composed of coal tar and yellow ochre, to imitate the natu- ral shade of color of the bark. It is not found necessary to burn the bark that comes off, unless it contains the perfect insects, for the larvse will die without further attention, and the eggs, if they should hatch, would find nothing to feed on. 716. Insects injurious to the Sickories. Of these 97 species are 182 Insects injurious to Hickories, Walnuts, Chestnuts, etc. enumerated, of ■which about 35 belong to the 1st class, 1 to the 2d, 33 to the 3d, 8 to the 7th, and the remainder to the 5th. The 1st class includes the hickory-borers, twig-girdler, and bark-borers ; the 2d the walking-stick ; the 3d various bark-lice, gaU-lice, tree-hoppers, phylloxeras, etc ; and the 5th the tussock-moth, leaf-rollers, etc. 717. The 1st class includes various hickory-borers, the most de- structive of which is the Scolytus tetraspinom, affecting the bittemut, shell-bark, pig-nut, and probably the pecan. It mines under the bark and into the wood of the trimk and branches. The Cyllene picia, a borer found in this tree, is the same that proves so destruc- tive to the locust. 718. Insects injurious to the Black Walnut. About a dozen species are found on this tree, the most destructive being the borer so in- jurious to the locust and the hickory (Cyllene picta). 719. Insects injurious to the Butternut. About 20 species feed upon this tree, of which 2 are of the 1st class, 6 of the 3d, 1 of the 6th, and the rest of the 5th. It is comparatively free from injuries, the more important ones being bark-lice, hoppers, and scale insects, and occasionally the larvae of moths upon the leaves. 720. Insects injurious to the Chestnut. Of these, 20 are mentioned, some being uncertain as to classification. They are chiefly borers, that pierce the bark, the wood and the fruit, or leaf-hoppers and phylloxeras, that feed upon the leaves. The white ant sometimes consumes the interior of chestnut fence-posts, etc., as it also mines in the elm, pine and other woods. 721. Insects injurious to the Locust. Twenty-two insects are men- tioned as. infesting this tree, of which by far the most important is the locust-borer {CyUene picta), which has so effectually destroyed the plantations begun with much success in the early history of tree- planting in the prairie states. It is a beetle of velvet-black, with transverse bands of yellow, and is often found feeding on the blos- soms of the golden-rod. It lays its eggs in the crevices of the bark near the roots, in September, and, after mining in the wood in the larva state, it comes out a perfect insect in the month of June fol- lowing. It appears to have migrated westward, being first noticed about 1845 near Chicago, and, in 1863, at Rock Island. Two years after it was in Iowa, and it is now common in most parts of that state and westward. 722. In densely planted groves in the eastern states, it chiefly at- Insects injurious to Locust, Maples, Cottonwoods, etc. 183 tacks the outer trees only. Something may be done to save a val- uable tree by soaping the trunk in August, or by whitewashing, or covering with grafting composition. This tree suifers from several leaf-miners (against which there is no remedy but hand-picking), and several gall-flies and midges. HI. Larva of the Melolontha, upon the Boot of an Acacia. 112. Pupa of the Melolontha, (upper aud under sides). 723. The pods and seeds of the locust are at times inhabited by a weevil, and dead locust timber is liable to be consumed by borers differing from those that pierce the living trees. 724. Insects injurious to the Maple. Of these 38 are mentioned, including a borer that pierces the solid trunks of sound sugar-maple trees (Glycobius speciosas), the flat-headed borer that is also found on the apple tree (Chrysohothris femoraia) , and various worms — the larvse of moths that strip the trees of their leaves. The American silk-worm (Telea polyphenvus) sometimes attacks the maple, and does much damage. 725. Insects injwnmm to the Cottonwood. Of these 16 are named, chiefly beetles that bore the wood or consume the leaves. There are several saw-flies and gall-insects that affect the leaves and twigs. 726. Insects injurious to the Poplars. Of these 36 are named, in- cluding borers, span-worms, gall-lice, several leaf-rollers, and miners that eat out the soft parts of the leaves. The larvae of the genus 184 Insects injurious to the Poplar, Birch, etc. Seiapteron, a moth much like that which injures the cun-ant-bush by boring, has proved very destructive to the poplars in Nevada and in California. One species attacks also the locust, in the latter state. The accompanying engraving shows one of the insects that attacks the poplars in Europe, and the effect of its ravages. 113. Ravages of the Snperda carcharias upon the Poplar. (Insect and Larva of Na- tural Sizo.) 114. The Poplar Twig Borer (Saperda ). 727. Insects that injure the Linden. The basswood has 23 known enemies, including borers, inch-worms that consume the leaves, leaf- beetles, and leaf-miners. Some of these are the same that feed upon the poplars. 728. Insects thatinjure the Birch. Of these there are 19, including plant-lice, leaf-hoppers, etc., chiefly attacking the leaves. This tree is comparatively free from these injuries. 729. Insects that injure tfie Beech. Of these 15 are named, chiefly eating the leaves. Insects injurious to the Willoios and Pines. 185 730. The WiUows have 99 species of insects feeding upon their wood and leaves, a very large number being gall-insects, plant-lice, and leaf-rollers. Of the remaining deciduous species, there is no one but that has several insects upon its leaves, or other parts, and there is perhaps not one that wholly escapes alive when these are in excess. 731. We next come to consider the coniferous species, some of which suffer severely, especially when their leaves are attacked, because these do not put forth new leaves again, as do most of those enumerated, and when the leaves are stripped off, the tree must die. They can not sprout from the roots, and seldom put forth side branches to save life when severely injured. Taken as a whole, coniferous forests are much more liable to general ruin when attacked than others. 732. The Pines are liable to attack from about 110 species, of which about 62 belong to the 1st class, 16 to the 3d, 21 to the 5th, 8 to the 6th, and 2 to the 7th. Of the 1st class are many species of wood and bark-borers, that are generally more liable to attack old trees that have passed their prime. liiii 115. Pine Weevil {Hylobm - 733. The pine weevil is a very destructive insect, breeding un- der the bark, but doing the greatest injury after it has come to the perfect form. It then attacks the young trees, generally those of from three to six years of age, eating out the terminal shoot, the buds and the young stems. It is not much inclined to fly, and in very hot weather, as also iu the cool of night, it conceals itself among the herbage and litter on the ground. 186 Insects injurious to Pines and Spruces. 734. The white-pine weevil (Pwsodes stic fluids through the natural circulation of the living tree. He suc- ceeded in the use of the sulphates and the acetates of copper, of iron, and of zinc, the bi-chloride of mercury, a':«enious acid, aud the arseniate of potash, and in some cases of several of these in succession. Of odorous substances, he procured the absorption of was recommended by Strutzlsi in 183+, Earle in 1843, and Apelt in 1853. Bohl . . . has etuployed it simultaneously with creosote." Processes for Wood-preseroation. 195 camphor, the essential oils of lemon, bergampt, orange, lavender, and rosemary ; and of coloring materials a neutral sulphate pre- pared from indigo, and an aqueous solution of the coloring principle of yellow-wood. Of resinous substances, he procured a considerable absorption of spirits of turpentine, both pure and crude. By intro- ducing the chlorides of lime and magnesia, he proposed to give an unnatural elasticity and flexibility to wood : by using the deliques- cent salts, he sought to render it incombustible; and finally, by using various solutions that give precipitates the base of which is silica, he attempted to secure a kind «f petrification. 773. He at first gave preference to the pyrolignite of iron, ob- tained by exposing scraps of iron to the action of the crude acetic acid obtained from wood by distillation. He afterwards abandoned this for the solution of sulphate of copper, and instead of absorption by the living tree, he injected the wood as follows ; 774. The logs still full of sap and with the bark still on, were placed upon skids, and a collar fitted closely to one end. The solu- tion was then forced through the pores, either by pumps or by hy- drostatic pressure, the wood being still fresh and full of sap. It is found that solid woods, like the cherry, oak, etc., will not receive the solution in the heart-wood, and that the process affords but par- tial benefit; while in other kinds the success is very great, the woods thus prepared lasting two, three, and even five times longer as railway ties, and for other like exposures, than that which has not been treated. This process has been largely used in France, and its inventor, unlike many discoverers, realized its benefits in his lifetime. He died in 1871, leaving quite a fortune acquired from his patents. 775. "This process has been also much employed in Belgium Germany, and Switzerland, in preparing fir timbers for telegraph poles, and many other uses. After injection, the wood should be seasoned before using, which it does very readily, becoming quite light and portable. It is claimed that the sulphate of copper be- comes fixed in the wood, somewhat like the mordnut in dyes, so as not to dissolve out in fresh water, although in sea water it appears to gradually lose its antiseptic qualities by prolonged exposure. The amount of this salt absorbed is found to be notably diminished by the presence of iron, or of certain saline solutions, or of carbonic 196 Processes for Wood-preservation. acid. It is less adapted to dry wood than to that newly cut, if, in- deed, it is not limited to the latter.' 776. It is found that the sulphate of copper penetrates with great difficulty into oak, the ends only absorbing to some extent along the spongy layers of the spring growth, while the hard layers of wood formed later in the season do not absorb the least. Elm will absorb very well, excepting in the close firm knots. Beech will admit of very complete penetration in every part. Pine will absorb only in the sap wood. Locust wholly resists penetration. Ash is in about the same class with oak, and so is the chestnut. Birch, when sea- soned, may be prepared very well, and poplar the most completely of all. 777. The Burnett Process. This was first brought to notice be- tween the years 1838 and 1840 by Sir William Burnett, formerly Director General of the Medical Department of the British Navy. It consists in an injection of the ddonde of sine, at the rate of 1 pound to 9 or 10 gallons of water, under a pressure of 150 pounds to the inch. This salt, although soluble, does not easily come out when exposed to the weather or buried in the ground. It is claimed to render wood uninflammable. The cost is about 6 to 8 cents a cubic foot. Extensive works have been constructed for the preparation of wood by this process, and very favorable testimonials have been of- fered in its favor. A concentrated solution is sold at 5s. per gallon in London, to be diluted with 40 gallons of water for use by this process, with instructions and license to use. 778. Sy Carey's Process (1829), a mixture of salt powdered char- coal and animal or vegetable oil is introduced into timber by holes in various parts, and the holes are then closed. Various patents have been granted for inserting preservative substances in the wood, such as coal tar and pulverized mineral substances, more or less soluble and antiseptic in their nature. 779. Tlie Hatzfdd Process. From the fact that oak timbers buried in contact with ochres and the salts of iron acquire great durability, apparently from the reaction between the tannin of the wood and iron, Mr. H. proposes to inject various woods with tannic acid, and then with the pyrolignite of iron, thus assimilating the wood to the ' Baist, in Dinglei's Polytechnic Journal, 1801, Vol. 162, p. 397. See f6., 1851, Vol. 120, p. 140; 123, p. 223. Processes for Wood-preseroation. 197 condition of oak long buried. It is claimed to be particularly serviceable for mining timbers and the like, much exposed to' moist- ure, and therefore liable to decay. It is understood that this process is being largely adopted by the Eastern Eailway in France and by the telegraph service, under the co-operation and authority of the Ministry of the Interior. 780. T/ie Houtin and Bmdigny Process, aims to hermetrically close the ends of the wood, so as to neutralize the property of absorbing moisture. This might be done, either by covering with some hydro- carbon, as, for example, coal oil, or by charring the end, and then plunging it, while hot, in a melted mixture of pitch, tar, and gum- lac, or by covering the whole piece with tar in the usual manner. 781. Tlie Kyanizmg Process. On the 31st of March, 1832, Mr. John H. Kyan took out an English patent for a process for jsrevent- ing timber from decay, by penetrating the tissues with a sokiticn of the birchloride of mercury, or "corrosive sublimate."^ This was done by placing the timber in large tanks, so that it could not float, and then submerging it with the solution for about a week. It was afterwards found necessary to apply pressure, equal to about 100 pounds to the inch. The strength of the solution was finally fixed at about 1 pound to 15 gallons of water, although as strong as 1 pound to 2 gallons had been used. 782. There appear to be still conflicting facts for and against this method, and although formerly much practiced, it is now seldom used. The value of corrosive sublimate as a wash to kill dry-rot, and to prevent insect injuries in wood, had been long known, and it is still employed by botanists for preserving dried specimens from insects. Its agency as an antiseptic was ascribed to the coagulation of albumen in the tissues of the wood, and perhaps the differences in effect were due to the greater or less abundance of this material in the wood, or in permeability of the pores by which it could be reached. The principal objections against this process were its ex- pense and the exceedingly poisonous nature of the material used, which rendered it dangerous to the health of the workmen em- ployed. 783. The Margary Process, patented in England in 1838, consists in immersing in a solution of acetate or sulphate of copper. ^This material had been proposed by Knowles and Davy in 1821, but not practically applied. In 1837, Letellier proposed to use it with gelatine. 198 Processes for Wood-preservation. 784 The Payne Process, patented in England in 1841. This con- sists in' using two solutions, one after the other, and both soluble, but forming an insoluble substance within the wood. The earthy or metallic solution is first introduced under pressure ; after which the decomposing fluid is forced in. The sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda are said to form the insoluble compound in the pores of the wood. He tried a mixture of the sulphate of barium or of calcium with the sulphate of iron, and various other compounds. The pro- cess was costly and imperfect, and is now abandoned.' 785. By Prechtl's Process ( 1822) the wood is first exposed to the vapor of water alone, and then to that of a mixture of tar and water. 786. The BobbMs Process ' consists in first removing the surface moisture of the wood by heat, and then thoroughly impregnating and saturating the pores and fibers by oleaginous vapors, as of coal- tar, resin, or other substances, the temperature being from 212° to 250° (F.) for the former, and about 300° or more for the latter part of the process. 787. The Tait Process consists in saturating the pores of the wood with a concentrated solution of bi-sulphate of lime or baryta, the same being rendered soluble by an excess of sulphuric acid gas under pressure, or by refrigeration, and being made insoluble as a neutral sulphate, when the pressure or excess of gas is removed. 788. Tlte Thilmany Process ' consists in saturating the wood first with a solution of the sulphate of copper, followed by one of the muriate of barytes, the intention being to form an insoluble sulphate of barytes within the wood. 789. The following application has been recommended as valuable in a German journal : " Melt 12 pounds of resin, and add 12 pints of whale oil and 3 pounds of sulphur ; mix an ochre of the color desired, mix very thoroughly in oil, and add. Apply at first a light coat white hot, and in two or three days, when well dried, a second and a third one." This is intended for fences and other wood-work much exposed. * Boston City Docs. No. 100, 1873 ; in a Prize Essay by Prof. F. W. Clarke, p. 15. * Patents were taken out by Louis S. Bobbins, April 4, 18C5 ; April 27, 1869 ; July 20, 1875, and Dec. 21, 1880. 'Patented by W. Thilmaiij', May 2A, 1876. Production of Turpentine, etc. 199 790. The following recipe is from DIngler's Polytechnic Journal, and is intended for piles and posts : " Take 50 parts of rosin, 40 of finely powdered chalk, 300 (more or less) of fine white sharp sand, 4 of linseed oil, 1 of native red oxyde of copper, and 1 of sulphuric acid. First heat the resin, chalk, sand, and oil, then add the oxyde and with care the acid ; stir carefully, and apply as a paint while still hot. If not liquid enough, add oil." This coating when cold and dry is very hard, and it is claimed to be very durable. CHAPTEE XIX. EESINOUS AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF CONIFEES. Naval Stores. 791. This term, as used in commerce, includes the several resinous products of pine forests, and particularly the oil or spirits of turpen- tine,- distilled from crude turpentine ; rosin, or the solid residuum of this distillation ; tar, obtained by the combustion of resinous woods or refuse materials, containing resin, in smothered fires, or their ex- posure to heat externally applied, and pitdi, which difiers chiefly from tar in being solid when cold. 792. Formerly, crude turpentine was an article of commerce, and its distillation was carried on in large establishments near the cen- ters of trade ; but in recent years local distilleries have been erected near the forests where the raw material is. collected, and the products are sent to market prepared for use. The Produetion of Turpentine and other Resinous Materials. 793. When we cut through the bark into the outer wood of a pine, a fir, or a spruce tree," in the spring or early summer, there slowly exudes from the wound a viscid and at first colorless and transparent substance, known in the pine as ' ' turpentine." Upon ex- posure to the air, it absorbs oxygen and becomes whitish, opaque, and solid. When distilled with a little water, the volatile portion passes off with the vapor, and when condensed, it separates and becomes a limpid, volatile, and strongly scented liquid, known as the spirits of turpentine. The portion not volatile, and remaining in the still, 1 The Taxus does not have resiniferous canals in its wood. They are found in the genera Cedrits, Abies, Pinus, Larix,. Picca, Pseudolarix, Thuja, Pinus, Cimressus, IHotiu, Aravcaria, etc., hoth in the root and stem. 200 Production of Turperdine in the Southern States. hardens on cooling, and becomes a more or less translucent and sometimes almost transparent solid, of various shades of yellow and brown, known in commerce as " rosin." 794. Both of these products are of important use in the arts, the former being much used in the preparation of varnishes, india- rubber goods, patent leather, etc. , and in painting. It is an ingre- dient in " camphine" and other burning fluids, and is employed in medicine. Rosin is largely used in the manufacture of soap, can- dles, paper, sealing-wax, and a vast variety of other articles, and when it can be cheaply procured, it makes an excellent illuminating gas. Before the late war, many villages and cities were lighted by gas made wholly from rosin, but the high prices that this event occasioned made it necessary to substitute the cannel-coals. 795. In former times, turpentine was produced to a limited extent from the yellow or Norway pine (Firms rednosd), and the pitch pine (P. rigida), in the Middle and Eastern States; but the chief source of supply within the United States is now almost wholly de- rived from the long-leaved or yellow pine (P. australis) of the Southern States. 796. The "Pine Belt" extends from a little south of the Roanoke river, in North Carolina, through that State, South Carolina, Geor- gia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, into the edge of Texas. It is also found extensively in Florida. This belt is generally from 50 to 150 miles from the coast, and of variable width, the borders being often not sharply defiued, and the whole blended more or less with other trees. Sometimes it occurs in detached masses of consid- erable extent. The differences that occur in its distribution within these limits will probably be found due to geological causes. 797. The " Pine Belt," where it begins on the north, is about fifty miles wide, but as it extends farther south and west it widens in some places to twice this width. This species thrives best on mod- erately hilly, dry, and sandy soils. In level regions with a retentive sub-soil it does not succeed as well as other species. 798. The mode of procuring turpentine, as heretofore and at present practiced, is wasteful and destructive, as compared with pro- cesses we will presently describe, and is generally as follows : 799. In winter the trees are " boxed," by cutting a hole in the side, about three inches wide, six inches deep, and twelve inches long, near the foot of the tree, forming a cavity that will hold about Production of Turpentine : Improved Methods. 201 three pints. The turpentine begins to flow early in the spring, and continues till towards the end of summer. The incisions are en- larged and extended higher up, about once in a week or ten days, and sometimes two or three " boxes " are cut in the same tree. The crude turpentine is dipped out of the boxes, and scraped off from the trees from time to time, and now the greater part is distilled near the forests, and the refined products sent from thence to the markets. 800. In North Carolina, the turpentine is collected about once a month, and 10,000 trees will in a good season yield 50 barrels of spirits of turpentine, and 200 barrels of rosin. In other regions, the trees are cut from twenty to thirty times in a season, and yield from eight to ten dippings. A man will "chip "from 10,000 to 12,000 boxes in a week, as a task. From 1,000 boxes they dip from three to five barrels, of 280 pounds each. 801. The yield per box in soft turpentine is from ten to twelve pounds, or twenty to twenty-five to the tree of usud size. A barrel of crude turpentine will yield five gallons of spirits of turpentine, and from sixty-two to sixty-five per cent of its bulk in rosin. The pro- duet of the first year yields a fine light resin, and it grows darker from year to year. A still of forty barrels capacity, will distill the crude product of about 350,000 boxes. 802. Turpentine is produced to advantage only in a warm cli- mate, and in a given place, to better advantage in hot and humid seasons than in those that are cold and dry. 803. Trees exposed to the air and the sun yield better than those that are crowded and shaded, and those with a well-developed top and well-set with branches much better than those with thin and light foliage. 804. By the improved methods now in use in Europe, and especially in the south-western part of France, the production of crude turpentine (there obtained from the Pinus pinaster, or " mari- time ijine ") is continued many years without killing the trees, and by the following method : 805. In winter the rough bark is smoothed off with a drawing- knife, and as spring approaches, a light incision is made, four or five inches wide and about fifteen inches long, through the bark and a little into the outer wood. This is done with a sharp instrument haying a convex edge. At the bottom a lip of zinc is driven in, 202 French Method of procurmg Turpentine. and under this a small earthern jar, glazed on the inside and shaped like a flower-pot, is placed. 806. About once a week the cutting is renewed, by taking off a thin slice of wood a little deeper and an inch or two higher up, and this is renewed through the warm season, and from year to year. There are two or more of these incisions on each tree, but never wider than at first begun. They are carried up till they are twelve or fifteen feet high, but there is always left a strip of bark, at least as wide, between them. Gradually the wood grow- ing only under this bark, will close over the incisions, generally leav- ing a deep crevice to show its place. This wood is again cut into long, narrow bands as be- fore, aud so for a long period. 807. The general growth of the tree is cheeked, but the quality of the wood improved by this process. It appears to hasten its maturity, and it no doubt shortens its life ; but such trees are kept in productiou from the age of twenty years till they are fifty or sixty years old. It L«, however, generally more profitable to cut them when of good size for timber, to make room for those that are com- ing up from self-seeding, and that will be more productive. 808. As the incisions extend up, the earthern jars are hung higher up, and they are emptied from time to time. The whitish opaque incrustation is scraped off in the fall, and the jars are left bottom upwards at the foot of the tree till spring. The work of "resinage" is commonly done upon shares, and a division is made between the proprietor and the " remieur," after the sales are made. Up to a certain price, the division is equal, but at high rates the pro- prietor receives the greater share of the profits. 118. The Maritime Pine (Pinus pinasler). Tar-making : Pitch : Lamp-blaek, etc. 203 Tar-manufacture. 809. In making charcoal from highly resinous woods, tar is pro- duced, in notable quantities ; and for collecting this a circular floor of masonry is prepared, sloping to a central point, from whence it flows out through a pipe into a reservoir on one side from which it may be dipped. .P^ I I I MMIIl. -T — ^ H I ■ IF»"" I .,-^ tr- -.— - — * "^i ■* ^i -spy ■" *» r " * 119. Foundation of a Tar-kiln, in which a, d, is a sloping brick or stone hearth, with a gratins at d, through which the tar passes, and is conducted by the pipe, 6, to the reservoir, c. 810. By a more slovenly and wasteful process, the tar is allowed to ooze out into gutters in the soil, and is led from these into barrels sunk in the ground. 811. In the more refined methods of tar-making, the knots, resin- ous wood, OF refuse products of the turpentine works are put into large iron receivers set in masonry, so that heat may be applied ex- ternally by fire in an arch. A pipe leads from the bottom of these receivers for carrying off" the tar. Another pipe, near the top, conducts away the volatile portions, which are condensed, as in common distillation. 812. Pifc/i is simply tar boiled down till it will become solid when cold. Its principal use is in ship-building, for rendering the seams under water and the rigging exposed to the weather impervious to water. It is also used in roofing and elsewhere for similar pur- poses. 813. Lamp-black is the smoke of resinous woods, or of the refuse strainings of rosin. When these are burned, the smoke is passed into the chambers lined with coarse cloths, which allow the gases to escape, but intercept the carbonaceous portion, which is collected from time to time. 814. Canada Balsam is obtained from the blisters that form in the bark of the Abies balsamea, or balsam-fir, found growing in the swamps of the Northern States and in Canada. It is used medicin- ally, and is an officinal article in the pharmacopoeias. Among other 204 Perfume from Pine- Sap. officbal resinous products of conifers may be mentioned Burgundy pitch, from Abies exceka, or Norway spruce ; Canada pitch, from the Jhiga Canadensis, or hemlock ; Venice turpentine, from the Larix Europea, or larch ; gum sandarac, from the Callitris quadrivalvis ; frankincense, from the Pinus tedia, etc. 815. Various essential oils are distilled from the leaves of the hemlock, cedar, savin, juniper, spruce, and other evergreens, and are used medicinally. It is probable that amber is a resinous pro- duet of a coniferous tree, although found only in a fossil form. Kauri is the resin of the Dammara australis, but gathered only from the soil formerly covered by forests of the kauri pine of New Zealand. Perfume from Pine Sap. 816. A perfume resembling that from the vanilla bean, and ap- plicable to the same uses, has in recent years been obtained from the sap of the pine and other conifers. The substance has been called eoniferin, and is collected and pr-epared as follows : 817. As the trees are cut down in the summer months (about June 1 to August 15), the bark is taken off, and the sap or cambium is scraped off from the trunk with some sharp instrument, wiped off upon a sponge and squeezed into a tin pail. A tree of vigorous growth aud medium size will yield from four to five litres of sap (about as many quarts), and where the soil is damp and fertile nearly twice as much. It is greater when gathered in warm damp ■weather than when it is cold and dry. 818. The sap, when first collected, is milky and clouded, and more or less mixed with impurities, and it contains a kind of glu- cose, albumen, and eoniferin. It would soon ferment and spoil, and must be strained, after boiling ten or fifteen minutes, to coagulate the albumen. It is then evaporated down to one-fifth of its volume, when it is clear and of a yellowish color. It is then set aside over night in a cool place, when little white crystals of eoniferin will de- posit. These are separated by straining and pressing out the liquid through cloths. 819. A person will collect about three to four pints in a day. The price of the dry crystalline substance, as prepared in the forest, is about $18.60 to the pound avoirdupois. The forest of Murat, in France, furnishes from twenty-five to forty pounds a year. The eoniferin is taken to Paris, and there, in chemical laboratories, it is Use of Wood in Paper-making. 205 converted into the material so highly prized for flavoring and perfume. CHAPTER XX. USE OP WOOD IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPEE. 820. In recent years, the employment of wood for paper has come into extensive use, both in Europe and America.' For this purpose it must first be reduced to pulp, and mixed with a certain pro- portion of rags. The chief kinds used in this country are the poplar and the spruce, and in Europe, besides these, various pines and the white birch. The wood should be worked up fresh, and in preparing it the bark and defective or rotten parts must be first taken off". There " are two principal methods of reducing wood to pulp — the mechan- ical and the chemical ; and each of these is subdivided into several distinct processes. 821. By the more common of the former, known as the " Volter Process," from Henry Volter, of Wurteraburg, who first brought it into successful use,' the wood is ground into pulp upon the edge of broad and large grindstones running vertically in water, the wood being pressed firmly down sideways of the grain, by automatic screws, at four or five places. The feed is about an inch in five minutes, and the speed about 200 revolutions in a minute. 822. Of course the power required to run such machines is very great. The wood is sometimes boiled or steamed before grinding, and the pulp is screened through fine wire cloth, and the coarser parts ground with water between mill-stone like those for grinding grain. This process began to be successfully used about 1846, and is largely used, both in Europe and the United States. 823. By the "Hartmann Process" the wood is ground between two smaller vertical stones, the approach being secured by a weight. By the" Siebrecht Process" the grinding is done upon a great hori- zontal stone, and the wood is held down by hydraulic pressure. There are other processes by which the wood is sawn into short lengths, and then crushed under heavy rollers, or the fibers are torn ' The inventor of this process was F. G. Keller, who took out a patent in Germany, in 1844, for a wood-pnlp grinding machine, but not having the cap- ital sold ont his interest. H^! afterwards fell into indigence and was aided by a subscription among the German paper-makers. 206 Use of Wood in Paper-making. obliquely off by saws, and in both of these the wood is ground in a mill before being used. 824. By the chemical process, which is more recent and more costly, but which produces a better result, the wood is first cut into short chips by heavy revolving planes, and then macerated in large and strong boilers, with caustic soda, and under a pressure of 10 or 12 atmospheres. By the "Sinclair Process" this is done in upright boilers. By the " Lee Process " it is done in larger boilers, that are horizontal. By the "Fry Process" water alone is used, under a pressure of 5 or 6 atmospheres, and saw-dust is thus made avail- able as a material. The product is a brown pulp, and used for wrap- ping paper only. . 825. Wood-pulp is chiefly used for making wrapping and news- paper, wall-papers, and the like. It is sometimes used for envelopes, but as at present made it is scarcely proper for writing-paper, nor for the grades required in finer book- work. But the consumption for these is enormous, and constantly increasing, and these industries are here noticed chiefly aa affording a profitable business in forest culture. 826. We have elsewhere (p. 90) noticed the strong tendency of poplars to come up as second growth where pines have been cut away, and where the soil has been injured by forest fires, so as to be unprofitable for the cultivation of common field crops. When pro- tected, such poplar groves properly thinned out grow rapidly, and in from ten to fifteen years will be fit to cut for paper-pulp. They will readily reproduce themselves from sprouts, and the cuttings should be so arranged, if possible, that the trees be kept at the same age, and be cut off down to the limit of smallest available size in the same year. 827. Saw-dust of red-cedar is used in the coarse thick paper placed under carpets, upon the theory that it wiU prevent injuries from moths. CHAPTER XXI. TANNING MATERIALS. 828. Supplies of material for tanning leather are derived from the forests, chiefly in the form of bark, or their extracts; but oc- casionally other materials are used, such as valonia, or the acorn- cups of an oak (Qitercus mgUops), growing in Greece and Asia-Minor, Tanning Materials. 207 nut-galls from the Levant, the leaves of the sumac, and extracts prepared from various herbaceous plants. The tanning principle is not often found in the wood, nor in plants having poisonous quali- ties or milky juices, and as a general rule it is greater in the bark of young oak trees than of old ones, and more in a deep rich soil than in trees grown upon sterile land. 829. The principal supply of oak-bark used in Europe for tanning purposes is from the Quercus pedurwulata and Q. sessilifolia, the common English oaks. The relative value of different barks used in England for tanning is about as follows: Oak-coppice, 300; chest- nut, 243; birch, 162; mountain ash, 125 ; larch, 131. The spruce also furnishes some tanning material, and is used with oak. By peeling, oak-coppice wood looses about one-eight part of its volume. 830. In the Northern States, the principal bark used comes from the hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), and immense quantities of timber have been wasted by being left after peeling to rot on the ground. This wasteful practice is still continued in some places. In the southern part of Pennsylvania, in Maryland, and southward, as also in many parts of the Western States, and to less extent in New England and New York, the red or black oaks have furnished most of the barks used for tanning. 831. Tanning-extract is prepared by grinding the bark, leeching out the tannin with hot water, and evaporating in vacuum-pans down to the consistence of syrup. In this state it is sent to market in barrels and sold by the pound. 832. When oak is grown in coppices in Europe, for the pro- duction of tan-bark, the coppices may be cut on damp soils (where the bark tends to become covered with mosses, and to become rough), at the age of fifteen years. As a general rule, however, it is al- lowed to grow about twenty years. In older trees the rough corky bark is of but little value. The best comes from trees in a healthy growing condition, with a thick juicy liber, and that are cut in the spring before the leaves have expanded. 833. In peeling oak-coppice, the workmen endeavor to take it as far as they can from the standing tree. If young trees are left a short time after felling, the bark becomes adherent, and the process difficult. The work of peeling is most easily carried on in warm humid weather, and is interrupted by cold, dry winds. The upper part and branches peel easier than the main trunk, and they save 208 Tanning Materials : Nomaison Process. the bark of all that can be obtaiued. It is first exposed to the sun, with the inside up, for a short time, and is then piled with the outer side up until dry. It is estimated that the trees yield about five per cent of their weight in bark, and that the latter looses about one-third of its weight in drying. 834. Oak bark is much injured by rains, and even when care- fully dried and housed it deterioraDes by keeping. Quercitron (the bark of Q. eocdnea) used for dyeiug yellow, and for tanning, is usu- ally ground and sold in sacks. Oak wood, when peeled, is used for various manufacturing purposes, and for firewood and charcoal. r/ie Peding of Oah Bark by ike aid of Seat. 835. The inconvenience of crowding the work of peeling into a busy season of the year, has led to the introduction of a process in Europe, by the aid of which this work can be done at all seasons of the year. It is known from the inventor as the "Nmnaison Pro- cess." The apparatus consists of several large iron receivers of thin plate iron, strong enough to bear a moderate strain, and air-tight. The wood is placed in these, and steam at about 170° centigrade (338° Fahr.) is admitted from a boiler so placed as to serve several of these receivers. They hold about half a cord each, and the time required varies from an hour and a half to two hours and a half, according to the season when the wood is cut. It is then taken out and peeled. If the heat is continued too long, the bark again becomes adherent. 836. One great advantage to be gained by this process in the working of coppice- wood is, that it is not necessary to cut the wood at the season when the greatest injury is done to the stumps that are to send up a new growth. Careful experiments have been made by order of the French and Prussian governments upon the quality of the bark thus peeled, with favorable results. It is men- tioned in this connection as of interest with respect to the future supplies of bark for tanning, as our native woodlands that furnish this material become scarce. Sumac. 837. The leaves of the sumac contain a tanning material much used in dyeing, and in tanning light leather, and from six to ten thousand tons are imported into the United States annually from Cultivation of the Sumac. 209 Europe — chiefly from Sicily — for these uses, at a cost of from half to three-quarters of a million of dollars per annum. 838. The Sicilian sumac (Rhus coriaria) thrives only in a ■warm climate, where the orange, the carob, and the pistacia grow in the open air, and the ash produces manna. It will bear an occasional light frost in midwinter. It is particularly liable to injury from a white frost in spring. It is propagated from sprouts that come up around the mature shrubs. They are taken off in December and January, and set in rows, which are ridged up, and well cultivated ^at intervals through the first year, but it does not begin to produce till the third year. 839. The leaves are harvested by trimming the shoots that spring up around the main stem, a process that is done by men with a pruning-hook, or by picking the leaves by hand, which is done by women and children , during the summer. The leaves and trimmings are then dried, and the leaves are beaten off from the latter by threshing with flails, or treading of animals, preference being given, to the hottest hours of the day, as the leaves then separate most easily. The best qualities are baled with the leaves entire, and with-- out their stems. The next grade has the leaves bruised, with the^ stems adhering ; the next, is the leaf crop of one-year old plants, while the lowest and poorest grade is from the tops of branches gathered in the beginning of autumn. 840. In any attempt to cultivate this species in the United States, success could only be expected from fresh cuttings, planted in the southern border of the Gulf States and in Southern California. Of native species we have three that are used to some extent for tan- ning purposes. They are, in order of preference, the Rhw glabra, or smooth sumac, the B. copaUina, the wing-ribbed or mountain sumac, and the R. typhina, or stag-horn sumac. 841. The principal American sumac that is prepared for market comes from Virginia. The leaves are picked by country people, without much regard to the season, from the shrubs found growing wild, and are dried and sold by weight to the owners of mills for grinding. The leaves should be taken when full of sap, and before they turn red or begin to wither, and especially before frost. After being wilted in the sun, they should be spread upon shelves or racks to dry in a shaded but airy place, and should be allowed to remain at least a month, and in damp weather longer, before going to mar- 210 Cultivation of the Sumac. ket. Its value is judged by the color of the leaves, which should be of a bright green, and the price ranges about 75 cents per 100 pounds. The quantity gathered is about 7,000 to 8,000 tons. It is ground in close compartments, under revolving stone or wooden rollers, and is sent to market in sacks. 842. The difference in quality between Sicilian and American SU' macs is about 6 to 8 per cent of tannic acid in favor of the former, while its price is about $50 more per ton. The native sumacs grow readily from seeds and sprouts, and when once started might be propagated with facility. It has not yet been determined as to the differences that may result from climate, but judging from the ex- perience of Europe, a warm climate, and a southern slope, would be more favorable than others, and as it is found growing wild in the most rugged and rocky grounds, it may doubtless be cultivated in such places with profit. 843. A considerable amount of sumac was formerly gathered in Connecticut, and there are still persons who make it an exclusive business to gather, dry, and thresh the leaves for market. It sella in New York and Boston at from $40 to $50 per ton. It is gathered entirely from the wild shrubs, no attempt being made at cultivation. CHAPTER XXn. DESCBIPTIONS OF PAETICULAH SPECIES. 844. It is not our purpose to follow a systematic classification in the following pages, nor to introduce botanical descriptions. We shall present some facts concerning the number and distribution of species ; more particularly those that appear worthy of attention in forest-culture, without attempting to notice those that are of chief interest for ornamental planting, or that are merely woody shrubs. The Oaks and their related Species. 845. Of the natural order Cupuliferce to which the oaks, beech, chestnut, etc., belong, there are about four hundred species. They are divided into three tribes, viz : Bettdoe, including the birches and alders; Goryllece, including the hornbeam, ironwood, hazel, etc., and the QuerdncB, including the oaks, chestnuts, and beeches. 846. The oaks are, by general consent, ranked by English writers upon sylviculture as of first importance, on account of the great The Oaks : General Division. 211 size to ■which the more important species grow, the vast age that they attain, and the hardness and durability of the timber. Since the introduction of iron as a building material, the oak has lost much of its importance in ship-building and for structures requiring great solidity and strength, such as bridges and large buildings for business purposes or public use in cities ; but the better kinds of oak will always be valued among the most desirable for forest planting, and under favorable conditions as the most profitable that can be grown. 847. The oaks are chiefly natives of the north temperate zone, but some occur upon mountains within the tropics, in the Malay archipelago, and in South America. None are found in Australia ; one genus only of the family is found in the south temperate zone, and a few are found within the Arctic- circle. 848. About 250 species of the QwercMs, or oak genus, are known to botanists. They are arranged by De Candole ' into six sections, four of which are found only in South-eastern Asia. About forty species occur native within the United States. They may be con- veniently arranged into two classes, viz., the "white" and the '-' black " oaks. 849. The white oaks, are so called from the grayish or ash-colored tint of the bark, which often tends to separate into scales. The wood is tough, dense, and excellent for cooperage, wagon-making, and other uses requiring closeness of grain, strength, and durability. The trees are slower in growth than the other divisions to be men- tioned, but owing to the superior quality of the timber, they may prove more profitable for planting, although longer in coming to full maturity. They are excellent for fuel and charcoal, and most of them are desirable for ornamental planting. 850. The black oaks, have a bark which is dark, rough, and deeply cracked. The wood is brittle, porous, and a poor fuel. It is so porous that it can not be used for casks for holding liquids. The peduncles or fruit stems are short or wanting, and the acorns gener- ally ripen the second year, but to this there are some exceptions. Their growth, as compared with the white oaks, is very rapid, gen- erally as two to one, and even more. There is generally less dis-. tinction between the heart-wood and the sap-wood, and they occur ^Prodromus, Vol. XVI. 212 Classification of the Oaks. principally in the Atlantic States. They far excel the -white oaks in the tanning qualities of the bark. 851. Michaux described twenty-eight species of the oak in his " Sylva Americana," including three introduced European species ; and used as the first basis of subdivision the character of the leaves. In the first division, he placed the species with beardless leaves, and in the second, those in which the lobes are terminated by a bristle. The interval between blossoming and the ripening of the fruit was admitted as a secondary character, which , in the first of his divis- ions, is generally annual, and in the second biennial. 852. The species thiat he described were as follows : - FiEST Division : Fructification annual ; leaves beardless. First Section : Leaves lobed. 1. White oak, Quercus alba. 3. Mossy-cup oak, Q. olivoBformis, c Common European oak, Q. 4. Over-cup white oak, Q. ma.- n I rohur. crocarpa. I European white oak, Q. 5. Post oak, Q. obtvsitoba. ^ robur pedencvlata. 6. Over-cup oak, Q. lyrata. Second Section: Leaves toothed. 7. Swamp white oak, Q. primis 10. Yellow oak, Q. prinus acu- discoloT. minata. 8. Chestnut white oak, Q. p^Tii^s 11. Small chestnut oak, Q.^jriwiw palustris. chinquapin. 9. Rock chestnut oak, Q. prinus rmmticola. Second Division : Fructification biennial ; leaves mucronated.' First Section : Leaves obtuse or entire. 12. Live oak, Q. virens. 16. Upland willow oak, Q. cine- 13. Cork oak, Q. siiher. rea. 14. Willow oak, Q.phellos. 17. Running oak, Q. pumila. 15. Laurel oak, Q. imbricaTia. ' Except in thirteenth species. Classification of the Oaks. 213 Second Section: 18. Bartram oak, Q. heter(yphylla. 19. Water oak, Q. aquatica. Leaves lobed. 20. Black-jack oak, Q./errojrinea. 21. Bear oak, Q. Bannideri. Third Section: Leaves multifid or many-cleft. 22. Barren scrub oak, Q. Gates- 25. Scarlet oak, Q. cocmiea. bad. 26. Gray oak, Q. awhigua. 23. Spanish oak, Q.falcata. 27. Pin oak, Q. pahistris. 24. Black oak, Q. tinctmia. 28. Bed oak, Q. rubra. 853. The oaks have been made a subject of careful study by Dr. Geo. Engelmann, of St. Louis, who arranges the native American species according to their natural affinities, as follows : ' A. Leucobalanus (White Oaks.) 1. Seeds maturing annually : (a.) Leaves deciduous. Quereus alba, White oak. " lobata, California white oak. " Brewerii, Brewer's oak. " Oarrayana, Oregon white oak. " stellata. Post oak. " macTocarpa, Burr oak ; overcup oak. " lyrata. Southern overcup oak. " hi/iolor (^MicJiavxii) , Swamp white oak. " prirvus, Rock-chestnut oak. " MuMenbergii {prinoides) . Small chestnut oak. " Douglasii, California white oak. " undulata, Rocky Mountain white oak. " pungens, Arizona white oak. (6.) Leaves persistent. Quereus oblongifolia. Oblong-leaved oak. " dumosa, Dwarf California oak. " reticulata. " virens, Live oak. ^Transactions of St. Louis Academy of Sciences, Vol. III., No. 4, p. .S88. The common names that we have added, ave somewhat uncertain in their use. It will be seen that some have two, some more, and others are applied to more than one species. 214 Classification of the Oaks. 2. Seeds maturing the second year : Qiiereus chrysolepis (vaeciniifolia) , Canon live oak. " Palmerii, Palmer's dwarf oak. " tomenteUa. B. Melanobalanus (Black Oaks.) 1. Seeds maturing annually; leaves persistent : Quercus Emoryi, Emory's oak. " agrifolia, Field oak. " pumila, Dwarf oak. " hypoleuca. 2. Seeds maturing the second year : (a.) Leaves deciduous. Quereus rubra, Black oak ; Eed-oak. " coednea'- (tinctoria), Scarlet-oak. " KeUoggii, California black-oak. " falcata, Spanish-oak. " Catesbaei, Catesby's oak. " Uidfolia, Black scrub-oak. " palustris, Pin-oak. " Georgiana. " aquatica, Water-oak. " laurifolia, Water-oak. " nigra, Black-jack. " cinerea. Upland willow-oak. " itnhricaria. Shingle-oak. " phellos, Willow-oak. (&.) Leaves persistent. Quereus Wisliaeni, California live-oak. " myrtifolia. One other, the California chestnut oak {Q. den^flora), can be classed with neither. 854. Hybrids are occasionally noticed in the oaks, from the cross- fertilization of species, but not outside of the group to which the species belong. The differences between white oaks and black oaks are too great to admit of this crossing, and they have been more frequently noticed in the black oaks. The following black oaks, 'The Q. coednea and Q. tinctoria are, by some- botanists, made separate species. Hybrid Oaks : General mode of Cultivation. 215 heretofore described as species, are regarded by Dr. Engelmann as hybrids : Quercm sinuccta, probably from Q. Cate^aei and Q. laurifolia. (South Carolina.) " tridentata, from Q. imbricaria and Q. nigra. (Illinois.) " Leana, from Q. imiricaria and Q. cocdnea. (Ohio to Mis- souri, and near Washington.) " heteropliyUa, from Q. pliellos and Q. eoccmea. (In New Jer- sey and Delaware.) 855. Oaks succeed best on a deep loomy soil, and on low lands rather than upon hills. They are especially liable to injury from late spring frosts, both in the blossoms and leaves, and having a long tap-root, they are somewhat difficult to transplant, without careful preparation, tending to the suppression of this root, and to the formation of abundant fibers. They may be planted in the fall or early in the spring, in the places where they are to remain, and should be cultivated tUl they shade the grounds. When started in nurseries, they should be transplanted two or three times before final planting, and the tap-roots should be cut ofi" with a sharp knife, to induce the formation of lateral roots and more abundant radicles. 120. Qaereui pedunmlaia: The English Oak— Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit. 216 Cultivation of the Oak. 856. There is a great advantage in planting them with other spe- cies, such as the beech, pines, and spruces, with the ^iew of com- pelling the trees to form a long straight body ; but in this case, reasonable care should be taken to remove those other kinds from time to time, as the growth becomes dense. 857. Where the oak is cultivated in Europe for its bark and wood, it is recommended to cut close to the ground, and in a dry time to cover the stumps with a handful of leaves, or any rubbish that may be convenient, to keep them from becoming too dry. If cut very close, the sprouts will be fewer in number, but stronger, and better rooted. Where this practice is carefully followed, they will reproduce a great number of times. 121. Oak from Provence, France. Very 122. Oak from Bonrgogne, France. Very hard, and of rapid growth. hard, hut of slow growth. 858. The quality of oak timber is much influenced by the condi- tions in which it has grown. In a rich and moderately humid soil, and in a warm climate, the fibers acquire their highest qualities of strength and durability. Such wood the French call " 7naigre" (lean), or " dur" (hard). The grain is hard and close : it scarcely absorbs water. The wood splits easily without running out on one side, and when planed the shavings form strong tough strips. When such wood is broken, the fracture forms many long sharp splinters. The two specimens on page 217 are also of this class. 859. But when oak is grown in a soil that is submerged for a time in spring, but dry the rest of the year, the spring growth is loose and spongy, while that formed later in the season may be very hard. Siich wood can not be either strong or durable, although from the difierences in the grain, it may be highly ornamental for inside fin- ishing and for cabinet work. 860. The American White Oak (Quercus atba)'. This tree oc- curs from Canada southward to the Gulf, and westward to beyond the Missouri, but it comes to greatest perfection in the Middle States, and in the deep, strong, and moderately damp soil. The The White Oak. 217 land on which it formed a principal part of the timber, generally has proved when brought under cultivation to be well adapted for 123. Italian Oak: Very coarse, but strong when fully ripened. 124. Italian Oak: Coarse, but very strong. wheat. It derives its name from the whitish color of the bark. The wood has a slightly reddish tinge, and although not as heavy and compact as the common English oak, it is solid, strong, and durable, and is found excellent for heavy timber-work, and for all kinds of structures requiring durability and strength. It is extensively used for staves, agricultural implements, carriage and car-building, cab- inet wares, fencing, and various farm purposes, and is a favorite wood in ship-building. Like the European oaks above described, the quality of the wood differs according to the nature of the soil in which it has grown, being relatively more dense, strong, and dura- ble when grown in a warm climate and upon a rich and moderately humid, clayey loam. 861. This timber has been largely exported from the northern borders of the United States, and from Canada by way of the St. Lawrence to England, and in districts where it was once abundant it is now scarce. A considerable amount that leaves the port of Quebec is now brought from Michigan and other states bordering upon the lakes. In floating this timber it is usually made up into rafts with pine, to give it greater bouyancy. 862. The Live Oak (Quercus virens), is an evergreen tree found 218 Live Oak : California Species. growing in Georgia, Florida, and along the Gulf Coast, and since an early period in our government it has been an object of protec- tion to some extent on account of its great value in ship-building." Some experiments at cultivation were attempted many years since, but without much success, excepting the clearing away of bushes around young plants found native in the thickets. It could doubt- less be grown from acorns with proper care, perhaps by using slight perishable baskets for keeping the soil around the roots in trans- planting from seed-beds, as is practiced with bamboo shells in rais- ing the teak and the cinchonas in India. The wood of the live oak is of great strength and hardness, but not of slow growth, the annual layers being often a quarter or a third of an inch in thick- ness. This tree especially deserves cultivation in regions where it wiU grow. 125. Querms Bindsit'.— Leaves and Acorn one-half the Natural Size. 863. Among the remaining oaks of the Atlantic States, there are many that have a local value, but none that enter largely into com- merce, or that are extensively used in manufactures. Most of them afford excellent fuel and charcoal, and some of them are quite durable when used as railway ties or fence posts. The bark of the " scarlet California Oaks. 219 oak" (QuercMa coccinea) furnishes the "quercitron," so highly val- ued as a yellow dye and a tanning material, and is an article of con- siderable commercial importance. 864. Upon the Pacific Coast we find a dozen or more species of the oak, some of them fine and ornamental, but none of them of great importance for their timber, which is weak, brittle, and alto- gether inferior to the general quality of oaks as found in the Atlan- tic States. They chiefly belong to the " white oak " family. Four or five of them have persistent leaves, the rest being deciduous, and one of them much resembles the chestnut. 865. The Long-acorned Oak (Q. Sinddi) of California, much resembles the white oak of the Eastern States. It is the finest and perhaps most abundant of the oaks of that region, occurring along the foot-hills and the valleys of streams in clumps and belts, branch- ing out low and broad, and sometimes five or six feet in diameter near the ground. The wood is porous and brittle. The acorns are gathered and eaten by the natives, and stored for winter use. 866. The Caufoekia Chestnut Oak (Q. demiflora) is a small tree with evergreen leaves, found growing on the coast range with the red-woods. It sometimes occurs fifty or sixty feet high, and from one to two feet in diameter. It is often only a shrub. The fruit ripens the second year, and the wood is worthless and brittle. This oak is the only American representative of a group found chiefly in Asia, having strong resemblance to the chestnut, with spines on its cup, somewhat like those on the chestnut-burr. In the Sacramento Valley, it forms a low but handsome tree. 867. The Eveegeeen Oak of California, often called the "shrub oak" (Q. agrifolia, is a low spreading tree, having much the form of an apple-tree, rarely over a foot in diameter, and 30 to 40 feet high. It occurs in the Sacramento Valley, and extends south into Mexico. The wood is hard, brittle, and too small for valuable use. 868. The Chestnut {Cashinea vesea). This tree is found native from the central part of New England and Central Ncav York southward and westward, extending into the mountains of the Car- olinas and Georgia, and occurring abundantly in the eastern part of Kentucky and Tennessee. In Canada it is found only in the peninsula westward from the Niagara river, and is not of sufficient abundance to be of much practical account. It is common in the states north of the Ohio river, where the soil is favorable. Our 220 The Chestnut. American chestnut is a variety of the same species that is culti- vated in Europe. (12G. Queretis agrifolia. — Leaves and Fruit one-half Natural Size. [See page 219.] 869. The chestnut in Massachusetts forms one of the largest of the native forest trees, growing sometimes in the southwestern part of the state to the height of ninety or a hundred feet. It extends into the southern edge of Maine, but scarcely beyond the 44th de- gree of latitude, nor does it generally thrive near the sea. 870. The chestnut is early to feel the warmth of spring, and some- times suffers from late spring frosts. For this reason, it is least apt to suffer on a northern or north-eastern slope. It requires a light, silecious soil, if deep and substantial, and especially prefers that formed by the decomposition of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, or sand- stone. Upon granitic gravel and volcanic scoriae it jjives the most abundant products. It is useless to plant it upon calcareous soils, nor does it prosper upon clays, or in marshy and uudrained situations. It prefers hills and mountains of moderate height, and succeeds much better there than upon plains. 871. For cultivation as a timber-tree, it should be planted upon gravelly hills, and generally where it is to remain. The young plants are robust from the first, and do not prosper in the shade. They are more apt to suffer from frost than the oak. The roots are generally abundant, and strike deep into the soil, but not as deep as the oak. The growth is rapid, and sustained till sixty or seventy The Chestnut. 221 years of age, but it continues to live and grow to more than twice tiiis period, and under favorable circumstances it sometimes lives to an immense age.' 872. Of our native forest trees, there are few that show a greater tendency to grow from the sprouts than the chestnut, and on rocky and broken grounds, where this tree will flourish best, there is no crop that under favorable circumstances and proper protection will pay so good a profit upon the land. 873. It is remarked by the highest authorities upon forestry, that " chestnut stumps have a remarkable durability, and that the sprouts they send up afford a growth both vigorous and rapid. It is especially in vine countries that coppices of this wood are found most profitable, from the hoops they furnish for casks and props for the vines."'' It is not advisable to reserve trees for large growth in a chestnut coppice, as is done with great advantage in the oak, be- cause the shade would do more harm to the young growth than the air and light would benefit the reserves. 874. The trees, when ten or fifteen years old, will begin to bear fruit, and thus assist in re-stocking. It would be advisable to re- serve a few trees around the borders of the tract to secure some timber of larger growth, and increase the chestnut harvest. 875. Chestnut " sprout lands" must of course be kept inclosed agaiust sheep, horses, and cattle at all seasons, for although they may be cut off at one time, there will still be sprouts of small size, and these will be needed for re-stocking the ground. The same objection would not exist against the admission of swine, which in fruitful seasons would thrive and fatten without injury to the trees. 876. Where a chestnut grove is to be started in Europe,' it is recommended to set fhe young trees from nurseries, when about three years old, at distances of two or three yards apart, cultivat- ing the ground between as long as it can be conveniently done with potatoes or grain. When the trees have grown to two or three inches in diameter, they carefully cut them off close to the ground, ' A chestnut tree (or perhaps a group of trees) formerly stood upon Mt. Etna, more than fifty yards in circumference. It was hollow, and must have been some 2,000 years old. It was called "castagno di cento cavalli." It appears from an account published in 1865, that this remarkable tree no longer exists." {Revue des Deux Mondea, July, 1, 1865.) 2 Lorentz and Parade — Culture des Bois. 222 The Chestnut. and the next spring the stump is covered with numerous strong sprouts. 877. In six or eight years, when the shoots have become thick and strong, the smaller rods are cut out, leaving only two or three, which when thus relieved take a vigorous start, and at the end of six or seven years more are from four to six inches in diameter. It is again thinned out, and at 20 to 25 years from the time of plant- ing, the trees that are left have made a truly wonderful growth. The thinnings from beginning hav-^e value, first, for coarse basket and wicker-work ; and then for hoops and poles, suitable for many uses. 878. Generally a coppice of chestnut is cut off when twelve or fifteen years old, and in Alsace and Eastern France, the profits from such a cutting are twice as great as from the white oak of that region at twice its age, a hectare at fifteen years being worth 3,000 francs.^ It is there recommended to cultivate the ground with po- tatoes and rye two or three years after each cutting, the yield of these harvests being more than double the cost of cultivation and seed. Chestnut coppices thus managed will last in Alsace for a hundred y^ears. This cultivation is thought to stimulate the growth of sprouts, by bringing the ends of the roots to the air, besides rid- ding the ground of bushes and brambles. 879. The European chestnut is an important article of food, es- pecially in Italy, France, and Spain. The fruit is much larger than the American variety, and runs into differences in quality that have been introduced by cultivation, and that are propagated by grafting. In bearing years, the yield of a single tree is often very large, amounting in some cases to a ton or more of the fresh fruit in a single year. This shrinks about one-third in weight upon dry- ing. When used as food it is boiled or roaste'd. The dried fruit re- duced to a meal is made into a kind of bread called in Italy polenta. It furnishes a principal article of food to the poor inhabitants of the mountain regions through the greater part of the year. 880. The chestnut product of Italy is about 6,400 tons a year for the markets, and the trees are under cultivation for the fruit upon a million and a quarter of acres. 881. Chestnut wood is heavier and closer grained when grown in ' BroUiard's "Trailemeni des Bois en France," p. 108. A hectare is 2.47 acres. The rate here mentioned is a little over $240 per acre for 15 years or $16 per acre annually. The Chestnut. 223 warm climates, and in Italy it is thought equal to the oak for staves. lu colder countries it is too porous for coopers' use excepting for dry wares. It is highly prized for carpentry, bears exposure very well, and is very durable for fencing. It is sometimes made iuto shingles, but although durable, it is very apt to warp. Its lumber is much used for furniture and inside finishing, and shows to fine advantage w^hen oiled or varnished. ><82. Throughout France and the south of Europe, young chest- nut rods are extensively used for hoops, and from their durability in moist places they will long resist the dampness of cellars. Chest- nut coppices are considered valuable property for this use, and are cut ofi" about once in seven years, the smaller rods being saved for hoops, and the larger ones for vine-props. The American chestnut is not found well adapted for this use, as the wood is more brittle, and more liable to split off at the ends. 883. As a fuel, the chestnut ranks with the light woods. Its pores being full of air, it snaps as it burns, and its charcoal is light, but still useful in forges, although not as valuable as the hard-woods in the reduction of metallic ores. 884. The extract of chestmd is prepared in France, by cutting the green wood into chips, with revolving planes, that slice across the grain. The chips are then put into great covered boilers, and al- lowed to mascerate for some time, when steam is admitted, and tJie process is continued tUl the tannin in the wood is exhausted. The liquor is then strained out and evaporated to the desired consistence. This acid product is used in preparing silks, and is employed in tan- ning the lighter kinds of leather. In the neighborhood of Lyons, France, they get 25 per cent of weight of the wood in the form of extract, worth about 18 francs per 100 kilograms, equal to about 500 pounds to the ton, worth #32. 72. 885. Chestnut wood has been used to a small extent in the United States fbr tanning purposes. It appears to require a warm climate, to develop these properties so as to be of much value. 886. Dying off of the Oiestnut. Throughout the Piedmont region in North Carolina and in the northern part of Georgia and Ala- bama, the chestnut trees have been dying off in many cases to a large extent, and from causes that have not been ascertained. The mor- tality is noticed in trees of all ages, and now there is but little of this timber found in a growing condition in North Carolina east of 224 The Chestnut, and the Chinquapins. the Blue Eidge, until we get high up on its peaks and spurs. "Westward of this ridge, the trees do not bear fruit now as they did twenty years ago, so that hog-raising, formerly an important busi- ness, has almost ceased. Occasionally there is still a good chestnut crop, but it is rare and uncertain. i 887. In Europe, a similar fatality has been noticed in some parts of Italy and Spain, and there has been found in connection with the roots a fungus, composed of blackish brown filaments, forming a net-work that penetrates the cellular tissues of the bark and wood, feeding upon the juices of the living tree, and upon the decompos- ing remains of the dead. No remedy has been proposed there short of grubbing up and destroying by fire the roots of infected trees, and all the debris ; but of course in our country such a meas- ure would be wholly impracticable, unless possibly in isolated cases, should tliis treatment be found efiectual, and its necessity urgent.' 888. The Chinquapin (^Castaiwa pumila) is usually a shrub or small tree, growing in swamps, in the Middle and Southern States, rarely attaining a height of thirty or forty feet, and generally being too small for use. In Arkansas, however, it grows to a large size — sometimes three and even four feet in diameter, but not to a great height. The fruit is small and sweet, and sometimes finds its way into market. A dwarf variety grows upon poor soils, and bears fruit when not more than a foot in height. It has been recommended for cultivation as a covering for land too poor for other growth, and as aflfording food for swine. 889. The Western Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophyUa) is gen- erally a low and unimportant evergreen shrub, growing in Califor- nia and Oregon ; but iu the Cascade Mountains, it sometimes grows to thirty feet in height, or even much larger. The leaves have a dark green color above, but are covered with a y_ellow powder be- neath. The nut is small, with a harder shell than the eastern chinquapin, which it otherwise much resembles. ' A writer in Carrol Co., Ga., mentions this disease of the chestnut, which appeared about fifteen jears ago, and had made a clean sweep — even the bushes having nearly all died; no worms or insects had been found upon them before death, and even now the dead chestnut trees were the most val- uable rail-timber they had, it beino; soft bnt very durable, lasting longer in the open weather than any other kind. After being dead over ten years, the trees were sound, and without signs of decay. The Beeches. 225 The Beech (Genus Fagus). 890. About twenty-five species of the Fagus are described by botanists, being widely difiused in the temperate zones both north and south. 891. In Europe the beeCh {Fagus sylvatica) is very extensively cultivated in France, Germany, and Denmark, constituting a very important timber-tree, preferring a cool to a mild climate, and in warm regions growing only at considerable elevations. It thrives in great variety of soils, but prefers those that are calcareous and gravelly, but not sandy, and where the climate favors, it grows both upon mountains and the. plains. It is often cultivated alone, form- ing great forests by itself; but it grows very well with the oak, fir, maple, 8cotch pine, etc. , and as its roots spread near the surface, while those of the oak penetrate deep into the sub-soil, these trees appear to thrive very well together. 892. The wood of the beech splits remarkably well when green, but it is very liable to shrink, and should not be used until well seasoned. It is largely used for cabinet work, and for a wide di- versity of uses in the industries, but does not bear exposure to the weather nor changes from wet to dry. When injected with the sul- phate of copper, it has been much used as railroad ties, but it is not as lasting as unimpregnated oak. It is very highly esteemed for fuel and charcoal, and the oil from its nuts has the same uses as that from the olive. 893. Its growth is rather slow at first, but a little more rapid than that of the oak. It is noticed that under a deep shade the beech will sprout from the seed and grow to a yard or so in height, when it will stop growing, and remain almost indefinitely ; but start vig- orously again, as soon as the light is admitted.' The slight diflfer- ence in quality between the sap-wood and the heart-wood, allows of the whole being used without the waste of any part. 894. The beech comes to maturity sooner than the oak, and does not grow to so large a size. As there is not much gain in qual- ity when grown to greatest size, it is generally cut when from 24 to 30 inches in diameter. In some forests it is grown as coppice-wood by sprouts from the roots and stu mp, but in many places this is found an uncertain process, and it is planted from nurseries, or started by natural seeding. 'G. Bajrneris' " Manuel de SylvicuUure," 2il. Ed., p. C5. 127. Fagua eylvaHm.—T'he European Beach. 1. Upper side of a twig in May, with male and female blossoms. 2. A separate male blossom, 3. Anthers, front and rear views, and sections. 4. Female blossoms of nntural size. 5. The same, sep- arated and enlarged. 6. Section of the same, showing the germs of seeds, en- larged. 7. Transverse section of the latter, at the polutmarked by a star. 8. Tlio ripe fruit in Its burr. 9. The sime, before opening, in. Cross-section of a ivut. 11. Twig with two loaf-buds. E-tecpting 1, 4, 8, 9, and 11, those figures are more or less enlarL'c'd. ^ The Beeches. 227 895. A very simple method is employer! for preserving the nuts for planting. They are gathered, spread in an airy place, turned daily to allow of moderate drying, and then left on a floor under a covering of straw to keep from frost. "With the greatest care it is sometimes difficult to keep them alive from fall to spring. 896. In order to succeed in planting the beech, it is necessary to provide shelter for the young plant, which may be found by raking in the nuts upon bare places in the woods, or by planting in east and west rows, some other kinds of trees a year or two before we plant the beech. These nurses may be birch, elm, pine, or whatever else best suits the soil, as they are to be removed when no longer needed. 897. The nuts should be planted like corn, and when up, they should be carefully hoed, tahinq care to cover the seminal leaves, leav- ing only the leaves proper above the ground. If planted in fall, as is preferable, the seed will sprout in the spring following. Ow- ing to the difficulty in getting plants started from the seed, it is common to seek the young plants where they have been self-sown in the woods, set them in nursery rows, and transplant when of sufficient size. These seed-plants are best taken up with a trowel, and a cool cloudy time should be chosen for the operation. 898. Our native species {Faym feruginea) occurs widely scattered throughout the New England, Middle, and Northwestern States, as far west as Wisconsin, and in Canada, as far north as a line run- ning from a little beyond Lake Huron eastward to the Bay of Chaleurs. It extends southward into the Southern States, grow- ing sparingly upon the low-lands, but to large size in the moun- tains. It attains its greatest development in Michigan and Wis- consin, and in the heavy forests south of Lake Superior its gro^¥th is truly magnificent. 899. In Northern Pennsylvania and in some portions of New England and New York, the beech grows as almost the only tree upon dry rocky ridges, and in fruit-seasons these beech ridges have attracted enormous flocks of wild-pigeons for nesting. 900. Various exceptional forms and tints of foliage have been produced in the beech under cultivation, and are perpetuated by grafting or layers, such as cut-leaved, purple or copper-leaved, golden-stripe leaved, etc. Some of these produce a highly orna- mental effect upon the lawn, and in parks and avenues. 901. The beech is termed " red" or " white" by woodmen, from 228 The Beeches and the Birches. the difference in color of the heart-wood ; but they appear to be simply varieties of the same species, from differences in the soil or exposure. The red beech is much more durable, and under water it appears almost indestructible. It has also been found durable in plank-roads, and in ship-building where permanently under water, and for this reason it is sometimes used for the keels of vessels. 902. The beech of Victoria and Tasmania (JFagus Cunninghami) is a magnificent evergreen of colossal size, and living only in cool, damp, rich forest valleys where it not unfrequently grows to the height of two hundred feet. The wood, much used by carpenters and others, is known to the trade as " myrtle." 903. Other evergreen beeches of fine size and much value, (F. Memiesii), known as the " red birch ;" F.fusca, the " black birch ;'' F. Solandn, the " white birch," of colonists) are found in New Zea- land. It is not improbable that some of these might succeed un- der similar conditions, especially in Southern California, where so many Australian species have been found to thrive. The Biech (Genus Betvla). 904. About twenty-five species of the birch are known in Europe, Asia, and North America,, and they are divided into some sixty sub- species or characteristic varieties. They prefer a cool, humid cli- mate, some growing upon mountains of considerable elevation, and others preferring swampy grounds and river banks. 905. The birch extends about as far into the Arctic zone as woody plants of any kind will grow. lu the remote part of the Highlands of Scotland, it forms coppices on rocky elevations where no other ligneous plant is found, and throughout Northern Europe it forms an important article for fuel. 906. It shows a tendency to succeed the pines where they have been cut off, and is readily propagated from seed, but does best on new ground, and can hardly be made to grow where nursery trees have previously been raised. The seeds scarcely admit of any cov- ering, and if simply pressed into the ground with the feet they will grow. A bushel of seed will stock thirty linear yards of a seed- bed four feet wide. When a year old, they may be transplanted to nursery rows, and when two or three feet high may be set for per- manence. 907. Cut-leaved, weeping, and other varieties have been intro- duced for ornamental planting, and are perpetuated by grafting. The Birches. 229 Sometimes the wood has knots and curls in the grain that take a fine polish -when used as veneers. It is a favorite wood for shoe- pegs, spools, bobbins, and other small articles. It is peeled into brooms, and strips of its wood are braided into baskets and fishing- traps. The smoke of its wood imparts a fine flavor to hams, and 128. Betula o?6a.— White Birch. its bark is used for tanning leather. An oil prepared from the birch imparts the peculiar odor to Russia leather much used in substantial book-binding. Birch-wine is made from the sap of this tree by fermentation. 908. The seeds of the birch and the alder scatter very soon after 230 The Birches. they ripen, and it is difficult to keep them. They should be gath- ered by hand just as the burrs begin to turn brown, and if possible, they should be sown the same year. An expeditious way to obtain the seed is to cut off the branches that bear the burrs at the time wlien they are just ripening, and hang them in a dry place till the seed falls out. As they should be covered but very slightly, they are best raked in, upon soil previously prepared, and if sown in au- tumn, they will start the next spring. 909. The birch can not reproduce with much advantage from the stumps, but it readily springs up from the seed in vacant spots in the woods. 910. The Yellow Biech [Betvla exedsa) is a northern species, growing to a greater size than any other of the birches, and when large, the grain is often twisted in a spiral manner. Its wood is solid, fine-grained, and easily worked, and is much used for cabinet wares. The bark possesses tanning properties, yet is but seldom used. 911. The Canoe Biech (JBetvla papyraeea) is also a northern spe- cies, occurring along the northern border of the United States, and far northward into Canada. The bark is used for making canoes, baskets, and other uses, and its wood, which is white, is largely used for making shoe-pegs, spools, lasts, and cabinet wares. It turns smoothly, and takes a fine finish. 912. The Red Biech (Betvla nu/ra) grows in the Atlantic States, from New England to the Carolinas. It is also common in the Western and South-western States, always preferring river banks, and sometimes growing to one or two feet in diameter, but usually much less. It derives its name from the reddish tinge of the bark, which hangs in loose shreds upon the trunk and branches, giving it a peculiarly ragged appearance. 913. The Sweet Biech (Betvla lento) sometimes called " Cherry Birch," or " Black Birch," from the dark color of its bark, is a tree of small size ; is chiefly a northern species, extending from Canada southward along the mountains as far as North Carolina. The Be- tula glandidosa, a far-northern species, and some others of less ac- count, are also found within our territory, occurring as a low bush upon our northwestern coast. 914. The Westeen Biech {Betula oeddentalis) is a shrub, grow- ing 10 to 20 feet high, with a close, dark-colored bark, which be- comes light brown, copiously sprinkled with resinous warts. It The Alders. 231 occurs in the eastern canons of the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of 4,500 to 10,000 feet above tide, where it is said to be common. It is found northward in Washington Territory and in British America, and among the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico. Well- grown trees are found in the northern part of the Frazer basin, and in the Pearl river country, in British Columbia. The Aldee (Genus Alnus). 915. Of these. there are about fifteen species, found in middle and northern Europe, North America, and upon the Andes in South America. About half the number occur in North America. 916. The European alder most commonly cultivated is the A. glviinom. It is indigenous throughout Europe, and when growing wild, seldom attains more than thirty or forty feet in height; but in Great Britain it has, under cultivation, grown to eighty feet with a trunk three to four feet in diameter. It matures at fifty or sixty years. Its timber, when always submerged, is very durable, but not where exposed to alternations of wet and dry. Its brush is used in filling marshy lands, and its wood as staves for fish barrels, and for lasts, turned goods, cabinet wares, etc. To prevent insects from at- tacking it, the fiuer pieces are sometimes, in Scotland, immersed for some months in water in a peat bog. If some, lime is thrown in, the efiect is improved. Such wood has some resemblance to ma- hogany, and is used for tables, etc. Charcoal from this wood is used in making gunpowder, and the bark for tanning. 917. The alder prefers a rich, damp soil, such as alluvial bottom- lands and the borders of streams. It will, however, grow to a large size on dryer land, and from its rapid growth and great tenacity of life, it is esteemed as a nurse for the more tender kinds in bleak and exposed situations. It is, like the willow, useful for consolidating banks, and to keep it in best condition for this, it is cut as coppice- wood once in eight or ten years. It sprouts readily from the stumps. As a screen for osier fields and the like, it is very valuable. 918. The alder is propagated with facility from the seed, which should be spread in their cones on a dry floor, and stirred from time to time till they are dry. They may be sown at once, or in March or April following, on rich, moist land, previously prepared. They should be thinly covered and rolled, and the next spring trans- planted from the seed-beds, and after another year in the nursery, s 2 II re 18 129. Almis glutinoaa.—The Black Alder. 1. Twig with leaTSs, and the germs of male and female blossoms of the next year. 2. Male catkin In full bloom. 3, 4, 5. 6. A full-blossomed capsule, from difTerent points of view. 1. 8. A four-lobed single blossom, side and upper points of Tiew. 9. Female catkin, enlarged. 10. 11, 12, 13, 14, IS, 16. Enlarged view of female blossom, with appendages, and the fruit. 17. The ripe fruit-capsule. IS. The same, opened. 19. A twig, with leaf-buds. 20. Cross-section of a twig. Of the above figures, only 1, 2, 17, 18, 19, and 20 are of the natural size, the remaiudcr being enlarged. The Alders and the Hornbeams. 233 they may be finally transplanted. The alder is rated as a soft wood, and sold at a low price. For general cultivation it is not profitable, but for special uses it has great advantages. 919. The American Aldee {Alnm incana), the most widely dis- tributed of our native species, occurs from New England northward . far into British America, and westward to Oregon. It is found iu New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah, and in the Sierra Nevada mount- ains to an elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet. It most commonly oc- curs in dense thicuets along the border of streams, seldom growing to a size for any use but firewood. 920. The Red Alder {A. rubra) occurs along the Pacific from Alaska southward, sometimes growing 30 to 40 feet high. It grows to a small tree on Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands and the coast of the mainland, and its wood is sometimes used for charcoal. 921. The White Alder {A. rhombifolia) occurs from Oregon to Southern California as a tree 20 to 50 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in diameter. It has a light, ash-gray bark, slender branches. 922. The Alnus oblongifolia occurs iu Southern California and New Mexico as a tree 20 to 30 feet iu height. 923. The Oregon Alder '(.4. Oregona) is a tree growing to 50 or 60 feet in height, and sometimes two feet in diameter, near the ground. Like the other alders, it prefers the banks of streams. The wood is brittle, and not employed for useful purposes. Hornbeam (Genus Carpirms). 924. Of the genus Carpirms, about nine species are found in the North Temperate Zone of the Old and New AVorld, and but one (C Americana) is found native in the United States. It is known by va- rious common names, such as the " hop-hornbeam,'' from the clusters of fruit somewhat resembling hops, " blue-beech," "water or swamp beech," etc. It has the general habit of the beech, and its bark is smooth like that tree. The stem is generally somewhat fluted or angular, and it is of smaller size. The foliage becomes crimson, scarlet, and orange in autumn. 925. The hornbeam occurs widely distributed throughout the At- lantic States and Canada; never in dense groves, but scattered through forests of other deciduous kinds. The wood is close, white, hard, and fine-grained, remarkably tough and strong, sftid well adapted to places where it is required to resist great pressure or fric- tion. When of sufficient size, the wood is useful in the mechanic 234 , The Hornbeams and the Maples. arts, and is suitable for the making of levers, tool-handles, and other articles requiring great strength. It forms an excellent fire- wood and material for charcoal used for cooking, or in forges, or for making gunpowder. 926. The European Hornbeaji (Carpiniis hetulm) is often culti- vated for screens and hedges in Europe, and it was thought by Michaux that it might be introduced with profit into the United States. Among its merits are the following : It bears pruning well, is not liable to disease, grows for a long time in a confined form, and does not injure the adjacent crops, probably because its roots draw their support from a greater depth ; it grows very close and twiggy, and retains its leaves late ; it endures a rough and windy situation, and grows well in a great variety of soils. 927. It seeds abundantly, and when sown immediately, a few spring up the first year, but most of them not till the second year. The usual mode of cultivation is to sow in spring, at the rate of a bushel of clean seed to fifty yards of a bed four feet wide ; and as the seeds do not grow the first year, the ground may be occupied by some other light crop, such as onions, lettuce, raddish, or cabbage. They may be thinned out when one-year old by transplanting to nursery rows, but the young plants do best if not taken up till they are two years old. In two years more, they will be suitable for set- ting in single hedge rows. Under cultiva,tion, the hornbeam has produced cut- leaved and variegated forms that are propagated by layers for ornamental planting. The Maples (Genus Acer). 928. The maples occur widely distributed in the Northern Temper- ate Zone upon both continents, and upon the eastern rather than upon the western sides. There are about fifty species described, of which nine or ten occur within the United States. They generally grow to trees of considerable size, take when planted alone, a rounded, symmetrical form, and are highly prized for ornamental planting in village streets and by the wayside. 929. The wood of the maples is generally light colored or with a reddish tinge, works smoothly, is not liable to warp or check, and is much valued for cabinet work. In some cases, the grain is curled or contorted in such a manner as to give it, when finished, a highly ornamental efiect. 930. The maple leaves in autumn take bright crimson and orange 130. Carjdnvs ieteZus.— The European Hornbeam. 1. Twig, with two male and one female blossoma. 2. A fruitful stem, with leaves. 3, 4. Male blossoms, from up- per, lower, and side points of view. 5. A single seed-capsule, with section. 6. Leaf-cover, with tlie inclosed female blossoms. 7. A pair of female blossoms, with the envelope removed. 8. A single pistil. 9. A ripe seed, witMlsthree- lobed seed-leaf. 30. The seed-capsule, separated and enlarged. 11. Transverse section of the same. 12. The germs, separated. 13. Twig, with three leaf-buds above, and two male flower-buds. 14. Germ, as it first appears upon sproutiug. 23& The Maples. colored tints, that give a characteristic splendor to the woodlands during the few days that they remain after they are fairly ripe. 931. The Sugae Maple {Acer saccharinuvi). This tree, which is altogether the most valuable of the maples, is a native of Can- ada and the Northern States, extending southward along the mount- ains into the Carolinas, and westward to the Mississippi river. It is abundant in Western North Carolina, but it thrives best in a rather cool climate, and in a calcareous and loamy, rather than a sandy soil. In Canada it extends northward to a line running from the northeastern shore of Lake Superior to a short distance below Quebec, and thence northeastward to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The " Maple Leaf" is a national emblem with the Canadians, and the gorgeous splendor of the autumnal forests in the north is largely due to the colors assumed by the foliage of this tree at this season. 932. The sugar maple grows to a height of sixty to eighty feet, and to a diameter of two feet and over. When planted alone, it as- sumes a rounded, symmetrical form, and it deservedly enjoys a high reputation as an ornamental tree in village and roadside planting, but it does not endure the dust and smoke of cities. When grown in woodlands, it assumes a tall, regular form, and it is often found in for- ests by itself, or mingled with beech, birch, hemlock, and other trees. 933. Upon the prairies of Illinois this tree grows slow when young, but at length takes a more vigorous start, and becomes a fine tree. It will not grow with entire success beyond the Missis- sippi, and fails altogether in Kansas and Nebraska. 934. In the Northern States and in Canada, when tapped upon the approach of spring, and for a period of thirty or forty days, ending as the buds begin to swell, this tree yields a sweetish sap, which by evaporation may be reduced to syrup and to sugar of su- perior quality. Several million of pounds of this sugar are made every year, and upon some farms in Vermont and Northern New York more profit is realized from a maple woodland, than could pos- sibly be gained upon an equal area by any agricultural crop. The yield is usually two or three pounds to the tree in the season, but in exceptional cases it may be more. 935. From the limited experiments that have been made, it ap- pears that the sap of the maple contains more sugar in the early part of the season than toward its close, and that difierent trees vary in the amount of sugar, some giving much sweeter sap than others. As the buds begin to swell, the sap becomes " ropy," and The Maples. 237 gives off an offensive odor in boiling. It crystalizes with difficulty, and it is customary to use the last run, partly concentrated by boil- ing, for making vinegar, by exposing it to fermentation. 936. The flow of sap is much influenced by meteorological con- ditions, and is best with freezing nights and thawing days, and in a damp atmosphere. It will sometimes flow by night, and a run may last two or three days, and then be suspended, from causes unknown, until another freezing night. The sap flows in drops, at the rate of from thirty to a hundred in a minute, and from three to four gal- lons will make a pound of sugar. 937. The holes bored in a maple tree will close up in two or three years, and do not appear to injure the growth of the trees. They may be tapped auuually from the time when they are ten or twelve inches in diameter till they are seventy or eighty years old, and a maple grove kept inclosed against cattle may be used perpetually lor sugar-making, the young trees coming on to replace those that are cut at full maturity. 938. The wood of the sugar maple is highly valued as a fuel and for cabinet work, and varieties known as "birds-eye" are highly valued for the making of veneers, affording some of the most beau- tiful of the woods used in ornamental work. 939. The Black Maple {Acer nigrum) is commonly regarded as only a variety of the A. saccharium, and is equally valuable for the making of sugar, and its timber for all the uses to which the sugar- maple is applied. 940. The Silver-leaf oe Eivee Maple (Acer dasycarpum). This and the next following species are often called "soft maples," or " white maples," from the texture and color of the wood. They bear fruit early in the season, and their seeds must be planted the same year, and while still fresh. 941. This species is planted extensively as a shade tree in the Middle and Western States, and grows very rapidly, but the wood being brittle, the trees are liable to injury by the winds. In rich alluvial soils it grows to a large size ; but the tree is not long-lived, and its wood, although used for inside finishing and cabinet work, soon perishes when exposed to the weather. 942. The silver maple is less common in the South than the red maple. In North Carolina it grows sometimes thirty or forty feet high, and the sap is sometimes made into sugar, which has a su- 238 The Maples. perior flavor and light color, but is not more than half as productive from a given measure of sap as the sugar maple of that region. 943. Red Maple {Acer rvhrum). This tree derives its name from the color of its bright red blossoms, that appear early in the spring, and before the leaves. It is sometimes called ' white maple," from the color of its wood, and " swamp maple," from its favorite place of growth. It does not generally grow to so large a size, nor live to so great an age as the sugar maple. Its wood is lighter and softer, but is often used in cabinet work. It is not durable when exposed to the weather. When the grain is wavy it has, when fin- ished up, a beautiful glossy luster, affording the variety of fine ■woods known as the " curl maple." 944. The red maple is found from Canada to Florida and Louis- irna, and through the Western States to Nebraska. It does not, in the regions further west, succeed under cultivation so well as the " silver-leaf maple." The sap of the red maple is not so sweet as that of the sugar maple, and is seldom used in making sugar. The young bark affords, with copperas as a mordant, a purplish-black dye, occasionally used in coloring wool and cotton. 945. In North Carolina this tree is found from the coast to the mountains, sometimes seventy feet high and three to four feet in diameter. 946. Steiped Maple {Acer Penrt^ylvanicuin). This is generally a small slender tree, seldom growing in groves, but scattered here and there among other woods, and never growing to a large size, or living to so great an age as some other maples. The wood is white and soft, and the bark smooth, greenish, and marked with stripes. It is sometimes called " moosewood," "' dogwood," or " dogmaekie." It may be cultivated for ornament, but is not generally successful unless partly shaded by other trees. In North Carolina this tree is found on the mountains as a shrub, rarely ten feet high. 947. The Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum). This is a shrub, generally growing in clumps from a common root, along rocky ra- vines in the Northern and Eastern States. It is too small for use, but will bear cultivation with other shrubs, in a rocky soil. 948. The Oregon or Large-leaved Maple (Acer macro- phyUum). This tree grows from fifty to ninety feet in height, and from two to threefeet in diameter, and is distinguished by the size of its leaves, which are occasionally a foot across, and usually from 6 to 10 The Maples. 239 inches. It seldom grows alone in much abundance, but is scattered through the evergreen forests, and seldom growing to as large a size as the sugar maple. 949. It occurs in mountain ravines from Santa Barbara north- ward to British Columbia, where it is found on Vancouver and ad- jacent islands, and on the immediate coast of the mainland, never inland, and scarcely beyond 55° north latitude. It there forms a small tree, sometimes a foot iu diameter. In California it chiefly occurs on the Coast Eange. The young branches present green stripes, not unlike those characteristic of the striped maple of the Atlantic States. 950. The wood is close-grained, hard, takes a beautiful polish, and the grain is sometimes twisted and curled, giving it a highly ornamental appearance. 951. The Vine Maple {Acer drcinatum). This is also peculiar to the Pacific Coast, growing in pine forests from Northern California to Oregon, and always near the coast. It is a shrub, growing some- times 30 to 40 feet in height, and rarely a foot in diameter, and usually in several slender trunks springing from one root, as in the mountain maple of the Atlantic States. These do not grow up- right, but, arching down, touch the ground, and there taking root, present a tangled thicket most diflBcult to penetrate. It prefers moist deep soils. Its leaves much resemble those of the sugar maple, and its wood is very tough and strong, heavy, white, close- grained, and sometimes twisted iu its grain. It is used in making axe-helves and tool-handles, but is generally too small for cabinet work, although otherwise well adapted to this use. 952. The Smooth Maple (Acer glahrum). This is an unim- portant shrub, found from Colorado and New Mexico eastward to California, and from Yosemite northward. It is too small for use- ful purposes, and grows chiefly in damp mountain ravines. 953. The Box-Eldee, or Ash-leaved Maple (Negundo acer- oides). There are four species of the Negundo, of which the At-I lantic States, the Pacific Coast, Mexico and Japan, have each one. It is so nearly allied to the maples that it has, by some botanists, been classed with them as the Acer negundo. 954. The box-elder, in the Atlantic States, is somewhat southern in its habits. In North Carolina it is found most common in the middle portion of the state, along the borders of the streams, grow- 240 The Maples and the Box-Elders. ing from 15 to 2-5 feet in height. It is rare in the lower district. Further north it takes a larger growth, and it is found northward as far as Southern New York. 955. In the Western States, along the Mississippi and beyond, it grows well, and it occurs out on the plains, in the timber belts that fringe the rivers and streams, about as far west as any tree can be found. 956. Under its best conditions this tree grows to the height of 70 feet, but it is usually much less. It grows very rapidly, and comes to maturity in from twenty to thirty years. It is among the best of trees to cultivate for avenues and along public roads, and under cultivation it has produced some varieties having bleached and yel- lowish foliage, that gives it a fine appearance in ornamental planting. 957. Although it prefers low rich grounds, it bears a drouth very well, and in the more westerly states, on the borders of the Great Plains, it deserves much attention as easily propagated, and likely to succeed where many other kinds would fail. 958. In the Western and Northwestern States, the sap of this tree is made into sugar and syrup of excellent quality and flavor, but less in amount than that from the sugar maple. 959. As the staminate and pistilate flowers of the box elder grow upon difierent trees, the seeds must be gathered in groves where both kinds occur. The former are easily distinguished when in blos- som by the stamens hanging in groups springing from common points, by slender hairy stems, with four or five anthers at the end, while the fertile blossoms show the rudiments of the future wings of the seed, and have two pistils coming out between them. 960. The California Box Elder {Negwido Calif omiensis). This is commonly a small tree, but rarely it grows to the height of 70 feet. It occurs along streams, following the coast range in Cal- ifornia, from San Luis Obispo northward, but not into British Co- lumbia. Its leaves are smaller and narrower than those of the other species, and they are more coarsely toothed ; otherwise there is much resemblance between them. The Linden or Basswood Family (TUiaeeoB). 961. About thirty genera belong to this family, chiefly occurring in the torrid and south temperate zones. They are mostly trees, often of great size, with handsome flowers and foliage, a mucilagin- The Bassiooods. 241 ous juice, and tough, stringy inner bark. Some of them yield a succulent and edible fruit. The wood is soft, light, and iu some species very elastic. The jute of commerce, a much esteemed fibrous plant of annual growth, belongs to this natural order. 962. Europe has several native species of the TUia, of which the T. parvifolia is supposed to be the only one native of Britain, al- though the T. Europea, T. grandifolia, and other species, have been long under cultivation, and trees occur several hundred years old. The tree is there chiefly propagated by layers, when raised for orna- mental planting, and by this means various ragged-leaved, sUver- leaved, and other curious varieties are continued. 963. The linden is a great favorite for ornamental planting in Holland and elsewhere iu Europe. The large leaved species grows to the largest size, and reaches the greatest age. In Russia, the inner bark of the basswood is made into textile fabrics, cordage, and the like. The wood is sometimes ground into pulp for paper. 9G4. Our common basswood, linden, or lime-tree of the Atlantic States and Canada {Tilia Americana), is by far the most widely dis- tributed of the four species found native in the United States. It grows to a large size, but when old is very apt to become hollow. The wood is very white, light, uniform in texture, not liable to crack or split, is quite tough, and when sawn into thin boards, may be read- ily bent into curves. It is much prized for cabinet wares and the panels of carriages, and its lumber is much used for carving and for finishing the inside work of houses, but it does not bear exposure to the weather well, unless painted. When thoroughly seasoned and painted, it makes an excellent material for outside work, as it re- ceives and holds the paint well. 965. The basswood, when standing alone, takes a finely rounded form, and it is one of the best of trees for avenues. The blossoms abound in honey, and in bee-keeping this tree afibrds a most excel- lent source of supply; 966. The White Linns (Tilia heterophylla and T. alba) and the Southern Linn (T. pvhescens) are much loss widely distributed, being southern and western, and the latter a tree of large size. 967. The basswood loves a deep, rich, and humid soil, and under favorable conditions it grows quite rapidly. It is generally consid- ered an indication of a good soil. It seldom occurs in groves by it- self, but is scattered among other deciduous trees, often in clumps, 2i2 The Basswood. 131. Kiia parn/bKo; The SmaU-leayed Basswood. 1. A sprig, with Mossoms and leaves . 2, S. The blossoms from upper and under points of view. 4. 5. Trans- verse and longitudinal sections of a Iruit-bud. 6. Pistil. 7. The fruit. 8. Sec- tion of the same. 9. Section of the seed. 10. Twig, with buds. 11. Young sprout. The Elms. 243 as if from sprouts that have come up around a tree that has decayed. It is easily cultivated from the seed, which should generally be planted in the autumn of the same year that they ripen. For or- namental planting, they should be started in seed-beds, and then transplanted into nursery rows. The Elms (Genus Ulmus). 968. About sixteen species and numerous varieties of the elm are known to botanists, chiefly in the north temperate zone of both continents, or upon mountains within the tropics. They are for the most part trees of rapid growth, and attaining a large size, and the wood is strong, tough, fibrous, difficult to split, and useful for a great variety of purposes. It is generally very durable under water, and its quality is much influenced by the conditions of soil, humidity, and temperature under which it has grown. The seeds ripen early in summer, and should be sown the same year. (b.) (c.) 132. DiffereTices in the Growth of Elms.—Sections of the Elm: (a.) Prom Canada— The layers of growth so thin that they cant scarcely be distinguished. (6.) From Sunkirl:, France— Wood verj- strong, and grown in deep humid soil, (c.) From the batrle-fifld of Toulon— Grown on a snb-.soil that is very damp, but owing to the heat of the climate the wood is strong, id.) From Provence, France — Grown on soil that is less humid. 969. The White Elm (Ulmus Americana). This tree is justly valued as one of the best for ornamental plantations, and one of the most graceful in form. The branches generally divide at ten or fifteen feet above the ground, and gradually diverging as they rise, spread out on every side and then descend, giving the tree an urn-shaped form, that at once distinguishes it at a great distance from all other forest trees. Some of the New England towns and villages, especially along the Connecticut river, present magnificent avenues of this tree. 970. The quality of the wood is generally excellent, as it is very 2U The Elms. tough, strong, aud flexible. It is much used for hoops, carriage and wagon making, cheese boxes, and bent-work generally, and is an excellent timber in carpentry, but very apt to shrink and warp when sawn into boards. 971. The "Rock Elm," as a variety of this species is called, is particularly prized for wagon hubs, and although this tree occurs from the Carolinas to Canada, and westward to the Mississippi, the best qualities for this use are found in New England and New York. A fine quality is also found in some parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. In the rock elm, about five feet of the butt is all that can be used for hubs, and the best qualities are found in trees grown in an open space and freely exposed to the sun and air. For this use the trees should be cut in December or January. The inner bark should be left on, and the sticks should not be left long on the ground. After remaining in cross-piles for two months, they should be cut into blocks for further curing, and the ends dipped in melted lard and rosin, to prevent them from checking. In this condition they should be left under shelter till dry. llfl 133. Leaves of the Red Elm. 972. The Slippery oe Red Elm {Ulmvs fidva). This tree, is scattered over most of the Northern and Western States. It grows to a large size, but has not the graceful form of the common American elm. The wood is very durable, when not in contact with the ground, and is of a reddish tinge, that gives it the common name. The leaves are coarser and more corrugated than the kind above mentioned, and the inner bark is highly mucilaginous when The Elms. 245 steeped in ■water, giving it valuable medicinal properties, as a de- mulcent drink, and for emollient poultices. This material, when thoroughly dried, cut small, and ground in a mill, is an article of commerce, and is kept by most druggists. 973. A writer in Iowa, in speaking of the cultivation of the red elm remarks, that this tree has not received the attention that it merits, and sums up its good qualities as follows : 1. It is hardy, even in the most exposed position on the prairies. 2. It grows on rich soil with great rapidity. 3. The seeds are easily gathered, and require no great skill in baudliug and planting. 4. It is unusually free from disease and injury from insects. 5. It has a large proportion of heart-wood, even when young. 6. When grown thickly in groves, it . runs up straight and tall, and when the poles are large enough to split fur two rails, it may be divided as easily as the chestnut. When laid as rails, or nailed to posts, they are very durable. 7. When large enough for vine-stakes, if cut in summer, peeled, and dried before setting, they will last well. 974. The Coek Elm (TJlmus racemosa). This derives its name from the corky excrescences on the bark of the young twigs and small branches, although this character is far from being con- stant, nor is it limited to this species. This tree occurs in New England, New York, and westward, a,nd often grows to a large size. Its foliage is of a darker green, and its wood harder, stronger, and more durable than that of the preceding species. 975. The Small-leaved Elm {Ulmus alata), sometimes called the " wahoo,'' is a southern species, and grows to a smaller size than the white or red elm, but it has a very compact wood, which is much used for the naves of wheels, and is even preferred to the black-gum for this purpose. From the inner bark a rope is some- times made, which has been used in bagging cotton. 976. The English Elm (Vlmus campestris). This is a favorite tree for ornamental planting in Great Britain, and has been intro- duced in many parts of the United States. Some of the finest elms in Boston are of this species. As to its merits for city planting Mr. Emerson remarks : "I have been unable to compare satisfactorily the rapidity of its growth with that of the American elm, but probably in its best condition the latter is of far more rapid growth, although in 246 The Elms. the ordinary situations where the elm is planted, and where it gen- erally suffers from insufficiency of root moisture, the European elm is immeasurably its superior in rapidity of growth, length of life, and general thriftiness. The fact that the European is fully a 134. Wmms campesfrt!!— English Elm. month longer in leaf than the American elm, that its tougher leaves would seem to offer a less appetizing food to the canker-worm, the greatest enemy to the American elm in New England, and its adaptability to- all situations are strong arguments in favor of giv- ing the preference to the former for general cultivation. Its The Osage Orange. 247 thriftiness in smoky situations makes the European elm the most valuable tree our climate will allow for city, street, and square planting, and as a shade tree by road-sides no American tree is its equal.'" 977. The quality of the timber of this species is acknowledged to be superior to that of our native species, and it well deserves atten- tion for cultivation as a timber-tree. All of the elms afford in their ashes a large amount of potash, and hence a top dressing of wood ashes is of great advantage in their cultivation. 978. The "VVych Elm (JJlmms montana). This is also a European species, often planted in parks. It grows to a large size, and more resembles the red than the white elm. The Planeea (Planera aquatica). 979. This is a southern tree, found growing in river swamps from North Carolina southward. It has the general habit of the elms, but is cf no special importance in forest-culture. The Osage Oeange (Madura aurantiaca). 980. This tree, sometimes called bois-d'arc (bow-wood), is found native in the South-western States, in Texas, Arkansas, and Indian Territory, sometimes growing to the height of fifty to seventy feet, and to a diameter of three or four feet. The wood is there found to be ex- tremely durable for stakes and posts, and is much prized for wagon- making, on account of its hardness and slight tendency to shrink. In its native region it grows best on a strong alluvial soil, but grows well in other situations, excepting where the soil is damp, and with- out drainage. It begins to bear fruit when about eight years old, and the ripe " apples" are readily eaten by cattle. 981. It can be cultivated for timber in the South-western States very successfully in strong bottom lands, by preparing the land, planting and cultivating for the first year or two, in the same way as for corn. They must be thinned out to 12 or 16 feet apart, and be trimmed up, in order to secure a straight body and a fine growth, but not more than is necessary to prevent the branches from inter- locking or crowding too close. When standing alone, it makes a low spreading tree, with but little trunk. It therefore requires side-shading or trimming to make it grow high. As grown in the ^Jr:riciikure of Mass., 1875-6, p. 272. 248 The Osage Orange : The Mulberries. south-west, it makes a fire-wood of the best quality, nearly or quite equal to hickory. 982. The sap-wood is perishable, but the heart-wood is very dura- ble. If cut in winter or spring, it is liable to the attack of borers, but generally not when cut in August or early in autumn. The wood is very easily split, and is therefore unfit for hubs, although very suitable for spokes. From its great durability when exposed to the weather, it is very well adapted for agricultural implements. The wood has a very rich orange color, becoming darker with age, and rendering it valuable for ornamental cabinet work. 983. The osage orange is not a tree of rapid . growth. It will re- quire from twelve to fifteen years for it to become large enough for fence-posts, and some twenty-five or thirty years for railroad ties. From its hardness and tendency to split, it is necessary to bore holes before driving spikes. When planted at four feet apart, it will need cultivation for four or five years, and it will need to be thinned out in from eight to twelve years, according to the stage of its growth and the fertility of the soil. As the staminate and pistilate flowers of the osage orange grow in difierent trees, the seeds must be gathered in its native region, where both sexes of the tree are found growing. But one species is known to botanists. The Mulbeeey (Genus Morus). 984. Some writers describe from ten to twelve species of this genus, while others reduce them to five. They are found in the north temperate zone, and within the tropics of both the old and new world, and are of great economical interest from the fact that their leaves form the principal food of the silk-worm. 9S5. We have within the United States a native species, the Red MuLBEREY (Morus rubra), that is widely diffused, being found in most of the Atlantic States, and sometimes growing to the height of sixty to seventy feet, with a diameter of two feet. The wood is strong, solid, and durable, and much valued as fence-posts, and for ship-building. From experiments that have been made in the feed- ing of silk worms upon the leaves of the red mulberry, it appears that the quantity of silk produced is less, and that the worms are more liable to disease. 986. The White Mulbeey (Morus alba) has been introduced in many places, under the name of "Morus multicaulis," for the feeding of silk worms, and a mania of speculation led to attempts at its cul- The Mulberries. 249 tivation in many regions where a little reason would have shown that it was utterly hopeless. The white mulberry is made to grow without difficulty in most parts of the Middle, Southern, and West- ern States, and, under intelligent direction, the silk industry may doubtless in many places be carried on with profit. It is propagated ^.1 v-V !,*» $ 135. The Mulberry Leaves and Fruit. by cutting and layers, and requires a warm, dry Wjil, and will suc- ceed in almost auy place that will bear a good corn crop. There are many varieties under cultivation, and many special publications have been issued, giving directions for their management. 987. The Eussian Mulberry. This tree, which seems to be closely allied to the Moms nigra, or black mulberry, and the M. Tartarica, a native of Russia, has in recent years been introduced by Mennonite emigrants, and is found to thrive very well in the West- ern States. Trees six years old are found eight inches in diameter and sixteen feet high. The berries may be eaten fresh, or made into jellies, wine, and preserves. Most of them are black, but some of a reddish white, with an aromatic odor and sub-acid, sweetish taste. 988. The Mennonites set this as a hedge plant, and its leaves are said to be valuable for feeding silk worms. It is easily transplanted, and the timber is excellent for fence posts. For hedges, the plants should be set a foot apart, and they should be kept cut back to 250 The Hackberry : The Tulip- Tree. make them thicken up and spread at the bottom. It may be culti- vated alone cr with other timber in groves, and it makes, when set alone, a handsome street or lawn tree. The Russian mulberry is thought by some to be more valuable than the gray willow or the Cottonwood, it being useful from its shelter, its fruit, and its wood. It is grown from cuttings. The Haczbeeey (Genus CeUis). 989. Over seventy species of this genus are found in the Torrid and North Temperate Zones of both hemispheres. The C. orientalis, most cultivated in Europe, much resembles the beech in appearance and in the color of the bark. Its wood is very hard, but is not much cultivated as a forest tree. It is sometimes called the " nettle-tree." 990. The American hackberry (C occidentalis) is somewhat southern in its native locality, but is found scattered here and there throughout the Northern, Middle, and Western States. When planted, it starts very slowly at first, but when it has passed a cer- tain stage of delay, it will start and grow vigorously. It extends from New England and Canada to Oregon, and southward to Florida, Texas, and New Mexico. In the Wahsatch mountains, it grows to an elevation of from 4,200 to 6,500 feet above tide. It is one of the species that deserves attention iu planting upon the western plains. The Tulip-Teee {Liriodendron tuLvpifera). 991. This tree belongs to the magnolia family, and is known by various popular names, as the " white-wood," the "yellow poplar," and the " tulip-poplar." It is the only species belonging to the genus. It grows to a magnificent size, with a cylindrical trunk, an open, rounded head, a dark, ash-colored bark, somewhat square, truncated, decidu- ous leaves, and large, greenish-yellow, but not fragrant flowers. The bark of the root and branches is bitter and aromatic, acting as I as a diaphoretic and tonic, and is sometimes used in the treatment of intermittent fever and chronic rheumatism. These properties are extracted by alcohol, or it may be used as a powder. 992. It affords a lumber of great excellence for floors, ceiling, and cabinet work, and for inside finishing, but it does not, unless protected by paint, endure well in the open air. Being soft and easily worked, it takes the place of pine for inside work of houses, and paper has been made from the bark. The Tulip- Tree : The Sycamore. 251 993. In speaking of the uses of this 'vvood, Mr. Emerson re- marks:^ "In New England, it is preferred to all other kinds of wood, in all uses which require great flexibility, as about stairs, for the wash-board, in circular rooms, and for the panels of carriages ; also for the bottom of drawers, and for panels in common ward- robes, and other small articles." 994. The tulip-tree grows to magnificent size, preferring a moist, rich soil, and in good situations it grows to 100 and even 150 feet in height, and from six to nine and even ten feet in diameter. 995. The nature of the soil has an effect on the color and quality of the wood, and in West Virginia, where it grows to great per- fection, mechanics class the wood as white, blue, or yellow, but these can not be determined by external signs. The white variety prefers a dry, elevated, and gravelly ground ; it has a branching head, with a small amount of heart-wood, and has a coarser and harder grain and a less durability than the other varieties. The blue has nearly the same characters. The yellow is by far the finest, and is extensively used for lumber and shingles. It affords a good foundation for veneers, and is much used in cabinet work. 996. The tulip-tree is readily propagated from seed, and should he sown in a fine, soft mold, in a cool and shady place. If sown in the same autumn of its growth, it will germinate the next spring ; but if sown in spring, it may not sprout till the next year. 997. This tree is lather difficult to transplant, and the end of the root should be cut off with a sharp knife when it is taken from the seed-bed and set in a new place. The developrrient of lateral fibers may be encouraged in the- same manner as we elsewhere describe for the oak. The tulip-tree occurred native in Canada, west of the Ni- agara river, but much of it has been cut away. The Plane-Tkee, Buttonwood, oe Sycamore (Genus Platanus). 998. This is the only genus of the natural order Pto«7iecB,and it embraces five or six species, natives of the Northern Hemisphere, in the Old World and the New. They are of rapid growth, and, for the most part, thrive only along river banks and in deep,' rich, alluvial soil. 999. The Common Buttonwood of the Atlantic States (Platanus occidentalis) has a wide range in the Atlantic States, and grows to a ^ "Trees of Massachusetts," 2d ed., p. 606. 252 The Sycamores. large size in ricli and humid soils along the rivers and in low grounds, reaching its greatest development in the Western and South-western States.. In Canada, it is chiefly limited to the penin- sula west of Niagara river. When found of a very large size, it is very often quite hollow, but this does not prevent it from grow- ing to a great age. 1000. This tree is distinguished by the smoothness and whiteness of its bark in the middle and upper part of its trunk and branches. The outer bark falls off in large, irregular scales, leaving a surface which, in winter, is very white, but gradually becomes darker col- ored. This striking feature in winter enables one to observe the course of a stream for a great distance by the line of sycamores along its banks. 1001. The seeds of this tree form a compact, spherical ball, which remains on till spring, when it falls off' and the seeds scatter, just as the leaves are about to open. This tree is very easily cultivated, and bears the smoke and dust of cities better than many other kinds, perhaps from the shedding of its outer bark from time to time. 1002. Our native plane-tree is perfectly naturalized in Europe, and grows rapidly' and to a great size. It is chiefly planted along public roads and canals, and in parks and pleasure grounds, growing best ou deep, humid soils, and in sheltered localities. The wood is much esteemed for cabinet wares, and for this use is reputed as dur- able as the oak, but it does not bear exposure to the weather well. The sycamore is easily propagated from the seed, or from cuttings or layers. The seedlings need protection at first, but they grow rapidly, aud will bear transplanting early. 1003. The Mexican Sycamoee (P. racemosd) is found extending into Southern California, and grows to a majestic tree, sometimes six feet in diameter and a hundred feet high. Like the species in the Atlantic States, it thrives along rivers, its bark exfoliates in large flakes, and its general habit is much the same. The leaves are, however, more deeply cut, polished, and of darker green, and the bark remarkably white. The fruit grows in racimes of from three to six, instead of being solitary, as in the common species. The wood is very brittle. 1004. The Oriental Plane-Tkee (P. orientcdis'), in its native The Horse- Chestnuts, etc. 253 ■/V / climate, grows to magnificent size, ,, but as cultivated in Europe it does not equal our common American species. It is said to liavo been in- troduced into England about the middle of the sixteenth century, and " is often found in parks, but is not ise. Cross-seetion of the wood of , , . , the Platanus orientalis. valued as a timber-tree. / 137. Platanus racemosa. (Leaf and Fruit, one-half the Natural Size.) The Hoese-Chestnuts, Buckeyes, etc. (Genus jEsmdus). 1005. The genus .£sculus embraces about fifteen species, half of 254 The Horse- Chestnuts. which occur in North America, and the rest in Asia. Their bark is bitter and astringent, and has been used in some species for tanning. The seeds contain a bitter principle that renders them unpalatable, but it is said that starch has been made from them that was equal to that from wheat. 1006. The Hoese-Chestnut (JEseulus Jdppocastanum). This is a native of Asia, but is found perfectly well adapted to the North- 138. The Horse-ehestnutTree. ern and Middle States, and is noted for the beauty of its flowers and its stately and rapid growth. It is better suited for lawns than for avenues, and is not of much value as a timber-tree. There are a considerable number of varieties distinguished by the color of the foliage and blossoms, and the habit of growth. 1007. The Ohio Buckeye (JEsculus glabra). This tree grows from Western Pennsylvania and Virginia westward to beyond the Mis- sissippi, and is most abundant in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. It is a small tree, with a rough bark, which has an unpleasant odor. Its fruit is less than half the size of that of the horse-chestnut. The Buckeyes. 255 1008. The Sweet oe Big Buckete (JEsculm flavd). This oc- curs in the Western States and on the mountains in the Southern States, as a tree from 60 to 80 feet in height, and 3 to 4 feet in di- ameter. TJpon the lowlands in the south it is a shrub from 3 to 6 feet high. It prefers the banks of rivers, and is an indication of a rich soil. The seeds are larger than those of the common horse- chestnut. 1009. The Small Buckeye {JEsaulus pavia). This is a shrub from 3 to 10 feet high, found growing in fertile valleys from Vir- ginia southward to Georgia, and westward to Arkansas. It some- times grows to a small tree. The root is used as a substitute for soap. 1010. The JEscidus parviflora is a small shrub found in South Carolina and Georgia, from 2 to 4 feet high, with a fruit said to be edible. 1011. The Caifoenia Buckeye (^sculus Califomiea). This is a shrub seldom growing more than twenty feet high, or more than a foot in diameter. It puts forth flowers in successive crops during most of the spring and summer, and for this reasjn may be desir- able for ornamental planting, although of no account as a timber- tree, as its wood is soft and brittle. It occurs from San Luis Obispo to Mendocino Co. and Mt. Shasta, and on the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 1012. The Texas Buckeye (Ungnadia spedosa). This occurs in Texas, where it forms a small shrub or tree, with brittle wood, alternate and unequally pinnate leaves, and showy rose-colored blos- soms. The seeds are sweet-tasted like the walnuts, but are said to possess emetic properties. It somewhat resembles the hickories in its leaves, but more the horse-chestnut in its fruit. 1013. The Soapberry {Sapindns saponaria). This is a small tree, growing upon the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, from 20 to 50 feet in height. It derives its name from the soap-like ■properties of the fruit, which, when pounded up, forms a lather with soft water, and may be used instead of soap. When bruised and thrown into water, the fruit will intoxicate fish. This tree be- longs to the same family as the buckeyes. There are one or two other species in the southwest. There are about forty species of the Sapindus known, chiefly found in the tropical and sub-tropical cli- mates, in which alone it can be cultivated with success. 256 The Locust, and nearly related Genera. THE LOCUST. 1014. The Common Locust (Robinia pseudaeada). This is some- times called the " black locust," the "yellow locust," or the " false acacia," and occurs native west of the Alleghenies from Pennsylva- nia to Arkansas. In the Carolinas, it is found native only in the 139. Leaves and Flower of the ^scalus Californica, of one-half the Natural Size. (See page 255.) lower mountain ridges, but it is thought that it once grew wild at some distance east of the Blue Ridge, where it is not now found in its native state. 1015. It is widely diffused by cultivation in all the Atlantic States and in Europe. The rapidity of its growth, the beauty of its The Locust. 257 blossoms, the solidity and durability of its wood, have heretofore led to high expectations of great profit in its planting ; and in the early settlement of the prairie region of Illinois and elsewhere, it ■was for many years a great favorite. 1016. These hopes were in many regions so effectually disap- pointed by the "borers" that the trees not wholly destroyed by them were to a great extent cut down, and the planting discon- tinued. The most destructive of these borers are the larvae of the CyUene picta,^ already noticed [§ 721], although there are two or three other species that commit great injuries. One of these is a little reddish caterpillar, that bores into the pith of the twigs, which become spongy and brittle. Another is a large grub of an insect, which in its perfect state is a moth. These bore upwards and down- wards, in oblique directions, in the solid wood, the holes increasing in size as they grow, and finally coming through the bark to the outside of the trunk. 1017. The locust does not generally succeed well when grown in company with other trees. It is, however, thought by some that when planted alternately with the box-elder, it is less liable to the attack of borers.* The age at which a locust coppice should be cut depends much on the uses to which it is to be applied. At ten or fifteen years it yields excellent poles for fencing and other use, but the timber is of greatest value when kept properly thinned out, at forty or fifty years. Upon the banks of streams, and in light shift- ing sands, it takes a remarkable growth, as it also does upon shel- tered slopes in a hilly region, where it gets a good exposure to the air and light. It is more profitable to plant it in clumps or groups in these tavorite spots than over great areas. Its strong tendency to sprout renders it inconvenient on the borders of cultivated grounds. 1018. The locust, under cultivation, produces many varieties, some with upright and others with pendant or twisted and deformed branches. It is in some varieties thornless, and in others the leaves 1 Known as the Cossus Robinae, as named by Professor Peck, by whom it was supposed that it remained three years in the caterpillar state The same insect, or some one very nearly like it, perforates the trunks of the red oak. 'Iowa Forestry Annual, 1881, p. 15. 17 258 The Locust, Coffee- Tree, de. are crisped or otherwise deformed, and the flowers assume various yellow aud pink colors, and different sizes and forms of growth. From its tracing roots it sends up sprouts in great abundance, and it may be propagated from these with great facilit_v. 1019. The wood of the locust is fine grained, yellowish, hard, and very durable. For this reason, it is much used for trenails of ves- sels. It is also very durable as posts and for studding of wainscots in damp situations. 1020. The Clammy Locust {Robinia viscosa). This is a small tree, native in the mountains from Southern North Carolina to Georgia, where it grows to the height of forty-feet. It derives its name from a glandular-viscid secretion upon the pods, leaf-stems, and twigs. 1021. The Rose-Locust (Bobinia hispida). This is a small aud hispid species, found upon the mountains of the Carolinas and Georgia and in pine barrens. It is sometimes cultivated for orna- ment, the blossoms being twice the size of the common locust and of a rose-red tinge. 1022. Kevtvcky Coffee-Tkee {Gymnodadus Canadensis). This tree, one of the leguminous family, grows native in the Western States, and to great perfection in Kentucky and the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. It occurs in Western New York and west of the Niagara river in Canada, and extends westward to Nebraska. Under the most favorable conditions, it grows from sixty to eighty feet in height. The bark is rough, the branches stout and abruptly terminated, appearing in winter like a dead tree. It has doubly pinnate leaves, a dense fine-grained wood, suit- able for cabinet work. It is readily propagated from the seeds, but these must be scalded and left soaking in warm water for some hours before planting. 1023. The Honey-Locust (GMitschia trieantJios). This tree is found widely difi"used, but grows to greatest size in the Southern States. It is nowhere abundant, but often cultivated for ornament, and affords an excellent tree for hedges. In favorable circumstances, it grows to the height of fifty feet or more, with a diameter of two to three feet. The wood is hard, close-grained, and suitable for many uses in manufactures, and is said to be very durable when used as posts. It extends westward into Iowa and Nebraska, and southward to Mississippi. The Red- Bud: The Acacias. 259 1024. This species offers many inducements for planting. It is not troublesome from sprouting, as is the common locust ; it is far less liable to insect injuries, and after the first year it is hardy. It bears transplanting much more easily than most other trees. 1025. The Watee-Locust (Gkditschia mmosperma). This is a small tree, growing in swamps along the Gulf States and as far northward as Southern Illinois. It is of but small size, and the wood of little value. 1026. Red-Bud oe Judas-Teee (Gerds Canadensis). This is a small but highly ornamental tree, which is covered in spring with bright red blossoms. One of its common names was given by Ger- ard, an old English gardener (1596), who says that "this is the tree whereon Judas did hange himselfe, and not upon ye elder, as it is said." The common European species is the G. siliquadrwm. 1027. The redrbud is found native on river banks from New Jersey southward to Florida, and in the Western States. It grows to the height of from 15 to 30 feet, and is often cultivated for orna- ment. The small, deep, rose-colored flowers appear before the leaves, in clumps of 4 to 8, in March and April. The fruit has an acid taste. The Acacias. 1028. The genus Acacia numbers about 400 species, chiefly found in warm climates, and most abundant in Australia and Africa. We have about a dozen native species, chiefly herb- aceous, on the southern borders of the United States, and one {A. Greggii) in California. Several species of the Wattle (Acacia pycnantha — the " broad leaf," " golden," and " green " wattle ; A. de- currem, the "black" wattle; and A. dealbata, or "silver" wattle) are extensively used in Australia, and exported from thence as a tanning material. The wattles grow readily on loose, sandy soil, and might be cultivated iu the milder regions of the United States, and especially on the Pacific coast. 1029. The wood is tough, hard, and durable, and is used for staves, spokes of wheels, tool handles, and many other purposes. The acacias exude a gum that has commercial value, and furnish excellent firewood. The quality of the bark for tanning depends much upon the soil, and it is of much less value when grown upon a limestone formation. The tree is not long lived, and it is at its prime when about ten years old, at which age the wood is nine or 260 The Acacias .- The Pears and Apples. ten inches in diameter. In extreme cases, it becomes two feet thick. The yiehi of tanning extract varies from thirty to forty-five per cent. 1030. The Victoria Myall (Acada homdophylla). This has a dark-brown wood, and is much used for turner's work, and is valued on account of its solidity and fragrance. It is also much used for the manufacture of tobacco pipes. 1031. The Blackwood (A. mehmoxyhn) grows on river flats and in moist, fertile valleys. In irrigated valleys and a deep soil, it will attain a height of eighty feet, and several feet in diameter. The wood is prized for furniture, railway carriages, boat building, billiard tables, the sounding-boards of pianos, etc., and for veneers. It takes a fine polish, and is fully equal to the best of walnut. It bends very well when steamed. 1032. Yellow-wood (Cladrastis tinctoria). This species, de- scribed by Michaux as the "yirgilia latea," and often known among nurserymen as the " virgilia,"' occurs native in deep, fertile soil in Western Tennessee and in Kentucky, growing, as a tree, from twenty to forty feet high, and sometimes a foot in diameter. It has a smooth, greenish bark, and a yellow heart-wood, which im- parts its color to water, and is used as a domestic dye. It bears large, white flowers, and is cultivated successfully for ornament in the middle latitudes, and as far north as Central New York. The Peaes and Apples (Genus Pirus). 1033. This numbers about forty species, natives of the North Temperate Zone, and widely cultivated for their fruit. In some cases, they are valuable for their wood, which is solid, fine-grained, and of uniform texture ; ■well adapted for turning, and for certain kinds of wood-engraving, although much inferior to the boxwood. It makes an excellent fuel, and in some regions it may be cultivated profitably for this use. 1034. In the open country east of the Cascade mountains in Washington Territory, it appears to be particularly well adapted for ' The Virgilia is a distinct genus, not represented in the native flora of the United States. The V. capensis is a tree growing in South Africa. There is but one other species of the Cladrastis, and that grows in Mant- choura, in Asia. The Mountain Ash : The Sweet- Scented Crab Tree. 261 this use, and the Surveyor-General of that Territory, in a report made in 1881, says that a grove of apple or pear trees, if set out at twelve feet apart, will attain a wonderful height in a few years. The fruit will be worthless, but the timber will grow straight and tall, if the bodies are thus kept shaded; and adds: "I doubt if more valuable timber could be grown, for either fuel or manufactur- ing purposes, all things considered. Such trees would grow wher- ever planted with but little care or expense." 1035. The Mountain Ash {Firm Americana). This species grows in high northern latitudes, from Green- land and Labrador to the Pacific coast, and in the New England and Northern States. It is generally found upon mountains, and grows to a small tree. The fruit, which is red, remains on during the winter, and it b often cultivated for orna- ment. It much resem- bles the European mountain ash (P. au- cuparia), but does not grow to so large a size. The latter grows freely throughout the North- ern States under culti- vation, and is highly ^^ ^M ornamental when in "^ y £ „;+ 140. Leaves,. Flowers, and Fruit of the Mountain Asli. i 1036. The Sweet-Scented Ceab Teee (Pirus cormaria). This tree grows in Western New York, and as far west as Iowa, and southward to Georgia and Louisiana. It forms a tree from ten to twenty feet high, and is sometimes cultivated. The fruit, when ripe, is an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, greenish-yellow, somewhat translucent, and extremely acid. 262 The Plums and Cherries. 1037. The Oregon Cbab-Apple (Firm rividaris). This occurs as a shrub, usually forming dense thickets, but sometimes growing as a tree from 15 to 25 feet in height, and a foot in diameter, from Alaska southward along the islands and the mainland as far as So- noma county, California. It has a very hard wood, susceptible of a fine polish, and useful in mill work, where there is great wear. Its fruit is prized by the Indian for food. 1038. The Western Mountain Ash (Firm sarnhtieifolia). This is a small shrub, growing at great elevations upon the Sierras, and sparingly in various parts of the interior of British America. It is usually a shrub from 4 to 8 feet in height. The Plums and Cherries (Genus Frunus). 1039. This numbers about eighty species, widely scattered over the North Temperate Zone, and of these some twenty are found in North America, and fourteeniu the At- lantic States. Upon the Pacific coast, half a dozen species occur, all of them shrubs, fe and of but slight ac- count either for their wood or their fruit. These species are often planted at great dis- tances from the par- ent tree, their seeds being dropped undi- gested by birds. 1040. 'The Black Cherry (^Frunits se- rotina). This tree, in a rich soil, grows very rapidly, and forms one of the most valued of 141. Wild Black Cherry.— Le&yes, Flowers, and Fruit, our native WOods for The Plums and Cherries. 263 cabinet work. It is almost equal to mahogany, ■which it in some degree resembles when darkened by age. It grows readily from the seed, which may be planted in the fall or early in the spring, and they generally do best if started in the place where the tree is to remain. The hark, especially that of the roots, possess valuable tonic and sedative qualities, and aiford the basis of various remedies sold in market. The leaves are also sometimes used in domestic medicine. 1041. This tree is found to be well adapted to prairie planting in Illinois, Iowa, and other Western States. In a deep, rich soil, it sometimes attains a great size. It is noticed that the fruit improves in quality and size under cultivation, and it begins to bear at an early age. 1042. Bird Cherry (Prunus Pemisylvanica). This tree grows to a small tree, but is short-lived, and its wood is too small and per- ishable to be much value for any purpose but fuel. It is veryapt to spring up on land that has been burnt over ; often intermingled with poplars, and gradually giving place to larger and more hardy kinds. The fruit grows in small clusters like the garden cherry. The cherries are small, acid, and a favorite food of birds, through whose agency the growth of this tree on a burnt district may be probably ascribed. 1043. The Choke-Cherey (Prunus Virginiana). This derives its name from the astringent property of its fruit, which grows in racimes like grapes or currents. This species grows in dense thick- ets, and not of sufficient size to be of value for its wood. 1044. The Carolina Plum (PrunMsCaroKmano). This is a highly ornamental southern species, with evergreen foliage, and growing to a height of from thirty to fifty feet. It has a very regular oval head, and smooth branches. Its leaves are said to be very poison- ous to cattle. It occurs on the coast and islands of the Carolinas and Georgia, and is well adapted for ornamental planting. 1045. The Chicasaw Plum (Prunus Cliieam). This is a native of the South-western States, but is extensively naturalized in the South, and is sometimes cultivated in the North. The fruit is small, and rather astringent, but runs into varieties, some of which are much prized. It has been sometimes cultivated as a hedge-plant, and is worthy of notice in tree-planting in the Western States. 264 The Thorn-Tree: The Service-Beri-y. Several other species of this genus grow in the United States, but none of them of much importance in forestry. The Thoen-Teee (Genus Cratcegus). 1046. Between sixty and seventy species occur in Europe, in East- ern Asia, and Japan, and in North America. About fifteen species are found in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The quality of their wood is about the same as that of the apple-tree. They are of slow growth, and unimportant as timber-trees, but they are in some regions remarkably well adapted for hedges, being thorny, and very scraggly in their growth, presenting a thicket that is quite im- penetrable by man or beast. 1047. Two species are found in California, viz., C. rivalaris and G. Bouglasii. They are shrubs or small trees, the former growing to 10 or 15 feet, and the latter from 18 to 25 feet, with stout spines and black or dark purple fruit. 1048. The Scarlet-Feuited Thoen (Oratoegus coccinea). This thorn, when grown as a hedge-plant, should be trained to grow thin and tall, which can be done best by weaving in the branches in one direction, and trimming them in the other. 1019. Dotted-Feuit Thoen (Oratcegus punctata). This is a common species in the Atlantic States, growing naturally along the borders of rivers, and is easily transplanted. AVhen properly trimmed and managed, it makes a superior hedge-plant. The fruit is dull red, or- yellowish, and dotted, and the leaves are wedge- shaped, tapering below into a slender leaf-stem. The Seevice-Berey (Genus AmelaneUer). 1050. Some four or five species of this genus are found in South- ern Europe, Asia-Minor, Japan, and North America. Of these the A. Cfawiadensis, variously known as the "shad-bush," "june-berry," etc., is common in the Atlantic States, and the A. alnifolia upon the Pacific coast. They are shrubs of small size, of no great interest to the forester. The wood of the western species is very hard, and is used by the Indians for various purposes. , The berries are dried and stored away by them in large quantities for winter use. The Eucalyptus. 1051. Of the genus Eueahjptm (of the natural orders Myrtacece), The Eucalyptus. 265 about 150 species are described, chiefly natives of Australia and the Indian Archipelago, and of these the best known is the E. ghbulus. This was first discovered by Labillardiere, in Tasmania, in 1792, but was not much noticed in Europe until 1861. M. Prosper Eamel, who had seen it growing in a botanical garden in Melbourne, was so impressed with its probable value for cultivation in Europe, that he sent the seeds to Paris in 1860, and attempts in planting were made the next year. It grew remarkably well, but was killed down in winter, and it is now well known that it can not survive the frost, at least not till the wood is several years old. It thrives, however, very well in Southern France, and is found peculiarly well adapted to cultivation in Algeria. 1052. It has been tried in many parts of the United States, but not with much success, excepting in California, where, within the influence of the coast climate, but not in the interior valleys, it thrives with great luxuriance, provided that the temperature never goes down below about 28° (F.). The influence of the sea-air ap- pears to give it some immunity against frost. 1053. Under favorable conditions, the growth is truly wonderful. A section was shown at the Centennial Exhibition, in 1878, but eleven years old, that came from a tree sixty feet high and thir- teen and a half inches in diameter at five feet from the ground. 1054. About twenty species of the eucalyptus have been tried in that state, of which half a dozen have been planted to some extent, and probably three-fifths of them are the "blue-gums" (E. ghbu- lus), the rest being chiefly the E. viminalis, F. viarginata, and E. ros- trata. Of these the first has attracted the most attention, on ac- count of its rapid growth, although its timber is less valuable than some other hard-wooded species. It is estimated that six millions of this tree had been planted in the ten years preceding 1882, mostly in streets and yards, in cities, villages, and around dwellings. 1055. The E. comuta and E. gigantea have shown a susceptibility to the frost quite equal to that of the E. gtobulus, although the E. rostrata and E. viminaliB are more hardy. Of 120,000 trees planted at Tipton, and well-cared for, nearly all of the E. globulus, E. cornvta, and E. gigantea died within two years, and the E. rostrata thrived, but grew slowly. 1056. The texture of the wood thus rapidly grown is soft and sappy, as compared with that hardened by age, but it is highly 266 The Eucalyptus. probable that it would all the more readily admit of the injection of creosote, or the mineral salts in solution, that would render it hard, strong, and durable. 1057. The mature wood is rather pale, and not so ornamental as many others of the genus, but it takes a good polish, is hard, durable, and nearly equal to English oak as a building timber, but it will not bear contact with the soil or water as well as the red-gum, iron-bark, and box-eucalypts. It varies in solidity according to the conditions of its growth, and is sometimes too heavy to float. It is used in ship-building, carriage-making, and the manufacture of agricultural implements, and for telegraph poles and railway ties. In its native country it is a favorite material for fencing, and va- rious farm uses. 1058. As to profit in the cultivation of the Eucalyptus globulus in California, we have returns of twenty acres cleared, when eleven years old, to make room for an orchard, in which after charging every item of cost, and a yearly rental of $5 per acre, the net profits were $3,866.04, or about $17.57 per acre annually. When used as fuel, the wood should be split immediately after felling, or otherwise it becomes soggy and worthless. 1059. In a paper presented at the American Forestry Congress at Cincinnati, in April, 1882, by Prof. E. E. C. Stearns, of the California State University, after presenting the leading facts in reference to tree-planting in that state with evident fairness, he adds : " If one-half of the trees planted, as represented by the pre- ceding figures, are still living and growing, the pad has been reaUy a very great success. If new plantations are being made at the rate of say only 50,000 or 75,000 per annum, the present is full of prom- ise, and the future full of hope." 1060. The seeds of the E. globulus are small (about 10,000 to an ounce), and will keep their vitality about four years. The lower leaves are broad "and heart-shaped, but the upper ones turn edge- wise, so as to present both sides to the light, and are long-pointed and curved flatwise. For this reason this tree does not shade the ground so much as most forest trees. 1061. The leaves, when rubbed, emit a strong aromatic odor, and afford by distillation an essential oil that is found to possess valuable medicinal qualities. About the year 1870, the exporta- tion of this oil from Australia by a single manufacturer amounted The Eugenias : The Cornel Family. 267 to over 12,000 pounds. It is used also for scenting ISoaps, for di- luting the oil of roses, and for other perfumes. The alcoholic ex- tract of the leaves ia found to be efficacious in intermittent fever, and the balsamic odors emitted while growing are believed to be salutary in certain diseases. From the rapidity of its growth, this tree evaporates a large amount of water that is taken up by the roots, and has a tendency by this means to promote the drainage of pestilential swamps.^ 1062. In its native country the blue-gum grows to the enormous size of 400 to 500 feet in height, and over 80 feet in circumference. It even rivals the giant trees of California in height, but not in symmetry of proportion and in solid contents. Among the other species of this genus there are many that grow to colossal size, and some that excel in beauty and durability of the wood. 1063. The Eugenia belongs also to the allspice family {Myr- tacece), and four or five species occur as small trees or shrubs in Southern Florida. The wood closely resembles that of boxwood, and is found to be equally suitable for wood-engraving. It is, how- ever, of small size, and has not hitherto been brought into use for this purpose. An immense number of species of this genus have been described, of which about five hundred are deemed well char- acterized, and some two hundred others as less certain. They are chiefly natives of tropical and sub-tropical regions in Asia and America, and a few are found in Australia and Africa. The Cornel Family (CornaeecB). 1064. This embraces about a dozen .genera, and less than a hun- dred species, and is widely distributed throughout the north tem- perate zone. They are mostly unimportant shrubs, but some of 'In the autumn of 1881, the author visited the Abbey of Trois-Fontaines, near the city of Eome, and saw the operations of planting this tree that were going on, about 150 convicts being employed in the labor. The seeds are sown in boxes filled with rich soil, and the plants were taken out with- out disturbing the roots, and set in places first prepared, and well-watered. They need watering the first season, but afterwards will take care of them- selves. The soil is excessively bard and dry. This region was so unhealthy that the abbey had been wholly abandoned. The planting began about 1868, and the place is now in-habited by a great number of persons, and in 1881, for the first time, the convicts were lodged upon the premises instead of being taken back to the city every night as formerly. 268 The Sour-Gum. them grow to a useful size as trees. Their bark is bitter and tonic, and their wood generally very hard and fine-grained. 1065. Of the genus Corniis, we find in the United States about a dozen species. Of these in the Atlantic States the Flowering Dogwood (C. florida) is perhaps the most important, as well for cultivation as an ornamental tree, as for the solidity and excellence of its wood. 1066. The C. NuttaUii grows in California, and northward to Brit- ish Columbia, to the size of 50 to 70 feet, and bears a showy blossom. Its wood is close-grained and hard, and it is well worthy of cultivation. There are about half a dozen other species of this genus in California. The Soue-Gtjm (Genus Nyssa). 1067. This genus, also belonging to the Comaeeos, of which five or six species are found in the north temperate zone, in North America, the Himalaya region, and Malay archipelago. The san- dal-wood of commerce belongs to this family. 1068. The Peppeeidge (iV. multiflora) occurs in the Atlantic States from New England southward to the gulf coast. It is va- riously named the " tupelo," " hornbeam," " snag-tree," etc., and grows chiefly in swamps, and often to a large size. Its wood is ex- ceedingly fibrous and difiicult to split, and this quality renders it a valuable material for wagon-hubs, the best being found in the swamps of Maryland and the sea-coast of New Jersey, where it is found in perfection. 1069. When used for hubs, it should be cut in the early part of winter, and from five to ten feet from each tree, near the butt, may be taken. It should be at once deprived of the bark, and be cross- piled in dry open sheds for three years or more, until thoroughly dried. The best qualities are fined-grained, heavy, and the fibers of the wood are so woven together that it can scarcely be split by any force that can be applied. 1070. The wood is also, for this reason, much used for making packing-boxes that require great strength, and at Syracuse, N. Y. it is used in making pipes for distributing the brine at the salt works in that vicinity. Four other species of the Nyssa, occur in the Middle and Southern States. The Elders : The Haw and the Button-Bush. 269 The Eldees (Genus Samhucui). 1071. The two principal species of the elder found native in the United States are unimportant shrubs. One of them, the red-ber- ried elder, (S. pubens) has sometimes an arborescent form, and is occasionally, but rarely, found 15 to 18 feet high. The S. glauca of California and Oregon is sometimes of this height, and from six inches to a foot in diameter. The Europeon elder (/S. racemosa and S. nigra) grows to a tree of considerable size at the base, but not high in pro- portion, and the young branches are straight, and ■with a relatively large pith, as in the common elder (S. Canadensis) of the Atlantic States. Its berries are sometimes used in making pies, and their juice in making wine. Of the elders, about ten or twelve species are known, chiefly natives of temperate regions, except one or two found in South Africa and some upon mountains within the tropics. This genus and the following belong to the natural order Caprifo- Haw : Sloe: Arkow-Wood (Genus Viburnum). 1072. Of this genus about eighty species are described, and about a dozen are native in the United States. They are, for the most part, unimportant shrubs, growing in swamps, or damp woods, but some of them preferring a dry situation, and occasionally they be- come small trees. 1073. The black haw ( F. prunifolium) grows to the height of 20 feet, and the V. lentago to an equal size. Both have a wide range towards the north and west, and varieties of the former endure a dry climate quite well, and may help to make up some diversity in the forest culture of the western regions. 1074. The Vihurnwn opvlus is the " high cranberry," sometimes cultivated for its fruit, or as an ornamental hedge-plant. A garden variety of this species, introduced from Europe, has large showy white flowers, all sterile, and is known as the " snow-ball bush." It is easily propagated by sprouts from the root, and by layers, and has a hard fine-grained wood. 1075. The Button-Bush (Cephalanthus ocddentalis), of the nat- ural order Rvbiacece, is an unimportant shrub, growing throughout the Northern and Western States and on the Pacific coast. It pre- fers the margins of swamps and a rich soil, and sometimes grows to a small tree, but is too small sized for any useful purpose. The 270 The Silver- Bell: The Ash. fruit closely resembles in form that of the plane-tree, but is smaller. It is sometimes called the " pond dogwood." The Snow-Deop, or Silvee-Beu. Tbee (Genus Haleda). 1076. The family to which this tree belongs, (StyraeecB) contains but two genera within the United States, and this genus but five species, of which two are found in North America, one in China, and two or three in Japan. Our species are small trees, found in the Southern Atlantic States, and bear showy white flowers. They are often cultivated for ornament. The H. diptera is found in rich woods along the Gulf States : the H. tetraptera occurs in woods and along streams in West Virginia, and from Illinois to Florida, mostly upon or near mountains, and the S. parmflora is a southern species. The Ash (Genus Fraxinus). 142. Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit of the Ash. 1077. This belongs to the olive family (Oleacece), which in- cludes, besides, the European olive, so valued for its fruit and oil, the Forsyth- ias, IQacs, privets, and fringe-tree, that have been in troduced for ornamental plant ing. 1078. The Europ- ean ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is generally found growing with other kinds, and sel- dom alone. It thrives best in a warm cli- mate, and is found, not only upon plains, but on slopes and plateaus of consid- erable size. It sue- The White Ash. 271 ceeds best, however, in the former, but Tiot upon clay nor sand. It generally bears seeds early and abundantly every year. Its leaves are often gathered as forage. The wood is used to advantage in places always wet or always dry, but it does not bear alternate ex- posures. The timber is especially valued in carriage-making, and for various manufactures. 1079. The genus Fraxirms includes about a dozen species within the United States, the principal of which are the following : 1080. White Ash {Fraxinus Americana). This tree prefers a deep and somewhat damp soil, and grows in congenial situations rapidly and to a large size. The wood of second-growth white ash has, perhaps, no equal for lightness, elasticity, and strength, and is largely used for the handles of forks, rakes, etc., scythe snaths, ag- ricultural implements, carriage-making, cooperage, and other man- ufactures, and when sawn into thin boards it furnishes a highly or- namental wood for joinery and carpenter work. 1081. The large " burls" that form on its trunk are especially valued for the making of veneers. The wood splits with great ease and regularity, and is much used for hoops, basket work, and the bottoming of chairs. 1082. The white ash ranks among our best timbers, where grown upon dry ground and under favorable conditions. The wood is light, strong, elastic, and durable. As grown in open ground, it gains rapidly in size, and the wood is of superior quality for scythe snaths, fork-handles, and in wagon-making. In a dry climate it does not grow as well as the green-ash, but the latter does not grow to so large a size. ^~~ 1083. The ash is best raised from the seeds, which may be gath- ered in the fall, and kept in a cool damp place till spring. They may be planted like corn, but not over an inch in depth. They may be transplanted from nurseries with facility, but do not get so early a start as when planted where they are to remain. If planted in rows, about three feet apart and two feet between trees, in a cool and damp, but not wet soil, the alternate trees will, at the end of ten years, afford the best of hoop-poles, and afterwards, at intervals of ten or fifteen years, other thinnings of much greater value. As an ornamental tree, it thrives finely in full exposure, but tbe shade is not dense. 1084 The white ash grows in moist woods, from Canada to Flor- 272 The Ashes. ida and Ijouisiana. A variety (inierocarpa), witli remarkably small fruit, is found in Alabama, and another variety (Texensis, perhaps a distinct species), is found in Texas, near the Rio Grande. 1085. Black Ash (Fraxirms gambueifolid). This ash grows chiefly in swamps, and is distinguished by the greater number of its leaflets and the blunt appearance of its branches, as compared with those of the preceding species. 1086. This tree grows very commonly in the Eastern, Northern, and North-western States. The wood is not so valuable as that of the white ash, but is used for hoops, and the large knots upon the trunk are turned into bowls. It should never be planted upon dry land, but on the borders of swamps and in humid soils. It may be planted closely, for the thinnings have value from a small size, being suitable for hoop-poles, poles, etc., up to sizes suitable for fence-rails, rafters, and sills. 1087. The Geeen Ash (Fraxinus viridis) is a small or middle- sized tree, having much the same range as the white ash, and found well adapted to cultivation in the prairie region. 1088. The Blue Ash (^Fraxinns quadrangvlcda) is a large tim- ber-tree found growing in dry woods in the Western States, from Michigan to Tennessee. It derives its name from the bluish tinge which its inner bark gives to water when macerated in it. 1089. The Water Ash {Fraxinus pMycarpa) is a middle-sized tree growing in swamps from Virginia to Louisiana. 1090. The Red Ash (Fraxinus pubeseens), a middle or large- sized tree growing from Canada to Dakota, and south to Florida. 1091. The Oeegon Ash (Fraxinus Oregona) is a low-spreading tree, common along the Columbia river and the upper part of the Sacramento Valley. It seldom grows more than a foot in diameter by thirty to forty feet in height. 1092. The following may be mentioned only by their botanical names, as of less importance, viz.: Fraxinus anomala, a shrub or low tree in Southern Utah. F. cu^pidata, a shrub five to eight feet high in New Mexico. F. dipetala, a small tree in Western California. J^. Greggii, a shrub five to eight feet high found on limestone soil in South-western Texas and the adjacent parts of Mexico. F. pistacicefolia, a small tree found in South-western Texas, and westward to Arizona. The Olive: The Lilac: The Walnut Family. 273 The Olive. (Genus Oka). 1093. This embraces about thirty-five species, found in tropical Asia and the region bordering upon the Mediterranean. The com- mon European olive (0. Euraped) has been long under cultivation in California, but not to considerable extent. 1094. The Wn.D Olive of the Southern States (Osmanthus Americana) has about the same range as the live-oak, and is worthy of cultivation as affording some variety, but it does not grow to a large size. The Lilac. (Genus Synnga). 1095. Of this there are about half a dozen species, natives of Eastern Europe and Asia. They form desirable shrubs for cultiva- tion, on account of the beauty and fragrance of their blossoms, but are of too small size to be important in forest culture. The Walnut Family. (Juglandece). 1096. This embraces five genera, and some thirty-two species, widely scattered over the northern hemisphere of both continents, and upon mountains within the tropics. The two genera of es- pecial interest are the Carya and Juglans, or the hickories and the walnuts, both of which are of the greatest importance as timber-trees, and several of them of 8 great value for their fruit. 1097. All of this family yield, when tapped in spring, a sweetish sap, that may be evaporated down to syrup and sugar. The amount 143. The Walnut.— Leaves and Frnit. is not, however, sufficient to render it an object, and the injury to the trees would be much greater than any benefit that could be de- rived from this practice. 18 274 The Hickories. The Hickoeies. (Genus Carya). 1098. These occur uative only in North America, although fossil species are found in Europe. About ten living species are known in the United States and Mexico. The wood of the hickories is generally heavy, hard, close-grained, and re- markably strong and elastic. As a fuel they rank higher than any other of our native woods. 1099. The Pecan-Nut (Carya olivcBformis). This is 144. The Walnut-YoniiB Leaves Blossoms, found growing to the height of sixty to seventy feet along the country bordering the Mississippi and the lower Ohio, from Iowa southward to Louisiana, and westward in Indian Territory. The wood is coarse-grained, hard,strong, and durable, but not so val- uable as that of some other species. The fruit of the pecan is considered as one of the best of the hickories, and occasionally a tree is found upon which it is ex- ceptionally fine. There can be no doubt but that these could be greatly improved by cultivation, and that the finer varieties could be grafted upon other species, and grown with much profit. 1100. The Bitter HiCK- OEY (Carya amara). This species occurs from New England and New York, and southward into the Carolinas, where it is occasion- ally found from the coast to the mountains. It grows best in a cool 145. Carya olivseformis — The Pecan-nut. The Hickories. 275 rich soil, but the timber is not equal to that of some other species. It comes to greatest perfection in the Western States, and is found as far west as Nebraska. It is sometimes called the ' ' swamp hickory." 1101. The Shell-Baek Hickoey {Carya alM). This is one of the most widely distributed and most valuable of the hickories. It is found from Massachusetts to Nebraska, and is particularly weU developed iu deep fertile soil in the Western States. In West Vir- ginia it is sometimes found eighty to a hundred feet in height, and from two and a half to three feet in diameter. Its timber is highly prized in carriage-making, but is not durable in the weather. It is found somewhat sparingly in North Carolina, and is most common in the Southern States, upon the uplands of the interior. 1102. The White-Heart Hickoey oe Mockee-Nut (Carya to- mentosa). This species is found from New England southward to the Carolinas, and westward to Iowa and Nebraska. In North Car- olina it grows to sixty feet or more in height, and from twenty inches to two feet in diameter. It extends from the coast to the mountains, and is the only hickory that grows on the " barrens." Its timber is much used in carriage-making. 1103. The Thick Shell-Babk Hickoey (Carya stdcata). This is chiefly a western species, and grows in rich soils to eighty and a hundred feet in height and three feet in diameter. 1104. The Beoom-Hickoey oe Pig-Nut (Carya porcina). This is the most common species in the Eastern and Middle States, and is found westward to Nebraska. Its fibers are very tough, and it is sometimes made into brooms. Under favorable conditions it grows to four feet in diameter. 1105. The Pig-Nut Hickoey (Carya glabra'). This species is somewhat widely distributed, and is found disseminated among other hickories in North Carolina and southward. It is found westward to Iowa. 1106. The Watee Bittee-Nut Hickoey (Can/as ajuatica). This is found in swamps in North Carolina. Its timber is of poorer qual- ity than that of any other of the hickories. The Black Walnut, Butteenut, etc. (Genus Juglans). 1107. Of this genus, seven or eight species are known in temper- ate and sub-tropical regions, of which one is found in Europe and Central Asia", two in Eastern Asia and Japan, and four or five in 276 The Black Walnut. Canada, the United States, Mexico, and the West Indies. The fruit is oily and richly flavored, and is sold in the markets for eat- ing, and when young and hefore the shell hardens, it is often used as pickles. The outer husk of the fruit, and sometimes the bark, are used in dyeing. 1108. The Bi-ack Walnut (Juglans nigra). This tree derives its name from the color of the heart- wood, which is of a dark tinge, and it has long been a favorite, material for cabinet-wares. When exposed to the weather, it is durable, and in the first settlement of regions where it was common it was much used for posts and rails. 1109. When the wood of this tree has a waved or curly grain, it is highly prized for veneers. Such pieces are best obtained from a crotch of large limbs, or from the stump and large roots, or, better still, from the large burls or excrescences that are sometimes found on the trunk. Enormous prices have been paid for single trees hav- ing an exceptionally fine grain. 1110. This may be justly regarded as among the most valuable of our native species, and in a rich and rather humid soil is among the most profitable to plant. It will grow very well, but not so rapidly, upon lands that are dry, and in a climate approaching the arid, and it is found well adapted for cultivation upon the prairies and the eastern borders of the great plains. As it sends down a strong tap-root, and is very liable to suffer in transplanting, it should always be planted where it is to remain. This may be done in autumn or early in the spring, and if the latter, from nuts that have been exposed to freezing, as elsewhere described. 1111. There is another fact to be noticed, in reference to this tree, that deserves attention. In the more westerly States, where the blue-grass thrives, it is very apt to get into a black walnut grove, and unless carefully kept out by cultivation, it will injure its growth. This happens from the fact that the grass starts very early, and even matures its seed before the foliage of the trees is fully opened. 1112. It is therefore best to plant it alternately with other trees that put forth their leaves earlier, although they may not be worth as much for their wood, such as soft maples, box-elder, or cotton- wood. The latter have the further advantage of compelling the black walnut trees to run up straight and high, and they serve to shelter and protect it from the hot sun and from drying winds. The Butternut. 277 1113. These nursing-trees may be taken out ■when the growth be- comes too dense, and they will be then of use as fuel and for various farm purposes. An acre of land requires for planting about seven bushels of black walnuts with the shucks on. They must be planted early, and in a dry prairie soil they require to be covered more deeply than in a humid soil. 1114. In Canada, the black walnut once abounded in the country drained by the tributaries of the St. Clair river, but it has now be- come scarce, and from present prospects it wiU soon disappear as a native timber tree. 1115. BuTTEENUT {Juglans cinerea). This tree, when grown alone, is noted for its broad-spreading habit, but in woods, among Other trees, it grows to forty or sixty feet in height. Its lumber is brownish-white, and in texture much like that of the black walnut. It works smoothly, takes a good finish, and is much used for inside finishings. 1116. This tree is widely distributed throughout the Northern and Middle States, is easily raised from the nuts, and, like the black walnut, it is difficult to transplant. It prefers a rich, calcareous soil, and under favorable circumstances its growth is quite rapid. It must, however, be crowded laterally, if we wish to have it form a tall straight trunk. 1117. The bark of the butternut has medicinal properties that give it the specific name — (Mhartim, as applied by Micaux. It is also sometimes used for dyeing, and it possesses some tanning prop- erties. 1118. Juglans Californica. This is a large shrub or small tree, but sometimes found forty to sixty feet in height and from two to four feet in diameter. It occurs in California, from San Francisco southward. 1119. Juglans rupestris. This is a shrub found in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, and grows to from six to twenty feet in height. The Willows and Poplaes. (Natural Order SalidnecB). 1120. This natural order embraces only the willows and the pop- lars, concerning which botanists difier greatly in the classification. They are scattered over the north temperate and borders of the Arctic zone ; some occur within the tropics, and a few in the south- ern hemisphere, but none in Australia or on the islands of the Sonth- ern Pacific. 278 The Willows. The Willows. (Genus Sdix). 1121. The willows form a great number of epecies,' and run into hybrids and varieties that render their study botanieally a matter of unusual difficulty.' They occur in a great variety of soil, but generally prefer humid localities, and many kinds occur chiefly along the borders of streams. Their roots in such places present the most efficient means for preventing erosions, and they may be planted for this purpose with great success. 1122. Willows produce seeds much like those of the poplars, and these ripen in the spring. They are, however, best propagated from cuttings from the robust young wood or in sections from the roots. 1123. These cuttings may be made late in the fall or in winter, but always after the fall of the leaf, and before the sap starts in the spring. They should be selected from sound and thrifty young wood, of the previous year's growth, tied in bundles and set in a damp cellar, their lower ends set in sand or wet moss, and their tops prevented from drying ; or, instead of this, they may be set in trenches not liable to standing water, and covered from the frost. They should be set early in spring, in ground previously prepared, and will need cultivation till they are above the reach of weeds. 1124. There are several of the willows that grow to large trees and produce valuable timber. Their rapidity of growth, under fa- vorable conditions, is remarkable. The wood is light, tough, and easily worked, and in some kinds it is used for hoops, tool handles, and turned wares. The bark contains tanning and medicinal qual- ities, and the charcoal from its wood is used for making gunpowder. ^ About IGO in number, of which about 60 occur in North America. 'It is remarked by Grigor that "there is no genus of plants in general cultivation whose species are more confused than that of the willowl This is accounted for partly from the more prominent kinds having been hybrid- ized, and yielded intermediate varieties without number, and partly from each species, containing male and female plants, and the same species dif- fering to some extent in appearance at certain seasons of the year. Add to this the circumstance of old trees assuming a very different appearance from young ones, and that no tree is more apt to change its appearance from a change of soil and climate, and it will not be surprising that some confusion should exist in the genus, and that the more prominent species only bhould be readily recognized." (Arboriculture, page 310.) The Willows. 279 The ashes of the willow are rich in potash, and the leaves in some countries are gathered for feeding sheep in winter. 1125. Among the willows of large growth, the "White Willow {S. alia) is by far the most important. It is sometimes called the gray or Huntingdon willow, and is already widely introduced in the prairie region of the northwest, where it is valued above all others as a wind-break. 1126. The white willow is found to thrive exceedingly well in Northern Iowa and in Minnesota, as a hedge and screen. It grows with great rapidity, and its wood is useful as a fuel, and, when peeled and seasoned, as poles for all kinds of farm uses. When split and nailed to posts, it makes a very good fence. 1127. This willow is readily propagated from cuttings, as already described, and they should be set rather deep in soil liable to drouth, and so thick that they will shade the ground early, but care should be taken to thin them out as soon as they become crowded. 1128. The Round-leaved or Goat- Willow (S. capred). This is one of the kinds of willow that grow to a large size, with a tough elastic wood, of about the same market value as the birch. The bark is used for tanning leather. This willow, in England, is much prized for coppice-growth, where there is a demand for hoops, poles, rods for crates, sheep-fences, or similar uses, and no tree cut once in three or four years will yield in a short period a greater bulk of faggot wood. On congenial soil, the growth of one season is from eight to twelve feet long, and an inch in diameter at a yard from the ground. It grows forty or fifty feet high, and from one and a half to two feet in diameter. It stands exposure to the sea winds better than most trees. 1129. The Bedford Willow (S. RusseUiana') is of rapid growth, and the wood equal to that of the white willow, if not superior. The Red-Wood Willow (S. fragilis). This has a light, tough, and durable wood, but when old it is very liable to die at the top. The specific name is given from the facility with which the twigs used for basket-work, break from the tree, although the twigs themselves are tough and pliable. 1130. Willow, when sawn into boards, is extremely light, but tough, and is not apt to splinter or receive damage from the fall or friction of hard materials. It is for this reason much prized as a lining for cart-bodies and barrows. In England it is highly prized 280 The Osier Willow. for railroad-brakes, as it is not readily set on fire by friction. In the works constructed for preventing the erosion of mountain torrents, bundles of willow are often fastened down in the beds of streams, where they sometimes take root and grow. In the jettys constructed by Captain Eades, for improving the mouth of the Mississippi for navigation in recent years, the willow was the principal brush-wood employed. CuUivation of the Osier or Basket- Willow. 1131. Although this is scarcely a branch of forestry in its ordi- nary sense, it is often noticed in connection with it, and as it involves some principles in cultivation in common with tree-planting, we will concisely state the principal rules concerning it. It deserves favor on account of the small capital that it employs, the large amount of hand-labor that it affords at remunerative prices, and the considerable amount of money that would be saved to the country were the sup- plies that we use, wholly produced upon our own soil.' It is fur- ther to be noticed, that willows may be cultivated upon soil too marshy for most kinds of farm-crops, and that the labor they fur- nish may be carried on through the year. 1132. The soils best adapted for the willow are rich alluvions, and reclaimed swamps, and the land should be sufficiently drained. It would be better if means were provided for irrigation in dry sea- sons. If liable to overflow in spring floods, it should have ditches at proper intervals for sooner carrying off the water. 1133. In preparing an osier field for planting, it should be cleared of all vegetation, and the soil should be mellowed by plowing or spading late in the fall before planting. 1134. The kinds of willow preferred in Europe are chiefly the following : 1. Red-willow (Salix purpurea). 2. Ural willow (S. purpurea var. Vralensis). 3. White osier (S. viminalis). 4. Narrow-leaved willow (S. rubra or S. viminalis-purpurea'). 5. Soft-leaved willow (S. inollissi'ma). 6. Caspian willow {S. acutifolia or *S. pruinosa). 1135. These, under cultivation, run into varieties, so that their ' During the ten 3-enr5 ending in 1879, the annual importation of prepared willow averaged $38,000, and that of willow-worlt $170,000. ..The Osier Willow. 28l distinctive characters are lost. They differ greatly in habit of growth, hardiness, and qualities suitable for various uses. The kinds suited to a given location can not be known before trial, and those who may engage in this planting will do well to experiment with several kinds before planting largely with any. In starting an osier plantation, it is recommended to obtain the cuttings in the latter part of February or the first of March, and carefully kept from drying until ready for use. 1136. The finest stems should be selected, fiwm the wood grown the year before. The ground is marked out by cords, and some prefer to run the lines east and west. For the kinds that are to be cut every year, they may be set in rows 18 to 20 inches apart, and for those to be cut every second year, they should be wider. For the white osier and the Caspian willow the space is sometimes 30 inches between the lines, and the intervals between are planted with some crop. They should be at about one-third of these distances between in the rows. It is important that the ground should be well shaded, and the plants always grow more uniform when some- what crowded than when wider apart. In more open spaces, the sprouts branch, but the wood is more solid and durable. 1137. The number of cuttings required for an acre will range from 18,000 to 75,000, and may be calculated by the aid of a table elsewhere given in this book. They must be cut smoothly into lengths of ten or twelve inches, and pressed into the soil, the butt- end first, so as to leave about an inch out of the ground. Care must be taken not to peel back the bark in setting, and a hole may be made with an old bayonet, or something of the kind, if the ground is a little hard. They should slope at an angle of 45° to- wards the north. 1138. It is sometimes preferable to set in trenches, and in poor soils to fertilize with leaf-mold, stable-manure, or bone-dust. The manure should not be put in contact with the cuttings, but near them, and it is highly advantageous to irrigate with the soakings of manure during the summer. 1139. The ground should be kept mellow and free of weeds, and the first cutting, if delayed till the second year, will give a stronger growth to the roots. After the first the cutting may be made an- nually, or on alternate years according to the sizes desired. It 282 The Osier Willow. should be done with a very sharp knife, bent flatwise to a right an- gle, with the cutting edge on the inside. 1140. The time of cutting should be always late in fall, or in winter, hut never in leaf-time, nor when in sap. The rods should be be sorted into sizes, tied in bundles, dried in the sun, and stored in a dry place till ready for peeling. The rain discolors and injures them. When peeled, the rods are first set in the water, and where assisted by a constant and genial temperature this may be done at any time in the winter. When peeled, they should be dried for a day or so in the sun, and if properly cared for the wood will be white and brilliant. If not, they will have a dull yellow tint, which may be somewhat whitened by sulphur-fumes. 1141. The bark stripped from osiers may be used for tieing bun- dles, or spread as litter in stables, and to some extent be cut up with straw and fed to stock. It is used in tanning leather for gloves, and for the preparation of salieine for medicinal use. In common prac- tice, from 18 to 20 per cent of willows were damaged, either from branching, injury to bark, crooked form, or dead tops. They sell at a discount of sixty to seventy per cent, and are used for in- ferior work. 1142. When carefully managed, an osier field may last 25 to 30 years, but a single year of neglect will greatly shorten this period. Something may be done to restore vigor, by letting the shoots re- main over a year, and by manuring, but as soon as the yield begins to fail it is best to begin anew. If on the same grounds the roots should all be taken out, and fresh soil from below be brought to the surface by spading. 1143. An osier plantation costs about $20 to $30 a year for cul- tivation, per acre, and will yield from $100 to $125. The cultiva- tion has its perils, as well as its profits. It may be injured by early or late frosts, but only to kill the wood that has not ripened. The willow is sometimes attacked by the saw-fly, the Nematm ventrdis, or nearly allied species, similar to those that attack the currant and gooseberry, by eating off the foliage. The best remedy is the dust of white hellebore freely sprinkled upon the leaves just after the eggs are batched. This insect produces two broods a year, one in May and another in September. 1144. Among the other enemies of the willow are a kind of fly (Gecidomyasalicina), which stings and lays eggs in the tender sprouts, The Osier and the Dutch WUlows. 283 causing a spongy excrescence and a scrubby growth. These insects in turn are attacked by the ichneumon insects, and the balance of nature badly disturbed by the former, has been restored in a single season by the latter. Another insect (Tipula saMeiperda) and sev- eral small beetles have at times proved injurious. 1145. Among mammals the sheep, goat, rabbit, and mouse are often destructive, the former by eating the leaves and the latter by gnawing the bark. The red willow, from the bitterness of its bark, is less liable to injury than other cultivated kinds. In Europe, wil- lows sometimes suflFer from hail, and insurance against this damage may be obtained as in other crops. 1146. If exposed to cold and dry winds, the osiery should be pro- tected by wind-breaks of high trees, and the oaks, ashes, and firs are recommended for this use. In the cultivation between the rows when wide apart the first year beets, carrots, cabbages, or potatoes are employed. The weeding or cultivation should not be done when the shoots are forming. When done in fall, after the leaves have fallen, they should be gathered and buried. The bind-weed (Con- volvulus, several sp.) and the dodder (Ouscata) sometimes infest a willow plantation, and must be carefully extirpated. 1147. The Dutch Osiek {Salix laneeolatd) is much used for hoops and basket-work, and is best set in spring, in trenches about four feet apart, and from 30 to 40 inches between, in the rows. They should be fertilized with stable-manure as above described. Upon dryer ground the plants may be set a little closer together. The watering with manure-water is of first importance if the soil is poor. 1148. When used to turn the course of rivers from encroaching upon land, the wiUow should be cut between October and April, and •should be formed into frames, by interweaving the smaller spray with larger timber, securing in place by piles, and covering with sand, gravel, or soil. It is well to load them down also with heavy stones. In a slight current this will often prove sufficient to form an artificial cape, and the mud settling above and below this obstruc- tion will gradually extend out the shore. The willows will push out fibrous roots into the soil and sand, creating a surface vegeta- tion,- and may be kept in this condition by being cut back from year to year. If such sloping barriers can form an angle up-stream, the effect is better. 284 The Poplars and Cottonwoods. 1149. The male plants af the purple, black, yellow, and some other willows, form very ornamental small trees, presenting a gay and rich profusion of early blossoms^-the harbingers of summer, and the first food of the bee. The Poplaes and Cottonwoods (Genus Poptdus). 1150. Of these there are about twenty species in the north tem- perate zone of the old world and the new. They occur in North America from the Arctic zone to Mexico, and throughout the whole breadth of the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 1151. The American Aspen {Popuhis tremuloides). This tree is extremely wide in its range. It abounds over the whole of the in- terior of British Columbia, and towards the north and east, char- acterizing some of the most fertile lands. la the southern part of the Province it is found usually along the borders of streams, and on the higher plateaux. In the Peace river country it comes up after fires, and often grows to a diameter of two feet. 1152. The aspen is common throughout the region west of the Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, upon the Pacific coast, upon the slopes of mountains that border the sage plains, along the courses of what in winter are running streams. 1153. In the mountain regions of the interior it is commonly called the " quaking asp," and grows in the upper valleys often in dense groves, where it shows a tendency to succeed the coniferous woods when they have been destroyed. Its wood is sometimes burned into charcoal for smelting ores, and it has sometimes been used for telegraph-poles and railway ties, but it is too soft and per- ishable for any thing more than temporary employment in these uses. 1 154. The aspen is used to a considerable extent for the manu- facture of paper. The wood makes a very white pulp, but not as strong as that from spruce. 1 1 55. The White Poplar (Populm dba) . This is a naturalized for- eign species, sometimes called the " abele," " downy poplar," " silver poplar," or ' ' Dutch beech." It is said to be a native of Palestine, and the timber is by some writers supposed to be the " shittim-wood " of Scripture, but more probably that was an Acacia. 1156. This is a tree of remarkably rapid growth, and generally it shows a strong tendency to send up shoots from the roots. This The Poplars. 285 renders it troublesome in culti'5'ated ground, but is a valuable qual- ity in woodlands. When grown in dense groves it runs up in slen- der form, aud in a short time it becomes large enough for poles good for fencing, corn-cribs, and other farm uses. If cut early in summer it peels very easily, and it is then light but durable and strong, if not placed in contact with the ground. Michaux recom- mended it for extensive cultivation as a substitute for the tulip-tree, and Bryant regards it as superior to any of the native poplars. 1157. It may be propagated by cuttings of the young wood or the roots, and from layers and grafts, and grows with great certainty in 146. Popvlus aJ6a.— White Poplar. a moderately damp soil. The durability of the wood is increased by painting with coal-tar, which is best applied hot. The stronger contrasts between the upper and lower sides of the leaf are found in the tender varieties, while the kind with leaves lobed like the maple are found to be more hardy. 1158. The Lombakdy Poplae (Popvlus dUatata). This tree, from its tall columnar growth, furnishes an admirable wind-break, and it is still in France a favprite tree for planting along the road- side. The fashion in our New England and Northern States was 286 The Pojylars : The Cottonwoods. formerly quite prevalent, but the tree is short-lived, and most of these monotonous lines of trees have disappeared. When planted here and there, so as to be seen rising behind and among round- headed and coniferous trees, it has a pleasing effect. The wood is soft, brittle, and of little value except for summer fuel. 1159. This tree bears no pistilate flowers in our country, and it can only be propagated from cuttings and sprouts from the roots. Its chief value is for screens and wind-breaks, and in rich humid soils it grows with great rapidity. 1160. The Large-toothed Poplar (Popvlus grandidmtata). This tree grows to a large size, and its wood is valuable for framing and lumber for inside work. It works smoothly, takes a good pol- ish, and is not liable to shrink. When cut and peeled in summer it is durable in the open air, if not in contact with the ground. This tree is very well suited for inside planting in groves. It can be readily propagated from seeds and cuttings. 1161. For cultivation in the great open country east of the Cas- cade Mountains, in Washington Territory, the poplars become es- pecially important timber trees, both as fuel and for fencing. The common aspen, as grown there, when peeled and seasoned, may be used for almost any purpose, if kept from the ground. A tree 24 years old, has been known to measure two feet across the stump, and to yield two cords of wood. The Cottonwoods. 1162. Various species of the genus Popvlus are comprised under this name, the principal one being the P. tnonilifera. The common name is derived from the cotton-like tuft attached to the seeds, by which they are borne to great distances by the winds, and the specific name " monilifera" signifies " neck- lace-bearing," from the seeds being formed in a ser- ies of little balls, like a string of beads. This spe- 147. Tuft and Seed cies occcurs native throughout the Atlantic States of the Poplar. ^^.^^ ^^^ England to Nebraska and Dakota, and southward to Louisiana. It is not seen in Utah, is less frequent in Nevada, but occurs in California and Oregon. 1163. It is extremely easy to cultivate in soils that are not to arid, and may be propagated from the seed, from cuttings, layers, or grafts. The most convenient way is perhaps from cuttings, but the best is The Cottonwjods. 287 from the young plants that spring up along the sand-bars of rivers. These natural nurseries are annually renewed by the seeds floated down by the streams, and furnish, practically, an inexhaustible sup- ply. In pulling out the young cottonwoods from the sand-bars in autumn, by selecting a place but little above the level of the water, they will come out very easily, and more than a thousand may be pulled up in half an hour, with the fibers of the roots en- tire. 1164. When these are heeled in during the winter, and plowed in early in the spring, they take a vigorous growth, and are scarcely checked by the operation. In setting these young seedlings, they will be sure to take an upward growth, at any angle they may hap- pen to be placed. They generally begin with a new bud near the base of the stock, and the part above soon perishes. 1165. A principal reason for collecting the seedlings of cotton- woods from river sand-bars m autumn is, that the bottom-lands are usually flowed in spring at the time when the young trees are needed. An easy method of securing an abundant supply of plants, is to plow in the branches covered with the seed, or by gathering the fertile catkins when ripe, rubbing them apart, and sowing on mellow, moist soil, lightly covering the seeds with earth. 1166. The Iowa Forestry Annual of 1879 recommends for Cot- tonwood cuttings, pieces two or three feet long and from one to two inches in diameter, sawn into uniform lengths, and the lower end cut in a slope on one side with a very sharp axe. It advises that poplars and willows should be set deeply and firmly in the fall, and as soon as may be after they are cut. 1167. As many as 3,000 cottonwoods may be planted in a day, by two men, a boy, and a team. The ground may be cultivated as for corn, for two or three years, or until the ground is well-shaded, when they will need no further care beyond protection from cattle and from fires. 1168. In deep, rich soils the cottonwood may sometimes do better at eight feet apart than when set at half this distance at first. This subject not only in this species, but in all others, should be an ob- ject of careful observation by the planter, and the conditions best suited to the locality can never be fully determined excepting by trial. 1169. A variety known in the Missouri Valley as " yellow cot-. 288. The Cottonwoods : The Ailanthus. tonwood," appears to belong to this species, and the superior quali- ties claimed for it appear to be due to the soil and to the density of its growth. Isolated trees are generally more thrifty, and therefore have more sap-wood, and are more difficult to split. When grown in the interior of a grove they are often less tough, and the quality of the wood is generally more dense and durable. 1170. Cottonwood of the Pacific Coast (P(ypuius tridioearpa). This tree grows to the height of 30 to 50 feet from San Diego north- ward. In Washington Territory it is found from 60 to 100 feet high, and from 2 to 6 feet in diameter. In British Columbia it is found chiefly in the valleys of streams and on the banks of rivers throughout the whole Province, and north-eastward in the Peace river district. It is used by the Indians of the interior in making their canoes. 1171. A variety (P. atigustifolia) is found in the Eocky Moun- tains, and the P. bahamifera and P. momlifera, with several varie- ties somewhat uncertain as to their classification are also found, all bearing the name of " cotton wood." The Populus Fremontii growa to a large tree. 1172. Angular-stemmed Cottonwood (Populus angvlata). This is one of the cottonwoods of the Mississippi river and its trib- utaries, and is distinguished by its angular stems, and the absence of resinous and aromatic buds. The wood is soft, but of rapid growth. It does not extend up the Mississippi river beyond Lake Pepin. 1173. Balm of Gilead Poplar (Popvlus candiams). This is a tree of very rapid growth, easily cultivated, and well adapted for planting as a shade tree. Its leaves give out a slight balsamic odor, and it has been recommended to plant groves of this tree along the borders of marshes, to intercept the malaria arising from such local- ities. A narrow-l?aved variety, commonly called " cottonwood " or " willow-leaved poplar," occurs from Coloi-ado and New Mexico to Washington Territory and Oregon, being the prevalent species in Nevada and Utah. The Ailanthus. 1174 The AUanikus glandulosa, or " tree of heaven," is a native of China, but has a wide range of adaptation to soils and climates, enduring heat and drouth very well, and thriving upon soils where many other kinds of wood fail. It grows rapidly, and is very apt Tke Ailanthus : The Madrona : The Manzanita, etc. 289 to send out tracing roots tbat sprout at a considerable distance from the tree. 1175. The male flowers have a nauseating odor, that render this tree undesirable for cultivation near dwellings. It grows very well in the shade of other trees, and the spreading character of its roots render it useful in consolidating railroad embankments, and for re- boisement of mountains. It is grown from the seed, but is most easily propagated by planting sections of its roots, one end being exposed to the air. The Aebutds, oe Madeona, of the Pacific Coast (Arbutus Mm- ziesii). 1176. This occurs upon Vancouver and the neighboring islands, but always near the coast. It is a handsome evergreen, yielding a closely-grained and heavy wood, much like the box, and grows to from eighteen inches to two feet in diameter, and to the height of fifty feet. It extends southward to Mexico and Texas, and, under favorable conditions, grows to eighty and a hundred feet in height, and to a diameter of from one to three feet. The Manzanita. 1177. This is the Ardostaphylos glauca of Lindley, and the Xero- botrys glauca of Nuttall. It belongs to the heather family (iHcaeecB), and is a large evergreen spreading shrub, with a red exfoliating bark and pinkish white flowers in a terminal racime. It abounds in California and Oregon — has great powers of endurance in drouth, and it is worthy of cultivation for variety in parks and pleasure grounds. The wood is very dense, reddish, and hard, but too small for much use. There are over a dozen species of the Ardostaphylos, mostly humble shrubs. The A. glabra grows to from 8 to 24 feet, and the A. pungens to from 3 to 20 feet in height. The Pawpaw (Asimirui triloba). 1178. Some seven or eight species of the Asimina are found in North America, mostly in the Southern and Southwestern States and iu Mexico, and, excepting the one above named, unimportant slirubs. The pawpaw grows to some fifteen or twenty feet in height, generally in thickets, and it is chiefly important for its fruit, which in form and flavor somewhat resembles a bannana. 19 290 The Catalipas. Southern Catalpa (Catalpa hignomiides)} 1179. This tree is found native in Georgia and other Southern States, but has been widely cultivated for ornament in the Middle States and in Europe, where the climate is not too cold. It is found susceptible to frost, and sometimes, after several years of apparent success, it wiU suffer great injury, or be wholly killed by a hard Avinter following a season that favored a late growth. 1180. Under favorable conditions, it grows with great rapidity, and to a large size, being fifty feet or more in height, and from eighteen to twenty inches iu diameter. It has large showy blos- soms, broad leaves, a silver-gray bark, which is but slightly fur- rowed, and a wide spreading top. The branches are relatively few in number, and the capsules long, cylindrical, and pendant. The wood is grayish- white, of fine texture, and brilliant when pol- ished, much resembling that of the butternut, but of less reddish hue and of greater durability. 1181. Hardy Catalpa {Catalpa spedosd). For many years there has been cultivated in Ohio, Indiana, and other Northern and Western States a form of catalpa that was long considered a hardy variety of the C. bignonoides. It was found to be not only hardy, but very durable. Its habit was more erect, growing iu dense groves, with stems 50 feet iu height ; the bark was more closely ad- herent and furrowed vertically, much like that of the white ash. The flowers are larger, nearly pure white, and about three weeks earlier than the other species. 1182. It is described by Dr. Engelmann (omitting the technical description of the flowers) as follows: '■' "A middle-sized tree, with grayish-brown, much cracked or furrowed, at la J. B. Sohlichter, of Sterling, Kice Co. 3o2 Planting in Kansas. Preparation of tJie Ground. 1420. This is uniformly necessary ia a prairie country, and can best be done by thoroughly plowing and harrowing, after raising one or two crops of grain. For early planting or setting of cut- tings or young seedlings pulled up along the sand-bars of rivers, the plowing may best be done the fall before, and the markings when ready to plant or set. 1421. The weeds must be kept down by passing between the rows with a cultivator, and afterward by hoeing, as with corn. This should be done only in the early part of summer, (never later than the middle of July), and should be repeated three or four years, until the ground is well shaded, after which the trees will need only thinning out from time to time, and protection from cattle and from fires. It is not until the trees get so large that their foliage is above the reach of stock, that cattle may be admitted safely to a planta- tion. 1422. The rubbish from fallen leaves, etc., should always be left to decay on the ground. A bed of leaves tends to hinder evapora- tion from the soil, and to keep the ground moist longer after a rain. 1423. In setting any of the evergreens, we would decidedly recommend their purchase from nurseries, as they are difficult to get started from the seed without careful management. They will be best likely to succeed where sheltered in the south side by a grove or hedge. They will also need a heavy mulching in dry seasons. Tree-cvlture in Places well advanced upon ihe Plains. 1424. The plantation of cottonwoods for temporary use, ma_^ some- times be practiced in places well advance upon the plains, where in very dry seasons they may sometimes fail when six or eight inches in diameter. Such failures may cause disappointment, but are by no means a total loss. The wood is still available for firewood, and the trees while they lived, proved a shelter to fields and orchards, and perhaps may have protected the slower growing kinds that survived the drouth. This should not discourage from renewed attempts in planting, with the view of securing these temporary benefits, even if the trees grow no larger than poles. In such case, it would be worth while to plant a certain portion of land every year, ex- pecting perhaps only a crop of firewood and poles. They will be Planting in Nebraska and Kansas. 353 ■worih what they cost, although it might uot he expected that they would become larger trees. 1425. In river valleys upon the plains, where the water disap- pears wholly from the surface in summer, and the channels appear to be utterly arid, the water may still, in many places, be found by , digging to a distance not greater than that which may be reached by the roots of trees. 1426. The black walnut appears to be the best adapted to these situations, and although not so rapid in growth as some other trees, it makes a success where the sub-soil is not too firm and moisture is within reach. In such localities, transplanting is impossible, and the nuts previously sprouted must be planted where the trees are to grow. 1427. The general statements in this chapter, drawn chiefly from the experience of Kansas, will apply, with some modification, to Nebraska. The soil is very nearly the same ; in both States the surface rises at about the same grade as we go west, and the difier- ence in latitude would scarcely be felt, except in a very few species. The Osage-orange would be found less hardy in Nebraska, and the white willow probably more thrifty. 1428. In both States, we can not too strongly urge the importance of the cottonwoods and other ra,pidly growing kinds as nurses for the more valuable, which can not be started without shelter when young. It is also found that fall planting has many advantages not formerly realized, and in some situations a decided preference. It is an excellent practice, in new and untried locations, to multiply experiments in the small way, before investing largely in any thing in the way of tree-planting. These experiments may apply to dif- ferent species — to difierent times and methods of sowing or plant- ing — difierent soils, and various modes of management. By these means alone can one depend upon the particular course best adapted to his location, and the manner of obtaining the best results. 354 Mecent Decision under the Timber- Culture Act. EPCENT DECISION UNDER THE TIMBER-CUL- TURE ACT. Since printing Chapter EX., iu this work (pages 91 to 96), the following decisions have been made : " In timber-culture entry, there is no restriction upon an entry- man as to the time when the work must be done, provided it is done within the time required by law. The work, can be done by the entryman, his agent, or his vendor. " If one purchase land which has been in whole or in part broken, planted, or cultivated by another, the spirit of the law is as fully met as if he bad personally performed the work." 1 1^ D E X. Abele poplar, 284, 349. Abies (genus), 41, 304, 338. aniabilis, 339. bractcata, 341. coneolor, 339. Douglasii, 337. Fraserii, 338. grandis, 339, 340, 341. magnilica, 339. Menziesii, 334. nobilis, 340 poctinata, 42, 151, 341, 342. subalpina, 339. Williamsoniana, 336. Abietinea, 304, 310. Absolute humidity, 12, 15. Absorption by vital procjess, 194. Acacia (genus), 259. dealbata, 259. Greggii, 259. homa'lophylla, 260. melanoxylon, 260. pycnantha, 259. Acer (genus), 234, 846. compestre, seed of, 32. cireinatum, 239. dasycarpum, 237, 346. glabrum, 239. macrophyllum, 238. negundo, 239. nigrum, 237. Pennsylvanicuni, 238. pseudo-platan us, 33, 146. rubrum, 146, 238. saccharinum, 146, 236,346. spicatum, 238. tartaricum, as a hedge plant, 146. Acetates, prepared from smoke, 153. Acorn-worms, 180. Acorns, mode of keeping, 34. Acre, number of trees on an, 50. Acres of forest in European coun- tries, 83. ActinostrobuE, 304. Adaptation ofspecies to conditions, 90 Addison, quotation from, 114. Adornment, planting for, 115. ^sculus (genus), 253. Californica, 255, 250. flava, 255. glabra, 254. hippocestanam, 254. parviflora, 255._ Age for transplanting, 43. Agency of birds and animals in planting, 31. Aggsbach, school of Forestry at, 107. Ailanthus srlandulosa, 93, 288, 346. Air, expansion and contraction of, 15. exposure of roots to, 43. Alabama, pine belt in, 200. dying off" of chestnut trees in, 223. Albumen of seeds, 35. Alder, 84, 210, 231. blossoms of, 30. percentage of charcoal in, 151. Aleppo pine, period of full growth, 105. Algorobis glandulosa, 129, 130, 131. Alkalies in wood, 152. Alkaline soils, 6. AInus (genus), 231. glutinosa, 231, 232. incana, 233. oblongifolia, 233. Oregona, 233. rhombifolia, 233.' rubra, 233. Alps, timber-line on, 25. Alsace, chestnut grown in, 222. Alternations in forest growth, 90. Alucitae, or feather-winged moths, 179. Alum, preserving properties of, 193. Anielanchier (genus), 264. alnifolia, 264. Canadensis, 146, 264. Aments, flowers so called, 29. American alder, 233. aspen, 284. white oak, 216. vow, 314. 355 356 Index. Americans, instability of, 116. Amlierst Agricul. Col., experiments at, 78. Amygdalus Persica in Kansas, 347. Animals, agency of in planting, 31, 32. Annular budding, 46. Antiseptic processes, 187. Ant-lion, 174. Ants, 179. Apelt cited, 194. Apples (genus Pirus), 260. Apple trees, 93, 121. 146. Aqueous vapor in atmosphere, 12. Arauuariese, 41, 304. 316. Arboriculture defined, 1. Arbor days, 62. Arboretums, should be labeled, 125. Arbor-vitse, 84. 303, 304, 305. giant, 306. in Kansas, 349. Arbors for sheltering seed-beds, 40. Arbutus Menziesii, 289. Arcachon, dunes of, 109. Arctostaphylos, glauca, 289. pungens, 289. Argillaceous soils, 6. Arizona, privileges of citizens of, 95. white oak, 213. Arrow-wood, 269, 298. Artemisia tridentata, 7. Arthrotaxis, vitality of seeds of, 41. AschafFenburg, school of Forestry at, 108. Ash, percentage of in burned woods, 152. Ash (trees), 270, 346, 348. grown as coppices, 98. grown as high forests, 102. leaved maple, 93, 239. period of full growth, 105. white, heating qualities of, 146. Asia Minor, timber of, 84. valonia from, 206. Asimina triloba, 289. Aspect, or direction of slope, 9. Aspen, quakinsr, 85, 289. Associations, Village-improvement, 122. Atlantic States, timber of, 84. range of humidity in, 15. Atlas-cedar, 804. Atmometer, Lament's, 19. Atmosphere, composition of, 11. Audobon's Peak, timber-line on, 26. Auricle-leaved magnolia, 296. Austria, forest administration in, 106. Austria, forests in, 83. Austrian pine in Kansas, 349. Autumnal colors, 79, 234. layer, so called, 69. sowing, 41. Avalanches of snow, 25. Avenues of approach, 117. Back-firing to stop forest fires, 158. Bacteria, a cause of decay, 188. Baden-Powell, H. B., cited, 27. Bald-cypress, 84, 304, 310. Baliveau, reserves so called, 101. Ball of earth, freezing of around roots, 54. Balm-of-Gilead poplar, 288. Balsam-ftr, 338. insects injurious to, 187. Balsam-spruce, 339. Bamboo shells, transplanting in, 54. Banks, consolidation of, 57, 231, 283. Bank's pine, 329. Barberry, not found in California, 88. Bark-boring insects, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 172, 180, 182, 185, 187. Bark, grafting of, 46. if loosened, kills the wood un- der it, 144. lice, 174. of roots, 76. of trunk and branches, 67, 72, 73. removal of, in part, 62. tanning, 325. Barney, E. E., on Catalpa, 291. Barrens of "West, cause of, 87. Barren scrub-oak, 213. Barres, school of guards at, 108. plantation of pines at, 320. Barriers for checking torrents, 110. Bartram oak, 213. Basins of water-supply should be wooded, 18. Baskets, transplanting in, 54. Basket-willow, 280, 281. Basswood family, 88, 240. grows from sprouts, 98. insects injurious to, 184. Beach-grass, planted on dunes, 109. Bear-oak, 213. Bear-river pine, 337. Beaver-meadows, cause of overflow, 22. Beaver-tree, 295. Bedford-willow, 279. Beech (genus Tagus), 89, 93, 146, 225, 349. Index. 357 Beech, classification of, 210. does not reproduce from sprouts, 98. grown as high-forests, 102. insects injurious to, 184. leaf, structure of, 64, ti5. northern range of, 89. percentage of charcoal in, 151. period of full growth, 105. sports of, 227. weight lost in drying, 139. wood, structure of, 68. Bees, 179. agency of in fertilizing bios- soms, 29. Beetles, general notice of, 169. Behlen, Stephen, on effect of moon's age in cutting timber, 138. Belgium, forests in, 83. Bcntham & Hooker, classification of conifers by, 303. Benzoin, not found in California, 89. Bergentz, school of Fore-stry at, 107. Bermuda-grass, planted on dunes,109. Bethel 1 process of wood-preservation, 194. Betula (genus), 146, 228. alba, 146,229. excelsa, 230. glandulosa, 230. lenta, 146, 230. nigra, 230. occidentalis, 230. papyraeea, 230. Betulae, 2"lO. Bignonia eatalpa (see Catalpa), 290. Birch (genus Betula), 84, 89, 93, 210, 228, 349. black, 102, 146. grown in high-forests, 102. insects injurious to, 184. northern limit of, 89. percentage of charcoal in, 151. period of full growth, 105. sap-pressure in, 79. seeds, described, 31. weight lost in drying, 139. white, 146, 229. Birds, agency of in planting, 31. encouraged by shelter-belts, 350. insectivorous, 167. must be kept from pine-seed- beds, 167. Birdseye maple, 237. Bitter-hickory, 279. BUick ash, 272. Black birch, 230. (t'agua fusca), 228. cherr3', 262. drink, made from a holly (?), 293. fir, 337. -jack oak, 213, 214. succeeds pine, 90. locust, under timber-claim act, 93. maple, 237. oaks, 211, 214. pine, 325. spruce, 332, 333, 334. walnut, 93, 146, 275, 276, 348, 349. insecits injurious to, 182. on the plains, 353. Blackwood, 260. Blizzards, winter storms so called, 22. Blossom?, essential parts of, 28. Blue ash, 272. —. — beech, 233. berries, not found in California, 88. Rocky Mountain spruce, 334. Bohl, cited, 194. Bombyces, or spinning moths, 176. Bom by X neustria, 176. pini, 176. processionea, 162. Borax, preserving properties of, 193. Borers, locust, 257. (See Bark borers; Wood bor- ers.) Bore-spade, 38, 53. Bostrichus, 166, 167, 171, 172, 187. Botany, province of, 3. Boucherie, preserving process of, 194, 195. Boundary street in parks, 124. Bowlder?, how concealed by plant- ing, 118. Box -elder, 84, 93. (genus Negundo), 239. in Kansas, 346, 348, 350. range of, 87. sugar from, 240. Boxes, transplanting from, 54. Bracing of trees in planting, 55. Brakes, 11. K., made of willow, 280. Brambles, clearing out of, 104. Branches, growth of, 74. mode of cutting off, 59. Bread, from chestnuts, 222. Breaking of prairie soils, 8. 358 Index. Bryant, apparatus of, 191. Jireathing-pores in insects, 65. Bi'emontier, N., planting of dunes by, 109. Brewer, Prof. W. H., cited, 85. Brewer's oak, 213. Bridger's.Peak, timber-line on, 25. Broadcast sowing, 37. Broillard, cited, 222. Broom-liiokory, 275. Bryant, Arthur, cited, 285. Buoharia, recent injuries from clear- inc; in, 26. Buckeyes, 84, 253, 254, 255. Buckthorn, 129, 296. Buds, how formed, 63. when formed on roots, 77. Budding, process of, 3, 46. Buffalo-berry, 129, 130, 131, 298. Bull, Marcus, experiments of, 139, 145, 146. Bull-pine, 325. Bunch-grasses of plains, 88. Bupestridse, or saw-horned beetles, 169. Burgundy pitch, 204. Buried cedar, 86, 306. Burls, ash, 271. black-walnut, 276. walnut, 76. Burnett, process for preserving wood, 196. Burning-bush, 292. Burning of coal-pits, 147-149. Burr-oak, 213. Bush, definition of, 2. Butterflies, 174. Butternut, 84, 89. 93, 146, 277. Button-bush, 269. Buttonwood, 93, 251. Calamagrostis arenariaon dunes, 109. Calcareous soils, 6. California black-oak, 214. box-elder, 240. chestnut-oak, 214, 218. eucalyptus in, 265. forest-flora of, 88. injuries from clearing in, 28. juniper, 309. laurel, 298. live-oak, 214. nutmeg, 304, 315. — — peculiarities of flora of, 88. sale of timber lands in, 95. white-cedar, 128, 303, 304. white-oak, 213. Callitris, 41, 304. quadrivalvis, 76. Calosoina, a carnivorous insect, 162. Cambium-layer, 67. Camel-cricket, preys on other in- sects, 173. Canada balsam, 203, 339. black walnut in, 277. buttonwood in, 252. chestnut in, 219. 220. forest-trees in, 89. Kentucky coflee-tree in, 258. maple-lnaf the emblem of, 236. pitch, 204. remarkable size of pine in, 316. timber resources of, 84. 89. white pine region in, 320. Canals, supply of water for, 18. Canker-worms, 177, 180. Canoe-birch, 230. Cape Cod, pine plantations on, 328, •6A2. Capital, investment of in forests, 79, 80. Capricorn-beetles, 166, 173. Caprifoliaceae, 269. Caragana arborescens, 129, 130, 131, 136. Carbon in wood, source of, 11, 65. Carbonic acid gas in atmosphere, 11. Carboniferous period, gases in, 11. Carey's preserving process, 196. Carlsruhe, school of Forestry at, 108. Carnivorous insects, 162, 165, 187. Carpenter-moth, 180. Carpinus (genus), 233. Americana, 146, 233. betulus, 32, 234, 235. Carriere, on vitality of seeds, 41. Carving, wood must be seasoned for, 142. Carya alba, 146, 275. amarsi 274. aquatioa, 275. glabra, .275. olivajformis, 274, 347. porcina, 146, 275. tomentosa, 275, 346. Cascade range, timber-li.ie on, 25. Case, Leonard, planting begun by, 123. Caspian-willow, 280, 281. Castagno di Cento Cavalli, 221. Castanea pumila, 224. vesca, 146, 219, 220, 221, 346. Index. 359 Castanopsis chrysophylla, 224. Ciitalpa bignoiioides, 84, 88, 290. coi-difolia, 290. speeiosa, 290, 346. syringsefolia, 290. m Kansas, 346, 348, 349, 350. \n ornamental planting, 121. Catesby's oak, 214. Catkins, pedant tree blossoms, 29. Cato, cited, 138. Cecidomya salicina (on willows), 282. Cecidomydiadsa, 170. Cedar, buried, 80, 306. cutting off by selection, 96. of Lebanon, 304, 316. oil, 204. pine, 329. red, 93, 308. Cedar*, differences in jeaves of, 66. Cedrus (cedar of Lebanon), 304, 316. Cellular tissue of wood, 67. Cellulose, 71. Cellis (genus), 230. ocoidentalis, 150, 346. orientalls, 250. Cemeteries, planting in, 126. Cephalanthus, ooeidentalis, 269. Cephalotaxis, vitality of seeds, 41. Cerambycidese, notice of, 173. Cerambyx carcharias, 173. heros (wood bored by), 165, 166. Cerassus. (See Prunus.) Cercis Canadensis, 259. siliquastrura, 2-59. Cercocarpus ledifolius, 291. Changes in forest growths, 90. Charcoal, 144, 147. absorbing power of, 147. chief uses of, 147. percentage of to wood, 146, 167.- physical properties of, 147. red, 153. used as land-marks, 145. value of in differenHwoods, 146. weight of, 139. Charring promotes durability of wood, 189. Charter-Oak, historical interest of, 115. Chemical process for wood pulp, 206. Chemistry, relation to Forestry, 1. Cherries (genus Prunus), 262. Cherry-birch, 93, 230. Cherry, in Kansas, 146, 346, 348. Chestnut, 89, 146, 219, 220, 221, 346, 349. Chestnut, as food, 222. classification of, 210. disease of roots of, 78. dying off of, 223. extract of, 223. grows from sprouts, 98. insects injurious to, 182. oak, 93, 212, 214. California, 218. period of full growth, 105. white-oak, heating qualities of, 146. ■ wood for coopers' use, 223. Chickasaw plum, 262. China, timber of, 84. Chinese cedar, for hedges, 128. Chinquapin, 224. oak, 212. Chips of elm, with buds, will grow, 46. Chisel.'!, pruning, 60. Chlorophyll, 64, 65. Chryaobothris femnrata, 183. Cicida septemdecem, 180. Cinchonas, transplanting of, 54. Citizens of certain states, rights of, 95. City-of-Elms, New Haven so-called, 123. City parksi planting of, 123. Cladrastis tinctoria, 260. Clammy locust, 258. Clark, W. S., experiments by, 78, 193,198. Classification of oaks, 21 2. of pines, 318. Clearing, effects of, 22, 26. Clethra, not found in California, 88. Cleveland, O., called the "Forest City," 123. Cliff-dwe'ilings of New Mexico, 26. Climate, definition of, 10. Climatic changes affect insect life, 167. Close planting, necessity of, 50. Clouds, formation of, 16, 17. prevent the formation of dew, 16. Coal-pits, construction of, 147-149. Coal-tar, application to wounds in trees, 101. preservation by aid of, 189, 190. Coast region of Southern States, 86. Cockroaches, 173. Coffee-tree (genus Gi/mnocladu^), 88, 258, 346, 348". 360 Index. Coffee-tree, how transplanted, 54. Cold, forests killed by, 23. Coleoptera, general notice of, 169. College-class trees, 114. parks, 125. Colonial supplies of timlier, 82. Color, given by absorption, 195. of soil, effect of, 7. Colors, autumnal, 79, 234. of wood, causes of difference, 144. Colorado, cliff-dwellings in, 27. growth of wood on irrigated lands in, 70. injuries that must result from clearings in, 28. privilege of citizens of, 95. timber-line in, 26. Columella, cited, 138. Commemorative planting, 115. Commercial facilities for supply of timber, 82. Common names of trees uncertain, 4. Compost for seed-beds, 40. Condensation, effect of, 16. Coniferse, an example of a nat. order, 8. Coniferin, how prepared, 204. Conifers, classification of, 303. decay of in mountains, 88. general notice of, 299. grafting of, 302. immense size of on Pacific coast, 89. in New England, 86. in Kocky Mountain Region, 87, 88. may be planted closely, 50. of Pacific coast, 24, 89. particularly liable to insect rav- ages, 163. peculiarity of leaves of, 65. planting of, 303. quality of wood of, 71. resinous products of, 199. seeds have several cotyledons, 35. soils suitable to, 302. structure of wood of, 72. suitable for screens, 128. symmetry of growth, 75. taken from native forest, 51. Coniferous trees, insects injurious to, 185. woods, injection of, 192. peeling of, 187. Conifei'ous woods, seasoning of, 140. Connecticut, sumac gathered in, 210. Constantinople, School ol Forestry in, 108. Contests of timber-culture claims, 94. Contorted grain of wood, 76. Contraction from cooling, 15. Contrasts of timber growth, 84. of abundance and scarcity, 89. Control of forest fires, 158. Convolvulus, troublesome to willows, 283. Cooling tends to contract bodies, 15. Copalm resin, 294. Copenhagen, gardens in, 125. School of Forestry in, 107. Coppice, for firewood, 144, 145. for tanning barks, 207. -growth, management of, 97. quality of wood in, 71. when to be cut, 98. Cornaceae, 267. Cornel family, 267. Cornus (genus), 268. florida, 146,268: Nuttalii, 268. Coryllese, 210. Cork oak, 62, 212. Corporations, management of forests by, 105. Corrosive sublimate, a preservative, 197. Corrosion of lime by smoke, 151. Corsican pine, period of full growth, 105.. Cottonwood, 284, 286, 346, 348, 350. as a nurse to other trees, 38. extraordinary growth of, 70. in village planting, 120. insects injurious to, 183. of Pacific coast, 288. on the plains, 352. polla#ds, 60. seeds of, 31, 33. self-sown, 37. should not be planted too large, 56. under timber-culture act, 98. j'ellow, so called, 287. Cotyledons of seeds, 34. Counties in Kansas; list cf trees pre. ferred in, 346-348. Covert, definition of, 101. Crab-apple in hedges, 129. tree, in Oregon, 262. Index. 361 Crab-apple, sweet-scented, 261. Cracks from seasoning, how pre- vented, 141. in timber, from frost, 24. Cralajjjvn (genus), 264. coecinea, 2ti4. oxyeanthus, 129, 136. — — paniculata, 264. rivularis, 264. Creosote, preserving properties of, 194. Crickets, 173. Cryptomeriii Japonica, 41, 310. Crypturgus, 187. Cueumber-tree, 294. Cultivation between trees, 350. of hedges, 130. preparation by, 8. in timber-culture claims, 91. 92, 354. Cunninghamia, vitality of seeds of, 41. Cupressinese, 303. Cupressus (genus), 303, 307. Arizonica, 307. Goveniana, 307. ■ in cemeteries, 126. Macnabiana, 307. raacrocarpa, 307. N utkanus, 307. Cup shake, in timber, 143. CupuUferse, 210. Curlmaple, 238. Currant-bush borers, 184. Currants, cuttings set in fall, 45. Curves illustrating humidity, 13, 14. Curved walks, when not adml sible, 125. wood, how produced, 6D, 61, 102. Cuscata, troublesome on willows, 283. Custom, influence of, 114. Cutting-baclc of oaks, etc., 52. of wood, time for, 98, 137, 138. Cuttings of willows, when made, 181, 182. Cuttings, propagation by, 44, 349. very large, should not be used, 56. Cylindrical bark-beetles, 187. Cyllene piota, 182. Cynodon dactylon, planted on dunes, 109. Cypress, 303, 307 diflTerenoes in leaves of, 66. Dacrydium, vitality of seeds of, 111. Dahoon, 293. Dakota, privileges of citizens of, 95. Bammara australis, 204. Damp climates, favorable to coppices, 100. Davy, Sir Humphrey, process by, 197. Dead wood, removal of, 103. Deciduous leaves, 64. Decisions under timber-culture acts, 92-95, 3-34. Decline in fruit production, 26. De Courval, method of pruning by, 60. Deepening of channels of streams, 19. Defects of timber, 143. Definitions, 1. Degrees of slopes, 9. De la Blanchere cited, 161. Denmark, forests in, 83. Dennisville, K. J., buried cedar at, 306. Density of cultivated forests, 104. Des Cars, method of pruning by, 60. De Saussure, on absorption of gases by cliarccal, 147. Devoid of timber, term defined, 94. Dew, wben formed, 16. Dew-point, 12. rain falls when the air is cooled to, 16. Decay of wood, preventions of, 187. Deer, injury to trees from, 161. Dibble, not to be used in planting seeds, 38. Diervilla, not found in California, 88. Digger-pine, 326. Dioecious blossoms, 29. Diospyros Texana, 292. Virginiana, 146, 292. Diptera, general notice of, 179. Disintegration of rocks, aided by roots, 7. Distance between plants, 49, 50, 3.50. Disinfecting properties of charcoal, 147. Distillation of turpentine, 199. Distilled products of wood, 153. Distortion from seasoning, 141. Divides, timber on western, 88. Division of the soil and its defects, 6. Day-flies, 174. Dogwood, American and Asiatic, 84, 146. : maple, 238. 3G2 Index. Douglas, Dr. David, notice of, 338. . — - fir, 90, 304, 337. Downy poplar, 28. Dra<;on-flius, 174. Drains, filled by roots, 119. Drawing and resetting of trees, 42. Drift, transpi>rtatii)n of soil by, 4. ])riltin!T of snow prevented by plant- ing, 23. sands, how fixed, 108. Dromart, process of charcoal making, 152. Drouth, effect of on wood growth, 69. ■ how caused, 18. turning point of, 17. ]>ruid-Citj', Tuskalocsa so called, 123. Drying effect of winds, 22. houses for forest seeds, 34. Dry-rot, in timber, 189. Duets in wood-structure, 67, 68. Duhamel, method for checking tap- roots, 43. on seasoning of wood, 140. Durability of wood, how produced, 141, 187. Dunes, planting of, 108. Dutch-beech, 284. Dwarf-oak, 214. Dying-off of chestnuts, 223. Earle, cited, 194. Earth, how warmed by snow, 23. thermometers, 21. Eastern aspect, 9. Eborswalde, School of Forestry at, 108. Egleston, N. H., cited, 123. Egypt, injuries from clearing in, 26. Eisnach, School of Foresty at, 108. Elastic force of vapor, 12. Elateridese, notice of, 170. Elders, 269. Elliott's pine, 331. Elm (genus r'lmus), 243. cork. 245. grown in high-forests, 102. ill Kansas, 346, 348. red, 244, 245, 246. rock, 244. slippery, 244, 245. small-leaved, 245. _white, 243, 346. wych, 247. insect injuries to, 180. not found in California, 89 period of full growth, 105 ripens seeds in spring, 33. Elm, seeds described, 31. soil having potash, favors, 7. under timberculture act, 93. white, 140. 213. Embryo of seeds, 35. Emerson, Geo. JJ., cited, 146, 250. Emery's oak, 214. Endogenous growth, 2. Endosmose, 78. Engelmann, Dr. Geo., classification of oaks by, 213. classification of pines by, 317. on catalpa, 290. Engelmann's spruce, 334. England, forests in, 83. English elm, 127, 245, 246. hawthorn, 129. maple, seed of, 32. oak, 215. Entry of timber claims, 91. Epidermis of bark, 67. EpigHa, not found in California, 88. Equilateral triangles, planting in, 48. Erosions, effect of aspect on, 10. prevented by willows, etc., 283. Escorial, School of Forestry at, 108. Essential oils, from conifers, 204. Eucalyptus (genus), 264. cornuta, 265. gigantea, 265. globulus, 66, 265, 266. marginata, 265. rostrata, 265. transplanting of, 54. viminalis, 265. Eugenias, 267. Euonymus Americana, 292. angustifolia, 292. atropurpurea, 292. Europe, forest-areas in, 83. European forest administrations, 105. schools, 107. larch, 343, 344, 345. oak, 212. plans of forest-management, 96. silver-fir, 341. Evaporation, 12. a cooling process, 16, 17. from leaves, 65. from soils, 20. how measured, 19, 20. Evergreen-oak, Californian, 219. Evergreens, in ornamental planta- tions, 117, 119. must be started in nurseries, 851. Index. 363 Evergreens, should not be placed in front, 118. transplanting of large, 55. Evois, Scliool of Forestry at, 107. Example, influence of, 114. Exeentric growth, 75. Exchange of homestead-entry to ti m ber-purchase, 96. of timber-culture claims not al- io wed, 94. Excursions of Forest Societies, 107. Exfoliation of bark of Scotch pine, 73. Exogenous growth defined, 2. wood, structure of, 66. Exotic species, where desirable, 127. Expansion from heat, 15. Experiments advised, 44, 128, 353. should precede extensive plant- ing, 85. Explosion of coal-pits, 148. Extract of chestnut, 223. tanning, 207. Fagus (genus), 225. Cunninghamii, 228. ferruginea, 227. fusoa, 228. .Menziesii, 227. Solandri, 228. sylvatica, 225, 226. Fall, cuttings set in, 45. transplanting, 44. Farm-houses, location of, 116. Fees, of timber-culture act, 91. Fertility, how giveji to soil by trees, 66. how maintained, 91. Fertilization of blossoms, 28, 29. of soil in planting, 8, 9. Fertilizers, use of, 56. Fibers of roots, 52, 53, 76, 77. Field-oalc, 214. Fields, proportion to vroodlands, 82. Filaments, of stamens, 28. Finland, forests in, 83. Fir, Oouirlas, 93, 337. family, 338. period of full maturity, 105. weight lost in drying, 139. Firs grown as high-forests, 102. Fire, coal-pits liable to cause, 148. guard-s 100, 156, 157. wood, qualities required for best, 144. Fires, causes of, 155. cause oak openings, etc., 86, 87. Fires, forest, 154-159. prevention of, 156. Fish, intoxication of, 255. Fissures, soil in, reached by roots, 5. Fitzroya, 301. Flexible pine, 321. Flies, 179. Floated wood, drying of, 140. Floods, effect of woodlands on, 18. Flood- wood, loses much of its weight, 140. Florida, alternation ol growth in, 90. pine-belt in, 200. Flowering dogwood, 268. Fogs, how caused, 16. Forest administrations, 105, 106. Citv,Cloveland,0., so called, 123. fires, 154, 159. growth, alternations in, 90. ' guards, lOG. management, plans of, 96. planting in Scotland, 112. Forestry Associations, 107, 108. definition of term, 1. -schools of, 107. sciences involved, 1. what it teaches, 2. Forests, effect on melting snows. 23. how they may cause rain, 17. relation to rainfall, 21. Forfeiture of timber-claims, 92. Forsythias, 270. Fortifications, line of changed to gardens, 124. Fountains in parks, 124. in rural plantations, 117. France, care of birds taught in schools, 167. chestnut as food in, 222. disease of chestnut trees in, 78, 224. forest-administration in, 106. foi-ests in, 83. forests killed by frost in, 23. planting of dunes in, 108, 109. reboisement in, 111. roadside planting in, 121. time of transplanting in, 44. turpentme-production in^ 201, Fraxinus (genus), 270. Americana, 146, 271. anomala, 272. cuspidata, 272. dipetala, 272. excelsior, 270. Greggii, 272. S64 Index. Fraxiniis Oregona, 272. pistaciiEfolia, 272. platycarpa, 272. pubcsoens, 272. • quiidrangulata, 272. sarnbucifolia, 272. viridi?, 272. Trenela, vitality of seeds of, 41. Fringe-tree, 270. Frost, injuries of, 7, 23, 24, 41. Frotli-inseots, 174. Fruit, decline in production, 25. flies, 179. killed bj' unseasonable frost, 24. Fry process, paper making, 206. Fuel, experiments of Marcus Bull, 145. qualities requisite in, 144. Fuertage, so-called, 96. Full-growth of forests, 102. Fungi, a cause of disease in wood, 188. upon roots, 77, 224. Futaie (high-forest), 102. Gaining rates of wood-growth, 81. Galissoniere, la, 295. Gallflies, 180, 183,185. Game-laws, utility of, 167. Gardens, on line of old fortifications, 124. Gases, absorbed by charcoal, 147. formed in meilers, 149. from smoke, 153. Gathering and keeping of seeds, 33, 301. General views upon Forestry, 79. Genus, definition of term, 3. name ol'ten from Greek, 4. Geology, relations to Forestry, 1. Geometer-moths, 180. Geometra brumata, 1 79. GeometriE, or span-worms, 177. Georgia, pine-belt in, 200. mortality among chestnut trees in, 223, 224. Germany, Schools of Forestry in, 107. forest-administrations in, 106. forests in, 83. roadside planting in, 121. Germination of seeds, 35. Giant arbor-vitse, 300. tree of California, 312, 313. Giessen, School of Forestry in, 108. Gilbert's Peak, timber-line on, 26. Ginger-pine, 307. Ginkgo, 65, 304, 315. Glady limestone, red-cedar grows on, 308. Glauber, preserving process of, 190. Gleditschia tricanthos, 129, 258, 346. Gluten of .seeds, 35. Glycobus speciosa, 183. Gnats, 179. Gnetam, vitality of seeds of, 41. Goats, pasturage of injurious, 160. Goat-willow, 279. Gooseberries, cuttings may be set in fall, 45. Gormand branches of oak, 101. Gopher, injuries from, 131, 160. Grades of forest-service, 106. Grafting, 3. 45, 46. — — of conifers, 302. Grain of wood, contorted, 76. sown with forest-tree seeds, 41. Grand IJaven, Mich., dunes at, 108. Grape-cuttings, may be set in fall, 45. Grass-hoppers, 173. Gratings in pavements over roots of trees, 121. Gratz, School of Forestry at, 107. Gray, Dr. Asa, cited, 88. Gray-oak, 213. pine, 329. willow, 279. Gray's Peak, timber-line on, 26. Grease-wood, on alkaline soils, 7. Great Britain, forests in, 83, 89. rains in, 23. Greece, forests in, 83. injuries from clearing in, 26. valonia produced in, 206. Greek origin of generic names, 4. Grrenash, 272. Green, the color of foresters, 106. Grigor, J., cited, 278. Grinding of wood for paper, 205. Ground fires, how stopped, 157, 158. hemlock, 318. Groves, coolness of, IG. favor insectivorous birds, 167. asce;iding currents, 17. Growth of wood, 66, 69, 70, 71, 74, 81. process of, 63. rates of, 75. stimulated by removing outer bark, 62. Grub-prairies, 52. Guano, as a fertilizer, 56. Index. 365 Guess, George (Sequoia), 311. Guyot, Prof., tables by, 14. Guin-.